Occurrence of Groundwater

Chapter 2
By: Engr. Lira-Beth R. Coriento M-Eng’g CE 1
Objective
∙ Become knowledgeable of rock properties affecting
groundwater.
∙ Understand the vertical distribution of groundwater.
∙ Identify layers in the zone of aeration and zone of
saturation.
∙ Understand the Geologic formation as aquifers.
∙ Recognize the types of aquifers.
2.1 Origin and Age of Groundwater
2.1 Origin and Age of Groundwater
The age of groundwater is defined as the time that has elapsed since the water first entered
the aquifer . For example, some of the rain that falls on an area percolates (trickles) down
through soil and rock until it reaches the water table . Once this water reaches the water
table, it moves though the aquifer. The time it takes to travel to a given location, known as
the groundwater age, can vary from days to thousands of years.

Hydrologists employ a variety of techniques to measure groundwater age. For relatively

young groundwater, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) often are used. Atmospheric CFC
concentrations increased from the time of their development in the 1930s until the 1990s.

Hydrologists recently have developed another dating technique that may ultimately replace
CFC dating. The new technique uses sulfur hexafluoride (SF 6 ) concentrations in
groundwater to determine groundwater age. Unlike CFC concentrations, atmospheric
SF 6 concentrations are expected to increase for the foreseeable future. The method,
although relatively new, shows promise.

Read more: http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/Ge-Hy/Groundwater-Age-of.html#ixzz6C6SRcVvN
 2.2 Rock Properties Affecting Groundwater
2.2.1. Aquifers
An aquifer may be defined as a formation that contains sufficient saturated permeable material to yield
significant quantities of water to wells and springs. Aquifers are generally aerially extensive and may be
overlain or underlain by a confining bed, which may be defined as a relatively impermeable material
stratigraphically.

Types of confining beds

1. Aquiclude: A saturated but relatively impermeable material that does not yield appreciable
quantities of water to wells; clay is an example.
2. Aquifuge : A relatively impermeable formation neither containing nor transmitting water; solid
granite belongs in this category.
3. Aquitard : A saturated but poorly permeable stratum that impedes groundwater movement and
does not yield water freely to wells, that may transmit appreciable water to or from adjacent
aquifers and, where sufficiently thick, may constitute an important groundwater storage zone;
sandy clay is an example
2.2.2. Porosity
Porosity is the quality of
being porous, or full of
tiny holes. Liquids go
right through things that
have porosity. Go back
far enough and you'll
find that porosity stems
from the Greek word
poros for "pore," which
means “passage.” So
something
with porosity lets things
 2.2.3. Soil Classification
Soil classification  is the separation of soil into classes or groups each having similar characteristics
and potentially similar behaviour. A classification for engineering purposes should be based mainly
on mechanical properties, e.g. permeability, stiffness, strength. The class to which a soil belongs can
be used in its description.

In the British Soil Classification System,

soils are classified into named Basic Soil
Type groups according to size, and the
groups further divided into coarse, medium
and fine sub-groups:
USCS : Unified Soil Classification System
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
2.3 vertical distribution of groundwater
 2.4. Zone of Aeration
The  zone of aeration is
the region between the
earth's surface and the
water table. The main
components of this region
are the soil and rocks. ...
The zone of aeration is
also known as the
unsaturated area,
vadose zone or zone of
suspended water.
Layers of Vadose Zone

• Soil-Water Zone
• Intermediate vadose
zone
• Capillary Zone
 2.4.4. Measurement of water content
The amount of water is determined by
subtracting the dry weight from the
initial weight, and the moisture
content is then calculated as the
amount of water divided by the dry
weight or total weight, depending on the
reporting method.
 2.4.5. Available Water
Available water capacity is the water held in
soil between its field capacity and permanent
wilting point. Field capacity is the water
remaining in a soil after it has been
thoroughly saturated and allowed to drain
freely, usually for one to two days.
Permanent wilting point is the moisture
content of a soil at which plants wilt and fail
to recover when supplied with sufficient
moisture. Water capacity is usually
expressed as a volume fraction or
percentage, or as a depth (in or cm).
The amount of water in soil is based on rainfall
amount, what proportion of rain infiltrates into
the soil, and the soil's storage capacity. Available
water capacity is the maximum amount of plant
available water a soil can provide. It is an
indicator of a soil’s ability to retain water and
make it sufficiently available for plant use.
Why it is important: Soil is a
major storage reservoir for water.
Water availability is an important
indicator because plant growth and
soil biological activity depend on
water for hydration and delivery of
nutrients in solution. Runoff and
leaching volumes are also
determined by storage capacity and
pore size distribution.

Available water capacity is used to

develop water budgets, predict
droughtiness, design and operate
irrigation systems, design drainage
systems, protect water resources,
and predict yields.
 2.5. zone of saturation
The phreatic zone,
or zone of saturation,
is the part of an
aquifer, below the
water table, in which
relatively all pores
and fractures
are saturated with
water. 
2.6. Geologic Formations as aquifers
 2.6.1. Alluvial Deposits
Alluvial deposit , Material deposited by rivers. It consists
of silt, sand, clay, and gravel, as well as much organic
matter.
 2.7. Types of Aquifers

Unconfined aquifers  are those

into which water seeps from
the ground surface directly
above the aquifer. 

Confined aquifers are those in

which an impermeable dirt/
rock layer exists that prevents
water from seeping into
the aquifer from the ground
surface located directly above.
2.8. Storage Coefficient
Storativity or the storage coefficient is
the volume of water released
from storage per unit decline in
hydraulic head in the aquifer, per unit
area of the aquifer. Storativity is a
dimensionless quantity, and is always
greater than 0.
 2.9. Groundwater Basin/Regional
Groundwater Flow Systems

—Diagrammatic conceptual model of the Midwestern Basins and Arches

aquifer system showing flow paths associated with local, intermediate, and
regional flow systems (modified from Toth, 1963) and flow systems simulated
by the regional ground-water flow model.
2.10. Springs

A spring is a natural discharge point of

subterranean water at the surface of the
ground or directly into the bed of a stream,
lake, or sea. Water that emerges at the
surface without a perceptible current is
called a seep. Wells are holes excavated to
bring water and other underground fluids to
the surface.
2.11. Hydrothermal Phenomena
Hydrothermal explosions occur
when superheated water trapped
below the surface of the earth
rapidly converts from liquid to
steam, violently disrupting the
confining rock. ... The energy is
stored as heat in hot water and rock
within a few hundred feet of the
surface.