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PETROLEUM ENGINEERING
TEACHER’S BOOK
НЕФТЕГАЗОВОЕ ДЕЛО
КНИГА ДЛЯ УЧИТЕЛЯ
Под редакцией
Л.М. Болсуновской, Р.Н. Абрамовой, И.А. Матвеенко
Издательство
Томского политехнического университета
2011
УДК 622.323(076)
ББК 33.36я7
H58
Авторы
Л.М. Болсуновская, Р.Н. Абрамова, И.А. Матвеенко,
Д.А. Терре, Т.Ф. Долгая, Т.В. Васильченко, Т.В. Бочарова,
И.В. Шендерова, Е.М. Вершкова, Д.С. Малюкова, Н.В. Сухорукова
УДК 622.323(076)
ББК 33.36я7
Рецензенты
Доктор геолого-минералогических наук, профессор
заведующий кафедрой геоэкологии и геохимии ИПР ТПУ
Л.П. Рихванов
CONTENTS
Chapter 3. Drilling
Т.В. Васильченко, Т.В. Бочарова
Unit 1 Life of a Well………………………………………………… 109
Unit 2 Types of Wells……………………………………………….. 116
Unit 3 Companies and People………………………………………. 119
Unit 4 Drilling………………………………………………... 121
Unit 5 Casing. Cementing…………………………………………… 128
3
Chapter 5. Economics and management in petroleum
engineering
Л.М. Болсуновская, И.В. Шендерова, Е.М. Вершкова,
Д.С.Малюкова
Unit 1 Introduction to Economics and Management ……………….. 172
Unit 2 Finance ………………………………………………………. 182
Unit 3 Stock …………………………………………………………. 194
Unit 4 The Economy of Petroleum Industry ………………………... 205
Unit 5 Taxation and Audit …………………………………………... 218
Unit 6 Production and Costs ………………………………………... 225
Unit 7 Business Plan ………………………………………………... 233
Unit 8 International Business Etiquette and Ethics …………………. 234
Chapter 2. Geoecology
И.А. Матвеенко
Unit 1 Geoecology…………………………………………………... 256
Unit 2 Impact of Mining and Oil Extraction on the Environment…... 261
Unit 3 Problems of Power Generation………………………………. 268
Unit 4 Greenhouse Effect……………………………………………. 279
Unit 5 Impact of Chemical Elements on Human Organism…………. 282
4
Part I
INTRODUCTION TO PETROLEUM ENGINEERING
UNIT 1
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING
Lead-in. T. elicits the ideas from the students as they suggest things
connected with Petroleum Engineering and make collective mind map
(spidergram) on the board as the ideas are suggested, so that they can see
how T. draws out the aspects of the topic. The reasoning behind mind map is
that Ss do not think in an ordered or linear way, but rather explore a topic by
moving between its various aspects.
The next stage in this procedure may be division of all items suggested into
groups and explanation of Ss’ associations.
This activity will prepare Ss to work with the topic of the Unit 1.
1. G, 2. D, 3. J, 4. F, 5. A, 6. H, 7. B, 8. C, 9. E, 10. I.
To deal with = to be concerned with (in the 6th paragraph), to put into
operation = to implement (in the 4th paragraph), simulation = modeling (in
the 2nd and 7th paragraphs), to improve = to enhance (in the 2nd and 5th
paragraphs), to exhaust = to deplete (in the 2nd paragraph), to finish = to
complete (in the 1st paragraph “well completion”), evaluating =
estimating (in the 7th and 10th paragraphs), observation = surveillance (in
the 9th paragraph), to be responsible for = to be in charge of (in the 11th
paragraph).
Outflow ≠ inflow (in the 9th paragraph), above ≠ beneath (in the 1st
paragraph), downstream ≠ upstream (in the 1st paragraph), to minimize ≠
5
to maximize (in the 8th paragraph), beginning ≠ completion (in the 1st
paragraph).
1. D, 2. E, 3. A, 4. H, 5. F, 6. G, 7. I, 8. B, 9. C.
6
reservoir modelling, well drilling and workover planning, PVT analysis,
production forecasting.
Responsibilities of Drilling engineer: estimation of cost to access
reserves, geologic survey, estimation of the sought reserves value,
development of contacts with vendor, wellbore plan.
Exercise 13. Define true or false sentences. If true, add the information on
the statement. If false, correct the sentence.
7
Exercise 14. Read the following, then listen to the tape and match the
dates with the stages of petroleum engineering development.
Part I. Tapescript.
During the 1930s, the primary emphasis on production from the individual
well gave way to the recognition that the characteristics of the oil
reservoir had to be taken into consideration. Leading companies
established working groups for reservoir engineering and the topic began
to appear as an item in petroleum engineering curricula.
8
1. extending the capabilities to gain access to, to couple and to
operate within a greater portion of the subsurface environment
(offshore locations, acidising, hydrofracturing, etc);
2. developing methods for detailed characterization of subsurface
formations, their fluids and their surroundings (well logging,
geophysical measurements, etc);
3. recovering a greater proportion of the petroleum within reservoirs
that have been accessed and understanding the transfer operations
that accompany the recovery (phased fluid-injection programs
horizontal wells, etc);
4. systematizing technological management and coupling it with
business decision making (risk analysis, reservoir management,
etc).
Keys: 1. D, 2. E, 3. A, 4. C, 5. B.
Part II. Listen to the second part of the text once more; give the examples
on the methods of each element.
9
2. Development of methods for well logging, geophysical
detailed study of subsurface measurements
formations and surroundings
3. Recovering a greater portion of phased fluid-injection programs
the oil within reservoir horizontal wells
4. Development of technological risk analysis, reservoir
management and its introduction management
into business decision making
10
Ss are to compose the dialogues using the information and expressions
from the text.
T should bear in mind that the students who take a TV/Radio Presenter
role should be involved into the discussion actively using the vocabulary
of the unit and also facts learnt from the text.
11
UNIT 2
OIL COMPANIES
Lead-in. T. elicits the information from the Ss related to the theme of the
Unit. At the same time it is connected with their future job.
Exercise 4. State whether the sentences are true or false. If true, add the
information on the statement. If false, correct the sentence.
1. T
2. T
3. F – Upstream includes exploration, recovery and production.
4. F – Midstream is included in the downstream sector (category).
5. T
6. T
7. F – Service companies work as contractors to the oil companies.
12
обеспечением, market leader – лидер рынка, private sector energy
corporation – частная энергетическая компания.
Business terms: retail outlet, joint venture, market value, profit, share,
headquarters, vendor, offshore location, consumer, revenue.
сырая нефть – crude oil, вся нефтяная промышленность – the entire oil
industry, нефтеперерабатывающий завод – refinery, предприятия
розничной торговли – retail outlets, центральный офис – headquarters,
удобрения – fertilizers, синтетический каучук – synthetic rubber,
определение параметров пласта – formation evaluation,
принадлежащий государству – owned by the government, совместное
предприятие – joint venture, рыночная стоимость – market value,
наклонно-направленное бурение – directional drilling, сейсмическая
обработка – seismic processing, филиал – subsidiary.
13
5. The process of oil production, transportation, refinery and sale is
managed by oil companies
6. These are deeply involved in the oil business providing services that
help oil companies to carry out their operations.
7. The company's main business is the exploration for and the
production, processing, transportation and marketing of hydrocarbons.
8. Shell is incorporated in the UK with its corporate headquarters in The
Hague, its tax residence is in the Netherlands, and its primary listings
on the London Stock Exchange.
9. Shell's revenues of $318.8 billion in 2006 made it the second-largest
corporation in the world by revenues behind only Exxon Mobil. It
operates in over 140 countries
10. Rosneft conducts oil and gas exploration and production activities on
Sakhalin island, in Siberia, in the Timan-Pechora province, and in
southern Russia, including Chechnya.
11. Its plant in Tuapse, on the Black Sea, focuses on refining high-gravity
oil from western Siberia.
12. According to its website, it seems to be completely owned by the
Russian Federation.
Exercise 12. Read the following statements and decide if they are correct or
not. Use (C) for correct sentences and (F) for false ones, give your correct
variant.
14
3. Correct.
4. False. Shell tax residence is in the Netherlands.
5. Correct.
6. False. Shell has five core businesses: besides Exploration and
Production, Refining and Marketing, Chemicals, and Trading/Shipping
it has also Gas and Power business.
7. Correct.
8. False. Although Rosneft is an open joint stock company, according to
its website, it seems to be completely owned by the Russian
Federation.
9. False. Schlumberger Limited is the world's largest oilfield services
corporation operating in approximately 80 countries, with about 70,000
people of 140 nationalities.
10.Correct
Exercise 13. Listen to the tape and answer the questions given below.
1. C
2. B
3. A
4. D
5. C
6. B
7. A
8. A
Tapescript
15
ConocoPhillips centers its business on one core purpose: to responsibly
deliver energy to the world. To do this, the company finds, produces,
refines, markets and ultimately supplies energy resources to individuals
and businesses worldwide.
ConocoPhillips has had a presence in Russia since January 1992 when the
Polar Lights Company was established. As part of a larger strategic
alliance, ConocoPhillips entered into an agreement with LUKOIL in 2004
to create Naryanmarneftegaz, a joint venture to develop oil and gas
resources in the northern part of Russia’s Timan-Pechora province. As of
Dec. 31, 2006, ConocoPhillips had a 20 percent ownership interest in
LUKOIL based on its authorized and issued shares.
16
Exercise 14. Fill in the chart with the information on domestic and foreign
oil companies. Use additional resources: for example, www. Wikipedia.ed.
Exercise 15. b. Listen to seven people talking about their work and
decide which department each one works for.
1 E Finance 5 F Production
2 G Research and Development 6 D Personnel or Human Resources
or R& D
3 A Marketing 7 C Information Technology or IT
4 B Public Relation or P
Tapescript
Speaker 1:
Every six months we produce a report showing how the company is
doing. This past week, we’ve been busy with our accountants preparing
the results that will be included in our next report.
Speaker 2:
I’m a member of a team of engineer and we’ve just finalized the design of
our new portable computer. This model will be more powerful and more
adaptable than our previous one. We’re constantly looking for new ideas
and experimenting with new products.
Speaker 3:
Before selling our latest product, our department must decide in which
regions it will be the most successful and what types of consumers we
want to reach.
17
Speaker 4:
Communication is a key aspect of my department’s work. We answer
enquiries made by our customers and are also in contact with the press to
inform them of our new products and changes within the company.
Speaker 5:
We’ve been having problems with the quality of certain electronic parts
made in our factories. So several members of the department have got
together to talk about ways of improving some of our manufacturing
techniques.
Speakers 6:
Our company is going through a difficult period and we have to reduce
the number of employees in several departments and to review salaries
throughout the organization.
Speaker 7:
In today’s changing work environment, computer systems play an
essential role in how the company is run. In our department we not only
ensure that all systems are working properly, but we also design and
develop new applications to make it easier for our employees to exchange
and share information.
A. 6 F. 3
B. 8 G. 9
C. 5 H. 10
D. 2 I. 4
E. 1 J. 7
Exercise 21. Read the text and discuss the after-text questions. See
Appendix 3 (pg. 63–64 ).
The given text contains a number of unknown words that can be explained
by the T.:
Comments
18
Revenue is a business term for the amount of money that a company
receives from its activities in a given period, mostly from sales of
products and/or services to customers. It is not to be confused with the
terms "profits" or "net income" which generally mean total revenue minus
total expenses in a given period. In Europe (including the UK) the term is
turnover. For individuals, the equivalent term is income.
Net income is equal to the income that a firm has after subtracting costs
and expenses from the total revenue. Net income can be distributed among
holders of common stock as a dividend or held by the firm as retained
earnings. Net income is primarily an accounting term used in the US; in
other countries (such as the UK) profit. Additionally, in the US net
income is often (though ambiguously) called just income.
The items deducted will typically include tax expense, financing expense
(interest expense), and minority interest. Likewise, preferred stock
dividends will be subtracted too, though they are not an expense. For a
merchandising company, subtracted costs may be the cost of goods sold,
sales discounts, and sales returns and allowances. For a product company
advertising, manufacturing, and design and development costs are
included.
Profit generally is the making of gain in business activity for the benefit
of the owners of the business.
RDSA/RDSB are the ticker (stock market) codes for two types of shares
that can be bought in Royal Dutch Shell. These shares have the same
value but RSDA shares are subject to Dutch tax law and RDSB shares are
subject to British tax law. The reason for this double share offering is that
until 2006 “Shell” contained two companies (Royal Dutch and Shell
Trading) that both traded separately on the stock exchange. In 2006 these
two companies merged under the name Royal Dutch Shell but because the
majority of the shareholders either pay Dutch or British tax the two types
of shares were issued.
19
1. What does an Asset Based Organization consist of? An Asset Based
organization consists of asset teams looking after and responsible for
all assets.
2. What does a Functional Based Organization consist of? A Functional
Based organization consists of several departments where all
specialists of one function work together and support the company’s
assets.
3. What are advantages and disadvantages of an integrated asset based
organization? Integrated teams are more effective than the functional
approach. The Asset based organization allows management to
allocate budget, set targets and manage improvements more effectively
because each Asset Manager is responsible for his Asset. The
disadvantage of an Asset based organization is that it is difficult to
maintain the technical level of functional specialists
4. What are advantages and disadvantages of a functional based
organization? The advantage of this system is that by working closely
together within the function, specialists maintain a high level of
technical expertise. The disadvantage is that integrated team work is
absent and responsibility for a single asset is held only at the General
Director level this system is that by working closely together within
the function, specialists maintain a high level of technical expertise.
The disadvantage is that integrated team work is absent and
responsibility for a single asset is held only at the General Director
level
5. Give your own examples of organizations of both types.
20
UNIT 3
OIL FORMATION
21
непроницаемая порода – impermeable rock,
температура и давление – heat and pressure,
осадок – sediment,
азот – nitrogen,
сложное химическое соединение – compound
Gasoline – бензин
Opening up – вскрытие скважины
Oil = petroleum – нефть
Mixture – смесь
22
Decompose – разлагаться
Hydrocarbons – углеводороды
Organic matter – органическая материя
Kerogen – кероген (органическое вещество битуминозных сланцев)
Specific conditions – особые условия
Sediment – осадок
Accumulate – накапливаться
Fold – складка
Fault – сброс, сдвиг
Thrust faults – взброс, надвиг
Unconformity – несогласное напластование
Salt dome – соляной купол
Fracture – разлом
Cavity – полость
Trap – ловушка
Petroleum (literally rock oil, from the Greek petra – for rock and Latin –
oleum for oil) is a general term used to refer to all forms of oil and natural
gas that is mined from the earth.
Crude oil – the liquid mixture of naturally occurring hydrocarbons.
Natural gas – is a gaseous mixture of naturally occurring hydrocarbons.
Hydrocarbons are complex molecules that are formed from long strings
of hydrogen and carbon, such as propane (C3H8) or butane (C4H10).
Kerogen – the organic matter which becomes buried and begins to
decompose.
Porous – having microscopic holes.
Permeable – allowing for the flow of liquids.
Source rock – the rock where kerogen was created in.
Migrate – to move, to flow through.
Trap – a natural reservoir where petroleum is accumulated.
Exercise 12. State whether the following statements are true or false.
1. False – The area that the kerogen collects must be a restricted basin.
2. False – When the oxygen is gone, the decomposition stops and the
remaining matter are preserved.
3. True
4. True
5. False – Students must attend lectures in structural geology.
23
6. False – There are three types of structural traps.
7. True
8. True
9. True
10. False – Long chains of hydrocarbon are oil; shorter chains are gas,
generally methane (CH4) and condensates such as ethane, propane and
butane.
Exercise 13. Put the facts into the correct order which shows how oil
becomes oil.
Exercise 14. You will hear a lecture on petroleum. For questions 1-5,
choose the best answer A, B, or C.
1. B
2. A
3. C
4. A
5. B
6. C
Tapescript
Petroleum is used mostly, by volume, for producing fuel oil and gasoline
(petrol), both important "primary energy" sources. 84 % of the
hydrocarbons present in petroleum is converted into energy-rich fuels
24
(petroleum-based fuels), including gasoline, diesel, jet, heating, and other
fuel oils, and liquefied petroleum gas.
1. What product do we get out of the ground? – Oil and gas are the
products that we get out of the ground.
2. What collects on the ocean bottoms all over the world? – These
organisms live all over the oceans and their bodies fall and collect on
the ocean bottom all over the world.
3. Is there abundance of dead organisms? – Yes, there are.
4. What is needed for these organisms to be transformed into petroleum?
– Some special conditions are needed to be met.
5. Are there any conditions for the oil to be made? – First, the area that
the kerogen collects must be a restricted basin, a depression where
sediment can accumulate and where there is poor water circulation.
There needs to be a trap, something that is non-porous and non-
permeable that will hold the petroleum in the reservoir and prevent it
from migrating further. Finally, there needs to be enough heat and
pressure to sufficiently cook the oil and gas out of the kerogen.
25
6. How do structural traps work? – Structural traps work by folding or
breaking the reservoir rock and placing it adjacent to an impermeable
rock layer, like shale.
7. What are structural traps? – One of the most common is a trap from the
folding of the rocks.
8. Is there any difference between structural and stratigraphic traps? –
The differences between stratigraphic and structural traps are that these
traps occur by the nature of how the sediment was deposited and not
whether it was broken or folded.
9. Can you name some of the stratigraphic traps? – For example,
sandstone lenses and sandstone pinch-outs are the result of the changes
in deposition of the sediment.
10. What are salt domes for? – Salt domes can push up through buried
sediment and deform the overlying layers of rock. This causes folds
and fractures to form in the rock. Trapping the oil salt domes are the
primary places where the oil is found.
Exercise 16. Scan the text given bellow and describe main oil properties
based on the information you learn.
The purpose of this task is to let students know the main properties of oil.
So, T can ask some questions after reading the text or give the task to
complete the table. Ss describe the properties of oil in short.
26
Thermal expansion The degree of expansion is expressed
as the coefficient of thermal
expansion. Thermal expansion is
useful to determine the size of
container needed when the oil is
heated. Thermal expansion is
expressed as the ratio of volume
change to initial volume after heating
10 °C.
Composition base Crude oils are complex mixtures
containing hundreds of different
hydrocarbon compounds that vary in
appearance and composition from oil
field to oil field, therefore, in various
oil fields the oil composition can vary
significantly. All hydrocarbons are
divided into two groups: saturated
hydrocarbons and unsaturated
hydrocarbons.
27
UNIT 4
HSE
28
7. The drivers are required to hold the appropriate driving licenses.
8. To prevent accidents from occurring again it is necessary to investigate
not only incidents, but also near misses.
Exercise 5. Fill in correct preposition, then choose two items and make
sentences.
1. D
2. E
3. A
4. B
5. C
1. D
2. E
3. A
4. B
5. F
6. C
29
The problems: greenhouse gas emissions, major incidents, disturbed
land, contamination of water sources, impassable obstacles.
The ways of solution: risk assessment, personal protective equipment,
incident investigation, near misses, environmental monitoring.
1). B 5). B
2). A 6). A
3). A 7). C
4). C 8). A
Tapescript
30
b) Serious Accident
c) Fatality
7) How would you call an injury that requires first aid, but is not
disabling injury or occupational illnesses which, following treatment,
do not result in lost time, or property damage and loss in excess of
$10,000?
a) Major Accident
b) Minor Incident
c) Minor Accident
31
Exercise 12. Read the introduction to BP’s 8 golden rules. Find the words
in the text that mean the same as the words and phrases below.
Conduct feedback. Discuss some of the students’ ideas with the whole
group.
Find words in the text that mean the same as the words and phrases
below.
Answers:
1. Harm
2. Enforced
3. Risk assessment
4. Competent
5. Site requirements
6. Emergency response plans
7. Commencement
8. Obligation
32
13. Write in a safety rule next to explanation.
- Refer Ss to the word box. Point out that this is formal language, e.g. in
general spoken English we would replace confined space entry with
going into small spaces.
- Set the task for individual reading. Advise Ss to scan the rules to look
for key words that they associate with them. Do the first one together.
The word permit is in line 3. Reassure Ss that they do not need to
understand every word to have a general understanding of the text.
- Conduct feedback.
- Allow Ss to choose five words from the text that are unfamiliar to them
and check the meanings in a dictionary. Pool their findings with the
whole group.
Answers:
1. Permit to work
2. Working at heights
3. Energy isolation
4. Confined space entry
5. Lifting operations
6. Management of change (MOC)
7. Driving safety
8. Ground disturbance
Tapescript:
Bob: I cut my hand when I was working. I was changing a valve, and
while I was removing it, my pipe wretch slipped and cut into my hand. I
wrapped my hand in my handkerchief and got someone to take me to the
medical block. The doctor said I needed stitches, and I thought “Oh no!”
Then, when he was stitching up my hand, I fainted!
T. plays the recording for Ss to listen and compares their questions. Then,
T. elicits the questions Ahmed asked by giving prompts if necessary.
33
While eliciting T uses Past Continuous Tense in the second question. Why
were you changing the valve? T. highlights the form, drawing attention to
the use of the auxiliary were and the use of –ing.
Answers:
B. Listen to Ahmed asking Bob about the incident. Were his questions
the same as yours?
Tapescript:
C. Work with a partner. Ask each other questions about the incident. One
person plays the role of Bob and one person plays the role of Ahmed.
T. sets the task for pairwork and monitors where necessary. Then asks
some pairs to repeat their dialogues for the class. Then T. Asks Ss to write
down the dialogues from memory.
34
Part II
UPSTREAM AND DOWNSTREAM
Chapter 1
GEOPHYSICS
Д.А. Терре
UNIT 1
Lead-in. T. elicits the ideas from the students as they suggest things
connected with Geophysics and make collective mind map (spidergram) on
the board as the ideas are suggested, so that they can see how T. draws out
the aspects of the topic. The reasoning behind mind map is that Ss do not
think in an ordered or linear way, but rather explore a topic by moving
between its various aspects.
The next stage in this procedure may be division of all items suggested into
groups and explanation of Ss’ associations.
This activity will prepare Ss to work with the topic of the Unit 1.
Exercise 5. Match the words from the first column with their synonyms
from the second.
1. H 2. E 3. F 4. I. 5. B 6. G 7. A 8. C 9. D
Exercise 6. Match the verb with the noun to form collocations. Add a
preposition where necessary.
35
consist of measurements survey ground
necessitate introduction cover depth/ distance
decide a drilling programme give indication
determine properties be of irregular shape
36
Exercise 10. Replace the underlined words or word-combinations with their
synonyms from your active vocabulary. In some instances you have to
change the structure of the sentence.
37
the specialists detect if in the profile there are disjunctive interruptions
which can be dangerous for atomic power stations. 8. On the other hand,
seismic methods are rarely applied in direct mineral prospecting as they
cannot give sufficiently reliable results when the boundaries between the
rocks are extremely irregular.
38
should be high it will be more cost effective to do without geophysical
survey. On the other hand, where a large area must be covered in detail
(especially in oil prospecting) but high accuracy is not essential,
geophysical survey can be used. Besides, the choice of the particular
geophysical method requires consideration of a number of geological,
economic, safety, security factors and taking into account
environmental concerns.
Exercise 15. State which words the following nouns are formed from.
Exercise 17. See the correct arrangement of the text in exercise 21.
39
the sounds but make their own sound. They listen for the acoustics to
come back, their way back to figure out what’s down. That’s what I do.
What I like about working here? Well, a lot of things. I like the people.
First of…. formers… We’re really high-quality department. We have a lot
of really good students and the students who could be anywhere but who
have chosen to be here. And they are really enthusiastic that just brings a
lot of energy to the whole place, you know, having motivated faculty,
motivated students around working together or after small class research.
We have great facilities. The research that my group does and right now I
have I think four graduate students. The things that we want to do now are
gas hydrides, methane hydrides. This is a form of methane and it is very
widespread in the world’s oceans and might have played a role in the
climate change cause methane is a very risky gas.
We have a big project on array now in Costa Rico (right there) looking at
the volcanic arch. I’m trying to figure out what its origins are, what the
composition of the magma is, magma flux and things like that.
Recently we’ve just taken a very exciting turn into so-called seismic
oceanography. When conducting a seismic survey in the ocean sending
sound waves down typically through the ocean into the Earth to image the
Earth it turns out if you listen carefully enough, turn on the volume up,
you can record subtle weak echoes coming from inside the ocean.
Laramie for me is a very good place to live. I love living here. If you like
outdoor stuff which I do then it just has. But for the town of the science it
is luck on Earth because of University, it’s really science university. So
there are a lot of fine arts events, cultural events and suppose enough
indoor games too. Get down and catch a ball game and that sort of thing.
Exercise 20. Tell about geophysical survey according to the given plan
using words in brackets.
40
2. For geophysical survey it is necessary to take measurements
systematically on land, at sea and in a borehole. When geophysicists
choose the particular methods for the survey they consider
homogeneity of the formation and contrasting properties of rocks.
5. We have to consider that geophysical survey costs a lot and does not
give very accurate results. In civil engineering where high accuracy is
required it is better to use exploratory drilling instead. In some cases
where area is large, depth is great and geology is simple, it would be
essential to do geophysical survey. In other instances when the cost of
drilling seems to be too high relative to the cost of geophysics but
penalties of inaccuracy are substantial it may be still cheaper to drill.
41
means an archeological site can be examined without destroying it in the
process;
Proven – The majority of techniques have been in existence for more than
a half-century and are mature, yet still relatively undiscovered and
underutilized by decision-makers who face complex environmental and
engineering problems.
42
UNIT 2
43
Shooter blows up explosives at a predetermined time and cleans the well area
after the explosion.
Senior operator or observer is to monitor the accuracy of observation
schemes and quality of initial data.
Topographer is responsible for defining seismic profiles.
Calculator or seismic engineer in a local processing center prepares stacking
charts (схемы суммирования) and other materials for the conduct of the
subsequent interpretation.
Exercise 5. Form all possible nouns from the following words, use suffixes:
-ity, -or, -er, -ment, -ion, -sion, -tion, -ive.
1. by 2. on, of, in, to, of, of 3. into 4. out, from 5. by 6. for 7. from 8. in 9.
on, in, on, at, on.
Exercise 8. Fill in the gaps with words which are derived from the word
given at the end of each line.
1. refraction
2. attraction
3. subsequent
4. predetermined
5. penetration
44
6. actuated
7. propagation
8. receivers
9. generation
10. explosives
1. Denser rocks have greater gravitational attraction than less dense rocks.
2. The exploration for valuable mineral deposits is carried out on land.
3. Sedimentary rocks have less magnetic susceptibility than igneous rocks.
4. Downward propagation of the sound wave made it possible to
determine location of the ship. 5. The air gun array generates seismic
waves which are reflected off the interface. 6. The modern technology of
collecting and processing data requires their digitizing. 7. Events can
penetrate deep into the Earth’s subsurface and subsequently yield
information about its interior. 8. The starting device embedded into
explosives was actuated at midnight. 9. The pull of gravity/ gravitational
attraction is determined by the mass of a body. 10. The thumping device
yielded energy of the required power.
Exercise 10. State whether the following sentences are true or false, correct
the false ones.
1. F – vice versa
2. F – magnetic method is the oldest one.
3. F – the gravity method is based on the measurements of the variations
in the pull of gravity from the rocks in the upper layers of the earth's
surface.
4. T
5. F – on land; At sea, a source such as an array of air guns is actuated
every few seconds as the ship moves over a predetermined course.
6. T
45
5. Reflection seismology is based on measurements of the arrival times of
the events reflected from subsurface interfaces.
6. A central recording unit digitizes analog signals and records them for a
subsequent analysis.
7. A structural uplift of denser rocks will be shown as an anomaly on
gravity map.
8. Seismic energy may be generated by arrays of chemical explosions or
thumping device.
Exercise 13. Listen to Khoi Pham who works for Geophysical Service
Incorporated. He tells about his position as a crew manager in marine
survey. Answer the questions given below.
Tapescript
46
is kept while on board. I tend to have to retreat streamers and deploy
streamers or responsible for maintaining all the embedded gears.
What makes this job interesting is that you get to travel around the world,
just being on the ship at sea, seeing sunrise, sunset, sea life.
We normally work twelve hour shift a day, seven days a week. Our
rotations range from six weeks on six weeks off plus-minus a week. It
depends but that’s a part of the job. On board after shift what we do for
spare time, we have full access to the Internet. There is gym facility, that’s
honour. Lot of time you can just lie on the whole deck, go for walks
around the deck. The off-time for six weeks is yours. You do whatever
you want. I often travel. I used all my time to travel.
Since working offshore with GSI I’ve been able to save a lot of money
and have bought a condominium. I mean I have two sports cars and do
enough smart applications to my cars, so I spend a lot of money there. I
have the luxury of buying all the gadgets and toys that I like. The money
scraped while you are offshore you can save and use it or put towards
anything you want.
47
Exercise 14. Tell about prospecting for oil using the following pictures.
From the time of high antiquity, in ancient Mesopotamia, oil that had
seeped to the surface was collected for medicinal use, as well as lighting
fuel and caulking for boats. Today, now that we have been producing
from accessible reservoirs for 150 years, it is increasingly hard to find
hydrocarbon-impregnated rock. Explorers now have to look hundreds and
even thousands of meters below ground.
1. Map
2. Hammer
3. Acids
4. Magnifying glass
5. Logbook
48
1. Aerial shot.
2. Satellite shot.
Now it's the geophysicist's turn to study the physical properties of the
subsoil. A variety of methods are used at this stage, and a comparison of
their results serves to enrich the geologist's findings. Gravimetry measures
gravity, to give some idea of the nature and depth of strata depending on
their density. Magnetometry (generally performed from the air) measures
variations in the magnetic field. This gives an idea of the depth
distribution of crystalline terrains which have no chance of containing any
oil.
A surface shock generates sound waves which are refracted and reflected
underground. The way in which the waves are propagated varies as they
49
pass through the different strata. Using a highly-sensitive microphone
known as a "geophone," the geophysicist at the surface listens to the echo
of these waves and records them.
1. Isochrons
2. 3D seismic Maps
1. Seismic vessel
2. Hydrophones
The geophysicist can thus obtain more data offshore than onshore and a
more precise three-dimensional image, once the data have been processed.
50
All these results are aggregated and studied. Geologists, geophysicists,
petroleum architects, together with drilling, production and reservoir
engineers all supply data to economists and financial planners. By
juggling figures, parameters and probabilities, they seek to work out a
possible strategy for developing the reservoir in the event of confirmation
of the presence of hydrocarbons.
1. Geophysicist
2. Geologist
51
1. Drilling is usually set up
directly over the thickest layer
of hydrocarbons.
Some fields lie at depths equivalent to twelve times the height of the Eiffel
Tower...
The site of the drill rig is determined
based on the existing state of knowledge
of underground conditions and the
topography of the terrain. This is
generally sited vertically above the
thickest part of the stratum thought to
contain hydrocarbons. The drilling team
often operates under difficult conditions.
This narrow-bore hole (with a diameter
of 20–50 centimeters) is generally sunk to a depth of between 2,000 and
4,000 meters. In a few cases it may go beyond 6,000 meters, and one has
even gone to a depth of 10 kilometers, or 30,000 feet.
1. Well casing
2. Cable retaining the downhole probe
3. Downhole Probe
4. First probe sensor
5. Second probe sensor
6. Third probe sensor
7. Measurements obtained by the sensors
Once a certain depth has been reached, the exploration crew conducts a
series of measurements known as well-logging. An electronic probe is
lowered into the well to measure the physical properties of the rocks
traversed. These actual measurements either confirm or disprove the
hypotheses formulated prior to drilling, and generally provide more
accurate data. The sides of the well are then consolidated by
52
means of steel tubes screwed together, and the casing is cemented to the
terrain to keep the strata separate from each other.
1. Coring tool
2. Core sample
3. Indications concerning height of beds
4. Clues concerning type of rock
An exploratory well takes from three to six months to drill. Four wells out
of five, or even six out of seven in pioneer zones, fail to yield
commercially viable quantities of oil or gas. Sometimes, though, the drill-
bit strikes a hydrocarbon-impregnated rock, in which case the drilling
crew conducts extensive well-logging to find out more.
53
1. Economic data
2. Choice of operating methods
3. Geological data
The exploratory phase has been successful: a reservoir has been identified,
with the prospect of producing profitably. Based on assumptions as to
future oil or gas prices, the next step is to determine whether sales of
products extracted from the reservoir will be sufficient to cover the high
cost of studies, development, construction and funding, as well as
production costs proper. The decision to bring a reservoir onstream is a
major one, as the investment outlay can run into several hundred million,
indeed a billion dollars.
The content and images on this page are courtesy of ELF Aquitaine
Exercise 17. Complete the sentences with your own ideas. Use words from
your vocabulary.
(Suggested answers)
1. The hinged beam in this device did not sustain the pressure.
2. Latitude determines the necessity of planetary correction/ variations of
gravity.
3. The astatizing mechanism involves application of labilizing force and
restoring force.
4. The pendulum is used to measure relative gravity .
5. The assumptions should be modified because new data about depth,
shape and density of the subsurface bodies was detected .
6. Discrepancies between two quantities were reduced as a result of field
operations.
7. In our work we give preference to accurate values over plausible
assumptions.
8. A helical spring is suspended from taut horizontal suspension wire.
54
Exercise 18. Replace the underlined words or word-combinations with their
synonyms from your active vocabulary. In some instances you have to
change the structure of the sentence.
1. The planetary correction occurs due to variations of gravity with
latitude.
2. The reflection seismology method is commonly applied in petroleum
exploration.
3. Magnetic surveys are usually carried out from the air or from a ship.
4. Air gun arrays are necessary to produce a source energy for seismic
marine survey.
5. An anomaly can indicate a structural uplift.
6. Different rocks generate local variations in Earth’s magnetic field and
so yield different readings from a magnetometer.
7. A recording truck picks up the data that are transmitted by receivers.
8. The gravity method is based on the measurements of the variations in
the gravitational attraction of the rocks of different density.
1. F – gravity too
2. F – the most common
3. T
4. F – using gravimeter
5. F – planetary correction
6. F – north and east
55
7. T
8. T
1. C, 2. B, 3. A, 4. C, 5. C, 6. A, 7. C, 8. A, 9.B, 10. A.
56
Tapescript
Blue Qube
BQ is a powerful new imaging tool that can either stand alone or set
alongside seismic and EM (electromagnetics). It provides geophysicists,
geologists and exploration managers with an accurate picture of the
subsurface geology. BQ acquisition includes world leading gravity
gradient imaging instrumentation together with high resolution magnetics,
video and radar. BQ measures the rate of change of rock density in the
form of gravity gradients. The increased band units and higher signal-to-
noise ratio over conventional gravity systems means that smaller or more
deeply buried features can be surveyed and imaged in more detail. The
result is a more accurate Earth’s model than has ever been possible before.
BQ is combined with other technologies to build up a much more detailed
picture of what’s underground.
Exercise 27. Listen to the report on new satellite GOCE for measuring
gravity field of the Earth and state if the sentences are true (T) or false (F).
1. T
2. F – rotation of the Earth
3. T
4. T
5. F – by satellite
6. F – less /20 months
7. F – gradiometer
57
8. F – low orbit because gravitational signal is stronger when the
satellite is closer to the Earth
Tapescript
Earth’s Gravity Field
Firstly, the distance between the center of the Earth and its surface is
smaller at the poles than at the equator. This flattening is due to the
Earth’s rotation making the pull of gravity slightly stronger at the poles.
Secondly, the surface of the Earth is not even with high mountains, ocean
trenches causing the value of gravity to vary.
Thirdly, the material composition inside the Earth varies and matter is not
even distributed, all of which affect gravitational pull. Even smaller
changes in topography such as ice-sheet movements, sea-level changes,
volcanic eruptions and erection of large buildings can certainly affect the
local gravity field. All these factors taken together form a gravity field
that is very different from the smooth globe we traditionally think of the
Earth. Right at satellite era gravity had not been measured accurately
across the world. What we had looked is a fragmented world map of the
gravity field of uneven quality. GOCE satellite due to be launched in 2006
is the first easier satellite solely dedicated to measuring the Earth’s
gravity. It will make uniform high accuracy measurements of gravity field
once rotating round the Earth at particularly low orbit height of only two
hundred and fifty kilometers. During its twenty months mission GOCE
will build detailed and precise picture of the earth’s gravitational field
using an incredibly sensitive new instrument called a gradiometer.
GOCE has been designed to fly in low orbit of two hundred and fifty
kilometers because the gravitational signal is stronger closer to the Earth.
However, the remaining atmosphere in low altitudes creates a demanding
environment for the satellite, presents a real challenge for its design.
58
Exercise 28. Using the diagram describe the general principle of gravity
survey.
Suggested answer
The diagram shows how the force of gravity affects the weight suspended
from a coiled spring. The length of a coiled spring varies with the force of
gravity exerted by the rocks beneath. In cases B and C we observe that
differences in density of rocks affect the normal gravimetric readings.
Dense igneous rocks in case B cause high readings from the gravimeter,
low density salt dome brings about low readings. As a consequence, if we
analyze the readings received from the gravimeters and know
relationships between the gravity value and properties of the rocks, we can
make conclusions about what type of geological formation is located
beneath the surface.
Exercise 29. Work in groups and answer the questions given below. Give
your explanations.
1. Let's ignore the physics and imagine that, one day, the planet's gravity
turned off, and suddenly there was no force of gravity on planet Earth.
This would turn out to be a pretty bad day. We depend on gravity to hold
so many things down – cars, people, furniture, pencils and papers on
your desk, and so on. Everything not stuck in place would suddenly have
no reason to stay down, it would start floating. But it's not just furniture
and the like that would start to float. Two of the more important things
held on the ground by gravity are the atmosphere and the water in the
oceans, lakes and rivers. Without gravity, the air in the atmosphere has no
reason to hang around, and it would immediately leap into space. This is
the problem the moon has – the moon doesn't have enough gravity to keep
an atmosphere around it, so it's in a near vacuum. Without an atmosphere,
any living thing would die immediately and anything liquid would boil
away into space. In other words, no one would last long if the planet didn't
have gravity.
59
of gravity. Before looking at changes in gravity however, it is helpful to
first understand what gravity is. Gravity is an attractive force between any
two atoms. Let's say you take two golf balls and place them on a table.
There will be an incredibly slight gravitational attraction between the
atoms in those two golf balls. If you use two massive pieces of lead and
some amazingly precise instruments, you can actually measure an
infinitesimal attraction between them. It is only when you get an gigantic
number of atoms together, as in the case of the planet Earth, that the force
of gravitational attraction is significant. The reason why gravity on Earth
never changes is because the mass of the Earth never changes. The only
way to suddenly change the gravity on Earth would be to change the mass
of the planet. A change in mass great enough to result in a change in
gravity isn't going to happen anytime soon.
60
sphere. The following equation expresses the gravitational attraction that
two spherical objects have on one another:
F = G * M1 * M2 / R2
R is the distance separating the two objects.
G is a constant that is 6.67259x10–11 m3/s2 kg.
M1 and M2 are the two masses that are attracting each other.
F is the force of attraction between them.
Assume that Earth is one of the masses (M1) and a 1-kg sphere is the
other (M2). The force between them is 9.8 kg*m/s2 – we can calculate this
force by dropping the 1-kg sphere and measuring the acceleration that the
Earth's gravitational field applies to it (9.8 m/s2).
The radius of the Earth is 6,400,000 meters (6,999,125 yards). If you plug
all of these values in and solve for M1, you find that the mass of the Earth
is 6,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 kilograms (6E+24 kilograms /
1.3E+25 pounds).
1
It is "more proper" to ask about mass rather than weight because weight is a force
that requires a gravitational field to determine. You can take a bowling ball and weigh
it on the Earth and on the moon. The weight on the moon will be one-sixth that on the
Earth, but the amount of mass is the same in both places. To weigh the Earth, we
would need to know in which object's gravitational field we want to calculate the
weight. The mass of the Earth, on the other hand, is a constant.
Exercise 30. Work in groups and enumerate all the possible solutions to the
problem. Discuss and give the explanations.
Two theories have been proposed to account for this anomaly. But before we
go over them, it's important to first consider what creates gravity. At a basic
level, gravity is proportional to mass. So when the mass of an area is
somehow made smaller, gravity is made smaller. Gravity can vary on
61
different parts of the Earth. Although we usually think of it as a ball, the
Earth actually bulges at the Equator and gets flatter at the poles due to its
rotation. The Earth's mass is not spread out proportionally, and it can shift
position over time. So scientists proposed two theories to explain how the
mass of the Hudson Bay area had decreased and contributed to the area's
lower gravity.
One theory centers on a process known as convection occurring in the Earth's
mantle. The mantle is a layer of molten rock called magma and exists
between 60 and 124 miles (100 to 200 km) below the surface of the Earth .
Magma is extremely hot and constantly whirling and shifting, rising and
falling, to create convection currents. Convection drags the Earth's
continental plates down, which decreases the mass in that area and decreases
the gravity.
A new theory to account for the Hudson Bay area's missing gravity concerns
the Laurentide Ice Sheet, which covered much of present-day Canada and the
northern United States. This ice sheet was almost 2 miles (3.2 km) thick in
most sections, and in two areas of Hudson Bay, it was 2.3 miles (3.7 km)
thick. It was also very heavy and weighed down the Earth. Over a period of
10,000 years, the Laurentide Ice Sheet melted, finally disappearing 10,000
years ago. It left a deep indentation in the Earth.
To get a better idea of what happened, think about what happens when you
lightly press your finger into the surface of a cake or a piece of really springy
bread. Some of it moves to the sides and there's an indentation. But when you
remove your finger, it bounces back to normal. A similar thing happened
with the Laurentide Ice Sheet, the theory proposes – except the Earth isn't so
much "bouncing" back as it is rebounding very slowly (less than half an inch
per year). In the meantime, the area around Hudson Bay has less mass
because some of the Earth has been pushed to the sides by the ice sheet. Less
mass means less gravity.
Exercise 35. Which words from your active vocabulary are given here?
coincide; spontaneous; induce; arisefrom; supplement; disposition;
eliminate; superimposed
Exercise 36. Choose the suitable word from the given variants
1. required
2. assume
3. arise from
4. supplemented by
5. affect
62
6. are subject to
7. supplement
8. intensity
9. superimposed
10. induce
Exercise 39. Change the sentence using the given word. The meaning of a
new sentence should be approximately the same.
63
7. (gauss(line per centimeter in the air));
8. (one thousandth of this unit and is used for convenience);
9. (less than in gravity survey);
10. (igneous and iron ores that are strongly magnetic and sedimentary
rocks that are weak in magnetization).
Exercise 41. Place the sentences according to the order of their appearance
in the text.
Exercise 42. State whether these sentences are true or false. Correct the
false sentences. Give additional information on the subject.
64
Exercise 44. Listen to the interview with Chris Leech, geophysicist and
director of Geomatrix Earth Sciences Ltd, who is talking about
archeological geophysics. Answer the following questions by saying
whether each of the following statements are 1 – True (T) or 2 – False (F).
1. F, 2. F, 3. T, 4 F, 5. T, 6. F, 7. F, 8. T, 9. T, 10. T.
Tapescript
Seeing Secrets Underground
Chris L: Geophysics is really the science of trying to find what is down
below the ground without actually having to dig a hole. We’re looking for
changes in the physical properties of the ground. If you’ve got a 10
hectare site that you’re interested in and you think there might be
archaeology underneath it you’re going to have to dig an awful lot of
holes in the ground if you don’t do geophysics first. With the geophysics
it allows you to very rapidly, relatively cost-effectively narrow-down the
area which is of great interest to the real archaeologists.
Interviewer: What are the techniques used?
Chris L: There are several techniques which are useful for archaeological
geophysics. We tend to look for the magnetic signatures of the ground.
We tend to look for the electrical properties of the ground. Also we use
the growing technique of ground-penetrating radar therefore looking at the
electromagnetic properties of the ground.
Interviewer: The equipment that you have strapped to yourself here is
basically a horizontal pole with two vertical poles attached at either side
and a rucksack that’s strapping you into it, really. Which technique does
this piece of equipment use?
Chris L: This is a magnetometer. Therefore we are actually measuring
precisely changes in the Earth’s magnetic field at this point. The two
vertical poles are actually two separate magnetometers so you can
measure the Earth’s magnetic field in two places at the same time. The
horizontal pole you described feeds the data back into a small data logger.
By having two magnetometers we can speed up our operation. We can
acquire two lines of data right at the same time.
Interviewer: How does a magnetometer actually measure the magnetic
field beneath it?
65
Chris L: Each of the tubes which we mentioned earlier contains two
fluxgate sensors. These measure very precisely the Earth’s magnetic field
in the vertical component. By measuring it in two different places we can
get a measure of the change in the magnetic field over that distance which
is 1m between each sensor. We’re measuring the vertical gradient of the
Earth’s magnetic field in two places simultaneously.
Interviewer: How does this then translate to tell you where things are
located?
Chris L: All materials have got a magnetic signature be it different types
of soils or manmade objects such as bricks or artefacts of some
description. If we can measure the magnetic field with sufficient accuracy
and sufficient resolution as we go over the ground we can see very small
changes in the Earth’s magnetic field.
Exercise 45. Listen to the interview with Dr. Michio Kaku, Professor of
Theoretical Physics telling about leaks in the Earth’s magnetosphere.
Choose the correct answer to the given questions.
1. C; 2. A; 3. A; 4. B; 5. B; 6. C
Tapescript
Leaks in the Earth’s Magnetic Field
TV Presenter: They could be bigger and more immediate than the threat
of global warming they say. Earth’s magnetic field which acts as our
protective shield in space has holes in it and that could put a lot of our
earthly functions at risk. Dr. Michio Kaku, Professor of the theoretical
physics is back with us. Professor, how are you? Good morning to you.
Professor: Glad to be on the show.
TV Presenter: What is this, solar shield?
Professor: Well, every eleven years the sun has scintillation and releases
a shock wave. Tsunami or radiation can wipe our communication, weather
satellites, GPS, space satellites, you name it. It’s up there in outer space.
TV Presenter: You say, you say my blackberry (беспроводное
мобильное устройство) also?
Professor: The internet box, television, our cables, satellite TV, all of it
could get wiped at around twenty twelve that’s when we have the peak of
the sunspot cycle. That’s when the sun’s magnetic field flips North Pole
66
and South Pole flip releasing a shock wave radiation which then hits the
Earth minutes later potentially wiping out good chunks of our satellite
communications. We’re watching it very carefully now.
TV Presenter: This happens how often you say?
Professor: Every eleven years.
TV Presenter: Why in eleven year cycle?
Professor: It takes eleven years for the magnetic field of the sun to build
up enough intensity to begin the flip process because it slowly revolves in
a circle like winding up the windings of the clock. If you wind up the
main spring of the clock too much, its boi-on-on comes out of control.
Same things with the sun’s magnetic field. It literally flips every eleven
years releasing a shock wave or radiation and that means we have to start
to think about reinforcing satellites, building redundant systems cause that
means GPS, the powered grid, weather satellites, communication
satellites, satellite television, all of that could get disrupted peaking
around twenty twelve.
TV Presenter: So, your point is, we can’t do anything in space, but we
can do something here on Earth: backup systems our companies’re really
doing that?
Professor: Well, they gonna have to do it because we scientists made a
mistake. We found the next cycle was gonna be quiet.
Well, some of our data was off by a factor of twenty and that’s why we’re
issuing this alert now. We made a mistake the next cycle peaking around
twenty twelve will be much more serious than we previously thought. In
the past we didn’t lodge the bullet because we didn’t have that many
satellites up there than eleven twenty years ago. Back in nineteen ninety
we did not have that many space satellites
TV Presenter: Well, that makes sense, but listen, aren’t they just a tactic
to put a lot of fear in lot of people? That’s really no danger in the end?
Professor: Let’s hope that it doesn’t, let’s hope that nothing happens.
However, what if our communication systems are wiped out, billions of
economic activity could be stopped.
TV Presenter: Could you think it could be taken seriously?
Professor: I think we’re gonna have to. The physicists are now sounding
alert. We made a mistake. We made the wrong projection. The next solar
cycle will be more intense than previously thought. An ounce of
67
prevention is a pound of cure and now it’s time to begin to create
redundant systems, reinforce the satellites, build backup systems.
TV Presenter: Thank you, professor. Nice to know.
Suggested answer
Different rocks produce local variations in Earth’s magnetic field and so
yield different readings from a magnetometer. In the picture we can see
that country rocks produce regional magnetism, topsoil produce
background magnetism, ores just below the surface and deeply buried ore
are relatively strong in magnetism. So interpretation of magnetic survey
results can indicate certain types of subsurface rocks, for example, buried
iron ores. Because iron is often found with sulfides, magnetometers may
lead indirectly to non-ferrous metals, too.
Exercise 49. Work in groups. Think over, give your idea and justify your
opinion.
1. In a sense, yes. You probably know that the Earth is stratified. In radius
it is composed of layers having different chemical composition and
different physical properties. The crust of the Earth has some permanent
magnetization, and the core of the Earth, the outer part of which is liquid
iron and the inner of which is solid iron, generates its own magnetic field,
sustaining the main part of the field we measure at the surface. So we
could say that the Earth is, therefore, a ‘magnet’. But there is no giant bar
magnet near the Earth’s center, despite the depictions you may have seen
in elementary textbooks on geology and geophysics. Permanent
magnetization cannot occur at high temperatures, like temperatures above
650 degrees centigrade or so, when the thermal motion of atoms becomes
sufficiently vigorous to destroy the ordered orientations needed to
establish permanent magnetization. The core of the Earth has a
temperature of several thousand degrees, and so, even though the core is
the source of most of the geomagnetic field, it is not, itself, permanently
magnetized.
68
2. This is explained, in general terms, in the Introduction to Geomagnetism
page given on the website http://geomag.usgs.gov/intro.php. Briefly, then,
as the result of radioactive heating and chemical differentiation, the outer
core is in a state of turbulent convection. This sets up a process that is a bit
like a naturally occurring electrical generator, where the convective kinetic
energy is converted to electrical and magnetic energy. Basically, the
motion of the electrically conducting iron in the presence of the Earth's
magnetic field induces electric currents. Those electric currents generate
their own magnetic field, and, as the result of this internal feedback, the
process is self-sustaining, so long as there is an energy source sufficient to
maintain convection. The depiction of the geodynamo shown here is only
schematic; in fact, the fluid motion and the form of the magnetic field
inside the core are still the subject of intensive research.
3. Models and charts of the magnetic field at the Earth’s surface need to be
periodically updated because the field is constantly changing in time. The
same fluid motion in the Earth’s core that sustains the main part of the
magnetic field also causes the field to slowly change in spatial form, a
time-dependence known as ‘secular variation’. This variation can be seen
in all vectorial parts of the magnetic field, but it was first noticed in
declination several hundred years ago, since it is that quantity that is so
important for navigation. In fact, the demands of navigators helped to
motivate, centuries ago, some of the original studies of the Earth's
magnetic field. On average the declination at the Earth’s surface changes
by about a fifth of a degree per year.
69
4. Yes. We know this from an examination of the geological record. When
lavas are deposited on the Earth’s surface, and subsequently freeze, and
when sediments are deposited on ocean and lake bottoms, and
subsequently solidify, they often preserve a signature of the ambient
magnetic field at the time of deposition. This type of magnetization is
known as 'paleomagnetism'. Careful measurements of oriented samples of
faintly magnetized rocks taken from many geographical sites allow
scientists to work out the geological history of the magnetic field. We can
tell, for example, that the Earth has had a magnetic field for at least 3.5
billion years, and that the field has always exhibited a certain amount of
time-dependence, part of which is normal secular variation, like that which
we observe today, and part of which is an occasional reversal of polarity.
Incredible as it may seem, the magnetic field occasionally flips over! The
geomagnetic poles are currently roughly coincident with the geographic
poles, because the rotation of the Earth is an important dynamical force in
the core, where the main part of the field is generated. Occasionally,
however, the secular variation becomes sufficiently large such that the
magnetic poles end up being located rather distantly from the geographic
poles; we say that the poles have undergone an ‘excursion’ from their
preferred state. Now, we know from physics that the Earth’s dynamo is
just as capable of generating a magnetic field with a polarity like that
which we have today as it is capable of generating a field with the opposite
polarity. The dynamo has no preference for a particular polarity.
Therefore, after an excursional period of enhanced secular variation, the
magnetic field, upon returning to its usual state of rough alignment with
the Earth’s rotational axis, could just as easily have one polarity as
another. The consequences of polarity reversals for the compass are
dramatic. Nowadays, the compass points roughly north, or, more precisely,
the north end of the compass points roughly north at most geographical
locations. However, before the last reversal, which was about 780,000
years ago, the polarity was reversed compared to today's, and the compass
would have pointed roughly south, and before that reversed state the
polarity was like that which we have today, and the compass would have
pointed roughly north, and so on. The timings of reversals forms the so-
called 'geomagnetic polarity timescale', shown here at the right. During a
reversal, between polarities, the geometry of the magnetic field is much
more complicated than it is now, and a compass could point in almost any
direction depending on one’s location on the Earth and the exact form of
the mid-transitional magnetic field. One of the things that is interesting
about reversals is that there is no apparent periodicity to their occurrence.
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Reversals are random events. They can happen as often as every 10
thousand years or so, and as infrequently as every 50 million years or
more. Questions about reversals are very popular with the general public,
and further information can be found in the references given in the Further
Reading page of the given website.
Nothing causes the magnetic field to reverse is polarity. That answer might
surprise you, but the fact that the field occasionally reverses is simply a
property of the continuous, on-going behavior of the Earth's dynamo.
There is no ‘cause’ per se. In answering the previous question we
discussed the phenomenology of polarity reversals, what they are and how
they might affect a (hypothetical) compass, but with respect to the physics
of the process itself, some lessons can be learned from the laboratory. It is
possible, for example, to design a machine, an electrical-magnetic-
mechanical dynamo consisting of spinning metal disks and coils of wire
which, when supplied with mechanical energy, sustains its own magnetic
field. Depending on the details of the apparatus, the magnetic field can be
steady, with no time dependence at all, or it can reverse periodically, like
the Sun’s magnetic field does every eleven years, or it can reverse
randomly, bouncing back and forth in an orbit around two preferred states
(opposite polarities) like the Earth’s magnetic field does. It is also possible
to write down the mathematical equations that describe the behavior of this
laboratory system – the equations describe what is popularly known as
‘chaos’, and, even though the laboratory system is relatively simple, its
equations have some similarity to those describing the dynamics of the
Earth’s core. In summary, then, nature allows for different kinds of
dynamos, some of which just simply have the property that they undergo
occasional random reversals. The Earth' core happens to be one of those
dynamo types.
5. One of the most important jobs that a scientist has is to determine, from
among all the possible causes and effects in nature, which are the most
important and strictly and necessarily causally related, and which are
simply insignificant and essentially unrelated. Although extremely
unlikely, we will admit that it might be possible for a reversal of the
Earth’s magnetic field to be triggered by a meteorite or cometary impact,
or even for it to be caused by something more ‘gentle’, such as the
melting of the polar ice caps, as you suggest. But remember, from our
discussion following the previous question, self-contained dynamical
systems, some of which can be built in the laboratory, can exhibit
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randomly reversing behavior. They can do this without any outside
influence. The Earth's dynamo is a natural example of such a self-
contained, randomly-reversing dynamical system. Therefore, invoking an
external mechanism for causing the Earth’s polarity reversals is, quite
simply, a ‘solution’ to a non-problem. Reversals would happen anyway.
72
whether or not there are detectable electro-magnetic precursors to
earthquakes. It is worth acknowledging that geophysicists would actually
dearly love to demonstrate the reality of such precursors, especially if they
could be used for reliably predicting earthquakes! Unfortunately, no
convincing evidence of electro-magnetic precursors to earthquakes has
been found, despite decades of work. And it should be emphasized that
isolated coincidences are not sufficient to demonstrate a relationship. What
is needed to confirm an extraordinary claim is, of course, an extraordinary
amount of evidence, which in this case would mean many repeated
correlations of earthquakes with specific and identifiable precusory field
variations. Such evidence simply doesn't exist.
10. Yes. There is evidence that some animals, probably most notably sea
turtles, have the ability to sense the Earth’s magnetic field (although
probably not consciously) and to use this sense, along with their several
other senses, for purposes of orientation. We acknowledge that this is an
interesting subject, and inquisitive acquaintances have posed this question
to us on many occasions. However, the issue of magnetic orientation by
animals is really more a matter of biophysics rather than geophysics, and
we will, therefore, refer the curious reader to the following authoritative
articles:
Lohmann, K. J., Hester, J. T. & Lohmann, C. M. F., 1999. Long-distance
navigation in sea turtles, Ethology Ecology & Evolution, 11, 1–23.
Skiles, D. D., 1985. The geomagnetic field: Its nature, history and
biological relevance, In Magnetite Biomineralization and
Magnetoreception by Living Organisms: A New Biomagnetism, Ed:
Kirschvink, J. L., Jones, D. S. & MacFadden, B. J., Plenum Publishing
Corporation, New York.
Walker, M. M., Dennis, T. E. & Kirschvink, J. L., 2002. The magnetic
sense and its use in long-distance navigation by animals, Current Opinion
in Neurobiology, 12, 735–744.
Wiltschko, R. & Wiltschko, W., 1995. Magnetic orientation in animals,
Zoophysiology, 33, Springer Verlag, Berlin.
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11. A magnetic storm is a period of rapid magnetic field variation. The
causes of magnetic storms are explained, in general terms, in the
Introduction to Geomagnetism page given on the website
http://geomag.usgs.gov/faqs.php#qfourteen. Briefly, then, magnetic storms
have two basic causes. First of all, let us be reminded that the Sun is
always emitting a wind of charged particles that flows outward into space
away from the Sun itself. Occasionally the Sun emits a strong surge of
solar wind, something called a coronal mass ejection. When this gust of
solar wind impacts upon the outer part of the Earth’s magnetic field, the
magnetosphere, the field is disturbed and it undergoes a complex
oscillation. This causes the generation of associated electric currents in the
near-Earth space environment, which, in turn, generate additional
magnetic-field variations – all of which constitute a 'magnetic storm'. The
second cause of magnetic storms is the occasional direct linkage of the
Sun’s magnetic field with that of the Earth’s. This direct magnetic
connection is not the normal state of affairs, but when it occurs, charged
particles, traveling along magnetic-field lines, can easily enter the
magnetosphere, generate currents, and cause the magnetic field to undergo
time-dependent variation. On occasion, the Sun emits a coronal mass
ejection at a time when the magnetic-field lines of the Earth and Sun are
directly connected. Then we can experience a truly large magnetic storm.
The infrastructure and activities of our modern technologically-based
society can be adversely affected by rapid magnetic-field variations
generated by electric currents in the near-Earth space environment,
particularly in the ionosphere and magnetosphere. This is especially true
during so-called ‘magnetic storms’. Because the ionosphere is heated and
distorted during storms, long-range radio communication, which relies on
sub-ionospheric reflection, can be difficult or impossible and global-
positioning systems (GPS), which relies on radio transmission through the
ionosphere, can be degraded. Ionospheric expansion can enhance satellite
drag and thereby make their orbits difficult to control. During magnetic
storms, satellite electronics can be damaged through the build up and
74
subsequent discharge of static-electric charges, and astronaut and high-
altitude pilots can be subjected to increased levels of radiation. There can
even be deleterious effects on the ground: pipe-line corrosion can be
enhanced, and electric-power grids can experience voltage surges that
cause blackouts. The reason why space-based effects can have
consequences down here on the Earth’s surface is related, at least in part,
to our answer to the first question, ‘What is a magnetic field?’. Electric
currents in one place can induce electric currents in another place, this
action at a distance is accomplished via a magnetic field. So, even though
rapid magnetic-field variations are generated by currents in space, very
real effects, such as unwanted electric currents induced in electric-power
grids, can result down here on the Earth’s surface. More generally, the
hazardous effects associated with geomagnetic activity, which are
discussed more fully in the Further Reading page of this website, are one
reason why the USGS Geomagnetism Program is part of the Central
Region Geohazards Team.
75
12. Both satellites and ground-based magnetometers are important for
making measurements of the Earth’s magnetic field. They are not
redundant, but are, instead, complementary. After executing several orbits
of the Earth, satellites can provide good geographical coverage for data
collection. On the other hand, ground-based magnetometers are much less
expensive than satellites, they are much easier to install and control than
satellites, and, with an array of magnetometers, they can provide coverage
from numerous locations simultaneously. Another consideration is that
satellites orbit the Earth either inside or above the ionosphere, the
electrically conducting part of the Earth’s atmosphere. Since currents in
the ionosphere contribute to the magnetic field, this means that the field
measured by a satellite is somewhat different than the field measured at
the surface. Finally, don’t forget that it is at the surface of the Earth,
where we live, that many of the effects of space weather are most
important, so measurements from ground-based observatories will always
play a critical role in space-weather studies.
1. to, by, by
2. into, of, into
3. in, with
4. of, to, of, of
5. until
6. for, of
7. to, by, at, to, with
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Exercise 58. Fill in the gaps with terms from the text.
1. inductive; 2. “treasure-finders”; 3. resistivity; 4. resistivity; 5. electric;
6. self-potential; 7. radio; 8. inductive.
Exercise 59. State whether the following sentences are true or false, correct
the false ones.
1. F – 3 groups
2. F – due to lack of depth penetration
3. F – resistivity and potential-drop-ratio methods
4. T
5. F – suited
6. F – applicable to depth determinations of horizontal strata and the
mapping of dipping formations
7. T
8. F – parallel with the strike
Exercise 62. Read the text and decide which of the headings (1-6) best
summarizes each part (A-D) of the text. There is one extra heading that you
do not need to use.
A – 6; B – 1; C – 3; D – 2; E – 4.
The geophysical survey determined flow paths for mercury rich acid
waters.
77
The conductive zones of probable pathways for ground water flow were
detected.
The samples were taken from every three meters along the constructed
lines.
Tapescript
Electrical Resistivity Survey
78
airborne geophysical reconnaissance of the ox arm of clear lake including
SBEN on August, ninth through the seventeenth, 2 thousand. The spacing
between each flank line was roughly fifteen meters with samples every
three meters along each line and every one meter in depth. This resulted in
nearly one point five million irregularly spaced samples. CTAX software
processed this massive data set to provide a wiremetric mapping of the
resistivity data that was conformal to topography and geology. The
preliminary dataset for Sulfur bank Mercury Mine Superfund site was
provided by courtesy of Geosciences division of the water and energy
team at the US department of energies, national energy technology
laboratory. The effort was funded by ASCPA mine waste technology
program.
A – 6; B – 4; C – 2; D – 3; E – 1; 5 – extra
Tapescript
79
top plot is the most sensitive component and detects all metal objects
regardless of size. The early time gate is used to locate buried conduits
and areas containing miscellaneous (смешанный, неоднородный,
разный) debris. Differential response shown in the bottom plot identifies
areas containing large metal objects such as drams and tanks and ignores
the small miscellaneous metal debris.
Exercise 65. Using the diagram describe the general principle of electrical
survey.
Suggested answer
In electrical survey some electrodes are placed into the ground and
electrical current is conducted. The mineral deposit, especially an ore
deposit, affects natural ground currents that flow between buried
electrodes. A millivoltmeter registers voltages at the electrodes and as a
result of received data analysis different ore deposits can be indicated.
80
UNIT 3
Lead in. Listen to the song “Seismic waves” and fill in the gaps with the
words from the tape.
1. happening, 2.terror, 3. drama, 4. building, 5. rebuild, 6. focus,
7. faster, 8. Richter
T. elicits the ideas from the students as they suggest things that can serve as
the answers to the questions given below. This activity will prepare Ss to
work with the topic of the Unit 3.
Is there any difference between seismology and seismic survey?
They represent different activities but seismology is actually a predecessor of
seismic survey. Their fundamental principles are the same. Unlike
seismology in seismic survey energy sources are controlled and they can be
easily relocated. Besides, the distance or spacing between shot points and
receiving points are relatively small. For seismic wave generation explosives
or vibrating machines are used. The generated vibrations are then registered
by means of special arrays of receivers.
What is the main aim of seismic survey?
The main aim of seismic survey is to get information about rocks, especially
the mode of their occurrence by timing wave arrival time and amplitude
variations as well as by determining frequency and signal type.
What devices are used for registration of vibrations?
The generated vibrations are registered by means of special recording
systems which may include seismometer cable assembly, arrays of receivers
arranged in different ways, central recording units, or recording trucks.
What types of waves do you know?
There are two major types of seismic or shock waves. They are body and
surface waves. The body waves travel through the interior of the Earth and
they are divided into primary or P-waves and secondary or S- waves. The
surface waves travel along the surface and they demonstrate the greatest
destructive power during the earthquakes. There two types of such waves:
love-waves or L-waves and Rayleigh waves or R-waves. Seismic survey is
mostly concerned with measuring body waves.
What is a seismogram?
Seismogram is data recorded on paper or tape during seismic survey, which
consist of several traces, each of which shows the ground vibration variations
registered by one receiver array depending on time that was required for the
energy to return to the surface.
81
Exercise 5. Form nouns from the following verbs.
Exercise 6. Match the words in the right column with their synonyms in the
left one.
1. F , 2. E, 3. I, 4. G, 5. C, 6. H, 7. D, 8. A, 9. B.
4; 2; 5; 3; 7; 1; 6.
82
Exercise 11. State if these sentences are true or false. Add more
information if they are true and correct them if they are false.
Exercise 12. Match the pictures with the extract for illustration of which
they can serve.
Suggested answer
In seismic survey sound energy waves are sent into the ground by means
of dynamite or Vibroseis. When they encounter the boundaries, different
rock layers within the Earth’s crust reflect back the energy. Then
hydrophones and geophones record the reflected energy waves over a
83
predetermined set of time. The reflected signals are output onto a storage
medium. After that the recorded data are processed with special software.
As a result of data analysis seismic profiles are produced. These profiles
or data sets are then interpreted for possible hydrocarbon reserves.
Exercise 16. Render the information from the text into English
Suggested answer
Refraction method
The main difference between reflection and refraction methods grounds in
the fact that in refraction seismology the distance between shot point and
receptors is greater than the depth of mapping limits, while it is smaller or
equal to the depth of reflection boundaries in reflection seismology. That
accounts for the fact that in refraction surveys wave propagation lines are
mainly vertical. The head waves or refracted waves encounter a layer
characterized by high velocity leaving it at a critical angle. Analysis of
refracted wave propagation line can only detect a layer in which the wave
velocity is substantially lower than in overlying beds. In this respect the
refraction method has more limited application than reflection method.
Exercise 17. Compare and contrast the methods shown in the pictures.
Mention such aspects as characteristics of wave propagation, source arrays
and application:
Suggested answer
The first picture shows the reflection method while the second illustrates
the refraction method.
The reflection method differs from the refraction one in the way that the
distance between the shot point and receptors exceeds the depth value of
mapping limits. In the refraction method the distance is the same or
smaller than the depth of reflection boundary. As a result a wave
84
propagation line or incidence is vertical in reflection seismology and
predominantly horizontal in refraction seismology.
Because refractions are registered on the large distance, the energy source
should be more powerful than in reflection method.
The refraction method has much more narrow application than the
reflection one because it can only help to detect layer which is
characterized by much lower wave velocity than overlying bed. The
reflection seismology can be applied for hydrocarbon and mineral
exploration. The refraction seismology is commonly used to determine the
thickness of unconsolidated materials overlying bedrock (overburden
thickness) and depth to the water table. This method is used for
characterizing the geological framework of ground-water contamination
studies and for assessing geologic hazards and archaeological studies.
Exercise 20. Expand the given sentences in any way you can. Give details,
describe the definite situation.
Suggested answers
85
Exercise 22. Match the words in A with the words in B to make
collocations.
1. H, 2. D, 3. A, 4. F, 5. B, 6. I, 7. J, 8. E, 9. C, 10. G.
1. for, of; 2. for, up to; 3. across, of; 4. by, in; 5. among, in.
Exercise 25. Fill in the gaps with words which are made from the word
given at the end of each line.
1. advancement;
2. uncertainty;
3. acquisition;
4. insensitive;
5. executive;
6. capabilities;
7. compressional;
8. valuable;
9. continuous;
10.inaccuracy
Exercise 26. State whether the following sentences are true or false, correct
the false ones.
1. F – 3D-seismic technology
2. F – gas chimneys plaque them
3. F – shallow
4. F – the most accurate
5. T
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6. F – combining P- and S- waves
7. T
Exercise 27. You will hear the report on seismic waves. Match the terms
with their descriptions. One of them is extra.
Tapescript
Seismic Waves
Earthquakes generate two main types of seismic or shock waves: body
waves and surface waves.
Body waves travel through the interior of the Earth. The fastest of these
are primary or P-waves. These compressional waves move faster in dense
rock and slower in fluids thus their speed and direction change. Because
they are deflected by the Earth core, P-waves are not seen in the so-called
shadow zone.
The slowest body waves are secondary or S-waves. S-waves are elastic
shear waves that move sideways at right angles to the direction of travel.
Because S-waves travel only through solids, they do not penetrate the
Earth’s outer molten core. For this reason there is also an S-wave shadow
zone.
The slowest seismic surface waves do not penetrate the Earh interior but
follow the surface. One type of surface waves, the love-wave travels in a
circular motion and causes downage by displacing surface material or
residing. Love-waves can be very damaging. This crack pavement and this
twisted railway clearly demonstrate their destructive power. Earthquake
downage also results from rayleigh waves, surface waves which deform
material vertically.
Exercise 29. For the gaps 1–5, 6–10, choose one of the words on the right
(1–6) that best completes the gap in the text. You can use each word only
once. For every 5 gaps, there is one extra word.
1–3 (conductivity);
2–2 (decreases);
3–6 (strength);
4–4 (penetrate);
5–1 (limestone);
87
6–3(high-frequency);
7–4(encounters);
8–5 (variations);
9–6 (reflection);
10–2 (impedances).
Exercise 34. Choose the necessary word from the given ones.
1. undertook;
2. submerged;
3. two-way travel time;
4. trough;
5. spaced;
6. convention;
7. deflection;
8. bursts.
Exercise 36. Fill in the gaps using the terms from the text.
1. geological structures,
2. gravity and magnetic surveys,
3. echo-sounding,
4. bursts,
5. two-way time,
6. ray path,
7. wiggle traces,
8. magnitude of geophone movements,
9. right, black,
10. shades of gray
88
Exercise 40. Read the text and state if the sentences are true or false.
1.T; 2. F; 3. T; 4. F; 5. T; 6.T; 7. F; 8. T; 9. F; 10. T.
1. slantwise;
2. deduced;
3. adjacent;
4. 'isopach' maps;
5. multiple;
6. drained;
7. enable;
8. revealed;
89
9. interrelationship;
10. installed.
1. B, 2 C, 3. E, 4. A, 5 G, 6 D, 7 F, 8. I, 9. H.
1. I, 2. F, 3. D, 4. J, 5. A, 6. B, 7. H, 8. E, 9. G
Seismic sections picked by hand are digitised and the digital files entered
into a gridding and contouring program.
Some rock layers produce wiggles with a distinctive character that can be
followed right across a section.
90
Initially 3D seismic surveys were used to help to improve the position of
production wells, and so enable the fields to be drained with maximum
efficiency.
Exploration in the North Sea shifted to smaller and more subtle traps in
the early 1990's and 3D seismic surveys were used for exploration work.
Exercise 54. Read the text and choose the correct variant.
1. B; 2. C; 3. C; 4. A, 5. C.
Exercise 55. Fill in the gaps with the words derived from those at the end of
each line.
1. noticeably;
2. digital;
3. reflector;
4. enable, acquisition;
5. reliable;
6. relative to;
7. dimensional;
8. visualization;
9. transmission.
Exercise 56. Complete the sentences based on the information from the
text.
91
3. In the past the processing of the recordings from a 3D survey could
take up to 24 months.
4. By using multiple seismic vessels we can record 3D seismic data in the
same time that was necessary (it previously took) to record a single 2-
dimensional line.
5. Specially designed survey vessels deploying up to ten multiple
streamers at a time cut the acquisition time.
6. The design of paravanes reduces the drag of the streamer array, which
ordinarily would be sufficient to stop even quite a powerful vessel.
7. Modern streamers have multiple global positioning system (GPS)
sensors that constantly record the position of the streamers relative to
the vessel and the earth.
8. New techniques of data compression help to transmit the raw seismic
records from the acquisition vessel to the shore for immediate
processing.
Additional information:
Seismic reflection surveys are used for determining the thickness and
structure of subsurface geology and are commonly applied in hydrocarbon
and mineral exploration, earthquake and tectonic studies, and in the
marine enviromant for resolving stratigraphic details (for example, the
location and thickness of beach-sand deposits).
Very often the formation dip is rather low and profiling direction as a rule
can nearly coincide with direction of formation dip or formation strike. In
this case it is convenient to use 2D model of the formation structure.
92
pressure within the sediment or water column. 4-component seismic is
used in acquiring marine data only.
1. G, 2. D, 3. E, 4. C, 5. F, 6. A, 7. B, 8. A.
1. in; 2. from, to; 3. between, from, two; 4. to; 5. of, at; 6. in, from, to.
1. Minimum offset is the distance from the source to the nearest receiver.
2. Short intervals are distances between holes.
3. Multiple is a repeat reflection from the same interface.
4. Intrabed multiple bounces between two reflectors.
5. There are two kinds of seismic sources.
6. Geophones respond to vertical displacement and rotational motion.
7. Derivative of displacement is acceleration.
8. Multiple receivers are used to enhance the signal and to reduce noise.
93
Chapter 2
OIL EXPLORATION
Т.Ф. Долгая
UNIT 1
OIL EXPLORATION
Lead-in. T. elicits the ideas from the students as they suggest things
connected with Oil exploration and make collective mind map (spidergram)
on the board as the ideas are suggested, so that they can see how T. draws out
the aspects of the topic. The reasoning behind mind map is that Ss do not
think in an ordered or linear way, but rather explore a topic by moving
between its various aspects.
This activity will prepare Ss to work with the topic of the Unit 1.
94
Вычислить толщину Неблагоприятная среда
(мощность)
Напряжённость Пробуриваемая формация
гравитационного поля горных пород
Получить больше информации
Получить картину
геологических структур,
залегающих на большой
глубине
Photographs from aircraft and satellites, oil might be found, an area shows
promise, work closely together, decisions to drill, small samples of rock,
what rocks are made of, ancient times, sedimentary layers which may
contain oil, the thickness of the sedimentary layers, a pattern of lines,
exploratory well or a wildcat well, quantities worth developing, today’s
technology, deep water drilling, hostile environments, a string of steel
pipes, derrick, the drill pipe and bit, mud, the sides of the hole, rock debris,
to stop gushers, the flow of fluids, Christmas tree, well head.
Lecture
Crude Oil
Crude oil is a thick, dark – brown liquid found deep in the Earth’s crust.
It’s a mixture of different hydrocarbons. Molecules made of hydrogen
and carbon. Some molecules in the mixture are very small, just a few
atoms joined together. Others are far more complex with many atoms
forming long – chain molecules. But other mixture it’s useless.
95
the vapor rises, it is in the side arm where it cools and condenses. This
happens at about 40 degrees Celsius. The hydrocarbons, which boil at this
temperature, drip down the side arm and form the first fraction. It is a
colorless liquid. The temperature stays at around 40 until all the
hydrocarbons with this boiling point are vaporized.
The hydrocarbons left behind are not hot enough to vaporize. Their
boiling points must be higher. Once the first fraction has been collected, it
is safe to start heating with a bung stem. As the temperature rises, other
hydrocarbons begin to boil. A new fraction is collected at about 60
degrees Celsius. It is slightly yellow in color. And the process continues.
By carefully heating the oil and collecting the liquids which condense at a
number of different temperatures, many different hydrocarbons and crude
oil can be separated. This is known as fractional distillation. On a larger
scale a fractionating column is used. The oil is heated with an electrical
heater for safety.
to vaporize
96
flammable
a naked flame
vapor, condenses
drip down
a colorless liquid
1. F
2. T
3. T
4. T
5. T
6. F
7. T
8. F
97
UNIT 2
OIL EXTRACTION
Lead-in. T. elicits the ideas from the students as they suggest things
connected with Oil extraction and make collective mind map (spidergram) on
the board as the ideas are suggested, so that they can see how T. draws out
the aspects of the topic. The reasoning behind mind map is that Ss do not
think in an ordered or linear way, but rather explore a topic by moving
between its various aspects.
Exercise 2.
эксплуатация
нагнетать
границы пласта
эксплуатационное оборудование
бурить под наклоном
фонтанные (самотёчные) скважины
тонкие пропластки
рентабельно, экономически перспективно
забой скважины
коэффициент нефтеотдачи пласта
98
Exercise 12. Listening.
The world’s demand for oil and natural gas is unceasing. To find new
supplies of these vital resources we depend on petroleum engineers. They
search the world for reservoirs containing oil or natural gas and work with
geologists and other specialists to extract it.
This is not a simple matter of plunging a drill into the ground. First, the
team develops the map of the underground and devises a drilling method,
designing equipment and processes for that particular target, whether it’ll
be under a mountain, under a desert or under the ocean. To get the most
from each reservoir, petroleum engineers also develop enhanced recovery
methods such as injecting water, steam, chemicals or gases into the
reservoir to force out the oil and natural gas.
99
3. They with geologists and other specialists to
extract oil.
9.You’ll need
problem solving skills.
Answers:
1. vital resources
2. search
3. work
4. develop
5. team, devises
6. enhanced recovery methods
7. water injection, steam, chemicals
8. Computer modeling
9. creative and practical
10. the patience to work
100
UNIT 3
Lead-in. T. elicits the ideas from the students as they suggest things
connected with Reservoir rock properties and make collective mind map
(spidergram) on the board as the ideas are suggested, so that they can see
how T. draws out the aspects of the topic. The reasoning behind mind map is
that Ss do not think in an ordered or linear way, but rather explore a topic by
moving between its various aspects.
Exercise 3. Say whether the following statements are true or false. Сorrect
according to the text.
1. F.
2. T.
3. F.
4. F.
5. T.
6. T.
7. T.
8. F.
101
Exercise 12. Put a preposition into the following gaps.
1. in
2. from, to
3. after, through
4. of, until, due to
5. of, in, in
6. at, of
7. to, of
Exercise 19. Find the words to the following definitions and translate them
into Russian.
102
Sandstone a medium – grained clastic rock formed from
sand on a beach, in a river bed or in a desert.
Hydrocarbons chemical compounds formed only of carbon and
hydrogen.
Capillary pressure the difference in pressure between two
immiscible fluids across a curved interface at
equilibrium
Secondary porosity induced porosity
Lithification hardening
Exercise 20. Match the word phrases in the left column with the word
phrases in the right. Find them in the text and check. Give Russian
equivalent to the English ones.
1. a fluid flow – e
2. the degree – g
3. the ratio – b
4. large and flat – a
5. reservoirs – c
6. the location – f
7. both permeability and porosity – d
1. reservoir
2. petroleum
3. pores
4. clay
5. water
6. primary
7. matrix
8. secondary
9. reduce
10. increase
11. tight
12. magnitude
13. cementation
103
Exercise 26. Read the sentences and decide whether they are True (T) or
False (F).
1. F.
2. F.
3. T.
4. F.
5. F.
6. T.
Exercise 28. Complete the sentences using the terms of the text.
1. wettability, to wet
2. fractional, spotted, heterogeneous
3. Fractional
4. mixed, invade, brine
5. electrostatic forces
6. preferentially, imbibe, displacing
7. ruptures
8. core
Exercise 31. Listening. You will hear a Lecture “The Science behind
the Drilling for Oil and Energy Exploration”. Do the exercises after.
The Science behind the Drilling for Oil and Energy Exploration
It’s buried deep within the faults of the Earth, thousands of feet
underground or far beneath the ocean floor. And sometimes there is not a
single clue above the ground of what might lie below. Finding packets of
oil and natural gas under layers and layers of solid rock beneath the ocean
floor has always been a challenge.
104
Taking full advantage of the latest events is in computer power.
Geoscientists integrate the information into increasingly sophisticated
looks – it what waits down below.
But the proof is in the physical evidence – the smell of oil, the essence of
natural gas, the energy that powers our world.
105
UNIT 4
FORMATION EVALUATION
Lead-in. T. elicits the ideas from the students as they suggest things
connected with Formation evaluation and make collective mind map
(spidergram) on the board as the ideas are suggested, so that they can see
how T. draws out the aspects of the topic. The reasoning behind mind map is
that Ss do not think in an ordered or linear way, but rather explore a topic by
moving between its various aspects.
This activity will prepare Ss to work with the topic of the Unit 4.
Mud logging
Mud logging is a well logging process in which drilling mud and drill bit
cuttings from the formation are evaluated during drilling and their properties
recorded on a strip chart as a visual analytical tool and stratigraphic cross
sectional representation of the well.
Coring – is the central and most important part of anything. In the oil and gas
industry it may be defined as “the cutting and removal of a cylindrical sample
of rock from the well bore.”
106
Exercise 15. Give synonyms to the following words.
Exercise 17. State whether the following statements are true or false.
Correct the false ones.
1. T.
2. F.
3. T.
4. F.
5. F.
6. F.
7. T.
8. F.
Petroleum Products
The story ends here, at the pump or here, in your home or in skies
overhead. It ends with oil and natural gas products. They give us the
personal mobility, comfort and security, that are fundamental to the
quality of our lives and to the growth of our economy. True technology
and innovation, America’s oil and natural gas producers will continue to
be a reliable source. For the fuels – they keep our nation moving forward,
for the electricity – that keeps our homes and working places warm in
winter and cool in summer, for the chemicals – they contribute to the
manufacture of everything from medicines to clothing and footwear, to
home building and furnishers, to soft drink and packaging, to the latest
107
computers and microchips. Technology and a “know – how” to use it
effectively enable us to achieve the goal at the heart of this remarkable
adventure, providing oil and natural gas products where they are needed,
when they are needed every single day.
a) For statements 1–7 complete the notes that summarize what the
speaker says. You will need to write a word or a short phrase in each
box.
2. will continue to be
a reliable source.
Answers:
108
Chapter 3
DRILLING
Т.В. Васильченко
Т.В. Бочарова
Unit 1
LIFE OF A WELL
Lead in. T. elicits the ideas from the students as they suggest things
connected with Life of a well and make collective mind map on the board as
the ideas are suggested, so that they can see how T. draws out the aspects of
the topic.
Answers:
Planning
Drilling
Completion
Production
Abandonment
1. l
2. h
3. m
4. o
5. i
6. b
7. c
8. g
9. n
10. d
11. e
12. k
13. j
14. a
15. f
109
Exercise 7. Match the term with its synonym.
Exercise 8. Match the words in the right column with the definitions in the
left one.
1. –b
2. –f
3. –a
4. –i
5. –h
6. –g
7. –e
8. –d
9. –c
drilling rig
flow path
recoverable oil
artificial methods
depleted field
production zone
drill bit
steel pipe
steam flooding
secondary recovery
reservoir rock
110
Exercise 10. Put a preposition into the following gaps.
1. with
2. by
3. for, with
4. through, for, into
5. to, of
6. out, of
7. with
Exercise 11. Fill in the gaps with the most suitable words or terms from the
text.
1. production
2. cement, integrity
3. screens
4. workovers
5. recoverable oil
6. drilling rig
7. production zone
1. is fitted
2. waterflooding, steam injection
3. drilling rig, drilling site
4. is abandoned
5. hydrocarbons
6. production zone/ formation, formation pressure
7. cuttings, is pumped
Exercise 13. Read the conversations and underline the process they are
talking about.
1. abandonment
2. workovers
3. planning
4. completion
111
Exercise 14. Listening. Match the questions about “well life” on the left
with the answers on the right.
Tapescript
The world’s dependence on oil and gas is a given. Without these fuels life
as we know will gride to stop. Many people believe that once oil or gas is
found, simply punching a hole in the ground will allow it to flow. In
reality drilling a well is a complex process involving ten to thirty different
service companies each one adherent to stringe it around the clock
scheduling, safety and environmental practices. Understanding how a well
is drilled causes a long way of understanding why producing oil and gas
takes so much time and money. The first task is to prepare the location.
This starts with building a road for access to the site, clearing the area
where the rig will sit and providing infrastructure for water and electricity.
To prevent contamination of the soil or water table during drilling an
earthing pit is dug in line with a thick layer of plastics to hold rock
cuttings and drilling mud. Next a pilot hole is dug at the precise location
marked by the survey crew for the main hole, two other holes, the
mousehole and rathole, are also dug in a close proximity to the main hole
to hold pieces of equipment and pipe during the drilling process. It is then
time to bring in rig equipment to rig up. A rig that can drill a ten thousand
for dwell requires fifty to seventy five people and thirty five to forty five
CI tracks to move and assemble the rig, normally in about three and a half
days. The rig is then inspected to make sure it meets all specifications and
safety standards. Rig-up operations continue twenty-four seven typically
ceasing only one day per year on Christmas. Two shifts of complete crews
are assigned to the drill site for the entire project. Drilling happens in
stages: drilling, running and cementing new casing, then drilling again
until the bit reaches the depth of the target observed. A bit generally lasts
for forty five hundred to sixty five hundred feet of drilling. Replacing the
bit requires removal of the entire string of drill pipe called tripping out. It
is a process that can take several hours. Before this is done derrickhands
mud up or circulate drilling fluid through the hole to cool the bit and keep
the walls of the well intact. To help keep cuttings from plugging the hole
this mud passes through shakers that separate the cuttings and send them
to the bit. Additional mud system equipment, desanders, desilters and
degassers, remove smaller particles and gas from the mud. The clean mud
is then recirculated back down into the hole. The blowout preventer or
BOP is installed on top of the casing head before drilling commences. It
contains high-pressure safety valves designed to seal the wellhole and
112
block the escape of underground gases or fluids in order to prevent
blowout from occurring. Drilling begins with a hole of a designated
surface depth usually about fifty to one hundred feet below the water
table. Special carriers taken prevent contamination of the ground water by
isolating the water table from the well with cement and steel casing. The
bit is a cutting element used in rotary drilling. As the bit turns it crushes
the rock efficiently, then shoots fluid out to loosen and carry these rock
chips up to the surface. New section of pipe is added to the drill string as
the bit drills deeper. When the hole reaches the designated depth, the
derrickhands circulate fluid through the hole to condition it for the
logging, the process of measuring and recording the characteristics of the
well. The logging information lets the oil company determine if the well
indeed can produce oil or gas. At this point the company will decide
whether the well is to be completed or plugged, then abandoned. If the
well is designated as a producer the crew inserts the pipe back into the
hole to ensure that the hole is still intact and circulates mud through it
again to test the casing. If everything tests positively they remove the drill
pipe and rack it. At this point the crew inserts the last string of production
casing that runs the entire length of the hole and cements the casing in the
hole. The production crew then brings in the workover unit and rigs it up
to prepare the hole for production. The crew runs small-diameter tubing
into the hole’s conduit of oil or gas to flow up the well. Next the workover
unit trips out of the hole and picks up a perforating gun which the crew
lowers into the well to the production depth using a thin metal cable called
a wireline. An electrical signal is sent down the wireline, firing the gun
and igniting explosive charges. These chargers create hole through the
cement, casing and formation, connecting the wellbore to the reservoir to
stimulate the flow of hydrocarbons. Sometimes it is necessary to frac the
well. This involves pumping air, sand and fluids under the extreme
pressure down the production tubing and out through the perforations. The
process fractures or forces cracks into the formation. The remaining
particles will hold the cracks open releasing the oil or gas. Monitoring the
flow enables the crew to determine the best location for the choke, the
device that controls the flow of the oil or gas. Hydrocarbons were created
from organically-rich deposits subjected to tremendous heat and pressure.
The same pressure has kept the hydrocarbons locked in the formation for
millions of years. Once the pressure is released the hydrocarbons are
allowed to escape through the fractured zones and flow into the wellbore.
The oil and gas can outtravel up the casing string. The wellbore is isolated
from the surrounding formations with casing and cement preventing any
contamination. The final step is to install a pump jack or production well
113
head called a Christmas tree on the well. It is then time to produce the
well and plan for any future field development. Many other factors can
affect the oil and gas drilling process but the bottom line is this – to meet
our growing energy needs we must increase supply and drilling for oil and
gas will help meet this need.
Keys to Exercise. 14 A
0. dependence
1. environmental practices
2. the mousehole
3. cementing new casing
4. separate the cuttings
5. block the escape
6. rotary drilling
7. recording the characteristics
8. production casing
9. perforating gun
10. stimulate the flow
Keys to Exercise. 14 B
1. A
2. C
3. B
4. C
5. D
6. A
7. C
8. B
Exercise 15. Match the questions about “well life” on the left with the
answers on the right.
1. H, 2. D, 3. A, 4. F, 5. G, 6. B, 7. C, 8. E.
114
Exercise 16. The life of a well includes several stages. Put the following key
words according the stages and describe each of them.
115
UNIT 2
TYPES OF WELLS
Lead in. T. elicits the ideas from the students as they suggest things
connected with Types of wells and make collective mind map on the board as
the ideas are suggested, so that they can see how T. draws out the aspects of
the topic.
assess – estimate
produce – recover
confirm – corroborate
prospect – explore
complete – finish
exhaust – empty
drown – soak
1. C, 2. E, 3. G, 4. F, 5. K, 6. H, 7. I, 8.A, 9.D.
1. by; 2. on, in; 3. from, for; 4. in, in; 5. by, in, to; 6. by, at; 7. from, to.
116
Exercise 10. Read the conversations and underline the types of the wells
they are talking about.
1 – c, 2 – b, 3 – b, 4 – a.
Exercise 12. Listening. Listen to the introduction of the Corn River oil
field and mark the statement with T if it is True and with F if it is False.
Tapescript
Corn River prolific oil field.
This is Corn River, home of one of America’s oldest and most prolific oil
fields. Oil was first discovered here in eighteen ninety nine when two men
noticed oil seeping along the river bank. They dug a shallow well by hand
in the sandy desert soil and touched off an oil boom. “There was a stream
right here, a one point in a last three to five million years, it was right
there”. We brought four blockers to Corn River so that can see for
themselves how new technology is extending the life of this field. “Single
pass steam generator, fifteen million btus an hour.” Corn River pumped
up its two billions barrels of oil in two thousand seven. Because the oil is
thick and heavy it is coaxed from the ground using a process called steam
flooding. “Look at this steam generator that’s phoning natural gas to
create steam from soft water. This is a steam injection well that’s
receiving steam from our steam generation equipment through a
transmition system and delivering it down into the reservoir thousand feet
below. This is a producing well with a pumping unit that is operating a
pump down on a very bottom of this well and lifting fluids, oil and water
to the surface. Jeff says oil production on Corn River has appeared to pick
and decline several times during the field’s one hundred and ten year
history. But technologies help to find more oil and bring it to the surface.
Today Corn River is a forest of pump Jackson steam piping spread over
twenty square miles and producing about eighty thousand barrels of oil a
day for more than nine thousand wells. The oil exists in nine layers of
sediment laid down by the Corn River over the past several millions of
years. Dale Beeson’s 3D computer modeling keeps track of the oil and
packers of sand and sandstone from five hundred to more than a thousand
feet below the surface. We use this information to predict where we have
barrels of oil remained behind and this filed that has produced for over a
hundreds years. We then can target those barrels of oil that are not
currently introduced by our active borehole completions. Efficiency and
environmental protection are critical to the successful operation on the
Corn River field. Co-generation powers the field and feeds the electricity
117
into the grid for California consumers and businesses and the water that is
lifted with the oil is filtered and cleaned using other processes and is used
to irrigate farms and ward yards. Jeff says Corn River is a win-win
situation for California and the nation. It provides energy, well-paying
jobs, it promotes agriculture and it encourages innovations that’s being
used on other oil fields elsewhere in the world.
1. T
2. F
3. F
4. T
5. F
6. T
7. T
8. T
9. F
10.T
118
UNIT 3
Lead in T. elicits the ideas from the students as they suggest things
connected with Life of a well and make collective mind map on the board as
the ideas are suggested, so that they can see how T. draws out the aspects of
the topic.
Drilling contractor
Spare part
Supply company
Hole logging
Casing crew
Cement band
Rig components
Safety equipment
119
Exercise 5. Fill in the gaps with the most suitable words or terms from the
text.
1. d
2. f
3. a
4. g
5. c
6. b
7. e
Exercise 9. Match the words in the right column with the definitions in the
left one.
Exercise 11. Match the questions about companies, people and their duties
on the left with the answers on the right.
1. I, 2. E, 3. H, 4. B, 5. A, 6. D, 7. C, 8. G, 9. F
120
UNIT 4
DRILLING
Lead in. Looking at the diagram, describe your variant of the oil well drilling
preparation procedure. T. elicits the information from the Ss related to the
theme of the Unit. At the same time it is connected with their future job.
Exercise 4.
1. C, 2. G, 3. I, 4. F, 5. J, 6. A, 7. D, 8. K, 9. E, 10. B.
Exercise 5.
Kelly – pipe that transfers rotary motion to the turntable and drill string
Mud pit – pit where drilling mud is mixed and recycled
Derrick – support construction that holds drilling equipment
Swivel – handle that lets the string to rotate and makes a seal on the hole
Drill bit – a circulating element that destroys the rock during rotation
Hose – connects pump to drilling equipment
Bottom hole – the point to which a well is drilled
Blowout preventer – a device for well emergency shut in when there is a
danger of oil and gas blowout
Pump – sucks mud from the mud pits and pumps it to the drilling
apparatus.
Exercise 6.
1. F,
2. F,
3. T,
4. F,
5. F,
6. F,
7. F,
8. T,
9. F,
10.F.
121
Exercise 9. Drilling Rig.
Tapescript
Reservoir engineer’s job.
The world’s demand for oil and natural gas is unceasing. To find new
supplies of these vital resources we depend on petroleum engineers. They
search the world for reservoirs containing oil or natural gas and work with
geologists and other specialists to extract it. This is not a simple matter of
plunging a drill into the ground. First the team develops a map of the
underground and devices a drilling methods designing equipment and
processes for that particular target whether it be under the mountain, under
the desert or under the ocean. To get the most from each reservoir,
petroleum engineers also develop enhanced recovery methods such as
injecting water, steam, chemicals or gases into the reservoir to force out
the oil and natural gas. Computer modeling is often used to explore
drilling and extraction options and techniques. This is work that requires a
combination of complex knowledge with a willingness to travel. The work
takes you where oil and gas is found from America’s west and south west,
overseas to the Middle East and up to the frozen North. You might work
for a major oil company, a government agency or a small consulting firm.
To begin with you’ll need creative and practical problem solving skills
and the patience to work with a team on highly detailed plans. A
bachelor’s degree in Engineering is generally required. Two- or four-year
technology programs mainly to similar jobs but the individual can’t
register as a professional engineer under the same terms as graduates with
a degree in Engineering.
1. vital resources
2. oil or natural gas
3. develops a map
4. enhanced recovery methods
5. extraction options
122
6. willingness to travel
7. the Middle East
8. a government agency
9. problem solving skills
10.a professional engineer
Exercise 13.
1. derrick
2. substructure
3. derrick/ mast
4. substructure
5. rig floor
6. mast
7. derrick
8. raising mast/ derrick
RIG SYSTEMS
Exercise 1.
2 – fuel
3 – drilling
4 – rig
5 – be transferred
6 – circulate
7 – driller
Exercise 2.
1. T
2. F – On virtually every drilling rig, the power comes from internal-
combustion engines.
3. F – The bigger the rig, the deeper it can drill and the more power it
needs – it’s not the proportion.
4. T
5. F – Big rigs have three or four prime movers.
123
Exercise 3. Lab. Assignment: ”Power Systems and Instrumentations”.
Exercise 5.
drawworks drum
auxiliary brake
crown block
drilling line
makeup cathead
fast line
heavy loads
wire rope
Exercise 6.
Exercise 7.
1. D, 2. G, 3. J, 4. F, 5. I, 6. B, 7. H, 8. C, 9.E.
Exercise 10.
1. swivel
2. kelly
3. rotary table
4. top drive
5. drill string
6. tool joints
7. drill bit
124
Exercise 11.
1. kelly
2. drilling pipes and collars
3. swivel
4. top drive
5. drill bit
6. tool joints
Exercise 12.
1. D
2. L
3. G
4. K
5. B
6. J
7. A
8. F
9. E
10.H
11.C
Tapescript
Top Drive System
Some rigs use a top drive system to rotate a drill string in bed. A top drive
has a powerful motor or motors and a drive shaft. The crew attaches the
drill string to the drive shaft when the motor rotates the drive shaft. The
attached drill string in bed also rotates. Crew members attach the top drive
to guide rails or tracks which keeps the whole unit from rotating. With a
top drive the rotary table does not rotate the drill string. Click on the play
button to see a video of a top drive in action. The most important benefit
of a top drive is that it reduces drilling time, it also rotates the drill string
more efficiently than a kelly and rotary table system. Further it handles
stands of pipes more efficiently. A top drive system provides more
variable rotating power than a rotary table. It allows drill string rotation
and circulation at any point in a hole when tripping in, drilling or tripping
out. These features help prevent hole problems, it provides rapid response
125
to well kicks during tripping or running casing. The driller can make up
and remotely shut a built IBOP to stop drill string flow faster than a crew
can set slips, stab and close a full-opening safety valve. In highly deviated
holes it helps to prevent a pipe from getting stuck by allowing the driller
to immediately ream or backream the drill stem. If the crew can make up
three-joint stands of pipes before drilling starts, a top drive can drill triple
stands instead of just one joint as it’s necessary on a kelly drive rig.
Making-up three-joint stands reduces the number of connections required
to one-third. In many cases on large offshore rigs the crew no longer
needs to lay down pipe between wells that is the crew can set stands back
vertically in a derrick and the rig can be moved a short distance without
the pipe being laid down.
Keys:
1. A
2. C
3. A.
4. C
5. D
Exercise 16.
1. T
2. F – The shaker screens out the larger cuttings and, in some cases,
dump them into the reserve pit.
3. F – the clean mud drains back into the mud tanks.
4. T
5. T
126
Exercise 18. Listening.
Tapescript
Circulation System.
The rig uses many pieces of equipment to circulate and treat or condition
the mud. Mud circulation begins here in mud tanks, sometimes called the
pits. Crew members prepare the mud in these tanks and make it ready for
circulation. The heart of the circulating system is a mud pump. Often rigs
have two pumps, one primary pump and one for back-up, or, if hole
conditions require it, the driller can compound or combine the two pumps
to circulate large volumes of mud. In fact on deep wells the rig may have
three or four compound pumps. The powerful pump or pumps pick up
mud from the mud tanks and send it to the drill string in bed. The pump
moves the mud into the discharge line up to the stand pipe and into the
rotary hose. The stand pipes take the mud about half way up the mast. The
rotary hose is attached to the stand pipe. The rotary hose is a strong,
flexible hose that moves with a swivel as it goes up and down in the mast.
From the rotary hose the pump moves mud through the swivel and then
down the kelly and drill string. On rigs with a top drive the mud moves
through a passage in the top drive and then into the drill string. The pump
moves the mud down the drill string to the bit and at the bit the mud jets
out of the opening or nozzles in the bits. The jets of mud move cuttings
away from the bit, mud then continues up the annulus carrying the
cuttings with it from the annulus. The mud with cuttings in it goes through
the return line sometimes called the flow line to the shale shaker. The
shale shaker removes the cuttings from the mud. The mud then falls into
the mud tanks with a mud pump can pick it up and continue the
circulating process.
Keys:
1. T
2. F
3. F
4. T
5. T
127
UNIT 5
CASING. CEMENTING
Lead in
Exercise 2.
a) – production casing
b) – surface casing
c) – liner
d) – conductor casing
e) – casing head
f) – intermediate casing
Exercise 4.
1. B, 2. A, 3. A, 4. C, 5. C, 6. A.
Exercise 5. Listening.
Tapescript
Well completion process .
To complete the well for oil or gas recovery, production casing is set and
cemented at the bottom of the well in contact with the oil-bearing
sediments. Shell-shaked explosives perforate the casing and cement
allowing oil and gas to flow into a wellbore. In primary recovery natural
pressure forces the hydrocarbons up the wellbore to the surface. When the
pressure drops it is both add bar the injection of gas or water in what’s
128
known as secondary recovery. In even the best run oil fields it is not
possible to recover all of the hydrocarbons trapped in a reservoir. Up to
ninety per cent of gas and forty five per cent of oil is collective. The
wellhead area on a production platform can contain numerous
combinations of valves, pipes and gadgets called Christmas trees. These
represent individual production wells drawing oil and gas from one large
field. The wells make large stand up to five kilometers from the wellhead.
The well can be turned off by high-powered valves.
Keys:
1. A
2. D
3. B
4. D
5. C
Exercise 6.
1. E
2. G
3. A
4. C
5. F
6. B
7. D
129
Chapter 4
PIPELINE ENGINEERING
Р.Н. Абрамова, Т.В. Васильченко
UNIT 1
PIPELINE CONSTRUCTION
Lead in.
Making a spidergram is a strategy for writing down \ scribbling (писать
быстро и небрежно) words about the topic and developing those ideas as the
mind makes associations. This strategy can be used to explore almost any
topic.
TOPIC: Pipeline engineering
PREPARATION: this activity is best carried out quite simply with
blackboard and chalk, so that students grasp the idea of drawing a
spidergram.
IN CLASS:
1. ask students to close their eyes and think of Pipeline Engineering. They
should jot down all the things associated with the above-mentioned
topic that come to their mind. Set a definite time limit (1–2 minutes).
Let them write down things in their first language if they do not know
the English words. They can then start sharing what they have jotted
down. As they listen to other students making suggestions and to your
explanations and corrections, they learn the English terms for the ideas
they have tried to put down.
2. elicit (выявлять, устанавливать) ideas from the students as they
suggest things and make a collective spidergram on the broad. The
reasoning behind spidergrams is that we do not think in an ordered or
linear way, but rather explore a topic by moving between its various
aspects.
3. branches can be drawn and added as students suggest new ideas or add
ideas to already established aspects. The end result is a number of sub-
topics or aspects radiating from the central topic. Where there are
links, a line can be drawn associating them.
4. when the spidergram is reasonably full, you can lead a class discussion
on the topic.
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Exercise 2. Read the following word formations and learn their
pronunciation. Pay special attention to the stress.
Nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are called content words because
they carry the meaning.
One-syllable words
Some content words have one syllable or sound. This is always stressed.
Examples: ′ lease, ′ steel, ′ crude
Two-syllable words
Some content words have two syllables. Two-syllable nouns and
adjectives are often stressed on the first syllable. Two-syllable verbs are
often stressed on the second syllable.
Examples:
Nouns: ′ alloy, ′ supply′
Adjectives: ′ ductile, ′ rigid
Verbs: re′ fine, lo′ locate
Multi-syllable words
Some content words have three or more syllables. Multi-syllable words
are normally stressed three syllables from the end.
Examples:
Ooo oOoo ooOoo
131
Exceptions:
Multi-syllable words ending in the following letters are normally stressed
two syllables from the end.
132
1. SIMPLE (REAL) DEFINITION that explains precisely the essential,
intrinsic (свойственный) characteristics of an object.
Things to be defined
Verb
Wh-word
WHO-persons
WHICH-inanimate
objects/animals
Particular Characteristics
Things to be defined
Verb
What-description
133
Wh-word
omitted
Participle II (verb+ed/V3)
Particular characteristics – relative clause
Things to be defined
It is concerned with…
Extra information
134
B. Relative clauses
Relative clauses are often used to qualify or give extra information
C. Useful verbs:
is concerned with
deals with
relates to
involves
D. Defining an object
is
is equal to (noun with attribute)
equals (noun without attribute)
A is equivalent to B = (noun + genitive)
corresponds to (noun + preposition +
is said to be object)
may be said to be
B + specification:
called (relative clause)
is termed (prepositional phrase)
A is thought of as (to + infinitive)
may be referred to as participle clause (ing/ed)
defined as participle clause +to infinitive /
for+gerund
F. Sentence patterns:
is called
defined by.. is said to be
A determined is expressed as Z
by… is expressed in
the form of
is termed
135
Gathering – the process of bringing oil, gas or both from a well in a field to a
point for delivery to a pipeline or other transport system.
Gathering system – pipelines and other equipment needed to transport oil, gas
or both from wells to the gathering station. An oil gathering system includes
oil and gas separators, gathering tanks, and similar equipment.
6. Here is the diagram of Russian pipeline gathering system, using the above-
mentioned terms, give a short explanation. (Note* the differences).
gas 4
136
Exercise 8. Read the following word formations and learn their
pronunciation. Pay special attention to the stress
WORD FORMATION
ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES:
1. Noun or verb + suffix-adjectives can be formed from nouns or verbs
adding these suffixes.
137
NOUN|VERB SUFFIX ADJECTIVE
structure -a(l) structural
derive -ive derivative
compression -able \ ible compressible
friction -less frictionless
138
Exercise 9. You are going to learn some vocabulary to help you understand
the text. Study the following dictionary entries, paying attention to specific
term definitions.
1. h 5. e
2. d 6. g
3. b 7. c
4. f 8. a
139
7. shut down – временное 19. warn – предупреждать;
прекращение предостерегать
8. emergency – авария 20. install – устанавливать;
монтировать
– Block Valve Station – These are the first line of protection for pipelines.
With these valves the operator can isolated any segment of the line to
perform some specific maintenance work or isolate a rupture or leak.
Block valve stations are usually located every 20 to 30 miles, depending
on the type of pipeline. Even though it is not a design rule, it is a very
140
usual practice in liquid pipelines. Overall the location of these stations
depends exclusively on the nature of the product being transported, the
trajectory of the pipeline and/or the operational conditions of the line.
Exercise 16. Read the text “PIPE (MATERIAL)” and fill in the missing
information.
Exercise 17. Make a table and record the information from the text
according to the following items: type, material, purpose.
141
Concrete pipes in many types of
construction – water lines;
transportation
Exercise 19. Match the terms with Russian ones.There is one extra term.
1. k 9. q 17. a
2. x 10. m 18. j
3. l 11. p 19 g
4. v 12. b 20. f
5. s 13. u 21. i
6. r 14. h 22. o
7. y 15. t 23. c
8. d 16. e 24. n
25. w
Exercise 20. Find Russian equivalents to the following English words and
phrases. There is one extra Russian word.
a. изгородь 3. fence
b. толщина 4. thickness
c. подъём-уровня 9. elevation
d. ручная сварка 12. manual welding
e. ограничение 10. constraints
f. сплошной 16. uniform
g. врезка в магистральный
трубопровод
h. проход 5. passes
i. место 1. room
j. длина окружности 15. circumference
k. колено трубопроводa 11. pipe bends
l. штабель 8. stockpile
m. илистые отложения 2. low silt
n. глубина залегания 7. burial depth
o. пахотный слой 6. topsoil
p. опорная рама- для сварки 13. skid
трубопровода
q. лотковая опора трубопровода 23. cradle
r. вершина сварного шва 20. root
142
s. прочность 19. strength
t. передний край 24. leading end
u. лесоматериал 14. timber
v. гладкий конец, ненарезанный 18. plain end
конец
w. обрез 22. bevel
x. трубная головка 21. cap
Exercise 21. Match the verb with the noun and the corresponding
translation. There can be several answers
Exercise 22. Read the following word formations and translate the
sentences that include these words.
143
It is desirable to find a minimal order Желательно найти систему
linear time-invariant differential feed (какую?) управления,
back control system. инвариантную во времени,
дифференциальную, с
обратной связью,
минимального порядка.
144
• Встречаются очень сложные ряды, иногда включающие несколько
глагольных форм, однако во всех случаях определяемым словом
будет последнее.
145
8. The ditch will be excavated in two passes with a first pass removing
topsoil and the second pass excavating the remaining soil to the
required pipeline burial depth.
Процесс подготовки траншеи состоит из 2-х проходок: снятия
чернозема, извлечения грунта на глубину, необходимую для
прокладки трубопровода.
9. Line pipe is lifted onto skids made of timber and stockpiles along the
ROW so that the entire circumference is accessible.
Трубы укладываются вдоль полосы отчуждения на опорные рамы,
изготовленные из лесоматериала, так чтобы длина окружности
была доступна.
10.Tie-in welding is also required at road crossings, river crossings and
other intersections along the ROW where the main production welding
crew cannot access the pipe.
Соединение секций труб необходимо также вдоль полосы
отчуждения при пересечении с дорогами, реками и др. объектами,
где отсутствует доступ для бригад сварщиков.
11.The swivel joint is connected to the reamer and the drilling rig again
pulls the reamer back through the hole from the pipe side to the rig
side, along with the pipe string connected to the reamer.
Квадратное соединение прикрепляется к расширителю. Даже при
помощи буровой установки расширитель, соединенный с
колонной труб, заново вытаскивается через скважину.
12.Crews attach a reaming device to enlarge the pilot hole to
accommodate the line pipe.
Для установки трубы бригада прикрепляет расширитель,
увеличивающий диаметр направляющей скважины.
Exercise 23. Form nouns from the following verbs or nouns–ing- and give
the definitions to these terms.
146
ditch to protect pipe from damage caused by rocky or rough soils.
9. lowering –process of laying pipe in a ditch in pipeline construction.
10. backfilling – technique for covering a completed pipeline so that
adequate fill material is provided underneath the pipe as well as above.
11. trenching – process to excavate a ditch in which to lay pipes.
12. stringing – process of delivering and distributing line pipe where
and when it is needed on the ROW.
13. testing – means of determining the quality
14. coating – a material that forms a continuous film over a metal
surface to prevent corrosion damage
1. h 7. c
2. l 8. g
3. i 9. e
4. f 10. k
5. a 11. d
6. b 12. j
HDD is often the preferred method for constructing the pipeline across
such obstacles as streams or wetlands. On a typical river crossing – on the
near side (rig side), the trailer-mounted drilling rig is positioned near an
excavation filled with water to contain and settle the spoil or cuttings that
result from the operation. The tanks hold a mixture of drilling mud and
water that is pumped into the hole, lubricating the drillstring. The
drillstring, sections of pipe that make the hole, contain a survey
instrument near the head or cutting ed.
147
enlarging the opening. This operation is called “pre-reaming”. Drill pipe is
attached to the far side of the reamer so that it can be pulled back from the
near side, once the pre-reaming operation is complete. The line pipe string
to be installed has been welded; NDT inspected, tested and is supported
by steel cradles that incorporate rollers, allowing the line pipe string to
slide. This string of pipe may be very long, depending on the width of the
crossing. Multiple strings may be required for the widest crossings and
when the first string has been nearly pulled through the crossing, the next
string will be lifted and placed on the cradles and manually welded to the
last pipe in the first string. For installing the line pipe, a cap incorporating
a swivel joint is connected to the leading end of the pipe string. The
swivel joint is connected to the reamer and the drilling rig again pulls the
reamer back through the hole from the pipe side to the rig side, along with
the pipe string connected to the reamer. This final operation is the pull
back and installs the line pipe under the river.
Keys:
148
and a team of 3–4 people are involved on the object. This provides a
great economy of financial means: approximately 30 %. Horizontal
Directional Drilling is a unique technology which will be out of
competition in the construction of underground pipeline in the nearest
future.
Exercise 27. Refer to the instructions in 22 again and circle T (true) and F
(False).
149
UNIT 2
FLUID MECHANICS
Lead in.
Free writing: Write down everything that comes to your mind about FLUID
Mechanics. Write only words. If you don’t know the English term, put down
the Russian one. You have ONLY 1 minute to do it!
Exercise 4. Find terms which are used with the following words.
1. e, 2. f, 3. h, 4. i, 5. a, 6. k, 7. b, 8. j, 9. d, 10. c, 11. g
Exercise 7. Replace the underlined words with a suitable variant from the
text.
150
5. The primary valve types are control valves, isolation valves and check
valves.
Possible variants
151
• How much the flow is disturbed by vibrations of the pipe,
roughness of the entrance region, etc.
5. Why is velocity profile important in understanding different flows?
• The details of velocity profile are different for laminar and
turbulent flows. The nature of the pipe flow is strongly
dependent on whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. This is a
direct consequence of the differences in the nature of shear
stress in laminar and turbulent flows.
6. What is a valve? Give examples, indicating their functions.
• Mechanical devices that are installed in pipelines to control flow
or pressure. Valves are an important part of piping systems and
if not properly selected and operated, they can cause operation
problems.
7. What are the most important criteria for control valves?
• Cavitation and pressure transients.
Exercise 9. Discussion.
pipe system
flow
152
Pipe system – cross-section (conduit, pipe, duct), fitting, valve (control,
block, release, check), pump\turbine.
Flow – reverse, developing, fully – developed, turbulent, laminar, pipe, open-
channel.
153
UNIT 3
JOINING PIPES
Lead in.
a. Each pipe is pushed into the connector; the connector is soldered to the
pipes.
b. The pipes are pushed into the coupling; then the nuts are screwed on.
d. The flanges are bolted onto the pipe. Then they are screwed together.
g. The two flanges are bolted together. Then the clamps are clamped
together.
1. K, 2. G, 3. J, 4. I, 5. B, 6. H, 7. C, 8. D, 9. E, 10. F, 11. A.
154
Exercise 5. Solve the following crossword.
ACROSS DOWN
1.socket 1.fitting
2. flange 2. solvent
3. union 3. soldered
4. groove 4. cast
5. resin 5. crimp
6. tapered 6. brazing
7. thread 7. welded
Exercise 6. Complete the table using the terms and fill in the missing gaps
in the following passage.
Mechanical threaded
crimped\grooved
Joining methods Thermal welded
soldered
compression
Adhesive cemented
Pipes can be joined by three basic methods: (1) mechanical, (2) thermal
and (3) adhesive. Both the mechanical and (4) thermal methods can be
further divided. The former method includes (5) threading and (6)
crimping. The latter method can be broken down into (7) welding and (8)
soldering.
1. F,
2. E,
3. D,
4. A,
5. B,
6. C.
155
Exercise 8. Read the mini-text “Metal Properties” and complete the table.
Use the symbols √ ( yes) and x (no). Use the information from Exercise 3
(pg. 410).
METAL PROPERTIES
malleable √ √ √ x
(wrought)
iron
copper √ x √ √
lead x √ √ x
brass √ x √ √
cast steel x x √ x
plastic √ √ √ x
fiberglass x x √ √
156
Exercise 12. Discuss the following quotation and state your own opinion.
157
UNIT 4
PIPELINE CORROSION
Lead-in
Cubing: Cubing involves looking at an idea from six different points of view,
each representing one of the six sides of a cube. You will look quickly at
your subject from these six angles so that you have several perspectives on
the subject available to you. You should spend 3-4 minutes examining your
subject from each of the following angles:
• Describe it (What does it look like? What do you see?)
• Compare it (What is it similar to? What is it different to?)
• Analyze it (What is it made of? What are its parts?)
• Associate it (What does it remind you of? What do you associate it
with?)
• Apply it (What can you do with it? What can you use it for?)
• Argue for or against (Take either position. Give reasons, even crazy
ones)
When you have finished, reread what you wrote to find ideas that you like.
Write those ideas down and look them over. Perhaps one of them is
particularly interesting and may be a good perspective for an essay on the
subject
158
Exercise 6. Fill in the gaps with the correct term.
Exercise 8. Match the corrosion types in the right column with their
Russian equivalents in the left one.
Exercise 9. Look at the photos. Define the corrosion type and describe it.
1. continuous 7. pitting
2. penetration 8.
3. 9. point
4. corrosion striation
Example:
Pitting corrosion
159
structure fails. Pitting remains among the most common and damaging
forms of corrosion in passivated alloys, but it can be prevented by control
of the alloy's environment, which often includes ensuring that the material
is exposed to oxygen uniformly (i.e. eliminating crevices).
Exercise 12. Match the questions about corrosion on the left with the
answers on the right.
Put the dialogue in the right order and answer the questions.
160
Exercise 13. Read the following text and answer the questions
Exercise 14. Read the information about “Applied coatings” and then the
statements and circle T(true) or F (false).
Exercise 15. Match the questions about ”Cathodic protection” on the left
with the answers on the right.
1. E, 2. G, 3. D, 4. A, 5. F, 6. B, 7. C.
161
Exercise 21. Role play.
162
DATE
11-12 May, 2006.
PLACE
Skopje, Macedonia –
Skopje, MBC Center, Skopje Fair
BUSINESS CHARACTER
We encourage IT companies from the SEE region to participate. The
conference is an excellent opportunity for business networking, finding growth
markets and industries, and establishing business relationships.
All SEE markets are experiencing rapid growth, both as IT markets and as
suppliers to multinational companies around the globe. Please see
http://www.businesweek.com/extras – edition 12 December 2005.
Macedonia became an EU candidate on 17 December 2005. On the way to
the EU, Macedonia will try to improve many legislative requirements. The Macedonian
government will initiate many IT projects to support these changes. Government
implementation, healthcare and judicial system are only the tip of the iceberg, coming
in next several years. We belong to the emerging markets countries, and this premier
event is an excellent opportunity for the large multinational IT vendors to present their
OFFICIAL LANGUAGE
PARTICIPATION FEE
Standard Participation Fee is 80 EUR and includes conference materials,
CD with recorded presentations, lunches and refreshments.
10 % discount (72 Euro) for early registration and payment till 20.04.2006.
163
MAIN CONFERENCE TOPICS
Regional cooperation (Survey on the IT industries from the SEE region, proposals
for joint venture projects, case studies, business environment, governmental support,
donor programs, etc.)
Corporate Excellence (QA procedures and methodologies, CMMI/IT Mark, SW
testing, project management, certification, consulting services, best practice cases)
Education and Human Resources Development (Survey on the educational
programs from the region, training programs introduction… etc.)
B2B cooperation (outsourcing, SW development, IT services, available resources,
case studies, proposals for outsourcing consortiums)
IT Solutions from the region (e-Government, e-Business, e-Learning, e-Health etc.,
EU-funded ICT infrastructure development projects, case studies, possibilities for joint
venture projects)
CALL FOR PRESENTATIONS
You are welcome to send us proposals for presentations.
1 chief moderator per panel session
1 assistant moderator per panel session
up to 5 slides for each panel – up to 25 slides in total by each Association
At least two company presentations / country
You can register your presentation On-line (will be available soon), or by emailing
us the presentation abstract. Please make sure presentations are areas of interest
for most of the participants.
SESSION PRESENTATIONS
Conference information newsletters will inform you and your members regularly
about the proposed presentations.
Please check the final dates for sending the presentation proposals.
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You can register your participation on the Web, by Email or Fax. Please send one
application form per Participant.
Submit your proposal for presentation on the Web, by Email or Fax. Please send one
application form per Presentation.
HOTEL ACCOMODATION
The conference organizer will book rooms for the participants at special discounted
price. Please book your room at the registration.
CONTACT
164
UNIT 5
OIL STORAGE
STAGE 1:
Group work responding to a text discussion. During this stage, each group
will discuss its own topic.
GROUP A GROUP B
STAGE 2: Sharing ideas of response to the text. Divide the students into
two new groups, so that each group has a member with different
information.
A B A B
Now the members of each new group will share their ideas.
STAGE 3: Now each student must jot down all the information he\she
remembers.
I. Jig-saw plan (1-2 minute) short one-point talk- What is stress?
II. Multi-point conversation (5 minutes).
165
11. exceed b. design pressure
12. attach i. fixed roof
13.furnish g. protection coating
Exercise 6. Divide these words into two categories. Give your examples with
these words.
PREFIXES
A prefix is a syllable, 2 syllables or sometimes even a word, put at the
beginning of a word to change its meaning or to make another word.
Prefixes are often used to give an adjective or a noun a negative meaning,
but there are also lots of other prefixes with specific meanings.
Prefixes with the meaning “not”.
The most common prefixes used to give a negative meaning to adjectives,
and some verbs and nouns:
166
Non- «not» non-stationary
non-polar
De- «taken away from» deformation
Inter- «between» intersection
interrelated
Re- «again, back» refilled
reduce re-place
relate re-move
require re-erect
Exercise 7. Fill in the gaps using the word formations. Make all necessary
changes. REVISION: PASSIVE VOICE \ ACTIVE VOICE
167
1. API Standard includes material, design, fabrication and erection for
welded steel storage tanks.
install installation
Exercise 8. Complete the text using the words and phrases in the list.
0. storage 6. re-erected
1. bolted steel 7. tank bottom
2. segmental 8. corrosion
3. on location 9. sheet
4. API specification 10. manually
5. dismantled 11. galvanized
12. gauge steel
168
Exercise 9. The pictures show the installation process of tanks. Read the
information and number the steps.
169
• Particularly important is that heavy-lifting equipment is not
required for installation. 15–20 Mt capacity cranes can be applied.
5. Why must the steel belts be up to 3 m wide? If not then state the width
of these belts?
1. T
2. T
3. F – The cone-bottom in either the bolted or the welded tank offers a
means of draining and removing water or water-cut oil, from only the
bottom of the tank, leaving the marketable oil above
4. F – Floating roof storage tanks may be tank type, used primarily for
storage near atmosphere pressure
5. T
6. F – Fixed roofs are permanently attached to the tank shell
170
7. F – Field-welded tanks provide large storage capacities in a single unit
8. T
9. F – Shop-welded tanks fabricated to API specifications provide the oil
production industry with tanks of adequate safety and reasonable
economy
10.T
11.T
Exercise 15. Label and describe the following diagrams. Read the
necessary information in APPENDIX 4.
171
Chapter 5
UNIT 1
Lead-in. T. elicits the ideas from the students as they suggest things
connected with Economics and Management and make collective mind map
(spidergram) on the board as the ideas are suggested, so that they can see
how T. draws out the aspects of the topic. The reasoning behind mind map is
that Ss do not think in an ordered or linear way, but rather explore a topic by
moving between its various aspects.
The next stage in this procedure is discussing the questions connected with
the topic and Ss’ future specialty.
This activity will prepare Ss to work with the topic of the Unit 1.
Exercise 3. Before reading the text tick what statement you think is true.
Comment on the three general statements and ask Ss’ opinion about them.
After reading the text from Ex. 4, turn back to these questions and ask Ss
again. Discuss their previous and present answers.
Before reading the text ask Ss about the difference in two notions
Economy and Economics. Which of them has broader meaning.
Read the text and while reading find the answer.
172
Economy – is the whole thing, it is not the science, it’s a system for the
management, use and control of the money, goods and other resources of
a country, community or household.
173
9. The functioning of national economic complex is the sphere of
macroeconomy.
Exercise 7. Give English equivalents for the following words and phrases
from the text.
A. B.
range - scope
part - piece
to produce - to manufacture
to deal with - to consider
to explore - to examine
unemployment - lack of jobs
discipline - subject
firm - company
wealthy - well - to do
province - outside the sphere
understanding - comprehension
a number - several
tie - connection
issue - question
174
Exercise 9. Translate the following chains of words. Determine the part of
speech and the way of word – building.
economize(v) – economizer(n)
экономить – экономайзер
Exercise 10. Translate the following sentences into Russian using the
dictionary. Translate only separate word phrases. Ask Ss to guess the rest
of the meaning of the words in the sentence.
175
6. exceed – превышать
7. invisible – невидимый
unfavorable – нежелательный
Ss listen to the story about what the life was before the industrial
revolution. While listening Ss tick the words which are necessary
1. length of live √
2. housing √
3. illnesses – not mentioned
4. work – not mentioned
5. food √
6. having children √
Tapescript
Before economic growth came to Europe, life was very short and very
hard. In those days, terrible diseases were very normal. This meant that
life was very short. In fact, life expectancy — which means how long
people live — was only 25 years. People lived simple, subsistence level
lives. They tried to grow just enough food to live, but often there was not
enough. Many children died because they didn't have the food they
needed. One in every three babies born died before they were five years
old. There were few doctors, and even fewer medicines. Having children
was dangerous for the child and for the mother. One in ten women died
giving birth to their children. Then, about 250 years ago, the Industrial
176
Revolution started, and this brought about new ways of thinking. Societies
became more democratic. Education became available to more people. The
miracle of economic growth had begun.
Exercise 13. Discuss the following questions before reading the text.
177
Exercise 16. Give English equivalents for the following words and phrases
from the text.
A B
doldrums - depression
progress - advance
country - state
to distinguish - to define
to allocate - to distribute
to demand - to require
to recover - to get better
to produce - to manufacture
to buy - to purchase
defective - faulty
178
to reduce - to lower
behaviour - conduct
Tapescript
In the chart you can see how supply and demand work together. Along the
vertical axis, the line going up, we have price. Along the horizontal axis,
the line at the bottom from left to right, we have the amount of the product
or service bought and sold. The chart has two curves: a blue curve and a
green curve. The blue curve is the demand curve. You can clearly see that
people buy less of something when it is more expensive, and more of
something as it becomes cheaper. The green line is called the supply
curve. To understand how this works, imagine you are a producer,
somebody who makes things, to produce more of something, you need
more materials and more workers. This all costs you, the producer, much
more. For this reason, you will ask for a higher price. You can see this on
the green supply Curve. The more you supply to the market, the higher the
price you ask for each product or unit. So you can clearly see that there is
a problem here. Consumers buy more when things are cheaper, but
producers ask a higher price when they supply more. The role of the
market is to find the price that both consumers and producers are happy
with. This is called the equilibrium point.
179
Answers:
Economy – is a system for the management, use and control of the money,
goods and other resources of a country, community or household.
180
10. Foreign firms are interested in (внедрение – introducing) their goods
to new markets.
181
UNIT 2
FINANCE
Lead-in. T. elicits the ideas from the students as they suggest things
connected with Finance and make collective mind map (spidergram) on the
board as the ideas are suggested, so that they can see how T. draws out the
aspects of the topic. The reasoning behind mind map is that Ss do not think in
an ordered or linear way, but rather explore a topic by moving between its
various aspects.
The next stage in this procedure is discussing the questions connected with
financial institutions.
This activity will prepare Ss to work with the topic of the Unit 2.
182
8. What are the electronic funds transfer doing with money? – it transfers
money from individuals to the bank, from bank to bank, and from city
to city through an electronic system.
9. What new services are the automatic teller machines providing for the
customer? – customer can get cash, make loan payments, or transfer
money from one account to another at any time of the day or night.
10. What innovation makes it easy for the customer to handle all kinds of
financial transactions outside his home state? – electronic funds
transfer.
11. What process in modern banking is urging the banks to diversify? –
competition.
Exercise 5. Fill in the blanks with adjectives many and much:
Possible variant:
There are many financial institutions that provide for individuals and
businesses a number of financial services.
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Example: Financial institutions are now using computer technology to
perform various financial transactions.
business electronic
numerous employing
deals these methods
at present handle
Possible variant:
Banks at present are employing electronic methods to handle numerous
financial transactions.
1. Are there any free bank services? No, there are no free bank services. 2.
Many banks charge fee for their service. 3. Companies with good
financial position are given the prime rate. 4. Is there much money on
your checking account? Yes, there is much. 5. There is one commercial
bank and three insurance companies in my note book.
Exercise 8. Listening.
1. The earliest kind of money was used about 3,000 years ago.
2. Shells were used a kind of fiat money.
3. The first metal coins appeared in Greece.
4. The first coins were round.
5. Paper money first appeared in China.
6. The idea of paper money traveled quickly to Europe.
B. Now listen to someone talking about the history of money and check
your answers.
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Some useful vocabulary:
shells – ракушки
cowry – раковины, до сих пор заменяющие деньги у некоторых
народов Азии и Африки
fiat – признанный, узаконенный
lump – кусок
Tapescript
One of the earliest kinds of money that we know about were shells called
cowries. Over 3,000 years ago, the people who lived around the Pacific and
Indian Oceans started to use cowries as a kind of fiat money. They were
still being used until quite recently in some societies. The first modern coins
appeared about 2,500 years ago around the Mediterranean in what is now
Turkey. At first they were just lumps of silver, but someone somewhere
made a round, flat coin and the design stayed! It took a long time for paper
money to appear. It was invented by the Chinese about 1,200 years ago,
probably because there wasn't enough metal available for coins. It took
many more centuries before the idea reached the rest of the world. For
example, the first paper notes in Europe appeared in the 17th century in
Sweden.
Answers:
1. T, 2. T, 3. F, 4. F, 5. T, 6. F
Before reading the dialogue study Words and phrases. Read the dialogue
in pairs. Ask Ss how they understand the word pool.
185
Exercise 10. Make up similar dialogues.
1. You are starting a new business and apply for funds to a commercial bank.
2. Your company has a good reputation and a commercial bank provides
the prime rate for you.
3. You deposit some of your money into a bank which offers you
accounts of two types. Choose one of them.
Exercise 12. Put the verb in brackets into the right form.
Before doing this exercise T explains the difference between the phrases
I am thinking of and I am going to.
186
1. to use the electronic funds transfer system.
2. to transfer money outside the state.
3. to provide new services to my customers.
4. to buy 100 shares of stock.
5. to sell some bonds.
6. to plan a number of financial transactions.
7. to assign my major customers a personal banker.
Before reading the text study Words and expressions which are given
below. While reading, help Ss with difficult extracts explaining and
translating some words, if necessary. Ask different Ss to read and
translate.
187
inflow? – If cash outflow exceeds cash inflow the company will run
out of cash.
6. What are the major financing techniques? – short-term and long-term
financing.
7. What are the most popular outside sources of short term funds? –
The most popular outside sources of short term funds are trade credit,
loans, factors, sales finance companies, and government sources.
8. What is a line of credit? – the amount a customer can borrow without
making a new request, simply by notifying the bank.
9. What firms are able to sell commercial papers? – only firms with a
good financial reputation can sell it.
10. When does a business need long term sources of funds? – When a
business needs funds to construct a new assembly line or to do
extensive research and development which may not begin to bring in
revenues for several years.
11. What are the two ways of increasing the company's debt? – by
getting loans or by selling bonds.
12. What does a company do if it wants to be free from the lender's
restrictions? – it may issue bonds.
13. Why is it difficult to sell debentures? – It is difficult, if not
impossible, to find investors who are willing to buy bonds which are
not backed up by collateral.
14. What makes it possible to retire bonds before they mature? –
company may retire bonds before they mature if the indenture
agreement contains a call provision.
15. What does the conversion privilege allow the bondholders to do? – It
allows bondholders to convert their investment into a stated number
of shares of common stock.
16. When do the investors profit from conversion? – If the price of the
company's common stock is going up, the investors can profit from
conversion.
Exercise 16. Study the figure below and describe the process of financial
management.
E.g. Before starting any enterprise, company should state the objectives.
Then it must determine its money needs. If company needs exceed
revenues the company will have excess of investments. In case when it is
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the objective of the company, the financial plan will work and the
company will move ahead.
1. Company
Objectives
Determine
Money Needed
Yes
Needs Invest
Exceed Revenues? Excess
No
Yes
Can Outflows be
Reduced?
No
No
Revise Are Objectives Being
Plan Achieved?
Yes
Fig. 1
189
Exercise 17. Translate into English.
A. Before listening read the summary which explains what open market
operations are. Try to complete the gaps with your own words.
Tapescript
So how can the government make sure that commercial banks have a
shortage of cash at the end of each day? One way is for the government to
sell something that's very expensive. When the government sells
something, the people or companies that buy it will take large amounts of
190
money out of their commercial bank accounts and give it to the
government.
So what does the government have to sell? Well, it sells securities.
Securities are a way to lend money to the government. When you buy a
security, the government promises to pay you back after a certain time,
perhaps a year, and with an agreed rate of interest.
The selling and buying of government securities are called 'open market
operations'. As a result of these open market operations, the money supply
will decrease, and the banks will have less money in their reserve
accounts. In other words, they will have a shortage of cash and they will
have to borrow from the central bank.
Exercise 19. Put the verb in brackets into the correct form
191
Exercise 20. Substitute.
Possible variant:
192
Change the direct speech into indirect speech.
1. The manager said that they hadn't made the necessary arrangements
yet.
2. The retailer said that you could buy machinery and tools on an open
account.
3. The customer said that he had bought a new car at the shop and that it
needed repair.
4. The banker said that he was opening a credit account for us.
5. The businessman said that as a rule, they sold their goods abroad.
6. The manager said that they hadn't raised enough money to expand.
7. The wholesaler said that he had sold a large amount of tools to retailer'
shops but they were not paying him in due time.
193
UNIT 3
STOCK
Lead-in. T. elicits the ideas from the students as they suggest things connected
with the Stock Market and make collective mind map (spidergram) on the board
as the ideas are suggested, so that they can see how T. draws out the aspects of
the topic. The reasoning behind mind map is that Ss do not think in an ordered
or linear way, but rather explore a topic by moving between its various aspects.
The next stage in this procedure is discussing the questions connected with
stock, bonds and securities.
This activity will prepare Ss to work with the topic of the Unit 3.
1. Where are securities bought and sold? – Securities are bought and sold
at two types of securities markets: primary markets and secondary
markets.
2. What is the difference between primary markets and secondary
markets? – Primary markets issue new securities, and secondary
markets buy and sell previously issued securities.
3. Who does a company negotiate with if it wants to issue stock? – It
usually negotiates with an investment bank, or underwriter, who sells
the securities for it.
4. What does an underwriter usually do? – The underwriter buys the
securities from the corporation and resells then to individual investors
through the secondary market.
5. What is the main purpose of securities exchanges? – Securities
exchanges have been developed to make the buying and selling of
securities easier.
6. Who are the participants of securities exchanges? – The securities
exchanges consist of the individual investors, brokers, and
intermediaries who deal in the purchase and sale of securities.
194
7. Do the exchanges buy or sell securities? – Securities exchanges do not
buy or sell securities; they simply provide the location and services for
the brokers who buy and sell.
8. Who are stock transactions handled by? – Stock transactions are
handled by a stockbroker.
9. What do stockbrokers receive from clients? – Securities and fee for
successful transaction.
10.What is the first thing you do to become a broker? – You should
purchase a “seat” which is a membership in the securities exchange.
11.What does the member do when a stockbroker calls in an order to
sell? – The member representing the broker looks for a buyer at the
price requested.
12.What is the largest stock exchange in the USA? – New York Stock
Exchange (NYSE) or "Big Board".
13.How many seats are there on the "Big Board"? – There are 1,300 seats.
14.What requirements does a firm have to meet in order to be on the
NYSE?
– Pretax earnings of at least $2.5 million in the previous year.
– Tangible assets of at least $16 million.
– At least 1 million shares of stock publicly held, and others.
15.What are the major differences between the NYSE and AMEX? –
AMEX operates in much the same way as NYSE, but smaller
companies may qualify for listing.
16.What is OTC and how many brokers participate in it? – The over the
counter market. About 5,000 brokers.
17. Where are options bought and sold in the USA? – Options are traded
on the major stock exchanges, but also on a special market for options,
the Chicago Bond Options Exchange (СВОЕ).
Exercise 5. Substitute.
195
Possible variant:
Security markets are just trades where businessmen gather to bid for
securities.
1. Securities markets buy and sell securities. – The securities are bought
and sold at the securities markets.
2. The company issues new stock through an underwriter. – New stock is
issued by the company through an underwriter.
3. The exchanges trade listed corporation securities only. – Corporation
securities are only listed by the exchanges trade.
4. Several underwriters form an underwriting syndicate. – An
underwriting syndicate is formed by several underwriters.
5. The underwriter buys securities from the corporations. – Securities are
bought from the corporations by the underwriter.
6. The individual used to sell stocks over the counter originally. – Stocks
are originally used to be sold over the counter by the individual.
7. The National Association of Security Dealers developed the
computerized communications system NASDAQ (National
Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotations) in the early
1970s. – The computerized communications system NASDAQ was
developed in the early 1970s by the National Association of Security
Dealers.
8. NASDAQ ties the OTC market together in one vast electronic stock
market. – OTC market is tied together in one vast electronic stock
market by NASDAQ.
9. The individuals trade the majority of stocks in a true bid auction. –
Stocks are traded in a true bid auction by the individuals.
John Simpson is talking to his friend, Martin Walker, about his progress in
business.
196
Before reading the dialogue, study Words and expressions. Read the
dialogue in pairs.
197
10.I should have my stock listed on regional and national exchanges. –
My stock should have been listed on regional and national exchanges.
1. How does the trading of stocks begin? – Trading stock begins with an
investor placing an order, that is informing the stockbroker as to what
stock and how much he wants the broker to buy or sell.
2. What is a market order? – An order to buy or sell stock at the best
possible price at the present time is called a market order.
3. Who does the broker convey the market order to? – The broker
conveys the order to an exchange member on the trading floor, who
attempts to get a better price for the buyer by offering a little less.
198
4. What is a limit order? – Limit order specifies the highest or lowest
price at which the broker may buy or sell.
5. What is an open order? – Open order instructs the broker to leave the
order on the books until it is executed or canceled.
6. What is a discretionary order? – Discretionary order allows the broker
to exercise judgment in making money.
7. What is an odd lot and how does it differ from a round lot? – An odd
lot is any number of shares less than 100. One hundred shares
comprises a round lot.
8. What is a block sale? – A purchase of 10,000 shares is sometimes
called a block sale.
9. What is margin trading and how is the margin trading regulated? –
Sometimes investors pay less than the full amount when they buy
stock. This is called margin trading. The FRS determines the minimum
margin required.
10.What does a broker do to protect his interests in case the stock falls
down in price? – If the stocks were to plummet, the broker would call
the investor and request that he put up more money or have the stock
sold.
11.What is a bull market? – Active buyers of stock are called bulls. They
believe that the prices of stocks are going to rise. During the mid
1980s, the US witnessed a very long bull market.
12.What is a bear market? – A bear is an investor who makes a profit
when the prices are going to fall.
13.What is the selling short procedure? – Selling short is a high risk
strategy which bears use in order to do that. They sell borrowed stock
in the hope of later buying it on the open market at a lower price.
14.What is a put option? – A put option grants the owner the right to sell a
security.
15.What is a call option? – A call option grants its owner the right to buy
a certain amount of stock at a predetermined price within a fixed
period of time.
Exercise 13. Change the following sentences according to the example.
Example: If an investor wants to keep the order on the books, she can
issue an open order.
If an investor wanted to keep the order on the books, she could
issue an open order.
199
1. If the investor wants to sell or buy at the current price, he can issue a
market order. – If the investor wanted to sell or buy at the current
price, he could issue a market order.
2. If someone sells at the offered price, the broker will settle the
transaction. – If someone sold at the offered price, the broker would
settle the transaction.
3. If the investor specifies the highest price at which the broker may buy,
the broker will commit to the deal. – If the investor specified the
highest price at which the broker may buy, the broker would commit to
the deal.
4. If the investor pays the ten percent commission, the broker will work
harder. – If the investor paid the ten percent commission, the broker
would work harder.
5. If the investor absconds with the funds, the broker will go bankrupt. –
If the investor absconded with the funds, the broker would go
bankrupt.
200
Amount traded daily: (9)…………
Trading hours: (10)…………
Main traders: (11)………… (12)………… (13)…………
(14)………...
Tapescript
Answers:
(1) Forex, (2) FX market, (3) New York, (4) London, (5) Tokyo, (6)
dollar, (7) pound (sterling), (8) yen, (9) 2.9 trillion, (10) 24 hours a day,
(11) central banks, (12) commercial banks, (13) large companies, (14)
speculators
201
Exercise 16. Study the fig.1 and make a report about Stock Market and
Over-the-Counter Quotations.
1. What reason do investors buy stock for? – Investors buy stock for
one simple reason: to make money.
2. What is the surest way to make money in the stock market? – The
surest way to earn money from investing is to create as diverse a
portfolio as possible and hang on to it for a long time.
3. What do investors need in order to succeed at making money? – To
succeed at making money investors need good sources of infor-
mation.
4. Who supplies information about the market? – Much information is
supplied by stockbrokers.
5. Where do the stockbrokers obtain information from? – They study
market reports and get information on the forecasted financial
performance of companies.
6. What do stockbrokers charge for information? – Brokers usually
recommend opportunities or provide special services such as
newsletters. For this brokers charge additional fees.
7. What do investors do if they want to avoid brokerage fees? –
Sometimes investors prefer to avoid high brokerage fees. They
implement their own investment strategy.
8. What is the serious investors' approach to studying the market? –
Serious investors subscribe to investment newsletters and carefully
study the stock market.
9. What is the simplest investment strategy? – A simpler investment
strategy is to choose some reliable blue chip stocks and stick to them.
10.What are common mistakes usually made by investors? – Investors
should avoid making common mistakes which are: 1) failure to
diversify, 2) paying too much for a stock which would not go up,
202
3) not knowing when to sell a stock going down, 4) paying too much
attention to rumors and tips.
11.What is the fundamental market analysis? – Most investors begin
with fundamental analysis, which is the process of comparing a
company's current financial position and future prospects with those
of other firms in the same or different industries.
12.How do the "chartists" predict stock's behavior? – Some investors
usually called "chartists" try to identify a specific stock's behavior
charting it over time and then predicting its future price movement.
13.What is a "random walk theory"? – The random walk theory is based
on the assumption that future stock prices are independent of past
stock prices.
14.What is contrarianism based upon theoretically? – A group of
investors has adopted an unusual approach, contrarianism, which
holds that the market will move in the direction opposite to that
predicted by the general public. In other words, these investors do the
opposite of what the general public does.
Before reading the dialogue, study Words and expressions. Read the
dialogue in pairs.
1. The surest way to earn money at the stock market is to create as diverse
a portfolio. 2. To succeed at making money investors need good sources
of information. 3. Stockbrokers study market reports and get information
on the forecasted financial performance of companies. 4. Brokers charge
additional fees for newsletters. 5. If investors prefer to avoid high
203
brokerage fees, they implement their own investment strategy. 6. Most of
investors become an expert in a particular industry. 7. A simpler
investment strategy is to choose some reliable “blue chip”. 8. Major
mistakes of investors are: failure to diversify, paying too much attention to
rumors and tips, not knowing when to sell a stock going down. 9. Serious
investors begin with fundamental market analysis. 10. They compare
different company's current financial position in different industries.
11. "Chartists" try to identify a specific stock's behavior. 12. Other
investors choose stocks randomly.
204
UNIT 4
Lead-in. T. elicits the ideas from the students as they suggest things
connected with the Petroleum Industry and make collective mind map
(spidergram) on the board as the ideas are suggested, so that they can see
how T. draws out the aspects of the topic. The reasoning behind mind map is
that Ss do not think in an ordered or linear way, but rather explore a topic by
moving between its various aspects.
The next stage in this procedure is discussing the questions connected with
Russian petroleum industry.
This activity will prepare Ss to work with the topic of the Unit 4.
1. How does Russia carry out a policy of search and exploration of oil
and gas fields? – Russia has been carrying out a persistent policy of
search and exploration of oil and gas fields in accordance with the
long-term interests of the national economy.
2. How much liquid hydrocarbons and gas have been extracted so far? –
Already 15 bln MT of liquid hydrocarbons and 12 trln m3 of gas have
been extracted from the depths.
3. How many oil and gas deposits are found in Russia? – At the moment
about 3000 oil and gas deposits are to be found in Russia.
4. What are the main centres of oil and gas industry? – Western Siberia
and the Urals-Volga region are the main centres of oil and gas
industry.
5. How is oil and gas extraction regulated? – The rules of depths usage
were stipulated by federal laws "On depths", "On production division
agreements", "On continental shelf of the Russian Federation",
Regulation on the procedure of issuing licenses for depths use and
several other federal, territorial and ministerial regulations.
205
6. How long can the license for geological research be valid? – The right
to use the depths can be rendered on the base of a license for
geological research of the depths for 5 years.
7. In what way can economical difficulties be solved in oil and gas
industry? – It can be generally stated that despite prolonged activity of
the oil and gas production industries and economical difficulties in the
last years there are large reserves of hydrocarbon raw materials. The
raw materials are of different qualities and unevenly distributed,
unevenly worked out and still there are considerable geological and
technological possibilities to improve production of oil and gas.
8. What are the main components of a long-term strategy of oil and gas
complex development? – Objective evaluation of presence in the
depths of Russia of large profitable oil and gas resources as well as
economical, technical, social, political and ecological factors form the
bases of a long-term strategy of development of the Russian oil and gas
complex.
9. What makes Russia attractive for foreign investments? – Russia has a
large potential of unexplored oil, gas and condensate resources.
10.Is Russia open for international cooperation? Prove it using
information from the text and your general knowledge. – Russian
economic importance is extremely high and will increase considerably
in the future along with increases of energy consumption in Russia and
in the world. This opens the way for different forms of large
international projects in the sphere of geological exploration of oil and
gas fields in Russia. The projects may be of different term and
investment share of foreign companies. Russia is interested to make
this co-operation stable and long-term.
206
3. Most oil resources are to be found in Russia.
4. 74 % of gas is located in the Yamalo-Nenetskii autonomous region.
5. Exploration and production of hydrocarbons are carried out on the
basis of long-term interests.
6. With technical and technological modernization of oil and gas deposits
it is possible to improve production of oil and gas.
7. A long-term strategy of oil and gas complex development is based on
objective evaluation of large profitable oil and gas resources as well as
economical, technical, social, political and ecological factors.
8. Worldwide increase of energy consumption opens the ways of oil, gas
and condensate resources exploration in Russia.
a) Think and say. Do you find the speech of the Minister optimistic? Pick
out some facts and prove that the future of oil and gas industry is
favourable.
If you don’t share the optimism of B.A. Yaskevich, explain why. What
are the negative effects of oil and gas production?
b) Pair work.
You are a foreign journalist of “The Economist”, Mr. Yaskevich is
giving a press conference. Ask him questions about oil and gas
development prospects in Russia.
1. Are the USA rich in oil and gas? Where are oil and gas extracted?
(name some regions) What American oil and gas companies have you
heard of?
2. What kinds of oil and gas companies do you know? (according to their
main activities)
Special terms:
207
to exploit – эксплуатировать, разрабатывать месторождения
to deplete – истощать, исчерпывать (запасы), хищнически
эксплуатировать
Now try to guess the meaning of the terms “the exploitationist” and “the
depletionist” in reference to oil companies.
“the exploitationist” – companies which have the prime aim to explore the
field and to get much profit by applying modern and expensive
technologies in order to aviod risk connected with oil field development.
– Did you find the explanation of the terms “the exploitationist”, “the
depletionist” in the text? What were you right/wrong in?
– Can you state the difference between these companies now? Give a
detailed answer. – The exploitationist has a full staff of engineers,
geologists, landmen, and accountants. He is familiar with and has
participated in most of the new technology: 3D seismic, horizontal
drilling, CO2 flooding, and so forth. In addition, he is capable of drilling
wells very cheaply and has very low overhead. I like to think that my
company, Henry Petroleum Corp., is an exploitationist. The
exploitationist is willing to take some risks but does very little pure
exploration.
The second type of company, the depletionist, is much different from the
exploitationist. A depletionist has virtually no technical staff. With his
low overhead he is able to operate wells much cheaper than either the
major oil companies or the exploitationist. He will nurse wells along and
pay close attention to them but does not have the technical staff to
operate waterfloods and CO2 floods or to conduct 3D seismic. The
depletionist is risk-averse. Independent operators must decide whether
they will be exploitationists or depletionists. There is little room for
compromise between the types. You can be either an exploitationist with
a large technical staff or a depletionist with very little, if any, technical
staff; you can’t be both.
208
Exercise 10. Answer the following questions.
1. What stage in the production life of its petroleum resource has the U.S.
reached? – The trends reflect the advanced stage that the U.S. has
reached in the production cycle of its petroleum resource.
2. Why have major oil companies sold off their properties? – Major oil
companies have sold off many of their low-return properties and
shifted their financial resources and human resources to core
properties.
3. How do independent companies appear? – The operating divisions of
major oil companies in the U.S. are becoming more like independents.
Independents are filling the void left by major oil companies.
4. What kind of independents are they? – These independents are either
exploitationists or depletionists.
5. What are the three ages in the life of U.S. oil industry? – The first,
exploration. The stage coinciding with the middle age is exploitation.
The depletion stage.
6. What kind of companies prefer to work during the first exploration
stage? Why? – This stage favors the major oil companies, with their
vast financial and human resources. The main players are geologists
and geophysicists. During this stage, large risks are taken.
7. What specialists do the companies mainly need during the second
exploitation stage? Why? – Again, it favors the major oil companies
because they own the large fields and have the financial and human
resources to install and operate large waterfloods. The principal players
in this stage are engineers.
8. Why does the author call the third depletion stage a stage of
innovation? – Depletion is a stage of innovation, where many ways are
found to do things cheaper and more efficiently. During this stage we
see the widespread application of new technology such as 3D seismic,
horizontal drilling, and СО2 flooding.
9. What companies operate during depletion stage? – Depletion favors
independents, with their much lower overhead. And it favors two types
of independents: the exploitationist and the depletionist.
10.In your opinion, what companies get the greatest profit? – The
exploitationist has a full staff of engineers, geologists, landmen, and
accountants. He is familiar with and has participated in most of the
new technology: 3D seismic, horizontal drilling, CO2 flooding, and so
forth. In addition, he is capable of drilling wells very cheaply and has
very low overhead.
209
Exercise 11. Translate into English.
Exercise 12. Give English equivalents to the following words and phrases
from the text.
Exercise 13. Think of the nouns from the text which can be used with these
verbs. Make up some sentences.
210
Exercise 14. Quick reading.
You may need some terms to grasp the main ideas of the text.
Questions
211
Exercise 15. Talking Point.
Imagine that you are an oil and gas analyst. Prepare a short report on the
problems and perspectives in oil and gas industry development.
Tapescript
One of the most dramatic supply shocks in the history of economics was
the 1973 Oil crisis. After the end of the Second World War the world's
industrial nations enjoyed steady economic growth. This growth was
possible through using huge amounts of energy, and in particular the use
of oil. Much of this oil came from poorer countries, such as the Arab na-
tions of the Middle East.
On 17th October, 1973 the Arab nations stopped supplying oil to the
West. This was because of the West's support for Israel in the Arab-Israeli
war that was happening at this time. At the same time, the Arab nations
raised the price of the oil they sold to the rest of the world. Within a few
212
months, the price was four times higher than it had been before the crisis
began.
The shortage of oil in many western countries, especially the USA, had a
huge effect on the economy. Within a few weeks, the New York Stock
Exchange had lost 597 billion. People were queuing up for petrol at petrol
stations. A recession began and unemployment and inflation both grew.
The embargo lasted until March 1974, less than a year, but its effects on
the world economy lasted until the middle of the 1980s.
Answers:
1. World War 2
2. Energy/oil
3. Middle East
4. 17th October
5. four
6. 97 billion
7. March 1974
Before doing this exercise study the key words which are given below.
1. What well-know foreign oil and gas companies have you heard of?
Can you give any names? What countries were they set up? What
countries do they operate in?
2. What Russian oil and gas companies do you know? What regions of
the country do they operate in? What are their main activities? Do you
know any facts from their history?
213
Exercise 19. Answer the following questions.
1. What spheres does Total operate in? – Total’s operations span the
entire oil and gas chain, from exploration, development and production
to midstream gas, refining and marketing, and crude oil and petroleum
product trading and shipping. Total is also a world-class chemicals
producer, as well as having interests in coal mines, cogeneration and
power generation.
2. Does Total operate only in France? – Operations in more than 130
countries.
3. When was Total created? – in December 31, 2005.
4. What does the abbreviation S.A. (Total S.A.) stand for? – Total S.A. is
a French société anonyme (limited company) created in March 1924.
5. When was Halliburton established? – it was established in 1919.
6. In what way did Halliburton expand? – Halliburton has expanded
through internal growth and acquisition.
7. How many countries does Halliburton operate in? – in over 120
countries.
8. What are the key goals of the company? –
• Technological Leadership
• Operational Excellence
• Innovative Business Relationships
• Dynamic Workforce
9. Can we say that British Petroleum operates worldwide? – The BP
group operates across six continents, and our products and services are
available in more than 100 countries.
10.Does BP form joint ventures in many countries? (Give some
examples). – Yes. In Africa, China, Russia, Canada, Brazil.
11.Where are BP’s corporate headquarters located? – London is where
BP’s corporate headquarters are located.
12.What is TNK-BP? What does the abbreviation TNK stand for? – In
Russia we have an important joint venture through our 50 per cent
ownership of TNK-BP, a major oil company with the majority of its
assets in Russia. Tjumenskaya Neftenaja Compania.
13.What are the major activities of BP? – exploration and production,
pipeline, refining, selling lubricants and other oil products, chemical
plants.
14.How was Rosneft established? – Rosneft was one of the last vertically
integrated oil companies to emerge from the reorganization and large-
scale privatization of Russia’s oil industry in the years following the
dissolution of the Soviet Union.
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15.Was Rosneft a successful company from the start? – Rosneft endured a
series of rapid management changes that undermined the practical
control which successive Moscow-based executives were able to exert
over the Company’s assets. This undermined the coordination between
Rosneft’s various businesses and, thus, did significant harm to the
Company’s overall operational performance with production declining
and the limited utilization of refining capacity throughout the period.
16.Do you consider Rosneft’s growth and expansion very impressive? –
By 2000, Rosneft was again realizing profits. That year also marked
the start of a new period of growth, with average oil production
increases in excess of 11 % annually.
17.How many subsidiaries does Rosneft have? – Rosneft completed the
consolidation of 12 of the Company’s upstream and downstream
subsidiaries.
18.What are the main activities of LUKOIL? – Main activities of the
Company are exploration and production of oil & gas, production of
petroleum products and petrochemicals, and marketing of these
outputs.
19.What were the companies that founded LUKOIL? – The company was
founded by three West-Siberian oil and gas plants:
“Langepasneftegas”, “Urayneftegas” and “Kogalimneftegas”.
20.Does LUKOIL carry out international projects? – LUKOIL is carrying
out international exploration and production projects in Kazakhstan,
Egypt, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Columbia,
Venezuela and Iraq.
21.What is the total capacity of LUKOIL facilities in Russia and abroad?
– Total capacity of LUKOIL facilities in Russia is 41.8 mln tons of oil
per year. LUKOIL also has refineries in Ukraine, Bulgaria, and
Romania, with total capacity of 16.7 mln tons per year.
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6. LUKOIL sells its products in 17 countries of the world.
7. LUKOIL has refineries both in Russia and abroad.
8. BP products and services can be found in more than 100 countries.
9. London is the center for BP’s trading, legal, finance and other
mainstream business functions.
10.BP forms a lot of joint ventures in the countries where they operate.
11.The major part of Total’s investors are from France.
12.Halliburton provides services in the energy services and engineering
and construction (E&C) industries.
Exercise 21. There are some abbreviations in the abstracts, given above.
Match each abbreviation with its full version. Then, translate it into
Russian, if possible and try to explain what it means.
Russia is the second largest oil producer in the world. It also produces
huge amounts of natural gas. How many other oil producing nations
can you name?
216
Tapescript
Russia's reserves of Oil and gas are still not known for sure, but they are
certainly enormous. There are probably 50 trillion cubic metres of gas
hidden under Russian soil, and 600 million cubic metres of gas is piped
out to the world everyday. Along with that, 75 billion barrels of oil are
held in reserve and every day 10 million barrels of oil flow through
Russia's pipelines. But where does it all go? At the moment, most of it
goes west. About a quarter of the oil and gas that Europe consumes comes
from Russia. However, Russia is now beginning to look to customers in
the East. For years, Asian countries have relied on supplies of oil from the
Middle East. Now they are looking for alternatives. Russia is stepping in.
A new pipeline to transfer Russian oil to China and South Korea Is
planned. The pipeline will be some 4.100 km long and will cost about
$6.5 billion to build. However, it will strengthen Russia's position as
energy supplier to the world.
Answers:
1. 50 trillion;
2. 600 million;
3. 75 billion;
4. 10 million;
5. a quarter;
6. 4.100;
7. 6.5 billion.
217
UNIT 5
Lead-in. T. elicits the ideas from the students as they suggest things
connected with Taxation and Audit, make collective mind map on the board
as the ideas are suggested, so that they can see how T. draws out the aspects
of the topic.
This activity will prepare Ss to work with the topic of the Unit 5.
Discuss.
1. What does the word “tax” mean? – To tax (from the Latin taxo; "I
estimate", which in turn is from tangō; "I touch") is to impose a
financial charge or other levy upon a taxpayer (an individual or legal
entity) by a state or the functional equivalent of a state such that failure
to pay is punishable by law.
What kind of taxes do you know? There are different types of taxes,
for example: Sales taxes are levied when a commodity is sold to its
final consumer. A capital gains tax is the tax levied on the profit
released upon the sale of a capital asset. In many cases, the amount of a
capital gain is treated as income and subject to the marginal rate of
income tax. Corporate tax refers to a direct tax levied by various
jurisdictions on the profits made by companies or associations and
often includes capital gains of a company. An income tax is a tax
levied on the financial income of persons, corporations, or other legal
entities.
2. Do you think all people should pay equal taxes? Ss offer they own
answers.
How much is income tax in Russia now? The income tax in Russia is
13 % now.
In your opinion, is it fair when oil and gas companies pay taxes on the
usage of natural resources? Ss offer they own answers.
218
Exercise 1. Read the text and do the exercises.
While reading help Ss with difficult extracts, explain and translate some
words if necessary. Ask different Ss to read and translate.
1. F – There are problems with the classification and it is not very useful.
2. F – Thus the incidence, or loss, of an indirect tax is normally shared by
three groups, manufacturer, retailers and wholesalers and final
purchaser.
3. T
4. F – The consensus used to be that an individual tax or the whole
system was equitable if it contained a strong element of progression,
that is the higher income groups paid a larger percentage of their
income in tax than the lower income groups.
5. F – Another principle that is important is that taxes should not distort
the economy to any serious extent unless that is the deliberate intention
as demerit goods are taxed.
6. F – One important application of the principle of non-distortion is that
taxation should not adversely affect the willingness of people to work.
T. can offer Ss to pick up one type of tax per person and make up a short
presentation.
219
Exercise 5. Read the article.
220
Exercise 7. Quick Reading.
1. Does the first sentence of the text have the same meaning as the title? –
Yes.
2. What problem is discussed? – The problem of diverse fiscal systems,
which make companies work more complicated.
3. Is it a local or a global issue? – Yes, it is.
4. What kinds of fiscal systems are mentioned in the text? – Royalty/tax
systems, contractual systems, production sharing contract, service or
risk service agreements.
Exercise 9. Discuss.
Ss share their ideas and information with the other group mates. This task
may be given as a homework, so Ss will be able to find out some
interesting facts.
221
5. In what form do the auditors make their report? – Auditors make their
reports in written form.
6. What is the difference between internal and independent auditors? –
Internal auditors maintain a continuous internal audit by their own
accounting departments. Independent auditors are employed on a part-
time basis.
1. The name of the auditing company – KPMG Limited. The name of the
audited company – ОАО АК Transneft and its subsidiaries.
2. The reason of Transneft’s changing its auditor – because it expressed
an unqualified opinion on those statements.
3. The names of the documents to be complied with while conducting
audit – International Standards on Auditing as issued by the
International Federation of Accountants
4. Characteristics of an emerging market – the existence of a currency
that is not freely convertible in most countries outside the Russian
Federation, restrictive currency controls, and relatively high inflation.
Assets Активы
Non-current assets Внеоборотные активы
Intangible assets Нематериальные активы
Property, plant and Cобственность, здания и оборудование,
equipment, net недвижимость и оборудование
Investments Капиталовложение
Available-for sale Доступные для продажи
Total non-current assets Суммарные внеоборотные активы
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Current assets Оборотные активы
Inventories, net Запасы
Receivables and Дебиторская задолженность и
prepayments, net предоплата
VAT assets НДС
Prepaid profit tax Предоплата по налогу на прибыль
Available-for-sale short- Доступные для продажи краткосрочные
term капиталовложения
investments
Cash and cash equivalents Денежные средства и их эквиваленты
Total current assets Суммарные оборотные активы
Total assets Суммарные активы
Shareholders’ Equity, Собственный капитал, доля
Minority меньшинства и денежные обязательства
interests and liabilities
Shareholders’ equity Собственный капитал
Share capital Акционерный капитал
Retained earnings Нераспределенная прибыль
Total shareholders’ equity Суммарный собственный капитал
Minority interests Доля меньшинства
Non-current liabilities Внеоборотные денежные обязательства
Borrowings Займы
Deferred taxes Отложенный налог на прибыль
Provisions for liabilities Резервы на выплаты по обязательствам
and charges и издержки
Total non-current Суммарные внеоборотные денежные
liabilities обязательства
Current liabilities Оборотные денежные обязательства
Trade and other payables Товарооборот и прочие платежи
Profit tax liabilities Обязательства по налогу на прибыль
Borrowings Займы
Total current liabilities Суммарные оборотные денежные
обязательства
Total liabilities Суммарные денежные обязательства
Total shareholders’ Суммарный собственный капитал, доля
equity, minority Interests меньшинства и денежные обязательства
and liabilities
223
Analyzing Consolidated Balance sheet derived from the consolidated
financial statements – year ended 31 December 2003 of Transneft
Company, we came to the conclusion that 2003 year is more profitable
than the year 2002, as number of Total assets is more on 52 752 millions
of roubles. Such difference is composed of difference in Total current
assets and Total non-current assets on 16 898 and 35 854 correspondingly.
This may mean that the productive activity is increasing. However
number of receivables and prepayments increased on 44 448 millions of
roubles, this tendency is rather negative and Transneft managers should
take measures to reduce receivables number.
224
UNIT 6
Lead-in. Elicits the ideas from the students as they suggest things connected
with Production and Costs, make collective mind map on the board as the
ideas are suggested, so that they can see how T. draws out the aspects of the
topic. This activity will prepare Ss to work with the topic of the Unit 6.
Discuss
1. What types of costs do you know? – There are the following types of
costs: direct and indirect material costs, production costs, etc.
2. Who manages production costs at enterprises? Production costs are
managed by several departments, because as the prices for material, as
salary paid to workers can equally influence production cost.
3. How production costs affect the final cost of the goods? Production
cost affects the final cost of the good a lot, because depending on it,
producer decides how much he would mark up the price.
4. How to reduce production costs? To reduce production cost one should
try to find cheaper materials, to use new technologies, to save
materials, labour of workers. Moreover, one can save production cost
by using new ways of storing and proper integrated products
management.
5. Which production costs prevail in petroleum industry? – Petroleum
industry is resource-demanding and labour-intensive sector.
Exercise 2. Decide whether these statements are True (T) or False (F).
225
4. F – Keep in mind that whenever an additional worker is added, the
marginal revenue computation remains the same.
5. T
226
bank by someone borrowing
money for a loan or by a bank
to depositor
charges (n) an amount of money paid for расходы
services or goods
rent payment money paid for the use of a арендная плата
house, office, etc.
lease (v) to give somebody the right to брать в аренду
use something for a particular
period of time in return for
payment
depreciation decreasing in value over a обесценивание
(n) period of time
variable costs costs that change when the переменные
amount of something produced расходы
changes
rate of capacity of work done by a норма загрузки
operation company or machine производственных
мощностей
marginal cost the extra cost of producing one предельные
more of something затраты
self-service (n) a self-service shop, restaurant, самообслуживание
etc. is one in which customers
get the goods themselves and
then go and pay for them
lot (n) an area of land on which участок земли
nothing has been built and
which may be available to rent,
or build on
revenue (n) money that a business or доход, выручка
organization receives over a
period of time, especially from
selling goods or services
break-even when a company is neither безубыточный
(adj) making a profit nor a loss
227
Exercise 4. Give English equivalents to the following words and
expressions.
Exercise 6. Listening.
228
1. What is opportunity cost?
a) Something you have to give up in order to have something else.
b) Something a company can charge people for goods or services.
d) Something that companies pay when they first start business.
Tapescript
You can't have everything. That's a fact of life and it's also 3 rule of
economics. If you spend an hour watching television, you might enjoy
yourself. However, you will lose an hour that you could have spent
sunbathing in the garden. The hour lost is an example of what
economists call the ‘opportunity cost’, livery time we buy something,
the total cost to us is the money that we pay, plus the utility value of
something else we could have bought instead. Here's another example.
Alice had a job as a sales assistant in a shop. She earned £13,000 a
year, last year she decided to stop work for three years and study at
university. What will this decision cost her? Well, she has to pay
£1,000 a year for three years for her course. That's £3,000. But that's not
all. She is also giving up her salary for three years. That's an
opportunity cost of £13,000 for three years – £39,000. Of course, she
will also have to rent a flat for three years and pay for her food and
other needs. But these are not opportunity costs. Why? Because she
would have to pay them anyway if she was still working.
Answers:
1. А, 2. С, З. В.
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Exercise 7. Discussion.
230
5. Was outsourcing strategy an efficient measure? – Outsourcing was its
most spectacular strategy.
6. What is the logic of this strategy? – The logic of outsourcing is that by
shedding assets companies can concentrate on the interesting work.
Employees are remotivated to develop product or services, discover
solutions and be innovators or supply chain integrators.
231
Exercise 13. Translate into English.
232
UNIT 7
BUSINESS PLAN
Lead-in. Elicits the ideas from the students as they suggest things connected
with Business plan, its organization, functions, make collective mind map on
the board as the ideas are suggested, so that they can see how T. draws out
the aspects of the topic.
The next stage in this procedure is discussing of Business plan usage and
benefit. T. May divide Ss into groups and discussion can be organized.
This activity will prepare Ss to work with the topic of the Unit 7.
Exercise 1. Read the text and comment on the principles of a Business Plan.
Exercise 3. Using the information from Business Plan fulfill the following
tasks.
Make sure, Ss are aware of Power Point techniques (if not – give some
tips), specialize the presentation size.
233
UNIT 8
Lead-in. Elicits the ideas from the students as they suggest things connected
with International business etiquette and ethics, make collective mind map
(spidergram) on the board as the ideas are suggested, so that they can see
how T. draws out the aspects of the topic. Discuss each point in detail.
Ask Ss to give examples of business etiquette they are familiar with, ask
about the difference between polite and rude behaviour. This activity will
prepare Ss to work with the topic of the Unit 8.
Start reading and translating the text, ask different Ss to read short
paragraph.
234
Exercise 3. Match synonyms in columns A and B.
1. in essence b) basis
2. vice versa a) on the contrary
3. to revolve f) to circle
4. pillar d) in the main
5. uncouth g) strange
6. trait e) characteristic feature
7. integrity j) honesty
8. arrogant c) self sure
9. astray i) lost
10. prosper h) develop
235
Exercise 6. Watch the film “Guide to International Business Etiquette” and
do the quiz.
236
8. Why should you hold a glass of red wine by the bottom
a) because it is the most comfortable way
b) not to spill the wine
c) because it is better when it is warm
Start reading and translating the text, ask different Ss to read short
paragraph.
Exercise 8. Read the explanations of the words and try to guess the
translation.
237
with the right to be obeyed
govern (v) to control and direct the affairs управлять
conceal (v) to hide; keep from being seen or скрывать
known
penalize (v) to punish for breaking a law or наказывать,
rule карать законом
hazardous (adj) (especially of an activity) which опасный,
contains risks or danger рискованный
weed smb/smth to get rid of (people or things of очищать,
out (phr v) unacceptable quality) in order to отбирать
improve smth.
Exercise 10. Give synonyms to the following words and word combinations
in cash by cash,
vendor vender, shop-assistant
transaction bargain, deal
lay off stop
enforcement compulsion
lawbreakers criminals, offender , delinquent , wrongdoer
to govern their conduct to manage their behaviour
ethical performance ethic behaviour
abuse insult
remote distant
pricey expensive
ethical injunction forced ethical education
238
Exercise 11. Work in groups and discuss the problem of major ethical
principles that can be violated by the employees and employers.
Exercise 13. Scan the article and analyze your previous answers.
Exercise 14. Match up these words from the article with their meanings.
1. What new danger does the oil industry face? – It faces a new danger
largely of its own creation. High-profile bribery scandal; the growing
political sensitivity of the oil industry; changing attitudes to corporate
governance; and some potentially explosive lawsuits.
239
2. What did the grand jury in New York issue against two Americans? –
It issued indictments against them. And why? Because Swiss
investigators were reported to have added a bribery and money-
laundering probe involving, among others, Credit Agricole, a French
bank, to continuing American investigations into alleged Caspian
corruption.
3. What is the largest investigation by American authorities called? What
can it involve and provide? – It involves well-known Russian
businessmen and politicians, payments for speedboats and fur coats,
and – if only because they too were involved in bidding for Kazakh
contracts – other big oil firms besides Mobil, including firms with
connections to senior Bush administration officials other than Miss
Rice.
4. How did the American firms work after introducing the Foreign
Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) in 1977? – Many American oil firms
groused that the law handicapped them against foreign competitors
when dealing in the undemocratic and unscrupulous parts of the world
where oil is often found.
5. Does 'big oil' face legal troubles? – Exxon is being accused of
complicity in abuses committed by the Indonesian military in Aceh,
and Unocal stands accused of benefiting from forced labour deployed
by the military government in Myanmar. What are their
characteristics? – Firms deny wrongdoing, the law proceedings take
time.
6. What cases became tests of ATCA? – Exxon is being accused of
complicity in abuses committed by the Indonesian military in Aceh,
and Unocal stands accused of benefiting from forced labour deployed
by the military government in Myanmar.
240
Part III
ECOLOGICAL CONTROL IN PETROLEUM ENGINEERING
Chapter 1
HYDROGEOLOGY
Н.В. Сухорукова
UNIT 1
Lead in
1. snow,
2. slush,
3. ice,
4. sleet,
5. hail,
6. dew,
7. frost,
8. puddle/ pond/ lake/ sea/ ocean,
9. brook/ creek/ steam/ river,
10.plain water
Exercise 3. Work in pairs. Here are the answers to some questions about
the text. What are the questions?
241
10.What form of water is called water vapor?
Exercise 5. Listen to the text about water and decide if you would agree
with the following statements. Write “Yes” or “No” in the box next to each
statement and be ready to explain your answers.
Tapescript
Three-quarters of the Earth is covered in water. This makes water the
most common substance on Earth . Like other substances water can exist
as a liquid, as a gas, or as a solid. Water in the form of a gas (water
vapour) is commonly called steam. Solid water is ice. We can change one
form into another form by simply changing the conditions, for example by
heating it up or cooling it down. The change from one form to another is
usually called a change of state. Changes of state are examples of the
physical change. They do not involve making new substances. Single
substances are either compounds or elements. What about water? From
the chemical point of view water has many points of interest, because it
enters into chemical reactions which are of fundamental importance.
Water not only reacts with many substances, but it also has a marked
influence upon many chemical reactions. Well, water can be decomposed.
So it can’t be an element, can it? Decomposition of water can be made by
electric current. In this way two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of
oxygen are obtained. So we can say that water is a compound of hydrogen
and oxygen. The chemical name of water is hydrogen oxide. Right? Is it
possible to make water from its elements? The answer is – yes! In fact, it
is quite easy to do (but dangerous). Hydrogen’s the water former,
remember? When it is burnt in air, water is formed. The “artificial water”
formed in this way is exactly the same as “natural water”. The experiment
can be made in the laboratory, but by the teacher, and with strict safety
precautions.
Keys:
242
UNIT 2
HYDROGEOLOGY
Lead-in
Look at the following words in the clouds. The letters are scrambled. Can
you guess what the words are? Use all letters.
6. On the other hand, much of its basic terminology and principles can be
understood readily by non-hydrogeologists.
243
Exercise 6. Give English equivalents to Russian words.
Exercise 10. Read the text ‘Joseph Lucas and the term “Hydrogeology”
and decide if the given statements are true or false.
1. T
2. F – Jean-Baptiste Lamarck is known as the founder of invertebrate
paleontology
3. T
4. T
5. F – Prestwich was a member of the Royal Commission on Water
Supply.
6. T
244
7. T
8. T
9. T
10. F – Joseph Lucas certainly made an innovative contribution which
probably deserves more recognition than it has received.
Exercise 11. These dates are the stages of hydrogeology term development.
What do they stand for?
1802
1874
1876
(In 1876 Prestwich produced a further report, this time on Oxford, which
included a "Hydro-geological map of the basin of the Thames above
Oxford".)
Exercise 15. Read the texts once more carefully and choose the correct
alternative for these words and word combinations.
1. laterally
2. outwash
3. intercept
245
4. sandwich
5. artesian aquifer
6. precipitation
7. evapotranspiration
8. water table aquifer
Exercise 16. Find in the texts words with the opposite meaning to the
suggested.
1. impermeable
2. unconfined aquifer
3. unsaturated zone
4. hillslope
Exercise 17. Match the words in the right column with the words in the left
one.
1. saturated zone
2. artesian aquifer
3. permeability layers
4. atmospheric pressure
5. impermeable bedrock
6. depositional sequences
7. unconcolidated materials
8. fractured limestone
9. water table
10.glacial outwash
Exercise 19. Match the English term with the Russian one.
246
Exercise 21. Listen to the text where a commentator is talking about a
hydrologist job. You will hear it twice. Answer the questions by saying
whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).
Mark it on the answer sheet. You have 30 seconds to read the questions.
LISTENING
1 (T)
2 (F)
3 (T)
4 (T)
5 (T)
Tapescript
Hydrologists Job Description
They study precipitation, its movements through the Earth, and its return
to the ocean and the atmosphere. The work of hydrologists is especially
important in flood control, as work in Katrina showed flooding is a major
hazard in parts of our country.
A good part of the job especially for junior workers is spent in the field in
all types of weather. Tracking through rough country, climbing
embedments and getting wet is not in common. More experienced
hydrologists tend to spend much of their time in the lab. Here they
conduct tests, run experiments, record results and compile data.
Knowledge of computer, math and related sciences is essential. So being
247
able to present your findings to others. So good people and
communication skills are a plus.
Keys:
1. precious
2. environment
3. major hazard
4. sophisticated techniques
5. flood control
6. precipitation
7. preservation
8. more experienced hydrologists
9. run experiments
10. certification
248
UNIT 3
Lead-in
Work in pairs. Look at the following pictures. What do they show? How
would you entitle them?
Look at the figure of the hydrologic cycle below. What do the given values
mean?
The values given are the corresponding amounts of the world water balance:
without parentheses – in km3, inside parentheses – mm (after M.I.L’vovich).
What do the arrows on the figure mean? Match the terms (in clouds) with
the arrows.
1. C, 2. I, 3. H, 4. J, 5. F, 6. A,7. B, 8. D, 9. C, 10. G
1. D, 2. B, 3. A, 4. C, 5. D.
Exercise 5. Fill in the gaps with the missing words. Don’t change the form
given.
Water in liquid and solid form covers most of the (1) crust of the Earth.
By a complex process powered by (2) gravity and the action of solar
energy, an endless exchange of water, in (3) vapor, liquid, and solid
forms, takes place between the (4) atmosphere, the oceans, and the crust.
Water(5)circulates in the air and in the oceans, as well as over and below
249
the surface of landmasses. The (6) distribution of water in the planet is
uneven. General patterns of circulation are present in the atmosphere, the
oceans, and the landmasses, but regional features are very irregular and
seemingly random in detail. Therefore, while causal relations underlie the
overall process, it is believed that important elements of chance affect
local (7) hydrological events.
Exercise 6. For questions 1–10 read the text below. Use the words in the
box to the right of the text to form one word that fits in the same numbered
space in the text. The exercise begins with an example (0).
Exercise 7. You are going to hear a report about the hydrologic cycle.
Before you listen, discuss the following questions.
Exercise 8. Listen to the tape to see if you were right. For questions 1–7
decide whether the statements are true or false.
1. T
2. False – The water in the atmosphere – only 0.001 % of the total on
Earth – cycles quickly to produce rain and runoff for our water
resources.
3. T
4. T
5. T
6. False – the fundamental hydrological unit of the landscape is the
drainage basin (also called a watershed or catchment).
7. False – Together, the oceans, ice caps and glaciers account for more
than 99 % of the total water, and both are generally unsuitable for
250
human use because of salinity (seawater) and location (ice caps and
glaciers).
8. T
9. T
10.False – Depending on the specific location, the residence time may
vary from a few days to many thousands of years.
Tapescript
251
At the regional and local level, the fundamental hydrological unit of the
landscape is the drainage basin (also called a watershed or catchment). A
drainage basin is the area that contributes surface runoff to a particular stream
or river. The term drainage basin is usually used in evaluating the hydrology
of an area, such as the stream flow or runoff from hill slopes. Drainage basins
vary greatly in size, from less than a hectare (2.5 acres) to millions of square
kilometers. A drainage basin is usually named for its main stream or river,
such as the Mississippi River drainage basin.
The main process in the cycle is the global transfer of water from the
atmosphere to the land and oceans and back to the atmosphere. Together, the
oceans, ice caps and glaciers account for more than 99 % of the total water,
and both are generally unsuitable for human use because of salinity
(seawater) and location (ice caps and glaciers). Only about 0.001 % of the
total water on Earth is in the atmosphere at any one time. However, this
relatively small amount of water in the global water cycle, with an average
atmospheric residence time of only about 9 days, produces all our freshwater
resources through the process of precipitation.
On a global scale, then, total water abundance is not the problem; the prob-
lem is water's availability in the right place at the right time in the right form.
Water can be found in either liquid, solid, or gaseous form at a number of
locations at or near Earth's surface. Depending on the specific location, the
residence time may vary from a few days to many thousands of years.
However, as mentioned, more than 99 % of Earth's water in its natural state is
unavailable or unsuitable for beneficial human use. Thus, the amount of
water for which all the people, plants, and animals on Earth compete is much
less than 1% of the total.
252
Exercise 9. You are going to hear a conversation between two students.
Listen and choose the best title. The notes and terms will help you to
understand the conversation better.
THE WATER
CYCLE
Exercise11. Listen to the dialogue for the third time if necessary and
answer the following questions.
253
Tapescript
(Pause)
254
NICK: How small did you say it is?
SUSAN: I didn't. I'm just going to tell you about this, – only about 0.001
percent of the total water on earth. However, the quantity of water that
passes through the atmosphere in a year is large. I mean much greater than
the total volume of fresh water on the Earth. That's it.
NICK: That's incredible, Susan.
SUSAN: Did you get it all down?
NICK: Yeah... I think so... thank you, Susan.
SUSAN: My pleasure. I hope you'll get that article finished soon. When's
it to go to press?
NICK: End of the week... is the deadline. One of the copies is yours.
SUSAN: O.K. I can't wait to see it published.
NICK: Thanks again.
SUSAN: Have a good day.
255
Chapter 2
GEOECOLOGY
И.А. Матвеенко
UNIT 1
GEOECOLOGY
Lead-in. T. elicits the ideas from the students as they suggest things
connected with geoecology and make collective mind map (spidergram) on
the board as the ideas are suggested, so that they can see how T. draws out
the aspects of the topic. The reasoning behind mind map is that Ss do not
think in an ordered or linear way, but rather explore a topic by moving
between its various aspects.
The next stage in this procedure may be division of all items suggested into
groups and explanation of Ss’ associations.
This activity will prepare Ss to work with the topic of the Unit 1.
Exercise 3. Find the synonyms for the following words in the text.
256
nature balance – природный баланс,
population growth – рост населения.
(A) Thick layer, layer of water, the layer around the Earth, layer of gas,
outer layer, thin layer, the layer containing living matter;
(B) Clear environment, physical environment, parts of environment,
modified environment, healthy environment, biotic environment,
damaged environment, intact environment;
(C) Interactions between humankind and nature, stable interactions,
interaction of communities, global interaction, constant interaction,
living organisms interaction, interaction with environment.
The sentences are not just from the text, but they are slightly changed to
make Ss translate them by themselves.
257
Interaction of a man with the nature is of global and constant character.
Man affects and changes the environment.
Biosphere reacts to these actions.
Exercise 8. Read the text below, use the word given in capitals at the end of
each line to form a word that fits in the space in the same line.
Example: 0 – impossible.
258
Exercise 9. What are the subjects of the following sciences?
1. b, 2. d, 3. e, 4. c, 5. a, 6. f.
Exercise 10. Here are some definitions. What are they? Complete the
sentences.
Biosphere is the layer around the Earth in which all living organisms
exist.
Hydrosphere is the sum total of all liquid and frozen water on or near the
Earth’s surface.
Atmosphere is a region of gases, airborne particles, and water vapour
enveloping the Earth.
Lithosphere is the solid Earth with rocks, soils, and sediments on its
crust.
259
past two centuries has increased the magnitude and scale of biosphere
transformations.
9. Do you think the biosphere transformations caused by human activity
are reversible? This question is for Ss’ discussion and expressing their
opinions on the basis of the text information and their knowledge of
speciality. A lot of variants of answers to this question are possible.
This discussion will help T. to pass to the next task Exercise 11.
T. can set the discussion either with the whole group, or divide the group
into two teams, or divide the group into pairs and choose a quotation for
each to make up a dialogue.
260
UNIT 2
Lead-in
Comment upon the following statements. How do you think they are
connected with the theme of the lecture?
T’s task is to connect the ideas in the quotations with the theme of the Unit to
predict the problems mentioned in the texts of the unit.
261
Exercise 5. Match the synonyms.
1. С, 2. A, 3. F, 4. E, 5. D, 6. B.
262
2. What stages of mineral extraction are considered the sources of
environment contamination? – Mining itself and beneficiation.
3. Why have mining increased through time? – The mining and
processing of minerals have increased through time due to population
growth and the greater utilization of raw materials for manufacture.
4. What witness to the extraction of minerals do areas bear? – Many areas
of past mining activity bear witness to these extractions in the form of
abandoned workings and extensive waste tips.
5. Has the situation changed from that time? – Yes, it has. Modern
mineral extraction technology is generally far more efficient than past
practices, and in many countries such processes are heavily regulated
to limit the degree of contamination from extractive industries.
6. What are the stages of mining and processing? – The extraction and
subsequent processing of ores can be summarized as follows: mining
→ crushing/grinding; → concentration of ore mineral; →
smelting/refining.
7. What is the effect of open pit surface techniques and solution mining?
– Open pit surface techniques, or in a few cases by solution mining,
which carries with it risk of groundwater pollution.
8. Why is crushing necessary for mineral processing? – The crushing and
grinding (comminution) of mineral processing is necessary because it
has the objective of separating the ore minerals from the waste,
generally referred to as gangue to enable concentration of the sought
after ore mineral.
9. What consequences of crushing do you know? – The very fine waste
material left after crushing is referred to as tailings, and this material
can contain, along with the gangue minerals, residual amounts of the
ore minerals and can be a serious source of pollution. The tailings are
very fine and are subject to wind ablation and can be easily transported
by surface runoff. At many mine sites tailings have been left open to
the environment resulting in serious contamination of surrounding soil
and water.
10.What is smelting? – Pyrometallurgical smelting involves roasting of
the ore concentrate at high temperatures with the subsequent emission
of large quantities of elements.
11.Why are modern smelters fitted with electrostatic precipitators? –
Modern smelter stacks are fitted with electrostatic precipitators and
other dust recovery mechanisms to retain most of the harmful
particulates.
12.What are the consequences of smelting? – Some gaseous and aerosolic
emissions are released into the atmosphere. Although any larger
263
particulates released are deposited close to the source, aerosols and
gases can be transported long distances and as a result the smelting of
ores has far wider aerial impact than the mining and processing of
these ores.
Exercise 10. State whether the sentences are true or false. If true, add the
information you know, correct the false ones.
a. True.
b. False – Mining and subsequent beneficiation of minerals do not affect
the environment.
c. False – Mineral extraction is a modern human activity.
d. True.
e. False – The major cause of concern is mineral extraction such as clays
and silica.
f. True.
g. True.
h. False – Aerosols and gases can be deposited close to the source.
Exercise 11. Read through the text and find the answers to these questions.
Remember, you do not have to understand every word to answer the
questions.
A.
1. How are pollutants generally treated? Name four different processes
referred to in the text. – Scrubbing, filtration, absorption, adsorption.
2. What are the main causes of air pollution? – The internal combustion
engine, industrial fuel combustion (especially utility power plants).
3. What is the usual way to control emissions of gas and particles into the
atmosphere? – Emissions are usually limited to a specified weight per
hour.
4. Which gas is mentioned as being particularly difficult to control? –
Sulphur dioxide.
5. What industries are affected by regulations to control the emissions of
this gas? – Copper smelting; coal-fired utility plants.
264
B. Read the text again carefully. While reading, look for the answers to
these questions.
2. Classify the following items into four lists according to their role in
environmental engineering. Then find a heading for each list.
Atmospheric pollutants
- hydrocarbons;
- nitrogen oxide gases;
- sulphur dioxide gas;
265
Copper-producing methods
- hydrometallurgical plant;
- flash furnace;
- liquid ion exchange;
- elecrowinnig;
No key is possible.
Exercise 13. Read the text, tell about the impact of different stages of oil
extraction on environment.
No key is possible.
Exercise 14. Say in what content these figures are mentioned in the text.
14 – per cent of oil were collected by skimming and other waste recovery
from poured oil out of Exxon Valdez ruptured tanks.
3 – billion was sent to clean up in the vicinity of Prince William Sound.
1989 – a year when the accident happened to supertanker Exxon Valdez,
carrying crude oil.
20 – per cent of spilled oil evaporated in the atmosphere. Or 20 thousand
barrels per hour spilled into the sound.
250 000 – a total barrels of oil spilled into the sound.
28 – per cent of the sea otters killed by the spill.
645,000 seabirds died.
50 – per cent of spilled oil was % was deposited on the shoreline.
1 200 000 – barrels of crude oil was carried by supertanker Exxon Valdez.
1. Oil and natural gas burn cleaner than coal but are heavy polluters, too.
2. Oil and gas are preferred fuels because coal is so polluting, and
because it is less useful for many kinds of engines.
266
3. It now seems that natural soil bacteria are capable of decomposing
most oil.
4. A thick substance that comes out of the ground from a typical oil well
is a mixture of many chemicals from very heavy tars to very light
gasoline and natural gas.
5. A famous example of oil pollution during delivery was on March 24,
1989, when the supertanker Exxon Valdez, carrying 1.2 million barrels
of crude oil, ran aground on Bligh Reef in Prince William Sound,
Alaska, and broke open.
6. Of the 11 million gallons of spilled oil, about 20 % evaporated and
50 % was deposited on the shoreline.
7. There is no evidence that the Ocean’s ecosystems are seriously
threatened by oil spills.
8. We now also have new techniques to collect oil at sea, using floating
barriers and skimmers (oil is lighter than water and so floats on water),
but even the best methods are difficult to use in high winds and rough
seas.
Exercise 21. Discuss the following quotation from the standpoint of the
ecological problems in mining and oil production
T. can set the discussion either with the whole group, or divide the group
into two teams, or divide the group into pairs and choose a quotation for
each to make up a dialogue.
This is the task for the final lesson on this topic. The purpose of this task
is to summarize all the knowledge the Ss have got in the course of
working at the Unit. After each report T should stimulate the discussion
on the considered problems.
267
UNIT 3
Lead-in. T. elicits information from the Ss related to the theme of the Unit.
1. D, 2. F, 3. A, 4. B, 5. G, 6. C, 7. E.
1. C, 2. A, 3. E, 4. B, 5. D.
268
Exercise 7. Fill in the necessary preposition.
Exercise 8. Read the examples, join the sentences in every possible way.
269
Exercise 9. Join the sentences using the words in brackets. Think of other
ways of joining them.
270
4. Elevated concentration of mercury is reported to be present in some
types of oil.
5. Radioactivity has been found to influence negatively the human health.
271
2. What energy source is the most popular nowadays? Why? – Fossil fuel
(coal, oil, peat) combustion provides most of the power generated for
industrial and domestic use because they are abundant and efficient.
3. Why has the fossil fuel combustion achieved notoriety? – Burning of
these fuels has achieved notoriety due to the large volumes of carbon
dioxide (CO2) produced, the consequent buildup of this gas in the
atmosphere, and its possible contribution to the greenhouse effect on
the Earth.
4. What trace elements are detected in fossil fuels? – Variable amounts of
inorganic constituents were detected in the ash left after the
combustion process with some emitted in fine combustion products
into the atmosphere.
5. Why are they considered to be harmful elements? – Because they can
impact the soil, water, and biosphere in the vicinity of the power plant
and influence people’s health.
6. What is the impact of nuclear power generation on the environment? –
Accidental leakages and permitted effluent released from nuclear
power plants have impacted the environment. For example, radioactive
iodine moves through the food chain rapidly and causes thyroid cancer.
7. Is geothermal energy really “clean” form of power generation? Prove
it. – No, it isn’t. Many geothermal areas are associated with volcanic
activity and many of the hot springs actively precipitate arsenic,
antimony, mercury, and thallium, whereas some geothermal waters
contain very high concentrations of boron.
8. What ecological problems has hydroelectric power generation led to? –
It has led to problems resulting from flooding of areas where soils have
been inundated; it has been found that fish contain elevated
concentrations of mercury.
Possible titles:
- Perspectives of using (utilizing) oil as a source of energy.
- Problems of Oil utilization today and tomorrow. Etc.
272
2. Why is it so important to know when we will reach oil peak
production? – Because after we reach peak production, less oil will be
available, leading to shortages and price shocks.
3. Why do economists argue that we will never entirely run out of crude
oil? – Because we will reach a point where finding it and extracting it
will cost much more than it can sell for, and when that happens it will
no longer be used as a fuel, but as a mineral to be made into
comparatively expensive products.
4. Why does oil available reserve grow? – The increase is due primarily
to discoveries in the Middle East, Venezuela, and Kazakhstan.
5. What problems did the discovery of oil cause in the Middle East? –
Because so much of the world’s oil is in the Middle East, oil revenues
have flowed into that area, causing huge trade imbalances and many
political consequences.
6. What are the other sources of oil? – Two other sources of oil play a
minor role: oil shale and oil sands. Both are sediments that contain low
concentrations of oil, but because they are massive, in total they
contain a lot of energy.
Exercise 16. Explain the meaning of the following terms in your own
words.
273
Exercise 19. Working in pairs, discuss one of the energy source, its
advantages and disadvantages, its perspectives:
Preparation:
- Give to students a list of the possible topics for their reports, but
encourage them to think of their own ones.
- Give the task to carry out research and prepare a written report.
- Help Ss to make a list of terms.
- Look through the papers prepared by the Ss in advance.
- Hand out the role cards according to Ss’ desires and abilities.
Do you know how to take part in a conference? If you don’t, here are
some bits of advice. The only way of participating in an international
274
congress is to do so whole-heartedly and intelligently. It is the behavior
and active participation of the congress-goers which above all ensures the
success of a congress. Don’t be the type of participant who cannot adapt
himself.
Think about what you hope from the meeting. Remember that its duration
is limited to a few days. Remember that the other participants expect you
to contribute something. Be active, ready to listen to the ideas of others.
Don’t be self-centred or quick-tempered. Familiarize yourself with the
rules of the congress, but with a view of respecting them, not to causing
difficulties.
Do not stay in an ivory tower, but do not take part in discussions just for
the pleasure of hearing your own voice or of having your name written
down in the minutes.
Make sure that by your own behavior you are helping the chairperson and
other organizers in their difficult task of guiding the proceedings
successfully to concrete conclusions, in an atmosphere of cooperation and
friendship among the participants of each country. Contact with other
participants.
275
Speak in the working congress language you know best and don’t try to
display your multilingual talents. It should never be necessary for you to
be translated into your mother tongue.
Chairman Participant
Sometimes you will need to write a letter to inquire about anything you
need in your work as well as to reply to information inquiry. Two letters
below will help you to write letters of these kinds:
276
Letter 1 (Information Inquiry)
Yours faithfully,
Dr. Igor Ivanov
Yours sincerely,
Dr. Edward Reading
1
Academics = Scientists
2
FCO = Foreign and Commonwealth Office
277
ASSIGNMENTS
Write similar letters. The following words and expressions will help you:
Information inquiry
278
UNIT 4
Lead-in. Discussing the quotations, T. draws Ss. attention to the fact that the
problem of greenhouse effect is closely connected with human
(anthropogenic) activity mentioned in the quotations.
1. compared to – по сравнению с
2. to hold in check – сдерживать, контролировать
3. to move in a cyclic manner – двигаться циклично, цикличным
образом
4. to be a matter of controversy – быть предметом разногласий
5. to be of particular interest – представлять особый интерес
6. to be known for sure – быть известным наверняка
7. to escape into space – улетучиваться в космос
Gases pollute the atmosphere because they are produced 1). too
quickly to be cleared away naturally 2). by rain, winds or plant life.
These poisonous gases 3). are from several sources such as oil
279
producers, industries which burn fuel, and motor vehicle. When the
gases are released, they have two deleterious effects. 4). Firstly, some
of the gases are caught by rain clouds and fall as acid rain, 5). hence
damages the environment. Secondly, if the amount of carbon dioxide
increases, a larger fraction of the incident solar radiation is trapped,
keeping the heat of the sun close 6). to the Earth’s surface just 7). as a
greenhouse keeps heat in. The increase of carbon dioxide is 8). getting
worse by the cutting down 9). rain forests. Trees use carbon dioxide,
and the fewer trees 10). are, the more of this gas remains 11). in the
air. The USA is now leading an international effort to limit
deforestation. In 1996, Washington set goals for industry, and several
international agreements 12). have already been effective in reducing
the production 13). of harmful gases. Only international cooperation
can 14). solve this problem which, if 15). not controlled, may threaten
all life on earth.
1. B, 2. C, 3. D, 4. A, 5. F, 6. E.
Exercise 11. Put the sections of the article from the New Scientist into the
correct order. The first section is “ a” and the last is “g”.
Keys: A, E, F, B, D, C, G.
280
Exercise 15. Discuss the following facts and figures.
Ss. discuss the facts using the vocabulary and facts known from the text of
the Unit developing the ideas: what are the ways of problem solution,
what should be done to prevent the problems.
281
UNIT 5
Lead-in. T. elicits information from the Ss related to the theme of the Unit.
1. E, 2. F, 3. D, 4. A, 5. G, 6. C, 7. B.
1. E, 2. D, 3. A, 4. C, 5. B.
282
radiation biology, pesticide research, environmental medicine, and
immunology.
2. True.
3. True.
4. False – It is supposed that there are two mechanisms developed in
response to selection pressures indicating either of two biological
needs: to detoxify and excrete harmful substances ingested in foods
and to metabolize endogenous chemical compounds.
5. False – It indicates the entry of xenobiotic in the body.
6. False – The most common opportunities for exposure are skin contact
and breathing in the agent.
7. True.
8. True.
Exercise 10. Read the text again and make notes under the following
headings. Find some additional information on each of the topics. Talk
about the process of toxicokinetics.
This task is for the final lesson. The purpose of this task is to summarize
all the knowledge the Ss have got in the course of working at the Unit.
After each report T should stimulate the discussion on the considered
problems.
This task is for self-doing work. It may be checked either at the lesson or
in written form.
283
Exercise 12. Work in pairs. Write 6 questions on the text above.
Act your dialogue using the expressions of agreement and disagreement.
Exercise 14.
284
Учебное издание
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING
TEACHER’S BOOK
НЕФТЕГАЗОВОЕ ДЕЛО
КНИГА ДЛЯ УЧИТЕЛЯ
Учебное пособие
Научный редактор
кандидат педагогических наук,
доцент Н.А. Качалов
Выпускающий редактор Т.С. Савенкова
Редактор В.Ю. Пановица
Дизайн обложки О.Ю. Аршинова