October 29, 2018

Chapter 3: Igneous Rocks, the Origin and

Evolution of Magma, and Intrusive Activity

Eng. Walaa Darwish

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IGNEOUS ROCKS

If you go to the island of Hawaii, you might observe red-

hot lava flowing over the land and, as it cools, solidifying
into the fine-grained (the grains are too small to be seen
with the naked eye), black rock we call basalt.

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Magma is molten rock, usually rich in silica and

containing dissolved gases. ( Lava is magma on the
Earth’s surface.) Igneous rocks may be either extrusive if
they form at the Earth’s surface (e.g., basalt) or intrusive
if magma solidifies underground.

Granite , a coarse-grained (the crystals are large enough

to be seen with the naked eye) rock composed
predominantly of feldspar and quartz, is an intrusive
rock. In fact, granite is the most abundant intrusive rock
found in the continents.

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Unlike the volcanic rock in Hawaii, nobody has ever seen

magma solidify into intrusive rock. So what evidence
suggests that bodies of granite (and other intrusive
rocks) solidified underground from magma?

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1- Mineralogically and chemically, intrusive rocks are

essentially identical to volcanic rocks.

2- Volcanic rocks are fine-grained or glassy due to their

rapid solidification; intrusive rocks are generally coarse-
grained, which indicates that the magma crystallized
slowly underground.

Experiments show that the slower cooling of liquids

results in larger crystals.
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3- Experiments have confirmed that most of the

minerals in these rocks can form only at high
temperatures. Other experiments indicate that some of
the minerals could have formed only under high
pressures, implying they were deeply buried.

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4- Preexisting solid rock, country rock, appears to have

been forcibly broken by an intruding liquid, with the
magma flowing into the fractures that developed.
Country rock , incidentally, is an accepted term for any
older rock into which an igneous body intruded.

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5- Close examination of the country rock immediately

adjacent to the intrusive rock usually indicates that it
appears “baked,” or metamorphosed, close to the
contact with the intrusive rock.

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Laboratory experiments have greatly increased our

understanding of how igneous rocks form. However,
geologists have not been able to make coarsely
crystalline granite artificially.

Only very fine-grained rocks containing the minerals of

granite have been made from artificial magmas, or
“melts.” The temperature and pressure at which granite
apparently forms can be duplicated in the laboratory—
but not the time element.

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According to calculations, a large body of magma

requires over a million years to solidify completely. This
very gradual cooling causes the coarse-grained texture
of most intrusive rocks.

Yet another problem in trying to apply experimental

procedures to real rocks is determining the role of water
and other gases in the crystallization of rocks such as
granite

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CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

Igneous rocks are named based on their texture and

chemical composition. The texture of an igneous rock
(its appearance in terms of grain size and presence of
gas bubbles, for example) gives you information on
where that rock formed, whether beneath the surface as
an intrusive igneous rock or on the surface as an
extrusive igneous rock.

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The chemistry of an igneous rock tells you about the

origin of the magma and how it evolved before finally
solidifying. Geologists infer the chemistry of an igneous
rock by looking at the minerals it is composed of or, if
the rock is too fine-grained to see individual minerals, by
its color.

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Because magma can either cool slowly in a magma

chamber, forming an intrusive rock, or cool rapidly on the
surface, forming an extrusive rock, one name is given to
the coarse-grained intrusive version and another to the
fine-grained extrusive version.

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For example, earlier we described granite, a coarse-

grained rock composed predominantly of feldspar and
quartz. If a magma of the same composition as granite
were to erupt onto the surface and cool rapidly, it would
still form a rock composed predominantly of feldspar
and quartz, but it would be fine-grained. This fine-
grained rock would be called rhyolite

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IGNEOUS ROCK TEXTURES

Texture refers to a rock’s appearance with respect to the

size, shape, and arrangement of its grains or other
constituents.

Igneous textures can be divided into three groups:

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1. Crystalline rocks are made up of interlocking crystals

(of, for instance, the minerals quartz and feldspar).

2.Glassy rocks are composed primarily of glass and

contain few, if any, crystals.

3. Fragmental rocks are composed of fragments of

igneous material.

As you will see, the texture of an igneous rock can tell

you a lot about where and how it formed.
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Crystalline Textures

Most igneous rocks form from the cooling and

solidification of magma. Crystals form and grow as the
melt cools, and the result is a crystalline texture. The
most significant aspect of texture in crystalline igneous
rocks is grain (or crystal) size

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Two critical factors determine grain size during the

solidification of igneous rocks: rate of cooling and
viscosity. If magma cools rapidly, the atoms have time to
move only a short distance; they bond with nearby
atoms, forming only small crystals.

Grain size is controlled to a lesser extent by the viscosity

of the magma. Atoms in highly viscous lava cannot move
as freely as those in a more fluid lava. Hence, a rock
formed from viscous lava is more likely to be finer
grained than one formed from more fluid lava.

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Glassy Textures

With extremely rapid or almost instantaneous cooling,

individual atoms in the lava are “frozen” in place,
forming glass rather than crystals.

Remember, you learned in chapter 2 that, by definition,

minerals have a crystalline structure where the atoms
are arranged in an orderly, repeating, three-dimensional
pattern.

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In a glass, the atoms are not ordered, so minerals are

not present. Obsidian which is a dark volcanic glass, is
one of the few rocks that is not composed of minerals

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Fragmental Texture

When trapped gases are released during an eruption, it

can lead to lava being blasted out of the vent as
fragments of rock known as pyroclasts

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CHEMISTRY OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

The chemical composition of magma determines which
minerals and how much of each will crystallize when an
igneous rock forms.

Because magma contains quite a lot of silicon and

oxygen, igneous rocks are composed primarily of the
silicate minerals quartz, potassium feldspar, pyroxene,
biotite, and olivine.

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A magma that is rich in silica, aluminum, potassium,

and sodium will crystallize minerals that contain those
elements (feldspar and quartz). A magma that is rich in
iron and magnesium and calcium will contain a lot of the
dark-colored ferromagnesian minerals (olivine, and
biotite).

Chemical analyses of rocks are reported as weight

percentages of oxides (e.g., SiO2 , MgO, Na 2 O, etc.)
rather than as separate elements (e.g., Si, O, Mg, Na).

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For virtually all igneous rocks, SiO2 (silica) is the most

abundant component.

The amount of SiO2 varies from about 45% to 75% of

the total weight of common igneous rocks.

Based on the amount of silica, igneous rocks are

classified into four groups, which are, in order of
decreasing silica content, felsic, intermediate, mafic,
and ultramafic.

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IDENTIFYING IGNEOUS ROCKS

In order to identify an igneous rock, you must consider
both its texture and the minerals it contains.

Because of their larger mineral grains, plutonic rocks are

the easiest to identify.

The physical properties of each mineral in a plutonic

rock can be determined more readily.

And, of course, knowing what minerals are present

makes rock identification a simpler task
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HOW MAGMA FORMS

Now that you’ve learned about the common igneous

rocks and how they vary in terms of texture and
composition, it is time to explore how magma forms and
what happens to it as it moves through the Earth’s crust.
Let’s begin with the question of how magma forms.

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A common misconception is that the lava erupted from

volcanoes comes from an “ocean of magma” beneath
the crust.

However, the mantle is not molten but solid rock. In

order to understand how magma forms, we must
consider the source of heat for melting rock, the
conditions at depth beneath the Earth’s surface, and the
conditions under which rocks in the mantle and lower
crust will melt.

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Heat for Melting Rock

Most of the heat that contributes to the generation of

magma comes from the very hot Earth’s core (where
temperatures are estimated to be greater than 5,000 C).

Heat is conducted toward the Earth’s surface through

the mantle and crust.

Unlike ice, which has a single melting point, rocks melt

over a range of temperatures. This is because they are
made up of more than one mineral, and each mineral
has its own melting point.
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EXPLAINING IGNEOUS ACTIVITY BY PLATE

TECTONICS
One of the appealing aspects of the theory of plate
tectonics is that it accounts reasonably well for the
variety of igneous rocks and their distribution patterns.

Divergent boundaries are associated with the creation of

basalt and gabbro of the oceanic crust. Andesite and
granite are associated with convergent boundaries.

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Igneous Processes at Divergent Boundaries

The crust beneath the world’s oceans (over 70% of

Earth’s surface) is mafic volcanic and intrusive rock,
covered to a varying extent by sediment and
sedimentary rock.

Most of this basalt and gabbro was created at mid-

oceanic ridges, which also are divergent plate
boundaries.

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Igneous Processes at Convergent Boundaries

Intermediate and felsic magmas are clearly related to

the convergence of two plates and subduction.

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