MODULATION IN

AM TRANSMITTERS
Document By
SANTOSH BHARADWAJ REDDY
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CONTENTS Page no

 About ALL INDIA RADIO 1

 Modulation 7
 Need For Modulation
 Amplitude Modulation
 Medium Wave Transmitters
 RF Stages
• Crystal Oscillator
• Transistor Power Amplifier
• RF Driver
• RF Power Amplifier
 AF Stages
• High Pass Filter
• AF Pre-Amplifier
• AF Pre-Corrector
• AF Driver
• AF Final Stage
 Power Supply
 Auxiliary Power Supply
 Control & Interlock Systems
 Switching Sequence of Transmitter
 • Ventilation
• Filament
• Grid Bias/Medium Tension
 Hum Compensator
 Control Electronics
 Modes of Operation
 Medium Wave Antenna
 Conclusion

A national service planned, developed and

operated by the Prasar Bharati Broadcasting Corporation of India

Sound broadcasting started in India in 1927

with the proliferation of private radio clubs. The operations of All
India Radio began formally in 1936, as a government organisation,
with clear objectives to inform, educate and entertain the masses.

When India attained Independence in 1947, AIR

had a network of six stations and a complement of 18 transmitters.
The coverage was 2.5% of the area and just 11% of the population.
Rapid expansion of the network took place post Independence.

AIR today has a network of 229 broadcasting

centers with 148 medium frequency (MW), 54 high frequency (SW)
and 168 FM transmitters. The coverage is 91.79% of the area,
serving 99.14% of the people in the largest democracy of the world.
AIR covers 24 Languages and 146 dialects in home services. In
External services, it covers 27 languages; 17 national and 10 foreign
languages.

Growth & Development of AIR

The first radio programme in

India was broadcast by the Radio Club of Mumbai in June
1923. It was followed by the setting up of a Broadcasting
Service that began broadcasting in India in July 1927 on an
experimental basis at Mumbai and Kolkata simultaneously
under an agreement between Government of India and a
private company called the Indian Broadcasting Company
Ltd.

When India became independent,

the AIR network had only six Stations located at Delhi,
Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Lucknow and Tiruchirapalli with
a total complement of 18 transmitters - six on the medium
wave and the remaining on short wave. Radio listening on
medium wave was confined to urban limits of these cities.
As against a mere 2,75,000 receiving sets at the time of
Independence, now there are about 132 million estimated
radio sets in the country.
 Now the broadcast scenario has
drastically changed with 215 broadcasting centers, including
77 local Radio Stations, covering nearly cent-per-cent
country's population.
IMPORTANT MILESTONES SINCE
INDEPENDENCE
August 15,1947 There were Six Radio stations at Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta,
Madras, Tiruchirapalli and Lucknow.
July 20, 1952 First National Programme of Music broadcast from AIR
July 29. 1953 National Programme of Talks (English) commenced from AIR.
1954 First Radio Sangeet Sammelan held.
October 3, Vividh Bharati Services started.
1957
November 1, First TV station in Delhi started (at that time, it was part of
1959 AIR).
July 21, 1969 Yuvavani services started at Delhi.
August 15, 1000 KW Superpower Medium Wave Transmitter commisioned
1969 at Calcutta(Mogra).
January 8, 1000 KW Superpower Medium Wave Transmitter
1971 commissioned at Rajkot
1974 Akashvani Annual Awards instituted.
July 23, 1977 First ever FM service was started from Madras.
September 14, Two High Power250 KW shortwave transmitters inaugurated at
1984 Aligarh.
October 30, First Local Radio Station at Nagarcoil started.
1984
1985 All AIR stations were provided with 5 channel satellite receiver
terminals.
May 18, 1988 Introduction of National Channel.
April 8, 1989 Commissioning of Integrated North East Service.
March 2, 1990 The 100th station of AIR commissioned at Warangal (Andhra
Pradesh)
March 10, 1990 Two 500 KW Superpower shortwave transmitters
commissioned at Bangalore.
October 2, Commissioning of FM Chanel at Jalandhar.
1992
April 1, 1993 The 150 th station of AIR commissioned at Berhampur
(Orissa).

August 15, Introduction of Times slots on FM Channel to private Parties at

1993 Delhi-Bombay.
September 1, Time slots on FM Chanel to private parties at Chennai.
1993
January 24, FM Channel at Panaji.
1994
July 25, 1994 Time slots on FM channel to private parties at Calcutta.
September 10, Multi-track recording studios commissioned at Mumbai.
1994
September 28, Four 500 KW Superpower Shortwave transmitters at
1994 Bangalore inaugurated. This has made Bangalore one of the
biggest transmitting centres in the world.
October 31, The 175th station of AIR commissioned at Nasik.
1994
November 13, Time slots on FM channel to private parties at Panaji.
1994
August 5, 1995 Multi-track recording studios commissioned at Chennai.
February 1, Foundation stone laid for New Broadcasting House at New
1996 Delhi.
May 2, 1996 Launching of AIR on-line Information Services on Internet.
January 13, Started Audio on demand on Internet Service.
1997
April 1, 1997 Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) introduced at Delhi on
experimental basis.
January 26, 'Radio on Demand' service on 2nd FM Channel Transmission.
1998
February 25, AIR 'News on Telephone' and AIR 'live on Internet'.
1998
August 15, Radio station commissioned at Kokrajhar in Bodo Land
1999 Autonomous Council Area.
August 15, Second FM Channels commissioned at Delhi and Calcutta with
1999 Yuvavani service.
July 17, 2000 Regional Staff Training Institute (Tech.) started functioning at
Bhubaneshwar (Orissa)
Sept 1, 2001 AIR launched Infotainment channel known as FM-II at four
metros, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, in addition to the
Metro Channel FM-I.

Nov 12, 2001 Museum of Radio and Doordarshan was inaugurated.

Declared as The Public Service Broadcasting day to
commemorate Gandhiji's visit to AIR

Feb 27, 2002 AIR launched its first ever digital statellite home service which
will cater to Indian sub-continent and South-East Asia.

July, 2002 Celebrated 75 years of Broadcasting.

April, 2003 Marketing Division of Prasar Bharati Inaugurated.
Jan 26, 2004 Bhasha Bharati Channel of AIR launched at Delhi and
Classical Music Channel launched at Bangalore.
Apr 01, 2004 Launch of Kisan Vani Programme from 12 Stations of AIR.
Dec 16, 2004 DTH Service of Prasar Bharati, with 12 AIR Channels,
launched.

MODULATION
Modulation is a process of superimposing information on
a carrier by varying one of its parameters (amplitude, frequency or
phase). The signals containing intelligence or information to be
transmitted are called modulating signals. These are also called
base band signals. The carrier frequency is greater than modulating
signal frequencies and the signal, which results from the process, is
called modulated signal.

Modulation can be continuous wave or pulse

wave modulation. If carrier is continuous in nature then it is
continuous wave modulation, while if carrier is pulse type it is pulse
wave modulation.

Need for Modulation

• Modulating the signal over higher frequency can reduce antenna

size.
• Maximum to minimum frequency ratio can be reduced to
minimum by modulating the signal on a high frequency.
• To differentiate among transmissions (stations)

Types of Modulation

In general, there are three types of modulation:

a) Amplitude Modulation b) Angle Modulation
c) Pulse Modulation
 AMPLITUDE
MODULATION

AMPLITUDE MODULATION

Amplitude modulation (AM) is a method of

impressing data onto an alternating-current (AC) carrier waveform.
The highest frequency of the modulating data is normally less than
10 percent of the carrier frequency. The instantaneous amplitude
(overall signal power) varies depending on the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating data.
 If the amplitude of the carrier is varied in
accordance with the amplitude of the modulating signal (information),
it is called amplitude modulation. This modulation has been shown
in figure 1. We can see this on the screen of oscilloscope.

Analysis of AM Signal

Let carrier, Vc(t) = AcCos(ω ct + θ )

Modulating signal, Vm(t) = AmCosω mt
Then, AM modulated signal,

V( t ) = ( A c + A m C oω smt )C oω sc t
Am
= A c (1 + C oω sm t)C oω sc t
Ac
= A c (1 + maC oω sm t)C oω sc t

= A c C oω sc t + m a A c C oω sm t .C oω sc t
ma
= A c C oω sc t + 2A c C oω sm t .C oω sc t
2
m
= A c C oω sc t + a A c C o(ωsc + ω m )t
2
ma
+ A c C o(ω cs+ ω m )t
2
= Carrier + Upper side band + Lower side
band

Where
Am
ma = = M o d u la Itni od ne x
Ac
[When Am = Ac, m = 1. This is known as 100% modulation]
Ac = Peak amplitude of the carrier
Am = Peak Amplitude of the modulating signal
ωc = Angular frequency of the carrier
ωm = Angular frequency of the modulating signal
θ = Phase difference between carrier and modulating signal.
 E0
0

R F C arrier

M odulating signal m+ = m− = m = D egreeof m odulation

Em ax − Eo
Emin
Emax m+ =
Eo
Eo − Em in
m− =
E0 Eo
0

AM signal

Fig.1 Amplitude Modulation

In AM, the carrier itself does not fluctuate in amplitude.

Instead, the modulating data appears in the form of signal
components at frequencies slightly higher and lower than that of the
carrier. These components are called sidebands. The lower
sideband (LSB) appears at frequencies below the carrier frequency;
the upper sideband (USB) appears at frequencies above the carrier
frequency. The LSB and USB are essentially "mirror images" of each
other in a graph of signal amplitude versus frequency, as shown in
the illustration. The sideband power accounts for the variations in the
overall amplitude of the signal.

Spectrum of AM signal

The spectrum of AM signal analyzed above is shown in figure 2.

Spectrum analyzer displays this on its screen.
 Carrier

LSB USB

Level
f m = Modulating Freq.
f c = Carrier freq.

0 f c-f m fc f c+fm

Frequency

Fig. 2 Spectrum of AM Signal

Power in the carrier,

2
1  1 2
Pc =  A c  = (A c )
 2  2
Power in the upper sideband,
2 2
 1 Ac  1 2 Ac
Pu s b =  ma  = (m a )
 2 2 4 2
Power in the upper sideband (Pusb) = Power in the lower side
band (Plsb)

Hence total power, Pt = Pc + Pusb + Plsb

=
1 2
2
( )
Pc 2 + ma
 When a carrier is amplitude-modulated with a pure
sine wave, up to 1/3 (33 percent) of the overall signal power is
contained in the sidebands. The other 2/3 of the signal power is
contained in the carrier, which does not contribute to the transfer of
data. With a complex modulating signal such as voice, video, or
music, the sidebands generally contain 20 to 25 percent of the
overall signal power; thus the carrier consumes 75 to 80 percent of
the power. This makes AM an inefficient mode. If an attempt is made
to increase the modulating data input amplitude beyond these limits,
the signal will become distorted, and will occupy a much greater
bandwidth than it should. This is called over modulation, and can
result in interference to signals on nearby frequencies.

Variation of AM Signals

DSB - FC : Double sidebands with full carrier. This is used in MW

and SW Transmitters.

DSB - SC : Double sidebands with suppressed carrier. This

method is used for transmission of chroma signals in
TV and stereo signal in FM transmitter.

VSB : Vestigial sideband. This method utilises one side

band (usually USB) with carrier and a portion of other
sideband. This is used for picture (video)
transmission in television.

SSB : Single Side band : In this method only one side band
(without carrier) is utilised for transmission. There is
considerable saving in power and bandwidth. But as
the carrier is not transmitted it becomes difficult to
recover the signal at the receiver end. Hence the
receiver circuit is complex. The use of this method is
restricted to special purpose only, such as military
communications.

ISB : Independent side band : In this method each side

band carries a different message and hence they are
independent of each other. A reduced carrier is also
inserted so as to facilitate an easy detection. This
method is used in Telephone system.

Medium Wave
transmitter
 RF STAGES

The RF chain consists of Crystal

oscillator followed by wide band Transistorized Power Amplifier
developing an output of 12- 15 watts. This is followed by a driver
stage using 4-1000A valve working in Class AB condition. This stage
delivers a driving voltage of 900Volts peak to grid of PA.This stage
consists of ceramic tetrode valve working as Class D amplifier. The
PA stage works into output impedance of 120 ohms delivering a
carrier output of 100Kw.RF circuits consist of a crystal oscillator,
transistor power amplifier, RF. Driver and Power Amplifier of 100
kW HMB 140 MW transmitter are shown in Fig. 2.
 Fig.2 Block Diagram of RF Chain (HMB-140)
Ref. Drg.No.:-STI(T)452,(DC204)

Crystal Oscillator:

Two oscillator units are provided one in

circuit one as standby. It is self-contained unit including its power
supply and a proportionately controlled oven and gives an output of
5v square wave, which is required to drive Transistor power
amplifier. To oscillate at a consistent frequency, the crystal is kept in
an oven. The temperature of the oven is maintained between 68 to
72o C and the corresponding indication is available in the meter
panel. Crystal oven is heated by + 12 V.

One crystal oscillator with a stand by has

been provided. It gives an output of 5 V square wave which is
required to drive the Transistor Power Amplifier. The crystal
oscillator works between 3 MHz and 6 MHz for different carrier
frequencies. The basic oscillator is a pierce circuit with crystal as
frequency determining ranges. Different capacitors are used to
select different frequency ranges. In addition, variable capacitor is
used for varying the frequency of the crystal within a few cycles. The
oscillator frequency is divided by 2, 4, or 8 which is selected by
jumpering the appropriate terminals. The oscillator Unit gives 3
outputs, one each for RF output, RF Monitoring and RF output
indication.
Transistor Power Amplifier :

Oscillator output is fed to the transistor

Power amplifier (TRPA). It is self-contained units including
its power supply and gives an output of 12 Watt across 75
ohms. It works as switching amplifier and is wide band.
However the output filters are to be selected for the
frequency ranges 525-750 kHz, 750-1150 kHz and 1150-
1650 kHz. This unit works on + 20 V DC, derived from a
separate rectifier and regulator.

This is followed by transistorized regulator

and a series pass transistor. The output is adjusted by
potentiometer, which varies the pulse width and amplitude
at the output. The output passes through low pass filters .An
indication of RF output is given by an LED on the mimic
diagram via indicating circuit. For different operating
frequencies of transmitter, no tuning is necessary except to
select the proper Low Pass Filter.

RF Driver:

The RF Driver stage provides the driving power

required to develop an output of 100kw to the final amplifier.
Moreover, the wave shape required for Class D operation of
final stage is also generated in the driver. A 4-1000 A
tetrode is used as a driver, which operates under class AB
condition, without drawing any grid current.

About 7 to 10 Watts, of power is fed to the

grid of the driver through a 75: 800 ohms RF Transformer,
which provides proper impedance matching to the TRPA
output and also provides the necessary grid voltage, swing
to the driver tube. Because the cathode is at -600 V, the
effective grid to cathode bias voltage (fixed) is -50V and the
effective plate voltage is 2500 V. The driver develops a
peak grid voltage of 800 to 900 V at the grid of PA and PA
grid current of about 0.3 A to 0.4 Amps.

The required wave form for operating

the PA as class -D operation is also developed at the output
of the driver by mixing about 20% third harmonic with the
fundamental which is the operating frequency of the
transmitter. The impedance characteristic of PA plate circuit
with frequency reveals presence of pole at 2.36 fo. To offset
this a series resonance circuit at 2.36 fo is provided in the
grid circuit comprising of coil and capacitors. The
combination behaves as an equivalent inductance at third
harmonic. The driver tube is operated under Class AB
condition without drawing any grid current. One feature of
driver stage is that, its cathode is kept at a –ve potential of
about –600V,grid at –650V and screen at –100V.All
potentials are derived from same auxiliary power supply of –
650V which also feeds grid of final stage tube. The stage
develops peak grid voltage of 800-900V at the grid of PA
grid current of 0.3 to 0.4A.

RF Power Amplifier :
The final stage RF amplifier consists of
single tube; beam power tetrode delivering carrier power
output of 100kw.High-level anode modulation is used, using
a class B Modulator stage. The screen of the PA tube is
also modulated by a separate tap on modulation
transformer.

Plate load impedance of the PA stage is

about 750 ohms and the output impedance is 230 ohms,
and it is matched by L-C components. The complex PA
circuit matches the plate to the output impedance. In
addition the Class D operation of the stage needs a third
harmonic impedance at the left .In addition the output circuit
should prevent radiation of harmonic frequencies .The plate
circuit provides all these functions. The coil and the
capacitor is series tuned at second harmonic and serves as
2f trap.
The combination becomes an
equivalent inductance at third harmonic and an equivalent
capacitance at fundamemtal. Because of this virtual short at
third harmonic coil in parallel with equivalent inductance
gets parallel tuned with capacitor at third harmonic and
presents a high impedance at the plate at 3f to provide
required class D waveform .The plate circuit from anode
feed chokes, coupling condenser can be locked up to as
four pi circuits in cascade at fundamental.

The coils which are fine controlled by

tuning motors provides fine adjustment of plate circuit .The
PA stage is neutralized at 3fo to suppress third harmonics in

the stage .The parasitic suppresser in series with neuting

circuit helps suppress any high frequency oscillations of the
stage. The resistor in series with screen also serves to
suppress high frequency oscillations. An ultraviolet monitor
has been provided to monitor any arcing or corona
discharge in the PA.

Using various combination of the L-C circuit’s

plate impedance of third harmonic is created; the Harmonics
also are filtered imaginatively at the output side. 11 kV DC,
the HT voltage is connected to the plate of the PA valves
through the secondary of the modulation transformer and
RF chokes: hence the AF signal is super imposed on the
DC for the PA plate.
 AF Stages

The AF stage supply the audio power

required to amplitude modulate the final RF stage. The output of the
AF stage is superimposed upon the DC voltage to the RF PA tube
via modulation transformer. An Auxiliary winding in the modulation
transformer provides the AF voltage necessary to modulate the
screen of the final stage. The modulator stage consists of two CQK-
25 ceramic tetrode valves working in push pull class B configuration.
The drive stages up to the grid of the modulator are fully
transistorized.
The composition of AF sub unit consists of High Pass Filter, AF Pre-
amplifier, 2 AF Correctors, 2 Transistor Drivers and Power Supply.
The AF Correctors are used to compensate for the non-
linearities of the vacuum tubes in order to achieve a higher
transmission quality with a low quiescent current in the final stage.
As overall –ve from the secondary of the modulation transformer to
the pre-amplifier is provided to improve the performance of the
modulator. Provision for the Hum Compensation at 50,100 and 150
Hz is provided to achieve a good S/N ratio.

High Pass Filter:

The audio input from the speech rack is fed

to active High Pass Filter. It cuts off all frequencies below 60 Hz
without affecting other audio frequencies. The input resistance is 600
ohms while amplification is approximately 1.The lower frequency
limit is 45Hz while upper frequency limit is 10kHz. Thos unit
incorporates an active filter of 5th order to realize the specifications.
The first section of High Pass Filters consists of resistors, capacitors
and transistors. The balanced audio signal is converted to
unbalanced signal by this Transistor stage. The diodes are provided
to suppress high voltages. The second section also consists of
resistors, capacitors and transistors. The third stage is simple RC
high pass filter comprising of resistors and capacitors. The variable
resistor sets the lower frequency cutoff point.
The emitter follower output is applied to variable step
attenuator mounted on front panel. The attenuator is a resistive
bridged T type, serves to adjust the input audio level. During
switching on and off of the transmitter and also during overloads,
the relay keeps the audio output of the emitter follower shortened
and thus removes modulation. The final stage is push pull quasi
complementary and drives a load of 600 ohms. The main function of
filter is to suppress the switching transistors from the audio input.
This also has the audio attenuator and audio muting relay, which will
not allow AF to further stage till RF is about 70 kW of power.

AF Pre-amplifier:

The output of the High Pass Filter is fed to

the AF Pre-amplifier, which is one of the gain determining stages in
modulator chain. Its input circuit works as differential amplifier. The
diodes protect input transistors from overload. Signal from the
negative feed back network from the secondary of the modulation
transformer and the signals from the compensator also are fed to
this unit. The output of first amplifier stage is coupled to another
differential amplifier with constant current source. The balance of two
sides of audio is available on front panel. The output is taken via
emitter followers.

AF Pre-Corrector:

Pre-amplifier output is fed to the AF Pre-

correctors. The AF corrector is a nonlinear amplifier for
compensating the non-linearity of modulator tubes .Its non-linearity is
adjusted to be inverse of that of the tubes so that the overall
Transconductance from zero plate current to peak plate current
remains constant .As a result, the overall distortion for all levels of
modulation s kept low. With the use of the corrector the quiescent
current of the modulator tubes is substantially reduced thereby
increasing overall efficiency. Two corrector boards are used one for
each of modulator tubes.
 The required non-linearity is realized in five
steps by altering the feedback resistors of amplifier. When the signal
amplitude increases the resistors gets paralleled with the switching
in action of diode. The constant current source together with
resistors form a floating voltage divider .The voltages on this divider
determine the switching points of the feedback resistors in
conjunction with diodes. As the final modulator valve in the AF is
operating as Class B, its gain will not be uniform for various levels of
AF signal. That is the gain of the modulator will be low for low level,
input, and high for high-level AF input because of the operating
characteristics of the Vacuum tubes. Hence to compensate for the
non-linear gain of the modulator. The Pre-corrector amplifies the
low-level signal highly and high-level signal with low gain. Hum
compensator is used to have a better signal to noise ratio. The
overall distortion is adjusted by preset potentiometer.

AF Driver:

2 AF drivers are used to drive the two-modulator

valves. The driver provides the necessary DC Bias voltage and also
AF signal sufficient to modulate 100%. The audio input signal fed is
coupled to driver transistor through the emitter follower. The output

of AF driver stage is formed by four transistors in series as it works

with a high voltage of about -400 V.
The whole high level circuit comprising the
four power transistors and four driver transistors, under a.c. condition
can be visualized as a single PNP transistor with resistor in the
emitter leg and 3.3.k load resistor located in the grid cathode plate in
the collector leg. The transistors are protected with diodes and Zener
diodes against high voltages that may result due to internal tube
flashovers. There is a potentiometer by which any clipping can be
avoided such that the maximum modulation factor will not exceeded.
The input and signal levels can be checked at the test points in the
front panel.

AF Final Stage:
 AF final stage is equipped with ceramic tetrodes.
The Filament transformers supplying a filament voltage of 10V at
current of 200A.The filament transformers are of special leakage
reactance type and their short circuit current is limited to about 2 to 3
times the normal load current. Hence the filament surge current at
the time of switching on will not exceed the maximum limit. The
current transformers outputs are used in the control circuit for
filament verification .The resistors are shunt for modulator plate
currents.
The screen grid voltage of +1070V comes from
separate rectifier. To protect the screen grid from overloading this
rectifier is first switched in when the plate voltage exceeds
approximately 6KV.A varistor at the screen or spark gaps across the
grid are to prevent over voltages. The capacitors at the screen grid
are meant to suppress any oscillation in the modulation stage. The
grid supply is –400v regulated derived from –650V rectifier the
individual grid bias is established by the bias current flowing through
resistors. The grid of the tubes never draws any current, as grid
voltage can never become positive by virtue of rectifier +connected
to the earth. The gas filled arrestors serve to protect the grid from
high voltages and also protect the AF driver stage power transistors
from transient high voltage peaks. The arcing gap must be set to
exactly 0.5mm.The special fast diodes together with the diodes at
the output of the transistor driver work together with the wiring

inductance and damping resistors to form a very reliable protection

for the transistors in the AF driver unit.

As the modulator valve is condensed vapour cooled tetrodes,

deionised water is used for cooling. The valve required about 11.5
litres/min. of water. Two water flow switches WF1 and WF2 in the
water lines of each of the valves protect against low or no water flow.
Thermostats WT1 and WT2 in each water line provide protection
against excessive water temp. by tripping the transmitter up to stand-
by if the temperature of the water exceeds 70o C.

Modulation condenser and modulation choke have been dispensed

with due to the special design of the modulation transformer.
Special high power varistor is provided across the secondary
winding of the modulation transformer to prevent transformer over
voltages. The choke and the damping resistors combinations are for
suppressing parasitic oscillations

POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM

 Power Supply in 100 kW HMB 140 MW
Transmitters

A systematic planning of power supply requirement of any particular

broadcasting station of AIR/DD is carried out in the beginning.
Loads to be added in future, as per extension program of station are
also taken into consideration. Major stations of AIR/DD has the
following types of loads:

1) Equipment loads
2) Air conditioning and associated loads
3) Lighting and fans load
 4) Workshop load
5) Loads relating to mast light and aerial hut
6) Future provision

The total demand of the station is worked out and then decision is
taken whether H/T or L/T supply would meet the requirement. H.T
supply is required in case the maximum demand of station exceeds
30 kVA.

AC POWER SUPPLY
The electric power at 11 kV is received in the H.T. substation
through underground feeders from the power supply of the P/S
authority. The H.T substation is located nearby the
studio/transmitter and generally houses metering facilities for reading
maximum demand, power factor and the energy consumed. It also
houses the H.T OCB. Separate feeder is provided from the P/S
station to our centres whose total demand exceeds 50 kV. Standby
feeder from the same or other P/S station is invariably provided. A
typical P/S schematic is shown in fig. 1.

Fig. 1 P/S Schematic of a Typical Station

Ref. Drg.No.STI (T) 850, (DC602)

The incoming power through metering system and H.T OCB is fed to
the step-down transformer where voltage is reduced from 11 kV to
400 V, 3 phase 4-wire system. This supply is now called L.T supply.
The step down transformer is housed normally in a separate
enclosure at a suitable distance from the bus bar and switchgear
room. In some stations two nos. of L.T transformers are provided
(fig.2). One is used with normal and the other one with the standby
feeder. In such cases Isolators, ACB, mechanical and electrical
interlocks are provided to prevent earthing and back feed. Power
from the secondary of the transformer is fed to the bus bar
(sometimes through L.T OCB) for distribution through switchgears.
This bus bar is called the main bus bar. The main bus bar feeds
power to the auxiliary bus bar, located in the vicinity of the
studio/transmitters.

Fig. 2 Arrangement for Preventing back feed in case of feeders

Ref. Drg.No.:-STI (T) 850, (DC602)

Normally one auxiliary bus bar feeds supply to loads like A/C plants
and lighting. The other one is used to meet the requirement of the
main studio/transmitting equipments. A tie line if provided between
two auxiliary bus bars proves beneficial in case of trouble with one of
the feeders.

From the bus bars, the power is distributed to the loads or sub-
distributors (for redistribution) through medium voltage switchers.
The main switchgear may comprise full circuit breaker units; oils or
air breaks type. Basically a hand operated (Iron clad) switch gear is
required for each separate circuit system and it should be capable of
interrupting load current at some degree of over current which is
normally three times the normal rating of the switch at a power factor
of 0.8.

The switchgears can be mounted above or below the bus bar. This
type of switch is of double break type and with the switch, open fuse
links are completely isolated so that the same can be removed and
replaced in safety. The fixed contacts are completely enclosed
within the insulating shrouds. A protective gear (interlock) ensures
that switch must be opened before the cover can be opened and the
switch cannot be closed with the cover opened.

Load distribution - Essential and Non-essential loads

Load should be distributed in such a manner that each phase shares

equal load as far as possible. Total load should be divided into two
groups (I) the essential load and (ii) Non-essential load. The
essential loads (equipment load) are those minimum loads, which
are necessary to maintain the continuity of the service. Continuous
P/S to these loads should be ensured by connecting them to the
standby generator in case of power failure. Therefore, P/S to these
loads are required to be arranged accordingly to meet this
requirement.

Earthing

Earthing is very important in power supply system. The purpose of

earthing is to ensure safety of the equipment from damage due to
earth fault and prevent operating personnel from getting electric
shock. Earthing means making a connection to the general mass of
the earth. Earthing associated with the current carrying equipment
(switchgears, transformer body etc) is normally essential for the
safety of the system and is generally known as system earthing. All
L.T/H.T. switchgears are provided with double earth. H.T/L.T
transformer neutral is normally connected to earth for safety of
transformer. Earthing of non-current carrying metal work and
conductor is essential to the safety of human life and is known as
equipment earth. System and equipment earth’s are provided
separately. Water may be required to be put into earth pits at
regular intervals in case the land is very dry.

AVR

Automatic voltage regulator is a very vital part of the P/S system.

Power to most of the loads in studio/transmitter equipment is
supplied through AVR, as they require constant voltage all the time.
Notable exceptions are the loads relating to A/C plants and lighting
etc. Input to the AVR is provided through ACB/MCB, depending
upon the load rating of AVR from the switchgear incorporating h.r.c.
fuse. The output of AVR is brought to a distribution panel from
where the power is distributed to different loads through respective
ACBs.The principle and working of an AVR is described below:

Electrical equipments are designed to operate at certain supply

voltage. If the supply voltage is fluctuating from the rated voltage,
the performance of the equipment is bound to suffer. Both under
and over voltages are determintal to the load and effectiveness of
the equipment. Present state of art to control the fluctuation is with
the help of servo stabilizers. A servo stabilizer has four basic
components.
 1) Stepless toriodally wound autotransformer.
2) Instantaneous start-stop reversible sync motor.
3) Solid state sensing circuit.
4) Series transformer.

Fig. 3 Servo Stablizer

Ref. Drg.No.:-STI(T)857,(DC609)

The secondary of the series transformer is connected in series to the

input and the primary is fed through the stepless toriodally wound
auto transformer. The tapping of this transformer, which is coupled
with the shaft of the servomotor, is automatically adjusted by its
movement. The movement of the motor is controlled by the solid
state comparator, which continuously compares the output voltage
with a fixed reference voltage. In case of error, motor moves in such
a direction so as to correct the error. With the movement of the
motor, the voltage supplied to the primary of the series transformer
changes. Thus the voltage of the series transformer is added or
subtracted to the input voltage. The circuit is arranged in such a
way that if the output is more than the set voltage the motor tends to
reduce the voltage applied to the primary of the series transformer
and vice versa.

The single-phase stabilizer employs only one variable

autotransformer driven by a motor and one sensing circuit. This type
of AVR is suitable for single-phase loads. A balanced type 3-phase
servo stabilizer employs a single control circuit. These variable
autotransformers are mechanically coupled and driven by single-
phase motor. The sensing is done in one of the three phases and
the other two are corrected correspondingly. This type is suitable for
use with balanced loads. However, these can be used with some
unbalanced loads if less accuracy in output voltage is acceptable.

H.R.C. fuse
In low and medium voltage range H.R.C (high rupturing capacity)
fuse is the most commonly used interrupting device. It is relatively
cheap and occupies less space. It is used as a complementary to
the other circuit breaker. The fuse has a disadvantage that it is
required to be replaced after each operation.

Basically, the H.R.C. fuse has a ceramic body that contains specially
designed fuse element. Fuse element is connected to metal caps.
The caps also serve the purpose of sealing the body after it has
been filled up with pure granulated quartz. Vaporization of the
metalic elements occurs on melting and then there is a fusion which
leads to rapid are extinction. The chemical reaction produces a
substance of high resistance, which becomes insulator and therefore
the current is interrupted.

Circuit Breakers

The devices used for making and breaking an electrical circuit under
some pre-determined condition are called circuit breakers. The
functions of a circuit breaker are as follows:

• It must close on and carry full load currents for long period.
• It must open automatically to disconnect the load, on over load
under pre-determined condition.
• It must rapidly interrupt the heavy current, which may flow under a
short circuit condition in any part of the system.
• The circuit breaker must be capable of withstanding the effect of
arcing at its contact and the thermal conditions, which arise due to
flow of current. Breaking current capacity is more important than
making current capacity.

All circuit breakers consist essentially of pairs of matting contacts,

each pair comprising fixed and moving elements. Under normal
conditions, these elements are in contact and carrying full load
current; but on receipt of a tripping signal initiated by hand or
protective gear, the circuit will be interrupted.
At the start of the separation, an arc will be established which is
required to be extinguished as early as possible. Generally, we
come across two types of circuit breakers at medium and high
voltage, for indoor application. They are called Oil Circuit Breaker
(OCB) and Air Circuit Breaker (ACB).

In oil circuit breaker, oil insulates the live contact from the earthen
metal tank and provides insulation between the open contacts when
the arc is extinguished. Hydrogen is produced during arcing period,
which in turn interrupts the arc. In air circuit breakers, the arc exists
in the mixture of nitrogen, oxygen and metallic vapor and the
successful arc interruption takes place due to cooling by diffusion.
The OCB and ACB’s require yearly maintenance. Contacts are
required to be cleaned and oil is replaced if needed, after carrying
out oil test for its electric strength and acidity. Before test, oil is
subjected to filtering process for removal of sludge and other foreign
material.

Maintenance

The power supply authority is generally responsible for the

maintenance of the service line carrying H.T or L.T. supplies to
installation. This may include the supply transformer. The sub

station equipment, when provided by the station should be

maintained departmentally.

i) Weekly maintenance
• General cleaning of transformer, bus bar etc.
• Check oil level and color. Check oil leakage.
• Check breather and reactive and change the moisture
absorbing compound if necessary.
• Check temperature of oil after longest transmission
period.
ii) Annual maintenance
• Carry out oil test.
• Filter oil and change if necessary.
• Paint the body of the transformer if necessary.

Precaution
 While carrying out test and maintenance on the transformer,
care should be taken to isolate it completely from the supply so
that the accident may not occur.

DC POWER SUPPLY

Every electronic equipment and operating system need regulated

power supply especially at lower voltages. This constant voltages
were earlier provided by the Linear regulated power supplies and
recently by switch mode power supplies (SMPS). Without doubt the
SMPS has become very popular with the equipment manufacturers
and users because of its various advantages. It is also being said
that at last the power supply is also catching up with the technical
advancement of the other devices. We shall analyze merits and
demerits of both the Power Supply Units.

The Linear Power Supply System

The block diagram of a linear regulated Power Supply is shown in

the fig. 4. 230 V AC supply is fed to an isolation transformer which
steps down the voltage to the required low level. Here the rating of

the transformer depends on the current requirement of the load.

Therefore, the transformer is normally bulky.

AC Isolation Rectifiers Series Vout

Power and Pass
TR. Filters Element

Vref. Feedback
and
Control

Fig. 4 the Linear Power Supply System

The stepped down voltage is rectified and filtered by full wave or
bridge rectifiers and electrolytic capacitors.

The series pass element, normally a Power transistor or FET, gets

input from the filter. The output voltage is fed back to a comparator,
which compares it with a standard reference and gives an error to
the base of the transistor such that its conduction is increased or
decreased. In short we can say that the series pass element works
like a variable resistor giving constant voltage output.

The merits and demerits of this system are as follows

Merits
• Very low output noise.
• Very low ripple.

Demerits
• Because of the bulky transformer the power supply unit is
usually bulky.
• Relatively narrow input voltage range. Normally + 10%.
• Very low output hold up time about 1 milli sec.
• Low efficiency about 40 to 50%.
• Heat dissipation is more.

Control and
Interlock
Systems in
Transmitter
 Switching Sequence of Transmitter:
a) Ventilation.
b) Filament
c) Grid Bias/Medium Tension
d) High Tension.

Ventilation:

All the transmitters handle large amount of

power. Basically the transmitters convert power from AC main's to
Radio Frequency and Audio Frequency energy. The conversion
process always results in some loss. The loss in energy is
dissipated in the form of heat. The dissipated energy has to be
carried away by a suitable medium to keep the raise in temperature
of the transmitting equipment within limits. Hence, in order to ensure
that the heat generated by the equipment is carried away as soon as
it is generated the ventilation equipment need to be switched on first.
Normally the cooling provided in a transmitter could be classified on
the following lines:

• Cooling for the tube filaments.

• Cooling for the tube Anodes.
• General cooling of the cubics.
• Cooling for coils, condensers, Resistors etc.

The cooling equipments comprise of blowers,

pumps and heat exchangers. Another important consideration is
that during the switching off sequence the cooling equipments
should run a little longer to carry away the heat generated in the
equipments. This is ensured by providing a time delay for the switch
off of the cooling equipment. Normal time delay is of the order of 3
to 6 Minutes.

The water flow and the airflow provided by the cooling

equipments to the various equipments are monitored by means of
airflow and water flow switches. In case of failure of water or airflow,
these switches provide necessary commands for tripping the
transmitter.

Filaments:
All the transmitters invariably employ tubes in
their drive and final stages of RF amplifiers and sub modulator and
modular stages of AF amplifiers. After ventilation equipments are
switched on and requisite air and water flow established, the filament
of the tubes could be switched on. While switching on filament of the
tube, the control and interlocking circuits have to take care of the
following points.
 The cold resistance of the filament is very low and
hence application of full filament voltage in one strike would result in
enormous filament current and may damage the tube filament.
Hence, it becomes necessary to apply the filament voltage in steps.
Various methods adopted are:

i. Use of step starter resistance: Here the filament

voltages of the tubes are given through a series
resistance (called step starter resistance). The series
resistance which limits the initial filament current is
shorted and after a time interval by the use of a timer
switch.

ii. Use of special filament transformer, which allows slow

build up of the filament voltage.

iii. Application of filament voltage in 3 or 4 steps.

The emission from the tubes depends upon

the temperature of the filament. Generally it takes some time for the
filament to reach a steady temperature after it is switched on.
Hence, it is not desirable to draw any power from the tube till it
attains a stable temperature. This means that the further switching
on process has to be suspended till the filament temperature and
hence the emission becomes stable. This aspect is taken care of by
providing a time delay of 3 to 5 minutes between the filament
switching on and the next sequence namely bias switching on.

Bias and Medium Tension:

For obvious reasons the control
grid of the tube has to be given the necessary negative bias voltage
before its anode voltage can be applied. Hence, after the application
of full filament voltage and after the lapse of necessary delay for the
filament temperature to become stable bias voltage can be switched
on. Along with bias generally anode and screen voltages of
intermediate stages and driver stages are also switched on.
Application of bias and medium tension makes available very high
voltages for the various transmitter equipment. Hence, in order to
ensure the safety of the personnel access to these equipment should
be forbidden before the application of bias and medium tension.
This is ensured by providing the interlocking so that the bias and
medium tension can be put on only after all the transmitter and other
HV equipment doors are closed to prevent access.

Connection of Load (Antenna/Dummy load):

After the application of ventilation, filament

and bias the anode voltage can be switched on. But before the
anode voltage can be increased the interlocking circuit is to ensure
that the load of the transmitter namely antenna or dummy loads is
connected to the transmitter. The tuning processes of the various
RF stages are complete and none of the tuning motors are moving.

Application of Screen Voltage:

In the case of tetrode tubes, the screen

voltage to the tube should not be applied before the application of
anode voltage to keep the screen current and screen dissipation
within limits. This is taken care of by an interlocking provision that
the screen voltage is applied only after the anode voltage reaches a
certain pre-determined value well above the normal screen voltage.

Release of Audio frequency:

The application
of AF signal to the AF stage in the absence of carrier power would
result in the operation of modulation transformer with no load
connected. This is not desirable. Therefore, the AF signal should be
applied to the Audio frequency stages only when the RF power
amplifier is delivering the nominal power. Normally AF frequency
signal to the AF stage is released only when the carrier power is
approximately 80% of the normal power.
 Hum Compensator

The Hum Compensator provides for the

introduction of a controlled amount of signals at 50,100 and 150 c/s,
at any phase, which can be varied from 0 to 360o, into the pre-
amplifier stage so as to cancel hum components due to the power
frequencies present in the systems. This enables the overall signal
to noise ratio of the transmitter to be improved.

The three-phase voltages with respect to

the neutral energise the primaries of the transformers. The
secondaries are connected to a 3-gang potentiometer, which control
the phase of the 150 Hz signal, and the 3-phase output of
potentiometer is rectified. At the cathode of these diodes a ripple
voltage at 3 times the power frequency viz., 150Hz is available.
This voltage is attenuated by
potentiometer. The wiper arm of potentiometer, which forms the
150Hz output is added to the 100Hz output.

Coil Tuning Mechanism:

Coils which are used for matching the

antenna impedance to the plate and which matches the PA grid to
the plate of the driver acts like “flippers” to vary the inductance within
small limits. These flippers are rotated by means of geared motors to
enable fine thing. There are limit switches to stop the motor from
rotating beyond the set limit. The motor is actuated by two relays
which cause it to rotate clockwise or anti clockwise. The relays in
turn are actuated by pressing the appropriate buttons in the meter
panel. The circuit is designed such that both the relays cannot be put
on simultaneously.

Control Electronics:

The transmitted has been provided with

a control system of a modern design. It uses solid state digital logic
and is of self-monitoring type and easy to operate. The system
provides for manual, auto and remote modes of operation. In the
remote mode, it can be operated from a remote location for e.g., a
parallel combining unit. Cmos integrated Circuits have been used
throughout the design because of their high immunity to electrical
noise and also low power consumption, and hence high reliability.
The control system uses plug-in PCB for
ease of servicing. It is mounted on the modulator door, which can be
swing to get access to the rear panel wiring.

Modes of Operation:
Three modes of operation are possible. The
mode of operation can be selected with a key, which forms a part of
the mechanical safety interlocking system of the installation.
 • Manual
• Auto
• Remote

Manual:

Each individual switching command of the

transmitter (i.e., Aux, Ventilation, Fil, MT, HT) etc. must be manually
given by pressing the appropriate push buttons. The switching
commands and the operating status of the transmitter are
automatically monitored and in case the required conditions are not
met, the commands will be carried out and the fault will be visually
and/or audibly indicated.

Auto:

In this mode, only two commands need

to be given- ON or OFF. In each case, the transmitter is run up or
down automatically, provided all the requirements of operation are
met. It is possible to hold the transmitter at ‘Standby’ i.e., with
Filaments ON by pressing the STDBY push button.

Remote:

All commands described under Auto can

be given from a remote point and the operation is similar to auto.
The mode selector key can be operated during the switching ON or
OFF sequence without adversely affecting the operation of the
transmitter.

Indicating Lamps:

Two rows of indicating lamps are provided

to indicate the status of the transmitter.
 Row1 lamps indicate the status of the various stages in the
transmitter i.e., Blowers, Pumps & aux, Rectifier, safety interlocks
etc., and show how far switching sequence has proceeded.

Row2 lamps show stores fault information like overloads, filament

failure, and bias failure, SWR etc. Some supervisory indications like
fuse failure, low water resistance or low battery voltage etc., which
are not stored, are also included in Row2. The stored fault lamps can
be reset by pressing the LAC push button.
 Medium Wave
Antenna

PRINCIPLE OF ANTENNA SYSTEM:

Antenna is usually a metallic device
(a rod or a wire) used for radiating or receiving electromagnetic
waves. The radio frequency power developed in the final stage of a
transmitter is delivered through cables/feeders, without themselves
consuming any power to the transmitting antenna. The RF energy
gets converted into electromagnetic waves and travels in the free
space at the speed of light. The receiving antenna picks up the radio
waves and delivers useful signal at the input of a receiver for
reception of signals. The transmitting and receiving antennae are
reciprocal in the sense, any characteristics of the antenna in general
applies equally to both.

When the electromagnetic waves in the medium wave (MW) range

are directed towards the Ionosphere, they are absorbed by the D-
region during the daytime and are reflected from the E layer during
the nighttime, which may travel longer distances to cause
interferences. The wavelength of MW signals are very large, of the
order of few hundred meters, and therefore the antenna cannot be
mounted a few wavelengths above the earth to radiate as space
waves. MW antenna, therefore, have to exist close to the surface of
the earth and the Radio waves from them have to travel close to the
earth as ground waves.

If the electric vector of such MW radiation is

horizontal, they will be attenuated very fast with distance due to the
proximity of the earth. MW antenna has to be placed vertically, so
that they radiate vertically polarized signals. It is for this reason; all
the MW antennas are installed vertically close to the ground.
However vertical wire antenna, inverted 'L' type antenna, top loaded
antenna and umbrella antenna are at a few All India Radio stations.
Directional antenna systems also exist in many All India Radio
stations.

Self Radiating MW Mast Antennas:

They are broadly of two types:

• Mast isolated from ground and fed at its base.

• Grounded mast fed at a suitable point along its height

The first consideration of such mast is its height in terms of the

wavelength. Regarding optimum height, obviously the main
considerations are economy consistent with maximum coverage and
minimum high angle radiation (sky wave).
 MW Antenna isolated from ground

CONCLUSION:

In India Sound Broadcasting started in 1927

with the proliferation of private Radio clubs. All India Radio began
formally in1936, as a government organization, with clear objectives
of providing information, to educate and entertain the masses. After
Independence in 1947, AIR had a network of six stations and a
complement of eighteen transmitters with coverage was about 2.5%
of the area and just 11% of the population. Later Rapid expansion of
the network took place.

AIR today has a network of 229 broadcasting

centre with 148 medium frequency (MW), 54 high frequency (SW)
and 168 FM transmitters. The coverage is 91.79 % of the area,
serving 99.14 % of the people in the largest democracy of the world.
AIR covers 24 languages and 146 dialects in home services. In
External services, it covers 27 languages, 17 national and 10 foreign
languages. Hoping its expansion covers entire India reaching every
corner of country and connects entire country.
Document By
SANTOSH BHARADWAJ REDDY
Email: help@matlabcodes.com
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