The Types Of Computers: Analog and Hybrid
(classification based on operational principle)
Analog Computers: The analog systems carry out
arithmetic and logical operations by manipulating and processing
data which you input such as the weight, temperature, voltage,
power density, etc. The advantage of an analog computer is that it
can simultaneously find solutions to several mathematical
problems and that too while being precise unlike the digital
computer. Unlike the digital computer it lacks speed of calculation.
There are other functional problems which mark the efficiency of
analog systems. Of these, the problems of non-linearities,
temperature co-efficient, parasitic effects and noise floor are the
main problems
Digital computers: Digital Computers are that kind of
computing machines which work on the principle of binary
mathematics. The digital systems work on the principle of binary
mathematics. In binary mathematics all calculations are
represented through “0” and “1”. A digital computer with the help
of binary system cannot only perform mathematical problems but
also combine the bytes to produce desired graphics, sounds,
images and other such commands. But the chief problem is that
though it can solve mathematical problems at a tremendous speed,
it cannot perform bulk operations simultaneously. For this purpose,
digital systems by themselves cannot give very precise results.
Hybrid computers: These types of computers are, as the
name suggests, a combination of both Analog and Digital
computers. The Digital computers which work on the principle of
binary digit system of “0” and “1” can give very precise results.
But the problem is that they are too slow and incapable of large
scale mathematical operation. In the hybrid types of computers the
Digital counterparts convert the analog signals to perform Robotics
and Process control.
Apart from this, computers are also categorized on the
basis of physical structures and the purpose of their use.
:The Mainframe Computer – These are computers used
by large organizations like meteorological surveys and statistical
institutes for performing bulk mathematical computations. They
are core computers which are used for desktop functions of over
one hundred people simultaneously
The Microcomputer – These are the most frequently
used computers better known by the name of “Personal
computers”. This is the type of computer meant for public use.
Other than Desktop Computer the choice ranges as follows:
Personal Digital Computer
The Computer software is classified into two main
categories:
1. Application software.
2. System software.
1. Application Software
A set of programs used to solve particular problems of
user through computer is called Application software. It is also
known as application package. The ready packages are also
available in market on CDs for various purposes. These are used
The Mini computer – Mini computers like the
mainframe computers are used by business organization.
The difference being that it can support the simultaneous
working of up to 100 users and is usually maintained in
business organizations for the maintenance of accounts
and finances.
Super computers are one of the many types of
modern computing machines which are capable of giving
very speedy calculations. It is because of their high speed
processing ability that Supercomputer systems are used in
such works as animation graphics, weather forecasting,
nuclear research work, petroleum research works, crypt
analysis, molecular modeling and the likes
Bus topology In local area networks where bus
topology is used, Each computer or server is connected to
the single bus cable through same kind of connector. A
terminator is required at each end of the bus cable to prevent
the signal from bouncing back and forth on the bus cable. A
signal from the source travels in both directions to all
machines connected on the bus cable until it finds the MAC
address or IP address on the network that is the intended
recipient.. Since the bus topology consists of only one wire,
it is rather inexpensive to implement when compared to
other topologies. However, the low cost of implementing the
technology is offset by the high cost of managing the
network. Additionally, since only one cable is utilized, it can
be the single point of failure. If the network cable breaks,
the entire network will be down
Star topology In local area networks with a star
topology, each network host is connected to a central hub. In
contrast to the bus topology, the star topology connects each
node to the hub with a point-to-point connection. All traffic
that traverses the network passes through the central hub.
An advantage of the star topology is the simplicity of adding
additional nodes. The primary disadvantage of the star
topology is that the hub represents a single point of failure.
Ring topology In local area networks where the
ring topology is used, each computer is connected to the
network in a closed loop or ring. Each machine or computer
has a unique address that is used for identification purposes.
The signal passes through each machine or computer
connected to the ring in one direction The primary
disadvantage of ring topology is the failure of one machine
will cause the entire network to fail
Tree topology Also known as a hierarchical
network.The type of network topology in which a central
'root' node (the top level of the hierarchy) is connected to
one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the
hierarchy
Mesh topology (fully connected) The value of
fully meshed networks is proportional to the exponent of the
number of subscribers, assuming that communicating
groups of any two endpoints, up to and including all the
endpoints, is approximated by Reed's law The physical fully
connected mesh topology is generally too costly and
complex for practical networks, although the topology is
used when there are only a small number of nodes to be
by user who does not know the computer programming. The users
solve their problems by using ready packages more easily and
quickly. Some of application packages are:
1. Word processing software.
2. Spreadsheet software.
3. Database Management System software.
4. Graphics software.
5. Communication software.
2. System Software
System software is a set of programs that control the
operations of a computer and devices attached with the computer.
It creates links between user and computer as well as controls the
execution of application programs. System software are essential
for a computer to do work, Without this software no link can be
created between user and computer.
The examples of system software are:
• Operating systems.
• Utility programs.
• Device Drivers.
• Language Processors.
. Entering and displaying information is carried out on a
wide variety of accessory devices called peripherals, also known as
input/output (I/O) devices.
The monitor is the device on which images produced by
the computer operator or generated by the program are displayed
on a cathode-ray tube (CRT). The flat-panel displays on most
portable computers, known as liquid-crystal displays (LCDs), use
two polarizing filters with liquid crystals between them to produce
the image.The computer keyboard, based on the typewriter
keyboard, contains keys for entering letters, numbers, and
punctuation marks, as well as keys to change the meaning of other
keys. The function keys perform tasks that vary from program to
program. The mouse is a device that is rolled on the desktop to
move the cursor on the screen. A ball on the bottom of the mouse
translates the device's movements to sensors within the mouse and
then through the connecting port to the computer. There are also
mice that substitute optical devices for mechanical balls, and mice
that use infrared rather than physical connections.The trackball is
essentially an upside-down mouse, with the ball that is used to
move the cursor located on the top rather than on the bottom The
joystick is a pointing device used principally for games. The light
pen performs the same functions as a mouse or trackball, but it is
held up to the screen, where its sensors detect the presence of
pixels and send a signal through a cable to the computer. The most
common input, or storage, device in personal computers or
workstations is a hard disk drive, a stack of magnetized platters on
which information is stored by heads generating an electrical
current to represent either 1 or 0 in the binary number system. Data
can also be stored and retrieved with light, the light of a laser beam
reading a pattern of pits on an optical disk. The most familiar type
of optical disk is the CD-ROM (compact disk-read only memory).
Another kind of optical disk is the WORM (write once read many
times)..
Hardware is any part of a computer system that you can touch. These
parts include:
interconnected.
Hybrid topology Hybrid networks use a
combination of any two or more topologies in such a way
that the resulting network does not exhibit one of the
standard topologies (e.g., bus, star, ring, etc.). For example,
a tree network connected to a tree network is still a tree
network, but two star networks connected together exhibit a
hybrid network topology. A hybrid topology is always
produced when two different basic network topologies are
connected. Two common examples for Hybrid network are:
star ring network and star bus network
As a consequence of their greater efficiency and
speed, disk drives have quickly replaced tape drives as the
primary means of data and program storage. Tape drives
are still in use for backup storage,
The scanner converts an image of something
outside the computer, such as text, a drawing, or a
photograph, into a digital image that it sends into the
computer for display or further processing. The image is
viewed as a graphics image, not a text image, so it can be
altered with a graphics program but cannot be edited with
a word-processing program, unless the scanner is part of a
character-recognition system.
The printer puts text or other images produced
with a computer onto paper or other surfaces. Printers are
either impact or nonimpact devices.
Daisy-wheel or thimble printers are so called
from the shape of the elements bearing raised images of
the characters. Their speed, perhaps 30 characters per
second, is now considered unacceptably slow. Dot-matrix
printers produce their images by striking a series of wire
pins, typically, 9, 18, or 24, through the ribbon in the
pattern necessary to form the letter, number, line, or other
character.
Ink-jet printers carry their ink in a well, where it
is turned into a mist by heat or vibration and sprayed
through tiny holes to form the pattern of the character on
paper. Laser printers are similar to photocopying
machines. The quality of laser-printer output is the highest
generally available
The modem connects one computer to another,
ordinarily through the telephone lines, to exchange
information
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is at the centre of any computer system. It
does all of the calculations, sorts, searches and decision making. The processor
is on a silicon chip. This is very small, maybe one centimetre across.

The CPU is made up of three main parts:

1. The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) carries out all of the calculations and
logical operations. Logical operations are things like making decisions, e.g. if it is
warm, turn off the heating.

2. The Registers are temporay storage locations inside the processor that hold
the data and instructions being used by the processor at a particular time.

3. The Control Unit ensures that the data is in the right place at the right time
and that tasks are carried out in the correct order.

Hardware - Main Memory

Main memory is where anything that the computer is working with is kept. For
example, at the moment, this web page is being stored in your
computer's main memory, along with your web browser software and
any other programs you have running.

There are two types of main memory; RAM and ROM.

RAM stands for Random Access Memory. RAM can be written to and read from.
All the data and programs are stored in RAM while in use. It is a good
idea when you buy a computer to get one with as much RAM as possible
as this improves the performance of your computer.

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. You cannot write anything to ROM. It holds
programs used when the computer is switched on that, if lost would
make the computer useless.

Differences between ROM and RAM

ROM RAM

Volitile - Data is lost if the computer

Non-volitile - Data is never lost
crashes or is turned off.

Data is temporary - it is only there as

Data is permenant - it can never be
long as the computer is on and it can be
changed
changed

Data can only be read Data can be written to or read from.

Memory Organisation

Memory is made up of lots of storage locations.

Each location can hold a word. A word is the term given to the number of bits
that can be processed by the computer in a single operation.

So the correct data can be found in main memory, each storage location has its
own unique address. This is just like each house having its own unique address
so that the postman can deliver letters to the right person. This concept is called
addressibility.
Backing storage devices are where you can store data permenantly. This means
that data is held when the computer is switched off and can be loaded onto
a computer system when required.

The hardware that stores the data are called backing storage media. The media
are put into backing storage devices.

The media in the table below are listed roughly according to their capacity. As
technology increases some of these capacities are constantly increasing
and it can be difficult to keep track of maximum storage capacities.

The data stored on backing storage media can either accessed randomly
(or directly) or squentially. Random access means that the
computer can go directly to a piece of data. If the access is
sequential then the computer has to go through every item of data
until it gets to the one it is looking for.
Device Media Approx Capacity Access

Floppy Disk Drive Floppy Disk 1.44Mb Random

CD-ROM drive CD-ROM

CD-R 700Mb Random
CD Rewriter
CD-RW

USB Flash Drive Flash ROM 1 - 8Gb Random

DVD-ROM Drive DVD-ROM

DVD-R 4.7Gb - 16Gb Random
DVD Rewriter
DVD-RW

Magnetic Tape Drive DAT up to 72GB Random

Hard Disk Drive Hard Disk up to 5Tb Random

Floppy Disks are now rarely used, having been replaced by Flash ROM that can
easily be plugged into any computers USB port. The access time for Flash
ROM is much faster than that of a floppy disk, the capacity is much greater
and Flash ROM is much less likely to break.

CD's (Compact Discs) and DVD's (Digital Versitile Discs) come in three different
types. ROM's cannot never be written to or erased. These are used to put
on software or files that you never want to change. A lot of software is
bought on ROM discs. R stands for "recordable". R discs can only ever be
written to once, whereas RW (ReWritable) disks can be written to and
erased over and over again.

Hard disks are built into computer systems. You can also buy external hard disk
drives that can be plugged into a computer system. External hard disks are
replacing DAT tapes as the most common method of backing up computer
systems. This is due to their direct access and larger capacity.

Most computers used a Microsoft Windows operating system (OS) like the ones
at school. Other operating systems can be used like Linux and MacOS that is
used on Apple computers.
The operating system does the following tasks:

Memory Management - It keeps a record of where data and programs are

stored in main memory.

Human Computer Interface - This is how the user interacts or communicates

with the computer system and vice versa. Most systems use a Graphical User
Interface (GUI) the most common of which is a WIMP (Windows Icons Menus,
Pointer).

Error Reporting - It tells the user if there is a problem with any part of the
computer system.

File Management - Controls where on backing storage files are stored and can
locate files to load into main memory

Most software is written by programmers using a high level language.

Computers only understand machine code. Machine code is made up of binary
digits (1's and 0's).

High level languages make writing program code easy because they use words
from the English language and mathematical signs you are familiar with

Other facts about High Level Languages are that they are problem orientated which
means that they have been especially designed to solve problems and they are portable
which means they will work on different types of computer system

1. Interpreters

Using an interpreter is like having a person beside you, reading your high level
language and telling the computer what it means in machine code.

When you run a program the interpreter translates each line of code in turn and
the computer runs the program as it is being translated. The advantage of
this is that if there is an error in your program the computer stops running
the computer at the point where the error is and highlights the problem to
the user. This makes interpreters really good if you have just written a
program and you are testing it for errors.

2. Compilers

A compiler translates high level language into machine code all in one go. This
means that the program does not run until the whole program has been
translated and the machine code saved. Only then does the program run.

The high level code is called the source code and the translated machine code
version is the object code. Once the object code has been saved the
program does not have to be interpretted again and the program will run
quicker. The compiler is not very good though if you have errors in the
code. The program will not run properly but the errors will not be
highlighted.

Electronic Mail
One of the most widely used applications in business, electronic mail (or e-mail) provides
very fast delivery of messages to any enabled site on the Internet. Users must have an e-
mail account established with their Internet service provider and a unique e-mail address
(such as santa@northpole.com). Most browsers include integrated e-mail software.

Local Area Networks - a system of computers that share resources such as hard-drives,
printers, data, CPU power, fax/modem, applications, etc... They usually have distributed
processing - means that there is many desktop computers distributed around the network
and that there is no central processor machine (mainframe). Can be campus wide like a
college or university.
Metropolitan Area Networks: a system of LANs connected through out a city or
metropolitan. MANs are used to connect to other LANs. A MAN has to have the
requirement of using a telecommunication media such as Voice Channels or Data
Channels. Branch offices are connected to head offices through MANs. Examples of
companies that use MANs are universities and colleges, grocery chains and banks.
Wide Area Networks: a network system connecting cities, countries, continents together.
TransCanada Pipeline has a WAN that stretches from Alberta to Boston. It goes from
Alberta to Ontario then through the States and ends up in Boston. The maintenance and
control of the network resides in Calgary. WANs are connected together using one of the
telecommunications media.