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1

2
Cont
ent
s
⚫ Gr
ammar
-Def
ini
ti
onsandi
mpor
tance

⚫ Sect
ionone:
Grammarofwor
ds(
Par
tsofspeech)

➡Chapt
er1:
Noun

➡Chapt
er2:
Pronoun

➡Chapt
er3:
Ver
b

➡Chapt
er4:
Adv
erb

➡Chapt
er5:
Adj
ect
ive

➡Chapt
er6:
Preposi
ti
on

➡Chapt
er7:
Conj
unct
ion

➡Chapt
er8:
Int
erj
ect
ion

⚫ Sect
iont
wo:
GrammarofSent
ences

➡Chapt
er1:
Str
uct
ureofsent
ence

➡Chapt
er2:
Kindsofsent
ence

➡Chapt
er3:
Tenses

➡Chapt
er4:
Transf
ormat
ionofsent
ences

3
Gr
ammar
-Def
ini
ti
ons&i
mpor
tance
Def
ini
ti
ons:
⚫ Gr
ammari
sthel
awofl
anguage.
⚫ Rul
esandr
egul
ati
onsofanyl
anguagear
ecal
l
edgr
ammar
.
⚫ Suchrulesandregulat
ionsbywhi
chl
anguageshoul
dbe
r
ead,wri
tten,orspokenarecall
edgr
ammar.
⚫ Thesetofr
ulesandexamplesdeal
i
ngwit
hthesy
ntaxand
wordst
ruct
ureofalanguagei
scall
edgrammar
.

I
mpor
tance:
⚫Inor dertol
earnanylanguagecorr
ectl
y,i
tisi
mportantt
o
l
earnit
sgr ammarbecauserules,r
egul
ati
onsandmethodsby
whi
chal anguageshoul
dbewr i
tt
enorspokenarest
udiedin
i
tsgrammar .

4
Sect
ion1
Gr
ammarofwor
ds(
Par
tsofspeech)
Suchwordswhichar
eusedi
nasentencefort
hepur
poseof
speakingandwri
ti
ngarecal
l
edpart
sofspeech.

Onewaytobegi
nstudy
ingbasi
csentencestr
uct
uresist
o
considert
het
radi
ti
onal
part
sofspeech(alsocal
l
edwor dcl
asses)
.

Ther
ear
e8par
tsofspeechi
nEngl
i
sh:

Noun:
Wor
dwhi
chi
susedt
onameper
son,
place,
thi
ngori
dea.

Ex:
boy
,school
,booket
c.

Pr
onoun:
Wor
dwhi
chi
susedi
nst
eadofanoun.Ex:
he,
she,
itet
c.

Ver
b:Wor
dwhi
chi
susedt
oex
pressanact
ionorast
ateofbei
ng.

Ex:
run,
look,
see

Adver
b:Wordwhichaddsomethingtothemeaningofaver
b,an
adj
ect
ive,
oranot
heradver
b.Ex
: sil
ent
ly,v
ery
,lov
elyet
c.

Adj
ect
ive:Wor
dwhi
chdescr
ibesanoun.Ex:
Beaut
if
ul,
ugl
y,someet
c.

Pr
eposit
ion:
Wordwhichshowsrelat
ionofanounorpr
onounwi
th
ot
hernounorpr
onoun.Ex:i
n,on,
atetc.

Conjunction:Wordwhichjoinstwowor
ds,
sent
ences,
par
agr
aphsor
thoughts.Ex:ei
ther
,or
, noretc.

I
nterj
ect
ion:
Asi
ngl
ewor
dusedt
oex
pressst
rongemot
ion.
Ex:
Wow!
,
Oh!,
No!etc.

5
Chapt
erno1:Noun
(
1.1)
Def
ini
ti
ons:
▶Nouni
sthenameofper
son,
place,
thi
ngorani
mal
.

▶Nouni
sanami
ngwor
d.

(
1.2)Ki
nds:
Ther
ear
esi
xcommonki
ndsofnoun.

1.Commonnoun 2.Pr
opernoun

3.Col
l
ect
ivenoun 4.Mat
eri
alnoun

5.Abst
ractnoun 6.Concr
etenoun

1.Commonnoun:Thecommonnouni sthenamet
oanyandev
ery
person,
placeort
hingofsameki
ndandcl
ass.

Exampl
es:
school
,hospi
tal
,gar
den,
boy
,gameet
c.

2.Pr
opernoun:Thepropernounist
henameofsomepar
ti
cul
aror
uni
quei
ndivi
duals,
eventsorpl
aces.

Exampl
es:
Kar
achi
,Taj
-Mahal
,JohnLi
steret
c.

Not
e:Wecanusear
ti
cles(
a,anort
he)
tomakei
tcommon.

Exampl
es: st
Hei heShakespear
e ofPaki
stan.

Not
e2:Thef
ir
stl
ett
erofpr
opernouni
sal
way
scapi
tal
.

3.Coll
ect
ivenoun:Col
l
ecti
venouni
sthenameofgi
venagr
oupof
persons,
place,
thi
ngsoranimal
set
c.

6
4.Mater
ialnoun:Mater
ialnounist
henameofsuchmat
teror
subst
anceoutofwhichotherthi
ngsar
emade.

Examples:
Gol
d,si
l
ver
,st
eal
,cot
ton,
mil
k,cl
ay,
rice,
diamondand
pl
asti
cetc.

5.Abst
ractnoun:Anabstractnouni
sthenameofsomequali
ty,
stat
e
andact
ion,whichcannotbetouchedandseenbutonl
ywecan
i
magineiti
nourmi nd.

7
8
⚫ For
mati
onofAbstractnouns:Abst
ractnounsar
eonl
y
f
ormedfr
om Adj
ect
ives,ver
bsandcommonnouns.
1.Abst
ractnounsf
ormedf
rom Adj
ect
ives:

Adj
ect
ives Abst
ractnoun

Abl
e Abi
l
ity

Joy
ful Joy

Good Goodness

Ki
nd Ki
ndness

Whi
te Whi
teness

Long Lengt
h

St
rong St
rengt
h

Wi
se Wi
sdom

Cr
uel Cr
uel
ty

2.Abst
ractnounsf
ormedf
rom ver
bs:

Ver
b Abst
ractnoun

Act Act
ion

Bear Bi
rt
h

At
tend At
tendance

9
Amuse Amusement

Gr
ow Gr
owt
h

Obey Obedi
ence

Laugh Laught
er

Li
ve Li
fe

Expect Expect
ati
on

Ex
cel Ex
cel
l
ence

Know Knowl
edge

Ser
ve Ser
vice

Hat
e Hat
red

Puni
sh Puni
shment

Pr
otect Pr
otect
ion

Di
scov
er Di
scov
ery

Di
e Deat
h

Occupy Occupancy

Choose Choi
ce

Bel
i
eve Bel
i
ef

Judge Judgement

10
3.Abst
ractnounsf
ormedf
rom Commonnouns:

Commonnouns Abst
ractnoun

Ki
ng Konghood

I
nfant I
nfancy

Mot
her Mot
her
hood

Thi
ef Thef
t

Her
o Her
oism

Fr
iend Fr
iendshi
p

6.Concret
enoun:Aconcr et
enouni sthenameofat hingthatcannot
betouchedandseen.ORAconcr etenounisanounwhi chnames
anythi
ngoranyonethatcanbeper cei
vedthr
oughphy si
calsenses:
touch,t
ast
e,heari
ngorsmell.Concret
enouni sopposit
eofabstract
noun.Examples:
book,pen,caretc.

(
1.3)Anot
hercl
assi
fi
cat
ionofnounsi
swhet
hert
heyar
e"count
abl
e"
or"
uncount
abl
e":
a)Countabl
enoun:Acountablenoun(
orcountnoun)isanounwit
h
bothasingul
arandaplur
al f
orm,andi
tnamesany t
hing(orany
one)
thatcanbecounted.

Count
ablenouncanbemadepluralandat
tachedt
oa
pl
uralverbi
nasentence.Count
abl
enounsar
et heopposi
teof
uncountabl
eandcoll
ecti
venoun.

Exampl
e:Wepai
ntedt
het
abl
eredandchai
rsbl
ue.

11
b)
Uncount
abl
enouns(
Uncount
abl
es)
:
Thesearethenamesoft hi
ngswhichcannotbecounted.
eg:mil
k,oi
l
,
sugar,
gold,honest
y.Theymai
nlydenot
esubstancesandabstr
act
thi
ngs.

(
1.4)
.Number
s:
1.Si
ngularnumber
:Asi
ngularnumberdenot
esonet
hing,
per
son,
pl
ace,oranimal
.
eg:
chai
r,t
able,
parr
otetc.

2.Pluralnumber:
Apl ur
alnumberdenotesmorethanonethi
ng,
person,animal
orplace.Eg:chai
rs,
tabl
es,par
rot
s,bui
l
dingset
c.

Rulest
ochangesingul
arnounint
oplural
:Ther
ear
e12r
ulest
o
changesi
ngul
arnounint
oplur
al,
theseare:

Rul
e1:Gener
all
ypl
ural
nounsar
emadebyaddi
ng"
s"i
ntheendi
ngof
si
ngul
arnoun.

Si
ngul
ar Pl
ural

Roof Roof
s

Cust
omer Cust
omer
s

Car
e Car
es

e2:I
Rul fi
ntheendi
ngofsi
ngularnounis"
s/sh/ch/ss/o/
x/z"t
hen
pl
ural
nounsarefor
medsimplybyadding"es"i
nt helast
.

Si
ngul
ar Pl
ural

Cl
ass Cl
asses

Bench Benches

12
Do Does

Br
ush Br
ushes

Boss Bosses

Box Box
es

Rule3:Ifsingul
arnounendsin"y"andconsonantbef
orei
tthanplur
al
nounsar emadebychangi ng"y
"into"i
"and"es"i
saddedintheending
ofsingularnoun.

Si
ngul
ar Pl
ural

Baby Babi
es

Ar
my Ar
mies

Ci
ty Ci
tes

Lady Ladi
es

Rule4:I
f"foref"isi
ntheendingofsi
ngularnoun,
thenplur
alnouns
areformedbychanging"foref"i
nto"
v"andbyadding"es"i
nthe
endingofsingul
arnoun.

Si
ngul
ar Pl
ural

Li
fe Li
ves

Kni
fe Kni
ves

Cal
f Cal
ves

Wi
fe Wi
ves

Thi
ef Thi
eves

13
Rul
e5:Somepl
ural
saremadebyaddi
ngonl
y"s"i
ntheendi
ngof
si
ngul
arnouni
nspit
eof"foref
".

Si
ngul
ar Pl
ural

Chi
ef Chi
efs

Saf
e Saf
es

Pr
oof Pr
oof
s

Roof Roof
s

Gul
f Gul
fs

Rul
e6:If"y"i
sintheendi
ngofsi
ngul
arnounandvowelbefor
eit
,then
pl
uralnouncanbemadeonlybyadding"s"i
nthel
ast
.eg:Monkeys,
Boys,
Day setc.

Rule7:Somepl
ural
sar
emadebychangi
ngi
nsi
dev
owel
sofsi
ngul
ar
noun.

Si
ngul
ar Pl
ural

Man Men

Woman Women

Foot Feet

Toot
h Teet
h

Louse Li
ce

Mouse Mi
ce

14
Rule8:Someplural
sareformedbyonlyadding"r
en"or"
en"i
nthe
endingofsi
ngularnoun.eg:chi
l
d-chi
l
dren,
ox -
oxen.

Rul
e9:Compoundnounsar
emadeplur
albyaddi
ng"s"t
othepri
nci
pal
wor
d.eg:br
other
sinl
aw,passer
sby
,sonsi
nlaw,mater
naluncl
eset
c.

Rul
e10:Somecompoundnounst
akedoubl
epl
ural
for
m.

eg:
Menser
vant
s,womenser
vant
set
c.

Rul
e11:Somenounsar
eal
way
susedi
nsi
ngul
arf
orm.

eg:
Inni
ng,
Mat
hemat
ics,
Phy
sics,
Pol
i
tics,
Ethi
cset
c.

Rul
e12:Thesenounsar
eal
way
susedi
nsi
ngul
arsense.

eg:
cat
tl
e,peopl
e,poul
tr
yet
c.

(
1.5)Gender
s:Thewor
d"gender
"hasbeent
akenf
rom Lat
in
l
anguage'
sword"genus"whi
chmeanssor
t/ki
nd.
Ther
ear
efour
gender
sinEngl
i
sh:

1.Mascul
i
ne 2.Femi
nine. 3.Common 4.Neut
er

1.Mascul
inegender
:Anount
hatdenot
esmal
eper
son/
ani
mal
.

eg:
hor
es,
boy
,peacocket
c.

2.Femini
negender:Anount
hatdenot
esf
emal
eper
sonorani
mal
.eg:
mare,gi
rl
,peahen.

3.Commongender:Anount hatcanbeusedforbot
hmal
eand
femal
e.eg:
par
ent
,student
,chil
d,doct
oretc.

4.Neut
ergender
:Anount
hatdenot
esnon-
li
vi
ngt
hing.

eg:
tree,
book,
stone,
penet
c.

15
Formingrul
es:Ther
ear
e5r
ulesf
ormaki
ngFemi
ninef
rom
masculi
ne.

Rul
e1:Add"
ess"ont
heendofmascul
i
nef
ormaki
ngf
emi
nine.

Mascul
i
ne Femi
nine

Aut
hor Aut
hor
ess

Jew Jewess

Gi
ant Gi
ant
ess

Pr
ince Pr
inces

Poet Poet
ess

Shepher
d Shepher
dess

Host Host
ess

Li
on Li
oness

Hei
r Hei
ress

Rule2:Cancel
thel
astv
owel
let
terand"
ess"f
ormaki
ngf
emi
nine
gender.

Mascul
i
ne Femi
nine

Act
or Act
ress

Founder Foundr
ess

Wai
ter Wai
tr
ess

Mur
der
er Mur
der
ess

16
Hunt
er Hunt
ress

Rul
e3:Somenounsoff
emini
negenderar
efor
medbyaddi
ng"
a,"
ine"
or"t
ri
x"att
heendofmascul
i
ne.

Mascul
i
ne Femi
nine

Her
o Her
oin

Execut
er Execut
ri
x

Sul
tan Sul
tana

Rul
e4:Somef
emi
ninenounsar
emadebyput
ti
nganot
herwor
d.

Mascul
i
ne Femi
nine

Cookspar
row Henspar
row

Gr
andf
ather Gr
andmot
her

Landl
ord Landl
ady

Bul
lel
ephant
s Cowel
ephant

Rul
e5:Somef
emi
ninenounsar
emadebyput
ti
ngdi
ff
erentwor
ds.

Mascul
i
ne Femi
nine

Bachel
or Mai
d

Boy Gi
rl

Br
idegr
oom Br
ide

Buckb Doe

Bul
l Cow

17
Cock Hen

Dr
one Bee

Nephew Ni
ece

Dr
ake Duck

Donkey Ass

(
1.6)Usageofnoun:Ther
ear
ethr
eemaj
orusesofnoun.

1.Useofnounassubj
ect
.

2.Useofnounasobj
ect
.

3.Useofnounasanadj
ect
ive.

1.UseofnounasSubject
:Whennounisusedasdoerofwor
kina
sent
enceorabouti
tknowledgei
sgi
veniti
scal
ledsubj
ect
.

Josephi
eg: spl
ayi
nggame.

Her
ethenoun"
Joseph"i
ssubj
ectbecausehei
sdoerofwor
k(pl
ayi
ng)
.

2.Useofnounasobj
ect:Whennouni
susedasbear
erofwor
kina
sent
ence,
iti
scal
ledobj
ect.

eg:
Adam i ngmeal
scooki .

Her
ethenoun"
meal
"isobj
ectbecausei
tbear
stheact
ionofsubj
ect
(
Adam).

Whenanounisusedasabearerofworki
nasentenceanda
pr
eposi
ti
onshowsit
sposit
ion,movement
,di
rect
ionetc,
iti
scal
l
edas
anobj
ectofpr
eposi
ti
on.

18
3.UseofnounasAdjecti
ve:Whenanounshowsquali
ty,
quant
it
y,
meri
tsordemeri
tsofanothernoun,
iti
scal
l
edasAdject
ive.

OurEngl
eg: i
sht
eacherwasabsenty
est
erday
.

I
nt hi
ssent
ence,t
henoun"
Engl
i
sh"pr
ecedest
henoun"
teacher
"andi
s
usedasanadject
ive.

eg2: sst
Josephwant rawber
ryi
ce-
cream.

Herethenoun"
str
awberr
y"act
sasadescri
bingwor
dfort
heki
ndof
"
ice-
cream"soi
tisuseasanadject
ive.

Li
stofNounsasadjecti
ves:Boatr chocol
ace, ateshop,tennisball
,
waterbot
tl
e,Engl
i
shteacherf
,ir
eal
arm,schoolbag,pr
incipaloff
ice
et
c.

Rul
esf
oruseof"
Nounsasadj
ect
ive"
:
1.Nounsasadject
ivesar
ealwayspl
acedbef
oret
hesecondnouni
na
sent
encewhichtheydescr
ibe.

eg:
mangoj
uice.
(mango:
nounasadj
ect
ive&j
uice:
noun)

2.Nounsasadj
ect
ivear
eusedi
nsi
ngul
arf
orm.

eg:
toot
hbr
ush/
toot
hbr
ushes(
It
'sr
ight
)

Teethbr
ush/t
eet
hbrushes(i
t'
swrongbecausenounwhi
chi
sused
hereasanadj
ect
ive"
teeth"i
sint
heplur
alform.

3.Theplur
alnounswhenusedasadject
ivesar
eal sot
reat
edas
si
ngular
.Examples:
spor
tsart
icl
esorsportsar
ti
cle,Gi
rl
sschool
sor
Gir
lsschoolet
c.

4.Ther
ear
ethr
eeway
sforwr
it
ingnounsasadj
ect
ives,
thesear
e:

19
i
)Ast
wosepar
atewor
ds.
eg:
school
bag.

i
i
)Ashy
phenat
edwor
ds.
eg:
ice-
cream

i
i
i)Asonewor
d.eg:
foot
bal
l
,housewi
feet
c.

5.Nounsasadj
ect
ivesareal
waysemphasi
zedonwhenspeaki
ng.eg:
I
ntheword"Headmaster
",t
henoun"
head"i
semphasi
zedon.

6.Youcanusemor
ethanonenounasadj
ect
ivet
obet
terdescr
ibea
noun.

eg:
Paki
stancri
cketteam coach.
("
Paki
stancr
ickett
eam"
arenounsas
adj
ect
ivesand"coach"i
snoun)

7.Youcanalsocombine"adj
ecti
ves"wi
ththe"nounasadject
ive"t
o
bett
erdescri
beanoun.eg:cut
ebabydoll
.(
cute:adj
ect
ive,
baby:
noun
asadject
ive&dol
l:
noun).

(
1.7)Casesofnoun:
Ther
ear
efourcasesofnoun.

1.Nomi
nat
iveorsubj
ect
ivecase. 2.Accusat
iveorobj
ect
ivecase.

3.Possessi
vecase. 4.Vocat
ivecase.

1.Nominati
veorsubject
ivecaseofnoun:Whenanouni susedas
subj
ectofverb,
iti
ssaidtobeinthenominat
iveorsubj
ecti
vecase.To
fi
ndoutthenominati
vecaseput"whoorwhat"befor
ehelpi
ngv er
b.

eg:
Mat
il
dai
sgoi
ngt
oschool
.

Ifweput"who"befor
ehelpi
ngverb(i
s),i
tbecome"whoi
sgoi
ngto
school
?",
sotheanswerofthisquest
ionis"Mat
il
da"
,whi
chi
ssubj
ect
soiti
sanomi nat
iveorsubj
ecti
vecase.

eg2:
Booki
sont
het
abl
e.

20
I
fweput"
what
"bef
oret
hehel
pingv
erbi
tbecomes

"
Whati
sont hetabl
e?"
,sot
heanswerofthisquesti
onis"book"whi
ch
i
ssubj
ect
,itmeansiti
sanominat
iveorsubject
ivecase.

2.Accusat
iveorobject
ivecaseofnoun:Whenanouni
susedasan
obj
ectofav er
b,i
tissai
dt obeint
heaccusati
ve/
obj
ect
ivecase.

Tof i
ndouttheaccusati
vecase,put"whom"or
"what"befor
et heverbanditssubj
ect.Anounwhi chcomesaf t
era
preposi
tioni
sal sosaidtobeintheaccusati
veorobjecti
vecase.
eg:Thebookisont hetable.
(Thenoun"tabl
e"isintheaccusat
ivecase
usedbyt hepreposit
ion"on")
.

3.Possessi
vecaseofnoun:Whenanoundenoteowner
ship,or
igi
n
andkindetci
nasentence,
iti
ssai
dtobeinpossessi
veorgenit
ive
case.

eg:
Shakespear
'spl
ays(
thepl
ayswr
it
tenbyShakespear
e)

eg2:
Mot
her
'sl
ove(
thel
ovef
eltbymot
her
)

eg3:
Mr.
Adam'
shouse(
Thehousewher
eMr
.Adam l
i
ves)

eg4:
Achi
l
dren'
spl
aygr
ound(
apl
aygr
oundf
orchi
l
dren)
.

⚫ Rul
esf
ort
hef
ormat
ionofpossessi
vecase:
1.Whenthenouni
ssi
ngul
arthepossessi
vecasei
sfor
medbyaddi
ng
'
stothenoun.eg:
Theboy
'sbook,t
heking'
scrown.

Note:t
helett
er"
s"isomi t
tedinfewwor dswheretoomanyhissi
ng
soundswouldcomet ogether
.Examples:forconsci
ence'
sake,
for
goodness'
sake,f
orjusti
ce'sake,f
orJesus'sakeetc.

21
2.Whent henouni
splur
alandendsin"s"
,thepossessi
vecasei
s
formedbyonlyaddi
nganapostr
ophe.eg:Gir
ls'
school,
Boys'
playgr
oundetc.

3.Whent henounispl
ural
butdoesnotendin"s",
thepossessi
vecase
i
sf ormedbyadding'
s.eg:men'
sclub,
chil
dren'
sbook,women's
dressesetc.

4.Whenanounorat i
tt
leconsi
stsofseveralwor
ds,
thepossessi
ve
si
gnisatt
achedonlyt
othelastword.eg:Thepri
memini
sterof
Paki
stan'
sspeech.

5.Whentwonounsar
einapposi
ti
on,
thepossessi
vesi
gni
sputi
nto
l
ateronl
y.

eg:
Pakist
aniwri
terandphi
l
osopher
'shouse,
Engl
i
sht
eacherand
wri
ter
'spi
ctur
es.

6.Eachoftwoormoreconnectednounsimply
ingsepar
ate
possessi
on,mustt
akethepossessi
vesign.

eg:Shafi
q-ul
-Rahman'sandR. KCav
endi
sh'
sNov
els,
Engl
i
sht
eacher
's
andScienceteacher
'sclasses.

⚫ Useoft
hepossessi
vecase:
1.Thepossessi
vecasei
snowusedchi
efl
ywi
tht
henamesofl
i
ving
thi
ngs.
eg:
Thel i
on'
smeat
,thehor
se'
sgr
asset
c.

Ther
efor
e,Thel
egoft
het
abl
e(nott
het
abl
e'
sleg)

Thecov
eroft
hebook(
nott
hebook'
scov
er)

Ther
oofoft
hehouse(nott
hehouse'
sroof
)

22
2.Butpossessi
vecasecanbeusedforpersonif
iedobject
s.eg:
Paki
stan'
sheroes,Nat
ure'
slaws,
for
tune'
sf av
orite,
atduty'
scal
l,at
deat
h'sdooretc.

3.Thepossessi
vecaseofnouni
sal
sousedwi
thnoundenot
ingt
ime,
spaceorweight
.

eg:
Time:Aweek'
shol
i
day
,inay
ear
'st
imeet
c.

Space:Af
oot
'sl
engt
h,agr
ound'
swi
dthet
c.

Wei
ght
:Ast
one'
sthr
ow,
apound'
swei
ght
.

4.Thepossessi
vecaseofanoundenoti
ngatrade,pr
ofessi
onor
rel
ati
onshi
pmaybeusedt odenoteabui
ldi
ngorplaceofBusiness
(chur
ch,house,
school
,col
l
ege,shop,
hospi
tal
,theat
eretc)
.

eg:
Shehasgonet
othebaker
's(
=baker
'sshop)

eg2:
Toni
ghtIam di
ningatmyuncl
e'
s(=uncl
e'
shouse)
etc.

6.Anounorpronounaf
tertobev
erbwhi
chdescr
ibeasubj
ecti
s
cal
ledcompl
ementofsubject
.

eg:
Thi
sismybook.
(her
ethenoun"
book"i
scompl
ementofsubj
ect

7.Nounsinapposit
ion:Apposi
ti
onmeansplaci
ngnear.Anouni
n
apposi
ti
onisinthesamecaseast henounwhichi
texplai
ns.

eg:
E.Jenner
,thesci
ent
ist
,wasexper
tinBi
ology
.

(
Int
hissent
encet
henoun"
sci
ent
ist
"isapposi
ti
on.

Chapt
erno2:Pr
onoun

23
(
2.1)
.Def
ini
ti
on:
▶Theword"pronoun"hasbeent
akenfrom Lat
inLanguage'
swor
d
"
pronomen"(
pro:i
nstead+nomen:noun/name).

▶Pr
onouni
sawor
dwhi
chi
susedi
nst
eadofanoun.

(
2.2)Ki
nds:
Ther
ear
esev
enki
ndsofpr
onoun,
thesear
e

1.Per
sonal
pronoun. 2.Demonst
rat
ivepr
onoun

3.Rel
ati
vepr
onoun. 4.Di
str
ibut
ivepr
onoun

5.I
nter
rogat
ivepr
onoun. 6.I
ndef
ini
tepr
onoun

7.Ref
lexi
vepr
onoun

1.Per
sonalpr
onoun:
Ther
ear
ethr
eet
ypesofper
sonal
pronoun.

I
)Fi
rstper
son. I
I)Secondper
son. I
II
)Thi
rdper
son

a)Fi
rstpersonpronoun:SuchPronounswhi
chpointouttospeakerar
e
call
edfir
stpersonpronouns,t
heseareI,
we,our
,us,ourset
c.

b)Secondper
sonpronoun:Apersontowhi
chy ouar
et al
ki
ngis
consider
edassecondper
sonpronoun,f
orsecondpersononl
y"you"i
s
used.

c)Thi
rdper
sonpronoun:Thepersonyouar
et al
ki
ngabouti
sknownas
thi
rdper
son.eg:
he,hi
s,she,her
,it
,it
s,t
hey
,thei
r,t
hei
rset
c.

2.Demonst
rati
vepronoun:Demonstr
ati
vepronounisusedtopoint
someoneorsomethi
ng.Examples:
thi
s,that
,these,
those,
such,none
etc.

24
1. Useof"
thi
s"
Pr
onoun"
thi
s"i
susedf
orsi
ngul
art
hingwhi
chi
snear
by.

Thi
eg: sbooki
smi
ne

2. Useof"
that
"
Pr
onoun"
that
"isusedf
orsi
ngul
art
hingwhi
chi
saway
.

eg:
Thati
smyki
te

3. Useof"
these"
Pr
onoun"
these"i
susedf
orpl
ural
thi
ngswhi
char
enear
by.

eg:
Thesear
emybooks.

4. Useof"
those"
Pr
onoun"
those"i
susedf
orpl
ural
thi
ngswhi
char
eaway
.

eg:
Thosewer
eshi
ningst
ars.

5. Useof"
such"
Pronoun"
such"ismostl
yusedwhenoneormor
epeopl
eort
hingsl
i
ke
theonesal
readymenti
oned.

eg:
Wehav
esuchaf
inebuf
fal
othatmi
l
k20kgperday
.

6. Useof"
None"
Weusepr onoun"none"whenwewantt
osel
ectnot
hingf
rom agr
oup
ofpeopl
eort hi
ngs.

eg:
Ihav
efi
vepensbutnoneoft
hem wr
it
escor
rect
ly.

25
3.Rel
ati
vepronoun:Pronounwhichshowsther
elat
ionwit
hprevi
ous
nouni
nthesentenceandpointouti
tiscal
l
edrel
ati
vepronoun.

eg:
whom,
who,
whi
ch,
whose,
thatet
c.

1. Useof"
whom"
Pr
onoun"
whom"i
susedi
nobj
ect
iveoraccusat
ivecase.

eg:Thestudent
,whom y
out
houghtsohi
ghl
yof
,hasf
ail
edt
owi
nthe
fi
rstpr
ize.

2. Useof"
who"
Pr
onoun"
who"i
susedi
nsubj
ect
iveornomi
nat
ivecase.

eg:
Whot
heywer
eIr
eal
l
ycannotspeci
fy.

3. Useof"
whi
ch"
Pr
onoun"
whi
ch"i
susedf
orani
mal
sandnonl
i
vingt
hings.

eg:
Thi
sist
hecowwhi
chgi
vesmuchmi
l
k.

4. Useof"
whose"
I
tisusedf
orbot
hli
vi
ngt
hingsandnonl
i
vingt
hings.

eg:
Theboywhosepeni
sst
oleni
sweepi
ng.

eg2:
Thi
sist
hebal
lwhosepr
icei
sfi
ft
y.

5. Useof"
that
"
Pronoun"that
"isbot
hdemonstr
ati
vepr
onounandrel
ati
vepr
onoun
anditisusedforbot
hli
vi
ngthi
ngsandnonli
vi
ngthi
ngs.

eg:
Hesol
dthewat
cht
haty
ouhadgi
venhi
m.

26
eg2:
Thi
sist
hepent
hathegi
ft
edme.

4.Di
str
ibut
ivepr
onoun:Apronounwhichseparat
epeopleorthingsin
asent
enceiscal
leddi
str
ibut
ivepr
onoun.eg:each,ei
ther
,nei
theretc.

1.Useof"
Each"
Weuse"each"whenwet al
kaboutevery
one,buti
ndi
cat
ethem
i
ndi
vi
duall
y.eg:Eachofustri
edourbesttowin.

2.Useof"
Eit
her
"
"Ei
ther
"isconcer
nedwi
thdi
str
ibut
ionbet
weent
wot
hings.Ei
theri
s
posit
ivei
nsense.

eg:
Eit
herofy
oucant
akeapar
tint
hiscompet
it
ion.

eg2:
Eit
herheorshewi
l
lwi
nthemat
ch.

3.Useof"Nei
ther
"
"Neit
her"i
sconcernedwi
thdi
str
ibut
ionbet
weent
wot
hings.Nei
theri
s
negat
iveinsense.

eg:
Nei
therofst
udent
swaspr
esenti
nthecl
ass.

eg:
Nei
theroft
hesepenswr
it
eswel
l
.

5.Inter
rogat
ivepronoun:Apronounwhichi
susedt
oaskquest
ioni
na
sentenceiscal
ledInt
errogat
ivepr
onoun.

eg:
who,
whom,
whose,
whi
chet
c.

Exampl
esent
ences:

1.Whoar
eyout
oaskt
his? 2.Whom di
dyoui
nvi
te?

27
3.Whosei
sthi
spen? 4.Whi
choft
hesef
lower
sdoy
oul
i
ke?

6.I
ndefi
nit
epronoun:I
tisatypeofpr
onounwhi
chdoesnoti
ndi
cat
e
anythi
ngclear
ly.Ex
amples:

1.Some:Ineedsomemi
l
k.

2.One:Thet
eai
ssohott
hatonecannotdr
inki
t.
3.None:Noneoft
hem l
etmegot
omyhome.

4.Few:Fewoft
hem wi
l
lbeabl
etogetmypoi
nt.

5.Somebody
:Somebodycangetposi
ti
oni
nthecl
ass.

6.Nobody
:Nobodycansol
vet
hist
est
.

7.Many
:Manyst
udent
sofourcl
asswi
l
lgot
opi
cni
c.

8.Any
:Isany
oneabl
etowi
nthemmov
ie?

9.Ot
her
:Anyot
herper
sonwoul
dtel
lthet
rut
h.

10.Any
body
:Hasany
bodyseent
hismov
ie?

11.Al
l
:Al
lst
udent
swer
epr
esenti
nthecl
ass.

7.Refl
exi
vepronoun:Whenapronounbear
sit
sact
ioni
tsel
fina
sent
ence,i
tiscal
ledRef
lexi
vepr
onoun.

eg:
Icandomyhomewor
kmy
sel
f.

g2:
Wecanwi
nthemat
chour
sel
ves.

eg3:
Thepenwasbr
okeni
tsel
f.

(
2.3)UseofPr
onoun:Ther
ear
ethr
eemaj
orusesofpr
onoun.

28
1.Useofpronounassubj
ect
:Whenapr
onounisusedasdoerofwor
k
i
nasentenceorabouti
tknowl
edgei
sgi
veni
tiscal
ledsubj
ect
.

eg:Heispl
ayinggame.(
her
ethepr
onoun"
he"i
ssubj
ectbecausehei
s
doeri
fwork"play
ing"
)

eg2:Heisaniceguy
.(heret
hepr
onoun"
he"i
sobj
ectbecauseabouti
t
knowledgei
sgiven"
niceguy"
)

2.Useofpr
onounasObject:Whenapronouni
susedasbear
erof
worki
nasentence,
iti
scal
l
edasobject
.eg:Iwentt
ohim.

Whenapronounisusedasobj
ectandapreposit
ion
showsi t
sposi
ti
on,movementordir
ecti
onet
citi
scall
ed"pronounas
objectofpr
eposi
ti
on"
.

(
2.4)Casesofpr
onoun:
ther
ear
efourcasesofnoun

1.Nomi
nat
iveorsubj
ect
ivecase.

2.Accusat
iveorobj
ect
ivecase.

3.Possessi
vecase.

4.Vocat
ivecase.

1.Nominat
ivecase:Whenapronounisusedasdoerofwor
kina
sent
ence,i
tiscal
lednomi
nat
iveorsubject
ivecase.

eg:
Hei
swr
it
ingal
ett
er.

2.Accusativecase:Whenapronounisusedasbear
erofworkina
sentenceitiscal
ledobj
ectandt
hiscaseissai
dtobeaccusat
iveor
objecti
vecase.eg:Igav
eapent ohi
m.

3.Possessi
vecase:Whenapr
onoundenot
eowner
shi
p,meansi
tisi
n

29
possessi
vecase.

Pr
onoun Possessi
vecase

I My
,mi
ne

You Your
,your
s

He Hi
s

She Her
,her
's

They Thei
r,t
hei
r'
s

I
t I
ts

We Our
,our
s

Exampl
esent
ences:

1.Thi
speni
sher
's.
=Thi
sismypen.

2.Thi
sbal
li
syour
s.=Thi
sisy
ourbal
l
.

3.Thi
sschool
isher
's.
=Thi
sisherschool
.

4.Thi
spr
izei
sther
e's.
=Thi
sist
hei
rpr
ize.

5.Thi
shousei
sour
s.=Thi
sisourhouse.

4.Vocati
vecase:Thewor
d"y
ou"i
susual
l
yusedf
ort
hev
ocat
ivecase
ofpronoun.

eg:
You!st
andup. eg2:
You!keepqui
te.

Chapt
erno3:Ver
b

30
(
1.1)Def
ini
ti
ons:
⚫ Act
ual
l
ythewor
d"v
erb"hasbeent
akenf
rom wor
dofLat
in
l
anguage'
swor
d"v
erbum"whi
chmeans"
mosti
mpor
tant
".

⚫ Av erbisawordwhichisused"t
obe"or"
toexpr
ess"anact
ionin
thesentenceandver
btell
sussomethi
ngaboutt
heperson,
thi
ng,or
animal.

⚫ Ver
bisawordwhichshowsst
ate,
exi
stenceoract
ionof
somet
hing/
someone.

eg:
Hei
saboy
.(St
ate)

eg2:
Hei
satt
hepar
k.(
exi
stence)

eg3:
Hei
spl
ayi
nggame.
(act
ion)

(
1.2)ki
nds:Ther
ear
etwoki
ndsofVer
b.

1.Pr
inci
pal
/mai
nver
bs. 2.Auxi
l
iar
y/hel
pingv
erbs.
1.Pr
inci
palver
bs
Thi
skindofv
erbdenotesanact
ion.I
tisal
soknownasmai
noract
ion
ver
b.Ther
earetwotypesofact
ionver
bs,t
heseare:

a)Tr
ansi
ti
vev
erbs b)
Int
ransi
ti
vev
erbs

1.Transi
ti
vever
bs:Atransi
ti
vever
bisaverbt
hatdenot
esanact
ion
whichpassov
erfrom t
hedoerorsubj
ectt
oanobject
.

OR
Transi
ti
vemeanspassingover,t
hev
erbwhicht
akesanobjectwit
h
i
tselfi
scal
l
edtransi
ti
veverb.Sometr
ansi
ti
vever
bstakebothdir
ect

31
andi
ndi
rectobj
ect
.

Sent
enceshav
ingt
ransi
ti
vev
erbscanbechangedi
ntopassi
vev
oice.

Exampl
e:Hesel
lthemangoes(
act
ive)
-Themangoeswer
esol
dby
hi
m(passi
ve)
.

2.I
ntransi
ti
vever
bs:Anintr
ansi
tiv
ever
bi saver
bwhi
chdenot
esan
act
ionwhichdoesn'
tpassovert
oanobject.

OR

Av
erbwhi
chexpr
essast
ateofbei
ngi
scal
l
edani
ntr
ansi
ti
vev
erb.

1.Her
anal
ongdi
stance.(
Act
ion)

2.Thebabysl
eeps.(
Stat
e)

⚫ Sentencesofint
ransit
ivever
bscan'tbechangedintopassivevoi
ce.
Manyintransi
ti
veverbstakePreposi
ti
onalobject
s,example:Iam
goi
ngtoLondon. (
here"London"ispr
eposit
ionalobj
ect)

Somev erbs(
example:
come,go,fal
l
,die,sl
eep,
li
e
etc)denotesact
ionswhichcannotbedonetoanyt
hing,t
herefor
ethey
cannev erbeusedtransi
ti
vel
y

eg:Themanki
ll
edhi
msel
f.
(I
nthi
ssent
encet
hesubj
ectandobject
ref
ertot
hesameper
son,
thi
sver
bissai
dtobeusedref
lex
ivel
y.

(
1.3)For
msofver
b:Ther
ear
efi
vef
ormsofv
erb.

1.I
nfi
nit
ivever
b:When"t
o"i
saddedbef
orei
mper
ati
vev
erb,
inf
ini
ti
ve
i
sformed.eg:To+wr
it
e=towri
te.

2.I
mper
ati
vever
b:I
mper
ati
vev
erbsar
eor
igi
nal
for
msofv
erb.

32
eg:
wri
te

3.Pastf
orm ofver
b:I
tissecondf
orm ofv
erb.
eg:
wrot
e

4.Pastpar
ti
cipl
e:I
tist
hir
dfor
m ofv
erb.
eg:
wri
tt
en.

5.Pr
esentpar
ti
cipl
e:I
tisf
our
thf
orm ofv
erb.
eg:
wri
ti
ng.

(
1.4)Regul
arandI
rr
egul
arver
bs
1.Regul
arver
bs:Verbswhosesecondandt
hir
dfor
misf
ormedby
addi
ng"ed"i
nthelast.

Ver
b Secondf
orm Thi
rdf
orm

Cal
l Cal
l
ed Cal
l
ed

Ki
l
l Ki
l
led Ki
l
led

Push Pushed Pushed

Pul
l Pul
l
ed Pul
l
ed

Succeed Succeeded Succeeded

Cl
ub Cl
ubbed Cl
ubbed

Cheat Cheat
ed Cheat
ed

Open Opened Opened

Cl
i
mb Cl
i
mbed Cl
i
mbed

Cook Cooked Cooked

Jump Jumped Jumped

Lament Lament
ed Lament
ed

33
Wal
k Wal
ked Wal
ked

Tal
k Tal
ked Tal
ked

Ent
er Ent
ered Ent
ered

Mov
e Mov
ed Mov
ed

Li
ke Li
ked Li
ked

2.I
rr
egularverbs:Secondandthi
rdfor
m ofthesev er
bsisnotfor
med
byaddi
ng" ed"i
nt hei
rendi
ng.Ther
earethr
eet ypesofir
regul
arver
bs.

1.Verbswhosef
ir
st,
secondandt
hir
dfor
misdi
ff
erentf
rom each
other
.

2.Ver
bswhosesecondandt
hir
dfor
missame.

3.Ver
bswhosef
ir
st,
secondandt
hir
dfor
missame.

1.
Ver
bswhosef
ir
st,
secondandt
hir
dfor
misdi
ff
erentf
rom each
ot
her
.

Ver
b Secondf
orm Thi
rdf
orm

Ar
ise Ar
ose Ar
isen

Awake Awoke Awaken

Be Was/
wer
e Been

Eat At
e Eat
en

Go Went Gone

Bespeak Bespoke Bespoken

Bef
all Bef
ell Bef
all
en

34
For
bid For
bade For
bidden

See Saw Seen

Take Took Taken

St
ri
ve St
rov
e St
ri
ven

Dr
ive Dr
ive Dr
iven

Ri
de Rode Ri
dden

Ri
se Rose Ri
sen

Wr
it
e Wr
ote Wr
it
ten

Bi
te Bi
t Bi
tt
en

Hi
de Hi
d Hi
dden

Choose Chose Chosen

Speak Spoke Spoken

Br
eak Br
oke Br
oken

Gr
ow Gr
ew Gr
own

Wake Woke Woken

Know Knew Known

Fl
y Fl
ew Fl
own

Dr
aw Dr
ew Dr
awn

Wear Wor
e Wor
n

Tear Tor
e Tor
n

35
Begi
n Began Begun

Swi
m Swam Swum

Ri
ng Rang Rung

Si
ng Sang Sung

Fal
l Fel
l Fal
l
en

For
get For
got For
got
ten

Gi
ve Gav
e Gi
ven

Take Took Taken

2.Ver
bswhosesecondandt
hir
dfor
missame:

Ver
b Secondf
orm Thi
rdf
orm

Lose Lost Lost

Shoot Shot Shot

Get Got Got

Li
ght Li
t Li
t

Si
t Sat Sat

Keep Kept Kept

Sl
eep Sl
ept Sl
ept

Leav
e Lef
t Lef
t

Feel Fel
t Fel
t

Meet Met Met

36
Br
ing Br
ought Br
ought

Buy Bought Bought

Fi
ght Fought Fought

Thi
nk Thought Thought

Cat
ch Caught Caught

Teach Taught Taught

Sel
l Sol
d Sol
d

Tel
l Tol
d Tol
d

Pay Pai
d Pai
d

Make Made Made

St
and St
ood St
ood

Under
stand Under
stood Under
stood

Lend Lent Lent

Send Sent Sent

Spend Spent Spent

Say Sai
d Sai
d

Bui
l
d Bui
l
t Bui
l
t

Fi
nd Found Found

Hav
e Had Had

Hear Hear
d Hear
d

37
Hol
d Hel
d Hel
d

3.Ver
bswhosef
ir
st,
secondandt
hir
dfor
missame:

Ver
b Secondf
orm Thi
rdf
orm

Bet Bet Bet

Cost Cost Cost

Cut Cut Cut

Hi
t Hi
t Hi
t

Hur
t Hur
t Hur
t

Let Let Let

Put Put Put

Shut Shut Shut

Spl
i
t Spl
i
t Spl
i
t

2.Auxi
li
aryver
bs:
Wor d"auxi
l
iar
y"hasbeentakenfrom aLati
nlanguage'
sword
"Auxil
iam"whi
chmeans" hel
p".Theyactsashelpi
ngwor dst
ofor
m
sentences.

Ther
ear
ethr
eet
ypesofauxi
l
iar
yver
bs:

i
)Pr
inci
palauxi
l
iar
yver
bs.
i
i
)Modelauxi
l
iar
yver
bs.
i
i
i)Semiauxi
l
iar
yver
bs.

38
1.Pr
inci
palauxi
li
aryver
bs:

Pr
esentt
ense Pastt
ense

Tobe(forsi
mpl
e I
s,am,
are Was,
wer
e
tenses)

Tohav
e(f
orperf
ect Hav
e,has Had
t
enses)

Todo(
fornegat
ive Do,
does Di
d
andi
nter
rogat
ive)

2.Modalauxi
l
iar
yver
bs:Theyhel
pst
hepr
inci
pal
act
ionv
erbs.

eg:
can,
coul
d,may
,mi
ght
,must
,shoul
d,wi
l
l,woul
d,oughtt
oet
c.

3.Seminodalauxi
li
aryverbs:Theyalsohel
pst
hepr
inci
pal
act
ion
ver
bs.eg:dar
e,need,use,
usedet c.

Note:Auxi
l
iar
yver
bsar
eal
sosomet
imesusedasmai
norpr
inci
pal
ver
b.

(
1.5)Ver
bagr
eement
:
(
1)Si
ngul
arhel
pingver
b:
1.I
tisusedwhent
wosubj
ect
sref
ert
oone.

eg:
Slowandst
eadywi
nst
her
ace.

2.Whent
wonounsr
efert
ooneper
son.

eg:
Thepoetandphi
l
osopherhasdi
ed.

3.Ift
wosingul
arnounsj
oinedby"
and"orpr
ecededby"
each"or
"ev
ery".

39
eg:
Ever
ymanandev
eryboyhasdonehi
sdut
ywel
l
.

eg:
Eachcowandeachbuf
fal
ocost
ssi
xtyt
housand.

4.I
ftwoormor
esi
ngul
arnounsar
ejoi
nedby"
eit
her
-or
","
nit
her
-nor
".

eg:
Eit
herJosephorJohnhasbr
okenmychai
r.

eg:
Nei
therMat
il
danorMar
khasdoneherhomewor
k.

5.I
ftwosubj
ect
sarej
oinedby"wit
h"or"
aswel
las"t
hev
erbagr
eesi
n
per
sonandnumberwi
ththefi
rstsubj
ect
.

eg:
Theki
ngwi
thhi
smi
nist
erhasl
eftt
hecount
ry.

eg:
Thet
eacheraswel
last
hest
udent
sisnotpl
ayi
ngwi
thcar
ds.

6.Si
ngul
arv
erbi
susedaf
ter"
eit
her
,each,
ever
yone&many
".

eg:
Eit
heroft
heset
woboy
sisatf
aul
t.

eg:
Nei
theroft
hesecandi
dat
esi
sfi
tfort
het
est
.

eg:
Eachoft
heseboy
shadf
ini
shedhi
shomewor
k.

eg:
Ever
yoneoft
hosegi
rl
swassi
ngi
ngsweetsongs.

7.Whenpl
ural
noundenot
esspeci
fi
cquant
it
yoramountaswhol
e.

eg:
Ami
l
li
ondol
l
ari
sagr
eatdeal
ofmoney
.

8.Asi
ngul
arsubj
ectf
oll
owedbypl
ural
modi
fi
err
equi
resasi
ngul
ar
ver
b:

eg:
Theat
ti
tudeoft
hesemeni
sdef
ini
tehost
il
e.

eg:
Ali
stoft
henameofal
lsur
viv
orsi
sav
ail
abl
e.

40
9.Whenasent
encei
sint
roducedbyt
heexpl
eti
ve"
it
"thev
erbi
s
si
ngul
ar.

eg:
Iti
sIwhoam i
stobenegl
ect
ed.

(
2)Pl
uralhel
pingver
b:
1.I
ftwoormor
esi
ngul
arnounsar
econnect
edby"
and":

eg:
List
erandDar
winar
etwochum f
ri
ends.

2.I
ftheart
iclei
susedt
wicethenounsr
efer
redt
odi
ff
erentper
sonsor
thi
ngs,
thev er
bmustbeplur
al.

eg:
Thepr
inci
pal
andt
het
eacher
swer
epr
esent
.

⚫ Mor
eaboutsubj
ectagr
eement
:

1.Asingularsubjectf
oll
owedimmedi
atel
yby"aswel
las/i
nadditi
on
to/
incl
uding/nolessthan",
thever
bmustbeusedwit
hthefi
rstobj
ect.

eg:
Thest
udent
saswel
last
het
eacherneedsadv
ice.

eg:Thisi
nvent
ionaswel
lasit
scommer
cial
appl
i
cat
ionswast
he
resul
tofthi
sresear
chef
for
t.

eg:
Thecoachtogetherwi
thhisassi
stant
swascr
edi
tedwi
tht
he
out
standi
ngper
formanceoftheteam.

2.Whentwonounsorpronounsar
ejoi
nedwit
h"notonl
y/butal
so"
,the
ver
bagreeswi
ththesecondnounorpr
onoun.

eg:
Notonl
ytheof
fi
cerbutal
sot
hesol
dier
swer
eki
l
led.

eg:
Notonl
ythesi
xsol
dier
sbutal
sot
heof
fi
cerwaski
l
led.

41
Chapt
erno4:Adv
erb
(
4.1)Def
ini
ti
on:
Actual
lytheword" adverb"hasbeentakenfr
om wordsofLatinand
Frenchlanguage"addt ov er
bum".Anadver
bisthewordwhi chadds
somethingtothemeani ngofav erb,anadj
ecti
veorananotheradver
b.
eg:sil
entl
y,l
oudly
, ver
yet c.

(
4.2)Ki
nds:Ther
ear
e9ki
ndsofadv
erbs.

1.Adv
erboft
ime

2.Adv
erbofpl
ace

3.Adv
erbofnumber
/fr
equency

4.Adv
erbofmanner
/qual
i
ty/
stat
e

5.Adv
erbofnegat
ion/
aff
ir
mat
ion

6.Adv
erbofcause/
reason

7.I
nter
rogat
iveadv
erb

8.Rel
ati
veadv
erb

9.Adv
erbofdegr
ee/
quant
it
y/ext
ent

1.Adverbofti
me:Adv erbofti
meshowst hat"whensomet hing
happensorwil
lhappen".eg:ago,y
esterday,morning,dai
ly
,now, si
nce,
al
ready,t
hen,I
mmedi atel
y,pr
esentl
y,soon,today,aft
erwaclocklat
e,
l
atel
y,befor
e,t
omorrow, at9'
Oclocketc.

42
Exampl
esent
ences:

1.Hel
eftf
oraf
ewmi
nut
esago.

2.Hewentt
othepar
kyest
erday
.

3.Hegotupear
lyi
nthemor
ning.

4.Hesel
lthecl
othesdai
l
y.

5.Gobef
orei
trai
ns.

2.Adverbofpl
ace:Adv
erbofpl
aceshowst
hatwher
esomet
hing
happens.

eg:i
n,t
her
e,out,up,
abov
e, asi
de,backward,
her
e,ev
ery
wher
e,away
,
wit
hin,
out
side,
below,wi
thout,near
,faret
c.

Exampl
esent
ences:

1.Hei
sint
heschool
. 2.St
andt
her
e.

3.Iwentout
. 4.Hel
ookedup.

5.Ourschool
is2km f
arf
rom ourhouse.

3.Adverbofnumberorf requency :I
tshowshowmanyt imes
somethinghappens.eg:twice,occasi
onall
y,agai
n,thr
ice,once,
sometimes,al
way s,
often,never,sel
dom,thi
rdly,
secondly,f
irst
ly,
repeat
edly,
usuall
y,f
requentlyetc.

Exampl
esent
ences:

1.Hecamet
wicet
opl
aywi
thme.

2.Imeethi
m occasi
onal
l
y.

43
3.Her
epeat
edl
ysai
dthatIam i
nnocent
.

4.Hei
swr
it
inghi
sbookf
requent
ly.

5.Igot
opar
ktr
icei
naweek.

4.Adver bofmanner /quali


ty/state:Itshowshowandi nwhi chway
somet hinghappens.eg: cl
earl
y,well,polit
ely
,posit
ivel
y,peculi
arl
y,
badly,vastl
y,cert
ainl
y,soft
ly,
seriously ,
smoot hl
y,ni
cely,cl
everl
y,
respectful
ly,
quickly,
happil
y,easil
y ,
pr obably
,hardly
,positi
vely
,sl
owly
,
beautif
ullyetc.

Exampl
esent
ences:

1.Cer
tai
nlyr
eadi
ngi
sabestwayt
oincr
easeourknowl
edge.

2.Mat
il
dai
swr
it
ingherbookv
erysl
owl
y.

3.Heki
l
ledt
hesnakepecul
i
arl
y.

4.Hecangetposi
ti
oneasi
l
y.

5.Appl
ythepol
i
shsmoot
hlyony
ourshoes.

5.Adverbofnegati
onoraffi
rmati
on:I
tisusedt
oshowweather
somethinghappensornot
.eg:yes,
not,
byallmeans,
cer
tai
nty
,sur
ely
,
no,notatal
letc.

Exampl
esent
ences:

1.Hewi
l
lnothav
efev
er.

2.Yes,
youcanpl
aywi
thme.

3.Inev
erpl
ayedi
ndust
.

4.Het
oldsur
elyt
hatheputt
hemoneyi
nlocker
.

44
5.I
'
llsol
vet
hepr
obl
em byal
lmeans.

6.Adver
bofcauseandr eason:I
tshowsreasonorcauseof
happeni
ngsomethi
ng.eg:theref
ore,
because,
hence,t
hat'
s(t
hati
s)
whyetc.

Exampl
esent
ences:

1.Il
i
kebl
ackshi
rtbecausei
t'
smyf
avor
it
ecol
or.

2.Thephonei okent
sbr hat
'
swhyi
tisunabl
etooper
ate.

3.Pol
l
uti
oni ousbecausei
sdanger tcausesmanydi
seases.

3.Writ
ingi
sgoodf
ori
ncr
easi edget
ngknowl her
efor
eweshoul
dwr
it
e
ever
yday.

udybecauseIwantt
4.Ist obeagoodhel
perofmanki
nd.

7.I
nterr
ogat
iveadverbs:I
nter
rogat
iveadver
bsar
eusedt
oaask
quest
ion.
eg:
when, how,where,whyetc.

Exampl
esent
ences:

1.Whendi
dshecome?

2.Howmanydr
essesdoy
ouhav
e?

3.Wher
ewer
eyougone?

4.Whyar
eyouwhi
sper
ing?

5.Whati
syourname?

8.Rel
ati
veadverb:I
tjoinest
wosent
encesort
wopar
tsofsent
ences.
eg:
when,where,
why ,howetc.

45
Exampl
esent
ences:

1.Iknowwher
eshei
s.

2.Het
oldmet
hatwhyhewentt
oKar
achi
.

3.Iwasi
nroom whenshecame.

9.Adv er
bofdegr ee/
quantit
y/extent:Itshowst hattowhichextentor
degreesomet hi
nghappens.eg: much, qui
te,parti
all
y,so,
rather
,ful
ly
,a
l
it
tle,wholl
y,enough,near
ly,
entir
ely,half
,too,somewhatet c.

Exampl
e:

1.SomewhatIhav
esol
vedt
hepr
obl
em.

2.Thet
eai
stoohot
.

3.Ihav
eent
ir
elycl
eanedt
her
oom.

4.Howmuchmi
l
kdoy
oudr
inkdai
l
y.

5.Hei
ssoki
ndf
orev
ery
one.

(
4.3)Compar
isonofadver
bs:
Someadv
erbshav
edegr
ees(
compar
ati
ve&super
lat
ive)asadj
ect
ives.

⚫ For
mingwayofcompar
ati
veandsuper
lat
ivedegr
eesofadver
bs:
1.Fortheadv
erbsofonesyl
labl
e,weadd"
er"t
omakecompar
ati
ve
and"est"t
omakesuperl
ati
ve.

Exampl
es:

46
Adv
erb Compar
ati
ve Super
lat
ive

Qui
ck Qui
cker Qui
ckest

Lat
e Lat
er Lat
est
/l
ast

Soon Sooner Soonest

Long Longer Longest

Har
d Har
der Har
dest

Near Near
er Near
est

2.I
ftheadver
bendsi
n"ly
"thenweadd"more"t
omakecompar ati
ve
and"most"t
omakesuperl
ati
vedegr
eesofadj
ecti
ves.Exampl
es:

Adv
erb Compar
ati
ve Super
lat
ive

Cl
ear
ly Mor
ecl
ear
ly Mostcl
ear
ly

Swi
ft
ly Mor
eswi
ft
ly Mostswi
ft
ly

Ti
midl
y Mor
eti
midl
y Mostt
imi
dly

Fool
i
shl
y Mor
efool
i
shl
y Mostf
ool
i
shl
y

Pol
i
tel
y Mor
epol
i
tel
y Mostpol
i
tel
y

Posi
ti
vel
y Mor
eposi
ti
vel
y Mostposi
ti
vel
y

Badl
y Mor
ebadl
y Mostbadl
y

Fast
ly Mor
efast
ly Mostf
asy
ly

Sof
tl
y Mor
esof
tl
y Mostsof
tl
y

Ni
cel
y Mor
eni
cel
y Mostni
cel
y

47
Cl
ever
ly Mor
ecl
ever
ly Mostcl
ever
ly

Smoot
hly Mor
esmoot
hly Mostsmoot
hly

Ser
iousl
y Mor
eser
iousl
y Mostser
iousl
y

Cer
tai
nly Mor
ecer
tai
nly Mostcer
tai
nly

Si
l
ent
ly Mor
esi
l
ent
ly Mostsi
l
ent
ly

Loudl
y Mor
eloudl
y Mostl
oudl
y

Happi
l
y Mor
ehappi
l
y Mosthappi
l
y

Sl
owl
y Mor
esl
owl
y Mostsl
owl
y

Easi
l
y Mor
eeasi
l
y Mosteasi
l
y

Qui
ckl
y Mor
equi
ckl
y Mostqui
ckl
y

Har
dly Mor
ehar
dly Mosthar
dly

Pecul
i
arl
y Mor
epecul
i
arl
y Mostpecul
i
arl
y

3.Someadverbsar
echangedi
ntocompar
ati
veandsuper
lat
ivef
orm
wit
houtappl
yi
nganyrul
e.

Adj
ect
ive Compar
ati
ve Super
lat
ive

For
th Fur
ther Fur
thest

I
ll
/badl
y Wor
se Wor
st

Li
tt
le Less Least

Lat
e Lat
er Lat
est
/l
est

Much Mor
e Most

48
Wel
l
/good Bet
ter Best

(
4.4)Theposi
ti
onofadver
bs:
1.I
fweuset
headver
bwi
tht
ransi
ti
vever
btheni
tof
tenusedaf
ter
ver
b.
Exampl
esent
ences:

1.Thet
rai
nisr ngf
unni ast
. 2.Icomel
ate.
3.Thebombdr
oppedher
e. 4.Cany
our
unf
ast
ly.

2.Adver
bofti
meforexample"al
ways,f
requent
ly,
ever
,somet
imes,
never
,sel
dom"ar
eoftenusedbefor
etheverb.
Exampl
esent
ences:

1.Henev
ergot
opar
k.

2.Heal
way
spl
aywi
thcar
ds.

3.Hesomet
imesdogooddeeds.

4.Heof
tenf
ightwi
thhi
sfr
iends.

3.Adver
bsar
eusedaf
ter"
tobever
bs"(
is,
was,
wer
e)
Exampl
esent
ences:

1.Mar
kisof
tenf
oundi
nhot
el.

2.Hewasnev
erl
ate.

3.Theywer
enev
ersi
ncer
e.

4.Uset
headver
bsaf
terobj
ectwi
tht
ransi
ti
vever
b.

49
Exampl
esent
ences:

1.Her
eadt
hebookl
oudl
y.

2.Adam di
dhi
sdut
ywel
l
.

3.Hewr
otet
hebookqui
ckl
y.

5.Adver
bismost
lypl
acedbet
weenhel
pingver
bandact
ionver
b.
Exampl
esent
ences:

1.Hei
shappi
l
yaski
ngmet
ocome.

2.Theywi
l
lsur
elyf
all
int
othedi
tch.

3.Mr
.Mar
kishappi
l
ywor
kingi
nmycompany
.

6.I
fweusetheadver
bwithadject
iveoranot
heradver
btheni
tshoul
d
pl
acedbef
oreadj
ecti
ve/
adverb.
Exampl
esent
ences:

1.Thest
udent
sar
equi
tehappy
.

2.Her
anv
eryf
ast
.

3.Thegar
deni
ssobeaut
if
ul.

7.Asthegener
alr
ule"onl
y,merel
y,notandnever"ar
epl acedbef
ore
thewordi
tmodifi
esandadverb"enough"i
splacedafterthewordit
modif
ies.
Exampl
esent
ences:

1.Ihav
eonl
yfi
vebooks. 2.Imer
elyt
oucht
hef
lower
.

3.Hei
snothappy
. 4.Inev
ersawhi
m.

50
▶Ther
ear
emanyusesofwor
d"onl
y".

1.Onl
yshel
entmear
upee. 2.Sheonl
ylentmear
upee.

3.Shel
entonl
ymear
upee. 4.Shel
entmeonl
yar
upee.

(
4.5)Useofsomei
mpor
tantadver
bs:
1.Useof"v
ery
":I
tisusedwi
tht
headj
ect
ivesandposi
ti
vedegr
eeof
adver
bs.

eg:
Hewasv
erysad.

eg:
Hedonehi
swor
kver
yfast
ly.

"Ver
y"i
sal
sousedwi
tht
heobj
ect
ivesgi
venbel
ow.
Sur
pri
sed,
tir
ed,
gri
eved,
exper
ienced,
cont
ent
ed,
pai
ned,
del
i
ght
,
pl
easedet
c.

Exampl
esent
ences:

1.Hewasv
eryt
ir
ed.

2.Wewer
ever
ygr
iev
edbecauseofy
ouri
l
lness.

3.Iwasv
erysur
pri
sedt
oseeher
.

4.Wewer
ever
ycont
ent
ed.

2.Useof"
much" :I
tisusedwi
tht
hecompar
ati
vedegr
eeofadv
erbs
andadj
ect
ives.


Thepat
ienti
smuchbet
tert
oday
.

"Much"i
sal
sousedwi
tht
hesuper
lat
ivedegr
eeofadj
ect
ivest
o
emphasi
zei
t.

51

Hei
smucht
het
all
estboyi
nthecl
ass.

"
Much"i
sal
sousedwi
tht
het
hir
dfor
m ofv
erb.


Theywer
emuchsur
pri
sedt
oseehi
str
icks.

3.Useof"
Befor
e":Bef
oremeans"f
ormer
lyoratapr
evi
oust
ime"and
i
tisal
sousedtodenot
eapointoft
ime.

eg:
Itnev
erhappenedbef
ore.

eg2:
Ihav
enotseeny
oubef
ore.

4.Useof"
ago"
:Iti
susedt
odenot
eaper
iodoft
ime.

eg:
Hecameher
etwoy
ear
sago.

eg:
Hehadj
oinedt
het
uit
ioncent
ert
enmont
hsago.

5.Useof"too":"
Too"si
gni
fi
esmoret
hanenoughandi
susedi
n
negat
ivesensetobeequal
to"sot
hat
..
..
..
not
"

eg:
Iti
stoohott
oday
.

6.Useof"
ver
y":"
Ver
y"conv
eyst
hei
deaof"
highdegr
ee"or"
ext
ent
".

eg:
Iti
sver
ydanger
oust
ogoout
side.

7.Useof"
qui
te"
:Itconv
eyst
hei
deaof"
compl
etel
y"or"
all
toget
her
".

eg:
Hiswor
kisqui
tesat
isf
act
ory
.

8.Useof"
so":I
tisusedinbot
hposit
iveandnegat
ivesent
ences,
in
ordert
oemphasizeadj
ecti
veandadver
b.

eg:
Youar
enotsobeaut
if
ulasy
oursi
ster
.

9.Useof"
as"
:Iti
susedi
nposi
ti
veoraf
fi
rmat
ivesent
encesandi
s

52
f
oll
owedbyacor
rel
ati
ve"
as"
.

1.Shewasasbeaut
if
ulasmoon.

2.Al
ii
sasbr
aveasl
i
on.

10.Useof"
but
":when"
but
"isusedasanadv
erb,
itmeans"
onl
y"or
"al
so"
.

eg:
Hei
sbutaf
ool
.

eg:
Youar
ebutsel
fi
shl
i
key
ourf
ri
end.

11.Useof"
needs"
:"Needs"i
sal
sousedasanadv
erb.

eg:
Youneedst
owor
khar
d.

eg:
Youneedsmustgot
oschool
.

12.Useof"
dear
":"
Dear
"isusedaf
terv
erbsl
i
kecost
,sel
landpay
.

eg:
RiceSel
l
sdearnowaday
s.

eg:
Itwi
l
lcosty
oudeart
opl
ot/
conspi
reagai
nstt
hem.

13.Useof"
dear
ly"
:"Dear
ly"i
susedi
nthesenseof"
tender
ly"
.

1.Hedear
lysmi
l
edandmetev
ery
one.

2.Hedear
lyputhi
shandonmyhead.

Chapt
erno5:Adj
ect
ive
53
(
5.1)Def
ini
ti
on:
Theword"adj
ecti
ve"hasbeendriv
erf
rom Lat i
nlanguage'
swor d
"adj
ecer
e"whichi
susedt oexpr
essmer i
ts/qual
it
ies,v
irt
ue/demeri
ts,
numberorquanti
tyofnoun.eg:
Beaut
iful
, ugl
y,some,twoet c.

(
5.2)Ki
nds:
Ther
ear
esev
enki
ndsofadj
ect
ives:

1.Pr
operadj
ect
ives

2.Adj
ect
iveofqual
i
ty/
descr
ipt
iveadj
ect
ive

3.Adj
ect
iveofquant
it
y

4.Demonst
rat
iveadj
ect
ive

5.Numer
aladj
ect
ive/
adj
ect
iveofnumber

6.I
nter
rogat
iveadj
ect
ive

7.Possessi
veadj
ect
ive

1.Properadject
ive:Thi
skindofadject
iveisfor
medf r
om thepr oper
nounandi tal
way sstar
tswit
hacapi t
allet
ter
.eg:Paki
staninati
on,
I
ranirupee,Americanpeopl
e,Japaniproduct
s,I
ndiancosmet i
csetc.

2.Adj
ect
iveofqual
it
yordescr
ipt
iveadj
ect
ive:
I
tshowst
hequal
i
tyorst
ateofaper
sonort
hing.

eg:
Thi
sisf
reshmi
l
k.

Thatwasanol
eg2: dbook.
eg3: sanaught
Josephi yboy
.

3.Adj
ect
iveofquant
it
y:

54
Thi
ski
ndofadj
ect
iveshowst
hequant
it
yofanoun.

eg:
Ther
eissomemi
l
kint
hegl
ass.

eg: asswasf
Thegl ullofwat
er.

Al
eg: li
swel
lthatendi
swel
l
.

4.Demonstrati
veverbs:Thi
skindofadj
ect
ivei
susedt
opoi
ntoutt
he
nouns.eg:
this,
that
,these,t
hoseetc.

5.Numer aladj
ecti
ve/Adject
iveofnumber:Iti
susedtodi
str
ibut
ethe
noun.
Itshowst heexactnumber,sequenceorquant
it
yofanoun.

eg: et
Ihav hr
eenewst
orybooks.

eg:
Igotsecondnumberi
nboatr
ace.

eg:
Ihav
enoanyenemy
.

Adj
ect
iveofnumberi
sfur
therdi
vi
dedi
ntot
hreet
ypes:
1.Dist
ri
buti
veadj
ect
ive:Act
uall
ythist
ypeofnumeraladj
ecti
vei
s
usedtodist
ri
but
ethenouns.eg:each,
ever
y,ei
ther
,nei
ther
.

2.Def
ini
tenumer
aladj
ect
ive:I
tshowst
heexactnumberofnoun.

eg:
one,
two,
thr
eeet
c.(
car
dinal
number
s)

eg:
fir
st,
second,
thi
rdet
c.(
ordi
nal
number
s)

3.I
ndefini
tenumer
aladject
ives:
Theseadject
ivesshowsquant
it
yofa
noun.eg:al
l,
no,many
,few,some, sev
eral
,any
,certai
net
c.

6.I
nter
rogat
iveadj
ect
ives:

55
Thi
ski
ndofadj
ect
ivei
susedt
oaskquest
ion.

1.Whosepeni
sthi
s?

2.Whatki
ndofbookdoy
oul
i
ke?

7.Possessi
veadj
ect
ives:
Thi
ski
ndofadj
ect
ivei
susedt
oshowpossessi
on.

eg:Shewasmyf r
iend.
( emyi
her spossessi
veadject
ive/
pronoun
becausei
tshowsthepossessi
onof"he"on"fr
iend"
)

(
5.3)Degr
eesofcompar
ison:
Ther
ear
ethr
eecompar
isonofadj
ect
ive.

1.Posi
ti
vedegr
ee. 2.Compar
ati
vedegr
ee. 3.Super
lat
ivedegr
ee

a)Positi
vedegree:Ittell
sthemerit
sordemer
it
sofnounwit
hout
point
ingsomething.Itisusedwhenwedoesnotcomparenounor
pronounwit
hot hernounorpr onoun.

b)Compar at
ivedegr
ee:
Itt
ell
smoremer i
tsordemer
it
sofanounor
pronounanditi
susedwhenwecompar eanounorpr
onounwi
thother
nounorpronounofsameki
ndandclass.

c)Super
lat
ivedegree:Thi
sdegreecomparessameki
ndoft
hingwi
th
al
lthi
ngsandtell
sthatiti
sbestorworst
.

⚫ For
mingway
sofcompar
ati
veandsuper
lat
ive:

1.Weadd"es"t
omakecomparat
iveand"
est
"tomakesuper
lat
ive
degr
eeofoneortwosy
ll
abl
esadj
ectiv
e.

Posi
ti
ve Compar
ati
ve Super
lat
ive

56
Sweet Sweet
er Sweet
est

Smal
l Smal
l
er Smal
l
est

Tal
l Tal
l
er Tal
l
est

Bol
d Bol
der Bol
dest

Cl
ever Cl
ever
er Cl
ever
est

Ki
nd Kni
der Ki
ndest

Young Younger Youngest

Gr
eat Gr
eat
er Gr
eat
est

Deep Deeper Deepest

2.Ifanadj
ecti
ve(posi
ti
vedegree)endsi
n"e"t
henweaddonly"
r"t
o
changeiti
ntocomparati
veand"st"t
omakesuperl
ati
vedegr
ee.

Posi
ti
ve Compar
ati
ve Super
lat
ive

Br
ave Br
aver Br
avest

Fi
ne Fi
ner Fi
nest

Whi
te Whi
ter Whi
ter

Lar
ge Lar
ger Lar
gest

Abl
e Abl
er Abl
est

Nobl
e Nobl
er Nobl
est

Wi
se Wi
ser Wi
sest

Ni
ce Ni
cer Ni
cest

57
Si
mpl
e Si
mpl
er Si
mpl
est

3.Ifanadj
ect
ive(posi
ti
vedegree)endsi
n"y"andsecondlastlatt
erof
adject
ivei
sconsonantthenwechange"y"i
nto"i"andadd"er"and
"est"t
omakecompar at
iveandsuperl
ati
vedegreerespect
ivel
y.

Posi
ti
ve Compar
ati
ve Super
lat
ive

Busy Busi
er Busi
est

Dr
y Dr
ier Dr
iest

Easy Easi
er Easi
est

Happy Happi
er Happi
est

Jol
l
y Jol
l
ier Jol
l
iest

Noi
sy Noi
si
er Noi
si
est

4.I
fanadjecti
ve(posit
ivedegree)endsi
n"y"andsecondl
astlet
terof
adj
ecti
veisvowel,t
henweadd" er"and"
est
"tomakecompar ati
veand
super
lat
ivedegreerespect
ivel
y.

Posi
ti
ve Compar
ati
ve Super
lat
ive

Gr
ey Gr
eyer Gr
eyest

Gay Gay
er Gay
est

5.Ifanadjecti
ve(posit
ivedegree)endsinaconsonantl
ett
erandt
he
secondlastlat
teroftheadject
iveisv owel
thenwedoublethel
ast
consonantlatt
erandadd" erandest "tomakecomparat
iveand
superl
ati
vedegr eerespect
ivel
y.

Posi
ti
ve Compar
ati
ve Super
lat
ive

58
Bi
g Bi
gger Bi
ggest

Fat Fat
ter Fat
test

Hot Hot
ter Hot
test

Mad Madder Maddest

Red Redder Reddest

Sad Sadder Saddest

Thi
n Thi
nner Thi
nnest

6.Manyadject
iveshav
ingmorethantwosy
llabl
esandaremade
comparat
iveandsuperl
ati
vebyaddi
ng"more"and"most
"int
hei
r
begi
nni
ng.

Posi
ti
ve Compar
ati
ve Super
lat
ive

Beaut
if
ul Mor
ebeaut
if
ul Mostbeaut
if
ul

Cour
agour Mor
ecour
agour Mostcour
agour

Di
ff
icul
t Mor
edi
ff
icul
t Mostdi
ff
icul
t

Usef
ul Mor
eusef
ul Mostusef
ul

Pr
oper Mor
epr
oper Mostpr
oper

Boy
ish Mor
eboy
ish Mostboy
ish

St
ormy Mor
est
ormy Mostst
ormy

7.Manyadject
iveshav
ingt
wosy
ll
abl
esar
emadecompar
ati
veand
super
lat
iveby

1.Addi
ng"
er"or"
est
"int
heend.

59
2.Addi
ng"
mor
e"or"
most
"int
hebegi
nni
ngoft
headj
ect
ive.

Posi
ti
ve Compar
ati
ve Super
lat
ive

St
upi
d St
upider/
mor
e St
upi
dest
/most
stupi
d st
upi
d

Pol
i
te Pol
i
ter
/mor
epol
i
te Pol
i
test
/mostpol
i
te

Cr
uel Cr
uel
er/
mor
ecr
uel Cr
uel
est
/mostcr
uel

8.Degr
eesofsomeadj
ect
ivesar
emadei
rr
egul
arl
y.

Posi
ti
ve Compar
ati
ve Super
lat
ive

Good Bet
ter Best

Much Mor
e Most

Far Far
ther Far
thr
est

Bad Wor
se Wor
st

Li
tt
le Less Least

For
e For
mer For
most

Hi
nd Hi
nder Hi
ndmost

Lat
e Lat
er Lat
est
/l
ast

Many Mor
e Most

Wel
l Bet
ter Best

Ev
il Wor
se Wor
st

Ni
gh Ni
gher Ni
ghest
/next

60
(
5.4)Or
derofadj
ect
ives:
Wecanusemor
ethanoneadj
ect
ive
bef
oreanoun,
ther
eisusual
l
yonecor
rector
der
.

eg:
Itsbeaut
if
ulsunyweat
her
.

eg:
Johnhasabi
gbr
owndog.

⚫ Wor
dor
der
:Adj
ect
ivesar
eor
der
edaccor
dingt
othei
rmeani
ngs.

1.Opi
nion 2.Si
ze 3.Other 4.Age
qual
i
ties

5.Col
our 6.Or
igi
n 7.Mat
eri
al 8.Ty
pe

9.Pur
pose

Gr
oup Exampl
es

Opi
nion(
howgood?
) Wonder
ful
,ni
ce,
great
,ter
ri
ble
et
c.

Si
ze(
howbi
g?) Smal
l
,lar
ge,
long,
tal
l
,shor
tet
c.

Ot
herqual
i
ties Quit
e,f
amous, i
mpor
tant
,sof
t,
fast
,warm et
c.

Age(
howol
d)ort
emper
atur
e Ol
d,new,
myoung,
hot
,col
det
c.

Col
our Gr
een,
redet
c.

Or
igi
n(wher
efr
om?
) I
ran,
Paki
stanet
c.

Mat
eri
al(
madeof
?) Paper
,wood,
sil
ver
,pl
ast
icet
c.

Ty
pe(
whatki
nd) Anel
ect
ri
cket
tl
e,r
oadt
ranspor
t

61
et
c.

Pur
poses(
forwhat
?) Af
acer
owel
,abr
eadkni
feet
c.

SomeExampl
es:

1.I
tisabi
gbl
ackcat
.(Bi
g:si
ze,
Black:
col
our
)

2.Iboughtsomeni
cepl
ast
icsouv
eni
rs.(
Nice:
opi
nion,
plast
ic:
materi
al)

3.Hehasol
dbr
ownshows.(
Old:
age,
brown:
col
or)

4.Iti
sawonderfulnewf
acecr
eam.(
Wonder
ful
:
opi
nion,
new:
age,
face:pur
pose)

5.Ihadal
ongbor
ingboatj
our
ney
.(Long:
si
ze,
bor
ing:
qual
i
ty,
boat
:
ty
pe)

6.Thatwasabeautif
ulwoodenpict
uref
rame.(
Beaut
if
ul:
opi
nion,
wooden:mat
eri
al,
pictur
e:pur
posefram)
.

(
5.5)Fur
theruseofadj
ect
ives:
1.Useof"
some":"Some"isusedi
nposi
ti
veoraff
irmati
vesent
ences
toshowquant
it
y.eg:Ihav
esomemat t
erstodeal
wi t
h.

2.Useof"any
":"
Any
"isonl
yusedi
nnegat
iveandi
nter
rogat
ive
sent
ences.

eg:
Ihav
ennott
oldt
hem any
thi
ng.

3.Useof"each"
:"Each"i
susedtot
alkaboutt
woormoret
hant
wo
thi
ngswhosenumberi sl
imi
ted,
speci
fi
candcount
abl
e.

eg:
"Each"memberwasgi
venabeaut
if
ulgi
ft
.

62
4.Useof"ev
ery
" :
"Ev
ery
"isusedf
orcount
lessorhugeamountof
thi
ngs,
peopl
eetc.

eg:
Ever
yoneofusi
smor
tal
.

5.Useof"l
it
tl
e":"
Lit
tl
e"meansnotmuchi
.
e.,
har
dlyany
.Li
tt
lei
sused
i
nnegati
vesense.

eg:
Ther
eisl
i
ttl
ehopeofhi
srecov
ery
,i.
e.,
hei
snotl
i
kel
ytor
ecov
er.

6.Useof"
Alit
tl
e":"
Ali
tt
le"means"
somet
houghnotmuch"
.Ithasa
posi
ti
vemeani
ng.

eg:
Ther
eisal
i
ttl
ehopeofhi
srecov
ery
,i.
e.,
hemaypossi
blyr
ecov
er.

7.Useof"
thel
it
tl
e":"
Thel
i
ttl
e"means"
Notmuchbutal
lther
eis"
.

eg:
Thel
i
ttl
einf
ormat
ionhehadwasqui
ter
eli
abl
e.

8.Useof"Few"
:"Few"meansnotmany
,har
dlyany
.Fewhasa
negat
ivemeani
ng.

eg:
Fewper
sonscankeepasecr
et.

9.Useof"Af
ew" :"
Afew"meanssome.I
thasaposi
ti
vemeani
ngand
i
sopposit
eof"none".

eg:
Afewwor
dsspokeni
near
nestwi
l
lconv
ince.

10.Useof"
thef
ew"
:"Thef
ew"meansnotmanybutal
lther
ear
e.

eg:
Thef
ewf
ri
endshehasar
eal
lver
ypoor
.

11.Useof"ol
derandol
dest
":Bothol
derandol
destar
eusedto
comparepeopl
eandthi
ngs,
thepeoplebel
ongi
ngtodi
ffer
entf
ami
l
ies
arecomparedbyusi
ngol
der/
oldest
.

63
eg:
Thi
sisourol
derhouse.

eg:
Theyal
lwer
efr
iendsofmybr
otherandwer
eol
dert
hanme.

12.Useof"el
derandel
dest
":"
Elderandel
dest"ar
eusedt
ocompar
e
theagesofper
sonsbel
ongi
ngtoonef ami
ly.

1.Al
ii
smyel
derbr
other
. 2.Hamzai
smyel
destbr
other
.

13.Useof"
lat
er"
:Itdenot
est
het
ime.

eg:
Hecamel
atert
hanme.

14.Useof"
lat
ter
":I
tisusedt
odenot
est
ate.

eg:
Thel
att
erhal
foft
hisbooki
sver
yint
erest
ing.

15.Useof"
lat
est
":Lat
estmeansnewest
.

eg:
Thecoati
scutaccor
dingt
othel
atestdesi
gn.

16.Useof"
last
":I
tshowsbot
hti
meandst
ate.

eg:
Hewentt
oKar
achi
lastweek.
(showst
ime)

eg:
Thel
astepi
sodeoft
hisf
il
m wasv
eryi
nter
est
ing.

17.Useof"
Fat
her
":"
Far
ther
"meansmor
edi
stanti
nspeci
all
yspaceor
ti
me.

eg:
Hishousei
sfar
therf
rom ci
tyt
hanmyhouse.

18.Useof"
Fur
ther
":Mor
edi
stanti
nspeci
all
ydegr
ee.

eg:
Compl
etey
ourwor
kwi
thoutanyf
urt
herdel
ay.

19.Useof"Nearest"
:"Near
est
"meansnotf
ordi
stanti
nti
me,
space,
degreeorci
rcumstance.

64
eg:
Pleasegi
vemel
i
ftt
othenear
estbookst
all
.

20.Useof"
next
":"
Next
"meansI
mmedi
atel
yfol
l
owi
ngi
nti
meoror
der
.

eg:
Hei
smynex
tdoornei
ghbor
.

21.Useof"many
":Manyshowst
hequant
it
yornumberandi
tisused
forcount
abl
eandpl
ural
names.

eg:
Manyst
udent
sar
epl
ayi
nggamei
nthegr
ound.

22.Useof"
manya"
:Iti
susedf
orsi
ngul
arv
erb.

eg:
Manyaboyhasgonet
oschool
.

23.Useof"
much":"
Much"showst
heamountofthingsbuti
tdoesnot
showtheex
actamount
.Iti
susedwit
huncount
ablenouns.

eg:
Heeat
stoomuch.

(
5.6)Posi
ti
onofadj
ect
ives:
1.Asi
ngleadj
ect
iveusedattr
ibut
ivel
y(toshowuniquequali
tyof
somet
hingorsomeone).I
tisgeneral
lyplacedbef
orethenoun.

Eg:Wher
earey
ougoi
ng,
mypr
ett
ymai
d,wi
thy
ourr
osycheeksand
gol
denhai
r?

2.I
npoet
ry,
howev
er,
theadj
ect
ivei
sfr
equent
lypl
acedaf
tert
henoun.

Eg:Chi
l
drendearwasi
tyest
erday
?

3.Whensever
aladj
ect
ivesar
eat
tachedt
oonenoun,
theyar
e
gener
all
ypl
acedaft
erf
oremphasi
s.

Eg:Shewassobeaut
if
ul,
cut
eandpr
esentmi
nded.

65
4.Whensomewordsorphr
asesarejoi
nedtoadj
ect
ivet
oexpl
aini
ts
meani
ng,t
headj
ecti
vei
splacedaf
terit
snoun.

Eg:Hewasmanf
ert
il
einr
esour
ces.

5.I
ncer
tai
nphr
asest
headj
ect
iveal
way
scomesaf
tert
henoun.

Eg:Heirapparent
,ti
meimmemorial
,l
ordparamount
,vi
ceroyel
ect
,
l
etterspatent
,kni
ghtst
empor
al,
notarypubl
i
c,bodypol
it
ic,God
Almighty.

(
5.7)Adj
ect
ivesusedasnouns:
(
1)Aspl
ural
nounsdenot
ingacl
assofper
sons.

eg:
Thecaut
ious(
=caut
iouspeopl
e)ar
enotal
way
scowar
ds.

eg:
Ther
ich(
=ri
chpeopl
e)knownothowt
hepoorl
i
ve.

(
2)Assi
ngul
arnoundenot
ingsameabst
ractqual
i
ty.

eg:
Thef
utur
e(=f
utur
it
y)i
sunknownt
ous.

eg:
Hei
slov
eroft
hebeaut
if
ul(
=beaut
yingener
al)
.

(3)Someadj
ect
ivesar
eact
ual
l
ybecomenounsandar
ehenceusedi
n
bothnumber
s.

1.Somearedr
ivedf
rom pr
opernounsasAust
ral
i
ans,
Canadi
ans,
I
tali
anset
c.

2.Somedenoti
ngpersonsasjuni
ors,
seni
ors,
mor t
als,
infer
ior
s,
super
ior
s,nobl
es,
cri
minals,
sewages,el
der
s,minorsetc.

3.Fewadj
ecti
vesdenot
ethi
ngsgener
all
yassecr
ets,
tot
als,
li
qui
ds,
sol
ids,
val
uabl
es.

66
Someadjecti
vesareusedasnounsonl
yint
hepl
ural
for
m
assweet
s,bi
tt
ers,
valuabl
es,eat
ableset
c.

⚫ Sent
encesi
nwhi
chadj
ect
ivesdenot
ethi
ngsandar
eusedi
npl
ural
f
orm.
Exampl
es:
1.Fewper
sonsknowt
hesecr
etoft
hesuccess.

2.Thet
otal
sofal
lthest
udent
smustbegr
eat
ert
han60%.

3.Var
ioust
ypesofl
i
qui
dsar
eusedi
nsci
encel
abor
ator
ies.

4.Molecul
esofsol
i
dsar
ecl
osel
ypackedmor
ethant
hemol
ecul
esof
l
iqui
ds.

5.Al
lval
uabl
esar
enotal
way
spr
eci
ous.

6.Sweet
sar
ehar
mful
fort
eet
h.

7.Noonel
i
kebi
tt
ers.

8.Al
leat
abl
esar
enotgoodf
orourheal
th.

(
4).Adj
ect
ivesar
eal
sousedasnounsi
ncer
tai
nphr
ases.

eg:I
ngeneral,
infut
ure,i
nshort,
insecret,
beforelong,
atpresent,f
or
good,atbest
,thr
oughthickandthi
n,forbett
er,f
orworse,i
nbl ackand
whit
e,ri
ghtorwrong,fr
om badtoworse,thelongandshortetc.

Exampl
esent
ences:

1.I
ngener
alt
her
ear
e40%t
opassi
ntheexami
nat
ion.

67
2.I
nfut
ureIshal
lchar
gey
ouf
ormedi
cal
adv
ice.

3.I
nshor
tweknownot
hing.

4.Thenegot
iat
ionswer
ecar
redoni
i nsecr
et.
5.Ishal
l oubef
seey orel
ong.
6.Bef
orel
onghewi
l
lbeappoi
ntedt
ohi
gherpost
.

7.Atpr
esenthei
sinpecuni
arydi
ff
icul
ti
es.

eatpr
8.Idonotwantanymor esent
.

9.Hehasl
eftI af
ndi orgood.
10.Wecannotar
ri
vebef
oreSat
urdayatbest
.
11.Itmustbesai
dtohercr
edi
tt oodbymet
hathest hrought
hickand
thi
n.
12.I
tmusthav
eyourt
ermsdowni
nbl
ackandwhi
te.

Chapt
erno6:Pr
eposi
ti
on
(
6.1)Def
ini
ti
onandExpl
anat
ion:

68
1.Def
ini
ti
ons:
⚫ Prepositi
onisawordpl
acedbefor
eanounorapronount oshowon
whatrel
ationtheper
sonorthi
ngdenotedbyi
tst
andsi
nr egardto
somethingelse.

⚫ Pr
epositi
oniaawordwhi
chshowsr
elat
ionofanounorpr
onoun
wi
thothernounorpr
onoun.

2.Expl
anat
ion:
⚫ Thenounorpr onounwhichi
susedwi t
hapreposi
ti
oniscal
l
edits
obj
ect,
itisinaccusat
iveorobj
ect
ivecaseandi
ssaidtobegover
ned
bythepreposi
ti
on.

⚫ Apr
eposi
ti
onmayhav
etwoormor
eobj
ect
s.

eg:
Ther
oadr erhi
unsov l
landpl
ain.
⚫ Apr
eposi
ti
oni
susual
l
ypl
acedbef
orei
tsobj
ectbutsomet
imesi
t
f
oll
owsit
.

eg:
Her
eisawat
cht ouaskedf
haty or.
eg:
Thati
stheboywhom Iwasspeaki .
ngof

eg:
Whatar
eyoul ngat
ooki ?
eg:
Whatar
eyout
hi ngof
nki ?
eg:
Whi
choft
hesechai
rsdi
dy ton?
ousi

(
6.2)Rel
ati
onsexpr
essedbypr
eposi
ti
on(
thi
scl
assi
fi
cat
ioni
s
basedonwhet
hert
hesubj
ectorobj
ecti
sli
vi
ngornonl
i
ving)

Ther
ear
esev
encommont
ypesofr
elat
iont
hatapr
eposi
ti
onshows,

69
t
hesear
e

1.Ani
mat
etoani e:Thef
mat isher
mancaughtaf
ish.
2.Ani
mat
etoi
nani
mat
e:Don' ourhandi
tputy het
sont abl
e.
3.I
nani
mat
etoi
nani
mat
e:Thepeni het
sont abl
e.
4.Abst
ractt
oconcer
t: otofi
Al deasar
einmymi
nd.
5.Concr
etet
oabst
ract
:Youhav
etogi
veani
dea.
6.Abst
ractt
oabst
r :I
act nt
ell
i
genceofmani
shi
sact
ual
beaut
y.

7.Concr
etet
oconcr
ete:Thebooki het
sont abl
e.

(
6.3)Somei
mpor
tantnot
esaboutt
heusageofpr
eposi
ti
on:
Note1:Whent
heobjecti
srel
ati
vepronoun"t
hat",
thepreposi
ti
onis
al
way spl
acedatt
heend.eg:Ihav
et hebookthatyouaskedfor.

Note2:Thepr
epositi
onisof
tenplacedattheendwhentheobj
ectis
ani
nterr
ogat
ivepronounorarel
ati
vepronoun.eg:
Thati
sthestudent
whom Iwasspeakingof.
Not
e3:
Somet
imest
heobj
ecti
spl
acedf
ir
stf
ort
hesakeofemphasi
s.

eg:
Thedogi tbyt
shi hecar
.

Note4:Thepr
eposi
tionf
or,
from,i
n&onareoftenomit
tedbef
oret
he
nounsofpl
aceorti
me.Example:
Wedidi
tlastweek.

(
6.4)Ki
ndsofpr
eposi
ti
on:
Ther
ear
e3ki
ndsofpr
eposi
ti
on.

1.Si
mpl
epr
eposi
ti
on

2.Compoundpr
eposi
ti
on.

70
3.Phr
asepr
eposi
ti
on

a)Si
mpl
epr
eposi
ti
on

Si
mplepreposi
tionisusedingeneral
sensetoshowtherel
ati
on.eg:at
,
by
,for
,fr
om, i
n,of,off
,on,out
,thr
ough,t
il
l,
to,up,
wit
h,i
nto,over
,upon,
wi
thi
n,under,
sinceetc.

b)Compoundpr
eposi
ti
on

Compoundpr
eposi
ti
onshowcompoundmeani
ng.

eg:about,
above,al
ong,amongst ,ar
ound,wi
thout
,acr
oss,outsi
de,
i
nside,bef
ore,
behind,bel
ow, beneat
h,besi
de,bet
ween,beyond,
underneat
h,wit
hout,wit
hin.

Compoundpr eposi
ti
onsaregener
all
yfor
medby
pr
efi
xi
ngapreposit
ion(usual
l
ya:noorbe:
by)toanoun,anadj
ect
iveor
anadver
bas"because"
.

c)Phr
asepr
eposi
ti
on

Gr
oupofwor
dsusedwi
tht
hef
orceofasi
ngl
epr
eposi
ti
on.

eg:accordingt o,i
naccor dancewi t
h,inplaceof ,agr eeabl y
,inaddit
ion
to,i
nreferencet o,alongwi t
h,i
n(on)behal fof,inr egar dto,awayf r
om,
i
ncaseof ,i
nspi t
eof ,becauseof,incompar isont o, insteadof,bydint
of,i
ncompl i
ancewi th,intheeventof,bymeansof , i
nconsequenceof ,
onaccountof , byreasonof ,i
ncourseof ,owingt o, byv i
r t
ueof,in
favourof,withav i
ewt o,bywayof ,i
nf r
ontof ,
wi thaney eto,
conformablyt o,i
nl i
euof ,wi
threferenceniceto, fort hesakeof ,i
n
orderto,withregardt oetc.

Exampl
esent
ences:

71
1.Hesucceededbydi
ntofper
sev
eranceandsheerhar
dwor
k.

2.I
ncaseofneedphone111.
3.I
nconsequenceofhi
sil
l
nesshecoul
dnotf
ini
sht
hewor
kint
ime.

4.Owi
ngt
ohi
sil
lheal
th,
her
eti
redf
rom t
hebusi
ness.

5.Wi
thr
efer
encet
oyourl
ett
erofdeat
hwer
egr
et.

6.I
nordertoavoi
dli
ti
gat
ionheaccept
edRs30,
000f
ull
set
tl
ementof
hi
sclai
mf orRs45,
000.

7.I
ncour
seoft
ime,
hesawhi
smi
stake.

8.Hedi
edf
ight
ingont
hebehal
fofhi
scount
ry.

9.Ont
hebehal
foft
hest
affher
eadt
headdr
ess.

10.Hepr
eser
vedi
nspi
teofdi
ff
icul
ti
es.

11.I
ntheev
entofhisdy
ingwi
thoutani
ssue,
hisnephewwoul
dinher
it
thewhol
eproper
ty.

12.I
nst
eadoft
alki
ngpr
ovey
ourwor
kbydoi
ngsomet
hing.

13.Byr
easonofhi
sper
ver
seat
ti
tude,
heest
rangedhi
sbestf
ri
ends.

edaccor
14.Heact dingt
omyi
nst
ruct
ions.

15.Whydon'
tyougoal
ongwi
thy
ourbr
other
.

16.I
naccor
dancewitht
hey
ouri
nst
ruct
ions,
wehav
eremi
tt
edt
he
amountt
oyourbanks.

17.Ther
eisat
all
treei
nfr
ontofherhouse.
18.Agr
eeabl
ytot
het
ermsoft
heset
tl
ement
,weher
ewi
thencl
oseour

72
chequef
orRs1000.

19.Bywayofi
ntr
oduct
ionhemadesomer
eal
per
ti
nentr
emar
ks.

20.Bymeansofr
opel
adder
stheyscal
edt
hewal
l
.

21.Fort
hesakeoft
hei
rbel
i
efst
hepur
it
ansemi
grat
edt
oIr
an.

22.I
ncour
seofhi
sresear
cheshemetwi
thmanydi
ff
icul
ti
es.

23.Heabdi
cat
edt
het
hronei
nfav
ourofhi
sel
destson.

24.Hecoul
dnotat
tendt becauseofherf
heschool ather
'sser
ious
i
ll
ness.

25.Heaccept hecari
edt nli
euofhi
scl
aimf
orRs3,
2500.

26.Onaccountofhi
snegl
i
gencet
hecompanysuf
fer
edaheav
yloss.

⚫ Bar ri
ng,concerning,consi
deri
ng, duri
ng,pending,regar
ding,
respecti
ng,touchingandf ewsimilarwor dswhi charepresent
parti
cipl
esofv erbs,areusedabsol utel
ywi t
houtanynounorpr onoun
beingattachedtot hem.Forallpracticalpurposestheyhavebecame
prepositi
ons.

Exampl
esent
ences:

1.Bar
ri
ng(=except
ingapar
tfr
om)acci
dentt
hemai
lwi
l
lar
ri
ve
tomor
row.

2.Concerni
ng(
=about
)yest
erday
'sf
ir
e,t
her
ear
emanyr
umour
sint
he
market.

3.Consi
der
ing(
=taki
ngi
ntoaccount
)thequal
i
ty,
thepr
icei
snotso
hi
gh.

73
4.Ul
yssesi
ssai
dtohav
einv
ent
edt
hegameofchessdur
ingt
hesi
ege
ofTr
oy.

5.Pendi
ngf
urt
heror
der
s,Mr
.Johnwi
l
lactasheadmast
er.

6.Regardi
ngyouri
nqui
ri
eswer
egr
ett
osayt
hatatpr
esentwear
enot
i
nterest
edini
mitat
ionsi
lk.

7.Touchi
ngt
hismat
ter
,Ihav
enotasy
etmade-
upmymi
nd.

⚫ Sever
al wordsar
eusedsometimesasadverbsandsomet
imesas
pr
eposit
ions.Awordisapreposi
ti
onwhenitgover
nsanounor
pr
onoun,itisanadver
bwhenitdoesnot
.

Adver
b Pr
eposi
ti
on

unabout
Goandr . Don'
tl
oieraboutt
t hest
rret
.

dnotcomebef
Icoul ore. Icamet hedaybef
ore
yest
erday.

Hashecomei
n? shei
I nthi
sroom?

cameof
Thewheel f. Thedr
iv umpedof
erj fthecar
.

eon.
Letusmov sont
Thebooki het
abl
e.

Hi
sfat
herar
ri
vedsoonaf
ter
. Af
teramont
hher
etur
ned.

Taket
hispar ov
cel er
. Her
ulesov
erav
astempi
re.

Ihav m si
enotseenhi nce. Ihav eptsi
enotsl ncey
est
erday
.

⚫ Preposi
ti
onsar ev
erycommonl yusedi ncomposit
ionwithverbst
o
for
m newverbs,someti
mest heyar
epr ef
ixed.eg:Out
bid,ov
ercome,
over
fl
ow,overl
ook,over
take,
undergo,undertake,
uphold,
withdr
aw,

74
wit
hhold,
Mor
efr
equent
lypr
eposi
ti
onsf
oll
owt
hev
erbsandr
emai
n
separ
ate.

eg:
Boastof
,laughat
,lookf
or,
sendf
oret
c.

Exampl
esent
ences:

1.Heboast
edofhi
saccompl
i
shment
.

2.Hel
ookedf
orhi
swat
chev
ery
wher
e.

3.Ev
ery
onel
aughedathi
m.

(
6.4)Rel
ati
onsexpr
essedbyt
hepr
eposi
ti
ons:
Thef ol
l
owi ngar
ethemostcommonr
elat
ionsexpr
essedbyt
he
preposi
tions:

1.Pl
ace:

Exampl es:Wentaboutt hewor ld,r


anacrosst heroad,leanedagai nsta
wall
, f
ellamongt hieves,atdeat h'
sdoor,sitont hedeck,stoodbef ore
thedoor ,stoodbehindthecur tain,l
iesbel
owt hesurf
ace, satbeside
me, st
andbyme, rai
ncomesf rom theclouds, i
nthesky ,f
ellintoa
dit
ch,li
esnearhi shear t
,thecliffhangsov erthesea,tourroundt he
world,mar chedthrought hetown, camet otheendoft heroad, putpen
topaper ,tr
avelt
owar dNasi k,layunderthet able,
clai
medupt he
l
adder ,
liesupont hetable,withinthehouse.

2.Ti
me:

Exampl es:Afterhi
sdeath,atanyearl
ydate,arr
ivedbeforeme,behind
ti
me, by3'oclock,duri
ngthewholeday ,
formanyy ears,f
rom fi
rstApri
l,
i
nt heafternoon,li
vedunderthemughals,onMonday ,pendinghis
ret
urn,sinceyesterday
,last
edthroughthenight,
throughouttheyear,

75
wai
tti
l
ltomor
row,tenminutest
otwel
ve,
towar
dsev
eni
ng,
unt
ilhi
s
ar
ri
val
,ri
sewi
ththesun,
wi t
hinamont
h.

3.Agency
/inst
rument
ali
ty:

Examples:Sel
lgoodsatauct
ion,sentt
heparcelbypost
,wasstunned
byablow,wasdestroy
edbyfire,
heardthi
sthroughafri
end,
cutitwit
h
akniefet
c.

4.Manner
:

Examples:Dyi
ngbyi
nches,
foughtwi
thcour
age,
wor
kedwi
th
earnest
ness,
wonwit
hease.

5.Cause/
reason/
pur
pose:

Exampl es:Labour
edf orthegoodofhumani t
y ,
diedoff ever,di
di tfor
ourgood, suff
ersfr
om gout ,di
edfrom fati
gue,doesi tfrom perversit
y,
retr
eatedthroughfearofanambush, concealeditthroughshame, lost
hispursethroughnegligence,shi
verswithfever,tookmedi cinefor
cold.

6.Possessi
ons:

Examples:Ther
ewasnomonyonhi
m,amanofmeans,
theboywi
th
redhai
retc.

7.Measur
e/r
ate/
val
ue:

Exampl
es:Hechar
gesi
nter
estatni
neper
cent
.

St
ori
esl
i
ket
hesemustbet
akenatwhatt
heyar
ewor
th.

Cl
othi
ssol
dbyt
hey
ard.

76
Iam t
all
ert
hany
oubyt
woi
nches.

I
twas1byt
het
owercl
ock.

8.Cont
rast
/concessi
on:

Af
terev
eryef
for
tonemayf
ail
.

Foroneenemyhehasahundr
edf
ri
ends.

Foral
lhi
sweal
thhei
snotcont
ent
.

Wi
thal
lherf
aul
tsIadmi
reher
.

9.I
nfer
ence/
mot
ive/
sour
ce/
ori
gin:

Fr
om whatIknowabouthi
m,Ihesi
tat
etot
rusthi
m.

Thekni
ghtwer
ebr
avef
rom gal
l
ant
ryofspi
ri
t.

Hedi
ditf
rom gr
ati
tude.

Li
ghtemanat
esf
rom t
hesun.

Thi
sisquot
ati
onf
rom Mi
l
ton.

Hi
sski
l
lcomesf
rom pr
act
ice.

(
6.5)Usesofsomepr
eposi
ti
on:
1.
Towar
ds:"
Towar
ds"meansnear
erandnear
er.


Thesuf
ix-
war
ds

Thesufix"
wards"cangoont heendofsever
alotherpr
eposi
tionseg:
"i
n,out,
down,up,on"anddozensofdi
ffer
entnounsexample:home,
sky,l
and,westet
c.Forexample"
homeward"meansi nt
hedirecti
onof
home.

77
2.To:"
To"speci
fyt
heendpoi
ntofapat
h.

eg:
Iwentt
oschool
.(
meanst
heendpoi
ntofmypat
hwasschool
)

3.I
n/int
o:Weuse"nori
i nt
o"whenwet
alkaboutsomet
hingwi
tha
boundar
yandani
nter
ior
.

Thet
eacheri
sint
hecl
ass.

▪"
Int
o"isusedwhensomet
hingorsomeonei
sgoi
ngorbei
ngputi
nto
anotherl
ocati
on.

eg:
Wecr
ashedi
ntot
het
ree.

eg:
Theyj
umpedi
ntot
het
rai
n.

4.Through:Thebasi
cmeani
ngof'
'
thr
ough"i
sint
othenoutf
rom t
he
otherendorside.

eg:
Iam goi
ngt
oschool
thr
ought
hemar
ket
.

eg:
Hepassedt
hrought
hecor
ri
dort
oreacht
her
oom.


thesecondmeani
ngof"
thr
ough"i
s"becauseof
".

eg:
Ther
oadt
osuccesscomest
hrought
hehar
dwor
k.

eg:
IcanDeel
i
ghtt
hrought
hekey
hol
e.

5.On:Iti
susedtoexpressthesurfaceofsomethi
ng,day
s,par
tsof
dayanddates.eg:
Thebooki sonthet abl
e.On14t
hAugustour
Paki
stanwasseparat
edf r
om Indi
a.

6.At:I
tisusedtopointoutspeci
fi
ctimeanditisalsousedwhen
ref
erri
ngt oabui
ldi
ngaslocati
oninacity.
gener
ally"i
n"i
susedwith
thebuil
dingstomeanthatsomethingoccursi
nsidethebui
ldi
ng."
At"

78
ontheot
herhandi
susedt
oex
presst
hatsomet
hinghappensatt
he
l
ocati
on.

eg:
Iwokeupear
lyi
nthemor
ningat5o'
cl
ock.

eg:
Thebusi
satt
hest
ati
on.

7.Of:Usedforbel
ongi
ngt
o/r
elat
ingt
o.Expr
esspossessi
onor
connecti
on.

eg:
Ili
vei
nthehouseatt
heendoft
her
oad.

eg:
Whatwast
hecostoft
hisbook.

8.For:I
tisusedt
oindi
cat
etheuseofsomet
hingorov
eracer
tai
n
peri
od.

eg:
Iwentt
oEngl
andf
ort
woy
ear
s.

eg:
Thi
sbooki
sfory
ou.


"For
"isal
sousedt
omean"
becauseof
":

eg:
Iam sohappyf
ory
ou.

eg:
Wef
eel
deepl
ysor
ryf
ory
ourl
oss.


"For
"isal
sousedt
oindi
cat
ethet
imeordur
ati
on.

eg:
Heat
tendedt
heuni
ver
sit
yforoney
earonl
y.

eg:
He'
sbeenf
amousf
ormanydecades.

9.Wi
th:I
tisusedt
oindi
cat
ebei
ngi
nvol
vedorbei
ngt
oget
her
.

eg:
Oor
der
edasandwi
chwi
thadr
ink. eg:
Hewaswi
thhi
sfr
iends.


"Wi
th"i
sal
sousedt
oindi
cat
epossessi
on:

79
eg:
Ametaboywi
thgr
eeney
es.

eg:
Peopl
ewi
thal
otofmoneyar
enotal
way
shappy
.


"Wi
th"i
sal
sousedt
oindi
cat
eusi
ng:

eg:
Iwr
oteal
ett
erwi
tht
hepeny
ougav
eme.

eg:
Thi
sist
hesoupt
hatImadewi
thr
iceandbasel
y.


"Wi
th"i
sal
sousedt
oindi
cat
efeel
i
ng:

eg:
Hecamet othef
rontst
agewi
thconf
idence.Iam emai
l
ingy
ouwi
th
mysincer
eapol
ogy.


"Wi
th"i
sal
sousedt
oagr
eementorunder
standi
ng.

eg:
Arey
ouwi
thme? eg:
Heagr
eeswi
thme.

10.Ov
er:I
tisusedt
oindi
cat
emov
ementf
rom onepl
acet
oanot
her
.

eg:
Comeov
ert
omyhousef
ordi
nnersomet
ime.

eg:
Coul
dyour
oll
over
?


"Ov
er"i
sal
sousedt
oindi
cat
emov
ementdownwar
d.

eg:
Thebi
gtr
eef
ell
overont
her
oad.

eg:
Cany
oubendov
erandgett
hedi
shf
orme.

▪"
Over
"isal
sousedt
oindi
cat
emor
ethananexpect
ednumberor
amount.

eg:
Thi
samounti
sov
erourpr
edi
cti
on.

eg:
Kids12andmor
ecanwat
cht
hismov
ie.

80

"Ov
er"i
sal
sousedt
oindi
cat
eaper
iodoft
ime.

eg:
Iwor
kedt
her
eov
eray
ear
.

eg:
Icannotwor
kint
hisf
act
oryov
eray
ear
.

11.By
:Iti
susedt
oindi
cat
epr
oxi
mit
y.

eg:
CanIsi
tbyy
ou? eg:
Shewasst
andi
ngbyme.

▪"
By"i
salsousedtoi
ndi
cat
eaper
sont
hatdoessomet
hing(
ina
passi
vesent
ence)

eg:
Themi
crowav
ewasf
ixedbyt
hemechani
c.

eg:
Thef
lower
swer
edel
i
ver
edbyapost
man.


"By
"isal
sousedt
oindi
cat
eanact
ionwi
thapar
ti
cul
arpur
pose.

eg:
Youcanpasst
heexami
nat
ionbypr
epar
ingf
ori
t.

eg:
Shef
inal
l
ybr
oket
her
ecor
dbypur
eef
for
t.


"By
"isal
sousedt
oindi
cat
eameanormet
hod.

eg:
Pleasesendt
hispackaget
oRussi
abyai
rmai
l
.

12."
Ago"
:Itmeansacer
tai
nti
mei
nthepast
.

eg:
Ilef
tthi
sjobt
woy
ear
sago.

eg2:
Iwentt
oJapanf
orat
ouroney
earago.

13."
Aft
er"
:Itmeansapoi
nti
nthet
imet
hatf
oll
owsanot
herpoi
nti
n
thet
ime.

eg:
Aft
erhi
ssur
ger
yhef
orgotev
ery
thi
ng.

81
eg:
Aft
ert
hecl
asseswewentt
oapar
k.

14.Befor
e:I
tmeansapoi
nti
nthet
imet
hatpr
ecedesanot
herpoi
nti
n
theti
me.

eg:
Bef
orebr
eakf
asty
oushoul
dfi
nishy
ourwor
k.

eg:
Bef
oreJul
yyoumustgi
vememymoney
.

15."Duri
ng"
: I
tmeanssmet
hingt
hathappened/
wil
lhappeni
na
specif
icper
iodoft
ime.

eg:Duri
ngthewar
,twoofourcount
ry'
ssol
dier
sfi
nishedal
lthe
enemies.

eg:
Heusedt
owor
kdur
ingt
heday
time.

16.Si
nce:I
tmeansf
rom acer
tai
nper
iodoft
ime.

eg:
Hei
spr
inci
pal
oft
hisschool
since2000.

eg:
Hei
sver
yhar
dwor
kersi
ncehi
sschool
time.

17.Throughout:I
tmeanssomethi
ngthathappened/
wil
lhappen
conti
nuouslyi
naspecif
icper
iodofti
me.

eg:
Iwi
l
lcol
l
ectt
hedonat
ionst
hroughoutt
hisweek.

eg:
Hewi l
lvi
sital
lthef
amouspl
acesofPaki
stant
hroughoutt
his
month.

18.Unt
il
:Itmeansupt
oacer
tai
npoi
nti
nti
me/
howl
ongsomet
hingi
s
goi
ngtolast.

eg:
Youshoul
dcont
inuey
ourhar
dwor
kunt
ilt
heendofy
ourl
i
fe.

eg:
Youshoul
dnotst
opy
ourdai
l
y-exer
ciseunt
ily
oubecomea

82
body
bui
l
der
.

(
6.6)SomeWor
dst
aki
ngmor
ethanonepr
eposi
ti
on:
1.Accompany :
A. By( forlivingbei ngs) .
ThePr imeMi nist
erwasaccompani edbyt hemembersofhis
cabi
net .
B. Wi t
h( things) .
Hislectur ewasaccompani edwi t
hsubt l
eanal
ysi
sofconcepts.
2.Account able:
A. To( anaut hor i
tyoraper son) .
Allofusar eaccount abletoGod.
B. For( action) .
Wear eaccount ablet oGodf orourdeedsandmi sdeeds.
3.Angr y:
A. At( at hing).
Bi
lal i
sangr yatAr slan'sbadconduct .
B. Wi t
h( aper son)
Hei sangr ywi t
hmybr ot
her.
C. For( foracause) .
Hei sangr ywi t
hmef ormycar el
essness.
4.Annoy ed:
A. Wi th( aper son).
Hei sannoy edwi thhi syoungerbr ot
her
B. At( somet hing).
Hei sannoy edwi thhi sfri
endathi slazi
ness.
5.Answer able:
A. To( aper son) .

83
Theser vanti sanswer abletot hemast er.
B. For( somet hing).
Wear eanswer ablet oourpar entsf orourconduct.
6.Appeal :
A. To( per son) .
Heappeal edt ot hej udgef orhi sreleasef r
om jai
l
.
B. For( t hing).
Heappeal edf orhi sr el
easef rom t hepr i
son.
7.Arrive:
A. At( somet ownorasmal lplace).
Hear rivedatt her ailwayst ation.
B. I n( bigci t
yorpl ace) .
Hear rivedi nPaki stani n1947.
8.Attend:
A. To( dut ies,lessons, work).
Iat
t endt omydut iessi ncerely.
B. On( ser vice).
Ther ear et wonur sest oat tendont hispatient
.
9.Author ity:
A. On( subj ect).
Naseeri sanaut horityonmoder nphy sics.
B. Ov er( legal ormor al).
TheDi strictMagi stratehasaut hor i
tyov erthecommi t
tee.

10.Bl
ind:
A. Of( physi
cal
ly)
.
Hei
sbl i
ndofoneeye.
B. To( mentall
y).

84
Manypar ent sar ebl indt othef aul
tsoft heirchil
dren.
11.Communi cat e:
A.Wi t
h(t omakecor respondence) .
Hecommuni cat eswi t
husr egular
ly.
B.To( t
oconv ey ).
Hecommuni cat edhi sopi niont ome.
12.Compar e:
A. Wi t
h( simi lart hings).
Shakespear ei scompar edwi thVirgi
l.
B. To( dissi mi larthings).
Lif
eiscompar edt oabat tle.
13.Compet e:
A. Wi t
h( per son) .
Icannotcompet ewi ththisy oungman.
B. For( athi ng) .
Theycompet edf orapr i
ze.
14.Compl ain:
A. To( person) .
Hecompl ai nedt otheMagi str
ateagainstNaj am.
B. About( at hingorper son) .
Hecompl ai nedt otheMagi str
ateabouthi sconduct .
15.Conf er:
A. On( togi ve).
Thepr esidentconf erredt het i
tl
eofNi shan-e-Pakist
anonhi
m.
B. Wi th( aper son) .
Ishallconf erwi thhi m abouti mpor t
antt opics.
16.Die:
A. Of( adi sease) .

85
Hedi edofchol era.
B. Fr om ( acause) .
Hedi edf r
om af al l
.
17.Differ:
A. Wi th(per son) .
Idif
ferwi thy ou.
B. Fr om ( things).
Theset woci ti
esdi fferf r
om eachot her.
18.Disqual i
fied:
A. Fr om ( act i
on) .
Hewasdi squal ifiedf rom takingtheex am.
B. For( postort hing).
Hewasdi squal ifiedf orthepostofPol i
ceInspect
or.
19.Entrust :
A. Wi th(incaseofper son).
Icannotent rusthi m wi thmymoney .
B. To( incaseoft hing) .
Icannotent rustmypr opertytomyuncl e.
20.Fami li
ar:
A. Wi th(things, subject s).
Iam notf ami l
i
arwi t
ht hecultur
eoft hesepeople.
B. To( aper son) .
Hisfacel ooksf ami l
iart ome.
21.Fight:
A. Wi th(per son) .
Wef oughtwi tht heEngl i
sh.
B. For( thi
ng) .
Wef oughtwi tht heEngl i
shf orfr
eedom.

86
22.Grat eful :
A. To( per son) .
Iam gr at eful t
oy ou.
B. For( t hing) .
Iam gr at eful t
oMaj eedf orhi shelp.
23.Heir:
A. Of( descendant ).
Asoni susual lythehei rofhi sf ather.
B. To( thing) .
Hewasanhei rtoabi gfor t
une.
24.Indebt ed:
A. To( someoneorsomet hing).
Iam deepl yindebt edtohi mf orhishelp.
B. For( t hing) .
Iam indebt edt omyf r
iendf orhi ssupport.
25.Indignant :
A. Wi th( per son).
Hewasi ndi gnantwi thhi sfriends.
B. At( thi ng).
Thet eacherwasi ndignantathi scar el
essness.
26.Live:
A. On( toexi st)
.
Amanl ivesonf ood.
B. By( todependon, tobeliev ein).
Thepeopl eoft hisar ealivebyhunt ing.

27.Par
t:
A. From (
per
sons)
.

87
Heispar t
edf rom hi
sFrenchwif
e.
B. Wi t
h( things).
Hecannotpar twit
hhismoney.
28.Responsi bl
e:
A. To( per son).
Hewasr esponsi bl
etotheboss.
B. For( t
hing) .
Wearer esponsibletoGodforouract
ions.
29.Taste:
A. Of( exper i
ence).

Nowy ouwi ll
hav eat asteofnewwork.
B. For( interest).
Ihavenot ast eforpainti
ng.
30.Tir
ed:
A. Of( ment al
ly).
Iam ti
redofpov erty.
B. Wi th( physicall
y).
Iam ti
redwi t
hwor kingforfi
vehour
scont
inuousl
y.

88
(
6.7)Useofsomepr
eposi
ti
onsi
nsent
ences:

89
90
91
92
Chapt
erno7:Conj
unct
ion
(
7.1)Def
ini
ti
onanddescr
ipt
ion:
Conjuncti
oni
sawor
dwhi
chj
oint
wowor
ds,
sent
ences,
par
agr
aphsor
thoughts.

⚫ Conj
uctoi
onj
oint
oget
hersent
encesandof
tenmaket
hem mor
e
compact
.

eg:"
Themanispoorbuthonest
"isashor
twayofsay
ing"
Themani
s
poor
,buthei
shonest
".

⚫ Somet
imest
heconj
unct
ion"
and"j
oinswor
dsonl
y.

eg:
Twoandt
womakef
our
.

⚫ Conjuncti
onsmustbecaref
ull
ydist
inguishedfr
om Rel
ati
ve
pronouns,Rel
ativ
eadv
erbsandpreposit
ionswhichar
ealso
connecti
ngwor ds.

eg:
Thi
si hehouset
st hatJackbui
l
t.(
Rel
ati
vepr
onoun)
eg:
Thi
sist acewher
hepl ehewasmur
der (
ed.Rel
ati
veadver
b)
eg:
Taket
hisandgi
vet
hat
.(
Conj
unct
ion)
Note1:Ev
eryconjunct
ionisaconnect
ingwordbutev
eryconnect
ing
wordisnotaconjuncti
on.Forexampl
econnecti
ngwordscanbe
r
elati
vepronoun,
relat
iveadver
boraconjunct
ion.

Note2:Al
lconnect
ingwordsforexamplerel
ati
vepronouns,
relat
ive
adv
erbsandconjuncti
onsarecoll
ect
ivel
ycall
edtr
ansiti
onaldevi
ces.

⚫ Someconj
unct
ionsar
eusedi
npai
rs.

93
1.Ei
ther
-or
.

eg:
Eit
hert
akei
torl
eav
eit
.

2.Nei
ther
-nor
.

eg:
Iti
snei
therusef
ulnoror
nament
al.

3.Bot
h-and.

eg:
Bot
hmeandmyf
iancéear
egoi
ngt
opar
k.

4.Whet
her
-or
.

eg:
Idon'
tcar
ewhet
hery
ougoorst
ay.

5.Notonl
y-butal
so.

eg:
Notonl
yMar
kbutal
sohi
sfr
iendsar
epl
ayi
ngout
side.

Note3:Conj
unct
ionswhichareusedi
npai
rsar
ecal
l
edcor
rel
ati
ve
conj
uncti
onsorcorr
elat
ives.

⚫ Whenconjunct
ionsar
eusedascorr
elat
iveseachoft
hecor
rel
ated
wordsshoul
dbeplacedi
mmediat
elybefor
et hewordst
obe
connect
ed.as:

Hev
isi
tednotonl
yKar
achi
butal
soLahor
e.(
Wrong)

Henotonl
yvi
sit
edKar
achi
butal
soLahor
e.

⚫ Weusemanycompoundexpr
essi
onst
hesear
ecal
l
edcompound
conj
unct
ions.Exampl
es:

1.Inorderthat
:Thenot
icewaspubl
i
shedi
nor
dert
hatal
lmi
ghtknow
thefacts.

94
2.Oncondi
ti
onthat
:Iwi
l
lfor
giv
eyouoncondi
ti
ont
haty
oudonot
repeatt
hewor
ds.

3.Ev
eni
f:Suchanactwoul
dnotbeki
ndi
fitwer
ejust
.

4.Sot hat
:Heaskedhi
sfat
hert
ocomesot
hathecangi
vehi
ma
surpr
ise.

5Provi
dedt
hat
:Youcanbor
rowt
hebookpr
ovi
dedt
hat
,your
etur
nit
soon.

6.Ast
hough:Hewal
ksast
houghhei
ssl
i
ght
lyl
ame.

7.I
nasmuchas:Imustr
efusey
ourr
equesti
nasmuchasIbel
i
evei
t
unr
easonabl
e.

8.Aswel
las:Heat
tendschool
aswel
last
uit
ioncent
err
egul
arl
y.

9.Assoonas:Het
ookof
fhi
scoatassoonasheent
eredt
hehouse.

10.Asi
f:Hel
ooksasi
fhewaswear
y.

(
7.2)Cl
assesofConj
unct
ions:
Ther
ear
etwocl
assesofconj
unct
ions,
thesear
e

a)Coor
dinat
ingconj
unct
ions

b)Subor
dinat
ingconj
unct
ions

1.Coor
dinat
ingconj
unct
ions:
Acoor
dinat
ingconj
unct
ionj
oinst
oget
hercl
ausesofequal
rank.


Bor
dsf
lyandf
ishswi
m.

Thi
ssent
encecont
ainst
woi
ndependentst
atement
sort
wo

95
stat
ementsofequal
rankorimpor
tance.Hencetheconj
uncti
onjoi
ning
toget
hert
hesetwostatement
sorclausesofequalr
ankiscal
leda
Coordi
nat
ingconj
uncton.(
i Coordi
nati
ngmeansofequalrank)
Exampl
esofcoor
dinat
ingconj
unct
ions:
And,
but
,for
,or
,nor
,al
so,
eit
her
-or
,nei
ther
-noret
c.

Ki
ndsofcoor
dinat
ingconj
unct
ion:

1.Cumul at
ive/
copul
ative:Theseconj
unct
ionsmerel
yaddone
statementtoanot
her.eg:Wecar v
ednotaline,
andwerai
sednota
stone.

2.Adversat
ive:Theseconj
uncti
onsexpr
essopposi
ti
onorcont
rast
betweentwostatements.eg:
Hei ssl
ow,buthei
ssure.

3.Di
sjuncti
veorAlter
nati
ve:Theseconj
unct
ionsexpr
essachoi
ce
bet
weent woalt
ernati
ves.eg:Shemustweep,orshewil
ldi
e.

4.Il
lat
ive:Theseconj
unct
ionsexpr
essaninf
erence.eg:All
the
precaut
ionsmusthavebeenneglect
ed,f
ortheplaguespreadrapi
dly
.

⚫ Anyoft
heCoordi
nati
ngConjunct
ionswi
tht
heex cepti
onofor
,nor
,
maybeomit
tedandit
splacet
akenbyacomma, semi-col
onorcol
on.
eg:
Jackwentoutt
oplay;Sanastay
edintowork.

2.Subor
dinat
ingconj
unct
ions:Asubor
dinati
ngconj
uncti
onj
oinsa
cl
ausetoanotheronwhi
chitdependsf
oritsful
lmeani
ng.


Ireadt
hepaperbecausei
tint
erest
sme.

Thissentencecontainst
wostatementsorcl
ausesoneofwhich
"becauseiti
nterest
sme",isdependentont
heother.Hencet
he
conjunct
ionintr
oducingt
hedependentorsubor
dinatecl
auseiscal
l
ed

96
aSubor
dinat
ingconj
unct
ion.

Examplesofsubordinati
ngconj
unct
ions:Aft
er,because,
if,
that
,
though,al
though,
til
l
, bef
ore,
unl
ess,
as, when,where,whi
leetc.

Ki
ndsofSubordi
nati
ngconjunct
ion:
Subordi
nati
ngconj
unct
ionsmay
becl
assi
fi
edaccordi
ngtothei
rmeaning,
asfoll
ows:

1)
.Ti
me:
eg:
1.Iwoul ebef
ddi oreIl
i
ed.

2.Manyt
hingshav
ehappenedsi
nceIsawy
ou.

2)
.Cause/
reason:
eg:
1.Myst
rengt
hisast
hest
rengt
hoft becausemyhear
en, tifpur
e.

2.Si
ncey
ouwi
shi
t,i
tshal
lbedone.

3)
.Pur
pose:
1.Weeatsot
eg: hatwemayl
i
ve.

2.Hehel
dmyhandl
estIshoul
dfal
l
.

4)
.Resul
t/Consequence:
eg:
1.Hewassot
iedt
r hathecoul
dscar
cel
yst
and.

5)
.Condi
ti
on:
Jackwi
l
lgoi
fHar
igoes.

6)
.Concessi
on:
eg:
Iwi
l
lnotseeher
,thoughshecomes.

97
7)
.Compar
ison:
eg:
Hei
sst
rongert
hanme.

(
7.3)Someconj
unct
ionsandt
hei
ruses:
1.Si
nce:When"
since"i
susedasconj
unct
ioni
tmeans

"
From andaf
tert
het
imewhen"
.

eg:
Manyt
hingshav
ehappenedsi
nceIl
eftschool
.

2.Or
:Conj
unct
ion"
or"means"
toi
ntr
oduceanal
ter
nat
ive"
.

eg:
Youmayt
aket
hisbookort
hatone.

3.I
f:Conj
unct
ion"
if
"means"
ont
hecondi
ti
onorsupposi
ti
ont
hat
".

eg:
Ifshei
sther
e,Ishal
lseehi
m.

4.That
:Conj
unct
ion"
that
"isused

a)t
oexpr
essar
easonorcauseandi
sequi
val
entt
obecause,
fort
hat
,
i
nthat
.

eg:
Hewasannoy
edt
hathewascont
radi
cted.

b)t
oexpr
essapur
poseandi
sequi
val
entt
o"i
nor
dert
hat
".

eg:
Wesowt
hatwemayr
eap.

5.Than:Conj
unct
ion"
than"f
oll
owsadj
ect
ivesandadv
erbsi
nthe
comparati
vedegr
ee.

eg:
Iwoul
drat
hersuf
fert
hant
haty
oushoul
dwant
.

6.Lest:I
tisusedassubordi
nati
ngconjunct
ionexpressi
nganegat
ive
purposeandisequi
valentt
o"inordert
hat.
..
..
not"
,"f
orfeart
hat
".

98
eg:
Donotbei
dle,
lesty
oucomet
owant
.

Note:Lesti
srarei
nmoder
nEngl
i
sh,
themoder
nconst
ruct
ionaf
ter
"
lest"i
s"shoul
d".

7.Whi
le:I
tmeans

a)Dur
ingt
het
imet
hat
,asl
ongas.

eg:
Whi
l
ether
eisl
i
fet
her
eishope.

b)Att
hesamet
imet
hat
.

eg:
Thegi
rl
ssangwhi
l
etheboy
spl
ayed.

c)Wher
eas.

eg:
Whi
l
eIhav
enomonyt
ospend,
youhav
enohungt
ospendon.

eg:
Whi
l
ethi
sist
rueofsome,
iti
snott
rueofal
l
.

8.Onl
y:Conj
unct
ion"
onl
y"meansexceptt
hat
,but
,wer
eitnot
(that
).

eg:
Thedayi
spl
easantonl
yrat
hercol
d.

9.Except
:Itwasoncei
ngooduseasaconj
unct
ion.

eg:
Exceptamanbebor
nagai
n,hecannotseet
heKi
ngdom ofGod.

10.Without:Themeani
ngof"wi
thout
"asaconj
unct
ionmeani
ng
"unl
ess"isnowbadEngli
sh.

eg:
Ishal
lnotgowi
thouty
oudo.

99
Chapt
erno8:I
nter
ject
ion
(
8.1)Def
ini
ti
onandDescr
ipt
ion:
Ani
nter
ject
ioni
sawor
dwhi
chex
pressessomesuddenf
eel
i
ngor
emoti
on.

I
nter
ject
ionmayexpr
ess-

1.Joy
.eg:
Hur
rah!
,huzza!
,Yes!

2.Gr
ief
.eg:
Alas!
,Ono!

3.Sur
pri
se.eg:
ha!
,what
!

4.Appr
oval
.eg:
brav
o!

(
8.2)Exami
net
hef
oll
owi
ngsent
ences:
-
Hel
l
o!Whatar
eyoudoi
ngt
her
e?

Al
as!Hei
sdi
ed.

Hur
rah!Wehav hega
ewont me.
Ah!Hav
etheygone?

Oh!Igotsuchaf
ri
ght
.

Hush!Idon'
ttakeanoi
se.

Yes!Iwont
hemat
ch.

Thesewor
dswhi
char
ewr
it
t ni
eni t
ali
csar
eInt
erj
ect
ions.

100
Sect
ionno2
Gr
ammarofsent
ences
I
ntr
oduct
iont
osent
ence:
Themainfunct
ionofgr
ammarist
oorgani
zewordsi
nto
sent
encesandther
earemanywayst
odothat.
"
Sentenceisthelargestindependentunitof
grammar "
.Itbegi
nswi t
hacapi t
alletterandendswi t
haper i
od,
quest
ionmar k,orexcl
amat i
onpoint.Asent enceis
tr
adit
ional
ly(andindependentl
y)definedasawor dorgroupof
wordsthatexpressesacompl etemeani ng/sense.
Rememberthatever yclauseis,i
nasense,a
mini
atur
esent
ence.Asimplesentencecont ainonl
yasingl
e
cl
ause,whi
l
eacompoundsent ence, acompl exsent
enceora
compound-
complexsent
encecont ainsatleasttwocl
auses.

101
Chapt
erno1:St
ruct
ureofsent
ence
(
1.1)Di
vi
sionofsent
ence:
Asent
encei
sdi
vi
dedi
ntof
oll
owi
ngt
wopar
ts.

1.Subj
ect 2.Pr
edi
cat
e

a)Subject
:Thenounorpr
onounwhoisdoerofwor koraboutwhi
ch
knowledgeisgi
veni
nasentencei
scall
edsubj .OR Thepar
ect tofa
sent
enceorclauset
hati
ndicat
eswhati
tisabout.

eg:
Ipl
uckt
hef
lower
s.

eg:
Thechai
risbr
oken.

Inthefir
stsent
ence"I
"isthesubjectbecauseiti
sdoerofworkinthe
sentenceandinthesecondsentence"Chair"i
sthesubj
ectbecause
knowledgeisgiv
enaboutit.

⚫ Subj
ect
sar
edi
vi
dedi
nto2t
ypes:

1.Directsubj
ect
:Anounorpronounwhoper
for
mssomeact
ion
personall
yiscal
l
eddi
rectsubj
ect.

Hedr
eg: inkswat
er.

2.I
ndi r
ectsubj
ect:Anounorpronounwhodoesnotper
form some
act
iondi r
ect
lybutget
sthatact
iondonebyoneanother
.I
tiscall
ed
i
ndirectsubj
ect.

Heget
eg: sthecobbl
ert
opol
i
shashoe.

102
⚫ Subj
ect
scanbeoneoft
hef
oll
owi
ng:

1.Noun:

Zai
eg: nhadbeenwr
it
ingabook.

Tom i
eg: sanhonestboy
.

2.Pr
onoun:

Il
eg: aughedather
.

Myf
eg: ri
endhel
pedmewhenIwasi
ntr
oubl
e.

3.Ger
und:

Hel
eg: pinghandsar
emor
ehol
ythanpr
yingl
i
ps.

Hoppi
eg: ngposi
ti
vel
yisonl
ywaybywhi
chwecanl
i
vehappy
.

4.I
nfi
nit
ive:

Tohel
eg: pot
her
sisgr
eat
estev
idenceofhumani
ty.

Togoout
eg: sidei
snotal
l
oweddur
ingl
ockdown.

5.Phr
ase:

Washi
eg: nghandsf
requent
lyi
samaj
orpr
ecaut
ionagai
nstCOVI
D-19.

Wor
eg: kinghonest
lyi
sat
ruesour
ceofhappi
ness.

6.Cl
ause:

eg:
WhatIf
oundt
odaywasapr
eci
ousst
one.

eg:
Whom y
oumeti
ntheschool
wasourmat
hst
eacher
.

b)Pr
edi
cat
e:Act
ual
l
ythel
i
ter
all
ymeani
ngofwor
d"Pr
edi
cat
e"i
sto

103
expr
ess/t
otell
ortostateinasentence.Wi thoutsubj
ectt
heotherpar
t
ofsent
enceiscal
l
edpr edicat
eorthepar tofsentencewhicht
ell
s
somethi
ngaboutthesubjectiscal
ledpredicate.

⚫ Pr
edi
cat
eisf
urt
herdi
vi
dedi
nto2par
ts.

1.Object
:Obj
ecti
sbearerofwor
kinasent
enceort
owhi
chsome
act
ionisdonebysubj
ectiti
scal
l
edobj
ect.

Obj
ecti
sfur
therdi
vi
dedi
ntot
woki
nds,
thesear
e:
1.Dir
ectobject
:Anounorpronount
owhi
chsomeactioni
sdone
di
rectl
y.I
tiscall
eddi
rectobj
ect
.eg:
Hegav m apen.
ehi

2.I
ndir
ectobject
:Anounorpronountowhi
chsomeact
ioni
sdone
i
ndir
ectl
y.I
tiscall
edI
ndir
ectobject
.eg:
Hegavehi
m apen.
2.Ver
b:

Note:Thecomplet
edescript
ionaboutv
erbi
sal
readyment
ionedi
n
chapternumber3ofsect
ionnumber1.

(
1.2)Phr
aseandcl
ause:
1)Phrase:Agroupofwor ds,whi
chmakesense,butnotcompl
ete
senseiscal
ledphrase.I
nt hefol
l
owi
ngsentences,
thegroupofwords
i
nItal
icsarephrases.


Thesunr
isesi
ntheeast
.

Ther antt
ecameagi omydoor
.

Itwasasunsetofgr
eatbeaut
y.

Humpt ysatonawal
yDumpt l
.

104
Showmehowt
▪ odoi
t.
2)Cl
ause:Agroupofwordswhichformspartofasentence,
and
cont
ainsaSubj
ectandaPredicat
eiscall
edaClause.
Inthefol
lowi
ng
sent
ences,
thegroupofwordsinIt
ali
csarecl
auses.

▪ ewhopl
Peopl ayt
hei
rdebt
sar
etr
ust
ed.


Wecannotst
artwhi
l
eiti
srai
ning.

Ithi haty
nkt ouhav
emadeami
stake.

105
Chapt
erno2:Ki
ndsofsent
ence
(
2.1)Ki
ndsofsent
encesaccor
dingt
ofunct
ion:
Sentencesar
ecl
assi
fi
edi
ntof
oll
owi
ngki
ndsaccor
dingt
othei
r
functi
on:

a)Asser
ti
ve/
decl
arat
ivesent
ence:

Asentencewhi
chi
susedf
ormaki
ngst
atementi
scal
l
edasser
ti
ve
sent
ence.

eg:
Shewasagoodgi
rl
.

Not
e:Negat
ivesent
encei
sal
soat
ypeofasser
ti
vesent
ence.

b)I
nter
rogat
ivesent
ence:

Asentencewhi
chi
susedf
oraski
ngaquest
ioni
scal
l
edi
nter
rogat
ive
sent
ence..

eg:
Issher
eci
ti
ngt
heHol
yQur
an?

Not
e:I
fwedonotputquesti
onmar
k(?
)af
teri
nter
rogat
ivesent
ence,
t
hesent
encewi
l
lbeincorr
ect.

c)Excl
amat
orysent
ence:

Asentencewhi
chi
susedf
orsuddenf
eel
i
ngsi
scal
l
edexcl
amat
ory
sent
ence.

eg:
Whatabeaut
if
ulf
loweri
tis!

106
Note:Ifwedonotuseexcl
amator
ymark(!
)att
heendofexcl
amat
ory
sentence,
thesent
encewil
lbei
ncorr
ect
.

d)I
mper
ati
vesent
ence:

Asentencewhichisusedforcommand,
order
,request
,pr
ohi
bit
ionet
c
i
scall
edimperati
vesentence.

eg:
Doanddi
ebutdon'
tsaywhy
.(Command)

eg:
Shutt
hewi
ndow.(
Order
)

eg:
Pleasecomeher
e.(
Request
)

eg:
Don'
tcomeher
e.(
Prohi
bit
ion)

Not
e:I
nimper
ati
vesent
encet
hesubj
ect"
you"i
sunder
tood.

e)Opt
ati
vesent
ence:

Asentencewhi
chi
susedf
ordesi
reorwi
shi
scal
l
edanopt
ati
ve
sent
ence.

eg:
Woul
dthatIwer
eaki
ng.

(
2.2)Ki
ndsofsent
encesaccor
dingt
ost
ruct
ure:
Sent
encesar
edi
vi
dedi
ntof
oll
owi
ngt
ypesaccor
dingt
othei
rst
ruct
ure.

1.Si
mpl
esent
ence:

Themostbasict
ypeofsent
encei
sthesi
mplesent
ence,
which
contai
nsonl
yonecl
ause.Asimpl
esent
encecanbeasshor
tasone
word.

eg:
Run!

107
Usually
,however
,thesentencehasasubjectaswellasapr edi
cate
andbot ht
hesubjectandthepredicat
emayhav emodifi
ers.Alloft
he
foll
owingaresi
mplesentences,becauseeachcont
ainsonlyone
clause:


Mel
t!


Icemel
ts.


Thei
cemel
tsqui
ckl
y.


Thei
ceont
her
ivermel
tsqui
ckl
yundert
hewar
m Mar
ch.

Asy oucansee,asi
mpl esent
encecanbequitel
ong-i
tisamist
aketo
thi
nkthatyoucantellasi
mplesent
encefrom acompoundsent
ence
oracompoundsent encesimpl
ybyitsl
ength.

Themostnat
ural
sent
encestr
uct
urei
sthesimpl
e
sentence.I
tisthemostcommonsentencei
nthespokenl
anguageof
peopleofallages.
Buttoomanysi
mplesent
encesmakeourl
anguage
chi
ldish.

2.Compoundsent
ence:

Acompoundsentencesconsist
soft
woormor ei
ndependentcl
auses
(
orsimpl
esentences)j
oinedbycoor
dinat
ingconj
uncti
onsli
ke"and",
"
but"
,and"or
".

eg:
Simpl
e:Canadai
sar
ichcount
ry.

Si
mpl
e:St
il
l,
ithasmanypoorpeopl
e.

Compound:Canadai
sri
chcount
ry,
butst
il
li
thasmanypoorpeopl
e.

Acompoundsent
encei
smostef
fect
ivewheny
ouusei
tto

108
cr
eat
easenseofbal
anceorcont
rastbet
weent
wo(
ormor
e)equal
l
y
i
mport
antpi
ecesofi
nfor
mati
on.

eg:
Engl
andhasbet
tercl
ubs,
butTor
ont
ohasbet
terci
nemas.

3.Compl
exsent
ence:

Acompl exsentencecontai
nsonei
ndependentclauseandatl
eastone
dependentclause.Unl
ikeacompoundsentence,however,
acomplex
sentencecontainscl
auseswhi
charenotequal.Considert
hef
oll
owing
examples:

Si
mpl
e:Myf
ri
endi
nvi
tedmet
oapar
ty.Idon'
twantt
ogot
her
e.

Compound:Myf
ri
endi
nvi
tedmet
oapar
ty,
butIdon'
twantt
ogot
her
e.

Compl
ex:Al
thoughmyf
ri
endi
nvi
tedmet
oapar
ty,
Idon'
twantt
ogo.

Inthef i
rstexampl e,therearetwosepar atesimpl e
sentences:"Myf r
iendi nvitedmet oapar ty"and" Idon'
twantt ogo" .
Thesecondex amplej oinst hem togetherintoasi nglesent encewi th
thecoordinati
ngconj unct ion"but",butbothpar tscouldst i
llstandas
i
ndependentsent ences- -theyar eentir
elyequal ,
andt hereadercannot
tel
lwhichismosti mpor tant .I
nthet hi
rdexampl e,howev erthe
sentencehaschangedqui teabi t
:Thef i
rstclause, "
Alt
houghmyf riend
i
nv i
tedmet oapar t
y"hasbecomei ncompl eteoradependentcl ause.
Acompl exsent enceisv er ydiff
erentfrom asi mpl esentenceora
compoundsent encebecausei tmakescl eart heideaswhi char emost
i
mpor tant.

"
Myf
ri
endi
nvi
tedmet
oapar
ty,
butIdonotwantt
ogot
her
e.

Ther
eaderwi
l
lhav
etr
oubl
eknowi
ngwhi
chpi
eceof

109
i
nf or
mat i
onismosti mport
anttoy ou.Whenyouwr it
ethe
subordinat
ingconjuncti
on"al
though"atthebeginni
ngoft hefi
rst
clause,however
,youmakei tclearthatt
hefactthatyourfri
endinvi
ted
youislessimportantthan,
orsubor di
nate,
tothefactthatyoudonot
wantt ogo.

4.Compound-
compl
exsent
ence:

110
Chapt
erno3:
Tenses
(
3.1)i
ntr
oduct
ion:
Thewor dtensehasbeent akenf r
om aLat inlanguage' sword" tempus"
whichmeanst ime.Act uall
ytensesar eformsofv erbs.Basicall
yt her
e
are3t enses,thesear epresent,pastandf uture.Thesear ecalled
Majort enses,ther
ear emanybr anchesofMaj ortensesf orexampl e
thebranchesofPr esenttensear epresentsimpl e,presentcont i
nuous,
presentper f
ect,pr
esentper fectcontinuouset c.

(
3.2)Tobet
enses
1.Presentt
obetense:Suchav er
bwhi
chshowst
heexi
stenceor
stat
eofsomethi
nginthepresentti
me.

For
mul
a:Subj
ect+Hel
pingv
erb(
is/
am/
are)+Obj
ect
.

Note:"
Is"i
susedf
orhe,she,
itandsi
ngularnoun,"
am"i
susedf
orI
and"ar
e"isusedf
oryou,we,t
heyandpluralnoun.

eg:
Hei
sanhonestboy
.

Negat
ive:
Hei
snotanhonestboy
.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Isheanhonestboy
?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Ishenotanhonestboy
?

eg2:
Mar
kandJohnar
egoodatwor
k.

Negat
ive:
Mar
kandJohnar
enotgoodatwor
k.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
AreMar
kandJohngoodatwor
k?

111
Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
AreMar
kandJohnnotgoodatwor
k?

2.Pastt
obetenset
ense:Suchaver
bwhi
chshowst
heexi
stenceor
stat
eofsomet
hingi
nthepastti
me.

For
mul
a:Subj
ect+Hel
pingv
erb(
was/
wer
e)+Obj
ect
.

Not
e:"
Was"i
susedf
orsi
ngul
arsubj
ectand"
wer
e"f
orpl
ural
subj
ect
.

eg:
Hewasanhonestboy
.

Negat
ive:
Hewasnotanhonestboy
.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Washeanhonestboy
?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Washenotanhonest
wor
k?

eg2:
Mar
kandJohnwer
egoodatwor
k.

Negat
ive:
Mar
kandJohnwer
enotgoodatwor
k

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Wer
eMar
kandJohngoodatwor
k?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Wer
eMar
kandJohnnotgoodatwor
k?

3.Fut
uretobetense:Suchaver
bwhi
chshowst
heexi
stenceorst
ate
ofsomethi
nginthefut
ureti
me.

For
mul
a:Subj
ect+Hel
pingv
erb(wi
l
lbe/
shal
lbe)+Obj
ect
.

Not
e:"
Shal
l
"isusedf
or"
I"and"
we"and"
wil
l
"foral
lot
her
s.

eg:
Hewi
l
lbeanhonestboy
.

Negat
ive:
Hewi
l
lnotbeanhonestboy
.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Wil
lhebeanhonestboy
?

112
Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Wil
lhenotbeanhonestboy
?

eg2:
Mar
kandJohnwi
l
lbegoodatwor
k.

Negat
ive:
Mar
kandJohnwi
l
lnotbegoodatwor
k.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Wil
lMar
kandJohnbegoodatwor
k?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Wil
lMar
kandJohnnotbegoodatwor
k?

(
3.3)Si
mpl
etenses
1.Presentsi
mpletense:Suchaverbwhi
chshowst
hatt
hesubj
ect
doeshisworkinthepresentt
ime.

Formula:Ther
eare2f or
mulasofpr
esentsi
mpl
etenseaccor
dingt
o
theki
ndofsubject
,thesear
e

1.He/
she/
it
/si
ngul
arnoun+1stf
orm ofv
erb+s/
es+obj
ect
.

eg:
Her
eadsabook.

Negat
ive:
Hedoesnotr
eadabook.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Doesher
eadabook?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Doeshenotr
eadabook?

Not
e:Quest
ionmar
kmustbeusedaf
teri
nter
rogat
ivesent
ence.

2.I
/we/
you/
they
/pl
ural
noun+v
erb+obj
ect
.

eg:
Mar
kandJohnf
ight
.

Negat
ive:
Mar
kandJohndonotf
ight
.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
DoMar
kandJohnf
ight
?

113
Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
DoMar
kandJohnnotf
ight
?

Not
e:Hel
pingverbs"do"and"does"areusedi
npr
esentsi
mpl
etense
i
nnegat
iveandinter
rogati
vesentences.

2.Pastsimpl
etense:Suchav
erbwhi
chshowst
hatt
hesubj
ectdi
dhi
s
workinthepastt
ime.

For
mul
a:Subj
ect+2ndf
orm ofact
ionv
erb+obj
ect
.

eg:
Her
eadabook.

Negat
ive:
Hedi
dnotr
eadabook.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Didher
eadf
ought
?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Didhenotr
eadabook?

eg2:
Mar
kandJohnf
ought
.

Negat
ive:
Mar
kandJohndi
dnotf
ight
.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
DidMar
kandJohnf
ight
?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
DidMar
kandJohnnotf
ight
?

Note:
Weusehel pi
ngverb"
did"i
npastsi
mpl
etensei
nnegat
iveand
Negati
ve-
Int
err
ogati
vesent
ences.

3.Fut
uresimpl
etense:Suchaver
bwhi
chshowst
hatt
hesubj
ectwi
l
l
dohisworkint
hefutur
etime.

Formula:Subj
ect+helpi
ngverb("
shal
l"f
orI&weand"
wil
l"f
oral
l
other
s)+1stform ofact
ionver
b+object.

eg:
Hewi
l
lreadabook.

114
Negat
ive:
Hewi
l
lnotr
eadabook.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Wil
lher
eadabook?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Wil
lhenotr
eadabook?

eg2:
Mar
kandJohnshal
lwr
it
e.

Negat
ive:
Mar
kandJohnshal
lnotwr
it
e.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Shal
lMar
kandJohnwr
it
e?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Shal
lMar
kandJohnnotwr
it
e?

(
3.4)Cont
inuoust
enses
1.Pr
esentconti
nuoust
ense:Suchav er
bwhichshowst
hatt
he
subj
ecti
sdoinghiswor
kinthepresentt
ime.

Formul
a:Subject+Hel
pingv
erb(i
s/am/
are)+1stf
orm ofact
ionv
erb
+ing+object
.

eg:
Hei
swat
chi
ngT.
V.

Negat
ive:
Hei
snotwat
chi
ngT.
V.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Ishewat
chi
ngT.
V?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Ishenotwat
chi
ngT.
V?

eg2:
Mar
kandJohnar
ewat
eri
ngt
hepl
ant
s.

Negat
ive:
Mar
kandJohnar
enotwat
eri
ngt
hepl
ant
s.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
AreMar
kandJohnwat
eri
ngt
hepl
ant
s?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
AreMar
kandJohnnotwat
eri
ngt
hepl
ant
s?

115
2.Pastcont
inuoust
ense:
Suchav er
bwhi
chshowst
hatt
hesubj
ect
wasdoinghisworki
nthepastt
ime.

Formul
a:Subject+Hel
pingv
erb(
was/
wer
e)+1stf
orm ofact
ionv
erb
+ing+object
.

eg:
Hewaswat
chi
ngT.
V.

Negat
ive:
Hewasnotwat
chi
ngT.
V.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Washewat
chi
ngT.
V?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Washenotwat
chi
ngT.
V?

eg2:
Mar
kandJohnwer
ewat
eri
ngt
hepl
ant
s.

Negat
ive:
Mar
kandJohnwer
enotwat
eri
ngt
hepl
ant
s.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Wer
eMar
kandJohnwat
eri
ngt
hepl
ant
s?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Wer
eMar
kandJohnnotwat
eri
ngt
hepl
ant
s?

3.Fut
urecont
inuoust
ense:Suchaver
bwhi
chshowst
hatt
hesubj
ect
wil
lbedoi
nghisworki
nthefutur
eti
me.

For
mul
a:Subject+Hel
pingv
erb(
wil
lbe/
shal
lbe)+1stf
orm ofv
erb+
i
ng+obj
ect.

eg:
Hewi
l
lbewat
chi
ngT.
V.

Negat
ive:
Hewi
l
lnotbewat
chi
ngT.
V.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Wil
lhebewat
chi
ngT.
V?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Wil
lhenotbewat
chi
ngT.
V?

eg2:
Mar
kandJohnwi
l
lbewat
eri
ngt
hepl
ant
s.

116
Negat
ive:
Mar
kandJohnwi
l
lnotbewat
eri
ngt
hepl
ant
s.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Wil
lMar
kandJohnbewat
eri
ngt
hepl
ant
s?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Wil
lMar
kandJohnnotbewat
eri
ngt
hepl
ant
s?

(
3.5)Per
fectt
enses
1.Pr
esentper
fectt
ense:Suchaverbwhi
chshowst
hatt
hesubj
ect
hasdonehi
swor ki
nthepresentt
ime.

For
mula:Subj
ect+Hel
pingv
erb(
has/
hav
e)+3r
dfor
m ofv
erb+
obj
ect
.

eg:
Hehaswr
it
tenabook.

Negat
ive:
Hehasnotwr
it
tenabook.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Hashewr
it
tenabook?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Hashenotwr
it
tenabook?

eg2:
Mar
kandJohnhav
ecommencedt
ost
udy
.

Negat
ive:
Mar
kandJohnhav
enotcommencedt
ost
udy
.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Hav
eMar
kandJohncommencedt
ost
udy
?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Hav
eMar
kandJohnnotcommencedt
ost
udy
?

Not
e:"
Has"i
susedf orhe,
she,i
tandsi
ngul
arnounand"
hav
e"i
sused
f
orI
,we,y
ou,theyandplur
alnoun.

2.Pastper
fecttense:Suchaver
bwhi
chshowst
hatt
hesubj
ecthad
donehisworkinthefutur
eti
me.

For
mul
a:Subj
ect+Hel
pingv
erb(
had)+3r
dfor
m ofv
erb+obj
ect
.

117
eg:
Hehadwr
it
tenabook.

Negat
ive:
Hehadnotwr
it
tenabook.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Hadhewr
it
tenabook?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Hadhenotwr
it
tenabook?

eg2:
Theyhadwor
kedv
eryhar
d.

Negat
ive:
Theyhadnotwor
kedv
eryhar
d.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Hadt
heywor
kedv
eryhar
d?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Hadt
heynotwor
kedv
eryhar
d?

3.Fut
ureper
fectt
ense:Suchaver
bwhichshowst
hatt
hesubj
ectwi
l
l
havedonehi
sworkinthefut
uret
ime.

eg:
Itwi
l
lhav
erai
nedout
side.

Negat
ive:
Itwi
l
lnothav
erai
nedout
side.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Wil
li
thav
erai
nedout
side?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Wil
li
tnothav
erai
nedout
side?

eg2:
Weshal
lhav
ebesi
egedt
hem dur
ingwar
.

Negat
ive:
Weshal
lnothav
ebesi
egedt
hem dur
ingwar
.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Shal
lwehav
ebesi
egedt
hem dur
ingwar
?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Shal
lwehav
enotbesi
egedt
hem dur
ingwar
?

(
3.6)Per
fectcont
inuoust
enses
1.Pr
esentper
fectcont
inuoust
ense:Suchav
erbwhi
chshowst
hat

118
t
hesubj
ecthasbeendoi
nghi
swor
kint
hepr
esentt
ime.

For
mul
a:Subj
ect+Hel
pingv
erb(hasbeen/
hav
ebeen)+1stf
orm of
ver
b+i
ng+object
.

Note:"
Hasbeen"i
susedforhe,she,i
tandsi
ngul
arnounand"
hav
e
been"f
orI
,we,you,t
heyandplural
noun.

eg:
Tom hasbeenaccommodat
ingt
hem.

Negat
ive:
Tom hasnotbeenaccommodat
ingt
hem.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
HasTom beenaccommodat
ingt
hem?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
HasTom notbeenaccommodat
ingt
hem?

eg2:
Youhav
ebeendoi
ngt
hiswr
ong.

Negat
ive:
Youhav
enotbeendoi
ngt
hiswr
ong.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Hav
eyoubeendoi
ngt
hiswr
ong?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Hav
eyounotbeendoi
ngt
hiswr
ong?

2.Pastper
fectcont
inuoustense:Suchaver
bwhichshowst
hatt
he
subj
ecthadbeendoinghisworkinthepastt
ime.

For
mula:Subj
ect+Hel
pingv
erb(
hadbeen)+1stf
orm ofv
erb+i
ng+
obj
ect
.

eg:
Ihadbeenal
l
ocat
ingt
hei
rjobs.

Negat
ive:
Ihadnotbeenal
l
ocat
ingt
hei
rjobs.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
HadIbeenal
l
ocat
ingt
hei
rjobs.

eg2:
NickandMat
il
dahadbeenst
art
ingt
ost
udy
.

119
Negat
ive:
NickandMat
il
dahadnotbeenst
art
ingt
ost
udy
.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
HadNi
ckandMat
il
dabeenst
art
ingt
ost
udy
?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
HadNi
ckandMat
il
danotbeenst
art
ingt
o
st
udy?

3.Fut
ureperfectcont
inuoust
ense:Suchav
erbwhi
chshowst
hatt
he
subj
ectwi
llhavebeendoinghi
sworki nt
hef
utur
eti
me.

Formula:Subject+Hel
pingverb(wi
l
lhav
ebeen/
shal
lhav
ebeen)+
1stfor
m ofv erb+ing+object
.

Note:
"Shal
lhavebeen"i
susedf
or"
I"and"
we"&"
wil
lhav
ebeen"i
s
usedforal
lot
hers.

eg:
Shewi
l
lhav
ebeenr
eadi
ngast
ory
.

Negat
ive:
Shewi
l
lnothav
ebeenr
eadi
ngast
ory
.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Wil
lshehav
ebeenr
eadi
ngast
ory
?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Wil
lshehav
enotbeenr
eadi
ngast
ory
?

eg2:
Itwi
l
lhav
ebeenr
aini
ngout
side.

Negat
ive:
Itwi
l
lnothav
ebeenr
aini
ngout
side.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Wil
li
thav
ebeenr
aini
ngout
side?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Wil
li
thav
enotbeenr
aini
ngout
side?

(
3.7)Pot
ent
ialt
enses
1.Pr
esentpotent
ialtense:Suchav er
bwhichshowst
hatt
hesubj
ect
canper
form hi
swor kinthepresentti
me.

120
For
mula:Subj
ect+can/
am abl
eto/
isabl
eto/
areabl
eto+1stf
orm of
act
ionver
b+object
.

Note:"Am abl
eto"i
susedforI,
"isabl
eto"i
susedf
orhe,
she,
itand
si
ngularnounand"areabl
eto"i
susedf ory
ou,
we,t
heyandpl
ural
nouns.

eg:
Icanpl
aygame.

Negat
ive:
Icannotpl
aygame.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
CanIpl
aygame?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
CanInotpl
aygame?

eg2:
Shecancl
i
mbt
het
ree.

Negat
ive:
Shecannotcl
i
mbt
het
ree.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Canshecl
i
mbt
het
ree?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Canshenotcl
i
mbt
het
ree?

2.Pastpotent
ialt
ense:Suchaverbwhi
chshowst
hatt
hesubj
ect
coul
dperform hi
sworkinthepastti
me.

For
mul
a:Subj
ect+coul
d/wasabl
eto/
wer
eabl
eto+2ndf
orm act
ion
ver
b+obj
ect.

eg:
Hecoul
d/wasabl
etopl
aygame.

Negat
ive:
Hecoul
dnot
/wasnotabl
etopl
aygame.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Coul
dhepl
aygame/
washeabl
etopl
aygame?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Coul
dhenotpl
aygame/
washenotabl
eto
pl
aygame?

121
eg2:
Icoul
dgot
her
e.

Negat
ive:
Icoul
dnotgot
her
e/Iwasnotabl
etogot
her
e.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Coul
dIgot
her
e/wasIabl
etogot
her
e?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Coul
dInotgot
her
e/wasInotabl
etogot
her
e?

3.Fut
urepot
enti
altense:Suchaverbwhichshowst
hatt
hesubj
ect
wil
lbeabl
etoperf
orm hisworkinthef
utureti
me.

Formul
a:Subj
ect+Helpi
ngv
erb(
wil
lbeabl
eto/
shal
lbeabl
eto)+1st
for
m ofver
b+object
.

Note:"
Shal
lbeabl
eto"i
susedf
orIandweand"
wil
lbeabl
eto"f
oral
l
ot
hers.

eg:
Hewi
l
lbeabl
etopl
aygame.

Negat
ive:
Hewi
l
lnotbeabl
etopl
aygame.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Wil
lhebeabl
etopl
aygame?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Wil
lhenotbeabl
etopl
aygame?

eg2:
Youwi
l
lbeabl
etopl
aygame.

Negat
ive:
Youwi
l
lnotbeabl
etopl
aygame?

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Wil
lyoubeabl
etopl
aygame?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Wil
lyounotbeabl
etopl
aygame?

4.Pr
esentperf
ectpot
ent
ialt
ense:Suchav
erbwhi
chshowsthatt
he
subj
ecthasbeenabl
etoper
form hi
sworki
nthepr
esentt
ime.

For
mul
a:Subj
ect+Hel
pingv
erb(
hav
e/hav
e)+beenabl
eto+

122
i
mper
ati
ve.

eg:
Shehasbeenabl
etowr
it
eal
ett
er.

Negat
ive:
Shehasnotbeenabl
etowr
it
eal
ett
er.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Hasshebeenabl
etowr
it
eal
ett
er?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Hasshenotbeenabl
etowr
it
eal
ett
er.

eg2:
Hehasbeenabl
etor
ideuni
cycl
e.

Negat
ive:
Hehasnotbeenabl
etor
idebi
cycl
e.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Hashebeenabl
etor
idebi
cycl
e?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Hashenotbeenabl
etor
idebi
cycl
e?

5.Pastper
fectpot
enti
al:Suchaver
bwhichshowsthatt
hesubj
ect
hadbeenabletoper
for
m hisworkinthepastt
ime.

For
mul
a:Subj
ect+Hel
pingv
erb(
had)+beenabl
eto+i
mper
ati
ve.

eg:
Shehadbeenabl
etowr
it
eal
ett
er.

Negat
ive:
Shehadnotbeenabl
etowr
it
eal
ett
er.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Hadshebeenabl
etowr
it
eal
ett
er?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Hadshenotbeenabl
etowr
it
eal
ett
er?

eg:
Hehadbeenabl
etor
ideuni
cycl
e.

Negat
ive:
Hehadnotbeenabl
etor
ideuni
cycl
e.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Hadhebeenabl
etor
ideuni
cycl
e?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Hadhenotbeenabl
etor
ideuni
cycl
e?

123
(
3.7)Aor
istt
enses
1.Pr
esentAori
stt
enes:Thi
stenseex
pr essesthepossibl
econdi
ti
on
ori
ntent
iont
odosomeact i
onbysubjectinthepresentti
me.

For
mul
a:Subj
ect+Hel
pingv
erb(
may
)+1stf
orm ofv
erbv
erb+obj
ect
.

eg:
Hemaypl
aygame.

Negat
ive:
Hemaynotpl
aygame?

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Mayhepl
aygame?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Mayhenotpl
aygame?

eg2:
Imaygot
her
e.

Negat
ive:
Imaynotgot
her
e.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
MayIgot
her
e?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
MayInotgot
her
e?

2.PastAoristt
ense:Suchaver
bwhichshowsthatthesubj
ectwi
shed
toperf
orm someacti
oni nt
hepastt
imebutcouldn'
t
.

For
mul
a:Subj
ect+Hel
pingv
erb(
might
/woul
dhav
e)+1stf
orm of
ver
b+obj
ect.

eg:
Hemi
ght
/woul
dhav
epl
aygame.

Negat
ive:
Hemi
ghtnotpl
aygame.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Mighthepl
aygame?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Mighthenotpl
aygame.

eg2:
Shemi
ghtcl
i
mbt
het
ree.

124
Negat
ive:
Shemi
ghtnotcl
i
mbt
het
ree/
Shewoul
dnothav
ecl
i
mbt
he
t
ree?

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Mightshecl
i
mbt
het
ree?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Mightshenotcl
i
mbt
het
ree?

(
3.8)Habi
tualt
enses
1.Pr
esenthabit
ualtense:Suchaver
bwhichshowst
her
egul
ari
tyof
subj
ectt
operform someact i
oni
nthepr
esentti
me.

For
mul
a:Subj
ect+Hel
pingv
erb(
use/
usest
o)+v
erb+obj
ect.

Note: "
Usesto"isplacedwi thhe,she,i
t,andsingularnounandt he
sentencescontaini
ng" usesto"arechangedi nt
onegat i
veand
i
nterrogat
iveform byusinghelpingv erb"does"&" useto"i
splaced
withI,we,you,t
heyandpl ur
alnounandt hesent encescontai
ning"use
to"arechangedintonegat iv
eandI nter
rogati
vebyusi nghelpi
ngv er
b
"do".

eg:
Heusest
opl
aygame.

Negat
ive:
Hedoesnotuset
opl
aygame.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Doesheuset
opl
aygame.

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Doeshenotuset
opl
aygame?

eg2:
Iuset
ogot
her
e.

Negat
ive:
Idonotuset
ogot
her
e.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
DoIuset
ogot
her
e?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
DoInotuset
ogot
her
e.

125
2.Pasthabit
ualt
ense:Suchaverbwhi
chshowst
hatsomeact
ion
wasregular
lyper
for
medbyt hesubj
ect
.

For
mul
a:Subj
ect+Hel
pingv
erb(
usedt
o)+v
erb+obj
ect
.

eg:
Heusedt
opl
aygame.

Negat
ive:
Hedi
dnotuset
opl
aygame.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Didheuset
opl
aygame?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Didhenotuset
opl
aygame?

eg2:
Sheusedt
owr
it
ewel
l
.

Negat
ive:
Shedi
dnotuset
owr
it
ewel
l
.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Didsheuset
owr
it
ewel
l
?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Didshenotuset
owr
it
ewel
l
?

(
3.9)Possessi
vet
enses
1.Presentpossessi
vetense:
Suchaverbwhichshowst
he
possessionofsomethi
ngtothesubj
ecti
nthepastti
me.

For
mul
a:Subj
ect+Mai
nver
b(hav
e/has)+Obj
ect
.

Note:Int
hist ense"hav
eandhas"ar
emai nver
bsandwecan'tuse
them ashelpingv er
bsandal
sowecannotputanyot hermai
nverbi
n
thi
stense,buti fwedosoitwi
ll
bepresentper
fectt
ensenotpr
esent
possessi
vet ense.

eg:
Ihav
eal
i
ttl
ehouse.

Negat
ive:
Ihav
enotal
i
ttl
ehhouse

126
I
nter
rogat
ive:
Hav
eIal
i
ttl
ehouse?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Hav
eInotal
i
ttl
ehouse?

eg2:
Shehasagoodi
dea.

Negat
ive:
Shehasnotagoodi
dea.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Hassheagoodi
dea?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Hasshenotagoodi
dea?

2.PastPossessi
vetense:Suchaver
bwhichshowst
hepossessi
onof
somethi
ngtothesubjecti
nthepastt
ime.

For
mul
a:Subj
ect+Mai
nver
b(had)+obj
ect
.

eg:
Ihadal
i
ttl
ehouse

Negat
ive:
Ihadnotal
i
ttl
ehouse.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
HadIal
i
ttl
ehouse?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
HadInotal
i
ttl
ehouse?

eg2:
Shehadagoodi
dea.

Negat
ive:
Shehadnotagoodi
dea.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Hadsheagoodi
dea?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Hadshenotagoodi
dea.

3.Fut
urepossessi
vetense:Suchaverbwhichshowst
hepossessi
on
ofsomethi
ngtothesubjecti
nthefut
ureti
me.

For
mul
a:Subj
ect+Mai
nver
b(wi
l
lhav
e/shal
lhav
e)+obj
ect
.

127
eg:
Ishal
lhav
eal
i
ttl
ehouse.

Negat
ive:
Ishal
lnothav
eal
i
ttl
ehouse.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Shal
lIhav
eal
i
ttl
ehouse?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Shal
lInothav
eal
i
ttl
ehouse?

eg2:
Shewi
l
lhav
eagoodi
dea.

Negat
ive:
Shewi
l
lnothav
eagoodi
dea.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Wil
lshehav
eagoodi
dea?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Wil
lshenothav
eagoodi
dea?

(
3.10)I
nfi
nit
ivet
enses
1.Pr
esenti
nfi
nit
ivet
ense:

For
mul
a:Subj
ect+Hel
pingv
erb(has/
hav
e)+i
nfi
nit
ive.

eg:
Ihav
etocompl
etemywor
kont
ime.

Negat
ive:
Ihav
enott
ocompl
etemywor
kont
ime.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Hav
eIt
ocompl
etemywor
kont
ime?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Hav
eInott
ocompl
etemywor
kont
ime?

eg2:
Ihav
etof
orgetmypast
.

Negat
ive:
Ihav
enott
ofor
getmypast
.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Hav
eIt
ofor
getmypast
?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Hav
eInott
ofor
getmypast
?

2.Pasti
nfi
nit
ivet
ense

128
For
mul
a:Subj
ect+Hel
pingv
erb(
had)+i
nfi
nit
ive.

eg:
Ihadt
ocompl
etemywor
kont
ime.

Negat
ive:
Ihadnott
ocompl
etemywor
kont
ime.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
HadIt
ocompl
etemywor
kont
ime?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
HadIt
ocompl
etemywor
kont
ime?

eg2:
Ihadt
ofor
getmypast
.

Negat
ive:
Ihadnott
ofor
getmypast
.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
HadIt
ofor
getmypast
?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
HadInott
ofor
getmywor
kont
ime?

3.Fut
urei
nfi
nit
ivet
ense

For
mul
a:Subj
ect+Hel
pingv
erb(wi
l
lhav
e/shal
lhav
e)+i
nfi
nit
ive.

eg:
Ishal
lhav
etocompl
etemywor
kont
ime.

Negat
ive:
Ishal
lnothav
etocompl
etemywor
kont
ime.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Shal
lIhav
etocompl
etemywor
kont
ime?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Shal
lInothav
etocompl
etemywor
kont
ime?

eg2:
Ishal
lhav
etof
orgetmypast
.

Negat
ive:
Ishal
lnothav
etof
orgetmypast
.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Shal
lIhav
etof
orgetmypast
?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Shal
lInothav
etof
orgetmypast
?

(
3.11)I
ntent
ionalt
enses

129
1.Pr
esenti
ntent
ionalt
ense

For
mul
a:Subj
ect+Hel
pingv
erb(i
s/am/
are)+i
nfi
nit
ive.

eg:
Iam t
ogot
ouncl
e'
sfordi
nner
.

Negat
ive:
Iam nott
ogot
ouncl
e'
sfordi
nner
.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Am It
ogot
ouncl
e'
sfordi
nner
?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Am Inott
ogot
ouncl
e'
sfordi
nner
?

eg2:
Shei
stohel
pme.

Negat
ive:
Shei
snott
ohel
pme.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Isshet
ohel
pme?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Isshenott
ohel
pme?

2.Pasti
ntent
ional
tense

For
mul
a:Subj
ect+Hel
pingv
erb(was/
wer
e)+i
nfi
nit
ive.

eg:
Iwast
ogot
ouncl
e'
sfordi
nner
.

Negat
ive:
Iwasnott
ogot
ouncl
e'
sfordi
nner
.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
WasIt
ogot
ouncl
e'
sfordi
nner
?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
WasInott
ogot
ouncl
e'
sfordi
nner
?

eg2:
Shewast
ohel
pme.

Negat
ive:
Shewasnott
ohel
pme.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Wasshet
ohel
pme?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Wasshenott
ohel
pme.

130
3.Fut
urei
ntent
ionalt
ense

For
mul
a:Subj
ect+Hel
pingv
erb(wi
l
lbe/
shal
lbe)+i
nfi
nit
ive.

eg:
Hewi
l
lbet
ogi
vey
ouy
ourf
avor
it
ebook.

Negat
ive:
Hewi
l
lnotbet
ogi
vey
ouy
ourf
avor
it
ebook.I

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Wil
lhebet
ogi
vey
ouy
ourf
avor
it
ebook?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Wil
lhenotbet
ogi
vey
ouy
ourf
avor
it
ebook?

(
3.11)Dubi
oust
enses
1.Pr
esentdubi
oust
ense

For
mul
a:Subj
ect+Hel
pingv
erb(
maybe)+pr
esentpar
ti
cipl
e.

eg:
Hemaybepl
ayi
nggame.

Negat
ive:
Hemaynotbepl
ayi
nggame.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Mayhebepl
ayi
nggame?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Mayhenotbepl
ayi
nggame?

eg2:
Shemaybepr
ayi
ngpr
ayer
.

Negat
ive:
Shemaynotbepr
ayi
ngpr
ayer
.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Mayshebepr
ayi
ngpr
ayer
?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Mayshenotbepr
ayi
ngpr
ayer
?

2.Pastdubi
oust
ense

For
mul
a:Subj
ect+Hel
pingv
erb(
mighthav
e)+pastpar
ti
cipl
e.

eg:
Hemi
ghthav
epl
ayedgame?

131
Negat
ive:
Hemi
ghtnothav
epl
ayedgame.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Mighthehav
epl
ayedgame?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Mighthenothav
epl
ayedgame?

eg2:
Shemi
ghthav
epr
ayedpr
ayer
.

Negat
ive:
Shemi
ghtnothav
epr
ayedpr
ayer
.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Mightshehav
epr
ayedpr
ayer
?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Mightshenothav
epr
ayedpr
ayer
?

3.Pastdubi
ouscont
inuous

For
mul
a:Subj
ect+Hel
pingv
erb(mi
ghthav
ebeen)+

eg:
Shemi
ghthav
ebeenwr
it
ingal
ett
er.

Negat
ive:
Shemi
ghtnothav
ebeenwr
it
ingal
ett
er.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Mightshehav
ebeenwr
it
ingal
ett
er?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Mightshenothav
ebeenwr
it
ingal
ett
er?

eg2:
Hemi
ghthav
ebeenpl
ayi
ngf
oot
bal
l
.

Negat
ive:
Hemi
ghtnothav
ebeenpl
ayi
ngf
oot
bal
l
.

I
nter
rogat
ive:
Mighthehav
ebeenpl
ayi
ngf
oot
bal
l
?

Negat
ive-
Int
err
ogat
ive:
Mighthenothav
ebeenpl
ayi
ngf
oot
bal
l
?

132
(
3.13)Condi
ti
onalt
enses:

133
134
(
3.14)Conj
unct
ivest
ruct
ure:
Weuseconj unct
ivestr
uctur
ewhenwehav et
oconnecttwoact
ions
happeni
ngoneaf t
erother.Wecanuseconj
unct
ivest
ruct
urei
n
Present
,pastaswellasinfut
uret
ense.

For
mul
a:Hav
ing+3r
dfor
m ofact
ionv
erb+obj
ect+Tense.

OR

Af
ter+4t
hfor
m ofact
ionv
erb+obj
ect+Tense.

OR

Tense+af
ter+4t
hfor
m ofact
ionv
erbv
erb+obj
ect
.

135
Exampl
es:

1.Pr
esentConj
unct
ive:


Hav
ingpl
ayedgame,
Igot
oschool
.


Hav
ingcol
l
ect
edmoney
,Ibuyagi
ftf
ory
ou.

2.PastConj
unct
ive:


Hav
ingpl
ayedgame,
Iwentt
opgame.


Hav
ingcol
l
ect
edmoney
,Iboughtagi
ftf
ory
ou.

3.Fut
ureConj
unct
ive:


Hav
ingpl
ayedgame,
Ishal
lgot
oschool
.


Hav
ingcol
l
ect
edmoney
,Ishal
lbuyagi
ftf
ory
ou.

4.Pr
esentcont
inuousConj
unct
ive:


Hav
ingpl
ayedgame,
hei
sgoi
ngt
oschool
.


Hav
ingcol
l
ect
edmoney
,Iam buy
ingagi
ftf
ory
ou.

5.Pastcont
inuousConj
unct
ive:


Hav
ingpl
ayedgame,
hewasgoi
ngt
oschool
.


Hav
ingcol
l
ect
edmoney
,Iwasbuy
ingagi
ftf
ory
ou.

6.Fut
urecont
inuousConj
unct
ive:

Hav
▪ ingpl
ayedgame,
hehadbeengoi
ngt
oschool
.


Hav
ingcol
l
ect
edmoney
,hehadbeenbuy
ingagi
ftf
ory
ou.

136
7.Pesentper
fectConj
unct
ive:


Hav
ingpl
ayedgame,
Ihav
egonet
oschool
.


Hav
ingcol
lect
edmoney
,Ihav
eboughtagi
ftf
ory
ou.

8.Pastper
fectConj
unct
ive:


Hav
ingpl
ayedgame,
Ihadgonet
oschool
.


Hav
ingcol
lect
edmoney
,Ihadboughtagi
ftf
ory
ou.

9.Fut
ureper
fectConj
unct
ive:


Hav
ingpl
ayedgame,
Ishal
lhav
egonet
oschool
.


Hav
ingcol
lect
edmoney
,Ishal
lhav
eboughtagi
ftf
ory
ou.

Not
e:Wecanalsomaket
heConj
unct
ivest
ruct
ureofal
ltheot
her
t
ensesi
nthesameway.

137
Chapt
erno4:Tr
ansf
ormat
ionofsent
ence
(
4.1)Act
iveandPassi
vevoi
ce:
Sentencescanbewr i
tt
enorspokeni ntheactiv
e
orpassivevoi
ce.I
nt heacti
vevoice,t
hesubjectofthesentenceacts
uponsomet hi
ngorsomeoneandi nthepassivevoi
ce,thesubjecti
s
actedupon.Acti
vevoiceisconsider
edtobemor epowerfulfor
m of
expressi
onthanpassivevoice.

eg:
Act
ive:Theki
ngki
l
ledt
hel
i
on.

Passi
ve:Thel
i
onwaski
l
ledbyt
heki
ng.

Boththesent encesmeanthesamet hi
ng.Butint
hefi
rstsent
ence,
the
subj
ect( t
heki ng)i
sthedoeroftheact
ion(ki
ll
ed)
.Int
hesecond
sentence,thesubject(
thel
ion)i
stherecei
veroft
heacti
on(waskil
led)
.

⚫ Li
stofhel
pingv
erbs

Tense Act
ualhel
ping Hel
pingver
bsfor
v
erb passi
vevoi
ce
Pr
esentsi
mpl
e Do,
does I
s,am,
are

Pr
esentcont
inuous I
s,am,
are I
s,am,
are+bei
ng

Pr
esentper
fect Hav
e,has Hav
e,has+been

Pastsi
mpl
e Di
d Was,
wer
e

Pastcont
inuous Was,
wer
e Was,
wer
e+bei
ng

Pastper
fect Had Hadbeen

138
Fut
uresi
mpl
e Wi
l
l,shal
l Wi
l
lbe,
shal
lbe

Fut
ureper
fect Wi
l
lhav
e,shal
lhav
e Wi
l
lhav
e,shal
lhav
e+
been

Not
e:"May
,might
,must
,can,
coul
d,shoul
d,woul
d"al
lthesewi
l
ltake
"
be"i
npassi
vevoi
ce.

eg:
Act
ive:Shemaywr
it
eal
ett
er.

Passi
ve:Al
ett
ermaybewr
it
tenbyher
.

Not
e2:
All
cont
inuoust
enseswi
l
ltake"
bei
ng"i
npassi
vev
oice.

eg:
Act
ive:Shei
swr
it
ingal
ett
er.

Passi
ve:Al
ett
eri
sbei
ngwr
it
tenbyher
.

Not
e3:
All
inf
ini
ti
vet
enseswi
l
ltake"
be"bef
oremai
nver
b.

⚫ Tochangei
ntoact
ivevoi
cewhensubj
ecti
snotment
ioned:
I
nt hi
scaseeitherwesuppl
yasui
tabl
esubj
ectori
ndef
ini
tepr
onouni
s
usedassubject.

eg:
1.Passi
ve:Fi
shar
ecaught
.

Act
ive:
Thef
isher
mancat
hchest
hef
ish.

2.Passi
ve:Wear
etought
.

Act
ive:Thet
eachert
eachesus.

3.Passi
ve:
Hei
sbeat
en.

Act
ive:
Someonebeat
shi
m.

4.Passi
ve:
Teai
staken.

139
Act
ive:
Someonet
akest
ea.

5.Passi
ve:Youar
eseen.

Act
ive:Someoneseesy
ou.

Someexampl
esofact
iveandpassi
vev
oice:
1.Sent
encesofpr
esentsi
mpl
etense:

Act
ive Passi
ve

Thet
eachert
eachesEngl
i
sh. Engl
i
shi
staughtbyt
eacher
.

Theteacherdoesnott
each Engl
i
shi
snott
aughtbyt
eacher
.
Engl
i
sh.

Doest
het
eachert
eachEngl
i
sh? I
stheEngl
i
sht
aughtbyt
he
t
eacher
.

Doestheteachernott
each I
stheEngl
i
shnott
aughtbyt
he
Engl
ish? t
eacher
?

2.Sent
encesofPr
esentcont
inuoust
ense:

Act
ive Passi
ve

Shei
spl
ayi
ngcr
icket
. Cr
icketi
sbei
ngpl
ayedbyher
.

Shei
snotpl
ayi
ngcr
icket
. Cr
icketi
snotbei
ngpl
ayedbyher
.

I
sshepl
ayi
ngcr
icket
? I
scr
icketbei
ngpl
ayedbyher
?

I
sshenotpl
ayi
ngcr
icket
? I
scr
icketnotbei
ngpl
ayedbyher
?

3.Sent
encesofPr
esentper
fectt
ense:

140
Act
ive Passi
ve

Mar
khaski
l
ledasnake. Asnakehasbeenki
l
ledbyMar
k.

Mar
khasnotki
l
ledasnake. Asnakehasnotbeenki
l
ledby
Mark.

HasMar
kki
l
ledasnake? Hasasnakebeenki
l
ledbyMar
k.

HasMar
knotki
l
ledasnake? Hasasnakenotbeenki
l
ledby
Mark?

4.Sent
encesofPastsi
mpl
etense:

Act
ive Passi
ve

Theypl
ayedcr
icket
. Cr
icketwaspl
ayedbyt
hem.

Theydi
dnotpl
aycr
icket
. Cr
icketwasnotpl
ayedbyt
hem.

Di
dtheypl
aycr
icket
? Wascr
icketpl
ayedbyt
hem?

Di
dtheynotpl
aycr
icket
? Wascr
icketnotpl
ayedbyt
hem?

Exampl
e2:

Act
ive Pasi
ve

Teachersmi
l
ed.

Teacherdi
dnotsmi
l
e.
Nopassi
ve
Di
dteachersmi
l
e?

Di
dteachernotsmi
l
e?

Note:Thesesent
encescannotbechangedint
opassi
vevoi
ce
becausetheydonothaveanyt
ransi
ti
veverb(aver
baft
erwhi
chan

141
obj
ecti
sused)
.

5.Sent
encesofPastcont
inuoust
ense:

Act
ive Passi
ve

Theywer
ereadi
ngal
esson. Al
essonwasbei
ngr
eadbyt
hem.

Theywer
enotr
eadi
ngal
esson. Alessonwasnotbei
ngr
eadby
t
hem.

Wer
etheyr
eadi
ngal
esson? Wasal
essonbei
ngr
eadbyt
hem?

Wer
etheynotr
eadi
ngal
esson? Wasal
essonnotbei
ngr
eadby
t
hem?

6.Sent
encesofPastper
fectt
ense:

Act
ive Passi
ve

Ni
ckhadcomposedpoet
ry. Poetr
yhadbeencomposedby
Nick.

Ni
ckhadnotcomposedpoet
ry. Poetr
yhadnotbeencomposedby
Nick.

HadNi
ckcomposedpoet
ry? Hadpoet
rybeencomposedby
Ni
ck?

HadNi
cknotcomposedpoet
ry? Hadpoet
rynotbeencomposedby
Ni
ck.

7.Sent
encesofFut
uresi
mpl
etense:

Act
ive Passi
ve

At
eachershal
lteachal
esson. Al
essonshal
lbet
aughtbya

142
t
eacher
.

At
eachershal
lnott
eachal
esson.Alessonshal
lnotbet
aughtbya
t
eacher.

Shal
lat
eachert
eachal
esson? Shallal
essonbet
aughtby
teacher
?

Shal
lateachernott
eacha Shallal
essonnotbet
aughtby
l
esson? teacher
?

8.Sent
encesofFut
urecont
inuoust
ense:

Act
ive Passi
ve

Hewi
l
lber
eadi
ngabook. Abookwi
l
lbei
ngr
eadbyhi
m.

Hewi
l
lnotber
eadi
ngabook. Abookwi
l
lnotbei
ngr
eadbyhi
m.

Wi
l
lheber
eadi
ngabook? Wi
l
labookbei
ngr
eadbyhi
m?

Wi
l
lhenotber
eadi
ngabook? Wi
l
labooknotbei
ngr
eadby

hi
m?

9.Sent
encesofFut
ureper
fectt
ense:

Act
ive Passi
ve

Ji
mmywi
l
lhav
ewr
it
tenal
ett
er. Alet
terwi
l
lhav
ebeenwr
it
tenby
Ji
mmy .

Ji
mmywil
lnothav
ewr
it
tena Alet
terwi
l
lnothav
ebeenwr
it
ten
l
ett
er. byJi
mmy .

Wi
l
lJi
mmyhav
ewr
it
tenal
ett
er? Wi
l
lal
ett
erhav
ebeenwr
it
tenby

143
Ji
mmy
?

Wil
lJi
mmynothav
ewr
it
tena Wil
lalet
ternothav
ebeenwr
it
ten
l
ett
er? byJi
mmy ?

Not
e:Sent
enceofal
lper
fectcont
inuoust
ensescoul
dnotbechanged
i
ntopassi
vev
oice.

(
4.1)Di
rectandi
ndi
rectspeech:
Speech:Speechmeansat
alkoradi
aloguebet
weent
woper
sons.

Ki
ndsofspeech:Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofspeech,
thesear
e

1.Di
rectspeech. 2.I
ndi
rectspeech.

1.Dir
ectspeech:I
fwerepeatt
hewordsofapersonexact
lyi
nhi
sown
wordstosomeone,iti
scal
ledaDi
rectSpeech.

Eg:
Shesai
d,"
Iam v
eryhappyabouty
oursuccess.

2.I
ndi
rectspeech:I
fweexpr
esstheessenceofmai
npointsofa
per
sonswordswi t
hafewmodif
icat
ionsiti
scal
ledI
ndi
rectspeech.

Eg:
Shesai
dthatshewasv
eryhappyaboutmysuccess.

Note:Dir
ectspeechshoul
dbepl
acedbet
weent
hequot
ati
onmar
ksor
i
nvertedcommas.

I
mpor
tantt
onot
e:
1.Di
rectspeechshoul
dbepl
acedbet
weent
hei
nver
tedcommasand
begi
nswi
thacapi
tal
let
ter
.

Eg:
Jimmysai
d,"
Iwantt
ost
udymechani
cs"
.

144
2.Noquot
ati
onmar
ksar
eusedi
nIndi
rectSpeech.

Eg:
Jimmysai
dthatshewant
edt
ost
udymechani
cs.

3.Thet
enseoft
her
epor
ti
ngv
erbi
snotchanged.

4.Aconj
unct
ioni
susedaf
tert
her
epor
ti
ngv
erbi
nindi
rectspeech.

5.Tense/
pronouns/
wor
dsi
ncl
udi
ngnear
nessoft
imeandposi
ti
onar
e
changed.

eg:
Shesai
dtome,
"Iwai
tedf
ory
ouher
etoday
".

Shet
oldmet
hatshewai
tedf
ormet
her
ethatday
.

A.Rul
esf
ort
ensechange:
1.Repor
ti
ngv
erbi
nthepr
esentorf
utur
etenser
emai
nsunchanged.

eg:
Mar
ksay
s,"
Ishal
lgot
oKar
achi
tomor
row"
.

Mar
ksay
sthathewi
l
lgot
oKar
achi
tomor
row.

eg2:
Sanawi
l
lsay
,"Ishal
lbebacksoon"
.

Thewi
l
lsayt
hatshewi
l
lbebacksoon.

2.I
ftherepor
ti
ngv er
bisi
nthepastt
ense,
ther
epor
tedv
erbi
s
subj
ectdtochange.

Di
rectspeech I
ndi
rectspeech

Si
mpl
epr
esent Si
mpl
epast

Pr
esentcont
inuous Pastcont
inuous

Pr
esentper
fect Pastper
fect

145
Pr
esentper
fectcont
inuous Pastper
fectcont
inuous

Si
mpl
epast Pastper
fect

Pastcont
inuous Pastper
fectcont
inuous

Pastper
fect Nochange

Pastper
fectcont
inuoust
ense Nochange

Si
mpl
efut
ure Fut
urecondi
ti
onal

May Mi
ght

Can Coul
d

Must Hadt
o

Hadbet
ter _
___
__

Oughtt
o _
___
__

Usedt
o _
___
__

Exampl
es:

1.Sar
asai
d,"
Ili
ket
eachi
ng"
.

Sar
asai
dthatshel
i
kedt
eachi
ng.

2."
Iam wr
it
ingal
ett
ert
omybr
other
",Al
isai
dtome.

Al
isai
dtomet
hathewaswr
it
ingal
ett
ert
ohi
sbr
other
.

3."
Ihav
ecompl
etedt
het
ask"
,Josephsai
dtome.

Josepht
oldmet
hathehadcompl
etedt
het
ask.

4."
Ihav
ebeent
eachi
ngEngl
i
shf
orf
ivey
ear
s",
Hamz
asai
d.

146
Hamzasai
dthathehadbeent
eachi
ngEngl
i
shf
orf
ivey
ear
s.

5.Thomassai
dtoSana,
"Il
ovedy
ou"
.

Thomast
oldSanat
hathehadl
ovedher
.

6.Geor
gesai
d,"
Ihadl
ostmymobi
l
ephone"
.

Geor
gesai
dthathehadl
osthi
smobi
l
ephone.

7.Jacksai
d,"
Ihadbeent
hinki
ngofmar
ryi
ngar
ichgi
rl
".

Jacksai
dthathehadbeent
hinki
ngofmar
ryi
ngar
ichgi
rl
.

8."
Ishal
lspeakt
oyouabouti
tlat
er"
,mybr
othersai
dtome.

Mybr
othert
oldmet
hathewoul
dspeakt
omeabouti
tlat
er.

9."
Youmaygonow"
,Isai
dtoHer
.

It
oldhert
hatshemi
ghtgot
hen.

10."
Icandoany
thi
ngf
ory
ou"
,shesai
dtome.

Shet
oldmet
hatshecoul
ddoany
thi
ngf
orme.

11."
Youmustr
etur
nthebookt
hisev
eni
ng"
,hesai
dtome.

Het
oldmet
hatIhadt
o(must
)ret
urnt
hebookt
hatev
eni
ng.

12."
Youhadbet
terconsul
tagooddoct
or"
,Jesussai
dtome.

Jesust
oldmet
hatIhadbet
terconsul
tagooddoct
or.

13."Yououghtt
olov
eyourpar
ent
s",
hesai
dtoMar
y.

Het
oldMar
ythatsheoughtt
o(hadt
o)l
oveherpar
ent
s.

14.Thomassai
dtoJesus,
"Iusedt
owr
it
est
ori
es"
.

147
Thomast
oldJesust
hatheusedt
owr
it
est
ori
es.

3.Report
edspeechexpr
essi
ngauni
ver
salt
rut
horhabi
tualf
acti
s
notchanged.

Exampl
es:

1.Myf
athersai
d,"
Honest
yist
hebestpol
i
cy"
.

Myf
athersai
dthathonest
yist
hebestpol
i
cy.

2."
Theear
thmov
esar
oundt
hesun"
,thet
eachersai
d.

Thet
eachersai
dthatt
heear
thmov
esar
oundt
hesun.

3.Johnsai
d,"
Athi
ngofbeaut
yisaj
oyf
orev
er"
.

Johnsai
dthatat
hingofbeaut
yisaj
oyf
orev
er.

4.Ar
ist
otl
esai
d,"
Mani
sasoci
alani
mal
".

Ar
ist
otl
esai
dthatmani
sasoci
alani
mal
.

5."
Ipr
efernotcof
fee"
,myf
ri
endsai
d.

Myf
ri
endsai
dthathepr
efer
snotcof
fee.

6."
Ilov
ewat
chi
ngf
il
ms"
,Shesai
dtome.

Shet
oldmet
hatshel
oveswat
chi
ngf
il
ms.

4.Thepasti
ndefi
nit
etenseandthepastcont
inuoust
ensear
enot
changedi
nthefoll
owingcases.


Apasthi
stor
icalev
ent

148
Exampl
es:

1.Mybr
othersai
d,"
Paki
stangotf
reedom i
n1947.

Mybr
othersai
dthatPaki
stangotf
reedom i
n1947.

2.
"Thef
ir
stwor
ldwart
ookpl
acei
n1914"
,hesai
d.

Hesai
dthatt
hef
ir
stwor
ldwart
ookpl
acei
n1914.

3.Myt
eachersai
d,"
Shahj
ahanbui
l
ttheTaj
Mahal
".

Myt
eachersai
dthatShahj
ahanbui
l
ttheTaj
Mahal
.


Ani
mpr
obabl
econdi
ti
on

Exampl
es:

1."I
fSanawer
eaf
il
m st
ar,
Iwoul
daskheraut
ogr
aph"
,Isai
dtomy
fr
iend.

It
oldmyf
ri
endt
hati
fSanawer
eaf
il
m st
ar,
Iwoul
daskheraut
ogr
aph.

2."
Ify
ouwer
emywi
fe,
Iwoul
dbehappy
",Josephsai
dtoMet
il
da.

Josepht
oldMet
il
dai
fshewer
ehi
swi
fe,
hewoul
dbehappy
.

3."
IfIhadmoney
,Icoul
dlendy
ou"
,hesai
dtome.

Het
oldmeofhehadmoney
,hecoul
dlendme.


Apasthabi
torcust
om

Exampl
es

1."
Hinduswor
shi
ppedi
dol
s",
ourt
eachersai
dtous.

Ourt
eachert
oldust
hatHi
nduswor
shi
pedi
dol
s.

149
2."
Ial
way
swai
tedf
ory
ou"
,shesai
dtome.

Shet
oldmet
hatsheal
way
swai
tedf
orme.


Timecl
ause

Exampl
es:

1."
WhenIwentt
her
e,Sanawaswr
it
ingal
ett
er"
,Tom sai
dtohi
sfr
iend.

Tom t
oldhi
sfr
iendt
hatwhenhewentt
her
e,Sanawaswr
it
ingal
ett
er.

2."
WhenIwasr
eadi
nganov
el,
thepost
manknockedatt
hedoor
",
Zai
nsai
dtome.

Zai
ntol
dmethatwhenhewasr
eadi
nganov
el,
thepost
manknocked
att
hedoor
.

3."
Shehadl
eftt
heof
fi
cebef
oreIwentt
her
e",
Nicksai
dtohi
m.

Ni
ckt
oldhi
mthatshehadl
eftt
heof
fi
cebef
orehewentt
her
e.

B.Pr
onounsi
nindi
rectspeech:
1.Pr
onounsofthef
irstper
sonarechangedi
ntot
heper
sonsoft
he
subj
ectoft
herepor
tedspeech.

2.Pronounsofthesecondpersonar
echangedi
ntot
hepr
onounsof
theobjectoft
hereport
ingver
b.

3.Pr
onounsoft
het
hir
dper
sonr
emai
nunchanged.

Di
rect I
ndi
rectspeech
Speech Mascul
ine Femi
nine Pl
ural

150
I He She They

You He She They

You Hi
m Her Them

Your Hi
s Her Thei
r

Me Hi
m Her Them

My Hi
s Her Thei
r

My
sel
f Hi
msel
f Her
sel
f Themsel
ves

We _
___
_ _
___ They

Us _
___
_ _
___ Them

Our _
___
_ _
___ Thei
r

C.Wor
dsdenot
ingt
imeandposi
ti
on:
Whent her
epor t
ingverbi
sinthepasttense, cert
ainwordsdenot i
ng
nearnessoft imeandplacearechangedi ntowor dsdenoti
ngdistance.
Iti
simpor t
antt ochangethewordsdenot ingnearnesstowor ds
denotingdistancebecausee,
whenwer eportthewor dsofaper sonto
somebody ,theplaceandthetimeofther eporti
ngi schanged.Sothe
report
edspeechmustbei nli
newiththemodi fi
edtimeandpl ace.

Di
rectspeech I
ndi
rectspeech
Thi
s That
These Those

Now Then

151
Ago Bef
ore

Lastni
ght Thepr
evi
ousni
ght
/

Theni
ghtbef
ore

Nextday Thef
oll
owi
ngday
/

Thedayaf
ter

Today Thatday

Toni
ght Thatni
ght

Yest
erday Thepr
evi
ousday
/

Thedaybef
ore

Tomor
row Thenex
tday
/

Thef
oll
owi
ngday
/

Thedayaf
ter

Thedaybef
orey
est
erday Thedaybef
oret
hepr
evi
ousday
/

Twoday
sbef
ore

Thedayaf
tert
omor
row Thedayaf
tert
henextdday

Nex
tweek Thef
oll
owi
ngweek

Just Then

Her
e Ther
e

Thus So

Come Go

152
D.Statement
sordecl
arat
ivesent
encesi
nrepor
ted
speech:
Basi
crul
es:

1.Repor
ti
ngv
erbsai
d+t
o+noun/
pronouni
schangedi
ntot
old.

eg:
Shesai
dtome,
"Il
ovedy
ou"
.

Shet
oldmet
hatshehadl
ovedme.

2.Otherver
bli
ker
epl
y/answer
/inf
orm/
stat
emaybeusedi
nst
eadof
sai
dort ol
d.

Exampl
es:

a."
Mynamei
sMur
ty,
Ist
udyEngl
i
shatcol
l
ege"
,hesai
d.

Her
epl
i
edt
hathi
snamewasMar
tyandhet
aughtEngl
i
shatcol
l
ege.

b.
"Iwantt
ost
udyl
awandbecomeanadv
ocat
e",
MissJay
asai
d.

MissJayaanswer
edt
hatshewant
edt
ost
udyl
awandbecomean
advocat
e.

c."
Ishouldli
ket
ostayi
nAmer
icaf
orf
ivey
ear
sandl
i
vewi
thmy
si
ster
",Sanasai
d.

Sanainf
ormedmethatshewoul
dli
ket
ost
ayi
nAmer
icaf
orf
ivey
ear
s
andli
vewit
hhersi
ster
.

d."
Ihav
enoi
ntent
ionofent
eri
ngi
ntopol
i
tics"
,thesoci
alwor
kersai
d.

Thesocial
wor
kerst
atedt
hathehadnoi
ntent
ionofent
eri
ngi
nto
pol
it
ics.

153
3."
That
"isusedi
nrepor
tedspeech.

eg:
"Iknowy
ouar
emybestf
ri
end"
,Al
isai
dtome.

Al
itol
dmet
hatheknowt
hatIwashi
sbestf
ri
end.

E.Questi
onsori
nter
rogat
ivesent
encesi
nrepor
ted
speech:
Basi
crul
es:
1.Repor
tingverbi
schangedint
oask/
anqui
re/
demand/
wonder
/want
toknow/questi
on/
int
err
ogate.

Exampl
es:

a."
Wher
edoy
ouwantt
ogonow"
,hesai
dtome.

Heaskedmewher
eIwant
edt
ogot
hen.

b."
Wher
ehasshegone"
,hesai
d.

Hewonder
edwher
eshehadgone.

c."
Whatdoy
ouexpectf
rom me"
,Mar
ysai
dtome.

Mar
ywant
edt
oknowwhatIexpect
edf
rom her
.

d."
Whydoy
ouwast
eyourt
ime"
,mymot
hersai
dtome.

Mymot
herquest
ionedmewhyIwast
edmyt
ime.

e."
Whatar
eyout
hinki
ngabout
",Sar
asai
dtohersi
ster
.

Sar
aint
err
ogat
edhersi
sterwhatshewast
hinki
ngabout
.

2.Thei
nter
rogat
ivef
orm oft
hesent
encemustbet
urnedi
ntoa

154
st
atement
.

eg:
"Doy
ouhav
eani
deaofl
ovemar
ri
age"
,IaskedZubi
.

IaskedZubi
whet
hershehadanyi
deaofl
ovemar
ri
age.

3."
That
"isnotusedwi
thwho/whom/whose/what
/whi
ch/when/
why/wher
eorhow.

eg:
"Whot
oldy
ouaboutmymar
ri
age"
,Sanasai
dtome.

Sanaquest
ionedmewhot
oldmeabouthermar
ri
age.

4.Whet
herori
fmustbeusedi
nrepor
tedspeech.

eg:
"Doy
oul
over
eadi
ngbooks"
,Zubi
sai
dtome.

Zubi
askedmewhet
herIl
ovedr
eadi
ngbooks.

5.Wor
dsr
elat
ingt
otense/
pronouns/
near
nessar
echanged.

Act
ive Passi
ve

"Am Iamadman"
,hesai
dto Hequest
ionedhi
msel
fwhet
herhe
himsel
f. wasamadman.

"Ar
ey ouamedi
cal
student
",I IaskedZubiwhet
hershewasa
askedZubi
. medicalst
udent
.

"
Isyoursi
sterat
eacher
",Iasked IaskedAliwhet
herhi
ssi
sterwas
Al
i. ateacher
.

"Am Imaki
ngamist
ake"
,Zai
n Zai
nquest
ionedhi
msel
fwhet
her
sai
dt ohi
msel
f. hewasmakingamist
ake.

F.I
mper
ati
vesent
encesi
nrepor
tedspeech:

155
Basi
crul
es:
1.Repor
ti
ngv er
bischangedi
ntoav
erbi
ndi
cat
inga
command/request
/advi
ce.

I
deaorf
eel
ing.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.r
elat
edv
erb

Command.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.command,
order

Request
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.r
equest
,bag,
ask,
impoi
re

Adv
ice.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
adv
ice,
urge,
exhor
t,f
orbi
d,per
suade,
inci
te

2.Negati
vecommandsandadv
icear
eexpr
essedi
nrepor
tedspeech
byusingto+inf
ini
ti
ve.

eg:
"Don'
tpl
aywi
thf
ir
e"shesai
dtome.

Sheadv
isedmenott
opl
aywi
thf
ir
e.

3.Thev
erbi
nther
epor
tedspeechi
schangedi
ntoi
nfi
nit
ive.

eg:
"Cany
out
eachmeEngl
i
sh"Johnsai
dtome.

Johnr
equest
edmet
oteachhi
m Engl
i
sh.

4.Thet
enseandpr
onounsmustbechanged.

5.Sent
enceswi
thl
etcanbet
urnedi
ntor
epor
tedspeechi
nthr
ee
methods.

a.Suggest
/pr
opose+Ger
und

b.Suggest
/pr
opose+I
nfi
nit
ive

c.Suggest
/pr
opose+Thatcl
ause

eg:
"Letussetupasmal
lscal
eindust
ry"myf
ri
endsai
dtome.

156
Myf
ri
endsuggest
edset
ti
ngupasmal
lscal
eindust
ry.

Myf
ri
endpr
oposedt
oset
upasmal
lscal
eindust
ry.

Myf
ri
endsuggest
edt
hatweshoul
dsetupasmal
lscal
eindust
ry.

Di
rectspeech I
ndi
rectspeech

"Canyouexpl
aint
hewor
dtome" Sherequest
edmet
oexpl
aint
he
shesaidt
ome. wordtoher.

"Pl
easeteachmehowt ouset
he Irequestedhi
mtot eachmehow
cal
culat
or"Isai
dtohi
mhim touset hecal
cul
ator.

"Burntheol
dlet
ter
s",
myf
ri
end Myfri
endsuggest
edbur
ningt
he
saidtome. ol
dlet
ter
s.

"
Beregulartoyourcl
asses"
,my Myteacheradv
isedmet obe
t
eachersaidtome. r
egulart
omycl asses.

G.Exclamat
oryandopt
ati
vesent
encesi
nrepor
ted
speech:
1.Ther
epor
ti
ngv
erbi
schangedi
ntot
hef
oll
owi
ngmanner
:

Excl
aim +wit
h+joy/sorrow/fear/anger
/wonder
/sur
pri
se/pai
n/
appl
aud/regr
et/curse/cryout.

2."
That
"isusedi
nrepor
tedspeech.

3.Wor
dsl
ikewhatandhowar
eomi
tt
edi
nrepor
tedspeech.

4.I
nter
ject
ions/
excl
amat
ionsl
i
kehur
rah,al
as,l
o,br
avoar
erepl
aced
byadvi
ce.

5.Forsal
utat
ionatt
het
imeofmeet
ingy
oumayuse:

157
Wi
sh+goodmor
ning/
eveni
ng/
nightorgoodl
uck.

Andatt
het
imeofdepar
tur
eyoumayuse:

bi
d+goodby
e+t
o+obj
ect
.

Di
rectspeech I
ndi
rectspeech

"Whatabeaut
if
ulgi
rlZubii
s!"
,IIexcl
aimedwit
hwondert
hatZubi
sai
d. i
sreall
yaver
ybeaut
if
ulgi
rl
.

"Whatagr
eatf ool
,Iam t
obel
i
eve Iexcl
aimedwithregr
ett
hatIwas
herwor
ds!
",Isaid. i
ndeedagr eatfoolt
obel
iev
eher
words.

"
Whatat r
agedythathehasdi
ed Heexcl
aimedwithsorr
owt
hathe
i
ntheacci
dent
!"
,hesai
d. haddi
edintheacci
dent
.

"Howki ndofyoutohel
pmei
nmy Sheex clai
med wit
hgrateful
ness
dist
ress",
shesaid. thatIwasv er
ykindtohelpherin
herdist
ress.

"Whata fool
i
sh t
hing y
ou hav
e I excl
aimed with r
egr
et that
done!
"Isai
dtoHamza. Hamz ahadreal
l
ydoneaf ool
ish
t
hing.

(4.
3)Conv er
sionofsi
mpl
esent
encest
ocompound
sentences:
Si
mplesentencesmaybechangedi ntodoubl
esentencesbytaki
nga
wordoraphrase,andexpandi
ngi
tintoaCo-or
dinat
eClause:

1.Usi
ngt
heconj
unct
ionsand,
bot
h..
..
.and,
notonl
y.
..
.butal
so;
as,

Si
mpl
e:Seei
ngabearcomi
ng,
hel
ayont
hegr
ound.

158
Compound:Hesawabearcomi
ng,
andl
ayont
hegr
ound.

Si
mpl
e:Sher
ecei
vedpr
aiseandr
ewar
d.

Compound:Shewasbot
hpr
asi
edandr
ewar
ded.

Si
mpl
e:Besi
debei
ngi
ndust
ri
oushei
scl
ever
.

Compound:Hei
snotonl
yindust
ri
ousbuthei
sal
socl
ever
.

2.Usi
ngt
heConj
unct
ionsbut
,yet
,nev
ert
hel
ess:as,

Si
mpl
e:I
nspi
teofhi
sri
ches,
hei
sunhappy
.

Compound:Hei
sver
yri
ch,
butst
il
lhei
sunhappy
.

Si
mpl
e:Not
wit
hst
andi
nghi
ssor
row,
hei
shopef
ul.

Compound:Hei
ssor
rowf
ulbuty
ethopef
ul.

Si
mpl
e:I
nfaceofmanyobst
acl
eshepr
eser
ved.

Compound:Hemetwi
thmanyobst
acl
es,
nev
ert
hel
esshepr
eser
ved.

3.Usi
ngt
heconj
unct
ionsor
,ei
ther
..
..
.or
,ot
her
wise;
as

Si
mpl
e:Youmustconf
essy
ourf
aul
ttoescapebei
ngf
ined.

Compound:Youmustconf
essy
ourf
aul
tory
ouwi
l
lbef
ined.

Si
mpl
e:Toav
oidpuni
shmenty
oumustapol
ogi
ze.

Compound:Ei
thery
oumustapol
ogi
ze,
ory
ouwi
l
lbepuni
shed.

Si
mpl
e:Youmustr
unawayatonce,
toescapebei
ngcaught
.

Compound:Youmustr
unawayatonce,
other
wisey
ouwi
l
lbecaught
.

(
4.4)
Conv
ersi
onofcompoundsent
encet
osi
mpl
esent
ence.

159
Compoundsent
encesatbechangedi
ntosi
mpl
esent
encesi
nthe
fol
l
owingway
s.

1.Bysubst
it
uti
ngapar
ti
cipat
eforaf
inat
ever
b;as

Compound:Het
ookhi
shatandsetof
f.

Si
mpl
e:Taki
nghi
shat
,hesatof
f.

Compound:Thesunr
oseandt
hef
ogdi
sappear
ed.

Si
mpl
e:Thesunhav
ingr
isen,
thef
ogdi
sappear
ed.

Compound:Hef
ini
shedhi
swor
kandr
etur
nedhouse.

Si
mpl
e:Hav
ingf
ini
shedhi
swor
kher
etur
nedt
ohouse.

2.Bysubst
it
uti
ngapr
eposi
ti
onet
c,f
oraCl
ause;
as,

Compound:Shenotonl
ymadeapr
omi
se,
butkepti
ttoo.

Si
mpl
e:Besi
demaki
ngapr
omi
seshekepti
t.

Compound:Heshav
edhi
msel
fandt
hent
ookhi
sbat
h.

Si
mpl
e:Af
tersheav
inghi
msel
f,het
ookhi
sbat
h.

Compound:Youmustnotbel
ateory
ouwi
l
lbef
ined.

Si
mpl
e:I
ntheev
entofy
ourbei
ngl
ate,
youwi
l
lbef
ined.

3.Bysubst
it
uti
ngoni
nfi
nit
ivef
oracl
ause;
as,
Compound:Youmustwor
khar
dory
ouwi
l
lnotwi
nthef
ir
stpr
ize.

Si
mpl
e:Youmustwor
khar
dtowi
nthef
ir
stpr
ize.

Compound:Ei
thery
oumustconf
essy
ourf
aul
tory
oumustbe

160
puni
shed.

Si
mpl
e:Toescapepuni
shment
,youmustconf
essy
ourf
aul
t.

(
4.5)Conv
ersi
onofsi
mpl
esent
encet
ocompl
exsent
ence:
A simple sent
ence can be changed i
nto a complexsent
ence by
expandi
ng a word ora phrase into a subordi
nat
e cl
ause (
Noun,
Adject
iveorAdver
b).

1.Nouncl
ause:

Si
mpl
e:Wehear
dofherf
ail
ure.

Compl
ex:Wehear
dthatshehadf
ail
ed.

Si
mpl
e:Idonotknowt
hedayofhi
sdeat
h.

Compl
ex:Idonotknowwhenhedi
ed.

Si
mpl
e:Weal
lknowt
her
easonofhi
spopul
ari
ty.

Compl
ex:Weal
lknowwhyhei
spopul
ar.

2.Adj
ect
ivecl
ause:

Si
mpl
e:Hei
samanofhi
swor
d.

Compl
ex:Hei
samanwhokeepshi
swor
d.

Si
mpl
e:Al
i
ari
ssel
dom t
rust
ed.

Compl
ex:Aper
sonwhot
ell
sli
esi
ssel
dom t
rust
ed.

Si
mpl
e:Het
oldust
het
imeofhi
sar
ri
val
.

Compl
ex:Het
oldust
het
imewhenhewi
l
lar
ri
ve.

161
3.Adv
erbcl
ause:

Si
mpl
e:Youmaygoany
wher
e.

Compl
ex:Youmaygowher
every
ouwant
.

Si
mpl
e:Atsunsether
etur
enedhome.

Compl
ex:Whent
hesunsether
etunedhome.

Si
mpl
e:Doi
ttot
hebestofy
ourabi
l
ity
.

Compl
ex:Doi
taswel
lasy
oucan.

(
4.6)Conv
ersi
onofcompl
exsent
encet
osi
mpl
esent
ence:
A complexsentence can be changed i
nto a si
mpl
e sent
ence by
conver
ti
ngaclause(Noun,Adj
ectiveorAdver
b)

1.Nouncl
ause:

Compl
ex:Headmi
tt
edt
hathehaddonewr
ong.

Si
mpl
e:Headmi
tt
edhi
sfaul
t.

Compl
ex:Thaty
oushoul
dbepr
esentessent
ial
.

Si
mpl
e:Yourpr
esencei
sessent
ial
.

Compl
ex:Tel
lmewher
eyourbr
otherl
i
ves.

Si
mpl
e:Tel
lmet
headdr
essofy
ourbr
other
.

2.Adj
ect
ivecl
ause:

Compl
ex:Thepeopl
ewhowor
khar
dpr
osperi
nthewor
ld.

Si
mpl
e:Har
dwor
kingpeopl
epr
osperi
nthewor
ld.

162
Compl
ex:Hei
samanwhopossessgr
eatcour
age.

Si
mpl
e:Hei
sver
ycour
ageousman.

Compl
ex:Wesawt
hepl
acewher
eShakespear
ewasbor
n.

Si
mpl
e:Wesawt
hebi
rt
hpl
aceofShakespear
e.

3.Adv
erbcl
ause:

Compl
ex:Hei
ssoexuast
edt
hathecannotwal
k.

Si
mpl
e:Hei
stooexuast
edt
owal
k.

Compl
ex:Weeatt
hatwemayl
i
ve.

Si
mpl
e:Weeatt
oli
ve.

Compl
ex:Whenhehadf
ini
shedhi
swor
k,hewentoutt
opl
ay.

Si
mpl
e:Hav
ingf
ini
shedhi
swor
k,hewentoutt
opl
ay.

(4.
7) Conv er
sion of compound sent
ence t
o compl
ex
sentence:
Compound:Thel
i
onwaswoundedbutnotki
l
led.

Compl
ex:Thel
i
onwasnotki
l
ledal
thoughhewaswounded.

Compound:Wast
enot
,wantnot
.

Compl
ex:I
fyoudonotwast
e,y
ouwi
l
lnotwant
.

Compound:Heai
medatwi
nni
ngt
hepr
izeandwor
kedhar
d.

Compl
ex:Hewor
kedhar
dsot
hathemi
ghtwi
nthepr
ize.

(
4.8) Conv
ersi
on of Compl
ex sent
ence t
o compound

163
sent
ence:
Compl
ex:Ihav
efoundt
hepent
hatIhadl
ost
.

Compound:Ihadl
ostapen,
butIhav
efoundi
t.

Compl
ex:Hewor
kedhar
dsot
hathemi
ghtwi
nthepr
ize.

Compound:Heai
medatwi
nni
ngt
hepr
izeandwor
kedhar
d.

Compl
ex:Hei
smor
eaphi
l
osophert
hanapoet
.

Compound:Hei
ssomet
hingofapoet
,butr
athermor
eofa
phi
l
osopher.

(
4.9)Sent
encescont
aini
ngt
headv
erb"
too"
:
Wecanchangethef
orm ofasent
encecont
aini
ngt
headv
erb"
too"
,as
shownbel
ow:-

1.Thenewsi
stoogoodt
obet
rue.

Thenewsi
ssogoodt
hati
tcannotbet
rue.

2.Thesemangoesar
etoocheapt
obegood.

Thesemangoesar
esocheapt
hatt
heycannotbegood.

3.Hedr
ovet
oof
astf
ort
hepol
i
cet
ocat
ch.

Hedr
ovedof
astt
hatt
hepol
i
cecoul
dnotcat
hchhi
m.

4.Myhear
tist
oof
ull
forwor
ds.

Myhear
tissof
ull
thatIcannotex
pressmyf
eel
i
ngs.

5.Thewor
kist
oomuchf
oranymant
odosi
ngl
e-handed.

164
Thewor
kissomucht
hatnomancandoi
tsi
ngl
e-handed.

(
4.10)I
nter
changeoft
hedegr
eesofcompar
ison:
Asthef
ollowingexamplesshow,I
tpossi
blet
ochanget heDegr
eesof
compar
isonofanAdj ecti
veorAdver
b,wit
houtchangi
ngt hemeani
ng
oft
hesentence.

Posi
ti
ve:Ihav
enev
erseensuchabeaut
if
ulpi
ctur
east
his.

Compar
ativ
e:Thispi
ctur
eismor
ebeaut
if
ult
hananyot
herpi
ctur
ethat
Ihav
eeverseen.

Super
lat
ive:Thi
sist
hemostbeaut
if
ulpi
ctur
ethatIhav
eev
erseen.

Posi
ti
ve:Noot
hert
hingi
nthi
swor
ldi
ssogr
eatasl
ove.

Compar
ati
ve:Lov
eisgr
eat
ert
hananyot
hert
hingi
nthewor
ld.

Super
lat
ive:Lov
eist
hegr
eat
estt
hingi
nthi
swor
ld.

Posi
ti
ve:Noot
hermet
ali
ssoheav
yasl
ead.

Compar
ati
ve:Leadi
sheav
iert
hananyot
hermet
al.

Super
lat
ive:Leadi
stheheav
iestofal
lmet
als.

(
4.11)I
nter
changeofAf
fi
rmat
iveandNegat
ivesent
ences:
Af
fi
rmat
ive:Hei
sri
chert
hanme.

Negat
ive:Iam notsor
ichashe.

Af
fi
rmat
ive:Onl
yaf
ool
woul
dsaysuchat
hing.

Negat
ive:Noonebutaf
ool
woul
dsaysuchat
hing.

Af
fi
rmat
ive:Het
ri
edev
erypl
an.

165
Negat
ive:Hel
eftnopl
anunt
ri
ed.

(
4.12)I
nter
changeofI
nter
rogat
iveandasser
ti
vesent
ence:
Asser
ti
ve:Ther
eisnot
hingbet
tert
hanabusyl
i
fe.

I
nter
rogat
ive:I
sther
eany
thi
ngbet
tert
hanabusyl
i
fe?

Asser
ti
ve:Wecoul
dhav
edonenot
hingwi
thouty
ourhel
p.

I
nter
rogat
ive:Whatcoul
dwehav
edonewi
thouty
ourhel
p?

Asser
ti
ve:I
tisusel
esst
oof
ferbr
eadt
oamanwhoi
sdy
ingoft
hir
st.

I
nterr
ogati
ve:Whati
stheuseofof
fer
ingbr
eadt
oamanwhoi
sdy
ing
ofthi
rst
?

(
4.13)I
nter
changeofexcl
amat
oryandasser
ti
vesent
ence:
Asser
ti
ve:Iwoul
dgi
veany
thi
ngt
oseey
ouhappy
.

Excl
amat
ory
:Whatwoul
dInotgi
vet
oseey
ouhappy
!

Asser
ti
ve:Thesemangoeshav
eav
erydel
i
ciousf
lav
our
.

Excl
amat
ory
:Whatadel
i
ciousf
lav
ourt
hesemangoeshav
e!

Asser
ti
ve:Mani
sawonder
ful
pieceofwor
k.

Excl
amat
ory
:Whatapi
eceofwor
kisman.

166

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