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Aeneid Ten - Pallas and Mezentius

The book opens with a gods’ council. Aeneas and Pallas get back with the
Etruscans and war continues. Turnus kills Pallas and takes his belt as a trophy.
Aeneas is furious about this and rages over the battlefield, killing a lot of
Italians, including Mezentius (the deposed tyrant of Etruria against whom many
Etruscans have sided with the Trojans) and his son Lausus.

Introductory Comments
In Book 10, Aeneas’ character in war as a decent human being under natural
emotional strain is explored in great depth and played off against the characters of
others who share his primitive Homeric instincts but lack his higher qualities. These
almost conflicting sentiments of Aeneas are particularly apparent when we look at his
attitude changes after killing Lausus, (See relevant notes) son of Mezentius, the
deposed tyrant of Etruria.

As with book 9, book 10 is primarily about fighting and Vergil’s personal agenda as a
poet of war. It is crucial that you have mastered the details of the issues raised in book
9. (Revise the first four pages of the handouts on it.)
 The Roman mission. (Peace through war.)
 Vergil’s attitude to war, as being unpleasant but necessary - he will sympathise
with the victims of Rome’s mission, just as he did earlier with Dido.
 Notes on tackling A-level context questions.

Oh, and when writing essays or answering gobbets, you should always …

QUOTE THE
TEXT!!
(in case I haven’t mentioned it.)
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Areas of Greatest Importance

Obviously one cannot predict exactly what areas the examiner feels is most important,
and they could set a context question from anywhere in the book, but in my opinion
these are the most likely areas for selection by the examiners from book 10:
 Lines 438-509: Turnus killing Pallas - something on Turnus’ arrogant character
and the pathos of Pallas’ death.
 Lines 769-832: Aeneas killing Lausus - something on Aeneas’ furor, and the
change in his sentiments after killing him, and the lessons we learn from this, all
tied up with Vergil’s attitude to war. Also, the general pathos of Lausus’ death.
 Lines 833-908: Aeneas killing Mezentius - Mezentius’ character, as opposed to
what we know of him from elsewhere. Aeneas’ attitude towards him.

Lines 1 - 117 : Jupiter’s Council

The two central speeches (of Venus and Juno) are in marked contrast with the
calmness of the place and of Jupiter’s conciliatory attitude at the end. This episode
reminds us of the theme of fate and destiny - it can be delayed, but not stopped. We
must still consider it along these lines, even though the Trojans are at their destined
city. There will still be suspense in the unfolding of future events in the Aeneid.

Rhetorical Irony / Sarcasm

The rhetoric employed by Venus and Juno is very formal, and specific devices can be
observed to make their speeches more effective. Most of this concerns the Latin and
you should not be asked to comment on it, but note the strong use of irony:

Venus
 29-30: I suppose I shall be wounded again - after all, mortals are at war and your
daughter stands in their way! Venus sarcastically suggests that Jupiter values the
mortal events above his own daughter. Diomedes will strike her again. (Cf. Homer,
Iliad v. 336ff. When Diomedes wounds Aphrodite, the Greek version of Venus.)
 42-9: Venus’ claim that she has given up all hopes of empire is heavily ironic and
clearly not true. Similarly the sarcasm about only hoping she can save Ascanius, is
not borne out of any genuine belief that the cause is lost. Things are just not going
well at the moment - she knows full well that it will all turn out right for the
Trojans in the end.
 53-5: …you give the order for Italy to be crushed beneath the mighty empire of
Carthage. That Rome should yield to Carthage is an unthinkable travesty of
History. It implies that since Jupiter does not seem to care about the future empire,
he may as well let that happen.
 61-2: If the wretched Trojans must live again the fall of Troy, give them back their
Xanthus and their Simois. Xanthus and Simois are rivers of Troy. If the Trojans are
not destined for a glorious future after all this miser, they may as well go back and
suffer at Troy again.
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Juno
Note how a lot of Juno’s points directly pick up or refute Venus’ complaints, often
sarcastically or ironically - this is another standard Roman rhetorical device.
 67: He was goaded into it by the ravings of Cassandra. This ridicules the mission,
attributing its origins to a raving madwoman. It is clearly not true, since Cassandra
was doomed to be disbelieved by everyone, and besides Aeneas was given
countless pieces of advice and instructions by a great many people, about what he
was supposed to be doing.
 75: …for Italians to ring Troy with fire at the moment of its birth - this picks up
Venus’ reference to Troy’s “rebirth” in line 27.
 85-6: Juno picks up Venus’ comment that Aeneas is far away - she adds no
counter-point to this, and clearly hopes that things will stay that way.

Patriotism (Roman Ideals)

There is no real exposition of this here but obviously the whole episode concerns
Rome’s future.

Fate and Free Will

The relationship between Jupiter, the fates, and the human actors is here
more explicit than elsewhere in the poem. The long-term fate cannot be
destroyed by human or divine opposition, and Jupiter must see that it comes
true; but the way it comes about, the time of its achievement, indeed its very
nature is dependant upon the conflicting forces in heaven and, in particular,
on the mortal actors who are the essential agents of heaven.
Williams, Vergil, Aeneid vii-xii, pp. 327-8

 Jupiter refuses to act one way or another, as he is the agent of destiny. He must
ensure that the decrees of fate are carried out, but how exactly this happens
remains to be seen.
 The actions of individuals like Venus and Juno will largely determine this. The
fates will find a way is how he leaves it. Again we explore the largely paradoxical
relationship between fate and free will - destiny will take place but individual
actions and responses (e. g. Juno helping Turnus / Aeneas almost giving up in book
5) are of the utmost importance.
 At times Jupiter is almost seen as the instigator of destiny (e. g. i. 279 - I have
given them empire which knows no bounds) and at other times he is merely serving
it - perhaps this is a reflection on the incomplete state of the poem. (Remember that
Vergil died before adding the final touches.)

Oaths
Oaths were of paramount importance to the Romans (and Greeks) and the oath by the
river Styx is the most sacred one possible. So we are assured as readers that destiny
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will happen, despite the current conflicts. There is no doubt that Aeneas will win.

Similes

97-9: Storm rising to illustrate the gods’ reaction

Juno and Venus are the first breeze and the other gods will follow. The storm is powerful, as is the
response of the gods, but will still fall silent in the face of a superior power, in this case Jupiter. (102)

Lines 118 - 214 : Aeneas Returns / Catalogues

At this point the narrative resumes from the end of book 9, after Turnus has jumped
into the Tiber to escape, and we can assume that he has rejoined the Rutulians outside
and is continuing to attack. We learn (146ff.) that Aeneas has rallied the Etruscans as
allies, since a foreigner is needed against Mezentius, the ex-tyrant of the Etruscans.

There are two lists here, one of the Trojans defending, and then one (for which Vergil
invokes the Muse for help) of the army returning with Aeneas.

The Invocation : 163-5

The first line of this invocation, Now goddesses, it is time to open up Mount Helicon,
is an exact repetition of the first line in the last invocation (vii. 641) which re-affirm
its traditional position in epic poetry. It also reminds us of Homer and the repetitive
nature of oral composition.

Special Significance of these Catalogues - a Reminder

Catalogues like this are a traditional piece of epic machinery (cf. notes on vii. 641ff.)
which are designed to hold our attention for a while on the armies about to fight and
introduce us to some of the important players on each side.

We have seen how Vergil likes to focus in on individuals and establish their identities
and backgrounds for the purposes of:
 Heightening the pathos for these people for when they die.
 Stopping the reader from seeing them as mere figures, or casualties of war.
 The reader can identify with the places referred to as early versions of sites famous
in their own time, mainly (though not exclusively) in Italy. This technique is
known as “etymological linking.” E. g. 145 - Capys, too, who gives the name to the
city of Capua in Campania.
 Some digressions into the mythological and surreal, which do serve to lighten the
tone, albeit briefly.
 (Similar to above) glorifying the people and connecting them to great Roman
figures whose families claimed to descend from them. This of course links Troy to
Rome once more (cf. end of book 2 where the Trojans leave as the flames of Troy
go up behind them, serving to symbolise the death of one nation and its connection
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to the birth of another) and reminds us that it was all fated. This is important, but
does not happen particularly here.

Etymology (NB the places named in the second catalogue are all in Etruria)
 145: Campania was a famous and prospering town of Vergil’s time.
 167: Clusium was a very famous Etruscan city near lake Trasimene.
 168 / 184: Cosae was on the coast north of Graviscae
 172: Populonium was on the coast just opposite Ilva.
 198-200: Ocnus was the founder of Mantua, Vergil’s own home town. It had
strong historical connections with Etruria and obviously Vergil could not resist the
temptation to include it. Note Vergil’s use of apostrophe - directly addressing a
character or place of which he is particularly fond.
 201ff.: The three races of Mantua were probably Etruscans, Gauls, and Veneti.
Each race had four peoples. (Cf. Livy v. 33. 9)
 206: Mincius and Benacus (modern Mincio and Garda) were the river on which
Mantua stands and the lake into which it flows.

Surreal / mythological digressions

 141: Ismarus of Maeonia, an area of Asia Minor - it included the river Pactolus in
which King Midas washed away his “golden touch” and thus made it gold-bearing.
 189-93: Cycnus is the Latin word for a “Swan.” The mythological tradition was
the Cycnus could not bear the loss of his lover Phaethon, who was burned by fire
for trying to drive the sun-god’s chariot. Therefore he was changed into a swan and
Phaethon’s sisters were turned into poplar trees. (Cf. Propertius, Odes i. 11. 30 /
Ovid, Metamorphoses ii. 340ff.)
 195-210: The reference is to the figurehead on the Centaur depicting the sea-god
Triton, Neptune’s trumpeter. (cf. vi. 171ff.) Note the clever ambiguity, where the
narrative sometimes implies the ship, sometimes the keel and sometimes the sea-
god himself. (Cf. iv. 246ff. and the ambiguity between Atlas, his mountain and
Man.)
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Lines 215 - 259 : Aeneas and the Sea-goddesses

The resumption of the story of how Cybele turned the Trojan fleet into sea-
nymphs briefly re-introduces the mythical fairy-tale world of Ovid’s
Metamorphoses into the hard reality of the battle scenes. It affords an
attractive glimpse of supernatural powers intervening in the mortal world
before Vergil returns again to the description of fighting which fills the rest
of this book.
Williams, Vergil, Aeneid vii-xii, p. 336

So the digression into mythological and surreal ideas is continued from the previous
section and enhanced (now becoming the main subject) to further vary and lighten the
tone before the brutalities begin.

Imagery

The mythological emphasis as established right at the start with the obscure imagery
about Phoebe and horses - Phoebe, the kindly goddess of the Moon, was pounding the
middle of the night with the hooves of her night-wandering horses. (216-8)

Scenesetting

Apart from the above, the only other real importance to this passage is that it is a
novel way of reminding the reader about important events from previous books, and
of setting the scene for what is to come.

Past events of which we are reminded

 The story of how the ships were turned into sea-goddesses when Turnus was trying
to burn them.
 The fact that the Trojans are currently trapped behind the walls of their
encampment under siege.
 Aeneas was given an invincible shield by Vulcan. (cf. viii. 625ff.)

The passage ends with Aeneas resolving once again to get into battle as quickly as
possible, and to arm and encourage his men and new allies.

Characterisation

Aeneas
257-9: Aeneas is getting psyched up for war now, and we are given a foreboding
glance of the enthusiasm with which he will soon fight.
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Lines 260 - 307 : The Landing

This is the first formal encounter between Aeneas and Turnus and it is vividly
presented - Aeneas has his shield and shining armour and Turnus is totally
unintimidated, in keeping with his arrogant character.

Similes / Imagery
Cranes (265-8) for the sound of the spears
The point of this simile (based on Homer, Iliad iii. 2ff.) is to compare the horrible
sounds of the preparations and initial hurling of spears etc.

Fire imagery (270-2)

On the head of Aeneas there blazed a tongue of fire, baleful flames poured from the
top of his crest and the golden boss of the shield belched streams of fire…- the heavy
concentration on this reminds us of the negative destructive elements of war, just as
fire imagery is used earlier in book 4 to illustrate the destructive elements of love.

Aeneas compared to a comet / Sirius (272-6)

…like the gloomy, blood-red glow of a comet on a clear night, or the dismal
blaze of Sirius the Dogstar shedding its sinister light across the sky and
bringing disease and thirst to suffering mortals.

 The comet is a historical reference to the comet which appeared shortly after Julius
Caesar’s assassination and was taken to mean his ascension to heaven. (So more
linking of Aeneas to Augustus - see below.)
 Just like the return of Sirius, Aeneas’ return to battle will be disastrous for many
men, just as Achilles’ is in the Iliad from where the simile originates. (xxii. 26ff.)
Thus Aeneas’ return is portrayed in a very unpleasant light, considering what will
follow it.

Indirect Flattery of Augustus

Aeneas is made to appear just like the image of Augustus depicted on his shield.

Augustus (viii. 680-2)

High he stood on the poop of his ship while from his radiant forehead there
streamed a double flame and his father’s star shone above his head.

Aeneas
 261: Standing high on the stern of his ship…
 270: On the head of Aeneas there blazed a tongue of fire…

NB. The Latin for “standing high on the stern” (stans celsa in puppi) is replicated
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exactly (viii. 680 / x. 261) and the Latin-speaking reader would have picked it up.

Remember the idea of Aeneas and Augustus both being founders of a new era and
how Vergil directly or indirectly compares them, to make the point that everything
(from Aeneas onwards) was fated to be. (Another form of contemporary allusion.) Cf.
initial introductory notes for the different ways in which Vergil alludes to Augustus,
or to Rome’s glory in general.

Characterisation

Turnus
 277-8: Extremely confident and arrogant
 280-2: Good leader - encouraging his men
 282: Homeric values (“remember the great deeds which brought glory to our
fathers.”)
 285-6: Thinking things through, assessing who is suitable for each task.

Tarchon (leader of the Etruscan army revolted from Mezentius)

 His speech (294ff.) that he does not care about wrecking the ship as long as they
get to shore as quickly as possible shows him to be extremely emotional and
impetuous - he crashes his ship as a result of this haste to reach land and begin
fighting. We can assume that his reaction is motivated by his hatred for Mezentius.
This contrasts with the calm and composed leadership of Aeneas earlier in the
poem.
 The stupidity of Tarchon’s haste is conveyed more effectively through the use of
the apostrophe (302ff.) and the contrast between his ship getting wrecked and
everyone else’s making it.

Lines 308 - 361 : Aeneas’ Initial Fighting

The fighting now begins properly again, and clearly the two sides are at a stalemate.
Not the abruptness of the descriptions, and Vergil’s continued method of varying his
descriptions of the killing - some he describes with graphic detail, some he simply
lists, normally just after gaining the desired graphic effect of describing one death, so
that our minds can apply it to several ensuing ones. Remember also the technique of
describing individual people and their backgrounds to heighten the pathos.

Similes / Apostrophe
Armies like opposing winds (356ff.) to illustrate the stalemate
Like opposing winds fighting their wars in the great reaches of the sky, equal in spirit
and equal in strength; they do not give way to one another, neither the winds
themselves nor the clouds nor the sea, but long rages the fight, undecided, and they
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all stand locked in battle - the fairly obvious point of the comparison is that there is a
stalemate up to now between two very powerful forces. (Cf. ii. 416ff. / Homer, Iliad
xvi. 765ff.)

Apostrophe (325ff.) to Cnidon

Explicit Descriptiveness

This is all fairly obvious stuff and there is little point in my continuing to quote every
graphic description - see the handout on book 9 for the significance of such
descriptions (heightening pathos, because of Vergil’s very humanist attitude to war
etc.) and remember to quote and comment on them in context questions.

Here see esp.

 313-4: Theron’s armour being penetrated
 339-40: Alcanor’s arm (possible irony / sick humour about a brother’s hand
coming to help, then getting chopped off - “give us a hand!”)
 346ff.: Dryops struck full in the throat and vomiting blood

Personal Buildups

As we have seen, this contributes towards the pathos when they die - these are human
beings. Again, the comments are obvious, as discussed in the book 9 handouts.
Personal details, as well as varying the descriptions, come either to enhance pathos, or
to provide etymological links etc. as seen above. As with explicit descriptiveness,
quote and comment appropriately when you see them.

 317ff.: Lichas’ Caesarian

 322ff.: Gyas’ and Cisseus’ strength and paternal association with Hercules (a.k.a.
Heracles)
 327ff.: Cnidus’ homosexuality (though he does not die)
 351-2: Parents of the two groups of Thracians Aeneas kills
NB also any sort of brief description of people, as well as detailed ones about
their backgrounds.

Irony
Remember that irony contributes to the pathos, just as the graphic descriptions,
similes etc:
 317ff.: The weapon from Lichas’ Caesarian did not kill him, but this one did.
 327ff.: It is almost a shame that the homosexual Cnidus did not die by Aeneas’
hand since it would have put him out of the misery of watching the deaths of all
these young men he fancied.
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Morality
Family Values
 Suggestion with Venus as Aeneas’ loving mother (332) of Roman family values, as
Venus helps her son..
 Alcanor helping Maeon, a brother’s right hand to support a brother (339)
Characterisation

Turnus
 Desire for bloodshed - Turnus was no sluggard. Wasting no time he eagerly led his
whole force to face the Trojans and drew them up at the ready on the shore. (307-
9)

Aeneas
 Equally eager for battle - The trumpets sounded and Aeneas was the first to move
against the army of the country people of Latium and lay them low (312)

Other themes

Gods
 Venus here is helping her own (332) - we have not seen direct involvement from
her for a while.)

Fate
 Numitor is not allowed (344) to hit Aeneas with his spear - we are left to assume
that this is because Aeneas has a destiny which cannot be averted. (Obviously it
can be delayed, but his death would do a little more than that.)

Lines 362 - 438 : Pallas’ Achievements / Lausus

The description of Pallas’ achievements then of Lausus’ involvement serves to build
up our picture of them, and our anticipation of the significant role each will play later
in the book.

Personal Details

As usual, Vergil varies the description with touches of personal description.

 389: The sin of Anchemolus who had shamefully debauched his own stepmother
 390-2: Larides and Thymber being identical twins
 418: Halaesus’ father foreseeing his death

Similes
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405ff.: Fire spreading to illustrate Etruscan success

This is obviously a common idea (fire for bravery) but Vergil’s application is original.
All the little flames suddenly unite into one big central one, just as all the individual
deeds of valour by the Etruscans unite into one massive success.

Irony
 393ff.: Larides and Thymber are not identical anymore!
 433ff.: Pallas and Lausus are saved from death now only to die later

General Pathos
 433ff.: Lausus and Pallas are just reaching manhood, yet will die before they can
enjoy it.
 Apostrophe (390ff. / 410ff.) To heighten the pathos when people die or to add
effect to what Pallas is doing.

Explicit Descriptiveness
 382: Exact place where Lagus gets hit
 385: Hisbo’s lungs swelling up
 396ff.: Larides’ hand cut off but still holding the sword
 415ff.: Thoas’ face being smashed in with a rock

Patriotism (Roman Ideals)

Fighting for one’s country

 374: The Latin word patria (“fatherland”) usually refers to Rome and Italy when
used by contemporary Roman writers.

Protecting friends
 425: Halaesus protects Imaon the Italian. Imaon is not heard of elsewhere. The
detail serves as a reminder that even in the midst of carnage people are looking out
for their friends. The way it is mentioned abruptly implies that there is nothing
overtly special or rare about it.

Both these two themes can fall broadly under the pietas heading - remember that
this is a Roman ideal which Vergil, with his Roman ideals, is trying to promote.
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Characterisation
Pallas (fairly obvious stuff)
 Good leader - rallies his men by slandering their cowardice, appealing to their
pride and pointing out that the Latins are only men, not gods. (368ff.)

Lausus
 Brave - was bearing the brunt of the battle (426)
 Good leader - did not allow his men to be dismayed by all this slaughter (427)

Both of the above figures are strong and brave, as is established in this passage.
However, the last line of this section is filled with extreme pathos, as we see that all
their bravery will not amount to anything, since Fate and Jupiter are reserving for
each his own death at the hand of a much stronger enemy. (435-6)

Other themes

Fate
 417ff.: Halaesus’ father had foreseen his fate and tried to stop it, but fate can only
be delayed.
 434ff.: Lausus and Pallas are fated to die here, despite their potential prominence

Gods
 422ff.: Pallas promises to dedicate the spoils from Halaesus’ death to Thrybris, and
so Thybris helps. Show respect to the Gods and they will help you.

Lines 439 - 509 : Turnus Kills Pallas

The behaviour of Turnus in his one-sided victory is arrogant and offensive,
even allowing for the heroic convention of boastfulness in triumph, and it
paves the way for the dénouement of the poem, when Aeneas is about to
spare Turnus’ life, until he sees that Turnus is wearing the spoils which he
took from Pallas. It is not the actual taking of spoils which is blameworthy:
this was normal in the heroic way of life in Homer, and Pallas intended to
do the same (445ff.; though it should be noted that Aeneas dedicates to the
gods spoils which he takes, rather than keeping them, xi. 5ff.) It is the
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manner of Turnus’ triumph which alienates our sympathy.

Williams, The Aeneid of Vergil, p. 99

This episode is crucial, as it provides the motivation for the final scene.

Dramatic Buildup
Now that the big boys are starting to face off (i. e. the mighty warriors are not just
killing off the cannon-fodder anymore) there is more of a buildup to the fights. Here,
see 771ff. where Turnus is about to fight Pallas, having ordered his allies to step
down: So he spoke, and his allies left the ground clear as ordered. When the Rutulians
withdrew, Pallas marvelled at these proud commands and stood amazed at the sight
of Turnus, running his eyes all over that mighty body, his grim stare taking it in part
by part frm where he stood, and these were the words he hurled in reply to the words
of the insolent prince. (445-8)

General Pathos
Description of the belt (495ff.)
The story described is of the marriage of Aegyptius’ fifty sons to Danaus’ fifty
daughters. The brides all killed their new husbands on the wedding night because of
an oracle Danaus had received, that he would be killed by his son-in-law. One son’s
life was spared, by his wife Hypermnestra.

The story heightens the pathos and the belt’s significance for the end of the Aeneid. It
is also a story of violence fitting for Turnus to wear.

After Pallas’ death

505ff.: Men sadly carrying off Pallas, after his only day of war. Still, he did not die
for nothing, as many Rutulians died by his hand.

Apostrophe - Vergil’s interventions (507ff.) here heighten the feelings of sympathy

for Pallas, though he has been fairly brutal himself in the previous section, as well as
our lack of sympathy for Turnus since he is overwhelmingly arrogant.

Evander’s sentiments
Recall that Evander (vii. 572ff.) expressed various fears and hopes that Aeneas’
destiny would keep Pallas safe, partly obligating Aeneas to protect him, and giving a
very pathetic and pitiable display of emotion at the thought of Pallas being killed.

Similes
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454ff.: Lion attacking a bull to illustrate Turnus’ pursuit

Based on Homer (Iliad xvi. 823ff.) - Turnus has seen his prey from afar and began his
approach. The lion is more powerful but the bull is not totally weak. Still, there is no
doubt that the lion will win. The original Homeric version is of a lion (Hector)
attacking a boar (Patroclus) and there certainly are many superficial similarities in
subject matter between Pallas and Patroclus - remember that Vergil did rely a lot on
Homer for the raw material, which he then uses for different purposes.

Explicit descriptiveness

 480ff.: Armour being pierced and a mixture of blood and life (487) coming out of
the wound as he dies.

Characterisation - Turnus
Turnus is extremely arrogant and confident. He knows he can win and exalts in it.

Generally brave / macho

 442: Orders his men to stand down and leave Pallas for him.
 446ff.: Turnus is obviously very impressive, in size and stature, as Pallas looks
him over and takes in his mighty body, his grim stare taking it in part by part (447)
before they fight.

Arrogant
 445ff.: Extremely arrogant in his superior military skill
 448: the insolent prince
 481: Now see whether mine is any better at piercing

Unsympathetic
 445ff.: Totally insensitive to Pallas’ father (Evander - cf. the next section where
Aeneas feels remorse) - he orders his allies to leave Pallas for him.
 494ff.: Says that Evander deserves his son back like this for sending him against
him.

Turnus taking the belt (495-6) is not unreasonable, but almost everything he says is,
particularly the total lack of remorse he feels when he thinks of Evander. Vergil
comments on how Turnus’ failure to show any moderation in victory will lead to his
downfall. (501-2 / 503-5 / 507ff.) We are made to feel that vengeance must come.
(501ff. - There is a possible parallel with Hector after he has killed Patroclus, and will
later be killed by Achilles (Aeneas) in revenge.)

Also, there is a parallel between Turnus taking the belt as a personal possession, and
Euryalus (ix. 171) taking the helmet - both men are killed as a result of their spoils,
even though in Homeric tradition this was a standard practice. The point seems to be
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that this was simply not good enough as a Roman value, hence the consequences.

Characterisation - Pallas
 We have seen that Pallas is mighty (though still very young) in the last section.
Accordingly, he manages to graze Turnus who has been as yet untouched. (467ff.)
 He makes his brave speech too, (548ff.) about how he will kill the champion of the
Rutulians and take his armour. He possesses a lot of the bravery / arrogance of
Turnus but never does or says any of the overwhelmingly offensive things which
Turnus does.
Other themes
Respecting the gods
 465ff.: Pallas prays to Hercules, and as a result of this respect (and past guest-
friendship shown him by Evander) Hercules wants to help him.

Fate
 466ff.: Hercules cannot help Pallas even though he wants to, presumably because
he is fated to die here, or because Turnus is fated to die later. Jupiter philosophises,
Each man has his allotted day. All life is brief and time once past can never be
restored. (477-8)

Gaining glory
 469: Jupiter alludes to the Homeric theme of gaining kleos.

Lines 510 - 605 : Aeneas Drives Back the Siege

Aeneas’ reaction to Pallas’ death is violent and extreme, abandoning the ratio he has
been developing throughout the poem and making us think again of his Homeric
bloodlust, his furor and ira, from book 2. The previous and following books provide
countless examples of his fostering a more rational and self-controlled approach to
danger. The point is surely that he is still only human, and Vergil’s analysis of human
responses and imperfections as shown in his portrayal of Aeneas here is more realistic
as a result.

Aeneas has changed since the start of the Aeneid in that he has moved beyond the
simple Homeric warrior, but these are new qualities which he controls in the poem
with only limited success. This is a crucial theme for understanding of Vergil’s
attitudes to war. War brings out the worst in the best of us, and even people like
Aeneas who have developed and become capable of more than mindless violence
are susceptible to the rages and mindless bloodlust caused by war.
Unsurprisingly, a lot of the scenes in this episode are closely modelled on Homer, as
Aeneas acts just like a Homeric warrior.

As before, note the typical Vergilian variation in descriptions, between single deaths
explicitly described and mass-slaughter, and the interspersing of personal details.
 16

Characterisation of Aeneas

Everything which stood before him he harvested with the sword, cutting a
broad swathe through the enemy ranks, and burning with rage as he looked
for this Turnus flushed with slaughter. (513-5)

Aeneas is out of control - the Latin word furens (“raging” - cf. furor) is used to
describe him at the beginning and end of his rampage (545 / 604) and he acts like a
typical Homeric warrior. But apart from the bloodlust (which others also display)
Aeneas’ words are nothing like as excessive as Turnus’ - we must remember that a
certain amount of it was acceptable under heroic / Homeric conventions. Turnus just
went over the top, and with a lot less reason than Aeneas who has just lost a friend.

Pietas
Aeneas may have lost control but he is still pius - he is doing this because of his friend
and is motivated by his failure to protect him:
 515ff.: Pallas and his alliance to Evander are what is in his mind when he begins.
 518ff.: Captures four sons of Ufens and four of Sulmo to sacrifice them to Pallas
later. (C. Achilles in Iliad, xvi. 459ff.)
 591: the Latin word pius is used, perhaps surprisingly but it could simply remind
us yet again of why he is on his rampage. His duty to Evander can now only be
expressed by acts of revenge.

Brutal and merciless

At various places, Aeneas is begged for mercy and refuses it. Under better
circumstances he would probably give it, but he is out of control now. See 522 - 35 /
533ff. / 599ff.
 The capturing of the sons (see above) may be pius but is also very horrific.
 530ff.: Refuses to spare Magus (cf. Iliad xxi. 64ff. where Achilles refuses to spare
Lycaon) despite the very specific appeals - by the shade of your own father and the
hopes you have of Iulus as he grows to manhood, I beg you to spare this life of
mine for the sake of my son and father. (524-6) This is exactly the sort plea which
we would expect Aeneas to be moved by. He does not and his uncaring response
about Magus’ family is doubtless due to the Homeric frenzy he is in.
 555 - Smashes Tarquitus’ head on the ground (cf. Iliad x. 454ff.)
 599ff. : As with Magus, Liger’s plea appeals to Aeneas’ own family values, which
he completely ignores.

Taunting people he kills

 17

(Aeneas is not to blame - this fit right into the heroic tradition of boastfulness and a
little bit of it was not considered unreasonable. However, his words are heartless and
cruel, because at the moment he is desperately trying to avenge Pallas and expiate his
own guilt at failing to protect him.)
 531ff.: Not interested in money
 557ff.: Tarquitus will not be buried by his family, but left here for the animals (cf.
Odysseus in Iliad xi. 452ff. / xxi. 122ff.)
 592ff.: Lucagus’ cowardice is what caused is chariot to crash, not his horses (cf.
Iliad xvi. 744ff.)
 600: Sarcasm about Liger joining his dead brother Lucagus
See also any number of adjectives used to describe the frenzied nature of Aeneas’
character in this passage.

It is interesting to note, under Vergil’s theme of war being unpleasant but necessary,
that Aeneas in his frenzy has at least succeeded, by the end, in throwing back the
siege. (605)

We have seen Aeneas’ character at its most violent and are now prepared for Aeneas’
outburst again at the end of the poem when again he loses control.

Explicit descriptiveness

There is not the same amount of graphic description here, because most of the pathos
and effect is achieved by things Aeneas says, and there has just been some fairly
graphic detail in the last passage.

Irony / General Pathos

 546-9: Anxur uttering threats and trying to convince himself that he will live to
grow old. This sentiment is all the more remarkable because it is positioned in a
scene of absolute carnage, which further emphasises the tragedy of war.

Similes / Imagery
Fire imagery (514) - negative side of war
Aeneas is described as burning with rage - as before this emphasises the negative side
of war.

Aeneas like Aegaeon (565ff.) the giant

Aegaeon was another name given to the hundred-armed giant Briareus, who is
mentioned when Aeneas visits the underworld. (vi. 287) Aeneas is compared to him
for two reasons:
 He was a barbaric figure, symbolising violence and brutality, just as Aeneas is
behaving in this passage.
 The reach and number of Aegaeon’s hands can be compared to the reach of
 18

Aeneas’ furor.

Raging Torrent (603ff.) to illustrate Aeneas’ destructiveness

Like Aeneas, the torrent seeps through everything in its path indiscriminately and is
utterly destructive.

Dedicating Spoils to the Gods

Note the contrast between Turnus keeping Pallas’ belt, and Serestus (543) dedicating
the spoils from Magus to Mars. No-one else does this, and it interesting to note that
Serestus is not killed, even amid the slaughter Aeneas is performing all around him.
Lines 606 - 688 : Juno’s Plan to Save Turnus
This episode, as well as providing an interlude in the fighting, reminds us again of the
theme of fate (and in this case Juno’s powerlessness to avert it) as well as some
favourable indirect characterisation of Turnus.

Jupiter’s comment (608ff.) that Venus is the driving force behind the Trojan successes
is heavily ironic. Remember that at the start of this book (81ff.) Juno claimed that the
Trojans had no destiny and that Venus was selfishly helping them. Jupiter here is
sarcastically pointing out that Aeneas is performing on his own strengths.

Characterisation of Turnus
 Respectful to the gods - Juno makes this point that his generous hand has often
weighed your threshold with abundant gifts (619-20) and so should be given some
recognition. (Cf. the theme of showing respect to the gods, as opposed to being a
good person, to get favour)
 This sort of attention to moral obligations is actually a Roman ideal, so there is an
allusion to contemporary values in this account of Turnus’ reaction.

Looking back to the shore in bewilderment and thanking no-one for his
safety, he raised his arms in prayer and lifted up his voice to the stars of
heaven: “All-powerful Father, have you decided that I deserve this
disgrace? Have you decreed that I must endure this punishment? Where am
I being taken? What have I left behind me? How can I go back after running
away? What sort of Turnus would that be? Shall I ever see my camp and the
walls of the Laurentines again? And what about that band of great warriors
who have followed me and followed my sword? The horror of it - I have left
them all to die! I hear them groaning as they fall. What am I to do? If only
the earth could open deep enough to swallow me! Or rather I pray to the
winds, and pray to them from my heart, to take pity on me and drive my ship
on to the rocks and cliffs, or run it aground on some shoal of deadly sand,
where there will be no Rutulian and no word of my shame can follow me.”
Even as he spoke, his mind was tossed this way and that, in despair at his
disgrace. Should he fall on his sword and drive the raw steel through his
ribs? Should he throw himself into the sea and try to swim back from mid-
 19

ocean back into the curve of the bay to face the weapons of the Trojans
once again? Three times he tried each way, and three times mighty Juno
held him back, pitying the young man in her heart, and would not let him
move. (667-86)

Turnus has been portrayed in a very bad light from the last episode, and we must
remember that he is not all bad. We have seen that he has some pietas and is only
holding on to what he feels is his rightful claim in the first place. Here we see that he
is deeply concerned with his obligation and ashamed when he is tricked into not being
able to fulfil it. He would rather die than lose his honour. All this is standard Homeric
stuff.
Fate

The following extract from this section reminds us that fate can only be delayed, not
avoided. Juno is asking Jupiter to spare Turnus’ life, on the grounds that he is
descended from divine origins. This is Jupiter’s response:

“If what you ask is a stay of the death that is upon him and respite for a
young man who must die, and if you accept that this is what I ordain, then
rescue Turnus. Let him flee. Snatch him from the Fates that tread upon his
heels. There is room for me to grant you indulgence thus far. But if there is
some deeper thought of mercy underlying these appeals of yours , and if you
believe that the whole course of the war can be affected or its outcome
changed, the hopes which you nourish are empty.” (621-8)

Juno is unable to do anything about Aeneas’ destiny. She wants to save Turnus’ life
even though she is assured that it will do no good in the long term. (It will not even
save Turnus’ lie in the long term.) Aeneas will still win and found his city.

Lines 689 - 768 : Mezentius’ Battles

The point of all Mezentius’ exploits is to establish him as a worthy opponent for
Aeneas. The battle descriptions are very Homeric, as before, since we see yet another
Homeric-style warrior who is very mighty but unable to evolve into anything more.

As always, the descriptions are varied from individual deaths, mass carnage and some
personal descriptions to heighten the pathos.

Morality / Roman Values

 Recognising that the gods are very powerful (744)
 Consideration to one’s family (702-3)

Personal Descriptions
 20

 704ff.:Mimas’ background
 720ff.: Acron in exile from Corythus and hoping to get married in Italy

Characterisation of Mezentius
Family Values
 702-3: Gives the armour robbed from Palmus to his son

Respectful to the Gods

 744: Recognises the supreme power of Jupiter, concerning his own fate. (Some
arrogant warriors would claim to be invincible, which borders on hubris.)
Very brave and keen to show his skills
 732ff.: Does not shoot Orodes in the back as he flees, but makes the effort to catch
up with him and fight him face to face. NB this scene, and the inclusion of his
aristeia in general, is crucial for the impact of his later encounter with Aeneas, as it
helps establish him as a worthy opponent.

Brutal
 701-2: Leaves Palmus to die in agony, having hamstrung him

Mezentius is not entirely evil, as we can see, although we must remember that he is
the deposed tyrant of Etruria. He has not done or said anything which exceeds the
boundaries of acceptable behaviour within the Homeric conventions of war. We will
feel some measure of sympathy for him when he dies at Aeneas’ hands at the end of
this book.

Explicit descriptiveness

Hopefully I don’t even need to bother to explain why these are here - but you still do
in an exam!
 698ff: Latagus being smacked in the face with a boulder
 701: Palmus being hamstrung
 731-2: Acron staining the soil with his blood

The explicit descriptions are not as rife or graphic. We are supposed to concentrate on
Mezentius’ actions here, and characterisation as a Homeric hero (hence, for example,
the concentration of animal similes so typical of Homer) rather than the brutality of
what he is doing. Mezentius is not portrayed as an evil man, and too much brutality
would be counter-productive.

Similes (all to illustrate Mezentius’ Homeric furor)

The amount of similes (the Iliad has more than any other epic) and the sheer ruthless
valour displayed by Mezentius makes this passage more Homeric than anywhere else
in the Aeneid, the point being to show the archaic and Homeric nature of Mezentius’
 21

qualities, as opposed to Aeneas’.

Rock (693ff.)
Like a rock, Mezentius is solid and unmoveable. (Cf. Iliad xv. 618ff.)

Wild boar (707ff.)

Mezentius’ attackers are afraid of him - just like a wild boar is trapped and
surrounded but no-one dares go in to fight, so the boar is attacked from a safe distance
with spears and arrows. (Cf. Iliad xi. 414ff. / xiii. 471ff.)

Lion (723ff.)
Mezentius is now like a lion and goes after Acron, just like a lion who has seen his
prey and delights in it. Note the repetition of animal similes, describing Mezentius
both on the offensive and defensive. (Cf. Iliad iii. 23ff. / xii. 299ff. / xvii. 61ff.)

Orion (763ff.)
In the fourth simile for Mezentius in sixty lines, Orion the hunter is described - just
like Mezentius, he is huge (cf. Odyssey xi. 572 where he is thus described) and we are
reminded of the earlier reference to Polyphemus. (iii. 664-5)

General Catalogue of Italian Victories (747ff.)

This catalogue is very abruptly introduced into the account of Mezentius’ aristeia,
and the figures do not appear anywhere else. As well as Vergil varying his
descriptions, now simply a list of casualties, for reasons already discussed above, this
abruptness shows us the victories of Mezentius being reflected in the victories of his
allies.

The scope then broadens into a general description (755ff. - cf. Iliad xi. 70ff.) of the
battle being equally placed, neither side giving ground and the gods watching from
Olympus. The catalogue ends with a final reminder of how much suffering and losses
were undergone by both sides, and the pointlessness of it - Pitiless Mars was now
dealing grief and death to both sides with impartial hand. Victors and vanquished
killed and were killed and neither side thought of flight. In the halls of Jupiter the
gods pitied the futile anger of the two armies and grieved that men had so much
suffering, Venus looking on from one side and Saturnian Juno from the other, while in
the thick of all the thousands raged the Fury Tisiphone, pale as death. (755-62) Note:
 Venus and Juno are playing the game from above, pulling the strings, and we are
abruptly reminded that thousands of lives were lost over their personal struggle for
fulfilment of their own selfish interests.
 War is pointless, and there are no real winners.

Also note earlier (689) that Jupiter is controlling the battle, though it is not certain
why, when he prompts Mezentius to take Turnus’ place in the lead. Perhaps it is to
emphasise that Fate must take its toll of everyone (cf. Jupiter’s words 100ff.) and
 22

there is no “quick fix” for the Trojans just because they are the ones with the long-
term destiny.

Lines 769 - 832 : Aeneas Kills Lausus

Note the very rapid change in Aeneas’ attitude after killing Lausus (Mezentius’ son) -
Aeneas is human and will resort to fury as he has been, but we see the difference by a
very sharp contrast in Aeneas’ behaviour between the characters of Aeneas and
Turnus.

Pathos / General Dramatic Effects

 As before, there is more of a buildup to the fights. Here, see 771ff. where Aeneas
has spotted Mezentius: Aeneas had picked him out in the long ranks of me in front
of him and was going to meet him. Mezentius held his ground, unafraid, and the
huge bulk of him stood fast waiting to receive is great-hearted enemy. (769-74)
 Lausus is clearly no match for Aeneas, as there is no real battle at all - 815ff.:
Lausus and Aeneas both get themselves psyched up, Lausus charges and Aeneas
simply buries his sword into him, apparently with no deflections or effort of any
kind needed.
 Extended apostrophe to Lausus, laying emphasis on the glory of his exploits and
particularly his attempts to save his father’s life. (792-6)
 817: It (Aeneas’ sword) pierced too the tunic his mother had woven for him with a
soft thread of gold and filled the folds of it with blood. Then did his lie leave his
body, and go in sorrow through the air to join the shades. (personal details /
Lausus’ mother mentioned who will now be sonless, and soon a widow too.)

Similes

Hailstorm (802ff.) to emphasise Aeneas’ fury and destructiveness

Like a hailstorm, Aeneas scatters everyone in his path indiscriminately, and those who
are smart hide from him.

Morality
 23

769ff. - Intense feeling of futility and waste of the lives of fine people who might
have been used for the benefit of humanity .

Patriotism (Roman Ideals)

 See below for the ideas of humanity being capable of more than mindless violence.
Cf. the Roman ideal of showing mercy whenever possible, like Julius Caesar did
after the civil wars.
 Lausus’ concern for his father, and willingness to get himself killed by someone
blatantly better than him, in order to get his father out of danger.

Characterisation of Lausus
Pietas
 790-2: Seeing Mezentius in distress and Aeneas bearing down on him in hot fury,
Lausus moaned bitterly for the father whom he loved and the tears rolled down his
face. Especially given the contemptible past of his father - this is his purpose in the
plot. Aeneas can observe this pietas and be brought back out of the Homeric world
he now re-occupies.

Homeric bloodlust
 814: But Lausus was in full cry and his madness knew no check.

Characterisation of Aeneas before killing Lausus

Homeric bloodlust
 788: Exultant at the sight of the Etruscan’s blood

Frenzied
 813: At this the anger rose even higher in the heart of the leader of the Trojans
 In the Latin we get words like furit, (802 - “rages”) saevae … irae (813 - “his
savage anger”) to describe Aeneas’ state of mind - I repeat that there is absolutely
no requirement that you know any Latin, but if you can ever quote any I give you,
then the examiner will be extremely impressed.

Insulting Lausus’ pietas (of all things)

 …and then it was Lausus he challenged, and Lausus he threatened: “why are you
in such a haste to die? Why do you take on tasks beyond your strength? You are
too rash. Your love for your father is deceiving you.” (810-2: NB the Latin for the
final sentence here - fallit te incautum pietas tua.) Aeneas, in his fury, does not
care what he says, even though he is insulting the very quality he holds most dear
himself.

Aeneas’ Sudden Change After Killing Lausus

But when Aeneas, son of Anchises, saw the dying face and features, the face
 24

strangely white, he groaned from his heart in pity and held out his hand, as
there came into his mind the thought of his own devoted love for his
father, and he said: “what will the devout Aeneas now give to match such
merit? What gift can he give that will be worthy of a heart like yours? Take
your armour, that gave you so much pleasure. Now I return you to the
shades and the ashes of your ancestors, if that is any comfort for you. In
your misfortune you will have one consolation for your cruel death, that you
fell by the hand of the great Aeneas.” At this he turned on Lausus’
comrades, railing at them as they hung back, while he lifted Lausus off the
ground where he was soiling his carefully tended hair with blood. (821-33)

Aeneas has been vicious and without remorse (see note above) then all of a sudden we
get a change to the ratio, (“ability to reason”) misericordia, (“sense of pity”)
clementia, (“mercy”) and humanitas (“human compassion”) which we know he has.
Note the emphasis in this passage on:
 Aeneas’ own father, then the considerations he has for such values
 His desire to offer some compensation to Lausus (decent burial / he died by the
great Aeneas)
 Note particularly the mixture of Roman virtue and Homeric arrogance in Aeneas’
attempt to offer compensation: Roman “at least you have this compensation for
your untimely death” / Homeric “don’t worry about it. After all, you couldn’t
possibly have beaten the great Aeneas no matter how good and brave you were.”

Williams sums up the importance of this extremely well:

When the youthful Lausus encounters Aeneas to try to save his father’s life,
Aeneas still shows the same savage attitude. But at the moment of killing
Lausus suddenly a revulsion comes over Aeneas, and a sense of pity and
sorrow as he speaks gently to his victim and picks him up in his arms. Now
he is different indeed from Turnus and when he killed Pallas; now indeed
we can see the qualities in Aeneas which can lead to the advancement of
human civilisation, as those of Turnus could not. This is the aspect of
Aeneas which chimes in with the theme of the Aeneid; here is the warrior
who must oppose violence with violence, yet hates doing so. But this is in
victory; after the defeat of Pallas, beset by guilt and fury, Aeneas could not
show these qualities. It would have been easier for Vergil to pretend that
even in wild grief his hero would show the self-control and humanity that
we all admire; but it was truer to what Vergil knew of real human
behaviour to present Aeneas otherwise.
Vergil, Aeneid vi-xii, pp. 320-1 (own emphasis added)

Aeneas’ actions and loss of control have been justifiable in war after losing a friend.
They have not reflected his character totally and we are now reminded of the higher
values which he also holds dear.

Other themes

Fate
814-5: Lausus about to die - the Fates gathered up the last threads for Lausus. Again,
 25

we see the standard repetition of the fate idea in every possible context, revalidating
the general notion of everything (including Aeneas mission, including Rome,
including Roman history and hence including Augustus)

Lines 833 - 908 : Aeneas Kills Mezentius

Although Mezentius was a cruel tyrant whose atrocities caused a lot of people to
revolt against him in the first place, Vergil still arouses a sense of pathos, and
grudging admiration for the fact that he did so trying to avenge his son and for the
heroically accepting way in which he dies, particularly when contrasted to the dying
protests made by Camilla in the next book and by Turnus in the twelfth.

Direct Speech

I rarely bother pointing out examples of direct speech (though you must) because their
significance is o obvious, but here Mezentius’ speech serves to further heighten the
emotion behind what he says.

Morality / Roman Values

 Mercy - at the very end we wonder briefly whether Aeneas will spare Mezentius,
as a humane Roman general (like Julius or Augustus Caesar) would if at all
possible, until it becomes very clear that he will not.
 Dying for one’s son is a very Roman idea of sacrifice for one’s family.

Pathos
Note the dramatic elements and effects of Mezentius’ discovery that Lausus is
dead
 Not certain at first (839ff.)
 He pre-senses the death (843)
 Graphic description of him covering himself with dust and flinging himself onto
his son;s body, before making the pathos-filled speech discussed below. (845ff.)

Characterisation of Mezentius
 26

Again and again he asked about Lausus and kept sending men to recall him
and take him orders from his anxious father … Then, fouling his grey hair
with dust, he raised both hands to heaven and flung himself on his son’s
body: “was I so besotted with the pleasure of living that I allowed my own
son to take my place under my enemy’s sword? Is the father to be saved by
the wounds of the son? Have you died so that I might live? Now for the first
time is death bitter to me! Now for the first time does a wound go deep. And
I have even stained your name, my son, by my crimes … Seeing it (his
horse) pining, he spoke to it in these words: “we have lived a long time,
Rhaebus, if any mortal life is long. Either you will be victorious today and
carry back the head of Aeneas with the blood-stained spoils stripped from
his body, and you and I shall avenge the sufferings of Lausus; or else, if that
road is barred and no force can open it, we shall fall together. (838-66)

Pietas (see above extract)

 Concern for his son - sending men to inquire after him, even though in pain
himself.
 Obviously extremely upset at his death
 Regrets that his son died for him, and that his bad name as a tyrant sullied his son’s
good reputation.
 Immediate willingness to avenge his son or die trying

Bravery / acceptance of death

 Accepts that he might die - you and I shall avenge the sufferings of Lausus; or else,
if that road is barred and no force can open it, we shall fall together. (Cf. Iliad viii.
184ff. where Hector talks to his horse) One of Mezentius’ redeeming features is his
courage in battle, and it is appropriate for him to address his horse.
 Accepts that he is about to die - Why jeer at me and threaten me with death? There
is no sin in killing. I did not come into battle on those terms and my son Lausus
struck no such bargain with you on my behalf. (900-3) All standard sentiment from
the Homeric code of honour.

Scholars have argued that Mezentius is a thoroughly evil person and he is certainly
the most contemptible character in terms of his personal past before the Aeneid
begins, as established earlier, (viii. 481ff.) but his behaviour in the previous section on
his exploits (689-768) and here when he dies for his son suggest at least some
redeeming features.

Mezentius is a typical Homeric warrior, and whatever atrocities he has committed in

the past, he only acts within the acceptable parameters of one, in his appearances in
the Aeneid. Mezentius’ character and history is possibly one of the areas intended for
revision by Vergil later. We cannot be sure.

Perhaps a point Vergil is making is that even the evil suffered emotional loss when
war took a loved one away from them.

Characterisation of Aeneas
 27

Still very Homeric

 897-8: Standard taunts: Where is the bold Mezentius now? Where is that fierce
spirit of his?
 873ff.: Aeneas knew his voice and offered up his joyful prayer. Pleasure at the
thought of fighting a worthy adversary

Merciless
 In the closing lines, Aeneas could show mercy to Mezentius and does not. See
reasons for this discussed above in the section on 769-832.

End of Book 10
Mezentius’ last words (905ff.) are a plea to Aeneas to allow him a decent burial,
something which his allies the Etryscans will not allow because of his past cruelties.
Aeneas does not respond (so we do not know if he will grant this or not) but simply
kills him and the book ends on a very brutal note with a graphic description, as will
the whole poem: he then took the sword in the throat with full knowledge and poured
out his life’s breath in wave upon wave of blood all over his armour. (906-8)

Mezentius does not ask for mercy and there is never any issue of Aeneas giving it. He
is still at war and only manages to consider more humane policies well before or after
the event. This is the point Vergil is probably making by ending the book on this note,
as well as the general reminder that war is an ugly thing and we should dwell on the
casualties as well as its long-term benefits.

Some Thoughts
Turnus and Aeneas have the same capacity for mindless violence under certain
circumstances. They are both human. The distinction is that Aeneas has
something more - he has the capacity to evolve beyond this mindlessness, without
completely eradicating it - since he is human, he will not always manage it, but
the glimmer of it is there. Cf. in book 1 the promise that one day this value will
have been completely mastered. After all, Aeneas is only a proto-Roman.

As such, our sympathy for Turnus is reduced - his arrogance in war cannot be
overlooked. However, this is not entirely unacceptable (though too extreme) and
we should not assume that this makes Turnus a “bad guy.” He is still to be
considered a victim just like Dido was, and we must continue to sympathise with
the losers of Rome’s destiny, especially when Pallas’ dying words predict
Turnus’ death.

UNPICK DIFFERENT WAR THEMES MORE

 28

INTO CATEGORIES WITHIN SECTION

DISCUSSIONS

KEEP ALL GENERAL DISCUSSION ABOUT A

SECTION AT THE VERY TOP, AND ONLY
HAVE SPECIFIC REFERENCES IN THE
INDIVIDUAL SECTIONS