The New Woman

in Print and Pictures

This page intentionally left blank
 The New Woman
in Print and Pictures
An Annotated Bibliography
M ARIANNE B ERGER WOODS

McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers

Jefferson, North Carolina, and London
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA
Woods, Marianne Berger, 1941–
The new woman in print and pictures : an annotated
bibliography / Marianne Berger Woods.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-7864-3624-8
softcover : 50# alkaline paper
1. Women — United States — History — Bibliography.
2. Feminism — United States — History — Bibliography.
3. Women’s rights — United States — History — Bibliography.
I. Title.
Z7964.U49W66 2009
[HQ1410]
016.30540973 — dc22 2009006124

British Library cataloguing data are available

©2009 Marianne Berger Woods. All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form

or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying
or recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publisher.

On the cover: Wash Day, Underwood & Underwood ca. 1901,

Library of Congress; background ©2008 Shutterstock

Manufactured in the United States of America

McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers

Box 611, Je›erson, North Carolina 28640
www.mcfarlandpub.com
To all contemporary and historic New Women
This page intentionally left blank
 CONTENTS

Preface
1

Introduction
5

PART I
PRIMARY WORKS, 1894–1938
19

PART II
SECONDARY WORKS, 1962–2008
97

Index
179

vii
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 PREFACE

“Hindsight is 20/20” is a tried and true expression. Had I known eight

years ago what I know now, I probably would not have undertaken this enor-
mous project. Having said that, I’m not sorry that I did.
My reasons for persisting are many. First is my hope that this will be a
valuable aid to New Woman scholars. I developed an affinity for the New
Woman while perusing microfilm of historical Ohio newspapers. Though I
was not looking for her, the frequency with which her image appeared in the
mid-to-late 1890s newspapers aroused my curiosity in what later became my
orphan obsession.
Because I was too busy tending children to participate in the feminist
movement of the late 1970s, I regard this book as my penance — and my trib-
ute to the women who did march for abortion rights, for women’s rights, for
human rights. Without their showing me a different way and without my read-
ing of Herstory by June Sochen (1981), I would still be stuck in the kitchen
and laundry room. I earned a master’s degree and doctorate because I had role
models showing me what women could achieve.
A few words as to the methodology and philosophy for making choices
for this work: At the outset I included every book or article including “New
Woman” in its text, and I made a note of each book/essay identified by a
scholar as “New Woman,” without regard for date. Soon it was evident the
material is too vast for this kind of scrutiny.
So I eliminated critical reviews of New Woman books contemporary
with their publication — the plethora of material written in the late nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries in regard to the reception of specific novels and
plays. I also excluded material strictly related to women’s suffrage and eugen-
ics, even those with “New Woman” in their titles. For secondary materials I
focus on more modern articles, essays, and book chapters — but only those with
titles including those words.

1
Preface 2

Then I chose 1894 as the beginning of New Woman period literature. I

am aware that most scholars regard The Story of an African Farm (1883) by
Olive Schreiner as the first New Woman novel and Lyndall as the first New
Woman fictional character, because she refuses to marry the father of her child
so as not to thwart her chances of becoming an actress. And certainly Lady
Florence Dixie’s futuristic Gloriana, or The Revolution of 1900 (1890) suggests
potential feminist revolution. Further, The Heavenly Twins (1893) by Sarah
Grand is a feminist tract and precursor of the New Woman. But for the sake
of consistency, none of these three made my list. One would also be remiss
in failing to categorize A Doll’s House by Henrik Ibsen as “New Woman,” but
its 1879 date places it outside my time frame. Many scholars/authors have
named other novels/short stories/plays preceding 1894 as examples of New
Woman literature.
While abiding by the aforementioned parameters, I have also eliminated
blatantly antifeminist works, despite their New Woman titles. I surely have
overlooked some excellent and viable contributions, and again, to their authors,
I apologize. The almost overwhelming mass of possibilities and the wish to
“finish” meant calling a halt to new entries. I kept bumping into myself (find-
ing “possibilities” that I’d already annotated and thinking they were new). As
my dissertation advisor, Judith Arcana, once told me, “It’s time to quit when
that happens.”
This annotated bibliography does include all period (1894 to 1938) nov-
els with a New Woman protagonist and all articles with the New Woman as
subject. As mentioned, I had hoped to locate every article with New Woman
in the title, but after finding 1,092 articles, cartoons, and poems on ProQuest
alone, I abandoned this scheme. I have retained the short articles I had already
annotated, primarily from journals such as Shafts and Punch, and dropped the
new-to-me historical articles from the New York Times, Life, and other news-
papers and journals.
This annotated bibliography, then, includes historical novels and plays
that other scholars or I have categorized as having New Woman “status,”
historical articles and poems directly related to the New Woman, and criti-
cal material written since the mid–1960s, when the New Woman began to
receive attention again. Since the 1980s, interest in the New Woman has
mushroomed, so only those essays or articles with “New Woman” in their
titles are included. (Other essays or articles in the same collections may
contain New Woman subject matter.) The same criteria applied to disserta-
tions, but many with “New Woman” in their titles are not annotated, either
because en masse they are too expensive to order or because they are not
available at all. The abundance of material demanded boundaries; these are
mine.
 3 Preface

Putting together The New Woman in Print and Pictures has been a labor
of devotion, not love. And I could not have completed it without the assis-
tance of many. My institution, the University of Texas of the Permian Basin
(UTPB), awarded me two grants for research assistance and to obtain the images
for this book. Thanks to all the administrators for their encouragement and
especially to the anonymous donor who provided a faculty development grant,
enabling me to complete my research and fund annotation assistance.
Of the individuals who helped me, first and foremost is Anita Voorhies.
A reference librarian at the Dunagan Library, UTPB, she went out of her way
in ordering books and articles by Interlibrary Loan that I was unable to locate
in other repositories. On several occasions when a microfilm came in, she went
beyond the call of duty to locate the articles I needed and photocopy them
for me. She ordered many images from the University of Texas in Austin; she
performed a myriad of helpful tasks in the five years I have been associated
with the university.
Even before teaching at UTPB, I worked intensely on the research for
this book. I was then living in Meadville, Pennsylvania, and not officially
associated with Allegheny College, but the Pelletier Library staff always did
much to help me. The Library of Congress, the Ransom Center (University
of Texas, Austin), and the Oberlin College Library also provided me with books,
articles, and services.
Thanks also to Susan K. Martin of La Trobe University (Melbourne),
who, when Interlibrary Loan was unable to obtain Futures Exchange from
Australia, sent a copy of her article to me. And to Kent Smith of the Illinois
State Museum, who went out of his way to locate The “New Woman” in Chi-
cago, 1910–45: Paintings from Illinois Collections, a catalog that accompanied
the 1993–94 exhibition of that title.
Because of the extensive reading and writing necessary to create this bib-
liography, several scholars helped with annotations. Although each contributed
greatly, the work of Jessica Cox of Great Britain has been invaluable. She was
able to read novels unavailable in the United States, and she made several trips
to the British Library, which holds the only copies worldwide of a number
of New Woman books. Jessica and I hope to meet one day on one side of the
“big pond” or the other.
I thank Ann Heilmann, Jessica Cox’s mentor and one of the world’s pre-
eminent New Woman scholars, who led me to Jessica and who provided
advice and encouragement. Other contributors of New Woman books and
articles are Christine Bayles Kortsch, Pamela Miles, Janie Nelson, Misty
Wiberg, and Dusty Murphy.
Thanks to my colleagues Christine Hahn and Roland Spickermann for
annotations from articles in German, to my cousin Karen Thutt Geduldig
Preface 4

for annotating articles written in French, and to my friend Grace Aguilar for
annotating an article in Spanish.
As to the illustrations, I have chosen images only whose captions included
the words “New Woman” or “New Women.” There are, of course, many more
pictures and cartoons indicating the threat posed by the New Woman to the
status quo. As mentioned, images of the New Woman, especially those in the
Toledo Blade and Cincinnati Enquirer, are what first attracted me to the New
Woman phenomenon.
I obtained illustrations from a variety of sources in the public domain,
through private sources, and through previous personal collection. Richard
L. Helmes of The Public Library of Cincinnati and Hamilton County photo-
graphed images selected from the Cincinnati Enquirer. Friend and colleague
Tara Tappert found others in old newspapers at the Library of Congress. After
seeing Edward Lamson Henry’s The New Woman (1897) in the February 1995
issue of Art & Antiques, I long searched for the original. When it reappeared
in the exhibition and catalog Off the Pedestal: New Women in the Art of Homer,
Chase, and Sargent (2006), I was delighted. Curator Holly Pyne Connor gen-
erously put me in touch with the owner and lent the color transparency that
the Newark Museum of Art had made for its catalog. Thanks to Jonathan
Miller for preparing all the images and organizing them for publication. And
to Patricia Green of Homer, Alaska, for her generosity in indexing the entries.
I recognize my dissertation advisor, Judith Arcana, who encouraged me
when this bibliography was a mere twenty-five pages long.
An editor is, of course, the most important link between author and
audience, and Ellen Green of St. Paul, Minnesota, has helped me to be gram-
matically correct, consistent, and understandable throughout the compilation
of this volume. I thank her for her expertise and patience.
 INTRODUCTION

To offer a simple definition of the New Woman would trivialize a com-

plex phenomenon. There is no single vision or image of the New Woman. In
fact, it is the multidimensional aspect of the women of the late nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries that characterizes them.
Women were and are complex and creative; their striving for diversity
led to the New Woman movement. Even liberated women such as Beatrix Pot-
ter, English writer and illustrator of children’s books who smoked cigarettes
and believed in her own professional abilities, were conservative on the issue
of female suffrage. Ida Tarbell, the American muckraker, certainly pursued her
own career, but she thought it wrong for married women with children to
become professionals. The New Woman was a combination of tradition and
innovation. The movement of the 1890s was certainly not the first feminist
insurgence in history, but in its naming through the exchange between Sarah
Grand and Quida in the North American Review in the spring of 1894,1 the
New Woman movement became more widespread than that of any feminist
movement before or since.
Buoyed by the forthcoming “new” century, everything was dubbed new.
There were New Art, New Journalism, New Political Economy, New Moral-
ity, New Sex, and so forth, and of course, the New Woman. The phenomenon
flowered due to the plethora of novels (primarily British) and plays published
in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries referencing independent
women and the confluence of women working outside the home, as well as
female suffrage, dress reform, women’s advances in legal rights, increased edu-
cational opportunities, birth control, and sexual and physical freedom. Nam-
ing the New Woman in 1894 gave credence to a growing feminist movement
and mobilized its conservative critics. A storm of poems and images depicting
the New Woman with the diversity of the women themselves soon joined the
novels and plays.

5
Introduction 6

The novels vary in the degree of independence evinced by their protag-

onists. Some of these stories seem terribly conservative to the early twenty-
first-century mind — often they focus on romance and end with a conventional
marriage, but at some point in these stories, their protagonists attempt inde-
pendence. Often New Woman characters have intended to live their own lives
but in the end acquiesce to the pressures of society. In cases where the New
Woman became too brazen or daring in terms of conventional late-nineteenth-
and early-twentieth-century roles for women, the final resolution was death
to her — often suicide — and/or death to her child or children. This was the
price women paid for going too far.
Victorian society regarded women as incapable of taking care of them-
selves, assuming the protection of men was necessary. In The Damnation of
Theron Ware (1896), when Methodist minister Theron Ware encounters the
red-headed Irish Catholic organist, Celia, he thinks he is flattering her by
saying that titled European males would “fight one another for you”:
“That is the old-fashioned idea,” she said, in a musing tone, “that women must
belong to somebody, as if they were curios, or statues, or race-horses. You don’t
understand, my friend, that I have a different view. I am myself, and I belong to
myself, exactly as any man. The notion that any other human being could con-
ceivably obtain the slightest property rights in me is as preposterous, as ridicu-
lous as — what shall I say?— as the notion of your being taken out with a chain
on your neck and sold by auction as a slave, down on the canal bridge. I should
be ashamed to be alive for another day, if any other thought were possible to
me.”2

The New Woman (fictional or real) challenged prevailing Victorian atti-

tudes such as Ware’s and posited an alternative to the accepted and acceptable
True or Ideal Woman. The New Woman was characterized in 1924 as “one
who wanted to belong to the human race, not to the ladies aid society to the
human race.”3
Also significant to the emergence of the New Woman was the legislation
passed in Britain in 1894 allowing women to vote in local elections. Women
of New Zealand won the right to vote at the federal level in 1893. By 1894
women in South Australia could vote in state elections, and in 1903 Australia
granted female suffrage in national elections. Canada followed but not until
1918, then the United States in 1922, Great Britain in 1928, and South Africa
in 1930. In 1919 Woman’s Journal announced the election of the American
Nancy Langhorne (Lady Astor) to the British House of Commons, noting also
that the United States had previously elected Jeannette Rankin to Congress.
Finland, Holland, and Denmark, the anonymous author wrote, had all
“returned women to parliament in the last twelve months.”4 But the New
Woman’s main platform was not limited to suffrage and politics.
 7 Introduction

Factors leading to the New Woman phenomenon and the proliferation

of New Woman literature were many and varied; one would never be able to
identify the issue or problem that contributed most significantly. Concerns
regarding marriage were central to feminist writing — especially to Sarah
Grand. Her campaign aimed at the double standard and women’s inability to
protect themselves from husbands who frequently infected them with sexu-
ally transmitted diseases, subsequently impregnated them, and then left them
to care for both mentally and physically unhealthy children.
As early as 1880, Grand wrote “The Baby’s Tragedy” in The Lady’s Realm.
Her interest was immorality and the shameful way that men, including those
of the upper classes, treated their wives. Grand did not disdain marriage; in
fact, quite the opposite. Her intent was enlightenment, education, and
empowerment. In the United States, Annie E. Tomlinson spoke out against
inequality in male and female relationships in her 1896 article, “The New
Woman and the Marriage Problem.”5 With the advent of the New Woman,
many considered matrimony and maternity to be decisions, not duties!
The moral issue regarding the double standard took precedent with New
Woman authors. Perhaps the most blatant and straightforward dialogue about
the issue shows up in Howard’s End. Henry, Margaret’s philandering husband,
has just barred Helen, his pregnant, unmarried sister-in-law, from “his” and
Margaret’s home. Margaret becomes irate:
“Not any more of this!” she cried. “You shall see the connection if it kills you,
Henry! You have had a mistress — I forgave you. My sister has a lover — you
drive her from the house. Do you see the connection? Stupid, hypocritical,
cruel — oh, contemptible!— a man who insults his wife when she’s alive and
cants with her memory when she’s dead. A man who ruins a woman for his
pleasure, and casts her off to ruin other men. And ... gives bad financial advice,
and then says he is not responsible. These men are you. You can’t recognize
them because you can’t connect. I’ve had enough of your unseeded kindness.
I’ve spoilt you long enough. All your life you have been spoilt. Mrs. Wilcox
spoiled you. No one has ever told you what you are — muddled, criminally
muddled. Men like you use repentance as a blind, so don’t repent. Only say to
yourself: ‘What Helen has done, I’ve done.’”
“The two cases are different,” Henry stammered. His real retort was not quite
ready. His brain was still in a whirl, and he wanted a little longer.
“In what way different? You have betrayed Mrs. Wilcox, Helen only herself.
You remain in society, Helen can’t. You have had only pleasure, she may die.
You have the insolence to talk to me of differences, Henry?”6
There were many Henrys in Britain and around the world, but not all
women had the courage to confront their husbands, and women such as Mar-
garet provided positive role models in saying, “enough is enough.” Although
she was married, this one conversation shows Margaret’s New Woman status!
Married New Women did not want to be defined primarily by their roles
Introduction 8

as wives and mothers, and

they worried more about self-
identity than about the out-
wardly visible effects of dress
reform, smoking cigarettes,
and mobility. Whereas the
Victorian woman was fre-
quently likened to a bird in
a cage — the New Woman
sought escape but when she
escaped she often found it
difficult to get on in life.
The latchkey and the
bicycle became icons sym-
bolizing the New Woman’s
entrée to freedom. British law
barred women from access to
“New Zealand New Women.” New Zealand was
their own keys before 1912,
the first country to enact woman suffrage; these
New Women with manly haircuts and dress ride and in Newark, New Jersey,
tandem. Chicago Daily Tribune, 31 May 1896. “A Judge in that advanced
town has decided that wives
belonging to clubs have a legal right to a latchkey and to return home at any
of the small hours that best suit them.” Further, the New York Times reported
in 1898, “Husbands who oppose this right as an exclusive one of their own
are liable to arrest and fine.... The latchkey unlocks the last fetter binding
downtrodden woman to tyrannical conventions.”7
The New Woman captured the interest and imagination of writers and
image-makers alike. Articles appeared in magazines, journals, and newspa-
pers that appealed to all segments of society: highbrow, middlebrow, and low-
brow. Poems, jingles, ditties, couplets, and limericks exposed and exploited
the New Woman. At least two British magazines sponsored reader competi-
tions for poems defining the New Woman. The anonymous winner of the con-
test in the one-penny paper Woman wrote in September 1894:
She flouts Love’s caresses,
Reforms ladies’ dresses,
And scorns the Man-Monster’s tirades;
She seems scarcely human,
This mannish “New Woman,”
This “Queen of the Blushless Brigade.”8

Home Chat held its competition in September 1895. The winner of this
contest submitted a three-verse rhyme:
 9 Introduction

Who cuts her back hair off quite short

And put on clothes she didn’t ought,
And apes a man in word and thought?
New Woman.
Who rides a cycle round the town,
In costume making all men frown
And otherwise acts like a clown?
New Woman
Who’s sweetest of the sweet, I say,
Because she throws not sex away,
Is always lady-like, yet gay?
True Woman.9

The phenomenon was trivialized in Britain’s Punch, or the London Chari-

vari, which regularly published poems, cartoons, and caricatures meant to
make the New Woman look ridiculous. Newspapers in the United States soon
jumped on the bandwagon, publishing stories and images related to the New
Woman. Even smaller cities such as Cincinnati and Toledo (Ohio) featured
articles pro and con and images definitely attracting viewer attention. Many
of them were syndicated and reproduced in a variety of newspapers and jour-
nals. Anxiety regarding motherhood can be seen in a 1909 issue of Life— a
hen lays an egg and asks, “Hey! What’s that?” William H. Walker, illustra-
tor for Life, produced images of women in extreme situations such as “The
New Navy,” a centerfold in April 1896 depicting an entirely female navy in
“about 1900 A.D.”
The New Woman was used even to sell new products. Given her inter-
est in athletics and public life, manufacturers devised new garments — even
new undergarments! For one who took to the wheel, the Gage-Downs Com-
pany of Chicago created the “Bicycle Waist” and advertised in Ladies’ Home
Journal. Inasmuch as the New Woman posed a threat to the status quo and
created gender anxiety in conservative males, the New Woman continued to
carry on with her domestic duties. Advertisements for modern conveniences
such as the Sweeperette depicted an old woman with the old-fashioned broom
that the New Woman would not use; the housewife was to assume that if she
used Grand Rapids’ Sweeperette she would have more free time. If she uti-
lized modern conveniences she could be out and about, and she was also told
it would behoove her to bathe with Ivory Soap and clean her teeth with Rubi-
foam.
Images of the New Woman were so pervasive that they appeared on cig-
arette cards, postal cards, and even on stereographs (two practically identical
photographs mounted side by side on a stiff card and placed in a viewer called
a stereoscope). A hinged paper doll of 1901 was part of the New Woman rev-
Introduction 10

olution in Britain. This illustrates the folly of the threat to the so-called “nat-
ural order.” With a walking stick in one hand, the other tucked in her jacket
in typical Britishy “swagger,” this (smoking) New Woman is dressed to go
out. Her husband, a puppet positioned under pictures of the church and the
hen, is posed to change the diapers (nappies) of the screaming twins and do
the wash.
The bicycle was seen as a means of freedom to the New Woman, and
Puck, the American equivalent of Punch, depicted a wide variety of riding
“new” women in a comical manner. But women riding their bicycles came
under intense scrutiny for several reasons. Unlike the horse that could be rid-
den sidesaddle, the bicycle could not. One New Woman who donned
bloomers to ride her bike in
New York State was arrested.
But in other locations women
were celebrated for mounting
the new-fangled wheel. The
Chicago Daily Tribune of 13
April 1895 reported on Annie
“Londonderry” Kopchovsky of
Boston (paid one hundred dol-
lars by the Londonderry Lithia
Spring Water Company to
advertise with a bicycle plac-
ard), who rode a bike around
the world in fifteen months.
The article titled “New Woman
on a Tour” reported that Lon-
donderry had never ridden a
bike previously (she practiced
one afternoon). A sketch of her
standing beside the bicycle in
bloomers illustrates the article.10
She had ridden off, leaving her
husband and three small chil-
dren. Upon her return, she
wrote extensively for the New
York World, and in an article
This New Woman takes charge of driving the regarding her journey she
hansom while the former driver appears for-
lorn in the cab. Another man is depicted in the wrote, “I am a journalist and a
background with a smirk on his face. Punch, New Woman if that term
or the London Charivari, 19 December 1896. means that I believe I can do
 11 Introduction

anything that any man

can do.” A documentary
film —The New Woman:
The Life and Times of
Annie “Londonderry” Kop-
chovsky— is currently in
production.11
Londonderry was not
alone in traveling a long
distance on the bicycle.
The Boston Daily of 3
October 1894 reported on
a British woman, Miss
Bacon, who went on a
1,200-mile ride through
England and Scotland.
Her sporty costume was
noted as “rational and
pretty.” The reporter
wrote: “No one, I am glad
to hear, even laughed at The husband stays home and knits while the New
her.”12 In fiction Jane de Woman prepares for a ride on her bicycle. Toledo
Mullin, mother of Janet, Blade, 22 June 1895.
a young pregnant single
woman, blamed Janet’s pregnancy on the independence afforded by the bicy-
cle.13 African American women took to the wheel as well. In Contending Forces:
A Romance Illustrative of Negro Life North and South, 1899, Sister Davis cycles
with her gentleman friend. Although she is not out on her own, that she takes
the lead is significant.
Women were beginning to engage in sports other than cycling. Horseback
riding became safer when the sidesaddle was discarded for the controversial
“riding astride.” The change did not go without notice as evidenced in a New
York World article about Miss Pauline French — a New Woman who dared to
ride astride. An anonymous poet wrote about the controversy in a graphic poem
about the acceptability of riding astride in Boston. In the extreme, New Women
were depicted as hunters, but in reality a Miss Kittie Carr killed a “Big Wild-
cat” when her male companion was afraid to do so. Included in a short video
in the recent exhibition Off the Pedestal: New Women in the Art of Homer, Chase,
and Sargent, were two New Women facing off in a boxing match.
Some crazy events took place to commemorate the freedom New Women
experienced. A “Bloomer Ball” took place in Jackson Park (Chicago) in July
 13 Introduction

1895, and in Long Island, a New Woman party for a little girl. The children
(likely all girls) received paper clothing. Blindfolded, they attached the cloth-
ing to the New Woman in the manner of “Pin the Tail on the Donkey.”14
Newspapers also reported on the amazing and unusual professions that women
were taking on. One woman in Masardis, Maine, was building a lumber mill
on the Aroostook River, while in Honolulu a woman reportedly was a police-
man. In an article titled “The New Woman as a Jockey” in Leslie’s Weekly (23
September 1897), the author noted that Elliott had won first prize: “Arrayed
in a bifurcated skirt, and seated upon a bicycle sulky, she did a mile in 2:25.”
The race was held in Pittsfield, Maine. A New Woman in Georgia distilled
whisky. And the New Woman Manufacturing Company was established in
1913, though who ran it and what it produced is unknown.
In addition to print culture there were films, music lyrics, a variety of
speeches, and exhibitions on the subject. Lubin Manufacturing Company
produced a silent film, The Newest Woman, in 1909. The movie opens with
a husband and wife seated at the table when a package arrives. She is excited
because the package contains her new bloomer outfit, but he is disturbed and
says she cannot keep it. To get even, he appears in a “pantaloon suit” with
lace and ruffles emerging from the cuffs. So ... she discards her bloomer suit,
he changes into his manly suit, and they kiss and make up. Meanwhile a cou-
ple of vagabonds discover the clothing thrown out the window and put it on.
They laugh hilariously! The one in the bloomer outfit is obviously the “newest
woman.”
Eight scenes comprise a 1912 film, The New Woman and the Lion. Pro-
duced by Selig Polyscope, it is set in a town hosting the circus. The many
escapades include that of a Mr. Jones attempting to crawl in under the tent
to avoid the admission fee. But the big excitement revolves around men of
all varieties (firemen, cowboys, and so forth) failing to catch an escaped lion.
Finally the circus manager offers a five-hundred-dollar reward, and Mr. Jones’s
wife charms the fierce beast into submission.
Lianhua Film Company produced the Chinese film New Woman (Xin
Nuxing) in 1934. It tells the story of a young female music teacher, Wei Ming,
whose goal is to become a writer. As she learns that her manuscript has been
accepted for publication, the trustee of her school declares his love for her.

Opposite: The “New Woman” hinged paper doll from 1901 shows a mother out-
fitted in her “manly” riding gear and smoking a cigarette. The New Woman on
this plaque is ready for adventure while her movable husband must stay home
with the twins, whom he can rock while washing the nappies that must be
changed so the babies can “be kept dry.” Apparently the wife has become con-
versant with liberated ideas through attending a women’s rights meeting at Trin-
ity Church. The National Archives, Great Britain.
Introduction 14

Though she does not know he is married, she rejects his advances and coin-
cidentally loses her job. Meanwhile her sister, who has been caring for Wei
Ming’s little girl, becomes a widow, subsequently losing the resources to take
care of her. She brings the child, quite ill, to Wei Ming, who does not have
the money that the hospital wants and sets
about earning it quickly in a brothel. Her
client is an unscrupulous trustee, so she aban-
dons the plan, and the child dies. In her mis-
ery, Wei Ming chooses suicide. As she is dying,
she learns of the slander that the news media
are spreading and decides she should live to
revenge them. Alas, it is too late. Ruan Lingyu,
the actress playing Wei Ming in the film based
on the life and death of writer Ai Xia, also
committed suicide.15
In Isle of Gold: A Musical Comedy in Three
Acts, “The New Woman” is one of five com-
positions written by Charles A. Bryne and
published by Howley, Haviland and Company
in 1897. No copies of the song exist today.
P. M. Piper wrote and composed a humorous
song, also called “The New Woman,” pub-
lished by Weekes in 1896. R. Morton com-
posed and William George Eaton wrote the
lyrics for yet another song titled “The New
Woman,” published by Francis, Day & Hunter
in 1895. Finally, Frank Rush Webb wrote a
two-step march, “The New Woman,” for two
pianos and eight hands, published by T. Presser
in 1907.
Women presented most of the early lec-
tures about the New Woman, but John Farrar
spoke about “New Women Writers” at the
Community Church Auditorium in New York
City on 24 November 1927. There were sym-
posia critiques and analyses of the New Woman
This poem by an anonymous as well. Also in 1927 the journal Current His-
author relates the escapades tory staged a symposium to discuss on paper
of the New Women in Boston
in a graphic manner. Life, 23 the various aspects related to women in the
May 1901. Reprinted from the 1920s. Eight authors — Carrie Chapman Catt,
Chicago Record-Herald. Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Leta S. Hollings-
 15 Introduction

worth, Anthony M. Ludovici, Martha

Bensley Bruére, Hugh L. McMena-
min, Joseph Collins, and Magdaleine
Marx presented on a variety of topics.
In the introduction to the symposium
journal, the editors noted the contro-
versial nature of women’s status and
the impartiality they strove for in
selecting the essays.
Since the reemergence of inter-
est in the New Woman in the late
twentieth century, several symposia
have considered the subject. “The
New Woman: Gendering the Fin de
Siecle” was held at the University of
London in February 1998. Chris Wil-
lis, Angelique Richardson, Deborah
Parsons, Deirdre Osborne, Laura
Marcus, and Sally Ledger comprised
its organizing committee. Other New
Woman conferences, symposia, and
colloquia, primarily in Great Britain,
have recorded their procedures and
are cited in this bibliography.
Also included are summaries of
retrospective exhibitions, held in the
late twentieth and early twenty-first
centuries, related to the visual pro-
ductions of New Women or images
with New Woman subject matter.
Women exhibited seventy-seven works
Caricatura de la New Woman. This
in the spring 1915 exhibition of the studious caricature of the New Woman
National Academy of Design in New ran in the Spanish-language version of
York City. A notice in the Humboldt Punch, 19 May 1894.
Standard of 27 April titled “Art and
the New Woman,” described paintings as containing subject matter New
Women would likely have considered conservative — women sitting demurely
with nothing to occupy them, women in bed, women holding babies, and so
forth.
The New Woman phenomenon was not restricted to Great Britain and
the United States. Although some scholars maintain that the movement ended
 17 Introduction

by the 1920s, in some countries it was just catching on. Jennifer Waelti-Wal-
ters has identified several French novels of the early twentieth century as New
Woman. Though German New Women did not rise to the fore until the
mid–1920s, Hermione Ramsden had by the end of the nineteenth century
observed, “Women have begun to ask: Who am I? and not: Whose am I?”16
By the end of World War I two million German soldiers had died, and the
gender imbalance forced women to work. At that time a higher percentage
of women were working in Germany than in any other European or North
American country. The period between 1924 and 1929 comprised “golden
years” for German women, and the New Woman symbolized the era.
New Women also emerged later among those in countries such as France,
Russia, Japan, China, Egypt, and those with roots in Spain. The very severe
New Woman appeared as “Caricatura de la New Woman” in Chile’s Punch
on 19 May 1894. The cover of Leslie’s Weekly Illustrated of 10 June 1897 lam-
pooned the African American New Woman in its unfortunate, cartoon-like
“First Parade of the New Woman’s Society in Possumville.”
Mainstream literary history all but ignored the New Woman until after
the women’s liberation movement of the 1970s. She was written out of his-
tory and thus marginalized. Angelique Richardson has noted, “Silenced for
the best part of the twentieth century, New Woman voices have formed the
focus of increasing scholarly debate in the last two decades, a focus which has
seen them acclaimed by many as unadulteratedly feminist.”17 And still, even
in the early twenty-first century — ninety men have received Nobel Prizes in
Literature whereas only nine women have earned that award. May this vol-
ume inspire further investigation into New Woman literature and encourage
twenty-first-century women to follow their creative muses.

Notes
1. Michelle Elizabeth Tusan located the use of the term New Woman before Grand’s arti-
cle appeared in North American Review. See Tusan, “Inventing the New Woman: Print Culture
and Identity Politics during the Fin de Siecle,” Victorian Periodicals Review 31 (1998): 169–82.
2. Harold Frederic, The Damnation of Theron Ware (Chicago/New York: Herbert S. Stone,
1896): 378–79.
3. Rosalind Rosenberg, Beyond Separate Spheres (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982),
54. Quoted in Rheta Childe Door, Woman of Fifty, 2d ed. (New York: Funk and Wagnalls,
1924): 101.
4. Anonymous, “The New Woman M.P.,” Woman’s Journal 4 (1919): 534.
5. Annie E. Tomlinson, “The New Woman and the Marriage Problem,” The (Boston)
Woman’s Journal (5 September 1896).
6. E. M. Forster, Howard’s End (London: Edward Arnold, 1910), 305.

Opposite: An especially mocking caricature of African Americans staging a

feminist parade was published in Leslie’s Weekly, 10 June 1897. Library of Con-
gress.
Introduction 18

7. Anonymous, “The New Woman’s Latch Key,” The New York Times (31 October 1898):
7. Reprinted from the Baltimore American.
8. Karl Beckson, London in the 1890s: A Cultural History (New York/London: W.W. Nor-
ton, 1992), 129.
9. Anonymous, “Home Chat” (21 September 1895): 29. In Margaret Beetham and Kate
Boardman, Victorian Women’s Magazines: An Antholog y (Manchester, England: Manchester
University Press, 2001): 115.
10. Anonymous, “New Woman on a Tour,” Chicago Daily Tribune (13 April 1895): 16.
Londonderry reportedly responded to a bet (by a man) of a large sum “that no woman could
accomplish the feat.” Her journey began on 25 June 1894 and ended in late March or early
April, ahead of the fifteen-month deadline and having raised $5,000, primarily by her lectures
illustrated with lanternslides taken on the trip. Londonderry’s great grandnephew Peter Zheut-
lin has written of her in his book Around the World on Two Wheels (Verlag Maxime, 2009) and
in online stories (see The Christian Science Monitor, 28 August 2006, and Women in Judaism:
A Multidisciplinary Journal 5, Spring 2008). “Annie Londonderry,” he wrote, “according to one
newspaper, ‘sailed away like a kite down Beacon Street.’”
11. Thanks to Judith Arcana for alerting me to the documentary.
12. Boston Daily (3 October 1894): 8.
13. St. John Hankin, The Last of the DeMullins (London: Bulter and Tanner, 1909).
14. The New York Times, 26 July 1896, p. 10.
15. The three films are all available for viewing at the Library of Congress, Washington,
D.C.
16. Hermione Ramsden, We Women and Our Authors (London and New York: John Lane
[The Bodley Head], 1899), 1.
17. Angelique Richardson, “The Eugenization of Love: Sarah Grand and the Morality of
Genealogy,” Victorian Studies 42 (No. 2, Winter 1999/2000): 227.
 Part I
PRIMARY WORKS,
1894–1938
Works are listed alphabetically by author within year/date of publication.
1894
1. Anonymous. “A Ballade of the New
Manhood: By an Unregenerate Male.”
Punch (26 May 1894): 249. A quote by
Sarah Grand from the Pall Mall Gazette of
16 May 1894 prefaces this “ballad.” The
final line of each of the ballad’s three stan-
zas refers to Madame Grand as grave, firm,
irate, and severe. The gist is that men must
be on their best behavior or suffer the wrath
of one Sarah Grand. This article was part
of an ongoing Punch series of misogynist
New Woman riddles, poems, letters, and
short essays. See other Anonymous entries
for 1894, 1895, 1896, and 1897.
2. ____. “The New Woman: A New
Nursery Rhyme for Child-Men.” Punch (26
May 1894): 252. After a short introductory
statement, the author contributed a four-
line rhyme in regard to the New Woman
existing only on paper but at that being a
nag.
3. ____. “The New Woman Suffrage
Movement.” The Century Illustrated Monthly
Magazine 48 (3 July 1894): 469–70. The
author of this short essay championed the
19
advances women had made, encouraged
them to continue their work in education,
philanthropy, and housekeeping arts and
sciences, but admonished them to shun
politics.
4. ____. “Scott on the New Woman.”
Punch (18 August 1894): 73. In this six-line
rhyme, the author listed the New Woman’s
negative aspects, especially with regard to
her perceived feelings about men.
5. ____. “Of the New Woman.” Vanity
Fair: A Weekly Show of Political, Social, and
Literary Wares (18 October 1894): 265–66.
This article is a response to a letter to the ed-
itor —“The Unbeautiful New Woman” by
Mrs. Gertrude Atherton—published in the
same issue. Atherton referred to English
woodcuts of six “advanced women” who
happened to have been writers but whom
she called “she-males.” This type of woman,
she claimed, was doomed because she was
bereft of good looks and good humor.
Atherton believed men should refuse to
marry such women so there would be no
chance of repeating the model of bad looks
(and likely feminist tendencies). Anonymous
called Atherton a credible critic because her
6–9
The New Woman on the bicycle can take on many different personas, from ser-
vant girl to mother-in-law to Salvation Army worker to widow. Puck, 1895;
Library of Congress.
own work was published but also stated that
simply embracing new-fangled ideas did
not qualify women as New Women of the
type Atherton railed against.
6. ____. “The New Woman.” The
Woman’s Signal (29 November 1894): 345.
The unidentified author lamented liberated
women’s fear of identifying themselves as
New Women as well as media ridicule of
the New Woman. The author referenced a
contemporary view of the New Woman in
the Quarterly Review, while soundly refut-
ing use of the philosophy of the apostle Paul
as a sounding board for acceptance of the
new over the old.
7. ____. “The New Woman under Fire.”
Review of Reviews 10 (December 1894):
656–66. The author warned that the hyster-
20 Primary Works (1894–1938)
ical and unnatural New Woman, unfit for
her natural roles as wife and mother, was
soon to fade to oblivion.
8. Arnold, Ethel M. Platonics: A Study.
London: Osgood, McIlvaine, 1894. This
novel explores the relationship between two
women, Kit Drummond and Susan Dormer.
When Susan’s neighbor Ronald Gordon
falls in love with Kit (after being refused by
Susan), the women’s intimacy shatters. Kit
returns Ronald’s affection and they marry,
yet Kit is tortured by her disloyalty to her
first love, Susan. Susan dies of grief, leaving
Kit a letter expressing her undying love.
Hailed as a veiled exploration of lesbian
love, Platonics is Arnold’s only published
work.
9. Barry, William F. “The Strike of a
Primary Works (1894–1938)
Sex.” Quarterly Review 179 (1894): 289–318.
The author reviewed and commented on
the following New Woman books: Marcella
by Mrs. Humphry Ward, The Heavenly
Twins by Sarah Grand, Woman in the Past,
Present, and Future by August Bebel, Die
Gleichstellung der Geschlechter by Von Irma
Von Troll-Borostyani, Das Recht der Frau,
Vermächtniss einer Unglücklichen (The Strike
of a Sex) by G. Noyes Miller, and Man and
Woman by Havelock Ellis. A long introduc-
tion traces women’s rights issues from the
French Revolution. The body of the review
deals with most of the aforementioned
books, primarily with Grand’s The Heav-
enly Twins. The writing, rambling and un-
focused, makes discernment of the author’s
point difficult. Only at the end is it clear:
“The New Woman ought to be aware that
her condition is morbid, or, at least, hyster-
ical.... The New Woman will not continue
long in the land.”
10. Beerbohm, Max. “The Pervasion of
Rouge.” The Works of Max Beerbohm. Lon-
don: John Lane, 1923. (The essay “The Per-
vasion of Rouge” appeared in 1894). This
essay waxes on the evils of cosmetics, equat-
ing the revival with women’s use of paints
during the Roman Empire and its subse-
quent fall with what he predicts will occur
in Britain in the 1890s. The antifeminist
tract contains derogatory and sarcastic com-
ments about women who wish to exercise
and to be out and about.
11. Brooke, Emma Frances. A Super-
fluous Woman. London: William Heine-
mann, 1894. This novel opens with the
renowned London socialite/beauty Jes-
samine Halliday on her deathbed. Medical
services have been obtained to no avail. Fi-
nally the unconventional Dr. Cornerstone
sees that Jessamine suffers from having been
promised to someone she cannot tolerate
and advises her to seek her own way. Tem-
porarily cured, Jessamine goes off to work as
a servant for a farming family in rural Scot-
21 10–14
land. There she finds her love but is torn
between him and the duty she feels to her
aunt and her intended, Lord Heriot. After
a long emotional battle, she chooses Heriot
and lives to regret it. By chance she is able
to contact Dr. Cornerstone, who comes to
her bedside but is unable to cure her of the
melancholy that eventually takes her life.
The doctor calls her a “superfluous” woman
among the many in Great Britain at the
time.
12. Caird, Mona (aka Mona Alison or
Alice Mona Henryson Caird). The Daugh-
ters of Danaus. London: Bliss, Sands, and
Foster, 1894. In this novel, Hadria Fuller-
ton marries Herbert Temperley and adopts
an illegitimate child, Martha, whose mother
is dead and whose father turns out to be
Hadria’s would-be lover, Professor Theo-
bald. Hadria goes to Paris to develop her
musical talents, leaving her husband at
home with his sister. Hadria’s musical as-
pirations are crushed, her talent falls into
decay, Martha’s father claims her in an act
of manipulative revenge, and her sole male
friend — the beloved of her sister, Valeria —
dies.
13. Chopin, Kate. A Night in Acadie.
Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin,
1894. These twenty-one short stories are set
in New Orleans and/or Natchitoches Parish.
Of these, “Athénaïse” is the most feminist
story. In it, protagonist Athénaïse Miché’s
growing discontent with marriage causes
her to leave her husband, though she re-
turns to him a happy wife when she learns
she is pregnant.
14. Crackanthorpe, B[lanche] A[lthea].
“The Revolt of the Daughters.” Nineteenth
Century 35 ( January 1894): 23–31. Crack-
anthorpe likened contemporary disagree-
ments between mothers and daughters to
labor strikes. Though she admitted that
girls had gotten short shrift historically, she
maintained that only women who could not
enter marriage, “the best profession,” should
15–18
aspire to any other. She blamed mothers for
spending too little time with their young
daughters and chastised daughters for being
stubborn. Perhaps, she concluded, a medi-
ator should intervene in female generational
disputes just as in the world of labor.
15. ____. “The Revolt of the Daugh-
ters: A Last Word on ‘The Revolt.’” Nine-
teenth Century 35 (March 1894): 424–29.
Crackanthorpe likened the positions of
upper-class and upper-middle-class girls to
A “New Woman.” The New Woman is out on
a hunting expedition when she encounters a
woman of the older type who appears to frown
upon the hunter. Both women appear deter-
mined, and one can imagine the unfriendly
conversation that may ensue. Iris, 1894.
22 Primary Works (1894–1938)
the caste system—these girls and their moth-
ers should learn from working-class girls
and their mothers the importance of sup-
porting themselves. She wrote that there
was less strife in these relationships because
the mothers instructed the daughters in the
ways of the world, allowed them to experi-
ence life, and trusted they would use their
heads. She believed work would enhance
the self-esteem of the young women and
benefit the marriage relationship should they
choose it.
16. Cuffe, Kathleen. “A Reply
from the Daughters I.” Nineteenth
Century (March 1894): 437–42. In
response to Crackanthorpe’s article
in the January 1894 issue of Nine-
teenth Century, Cuffe asserted that
“young damsels” had not been asked
their opinion of the independence
issue. She intended to provide the
point of view of the average young
woman, asking only for a few con-
cessions — the privileges accorded
young married women, such as go-
ing into society without a chaper-
one.
17. D. B. M. “The New
Woman.” Shafts 2 (March 1894):
unpaginated. Reprinted in Juliet
Gardiner, ed., The New Woman,
1993. Shafts, a progressive English
feminist newspaper, offered this
eight-verse poem on the positive
attributes of the New Woman
within a year of her formal identi-
fication. The poet described how
women were formerly unthinking
puppets but became liberated,
thinking beings, finding their
voices and their freedom — but not
without misgivings!
18. Davidson, Mrs. H. Cole-
man. What Our Daughters Can
Do for Themselves: A Handbook of
Women’s Employments. London:
Primary Works (1894–1938)
Smith, Elder, 1894. Several articles (all
revised and some rewritten) that originally
appeared in Hearth and Home comprise
this book. They offer commentary on the
various occupations available to women,
citing difficulties and pitfalls and offering
advice on how to enter particular fields
and listing their duties. The articles cover
a broad range of subjects, including bee-
keeping, clerkships, detectives, journalism,
medicine, and photography, as well as
more conventional occupations such as
governess, lady-help, and needle worker.
The author encouraged women to under-
take meaningful work, arguing that “there
can be no dishonor in doing work which
is not in itself dishonorable” (84), although
she displayed a conventional attitude to-
wards gender roles. On the possibility of
working in an asylum, for example, she
noted: “Few ladies could stand it long; the
mental strain is so great, and the perpetual
association with lunatics is so trying” (131).
Nevertheless, she displayed beliefs typical
of the New Woman — encouraging women
to embark on traditionally male careers and
noting, for instance: “There is no nobler
profession open to women than medicine”
(179).
19. Dixon, Ella Hepworth. The Story
of a Modern Woman. London: William
Heinemann, 1894. This novel is set in Lon-
don, represented as a cage full of alienated
and often desperate inmates. The upper-
middle-class protagonist, Mary Erle, strug-
gles to support herself as a pen-for-hire after
the death of her father. Refusing to be the
mistress of old family friend Vincent Hem-
ming, Mary depends on herself alone. She
finds support in her upper-class friend Al-
ison Ives, a woman whose dilettante phi-
lanthropy among fallen working-class women
causes her to fall sick and eventually die.
The two women’s pact, “never [to] do any-
thing to hurt another woman,” unites them
in their effort to avoid conventional mar-
riage and extramarital affairs.
23 19–22
20. Duncan, Sara Jeannette (aka Mrs.
Everard Cotes). A Daughter of Today. Lon-
don: Chatto and Windus, 1894. In this novel,
Elfrida Bell, an aspiring artist, changes the
focus of her art from painting to writing
after realizing, with the help of fellow artist
John Kendall, that as a woman she can bet-
ter earn a living as a writer. She struggles to
make it, first in Paris, then in London, while
becoming friends with Kendall and another
young writer, Janet Cardiff. Cardiff ’s fa-
ther, in pursuit of Elfrida Bell, is part of a
complicated love rectangle among the young
people. Bell prefers Kendall, who ultimately
becomes engaged to Janet Cardiff. After
learning of Janet’s engagement to John Ken-
dall and receiving a highly critical appraisal
of the novel she went undercover in a bur-
lesque show to research, Elfrida Bell com-
mits suicide with the poison she carried in
a Persian ring. Her parents have her body re-
moved to her birthplace—Sparta, Illinois—
and erect a monument to her memory.
21. Eastwood, Mrs. M. “The New
Woman in Fiction and Fact.” Humanitar-
ian 5 (November 1894): 375–79. The first
third of this article is a satiric sketch of the
New Woman, the second deals with men’s
response to the phenomenon, and the third
is a straightforward analysis of Eastwood’s
raison d’être. The sound synopsis states:
“She [New Woman] has reviewed and begun
to test her possibilities” resulting in “some
astonishing discoveries, the primal and most
important being the discovery of independ-
ent staying properties in her back-bone,
which enable her to stand without male
support.” Eastwood had great hopes for the
advancement of women; that this is her
only extant work is disappointing.
22. Egerton, George (aka Mary Chave-
lita Dunne Bright). Discords and Keynotes.
London: John Lane, 1894. In these two col-
lections of short stories, female protagonists
consider the problem or society’s idealization
of womanhood. They explore women’s sex-
 24 Primary Works (1894–1938)

The commandments on the back of this Chicago Stove & Range Co. trade card
indicate all the things the husband must do to keep the New Woman happy,
including purchasing the Marquart Steel Range for her. The reverse side of the
card is a more traditional advertisement. Courtesy, The Winterthur Library:
Joseph Downs Collection of Manuscripts and Printed Ephemera.
Primary Works (1894–1938)
uality, work, and artistic ability while chal-
lenging patriarchal attitudes. Using woman-
centered plots, the stories focus on individ-
ual women’s consciousnesses. Through
dreamlike states or flashbacks, the stories
place the reader within each protagonist’s
inner monologue.
23. Fernald, James Champlin. The New
Womanhood. New York: Funk and Wagnall,
1894. Fernald set out separate and distinct
roles for men and women in this antifemi-
nist tract. He apparently hoped to appease
women and validate his words as a male
minister with an introduction by Marion
Harland, who announced in her first sen-
tence that the battle for women’s rights was
over. Fernald maintained that only in sav-
age tribes did women undertake “man’s
work.” Thus, by sticking with strict pro-
scribed gender roles, society was advancing
civilization. He offered practical solutions
to lighten women’s work and suggestions
for curricula in girls’ educations. He had es-
pecially harsh words for women who left
the farm to secure work in the city.
24. Grand, Sarah (aka Frances Elizabeth
Bellenden-Clark McFall). “The New As-
pect of the Woman Question.” North Amer-
ican Review 158 (March 1894): 270–76. In
this manifesto by the prominent British
feminist on the independent woman, Grand
lambasted irresponsible simple-minded men,
calling them the “Bawling Brotherhood.”
With the phrase “new woman” to identify
the antithesis of what she referred to as the
“cow-woman” or “scum-woman,” she named
the independent woman.
25. ____. “The Man of the Moment.”
North American Review 158 (May 1894):
620–27. In this short essay following Ouida’s
response to “The New Woman” in Grand’s
March essay in North American Review,
Grand identified contemporary upper-class
men as “the man of the moment.” With this
terminology she indicated hope that male
attitudes would change, though she believed
25 23–27
that men of the time shirked their respon-
sibilities. They were not respected, she
wrote, and for good reason. Conversely, she
believed the manners of the New Woman
to be perfect. The balance she wished to see
between the sexes would come about only
when men behaved in a manner eliciting
respect from women.
26. ____. “The Modern Girl.” North
American Review 158 ( June 1894): 706–14.
Grand expounded on the folly of keeping
young upper-class women ignorant of the
“ways of the world” and then expecting
them to be fit partners when their parents
decided it was time for them to marry. She
recommended that parents give their
daughters more options and ease off hastily
arranged marriages. This article followed
Grand’s March contribution to North
American Review, in which she named the
“New Woman.”
27. Grundy, Sydney. The New Woman:
An Original Comedy in Four Acts. London:
Chiswick, 1894. Grundy jumped on the
bandwagon early, getting his four-act satire
published in 1894 and having it produced at
London’s Comedy Theatre (some sources
say Manchester’s Comedy Theatre) on 1
September 1894. There the play enjoyed a
run of 173 performances, though it closed in
New York in less than two weeks. The play’s
New Woman protagonist, Mrs. Sylvester,
a married woman writer, spends time in the
company of an upper-class man — a recent
Oxford grad, Gerold, with whom she col-
laborates in the authorship of a progressive
novel. Three other New Women flock to
Gerold’s atelier, but they present little threat
to the stability of his marriage (his wife is his
aunt’s former servant) in comparison with
Mrs. Sylvester, who seems intent on break-
ing it up. Gerold eventually comes to his
senses and rejects Mrs. Sylvester’s advances,
remaining devoted to his “woman who is
woman,” maintaining the status quo. The
play is not revolutionary, but it created a
28–34
furor, probably due to the suggestion that
the married New Woman would engage in
illicit sex if she could.
28. Hall, E. B., and Scott, H. S. “Char-
acter Note: The New Woman.” Cornhill 23
(1894): 365–68. These authors conflated
the character of the contemporary young
woman into “Novissima” and of the young
man into “Calamus.” Novissima, for all her
striving for newness, does not stand a
chance, as Calamus’s dean at Cambridge
predicts that the New Woman will soon be
passé. To prove it, Calamus marries Edith,
a traditional woman who loves being a
“mum.”
29. Harper, Charles. Revolted Women:
Past, Present, and To Come. London: Elkin
Mathews, 1894. This diatribe against the
“New Woman” includes several interesting
caricatures of women as birds of prey and
such. It largely argues that the goal of the
women’s movement is not to achieve equal-
ity but to gain entitlement to rule over men.
30. Harraden, Beatrice. In Varying
Moods. Edinburgh: Blackwoods, 1894. In
this collection of short stories, “A Bird
of Passage” is of particular interest as its
protagonist, a female piano-tuner, turns
out to be the famous musician Thyra Flow-
erdew.
31. ____. Ships That Pass in the Night.
London/New York: Putnam, 1894. In this
novel, Bernadine and Robert, aka “the Dis-
agreeable Man,” meet as convalescents at a
Swiss health resort. As they become closer,
Bernadine learns that Robert, despairing
over his health, is waiting only for his
mother’s death to commit suicide. After
Bernadine leaves the resort, she learns of the
death of Robert’s mother and fears Robert
has carried out his plan, but he has realized
he is in love with her. He visits her in En-
gland, suggesting they meet the following
day (when he plans to reveal his love). That
afternoon Bernadine is hit by a wagon and
dies without seeing him, but Robert takes
26 Primary Works (1894–1938)
her advice not to kill himself and returns to
Switzerland and life.
32. Harrison, Constance Cary. A Bach-
elor Maid. New York: Century, 1894. This
New Woman novel was early by American
standards. Marion Irving is a young woman
whose teacher and companion, Sara Stauf-
fer, is a lecturer on women’s rights. Marion
falls for Alexander Gordon, who is aware of
Stauffer’s shady past as well as of her femi-
nist hypocrisy — she has tried to win his
hand. Instead, Stauffer lands Marion’s fa-
ther, a wealthy judge. Marion experiments
with independence by living in an apart-
ment with another single woman, Mignon
Cox. In the end, these bachelor maids ac-
quiesce and marry their mates of choice.
33. Haweis, M. E. “The Revolt of the
Daughters II: Daughters and Mothers.”
Nineteenth Century (March 1894): 430–31.
In this response to Crackanthorpe’s “Revolt
of the Daughters” in the January and March
issues of Nineteenth Century, Haweis im-
mediately identified herself as an old-fash-
ioned woman. She stated that independ-
ence might be all right for the American
girl, but English girls were not ready for it.
Though she recognized that things were
changing, she lamented, “There is nothing
like the … shielded flower, and the extinc-
tion of a beautiful thing is melancholy.” In
the final sentences, however, she advised the
mothers of rebellious daughters to get lives
of their own to minimize their pain.
34. Hemery, Gertrude. “The Revolt of
the Daughters: An Answer — By One of
Them.” Westminster Review 141 (1894):
679–81. Hemery was eighteen years old at
the time she provided this rebuttal to Lady
Jeune’s February 1894 essay in Fortnightly
Review. Her views portrayed a mature
young woman who believed that keeping a
girl secluded and in darkness as to the ways
of the world could only breed unhappiness
when she later experienced real life. Hemery
concluded this brief essay by stating that
Primary Works (1894–1938) 27

Sydney Grundy was an English playwright whose farce, The New Woman, enjoyed
a long run in Great Britain though it closed in New York City in less than two
weeks. This playbill depicts a bespectacled New Woman with pages from her
novel strewn about her. Two of the discarded sheets of paper may contain pos-
sible titles for this novel — one is “Naked but Not Ashamed” and the other is
“Man the Sprayer.” The viewer can see the symbolic latchkey on the wall behind
her and the lit cigarette on the frame. The Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Insti-
tute, Harvard University.
35–40
when she had children, her daughters
would be educated in the same manner as
her sons and that the daughters’ knowledge
would provide them the wherewithal to
make intelligent choices.
35. Holdsworth, Annie E. Joanna Trail,
Spinster. London: William Heinemann,
1894. In this novel, Joanna Trail, in her
mid-thirties, inherits an estate from her
uncle and begins to assert her own wishes
in defiance of her painfully conventional
married sisters, Mrs. Prothero and Mrs.
Crane. Joanna engages in philanthropy with
the charismatic Mr. Boas, helping redeem
sixteen-year-old Christina Dow, a fallen
woman who eventually marries Amos
Bevan, a respectable journalist. Joanna and
Mr. Boas fall in love, though he doesn’t re-
alize it until he returns to find that Joanna
has died after contracting diphtheria while
nursing her sister. He kisses her infectious
corpse, unaware that Joanna knew of his
love for her before he realized it himself.
The novel’s title comes from the plate for
Joanna’s coffin.
36. Hunt, Violet. The Maiden’s Progress.
New York: Harper, 1894. This drama-style
novel follows Mary Elizabeth Maskelyne,
aka Moderna, from her debut at age eight-
een to her engagement to Edward Conis-
ton at twenty-seven. In the interim, Mod-
erna experiments with various artistic and
scientific pursuits to the dismay of her con-
ventional family.
37. Iota (aka Kathleen Mannington
Caffyn). A Yellow Aster. London: Hutchin-
son, 1894. In this novel, Gwen Waring is
the unconventional offspring resulting from
the unique and comical marriage of two in-
tellectuals. After growing up without the
affectionate mother-daughter relationship
for which both she and her mother yearn
(each in her own way), Gwen marries Sir
Humphrey Strange, then struggles with her
role as wife. When she becomes pregnant,
Gwen insists that she and Sir Humphrey
28 Primary Works (1894–1938)
part. Her mother’s death, the grave illness of
her newborn son, and learning of her hus-
band’s own battle with life-threatening ill-
ness help to make Gwen aware of her poten-
tial to play the nurturing role of loving wife
and mother.
38. Jeune, Lady Mary. “The Revolt of
the Daughters.” Fortnightly Review 55 (Feb-
ruary 1894): 267–76. In this response to
Crackanthorpe’s article in the 1894 issue of
Nineteenth Century 35, Jeune related a
rather idealistic view of relationships be-
tween mothers and daughters, stating that
she was unaware of the problems about
which Crackanthorpe wrote. She claimed
it as fact that “woman was created for the
purpose of being the wife and mother of
mankind.” She went on to justify and sanc-
tion the double standard. In regard to ed-
ucating young women in the “mysteries of
the Book of Life,” Jeune advocated keep-
ing them ignorant and pure.
39. Jim’s Wife’s Husband. “A Chat with
Mme. Sarah Grand.” Woman (21 May
1894). Literary Supplement: 1–2. The anony-
mous male author admitted to being intim-
idated by Grand. He interviewed her in her
Kensington flat but was immediately made
to feel at ease by Grand’s conservative and
“male-friendly” answers to his questions.
40. Johnstone, Edith. A Sunless Heart.
London: Ward, Lock and Bowden, 1894. In
this two-volume novel, published anony-
mously, twins Gaspar and Gasparine — the
children of the disreputable Sir Gaspar
O’Neill — live in poverty, struggling to
make ends meet. Gasparine obtains a posi-
tion as a governess in a private school in
Scotland. Gaspar teaches the violin while
Gasparine sells her paintings, and the twins
finally come to live a more comfortable life.
Their prosperity, however, is disrupted by
the death of Gaspar, who has always strug-
gled with poor health. Gasparine is devas-
tated upon his death but soon befriends the
strange Lotus Grace, who takes her in with
Primary Works (1894–1938)
her aunt (who is not, in fact, her aunt but
her former employer) as well as with Lady-
bird, a girl of questionable background. As
Gasparine grows close to Lotus Grace,
Lotus reveals that she cannot love anyone—
a consequence of the abuse she suffered as a
child at the hands of her father’s business
partner, who became her sister’s husband.
She reveals that Ladybird is her daughter —
the result of this abuse. Gasparine begs
Lotus to open her heart to those who care
about her; Lotus leaves her home to con-
sider this. Eventually she resolves to return,
but before she can begin anew, she dies in
a train crash. Gasparine and Ladybird never
discover her fate. Gasparine goes on to
marry, have children, and make a name as
an artist — primarily for her portrait of
Lotus, which she refuses to sell even for a
large sum.
41. Leighton, Dorothy. Disillusion: A
Story with a Preface. London: Henry, 1894.
In this novel, playwright Mark Sergison re-
mains unknown until he receives accolades
for his play The Heir — Presumptive. Out-
side the limelight he credits Linda Grey as
his collaborator; she is a typist by day, a de-
voted worker in the Spade Club (a socialist
cause), and a woman’s rights activist. At the
time his play opened they had known each
other approximately a year, having lived in
the same apartment building. Sergison glo-
ries in his success and becomes friendly with
a London socialite, Celia Adair. She smokes
and is otherwise liberated due to family
money, but her father’s suicide results in
Adair’s reduced circumstances, and she fan-
cies becoming a dress designer. She never
carries through because Sergison, believing
he loves her, rescues her. Although he is a
feminist man, the two are ill suited, and the
responsibility of a wife causes Mark to give
up writing plays for writing news. He has
forgotten Linda Grey but learns she is des-
titute and asks her to work for him. By this
time he and Celia have a son, cared for by
an incompetent nanny. Celia takes up with
29 41–42
a former suitor and leaves home. Linda
Grey notices an undiagnosed injury in the
son, which is taken care of in the nick of
time. Mark gives in to his physical needs
and proclaims his love to Linda, but when
Celia returns ill and in need, Mark takes her
in, and she dies in his arms. Linda feels de-
ceived and Celia’s death leaves Mark ques-
tioning his relations with the two women.
Which is best — love or friendship?
42. Linton, Elizabeth Lynn. The One
Too Many. London: Chatto and Windus,
1894. In this three-volume novel originally
serialized in Lady’s Pictorial, the protago-
nist Moira is married off early to the abusive
and controlling but socially acceptable Mr.
Brabazon, who believes it his duty to edu-
cate and mold the timid and naive Moira.
Her every move must be approved by her
husband so that her life is much like that of
a caged bird. Effie Chegwin is Moira’s friend
and confidant who, educated at Girton
College, brings some of her college friends
into the Brabazon circle. Working as a self-
appointed social worker, Effie Chegwin
lives in “masculine circumstances” in Lon-
don’s East End, where she meets and even-
tually marries a policeman. The story of
an extremely unhealthy relationship be-
tween social equals is juxtaposed with a
healthy love between social misfits.
Brabazon finds he much prefers the com-
pany of the Girton girls (he ensconces one
in the home he shares with Moira) and be-
gins ignoring though still controlling his
young wife. Meanwhile Moira meets and
falls for Effie’s cousin, George Armstrong.
The third volume finds Moira becoming
more self-conscious about her miserable ex-
istence and acknowledging that since child-
hood she has felt like “one too many.” After
finally asserting herself, she believes there is
no chance of future happiness and drowns
herself. In pairing Moira with Effie, author
Linton provided an example of Victorian
polarity.
43–47
43. Matheson, E. “The ‘New Woman.’”
New York Times, 30 December 1894, p. 22.
This four-verse poem supports the New
Woman and her many accomplishments.
44. Ouida (aka Marie Louise de la
Ramée). “The New Woman.” North Amer-
ican Review 158 (May 1894): 611–19. Ouida
was the most notable respondent to Sarah
Grand’s “The New Aspect of the Woman
Question,” written two months earlier in
the North American Review. Ouida extrap-
olated the phrase “new woman” from
Grand’s text, replaced the lowercase “n” and
“w” with uppercase letters, and thus chris-
tened the New Woman. Ouida’s article is a
vitriolic attack on the New Woman, who,
she argued, was audacious to think she
could be “admitted into public life.”
45. Papillon, Edward Thomas. Alleyne:
A Story of a Dream and a Failure. London:
T. Fisher Unwin, 1894. This novel deals
with the problem of licentiousness and its
impact on future generations. A young
widow, Alleyne Carlile, makes her second
marriage to Edward Kyleman Grand — a
man of many vices. Grand arrives in the
neighborhood as the new tenant of Mar-
lowe Park, whose previous occupants — the
old Marlowe family — have been disrep-
utable, “the very incarnation of animalism”
(37). Grand becomes enchanted with
Carlile after a series of chance encounters.
She is aware of an old family prophecy stat-
ing that all good traits will pass to one side
of the family, all bad traits to the other, and
that although “good” will come close to re-
forming “bad,” the latter will eventually kill
the former. Grand’s doctor warns him
against marriage, for fear his dissolute na-
ture will pose a danger to his wife and any
children the marriage may produce. After
he discovers that he and Alleyne Carlile are
distantly related, his concern about the
prophecy grows, and he becomes less in-
clined to marry her. Eventually, however,
he overcomes these concerns, and they
30 Primary Works (1894–1938)
marry. Some time later, Alleyne discovers
a letter from her husband revealing his con-
cerns. She vows to stand by him, believing
a woman’s place is next to her husband.
Grand begins to drink heavily, until one
night, while inebriated, he accidentally
pushes his wife down the stairs, killing her,
and thus fulfilling the prophecy. Grand re-
turns to his sinful life in the city.
46. Paston, George (aka Emily Morse
Symonds). A Modern Amazon. London: Os-
good, McIlvaine, 1894. This two-volume
novel at first tackles the topic of upper-class
women working in a limited number of po-
sitions for half the salaries paid to men.
Regina Haughton enters the professional
world as a journalist working for a maga-
zine known as Men and Women. She meets
Agatha Staunton, a woman’s rights activist,
and by association is referred to as “the ama-
zon.” Before long Regina Haughton has two
suitors — the editor of the magazine,
Stephen Faulkner, and Dr. Kenyon, whom
she thinks of as a friend and would like to
have as a brother. Kenyon persists, and
though Haugton convinces him that the
only marriage she will embrace is one with-
out physical relations, he believes he can
convince her otherwise once they have
made their vows. This does not happen for
quite some time, and Regina must assert
herself and leave him temporarily to main-
tain the independence she desires. In the
end they work out their problems, and by
novel’s end they apparently will live to-
gether amicably.
47. Pearson, Karl. “Women and
Labour.” Fortnightly Review 29 (May 1894):
561–77. The first sentence sets the tone —
Pearson claimed there were two problems
in modern life: women and labor. He con-
tended that women deserved certain rights
but that they must not get out of hand. Ac-
cording to Pearson, the women’s movement
was failing due to class distinctions. Women
needed protection. He categorized sexual
Primary Works (1894–1938)
instinct according to class, believed women’s
desire for emancipation would pass, and
thought that degeneration would occur and
lead to socialism. He did not name the New
Woman but certainly focused on what he
perceived to be the negative attributes of
liberated women.
48. Raimond, C. E. (aka Elizabeth
Robins). George Mandeville’s Husband. Lon-
don: William Heinemann, 1894. One of
few American New Woman novels, this
work’s plot is convoluted and easily misun-
derstood. The protagonist, Lois Carpenter
Role reversal was common in depictions of New Women and their husbands.
Cincinnati Enquirer, 25 September 1894.
31 48–49
Wilbraham, decides to devote her life to de-
fending women’s rights, and she adopts the
pseudonym “George Mandeville.” Her de-
cision comes at the expense of her husband
Ralph’s career as a painter and the well-
being of their daughter, Rosina. Ralph re-
sponds by molding Rosina into the role of
a proper wife, and ultimately she fades due
to overprotection. A satire, this novel is
written from the point of view of the piti-
ful husband.
49. Rita (aka Eliza Humphreys). A
Husband of No Importance. London: T.
50–53
Fisher Unwin, 1894. This novel explores the
life of the New Woman who marries only to
ensure her ability to live independently. The
protagonist is a successful writer, attending
lectures and leading discussions without the
presence or opinion of her husband. She
eventually learns to avoid the extremes that
characterize the New Woman. Her self-
recognition at the end of the novel provides
the platform for her to appreciate her hus-
band as she realizes that men have not been
listening to her because of her militancy.
50. Smith, Alys Pearsall. “A Reply from
the Daughters.” Nineteenth Century 35
(March 1894): 443–50. This response to
Crackanthorpe’s “The Revolt of the Daugh-
ters II” in the January 1894 issue of Nine-
teenth Century is the second reply from “the
daughters”; Kathleen Cuffe responded first
in the same issue. Smith said unmarried
daughters withered because they were pre-
vented from living their own lives. She
compared the life of a single girl with that
of a boy, saying the life of the dependent
daughter was wasted. And … she made a
plea for the right of all young women to fol-
low their own destiny.
51. Tivoli (aka Horace William Bleack-
ley). Une Culotte or a New Woman: An Im-
possible Story of Modern Oxford. London:
Digby, Long, 1894. This playful novel
weaves a convoluted tale of forlorn love and
intrigue. To learn the truth about men, the
protagonist and her best friend enroll in an
all-male school, disguised as men. Indeed
they learn the truth, but it is not exactly
what they expected and much more than
they bargained for. Author Tivoli revealed
that the “new woman” believes she can re-
form men by boycotting them, but that
good women cannot consort with lib-
ertines — which most men are — and he
blames society for making them that way.
52. Ward, Mrs. Humphry (aka Mary
Augusta). Marcella. London: Smith, Elder,
1894, reprinted with introduction by Amie
32 Primary Works (1894–1938)
Watters. London: Penguin, 1984. Ward
based this novel partly on her experience of
rural life after her family’s move to Hert-
fordshire in 1892. Marcella Boyce, a bud-
ding socialist, returns to the old family
home of Mellor Park with her family, where
she becomes engaged to Aldous Raeburn,
the grandson of the wealthy Lord Maxwell.
As his wife, she believes, she will be able to
enact vast improvements for the poverty-
stricken cottagers. During their engage-
ment, however, she becomes fascinated
with the socialist Harry Wharton, and
when Raeburn refuses to interfere to save
the life of a villager who killed a man while
poaching on the Maxwell estate, Marcella
Boyce breaks off the engagement. She leaves
Mellor to live and work as a nurse among
the poor in London, where she comes to re-
gret her rejection of Raeburn and to recon-
sider her idealistic socialist beliefs. She re-
jects a proposal from Wharton, realizing she
does not love him. After her father’s death,
she returns to Mellor, where she begins im-
provements to the surrounding area. Dis-
covering that Raeburn, now Lord Maxwell,
is still in love with her, she begs his forgive-
ness, and following a full and frank confes-
sion of her previous behavior and attitudes,
they become engaged.
53. Whitby, Beatrice. Mary Fenwick’s
Daughter. London: Hurst and Blackett,
1894. This is the story of Bab, the head-
strong tomboy, only daughter of Mary and
Capt. Godfrey Fenwick. Bab is her nick-
name, a shortened version of “baby” given
to minimize the confusion of having two in
the household (“Bab” and her mother) with
the same name (Mary). The novel chroni-
cles Bab’s many adventures, including those
related to a possible future husband. Al-
though she has no personal agenda for en-
tertaining marriage and with some encour-
agement could become a true New Woman,
her sense of Victorian propriety leads even-
tually to her engagement to two men. A se-
rious accident with a high-spirited horse
Primary Works (1894–1938)
puts her in a dependent position, bringing
her to realize that her lifelong companion,
friend, and first casual fiancé, Jack, is really
the love of her life. In the end they marry,
and though Jack’s attentive ways repelled
her in her prime, as a semi-invalid she wel-
comes his generous aid.
54. Winter, John Strange (aka Henrietta
Stannard). A Blameless Woman. New York:
International News Company, 1894. When
Margaret North is orphaned, she goes to
live with her aunt and uncle in an English
village. Though it is a small place, there are
many amusements, and Margaret finds her-
self the object of two men’s affections. A
Russian/Polish prince sweeps her off her
feet, and she goes to live with him in Berlin
with the impression she will be studying
German under the roof of a respectable En-
glish family. The prince keeps her hidden
from polite society, and when his promise to
take her to Russia for a proper wedding falls
through and she learns he has a wife and
children in Russia, Margaret returns to her
aunt and uncle. She finally agrees to marry
her English suitor, and they have two chil-
dren. As she becomes content with her life,
the prince emerges, her loving husband
learns of her past, and she is forced to pay
for her sins with a divorce. Her independ-
ent spirit comes to the fore after the prince’s
wife dies and he wants to cart Margaret off
again. She refuses to go, remaining in
Britain to be a mother to her children.
1895
55. Allen, Charles Grant Blairfindie.
The Woman Who Did. London: John
Lane/Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1895. In
this novel, Herminia Barton, a Girton Col-
lege graduate, rejects conventional notions
of marriage and childrearing in favor of a
liberated relationship and the pursuit of a
feminist ideal. Her agenda is not truly fem-
inist, as her main concerns are for her lover,
Alan Merrick, and her love child, Dolores
33 54–59
(Dolly). The couple travels to Italy where
Merrick contracts typhoid. Before his un-
timely death, he offers to marry Herminia
Barton. She refuses and loses the support of
both his family and hers. She then focuses
her energy on Dolly, who chooses the con-
ventional life her mother eschewed and
eventually rejects her mother because she
does not “fit” the traditional role. Herminia
ends her life with a phial of prussic acid to
clear the way for her daughter’s upwardly
mobile marriage.
56. Andrew, J. D. “The New Woman.”
The Manchester Quarterly 13 (April 1895):
182–92. Andrew scathingly reviewed sev-
eral new novels by New Women, then laid
the blame for women’s desire for emanci-
pation on John Stuart Mill, whom he called
a “forcibly-feeble failure.” Andrew went
back to Eve in relating the curse of women.
He believed New Women were frustrated
spinsters who would become amiable once
they found a man. The novels discussed are
Story of an African Farm and Dreams by
Olive Schreiner (aka Ralph Iron), Heavenly
Twins by Sarah Grand, and The Yellow Astor
by Iota.
57. Anonymous. “A Dream of the New
Woman.” Punch 58 ( January 1895): 17.
This fifteen-verse poem enumerates the
positive and negative outcomes of New
Womanhood. It was part of an ongoing
Punch series of misogynist New Woman
riddles, poems, letters, and short essays. See
other Anonymous entries for 1894, 1895,
1896, and 1897.
58. ____. Westminster Gazette (10 Jan-
uary 1895): 71. This five-verse rhyme refers
to a specific incident in which the terms
lady (the Victorian concept as decorative
and idle) and woman (the active, progressive
New Woman) were employed.
59. ____. “Nursery Rhyme for the New
Woman.” Punch (2 March 1895): 106. This
six-line rhyme iterates how the feminist
woman tamed her husband.
60–68
60. ____. “The New Woman’s Cam-
era.” The (San Francisco) Examiner, 14
March 1895, p. 14. This short article profiles
San Francisco photographer Mary Winslow,
extolling her abilities and tenacity in car-
rying out her duties professionally, artisti-
cally, as a businesswoman, and on the street.
The manner in which she traveled — don-
ning a man’s hat and carrying a revolver —
illustrates the latter category.
61. ____. “The New Hen: A Fable.”
Punch (23 March 1895): 133. A New Hen
meets an old cock and is telling him how
she has been liberated from laying and
hatching eggs when the mistress of the
house comes to kill her for the evening
meal.
62. ____. “’Array and the New
Woman.” Punch (18 May 1895): 230. This
long rhymed letter, posted to Charlie by
’Arry (Harry) describes the New Woman
phenomenon. ’Arry, who has taken Dan-
nel’s daughter Lil to a New Woman play
that neither could fully appreciate, tells
Charlie he has no intention of marrying. If
he should change his mind, he wouldn’t
“tyke … no New Woman!”
This bonneted New Woman hen is sur-
prised about the egg she laid. Life, 25
March 1909.
34 Primary Works (1894–1938)
63. ____. “‘The Work of the Devil’:
The New Woman’s Bible.” The Woman’s
Tribune 12 (Washington, D.C., 25 May
1895): 85. The author in the first part of
this brief essay simply stated the facts of
publication of the new Bible but in the sec-
ond presented opinion and commentary as
to why women deserve to revise the Bible in
accordance with their own point of view.
64. ____. “Dos Dominae.” Saturday
Review (May–June 1895). The author or au-
thors of this series of articles elicited support
for the New Woman. The third article
chronicles a confrontation between the Old
Woman and New Woman.
65. ____. “The New Woman.” The
Woman’s Column 8 (8 June 1895): 1. This
short article quotes a speech by the Rev. Ida
C. Hultin at a New England Suffrage Fes-
tival. Hultin believed that the New Woman
had existed from the beginning of time but
had only recently come to self-realization.
66. ____. “MISONEOGYNY.” Punch
(20 June 1895): 35. This letter to Mr.
Punch from “A Bachelor” includes a rhyme
proclaiming the New Woman an imaginary
figure.
67. ____. “The New Woman in Trou-
ble.” New York Tribune, 23 June 1895, p.
23, c. 2. This brief article set in Harlem
presents a conversation between two men;
the subject is their fate in light of the ad-
vance of New Women. The first “Man” re-
lates an incident in which he encountered a
distressed New Woman situated outside a
bar with her bicycle. Her dog had gone into
the bar, but she, a respectable woman,
could not. Man went in and rescued dog:
women still need men in some situations.
68. ____. “Advice to the New Woman.”
Review of Reviews 12 ( July 1895): 84–85.
This article reprises so many quotes that
discerning the author’s view is difficult. The
short essay rebuts a piece in Humanitarian
by Florence Hobson.
Primary Works (1894–1938)
69. ____. “The ‘New Woman’ in
Court.” Harvard Law Review 10 (October
1895): 177–78. This excerpt in “Notes”
refers to a divorce case, Groth v. Groth, in
Cook County, Illinois, in which a woman
suing for divorce was ordered to pay al-
imony and solicitor’s fees to her estranged
spouse. The author cited precedence in a
case in England, restitution to the husband
resting in a previous law that put wives on
equal footing with their husbands.
70. ____. “The New Woman.” The
Woman’s Column 8 (12 October 1895): 1.
This seven-verse poem enumerates the ca-
pabilities inherent in the New Woman and
concludes that women have always per-
formed many tasks—there are simply more
now.
71. ____. “The New Woman in Som-
erset: Told by the Old Woman at the
Farm.” Punch (16 November 1895): 229.
The Old Woman pokes fun at the New
Woman through a poem in dialect (perhaps
Cockney) regarding an independent woman
who drops by the farm on her wheel.
72. A. S. B. “The Pilot on ‘The New
Woman.’” The (Boston) Woman’s Journal,
2 February 1895, p. 36. A. S. B. questioned
the policy of the Pilot (acknowledging that
other newspapers were equally at fault) in
admiring individual women regarded as
New Women while denouncing the move-
ment as a whole.
73. Betts, Lillian W. “The New
Woman.” New Outlook 52 (12 October
1895): 587. This short piece defends the
New Woman, who Betts called the “flower
of this marvelous century.”
74. Cleeve, Lucas (aka Adeline G. I.
Kingscote). The Woman Who Wouldn’t.
London: Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton,
Kent, 1895. In this novel, artist Alan D’Arcy
and feminist/activist Opalia Woodgate are
in love. Opalia does not disdain marriage
but believes the union must be one of intel-
35 69–77
lect, friendship, and equality, without the
“degradation” of physical relations. Alan
tries to convince her otherwise, but she does
not relent. Finally they wed, but they do
not consummate the marriage. They go off
to an Italian honeymoon, and all of the art
they see satisfies Alan, but upon their re-
turn to London, he again feels unfulfilled.
He nags Opalia to change her mind, and
unwilling to do so, she returns to social
work. Alan throws himself into his work
and becomes enamored of one of his sitters.
Opalia observes the two in a fit of passion
and seeks the advice of an older woman,
who advises her to submit to biblical
tenets—it is the wife’s responsibility to keep
her husband pure. Opalia returns to Alan
and consummates the marriage, resulting
in the birth of a baby boy who inspires her
“womanly” instincts and puts an end to her
youthful idealism.
75. Clifford, Mrs. W. K. A Flash of
Summer: The Story of a Simple Woman’s Life.
London: Methuen, 1895. Katherine Kerr,
the young niece of Robert Morris, marries
Edward Belcher, a man who anticipates her
inheritance of Morris’s fortune — until
Robert discovers a grandchild by his late
son. Katherine runs away from the philan-
dering Edward, meets and falls in love with
Jim Alford, then becomes convinced she
must return to Edward. When she learns of
Jim’s death, however, her strength to do so
fails her, and she commits suicide.
76. Courtney, William L. The Feminine
Note in Fiction. London: Chapman and
Hall, 1895. In this treatise, the author
feminized and marginalized New Woman
literature.
77. Crackanthorpe, B[lanche] A[lthea]
“Sex in Modern Literature.” Nineteenth
Century 218 (1895): 607–17. After a long in-
troduction on realism in modern plays,
Crackanthorpe discussed sex in relationship
to the theater. She believed it had its place
in theater as a part of life and that those
36 Primary Works (1894–1938)
Primary Works (1894–1938)
who relegated sex to the gutter did so out of
personal disregard for what should be con-
sidered beautiful.
78. Cross, Victoria (aka Vivian Cory).
The Woman Who Didn’t. London: John
Lane, 1895. In this direct response to Allen’s
novel The Woman Who Did, protagonist
Eurydice Williamson falls in love on a jour-
ney back from the East. When her lover
proposes, she confesses that she is already
married. She claims she married after
searching for true love for eight years with-
out finding it, believing at age twenty-three
that it might never occur. Despite her
lover’s persistence, Eurydice elects to stay
the course she has chosen, sacrificing her
happiness as a woman to her sense of duty.
The novel deals well with the double stan-
dard, Eurydice remaining faithful even as
her husband philanders.
79. D’Arcy, Ella. Monochromes. Lon-
don: John Lane, 1895. This collection of
short stories deals, to varying degrees, with
feminist issues. “The Pleasure-Pilgrim” is
of particular interest: Lulie loses the love
and respect of Campbell when he learns of
her sordid past as an actress. She kills her-
self to prove the sincerity and depth of her
feeling for Campbell, whose doubts never-
theless persist.
80. Denison, Thomas Stewart. The
New Woman: A Comedy of A.D. 1950.
Chicago: T. S. Denison, 1895. In this three-
act “futurist” play about the New Woman of
the 1950s, the plot centers on a New
Woman’s club with rigid rules regarding its
members’ involvement with men. The
women eventually sneak exchanges with
men, even proposing marriage, which leads
to dissolution of the club.
81. Dix, Gertrude. The Girl from the
Opposite: A doctor and a colonel meet for a face-to-face discussion of the New
Woman. While the colonel wonders what the New Woman will turn into as she
ages, the doctor assures him that she won’t grow old because she is already ill.
Punch, or the London Charivari, 11 May 1895.
37 78–82
Farm. London: John Lane; Boston: Roberts
Brothers, 1895. This is the story of a valiant
New Woman, Katharine Marchant. The
setting is Allington, the seat of the deanery;
the dean, his wife Ellen, son Hilary, and
daughter Katharine comprise the Marchant
family. The son is weak of mind and body,
whereas the daughter is bright and fit, re-
cently graduated from an English woman’s
college. Katharine has aspirations — she
aims to be a librarian in London. Her fa-
ther, however, uses his eye disease and im-
pending blindness to keep her at home.
Katharine assists with his magnum opus
and intends to leave after its completion.
But he implores her to stay. Befriending a
homeless young pregnant woman—“the girl
from the farm,” whom the dean and his
wife believe to be a blight on their social
status — Katharine leaves home taking the
woman her cowardly brother impregnated.
82. Dougall, Lily. The Madonna of a
Day. New York: D. Appleton, 1895. Young
journalist Mary Howard eschews traditional
notions about religion and womanhood but
denounces the “New Woman” as “pure
myth … a ridiculous and horrid phan-
tasm.” She finds herself stranded with a
group of ill-mannered, threatening men
after sleepwalking from a train while trav-
eling from Vancouver through the Gold
Range to Montreal. After the sinister
Hamilton attempts to force her to marry
him, a deformed dwarf, ironically named
“Handsome,” assists in her escape. Re-
united with her friends, Mary Howard
leaves Handsome to his own devices, and
he, temporarily raised to a better life by her
influence, rapidly returns to vice and dissi-
pation. Recognizing this, she concludes that
such men “could be turned into any sort of
beautiful thing that one chose, if there were
83–86
women to do it, and the women were an-
gels.” Thus the heroine questions the revi-
sion of gender roles in light of the emer-
gence of the New Woman and advocates a
more conventional ideology in which
women’s purpose is to raise men to a higher
plane.
83. Dowie, Ménie Muriel (aka Mrs.
Henry Norman). Gallia. London: Methuen,
1895. In this novel, Gallia Hamesthwaite is
an unconventional young woman who falls
in love with Dark Essex, despite his warn-
ings. After he rejects her, she becomes en-
gaged to Mark Gurdon, the embodiment
of her eugenic ideals. Mark, rejected by
Essex’s sister Margaret, has also kept a mis-
tress, who has miscarried his child. Gallia
learns of Mark’s sordid past but agrees to
marry him, though she makes no pretense
of loving or respecting him. Dark Essex
eventually falls for Gallia, and congratulat-
ing her in the end, he only then discloses
his inherited heart condition.
84. Doyle, A. Conan. Out of the City: A
Story of the New Woman. N.c.: International
Press Association, 1895. This serialized
novel in seventeen chapters was published in
The Weekly Call, Topeka, Kansas, 7 Sep-
tember 1895–11 January 1896. The setting
is “The Wilderness,” a small housing de-
velopment in Norwood, a rural area becom-
ing a London suburb. The misses Williams,
elderly sisters who have inherited farmland,
finally allow three cottages to be built there.
The story centers on the lives of the inhab-
itants, of concern to the Williamses. The
Admiral Hay Denvers and the widower Dr.
Balthazar Walker and his daughters give no
cause for alarm, but Mrs. Westmacott and
her nephew certainly do. Mrs. Westmacott
clearly is a New Woman, and she sets out
with zeal to convert her neighbors into fem-
inists. The admiral is a hard sell, but she
finally charms him onto the platform of a
women’s rights meeting. Meanwhile, the
admiral’s successful stockbroker son Harold,
38 Primary Works (1894–1938)
the Walker daughters Clara and Ida, and
Charles Westmacott partner up. The young
women suspect something between their
widowed father and the New Woman and
plot to show Dad what he’s “in for” if he
succumbs to marriage. Their own love af-
fairs develop until it is revealed that Harold,
Clara’s young man, has been swindled by
his absentee boss and is in grave financial
straits. Mrs. Westmacott saves the day with
her generosity, wealth, and guardianship of
the boss/scoundrel, her brother. The young
Westmacotts marry and go off to ranch in
Texas while the New Woman takes a posi-
tion as head of a women’s college in Col-
orado. The doctor lives with Clara and her
now independently successful stockbroker
husband. Doyle’s portrayal of Mrs. West-
macott allows the New Woman to possess
“feminine” traits without compromising her
feminist views.
85. Egerton, George (aka Mary
Chavelita Dunne Bright). “The Regenera-
tion of Two.” In Discords. London: Elkin
Matthews and John Lane, 1895. This final
story in the collection Discords tells of a
young widow, “a disillusioned woman of
the world,” whose life is transformed fol-
lowing a chance encounter with a poet who
forces her to question traditional gender
roles and woman-to-woman relations. She
establishes a home for women in trouble
and eventually reunites with the poet. The
story concludes with their proposed union,
based on notions of independence and free-
dom.
86. Ford, Isabella O. On the Threshold.
London: Edward Arnold, 1895. This New
Woman novel examines the woman ques-
tion, socialism, and marriage. Lucretia
Bampfylde (narrator) and her friend Kitty
Manners take lodgings together while
studying in London, where they meet Mr.
Estcourt, a fellow student at Kitty’s art
school, and a poet. He convinces them to
join the recently formed socialist society,
Primary Works (1894–1938) 39

William H. Walker, Another New Woman. Life, 7 November 1895.

87–91
where they debate issues such as socialism
and the woman question. They become in-
volved in various escapades that find them
walking through the streets in the middle
of the night, associating with prostitutes,
and so forth. Lucretia Bampfylde becomes
aware that Manners and Estcourt are falling
in love; they eventually decide to marry.
Lucretia reveals that “the idea of marriage
does not attract or interest me very much”
because “women’s lives are so cut up when
they marry” (201). The novel concludes
with the two women sailing down the river
“towards the east — towards the dawn.”
87. Friederichs, Hulda. “The ‘Old’
Woman and the ‘New.’” The Young Woman
3 (1895): 202. In this short piece, Friederichs
defended the New Woman from the naysay-
ers who did not bother to understand what
she was all about. She wrote of two types
of New Women: real and caricatured. She
provided insight into what the real New
Woman was about and compared her with
the Old Woman, limited by society in what
she could do. Friederichs assured the reader
that the Old Woman was admirable but
that hers was not the life that all women
desired.
88. Hall, George F. A Study in Bloomers
or The Model New Woman: A Novel.
Chicago: American Bible House, 1895. This
short novel explores the feminist and
feminine sides of the bloomer-clad New
Woman, Grace Thorne. Her suitor, the
Rev. Dr. Frank Charlton, is at first put off
by the bloomers and the manner in which
the young woman participates in cycling,
riding astride, and other “masculine” athletic
pursuits. In the end he realizes she is tradi-
tional at the core, becomes a convert, and
marries the New Woman.
89. Hamblin, Jessie de Foliart. A New
Woman. Chicago: Charles H. Kerr, 1895.
Two English gentlemen pursue two young
American women in a race for a fiancée and,
subsequently, a wife. Sir Alfred Gates and
40 Primary Works (1894–1938)
Lord Avon set out for America, believing it
to be more fertile ground for romance and
conquest. A £50,000 wage is to be paid to
the man who succeeds first. Sir Alfred se-
cures a hasty engagement, but the wedding
does not come off, and eventually his
fiancée, Agnes Easton, the daughter of a
Congressman, breaks the engagement. Her
school friend, Helen Herman, an orphan/
heiress with three million dollars, offers to
take Alfred off Agnes’s hands though her
plans do not include marriage. Circum-
stances intervene and all become aware that
Alfred is in pursuit of fortune. Meanwhile,
Helen develops feelings for Lord Avon, but
with his attempt to “play hard-to-get,”
Helen loses interest. Although her fortunes
reverse and Helen goes to England to work
as an actress, she remains true to her New
Woman precepts. She refuses him, decid-
ing to return to America to take up a mean-
ingful life in politics.
90. Hannigan, D. F. “Sex in Fiction,”
Westminster Review 143 (1895): 616–25.
This critique of contemporary criticism of
the New Novel in the Contemporary, by
James Ashcroft Noble, weaves in the au-
thor’s opinion of Grant Allen’s The Woman
Who Did. Hannigan maintained that sex
was a part of life and as such should be dealt
with in literature.
91. Hardy, Thomas. Jude the Obscure.
London: Methuen, 1895. In this novel, pro-
tagonist Sue Bridehead (suggesting a vir-
ginal maidenhead) represents the emanci-
pated New Woman both in theory and in
body. She is the wife of Philotson, whom
she leaves to be with her cousin and lover,
Jude Fawley. Sue and Jude have two chil-
dren and she is pregnant with a third when
Jude’s son from a former marriage kills the
children and himself in response to the fu-
tility and hardships of life. Sue miscarries.
She leaves Jude and the ideals they shared to
return to her marriage and the conventions
it represents, and lives on in misery after
Jude’s premature death.
Primary Works (1894–1938) 41 92

Fashionable Fads and The New Woman. This compilation of images depicts the
variety of activities and sports in which New Women may engage. Cincinnati
Enquirer, 13 October 1896.

92. Harrison, Constance Cary. A Bach-
elor Maid. London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1895.
In this novel, Mr. Justice Irving marries his
daughter Marion’s erstwhile teacher and
companion, Sara Stauffer (a lecturer on
women’s rights). Alexander Gordon, the
object of Marion’s affection, is aware of
Stauffer’s shadowy past and acknowledges
her feminist hypocrisy. Wishing to protect
Marion from the damage to her family’s
93–98
reputation that disclosing the truth about
Stauffer would cause after the marriage,
Gordon allows Marion to believe he loves
Stauffer. Marion experiments with inde-
pendence by living in an apartment with
another single woman, Mignon Cox. In the
end, Stauffer deserts Justice Irving, and
though Cox and Marion Irving both have
had inclinations toward living independent
lives, they are true women who marry their
mates of choice.
93. Henry, Josephine K. “The New
Woman of the South.” The Arena (Febru-
ary 1895): 353–62. This essay pleas for en-
franchisement and lists the reasons for
which the women of the American South
believed they should have it. Following his
conclusion, the author provided excerpts
from letters and petitions from women re-
questing her vote.
94. Henry, Richard (aka Henry Chase
Newton and Richard Butler). The Newest
Woman: The Destined Monarch of the World.
London: Chapman and Hall, 1895. Un-
available worldwide. The author and pub-
lisher are also listed as: Millie Finkelstein
… Melbourne, Australia: Melbourne
Sportsman, 1895. One copy is available at
the State Library of Victoria in Melbourne.
95. Hilton, Alice. “‘The New Woman’:
Is She New?” The Chautauquan 21 (August
1895): 621–22. Here Hilton expressed her
views regarding the independence of Amer-
ican women. She claimed these women, es-
pecially those of the middle class, had been
more capable than women of other countries
due to their roles as pioneers. She then ad-
vised women to ignore the call of the edu-
cated New Woman to remain single. These
women, she claimed, should observe the ad-
vances of women in the western United
States who were especially strong and equal
to the men they married.
96. Holnut, W. S. Olympia’s Journal.
London: George Bell and Sons, 1895. This
novel takes the form of a diary published, so
42 Primary Works (1894–1938)
the narrator claims in the introduction, as
a confession. Olympia Colville Daw, a vain,
self-assured young woman, aspires to be-
come a successful novelist. She practices her
art by keeping a diary and studying the
character of her acquaintances. Upon meet-
ing the eccentric millionaire George Braith-
waite, Daw decides that marriage to him
will provide her the opportunity to study
his character in detail and thus to produce
a great novel. Following the marriage, she
discovers they are entirely unsuited for one
another, and after he steals the notebooks in
which she has recorded her cruel observa-
tions of his character, they separate. Some
months later, she is called to his bedside.
Realizing she is largely to blame for his im-
pending death, she asks his forgiveness. He
begs her to allow him to take her note-
books, which she has not read, to the grave
with him, proud that his wife has written so
much about him. She agrees and he dies,
leaving her guilt-ridden.
97. Hunt, Violet. A Hard Woman: A
Study in Scenes. New York: Appleton, 1895.
In this novel, frivolous socialite Lydia
Barker marries artist Ferdinand Munday.
Lydia flirts and teases men such as Cossie
Davenant, who later threatens to blackmail
her with indiscreet letters. Ferdinand, who
has meanwhile fallen in love with Nevill
France, his model and an up-and-coming
actress, becomes a slave to commercial suc-
cess to satisfy the demands of Lydia’s shal-
low lifestyle. Just when the heartless Lydia
realizes her love for Ferdinand, he begins to
long for Nevill as he idealized her in his
masterpiece.
98. Iota (aka Kathleen Mannington
Caffyn). A Comedy in Spasms. London:
Hutchinson, 1895. In this novel, Australian
Elizabeth Marrable marries Richard Prynne
but loves Tom Temple. She chooses not to
dishonor herself by eloping with Tom. In-
stead, she devotes herself to nursing the
headaches of her older husband.
Primary Works (1894–1938)
99. Kenealy, Arabella. The Honourable
Mrs. Spoor. London: Digby, Long, 1895.
This novel focuses on class boundaries and
the role of women in high society. The “ho-
nourable” Mrs. Besley Spoor attempts to
conceal her disreputable past as an actress
from her husband’s respectable friends but
becomes concerned after encountering a
young girl while running through the
woods near her home with flowers in her
hair — an attempt to counter the oppressive
feelings resulting from time spent with her
husband’s social circle. She gradually be-
comes obsessed with the idea of discovery
and consequently her façade begins to slip:
she drinks excessively, paints her face, and
swears — seemingly reverting to her former
character. She eventually decides to kill the
girl, whom she considers responsible for her
downfall, but just before she stabs her, she
realizes the girl is blind and could not have
seen her in the woods. Realizing that “her
undoing had been but her own doing”
(276), she gives the girl all her jewels along
with a note for her husband with instruc-
tions for delivery the next day, reveals she is
“going to try if work will drive the devil out
of me” (278), and disappears into the night.
100. Kinross, Albert. A Game of Con-
sequences. London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1895.
In this novel, Jessica Clarke, a young and
ambitious governess, elopes with Capt. Jack
Winter after ensuring that he has made
ample provision for her future if/when he
tires of her. When they fall in love and Jack
proposes, Jessica insists he test his love for
her by going out among other women be-
fore their lifelong commitment. Jack meets
Eva Gray and Jessica meets Leslie Crake,
but Eva and Leslie are paired off at a New
Year’s Eve party as Jessica and Jack are pre-
sumed married.
101. Linton, Elizabeth Lynn. At the
Excelsior. New York: Merriam, 1895. In
chapter 4 of this novel, “The New Woman:
In Haste and at Leisure,” Linton’s protago-
43 99–103
nist, Phoebe Barrington, turns into an ego-
tistical and vain monster. Subliminally,
Barrington desires independence, yet she
mocks those who achieve it. There may be
some autobiographical elements — inde-
pendent in her youth, Linton later became
antifeminist.
102. Mann, Mary E. Susannah. Lon-
don: Henry, 1895. The status and well-
being of the Upwell children (all in their
twenties) is shattered upon the death of
their father, and they are left to fend for
themselves — almost. According to Victo-
rian propriety the three girls must be placed
with a new family, while their brother is al-
lowed to continue his medical studies in
London. Susannah (called Susan) goes to
live with her deceased mother’s good friend,
a self-righteous tightwad. At a point of des-
peration after being promised to the son,
Susan learns that her brother is ill and goes
to London to find employment as a maid
in his boardinghouse. The plot is long but
intriguing — the brother eventually kills
himself and his doctor, and Susan falls in
love. Incidents related to social status delay
Susan and her sweetheart from declaring
their love. There is a problem with the en-
gagement, but Susan continues to display
self-sufficiency.
103. Marsh, Richard. Mrs. Musgrave
and Her Husband. London: William Heine-
mann, 1895. This novel bears the hallmarks
of both New Woman and sensation fiction.
Mr. Musgrave, recently married, suspects
his wife is the daughter of a convicted mur-
derer after overhearing a conversation in
which a Dr. Byam implicates her. His sus-
picions are seemingly confirmed when his
wife reveals her dislike for Byam, who is
found murdered shortly afterwards. Mus-
grave discovers the murder weapon in his
wife’s handbag and disposes of it. He vows
to stand by his wife, who soon gives birth to
a daughter. Shortly afterward, Musgrave
reads in the paper that a clue to the murder
104–108
has been found. A few days later, the paper
reports that Mrs. Musgrave is wanted by the
police. She reveals to her husband that she
killed Byam after he threatened to divulge
to Musgrave that her father killed her
mother unless she “would come to him in
his bed one night” (80). The couple travels
to Brussels, where Musgrave makes arrange-
ments for them to flee to America. Before
they can put their plans into action, how-
ever, Mr. Charlecote, a friend of Byam who
is investigating his murder, discovers their
whereabouts. Musgrave and Charlecote
fight, and Charlecote is accidentally killed.
Mrs. Musgrave is distraught; convinced
they will end up in the gallows, the Mus-
graves spend a final night together. When
the police arrive in the morning, they kill
themselves and their daughter, thus escap-
ing “man’s justice” (190).
104. Matheson, E. “The New Woman”
(poem). Shafts: A Paper for Women and the
Working Classes 3 (August 1895): 69. This
four-verse poem supporting the New
Woman praises those who dare to take on
tasks that men are unwilling to tackle.
Originally published in Chambers’s Journal,
it was reprinted in the New York Tribune on
February 14, 1895, then in Shafts.
105. Meade, T. A. “The New Woman.”
To-day’s Woman (22 June 1895): 14. After
denouncing the fictitious construction of
a New Woman, Meade celebrated all that
was good about the progressive, “true” New
Woman who was becoming her own per-
son.
106. Moore, George. Celibates. Lon-
don: W. Scott, 1895. This three-story
collection begins with that of Mildred Law-
son. She breaks off an unhappy engage-
ment, briefly pursues an art and then a writ-
ing career, while experiencing several
disastrous relationships from which she
gains her sense of self-worth. She returns
home to her brother after a foolish invest-
ment in a socialist newspaper ruins her
44 Primary Works (1894–1938)
financially. Mildred comes full circle, en-
gaged once again to the man she left at the
outset — whom she rightly suspects of hav-
ing proposed only after her brother’s un-
timely death left her an heiress. Two other
narratives follow.
107. Paston, George (aka Emily Morse
Symonds). A Study in Prejudices. New York:
D. Appleton, 1895. This novel features
characters practicing gender roles atypical
in the Victorian era. Two sisters work out-
side the home while their brother takes re-
sponsibility for maintaining the home. Ce-
cily, the protagonist, challenges the idea of
femininity while remaining independent.
108. Pickering, Percival. A Pliable
Marriage. London: Osgood, McIlvaine,
1895. In this novel, Dora Grant, a New
Woman, is engaged to Allen Drummond,
but the proposed marriage is one of con-
venience: she wishes to marry for monetary
reasons, while he requires a housekeeper
and hostess. Allen plans to make Dora fall
in love with him, then to reciprocate with
the secret feelings he has for her. The mar-
riage takes place; shortly Allen receives news
that the husband of the woman he once
loved, Clare Berner, has died. The newly-
weds travel to London, where Allen is to act
as executor to Mr. Berner’s estate, which
necessitates his spending much time with
Clare. Dora, realizing she is falling in love
with her husband, suspects he still loves
Clare. Clare seemingly confirms Dora’s sus-
picions, showing her a love letter from
Allen, in fact written many years earlier.
Dora tells Allen she is in love — but doesn’t
reveal that he is the object of her affection—
and requests an end to the marriage. She
travels to London where she intends to re-
sume her maiden name, keep a bonnet
shop, give lessons, and try lecturing. Some
time later, Allen is badly injured in an ac-
cident. Clare sits at his bedside, but he mis-
takes her for Dora and she realizes he is in
love with Dora. Clare travels to London
Primary Works (1894–1938)
and confesses to Dora. Dora returns with
Clare and is reunited with her husband.
109. Pinero, Arthur Wing. The Ama-
zons: A Farcical Romance in Three Acts.
Boston: W. H. Baker, 1895. Miriam, Mar-
chioness of Castlejordan, and her husband,
Jack, in their youth had been determined
to conceive male children. As it turns out,
they have three girls but give them mascu-
line names and dress and rear them as boys.
All is set “right” when the girls became
young women and find their imposed roles
too narrow. Against their mother’s wishes,
they find they enjoy the companionship of
three young men. This play was first per-
formed at the Court Theatre in London on
7 March 1893, running until 8 July. Its
greatest success was at the Lyceum Theatre
in New York, where “The Amazons became
the talk of the town.” After opening in Feb-
ruary 1894, and running about eighteen or
nineteen weeks, The Amazons went on tour.
110. ____. The Notorious Mrs. Ebb-
smith. London: Heinemann, 1895. This
four-act play is set in Venice over a one-
week period including Easter. The main
characters are British citizens on holiday,
involved in a triangular relationship. It is
the old story of the misunderstood hus-
band, his slighted wife, and his lover, who
agrees to soil her reputation in the interest
of modernity and free love. Agnes Ebb-
smith, a widow with no regrets, is the social-
ist/feminist who advocates a meeting of the
minds with Lucas Cleeve, a “gentleman”
with political aspirations, willing to forsake
all for love. Friends and relations manipu-
late and interfere, but in the end the two
women in the triangle see eye to eye. Al-
though the conclusion of the drama is un-
clear, Cleeve appears to left with little but
his political position.
111. Raimond, C. E. (aka Elizabeth
Robins). The New Moon. New York: D. Ap-
pleton, 1895. This novel concerns the mar-
ried Dr. Geoffrey Monroe, and Dorothy,
45 109–114
the granddaughter of one of his patients.
Their intense friendship grows into a mature
but unconsummated love. Both the dullard
wife and crabby grandmother are ill, but
they seem to persevere in keeping the cou-
ple apart. Dorothy is the doctor’s intellec-
tual equal and has feminist notions that she
never acts upon except to accept that she
will never really be with him and must be
satisfied with the status quo.
112. Ralph, Julian. “The Sad Fate of a
New Woman.” The Cosmopolitan 20 (No-
vember 1895): 548–52. In this story, New
Woman Mildred Starke of New York City
has had a career speaking on feminist issues
and she enjoys athletic events and contests,
but Jack Hibbard sweeps her off her fee.
Hibbard has enjoyed manly activities and
loved entertaining at his hunting lodge. After
only a few weeks of marriage he invites sev-
eral friends for a weekend adventure, as does
his wife. To Mildred, Jack is more interested
in his friends than in her, and she becomes
determined to go back to her mother.
113. Rita (aka Eliza Humphreys). A
Woman in It. Philadelphia: Lippincott,
1895. The “Introductory” notes that this
story does not end in matrimony or death
as most novels do. Mrs. Noel Gray is the
nom de plume of Nina Garrett, the Irish
protagonist of this novel. She is estranged
from her crooked husband, and Lutie (Lu-
cretia Gabwell) becomes her trusted spinster
friend. They exchange honest jibes revealed
through diary entries and letters. Gray/Gar-
rett’s life leads to many escapades in em-
ployment and relationships, both male and
female. The novel, a study in psychology,
takes the reader on a long, involved route in
exploring the intimacy between the two
women at center stage; the male characters
operate in the wings, weaving in and out of
the women’s lives.
114. Sharp, Evelyn. At the Relton Arms.
London: John Lane, 1895. In this novel,
two brothers, Digby and Jack Raleigh, share
115–123
an infatuation with Lady Joan Relton. Rel-
ton’s parents died when she was young, and
she has grown up being independent. She
loves to flirt and even accepts proposals for
brief periods, but she has no interest in mar-
riage. Digby is a musician and she hates
music; Jack is a wanderer with no intention
of settling down. Lady Joan likes them both
but likes her freedom more. In her youth
she aspired to the visual arts, but in the end
she determines to write a novel.
115. Stutfield, Hugh. “Tommyrotics.”
Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine 157 ( June
1895): 833–45. Spurred by Max Nordau’s
Degeneration, author Stutfield denounced
novels and plays by and about the New
Woman. This literature so threatened his
radical conservatism that he suggested con-
tacting the police to ban such publications.
As the title suggests, Stutfield believed the
New Woman’s concerns were nonsense.
116. Sudermann, Hermann. Magda:
A Play in Four Acts. Translated from the
German by Charles Edward Amory
Winslow. Boston: Lamson, Wolffe, 1895.
Magda, the prodigal daughter returning
home from an eleven-year absence, is not
welcome. Her military father had cast her
from the Schwartze home because she re-
fused to conform: she rejected the suitor her
father chose for her and went off to pursue
a career as an opera singer. After a struggle
to achieve fame and financial stability,
Magda is invited to appear in a music fes-
tival in her hometown. After some cajoling
by the local pastor, Schwartze softens his
stance and receives Magda. Schwartze and
his second wife, Magda’s stepmother, are
shocked by some of her tales, but nothing
compares with the revelation that she has a
son fathered by the revered councilor, Dr.
Von Keller. Schwartze insists they marry,
and Magda reluctantly agrees, but when
Von Keller says she must give up her career
to aid him in his and that their son must be
cast away, she flatly refuses. This New
Woman definitely has a mind of her own.
46 Primary Works (1894–1938)
117. Sykes, A. G. P. “The Evolution of
the Sex.” Westminster Review 143 ( January–
June 1895): 396–400. This author merci-
lessly criticized the abilities of New Woman
authors of novels and plays, referring to
them as “the modern feminine.”
118. U. V. W. “The New Woman.”
The Monthly Packet 89 (1895): 128–30. This
short antifeminist essay outlines the unfem-
inine manners of the New Woman.
1896
119. Anonymous. “The Old Way with
the New Woman.” The Woman’s Journal 25
( January 1896): 30. This is a reprint of a
five-stanza poem from Punch.
120. ____. “Bishops and the New
Woman.” The Woman’s Journal: Boston (18
July 1896): 227. Several Methodist bishops
commented on the New Woman with a va-
riety of exclamations ranging from total ac-
ceptance to total rejection.
121. ____. “The New Woman.” Truth,
or, Testimony for Christ 22 ( July 1896):
369–70. Ensconced in a section titled
“Notes by the Way,” this short paragraph
notes that all biblical sources from Genesis
to Revelations point to women remaining
silent. The anonymous author wrote that
ignoring this dictate was expected of Uni-
tarians but that the Salvation Army, the
Presbyterians, and even the Methodists al-
lowed women to preach was shocking.
122. ____. “What Is a (New) Woman
Like?” Punch (3 October 1896): 158. This
article was part of an ongoing Punch series
of misogynist New Woman riddles, poems,
letters, and short essays. See other Anony-
mous entries for 1894, 1895, 1896, and 1897.
123. ____. “A Chat with Madame
Sarah Grand.” Hub 11 (17 October 1896):
419–20. In this interview Grand discussed
her experiences with cycling, noting that
only a year earlier, in 1895, she had begun
Primary Works (1894–1938)
using “the wheel” in Paris. A young Amer-
ican student, then residing with her, had
encouraged her to ride. When asked about
her “cycling costume,” Grand replied that in
Paris she wore bloomers but in the English
countryside she felt compelled to wear a
skirt. She did not cycle in London. Grand
treated at length the physical and psycholog-
ical advantages of cycling, especially for
those engaged in “brain work.”
124. ____. “The New Woman.” The
Woman’s Journal (26 December 1896): 407.
In this reprint of a letter to the editor of a
prominent newspaper in India in response
to a September article regarding modern
fiction, the female author argued point by
point that the New Woman was entitled to
equality in every area of her life and that
moving into traditional “male” arenas did
not make her manly.
125. ____. “A Russian ‘New Woman.’”
Temple Bar 108 (1896): 518–29. In this short
William H. Walker, The New Navy. The commanding “battle-axe” is hardly
admirable according to this caricature. Life, 16 April 1896.
47 124–127
story, New Woman Sophie is a domineer-
ing and manipulative yet beautiful witch
and her husband, Alexander, is a meek,
beaten-down puppet. His mother comes for
a visit and Sophie dictates her husband’s
every move. The story illustrates that the
New Woman was seen as antithetical to the
True Woman, who was subservient to her
husband. Many comic images of the New
Woman depicted women telling men what
to do.
126. Braun, Lily von Gizycki. Die Neue
Frau in der Dichtung. Stuttgart: Dietz Ver-
lag, 1896. In this early essay of European
literary works, Braun described the New
Woman as a recent phenomenon with dis-
parate identities. The term New Woman
identified the emancipated female ideal and
denounced women rejecting traditional
roles.
127. Coleman, A. H. “The Newest
New Woman.” Free Review 7 (November
128–130 48 Primary Works (1894–1938)

1896): 220–24. We include this review of
Chrystal: The Newest of Women —a book by
“An Exponent,” likely published in 1896
when Coleman wrote this review—in hopes
that someone may find a copy of the book.
We can find no other reference to it.
128. Collins, May L. A Plea for the New
Woman. An address delivered before the
Ohio Liberal Society, February 2, 1896.
New York: Truth Seeker, 1896. Speaker
Collins linked the progress she saw in lib-
erating women to the theory of evolution.
She claimed that war and ignorance held
women from progressing and noted that
women’s lot improved during peace, citing
as an example that the United States led
other nations in its treatment of women —
primarily because of its paucity of war.
Collins also examined world religions, con-
cluding that no religion was fair to wom-
ankind. She interspersed her address with
quotes from noted authors, primarily the
philosopher/political economist J. S. Mill
and his wife, Harriet Taylor.
129. De Koven, Mrs. Reginald. “The
New Woman and Golf Playing.” The Cos-
mopolitan 21 ( July 1896): 352–61. The
greater portion of this article provides a his-
tory and how-to of golf. Though De Koven
encouraged women and recognized two
clubs owned and operated by women, she
admonished female readers to defer to men
on the links.
130. Frederic, Harold. The Damnation
of Theron Ware. Chicago/New York: Her-

This image accompanies an article in The Cosmopolitan about the great strides
women were then making in playing and competing in golf matches. It is
significant that this woman is situated alone in the center of the composition.
The Cosmopolitan, 21 August 1896.
Primary Works (1894–1938)
bert S. Stone, 1896. While the women in
this novel play secondary roles to the pro-
tagonist, Theron Ware, they are all stronger
than he. As the town’s new Methodist min-
ister, Ware is expected to symbolize
strength, but he doesn’t. His recent move
to an inhospitable church appears to induce
discontent into his life. For intellectual
stimulants he courts the Catholic priest and
a retired doctor (the priest’s friend) as well
as an Irish redhead (New Woman) who
plays the organ like an angel. Ultimately he
falls in love with the redhead, who de-
nounces marriage (likely because she is in-
volved with the priest). Ware’s wife, Alice,
is stalwart and awaits his emotional and
physical return. She takes charge, forcing
him to quit the ministry, and they move to
Seattle. The novel was published in En-
gland as The Illumination.
131. Glasier, Katharine Bruce. Aimée
Furness, Scholar. London: Clarion Office,
1896. Unavailable worldwide.
132. Graffenried, Clare de. “The New
Woman and Her Debts.” Popular Science
Monthly 49 (September 1896): 664–72.
This author pointed to the contributions
of the ancient woman and called for a return
to the pre-industrialized world of hand-
crafts. She both lamented and celebrated
increased paid employment for women
and called for greater control of the ex-
ploitation of women and children in facto-
ries. The piece is inconsistent, both ex-
tolling the virtues of tenement wives in
keeping crowded spaces neat and clean and
criticizing them for disorder. As to how
woeful conditions might be improved, she
called upon the fin de siècle New Woman to
educate young women so they could better
stand up for themselves but admonished
them to not forget the traditional values of
their foremothers.
133. Hansson, Laura Marholm. Six
Modern Women: Psychological Sketches. Trans.
Hermione Ramsden. Boston: Roberts Broth-
49 131–135
ers, 1896. Hansson offered a biographical
introduction to and analysis of the lives of
“six modern women” who distinguished
themselves in fields including education,
literature, and theater: Sonia Kovalevsky,
George Egerton, Eleonora Duse, Amalie
Skram, Marie Bashkirtseff, and Anne Char-
lotte Edgren-Leffler. While Hansson’s treat-
ment was often sympathetic to her subjects,
she combined this sympathy with seemingly
stark antifeminist sentiments, suggesting
that in all cases cited, “womanly feeling …
asserts itself in spite of everything” (v) and
concluding: “The more highly a woman’s
mind and body are developed, the less is she
able to dispense with man, who is the
source of her great happiness or great sorrow,
but who, in either case, is the only meaning
of her life. For without him she is nothing”
(191).
134. Harvey, H. E. “The Voice of
Woman.” Westminster Review 145 ( Janu-
ary–June 1896), 193–36. In this short essay,
Harvey exposed the evils of the double stan-
dard and the methodology that made
women internalize it. The author articu-
lated progressive views of “women’s place”
because women were beginning to “have
opinions of their own” and they deserved
“a fair hearing.”
135. Hunt, Violet. The Way of Mar-
riage. London: Chapman and Hall, 1896.
The introduction to this collection of short
stories about marriage begins with a scene
in which Mrs. Munday challenges the nov-
elist Mr. St. Jerome (the narrator of the sto-
ries) to tell her the history of various guests
at a dinner party. She asks him to “write
down the secret histories—the why and the
wherefore — of the marriages of all these
people” (xii). The stories that follow pur-
port to be Mr. St. Jerome’s account of the
people, including that of a man duped into
marrying a woman from a lower social
sphere, an aristocrat who fell in love with an
actress with a shady past, a woman who dis-
covered the night before her wedding that
136–140 50
her husband previously lived with another
woman, a couple whose relationship is
overshadowed by the woman’s memory of
an earlier love affair, a woman reluctant to
marry and abandon her role as homemaker
Miss Pauline French is depicted riding her horse
through Central Park in the controversial
“astride” position. The riding costume she
designed is described in detail in the article
about her. French was the daughter of Mark
Hanna, a United States Senator from Ohio.
Reprinted in Cincinnati Enquirer, 31 October
1896.
Primary Works (1894–1938)
to her mother and siblings, and a semi-
supernatural tale of a woman who appar-
ently wishes her husband back to life and
is consequently forced to live a kind of
death in life.
136. Kenealy, Arabella. “The
Dignity of Love.” Humanitarian
8 ( January–June 1896). A portion
of this article —“Thank Heaven
for the New Woman!”— is re-
printed in Juliet Gardiner, The
New Woman (1993), 27–28.
137. MacCorrie, John Paul.
“The War of the Sexes.” Catholic
World 63 (August 1896): 605–18.
The author of this essay begins by
dismissing the nervousness of peo-
ple concerned about the New
Woman movement and continues
to iterate his support for the
equality for women—within their
own sphere. At the heart of his ar-
gument is the claim that women
must stay in their place according
to biblical dictates. If woman dares
enter the so-called masculine
world, he wrote, the natural order
is disturbed and trouble will be
the result.
138. Metcalfe. “To a Would-
be New Woman.” Life (9 January
1896): 27. This poem asks women
to remain in their current situa-
tions, promising better times and
suggesting that only ugly women
get involved with suffrage.
139. Meynell, Alice. “The
Wares of Autolycus.” Pall Mall
Gazette (2 January 1896). This is
a satiric diatribe on the New
Woman.
140. Morgan-Dockrell, Mrs.
C. “Is the New Woman a Myth?”
Humanitarian 8 ( January–June
1896): 339–50. In this essay,
Primary Works (1894–1938)
Morgan-Dockrell traced gender equality
back to Adam and Eve. She maintained that
the intention of the creator of the universe
was to make woman and man equal in all
respects, especially intellectually, but that
that interpretation of the concept had gone
awry. She claimed that the fictional New
Woman was not representative of the move-
ment as a whole and that the excesses in-
corporated into New Woman characters
would dissipate. She believed that equality
in all areas of life would prevail, bringing
men and women together for mutual good.
She predicted, in a straightforward and
strong futuristic argument, that the road to
achieving this goal would be rocky. This is
her only extant work.
141. Oliphant, Margaret. “The Anti-
Marriage League.” Blackwood’s Edinburgh
Magazine 159 (1896): 135–49. In this article,
Oliphant, a conservative novelist, attacked
Thomas Hardy’s Jude the Obscure and Grant
Allen’s The Woman Who Did. Both novels
were too radical for Mrs. Oliphant, and she
accused the New Woman writers of form-
ing an “anti-marriage league.” She objected
vehemently to the weak, puppet-like men in
Jude. Oliphant believed it unnatural to re-
verse accepted gender roles and suggested
Hardy’s reversal rested on his preference
that his characters not marry. She referred
to the females in each novel as “animal” or
“savage” because they engaged in sex outside
of marriage. She maintained that the nov-
els backfire because readers wind up feeling
sorry for the men.
142. Pope, Barbara E. “The New
Woman.” Waverly Magazine (18 July 1896).
Margaret Hartwell was a young married
woman from Wyoming. Her husband
Frank, an attorney, fully ascribed to tradi-
tional male and female roles. Margaret
believed, however, that she could do every-
thing a man could do. Frank’s first en-
counter with his wife’s liberation came
when she fixed the shutters that the carpen-
ter was supposed to mend. Frank was
51 141–147
shocked that his wife would undertake a
manly task. He was further shocked when
she confided in him that idleness did not
suit her and that she intended to go to court
with him. The short story is on microfilm
at the Library of Congress, unfortunately
not in entirety.
143. Robinson, John Bunyon. The
New Woman and Other Poems. Chicago: C.
M. Barnes, 1896. This is a seventy-eight-
page poetic diatribe on the personhood of
the New Woman.
144. Rugg, George. The New Woman:
A Farcical Sketch with One Art, One Scene
and One Purpose. Boston: W. H. Baker,
1896. This short skit based on Pilgrim’s
Progress reverses the roles of the main char-
acters. Darius Simpkins is a househusband,
his wife Maria an attorney. Author Rugg
clearly demonstrated the isolation of
women with young children, in a humor-
ous manner. Ultimately Darius rebels,
claiming Maria will hereafter share the
household drudgery.
145. Rutherford, Mark (aka William
Hale White). Clara Hapgood. London: T.
Fisher Unwin, 1896. In this novel, Madge
Hapgood breaks off an impetuous engage-
ment after becoming pregnant by her fiancé,
Frank. Later, Clara Hapgood passes up the
chance to marry the man she loves —
Baruch Cohen — so that he may fall in love
with her stigmatized sister and provide her
and her child a somewhat normal life. Clara
enlists to aid an Italian, Mazzini, in the role
of spy. She dies in Italy, but Baruch and
Madge name their daughter after her.
146. Seabury, Emma Playter. “The
New Woman.” New England Magazine 14
( July 1896), 641. In this five-verse rhyme
Seabury asserted that the New Woman was
not militant — she simply wanted to partic-
ipate in every aspect of life while remain-
ing a warm, caring person.
147. Smith, John. Platonic Affections.
London: John Lane/Boston: Roberts Broth-
148–151
ers, 1896. In this novel, George Heaton’s
fate is sealed when he leases a summer cot-
tage in the seaside resort of Lifport in North
Devon. There he breaks out of a solitary
life to befriend the Captain Whitstables and
the widow Nelly Elton, Mrs. Whitstable’s
sister. George returns to Britain after a two-
year absence, eager to see his dear friend
Parson Jack Passmore. Meanwhile his pla-
tonic feelings for Nelly intensify, but he
cannot give in to love due to his earlier, un-
requited love for a married woman. George
and Nelly agree to live as sister and brother
in an abandoned home known as “Venn’s
Folly” near the parson’s abode. The name of
the house becomes a metaphor for the pla-
tonic relationship within its walls. It turns
out that George’s first love has died, leav-
ing a daughter, and Passmore places the
child in the care of Nelly and George. She
serves as communicator between her surro-
gate parents, who finally agree their platonic
experiment is a failure.
148. Syrett, Netta. Nobody’s Fault.
London and Boston: John Lane and Robert
Brothers (respectively), 1896. This New
Woman novel tells the story of Bridget
Ruan, the daughter of a publican and his
wife. She receives a good education and
subsequently struggles against the monotony
of everyday life among her mother’s ac-
quaintances before escaping to an equally
unfulfilling life as a teacher. Eventually she
finds some success as a writer, then makes
an unhappy marriage and consequently sep-
arates from her husband. Falling in love
with an old friend, Larry Carey, she pre-
pares to embark on a relationship with him,
but when her father suddenly dies, she
sacrifices this possibility of happiness for
the sake of her mother.
149. Thompson, Maurice. “Is the New
Woman New?” Essays from the Chap-Book.
Chicago: Herbert S. Stone’s, 1896. Though
Thompson claimed earlier support for
woman suffrage and paid lip service to “full
52 Primary Works (1894–1938)
freedom,” he chastised the “manly woman,”
using the sixteenth-century French author
and feminist Louise Labé as scapegoat. He
seems particularly irritated with and threat-
ened by New Woman protagonists in con-
temporary novels. He advocated separate
spheres and used the voice of a “Noble” un-
identified woman to reinforce his argument
citing the “great” three M’s — men, mar-
riage, and maternity—as hallmarks of wom-
anhood and chastise the Louise Labés of the
world, likened to a “recurring decimal.”
150. Tomlinson, Annie E. “The New
Woman and the Marriage Question.”
(Boston) Woman’s Journal 27 (6 September,
1896): 1. Although Tomlinson referred to
the recent increase in divorce as a “disease,”
she fully supported women’s desire for
equality. She acknowledged that the dispar-
ity of the sexes had existed throughout
history but believed woman’s awareness of
the power of the male had caused her dis-
content. In this forward-thinking article,
Tomlinson advocated that married women
keep their maiden names and be financially
independent. She further stated that the
family with a male at the helm went against
democratic principles. She believed the
New Woman would rectify the inequality in
marriage through her economic independ-
ence (“the modern industrial woman”) and
ability to wait until men value women’s
worth. If men did this, the basic marriage
“problem” would be solved.
151. Tooley, Sarah A. “The Woman’s
Question: An Interview with Madame
Sarah Grand.” Humanitarian 8 (March
1896): 160–69. The interview Grand af-
forded Tooley took place after the publica-
tion of Heavenly Twins. The topics they
covered include the enfranchisement of
women, admitting women to Parliament,
women as cyclists and proper apparel when
cycling, divorce, male and female cohabita-
tion without marriage, and books by Grant
Allen and Thomas Hardy. Grand was pre-
Primary Works (1894–1938) 53 152

Frances Benjamin Johnston’s Self Portrait as a New Woman was made circa 1896.
Johnston was a professional Washington, D.C., photographer who depicted her-
self in the attitude of the New Woman of the 1890s. Library of Congress.

dictably feminist in her answers, but she
maintained that young married women
must remain in the home to nurture and
educate their children. A photograph of
Grand is included.
152. Warden, Gertrude. The Sentimen-
tal Sex. New York: D. Appleton, 1896. Mrs.
Lambert, whose nom de plume is Iris, sup-
ports herself by writing a volume of roman-
tic poems. They fall into the hands of Niel
153–160
Vansittart, a young English emigrant to
Australia. He falls in love and, after making
his fortune in farming and real estate, sails
back to England to pursue his “Iris.” After
persuading her to marry him by revealing
his income, he realizes he cannot make her
into the perfect wife he has envisioned.
They are ill suited; jealousy and misunder-
standing mar their relationship. In the end
he commits suicide (the die is cast early in
the script when Iris notes that Neil is “dying
to know her”). Role reversals account for
the title.
153. Winston, Ella W. “Foibles of the
New Woman.” Forum (21 April 1896):
186–92. This antifeminist tract argues that
women are best fit for domestic life.
1897
154. Anonymous. “The Old to the
New.” Punch (9 January 1897): 15. This ar-
ticle was part of an ongoing Punch series of
misogynist New Woman riddles, poems,
letters, and short essays. See other Anony-
mous entries for 1894, 1895, and 1896.
155. ____. “The New Woman at Vas-
sar.” The Woman’s Column 10 (12 June
1897): 1. In this short report on the com-
mencement speech of Vassar’s president,
James M. Taylor cautioned the 105 gradu-
ates to beware of the New Woman and her
un-Christian attributes.
156. ____. “New Woman as a Jockey.”
Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Weekly 85 (23 Sep-
tember 1897): 202. This positive article rec-
ognizes the accomplishments of a New
Woman identified as Miss Leota Elliott,
shown in an accompanying photograph. El-
liott, from Orient, Maine, had won several
horse races in Pittsfield (Maine).
157. Bell, Lilian Lida (aka Mrs. A. H.
Bogue). From a Girl’s Point of View. New
York and London: Harper and Brothers,
1897. The chapters of the book provide
54 Primary Works (1894–1938)
sketches of different types of male and fe-
male: the Irresistible Man, the Stupid Man,
and so forth, and in the final chapter, the
New Woman. She was new in America
when Bell wrote this defense of her in 1897.
She lauded the New Woman for her ability
to converse on a broad range of subjects.
She also pointed out that dress did not
define the New Woman but that her newly
honed attributes of practicality and help-
fulness did.
158. Boyle, Margaret P. “The ‘New
Woman’ in Germany.” The Outlook 57 (23
October, 1897): 468–70. Author Boyle pro-
vided an overview of the accomplishments
of women in German history from the
Middle Ages (when veneration of the Vir-
gin Mary began) to the contemporary era,
when women were admitted to university
for advanced degrees. She applauded the
strides of women in academe, pointing to
their struggles as students.
159. Broughton, Rhoda. Dear Faustina.
London: Richard Bentley and Son, 1897.
Though titled with reference to Faustina
Bateson, the protagonist in this novel is
Althea Vane. The death of Althea’s father
upsets the entire household as the widow/
Althea’s mother leaves her semi-grown chil-
dren to fend for themselves, so that she can
crusade for social justice. Althea’s friend
Faustina takes her under her wing. Althea
works for Faustina’s social causes but soon
realizes her friend has a domineering and
abrasive nature. Faustina is unkind to
Althea, and the younger woman must re-
turn to live with her sister and brother-in-
law. She is not, however, challenged by or
satisfied with the superficial way of life they
embrace. John Drake, a gentleman-turned-
feminist/socialist whom Althea has met
through Faustina, rescues Althea from her
proper social sphere and returns her to the
work she loves — helping the working-
women of London.
160. Brown, Herbert E. Betsey Jane on
Primary Works (1894–1938)
the New Woman. Chicago: C. H. Kerr,
1897. In this novel, Betsey Jane is the pro-
tagonist, who, with husband Benjamin, sets
out to discover the New Woman in New
England after receiving a brief education
from their two college-age children, who
both espouse the phenomenon. Benjamin
is more receptive to the New Woman than
is Betsey Jane. Though Betsey Jane wears
bloomers and rides a wheel, she is unsure
of the other liberated roles women are em-
bracing. She and Benjamin decide to find
out for themselves through a month-long
bicycle excursion around New England.
They experience many adventures in regard
to New Women and come to the conclu-
sion that family life best thrives with tradi-
tional gender roles.
161. Caird, Mona (aka Mona Alison or
Alice Mona Henryson Caird). The Morality
of Marriage and Other Essays on the Status
and Destiny of Woman. London: George
Redway, 1897. In this series of articles pub-
lished in Westminster Review, North Amer-
ican Review, Fortnightly Review, and Nine-
teenth Century (1884–1894), Caird related
her views on marriage and other issues re-
lated to women. In her essay with the abbre-
viated title “The Mortality of Marriage”
(Fortnightly Review 53 [1890]: 310–30),
Caird pointed to the injustices of marriage,
stating that woman is born strong but pur-
portedly becomes weak as she ages. If
women are so weak, she asked, how could
they bear multiple children, take care of
home, and often take care of her husband’s
business as well? Caird was militant in her
belief that women, not men, must have
legal authority over their children.
162. Chapman, Elizabeth R. Marriage
Questions in Modern Fiction, and Other Es-
says on Kindred Subjects. London: George
Redway, 1897. Chapman argued that con-
temporary fiction reinforced negative views
of women, that literary stereotypes must
change for women’s real circumstances to
55 161–165
change, and that there are arguments for
marriage reform or abolition (among those
who argue to change it at all). She also ex-
amined the negative consequences of
misogynistic applications of Old Testament
scriptures and argued for indissoluble mar-
riage as a positive sociological ideal rather
than an enforced byproduct of religion.
163. Clark, Annie. Paper on Art and the
New Woman. Uitenhage, Eastern Cape
(South Africa): W. S. J. Sellick, 1897. The
British Library is the only known holder of
this paper, but the item is missing from the
library’s collections.
164. Colville, William Wilberforce.
Newest of the New Women. Boston: Banner
of Light, 1897. In this two-chapter story
with a double plot, the protagonist appears
to be the Italian sculptor L. G. V. Bernardo,
whose work Christ and John the Baptist has
been brought to Boston by Mr. and Mrs.
Eastlake-Gore and who is the talk of the
town. The sculptor’s nineteen-year-old sis-
ter, Gloria, accompanies him and they are
entertained by the Eastlake-Gores, who are
major philanthropists. Mrs. Eastlake-Gore
is an Italian poet whose magnum opus is
Cynthia, an epic poem revering the true
identity of L. G. V. Of course, Gloria is
Lavinia Gloria Victoria, a female sculptor
whose work, Mrs. Eastlake-Gore believes,
would not be recognized if the Boston art
lovers knew a woman had executed it. Glo-
ria is the “newest of new women” and her
brother, L(udovico), is in reality an excel-
lent tenor.
165. Crawford, Virginia M. “Feminism
in France.” Fortnightly Review 61 (1897):
524–34. This essay is a general discussion of
the state of the women’s movement in
France at the end of the nineteenth century.
Crawford credited both Slav women then
living in Paris and French men such as
Alexander Dumas (a convert to feminism),
for advancing the feminist cause. Jules
Bois’s L’Eve Nouvelle, the English people,
161–168 56 Primary Works (1894–1938)

Edward Lamson Henry, The New Woman, 1897. Henry painted a genre scene of
the New Woman on a solo outing. She encounters a farm family that offers her
a glass of water. The gentleman has a quizzical look on his face while the wife’s
and daughter’s body language indicate their displeasure. Oil on canvas, 16 x 22
in. (40.64 x 55.88 cm); Private collection, Illinois.

and the bicycle also had a positive influence
on French feminism, Crawford explained.
166. Dawson, Miles Menande. “The
New Woman.” The Arena 18 (August 1897):
275. This five-stanza poem relates how the
New Woman chooses a husband more
wisely and then behaves as a “womanly
woman” out of happiness with her superior
choice of mate.
167. Egerton, George (aka Mary
Chavelita Dunne Bright). “At the Heart of
the Apple,” from Symphonies (1897),
reprinted in Ann Heilmann, ed., The Late-
Victorian Marriage Question: A Collection of
Key New Woman Texts. Vol. 3. London and
New York: Routledge with Thoemmes,
1998. In this short story a girl identified as
Evir is taken from her native Britain to live
on a secluded island in Norway. She lives
with a man she believes is her master but
who is really her father (her mother aban-
doned them). As she grows, she attempts to
broaden the circle that has enclosed her,
and she meets two boys. One is the son of
a minister who teaches her to read and
write; the other impregnates her. After
seven years, the father of her boy-child
comes to claim the child and her. She flatly
and boldly rejects both marriage and his in-
tention to have a part in the child’s life.
168. Grand, Sarah (aka Frances Eliza-
beth Bellenden-Clark McFall). The Beth
Book. London: William Heinemann, 1897.
In this novel, Beth Caldwell grows up and
Primary Works (1894–1938)
marries Dr. Daniel Maclure, a man about
whom she knows almost nothing. She en-
dures years of unhappiness, knowing that
he not only married her for an anticipated
income (which fell through), but that he
has also cheated on her with one of his pa-
tients. He also conducts vivisection-style
experiments on animals, while she is busy
pursuing a writing career. Beth is finally re-
leased from the miserable marriage when a
series of bizarre circumstances results in her
standing witness for a childhood friend who
has been the victim of mistaken identity.
Although her testimony ultimately is not
required, her husband invokes a typical
double standard, telling her never to return.
He asks her back (after the anticipated in-
come comes to Beth after all), but in the
meantime she has found success as a writer
for women and moved to London to pursue
her work. Beth falls for another man who is
ill and nurses him back to health, but in
doing so she compromises her own. Her
friends intervene and she is able to get back
to work but finds her enthusiasm gone. By
novel’s end she regains it and enters the
sphere of public speaking.
169. Hewitt, Emma Churchman.
“The ‘New Woman’ in Her Relation to the
‘New Man.’” Westminster Review 147
(March 1897): 335–37. This succinct de-
fense of the New Woman calls men on the
carpet for virtually causing her to exist and
then criticizing their own creation.
170. Hogarth, Janet E. “The Mon-
strous Regiment of Women.” Fortnightly
Review 68 (December 1897): 926–36. In
this general report on the state of the young
workingwoman in Great Britain, Hogarth
faulted the educational system for not
teaching girls to think for themselves. She
applauded the Central Bureau for the Em-
ployment of Women that was set up in Liv-
erpool, and she eagerly awaited the arrival
of a similar bureau in London. She wrote
that though there were opportunities for
young women, there was no system for
57 169–173
them to learn what they were best suited
for, what was available for women, and how
to find employment.
171. Lancefield, R. T. Tim and Mrs.
Tim: A Story for the “Club” and “Society”
Man and the “New” Woman. Toronto: The
Toronto News Company, 1897. In this
novel, the young husband Timothy Wright
is asked to join a men’s club by one of his
neighbors. He resists as first but finally ca-
pitulates and subsequently throws himself
into the work of the club and rises to pres-
tigious office. His young wife is unhappy
about his persistent absence from home
and attempts to blackmail him by learning
the club secrets. The plan fails, and Tim
joins more clubs to travel as their represen-
tative.
172. Oppenheim, Annie Isabella. “An
Episode in the Life of a New Woman.” Bel-
gravia: A London Magazine 92 (1897):
312–36. In this short story, Elizabeth Bar-
ton assumes responsibility for her orphaned
niece, Peggy Gunning, a young woman
reared in a protective manner. Barton brings
Peggy to London with a plan to make her
into an independent woman who eschews
marriage. The experiment does not work, as
Gunning falls for a gentleman attending one
of her aunt’s social events. Barton tries to
force the man to marry her niece, but he
declines. Barton appears most unhappy at
the conclusion because she is unable to con-
trol the events of life.
173. Paston, George (aka Emily Morse
Symonds). The Career of Candida. New
York: D. Appleton, 1897. In this novel, au-
thor Paston explored the characteristics as-
sociated with the New Man by granting
recognition to the New Woman and stud-
ied the effects of the New Woman on male
gender roles. The character Candida uses
her education to build a successful life but
in the end transforms into the typical care-
taker, leaving her own happiness behind to
take care of her dying husband.
174–181
174. Peard, Frances Mary. The Career of
Claudia. London: Richard Bentley, 1897.
Claudia, the New Woman in this novel, re-
jects the advances of her young gentleman
friend to pursue a career as a gardener. Her
friends cannot believe she chooses manual
work over becoming a respectable house-
wife, but she does so for a while. Eventually
she marries her suitor, but she insists on liv-
ing an independent life nevertheless.
175. Sharp, Evelyn. The Making of a
Prig. London: John Lane: The Bodley
Head, 1897. Katharine Austen is the nearly
adult daughter of a widowed rector living in
a rural English village. Katharine’s only
childhood playmate and now dearest friend
is Ned; their escapades were those of a
brother and sister. As relatively little of note
occurs in the village, a carriage accident
constitutes a major incident, especially
when the victim is interred in the rector’s
home for months, recovering from his in-
juries. He is Paul Wilton, a barrister whose
family hails from Yorkshire. After his de-
parture from the rectory, the rebel
Katharine becomes restless and decides to
attempt the life of the London working
woman. Her chance meeting with Paul
leads her to a teaching position and causes
the renewal of their on-and-off relationship.
Though Katharine engages in meaningful
employment, her motives are not strictly
feminist (for instance, she does not take to
the wheel), she never exhibits disdain for
the institution of matrimony, and by novel’s
end the reader knows she will end up with
Paul.
176. Shaw, George Bernard. You Never
Can Tell. (1897). Reprinted in Shaw, Plays
Pleasant. London: Penguin, 1975. In this
play, a rebellious New Woman with a sci-
entific education defies her father by smok-
ing.
177. Stutfield, Hugh. “The Psychology
of Feminism.” Blackwood’s Edinburgh Mag-
azine 161 (1897): 104–17. The author, some-
58 Primary Works (1894–1938)
what sympathetic toward women, was un-
able to support equality as defined by the
New Woman.
178. T. P. W. “The New Woman on
the Bible.” Scottish Review 30 (October
1897): 300–22. This lengthy criticism of
volume 1 of The Woman’s Bible (remarking
on the first five books of the Old Testament
and edited by Elizabeth Cady Stanton in
1895) has a sarcastic edge. The author ana-
lyzed the text, criticizing the women who
worked with Stanton because they failed to
consider contemporary exegesis by noted
biblical scholars. The author revealed sex-
ist views, noting that women are inherently
physically and intellectually inferior to men.
179. Tyrell, George. The Old Faith and
the New Woman. Philadelphia: Woodstock
College Press, 1897. Reprinted from The
American Catholic Quarterly Review ( July
1897). After a long, philosophical introduc-
tion on new ideas, the Rev. Tyrell at first
appeared to defend the New Woman in a
sixteen-page tract. He pointed to mytho-
logical and religious females who showed
intellect and strength as well as women of
the Renaissance and Baroque who con-
tributed in scholarly areas. Yet he also sup-
ported the nature theory, noting that
women who concentrated too extensively
on education would be unable to conceive.
He was adamant that the home would be
in ruins if women began to compete with
men.
1898
180. Anonymous. “The New Woman
and Children.” The Woman’s Standard 10
( January 1898): 1–2. The author answered
the question of whether New Women have
any interest in children by telling about the
successful clubs she set up for young men to
interest them in a variety of topics and pre-
vent them from becoming hooligans.
181. ____. “The New Woman.” Life
Primary Works (1894–1938)
In these stereoscopic images, the New Woman is set for a cycling ride in her
jaunty attire while the husband stays home to do the washing. The two images
merge in three dimensions when inserted in the stereoscope. Underwood &
Underwood, 1897.
(5 May 1898): 31. Originally published in
Harper’s Bazaar. This seven-stanza poem
notes how Adam and Eve lived in peace
until somehow the New Woman was fash-
ioned from an indeterminate bone (perhaps
the funny bone?). Now women have be-
come too “public,” and the poem pleads for
a return to the old.
182. ____. “A Change for the New
Woman.” Life (2 June 1898): 31. This adver-
tisement for Mutual Life of New York offers
a private sort of “Social Security” to aid and
protect women in their twilight years.
183. ____. “Sarah Grand on the Old
and the New Woman.” The Woman’s Sig-
nal 10 (1 September 1898): 140. This is a
summary of Sarah Grand’s “The New
Woman and the Old,” which ran in Lady’s
Realm in August 1898.
184. Arling, Nat. “What Is the Role of
the ‘New Woman’?” Westminster Review 150
(November 1898): 576–87. This is an im-
passioned plea for women’s rights from a
Christian perspective. Arling wrote in re-
59 182–186
sponse to a contemporary editorial in the
Cambrian News, but his arguments were
amazingly modern.
185. Blathwayt, Raymond. “On the
New Woman: A Talk with Madame Sarah
Grand.” Great Thoughts from Master Minds
(March 1898): 373–74. In this interview,
Sarah Grand consistently defended both
women’s positions as well as her own books,
particularly The Heavenly Twins and The
Beth Book.
186. Dunne, Finley Peter. “On The
New Woman.” In Mr. Dooley in Peace and
In War. Boston: Small, Maynard, 1898.
Reprinted in Mr. Dooley on Ivrything &
Ivrybody. New York: Dover Publications,
1963. Author Dunne was an Irish immi-
grant who rose to success with his humor-
ous stories written in colloquial speech for
the Chicago Post. His short satirical essay
turns the tables when the man of the house,
Mr. Donahue, pretends to be the idle
woman lying in bed awaiting a child. He
sends the women scampering to fulfill his
demands.
187–193
187. Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. Women
and Economics: A Study in the Economic Re-
lation between Men And Women as a Factor
in Social Evolution. 3d ed. Boston: Small,
Maynard, 1898. Influential in fin-de-siècle
feminist work and arguing that economic
dependency was a crucial contributing fac-
tor in the continuing oppression of women,
Gilman intended to “show how some of the
worst evils under which we suffer, evils long
supposed to be inherent and ineradicable
in our natures, are but the result of certain
arbitrary conditions of our own adoption,
and how, by removing those conditions, we
may remove the evils resultant” (see pref-
ace). Drawing on Darwinian ideas, Gilman
assessed the social evolution of the human
species leading to the economic dependence
of woman on man. She argued that free-
dom from this dependency would vastly
improve the quality of life—including mar-
ital relations and child development—while
the continued economic oppression of
women would further retard the develop-
ment of the human species.
188. Glasgow, Ellen. Phases of an Infe-
rior Planet. New York: Harper Brothers,
1898. In this novel. Marian Musin and An-
thony Algarcife marry and have a baby,
Isolde, who dies in infancy. When Anthony
loses his job as a science instructor at a con-
servative school — for publishing a scan-
dalous article on the origins of sex — Mar-
iana leaves to perform in an opera troupe.
Anthony becomes a priest, and Mariana re-
turns as another man’s wife but dies of
pneumonia while seeking reconciliation
with Anthony. He considers suicide but de-
cides it would be selfish.
189. Grand, Sarah (Frances Elizabeth
Bellenden-Clark McFall). “The Modern
Girl.” The Temple Magazine 2 (February
1898): 323–26. While extolling the advan-
tages of the independent woman, Grand
cautioned young British women not to lose
sight of their manners and decorum. She
60 Primary Works (1894–1938)
responded to the critics of the New Woman
in noting that the deportment of young
women had nothing to do with the women’s
movement.
190. ____. “The New Woman and the
Old.” Lady’s Realm 4 (August 1898): 466–
70. In this concise piece, Grand laid out the
basic differences between Old and New
Women in the form of a polemic. She
stated that although the Old Women criti-
cized the advances heralded by the New
Women, they were quick to take advantage
of them upon acceptance by the general
population.
191. ____. “Sarah Grand on the Old and
New Woman.” Woman’s Signal 10 (1 Sep-
tember 1898): 140. This is a reprint of the ar-
ticle in the August 1898 Lady’s Realm.
192. ____. “At What Age Should Girls
Marry?” Young Woman 7 (1898): 161–65.
First laying out the contemptible manner
in which young women had in the past
been pushed into marriage, Grand turned to
her own time, discussing the role of educa-
tion in prolonging girlhood and how young
women of the fin de siècle had a right to
determine their own course (she concluded
that doing so before age twenty-five was not
wise). She tacked on seven letters from
prominent women on the suitable age for
girls to marry.
193. ____. “The Modern English
Girl.” Canadian Magazine 10 (1898):
297–301. Although Grand extolled the
strength of young English women of the
late nineteenth century, she was also con-
cerned about their apparent (to her) self-
centeredness and lack of manners, which
she maintained were especially evident in
comparison with young French women.
Grand was quick to defend the woman’s
movement, stating that whatever might be
lacking in the modern English girl was more
a result of poor upbringing than independ-
ence.
Primary Works (1894–1938)
194. ____. The Modern Man and
Maid. London: Horace Marshall and Son,
1898. The booklet, as Grand called this lit-
erary piece, is divided into four sections
with a “Warning” in substitution of an in-
troduction or preface. There she acknowl-
edged that this short work does not consti-
tute a complete examination of the sexes.
The first two chapters are a juxtaposition of
good and bad qualities in the modern
young male and female (the first essay is the
reprint of the article in The Temple Maga-
zine). In the last two chapters Grand expos-
tulated on the institution of marriage and on
young people choosing life partners. Her
frequent refrain is that neither young men
nor young women are prepared to make in-
telligent choices and that they certainly had
no advance training to be wives, husbands,
or parents. Educating them was of prime
importance.
195. Grand, Sarah, et al. “Does Mar-
riage Hinder a Woman’s Self-develop-
ment?” Lady’s Realm 5 (1898): 576–86.
Seven women — Sarah Grand, The Hon.
Mabel Vereker, Gertrude Atherton, Lady
Troubridge, Mona Caird, Lady Teresa F.
Hamilton, and Mrs. Mary Wynne — an-
swered the question. Their opinions ranged
from affirmative to a fairytale view of the
advantages of wedlock, the widest differ-
ence between Caird and Hamilton/Wynne.
Among those questioning whether married
women could fulfill professional aims
within marriage, the common concern was
how liberated and liberating a husband
could be and how much strength a woman
must have to persevere in self-development
when pressing domestic duties interfere.
The role reversal Caird employed likely
made the greatest impact on the reader as
she ended her essay with the rhetorical
question. Wynne claimed that unhappy
marriages were the result of two people
uniting for the wrong reasons.
196. Grant, Sadi. A New Woman Sub-
dued [A Tale]. London: Digby, Long, 1898.
61 194–197
In this anti–New Woman novel, Beatrice
Smith-Gore, a New Woman who is con-
cerned with women’s rights, lives a lonely
existence. Visiting her friend Lady Vereker,
Beatrice is cast into high society where she
meets Capt. Robert Orchardson, with
whom she falls in love. They marry, and she
relinquishes her concern with the higher
aims of women. Shortly after the wedding,
she discovers her husband is already mar-
ried because his first wife’s sister arrives de-
manding money. The first marriage took
place fifteen years earlier, and Captain Or-
chardson believed his first wife to have been
killed in a train crash. Suspecting the fam-
ily of his first wife is attempting to obtain
money, he sends Beatrice to British Colum-
bia to discover the truth. She discovers that
his first wife is indeed alive and well and
has a child by Captain Orchardson, of
whom he has no knowledge. Beatrice
spends several weeks with the family with-
out revealing her true identity. When a fire
breaks out, Orchardson’s first wife is badly
burnt and subsequently dies from her in-
juries. Orchardson travels to America to be
with Beatrice, who has also been injured.
When she recovers, they remarry and re-
sume a happy life together.
197. Gwynn, Stephen. “Bachelor
Women.” Contemporary Review 72 (1898):
866–75. The introduction discusses the
ideas of the Italian writer Signor Ferrero
regarding the new class of British women
who lived alone and supported them-
selves —“Bachelor Women.” The author
then turned to an analysis of two novels
dealing with this problematic “third sex.”
One was Among Thorns by Noel Ainslie and
the other was The Making of a Prig by
Evelyn Sharp. Though the female protago-
nists leave home for bohemian lifestyles in
London and appear to have options, their
choices are limited in the long run. Living
independently does not fulfill the Bachelor
Woman forever, and she must choose mar-
riage or the life of the social outcast.
198–202
198. Harmon, Lillian. “The New Mar-
tyrdom.” The Adult ( January 1898). Har-
mon wrote of the New Woman and how
men were threatened by being unable to
run all over her as compared with the
“ideal” woman. Men were like “ship-
wrecked sailors” or fish out of the sea.
199. Hund, Dr. John. The New
Woman. Chicago: W. B. Conkey, 1898. This
novel set in rural Illinois tells of the Melch-
ers, a German farm family of the 1890s.
Daughter Belle has progressive ideas threat-
ening familial order and well-being. Re-
ferred to derogatorily as “Miss Bloomer,”
the “New Woman,” and “Crazy Belle,” she
errs first in persuading her parents to allow
her to attend a Young Ladies Academy in a
neighboring community. Brother John/Jack
moves away as well, causing the parents
great distress. Mother decides living in town
will be advantageous, and the parents move
to Farmville. By then Belle is secretly mar-
ried and has children; she has found work
as a typewriter girl and divorced her hus-
band. Jack has become a tramp. With the
children gone, the parents move back to the
farm, and eventually both children came
back home to live. Belle reunites with her
husband and children and renounces her
New Woman ways. The old order is happily
reestablished.
200. Jeune, Lady. “The New Woman
and the Old: A Reply to Sarah Grand.” The
Lady’s Realm 4 (September 1898): 600–04.
Reprinted in Ann Heilmann, ed. The Late-
Victorian Marriage Question: A Collection of
Key New Woman Texts. Vol. 2. London and
New York: Routledge with Thoemmes,
1998. In this antifeminist essay, Jeune at-
tacked the New Woman as “a bad dream”
and claimed that the old and the new
woman were not as disparate as Grand pro-
fessed. But Jeune renounced Grand’s treat-
ment of the old woman as one who had no
sense of humor, was too rigid in her ways,
and kowtowed to men. She also condemned
Grand for bringing men’s immoral actions
62 Primary Works (1894–1938)
and the spread of sexually transmitted dis-
ease to the attention of the public. She
lauded women’s “purifying influence” over
men and proffered a romantic vision of
women’s role in life.
201. Maule, Marie K. “A Week with a
New Woman.” The Club Woman (May
1898): 37–41. Theodosia (Dosie) Stubbs is
en route from a family funeral in San Fran-
cisco to her home in Lincoln, Nebraska.
She realizes that the train will stop in the
hometown of Miriam, her school chum of
twenty years past, and she pays her friend a
visit. She finds that Miriam runs a perfect
household, is a perfect mother and wife,
and leads a perfect life, with stimulating
and meaningful activities. Miriam’s life is
an inspiration to Stubbs who realizes her
own life is stifling. Since The Club Woman
was the journal of the Women’s Club, the
story seems to suggest that its members
could be trained to live a life like Miriam’s.
202. Meade, Elizabeth Thomasina.
The Cleverest Woman in England. London:
James Nisbet, 1898. This novel opens with
Dagmar Olloffson announcing her engage-
ment to the members of London’s Forward
Club, of which she is the most active and
progressive. The women there find it hard
to believe Olloffson will relinquish her free-
dom to the ancient institution (marriage),
but they are even more amazed when they
learn the identity of her intended, Geoffrey
Hamlyn, an arch-conservative. She assures
the women that she and Hamlyn have
agreed to a pact of independent living and
that their love will conquer all differences.
The two encounter problems on return
from their honeymoon — especially when
his mother and sister move in. Not with-
out dissension, Dagmar is able to maintain
her schedule of lecturing, meeting with her
feminist friends, and caring for unfortunate
young women. The couple has a daughter
and when the baby is just a month old,
Dagmar learns that one of the charity
boarders in her home has smallpox. She
Primary Works (1894–1938)
does everything to safeguard her family
from the disease but in the end dies in an in-
fectious hospital — a happy woman because
she realizes that were she to live she would
never be able to integrate marriage and fam-
ily life with her feminist interests.
203. Slater, Edith. “Men’s Women in
Fiction.” Westminster Review 149 (May
1898): 571–77. This examination of how
male authors have depicted women in
fiction focuses primarily on the nineteenth
century. Slater’s concern was that men had
stereotyped their women characters and
that these stereotypes had persisted from
one generation to the next. The grave dan-
ger was that women readers had believed
the ways in which their gender was depicted
and that this had thwarted differences
in personality. Slater lambasted Thomas
Hardy (among others) but extolled George
Meredith and William Shakespeare for their
“development of individuality.”
204. Todd, Mary Ives. The Heterodox
Marriage of a New Woman. New York: R. L.
Weed, 1898. This novel tells how New
Woman and Chicagoan Rae Raymond,
sticks to her guns and resists marriage — or
almost. Rae resists traditional marriage (that
is, the traditional marriage ceremony, in
which a couple agrees to promises they may
not be able to keep). In the end Rae falls in
love with a Russian American, who per-
suades her to return with him to Russia.
She gives up what might have been a prom-
ising newspaper career, marries in a hetero-
dox ceremony, and sets sail for Russia with
her mother. A postscript tells that Raymond
and her husband subsequently lived useful
lives, educating and aiding Russian peas-
ants. J. Elizabeth Hotchkiss coined the term
“heterodox marriage.”
205. Webb, Charles Henry. Harper’s
Bazaar, reprinted in the New York Tribune,
March 31, 1898, p. 6, c. 6. This nine-stanza
poem renounced the New Woman and im-
plored her to return to domesticity because
63 203–208
she was tampering with stability within the
future realms of men and the population.
1899
206. Anonymous. “A Woman Police-
man: The New Woman in the Sandwich
Islands.” New York Tribune, November 13,
1899, p. 5, c. 3. This brief article discloses
the extraordinary situation of a female po-
liceman in Honolulu. It lauds Helen
Wilder, the daughter of a wealthy sugar
magnate, for her choice of occupation, then
exposes her abilities as related to the best
interests of children and animals.
207. Barry, William Francis. The Two
Standards. New York: Century, 1899. Mar-
ion Greystone was born to act, but her rigid
Christian mother does all she can to squelch
Marion’s creativity and individuality. Mar-
ion grows into a British beauty, is pursued
by a number of men, and though she
prefers the stage and freedom, she marries
the wealthy Lucas Harland to save her
rector-father who is deeply in debt both
personally and in the country church he
serves. The long novel is one of reverses —
in fortune, love, and religion. Marion finds
her true love, a German artist/playwright,
but rather than act on impulse to be with
him, she leaves for the United States to pur-
sue her career. Once she is on the verge of
success, Harland loses his fortune, and
Marion returns to see him through. He re-
bukes her, but when he sinks to the depths
in prison, Marion rescues and takes him
home to care for him. Meanwhile, the Ger-
man playwright resurfaces to employ Mar-
ion in his latest play, investigating the
meaning of Christian love. Marion learns
that the Italian woman she met on the ship
to America and lived with later, is her hus-
band’s lover. Further, the woman’s son is
his. The final scene is one of reconciliation
at Harlan’s deathbed.
208. Beaumont, Mary. Two New
Women and Other Stories. London: James
209–214
Clark, 1899. This collection’s first short
story, “Two New Women,” centers on an
Italian holiday taken by two young eman-
cipated women — a doctor named Daphne
and a landscape architect, Betty. They are
accompanied by the latter’s uncle, a man of
independent means. Their first stop is
Venice, where they encounter a young male
British engineer. They find they have a lot
in common and thereafter travel together,
enjoying the scenery and the company of
one another. By the end of the trip both
men are smitten, but the women will not
give up their independence and so decline
offers of matrimony.
209. Caird, Mona (aka Mona Alison or
Alice Mona Henryson Caird). “Does Mar-
riage Hinder a Woman’s Self-Develop-
ment?” The Lady’s Realm 5 (1899): 581–83.
This short essay deals with role reversal in
families with a feminist wife/mother. The
husband has to juggle traditional “woman’s
work” while carrying out his important
chemical experiments. This is not his only
problem; his sister is also a scientist, and
she surpasses him professionally.
210. Chant, L. Ormiston. “Woman as
an Athlete: A Reply to Arabella Kenealy.”
Nineteenth Century 45 (1899): 745–54. This
essay is a sarcastic rebuttal to Kenealy and
others who claimed that women’s athleti-
cism would sap future generations of their
vitality.
211. Cholmondeley, Mary. Red Pottage.
London: Edward Arnold, 1899. In this
novel, Rachel West endures years of poverty
following her father’s death, but regains her
fortune after her father’s business partner
dies without leaving heirs. Hester Gresley,
a young author, is Rachel’s best friend.
Rachel becomes the confidante of Lady Vi-
olet Newhaven, whose illicit lover, Hugh
Scarlett, falls in love with Rachel. Hugh and
Lord Newhaven draw lots to determine
which of them shall commit suicide to
settle a dispute over Lady Newhaven. It
64 Primary Works (1894–1938)
later emerges that Hugh drew the short spill
but failed to live up to the bargain. Lord
Newhaven kills himself instead, leaving a
note relating the facts for his wife. The rev-
elation causes Rachel to break her engage-
ment to Hugh, whereupon Hugh dies after
falling through the ice. Rachel’s friend Hes-
ter has a nervous breakdown after her cler-
gyman brother burns the manuscript of her
recently written novel, but Rachel nurses
her back to health.
212. Chopin, Kate. The Awakening,
1899. Now available in Kate Chopin, The
Awakening and Selected Stories. Ed. and
intro. Nina Baym. New York: Modern Li-
brary, 1993. During a vacation to Grand
Isle, protagonist Edna Pontellier realizes the
limited fulfillment her married life has pro-
vided her. She falls in love with Robert Le-
brun, whose mother runs the resort where
she is staying. The episode changes Edna,
making her unable to return to a life of con-
formity. She leaves her husband and asserts
her independence in inadequate ways. After
a final meeting with Robert, Edna realizes
the hopeless nature of her urge for fulfill-
ment and drowns herself off the coast of
Grand Isle.
213. Dixon, Ella Hepworth. “Why
Women are Ceasing to Marry.” Humani-
tarian 14 (1899): 391–96. This essay is a
general discussion of the pros and cons of
marriage as it affected the New Woman and
society at the fin de siècle.
214. Hall, Sharlot Mabridth. “The
New Woman — Eve’s Sister.” The Club
Woman’s Magazine 2 (New York: June
1899): 34–35. In this essay, Hall pointed to
the New Woman she believed to be the
most progressive — the American. She set
the stage through a brief historical account
of feminist movements, then moved to the
contributions that American women made
through war and westward expansion. She
credited women’s greater success to sobri-
ety.
Primary Works (1894–1938) 65 215–216

215. Hansson, Laura Marholm. We lives of African Americans in New England

Women and Our Authors. Trans. Hermione at the turn of the century. The light-com-
Ramsden. London/New York: John Lane, plexioned protagonist Sappho Clark flees
The Bodley Head, 1899. Hansson provided her past and the South to relocate in
portraits of women in fiction by male Boston. She gains some freedoms with the
authors. Paul Heyse was her hero, and she move, but hides her past and so is not emo-
believed his work inspired
the depictions of women
in novels following his. But
the later novelists Ibsen and
Bjöornson portrayed women
of the middle or lower classes
striving for independence,
whereas Heyse’s women
were “noble, aristocratic,”
and sought self-knowledge
and self-awareness. Author
Hansson saw the move to
realism as “morose” and de-
generate. In her opinion
women had lost their wom-
anliness in the transforma-
tion from dependence to
self-sufficiency.
216. Hopkins, Pauline
E. Contending Forces: A Ro-
mance Illustrative of Negro
Life North and South. 1899.
Reprint, New York: Oxford
University Press: 1988. This
novel is about a family of
privilege assumed to be
white at the beginning of the
nineteenth century and how
their world falls apart with
rumors that the mother is
part black. Hopkins traced
the family through the cen-
tury from South to North to
South and from wealth to
poverty to the comfort of Sister Davis Cycling with Her Gentleman Friend. An
middle-class respectability early African-American novel includes a depiction of
and back again to wealth. New Woman Sister Davis as she takes the lead in an
Primarily set in Boston, the outing with her “gentleman friend.” In Pauline E.
book is important in the Hopkins, Contending Forces: A Romance Illustrative
context of its documenting of Negro Life North and South, 1899. Reprint, New
the otherwise ill-recorded York: Oxford University Press: 1988.
217–220
tionally free. She must connect with her
past to become a New Woman and recover
her identity.
217. Hunt, Violet. The Human Inter-
est: A Study in Incompatibilities. London:
Methuen, 1899. In this novel, Phoebe Elles
is married to Mortimer but decides that she
has fallen in love with Edmund Rivers, a
misanthropic painter only vaguely aware of
her existence. Though Phoebe and Edmund
are not lovers, Mortimer names Edmund as
co-respondent in a divorce suit based on
trumped-up eyewitness accounts. Phoebe’s
confidante/rival for Edmund, Egidia Giles,
sets about putting things right for Ed-
mund’s sake, as Phoebe makes a melodra-
matic attempt to end her own life by way of
a potion concocted for her by Dr. Andre, a
mesmerist. Dr. Andre reveals that the potion
he has give the flighty Phoebe is a placebo
just as a telegram arrives announcing Mor-
timer’s death, an event freeing Phoebe to
continue her antics.
218. Kenealy, Arabella. A Semi-De-
tached Marriage. London: Hutchinson,
1899. In this novel, Celia Welldron is a
young heiress who appears intent on taking
her place in her late father’s dynamite busi-
ness as if she had been a son. Her father’s
partner, John Strahen, is supportive of her
in this endeavor, and they work together in
a collegial relationship, practically as sib-
lings. Although there are romantic sparks
between the two, Celia, against her better
judgment, falls for the obnoxious and ob-
durate Sir Latimer Coyle. He is unortho-
dox and though he claims to love Celia, he
disdains marital vows (though he finally ac-
quiesces) and advocates living apart as each
of them has a home. After about three
months of the experiment, Celia is weary
of the situation because her “husband”
comes and goes as he pleases. They agree to
a compromise and live for awhile in his
London townhouse. There Celia realizes
that her husband has a son kept locked away
66 Primary Works (1894–1938)
in an attic room because of his clubfoot. In
an unexpected visit, Strahen reveals that the
marriage is void as Coyle’s estranged first
wife was alive at the time of his marriage to
Celia. Coyle is uninterested in renewing the
vows. Meanwhile Celia realizes she is preg-
nant, begs him to marry her for the sake of
the unborn child, and when he refuses,
leaves his home in a snowstorm. Strahen
rescues her. Though she is extremely ill and
loses the child, she lives to marry the man
she should have wed in the first place. The
novel is classified as a New Woman novel
for two reasons: Celia Welldron appears
strong and independent though taken in by
the cad Coyle, and she supports the inde-
pendence of her cousin Pansy by funding
her education to become a physician.
219. Lombraso, Caesar, and Ferrero,
William. The Female Offspring. New York:
Appleton, 1899. This scientific piece exam-
ines the relationship between physiological
and physical characteristics of female crim-
inals and their crimes. Topics examined in-
clude facial and cephalic anomalies, tattoos,
and measurements of skulls. Categories of
criminal behavior considered include pros-
titution, murder, abortion, and arson.
220. Marholm Hansson, Laura. We
Women and Our Authors. Trans. Hermione
Ramsden. London and New York: The
Bodley Head, 1899. This work examines the
representation of women in the works of
several male writers—Gottfried Keller, Paul
Heyse, Henrik Ibsen, Björnstjerne Björn-
son, Leo Tolstoy, August Strindberg, Guy
du Maupasssant, and Jules Barbey D’Aure-
villy — the author’s professed aim “to draw
a characteristic sketch of the eight most re-
markable heads among the legion of authors
belonging to the nineteenth century … to
uncover and expose to view the subject-
matter of their productions” (212). Her
treatise examines the portrayal of women
by these writers specifically in relation to
the position of women in society, and the
Primary Works (1894–1938)
work is interesting both in this respect and
as a piece of literary criticism. Hansson sug-
gested that Keller and Heyse understand
women, while Ibsen’s women “claimed a
right which they would not relinquish …
the right to cultivate the ego” (10). She
termed Tolstoy and Strindberg “Women-
Haters” and concluded that Keller, Barbey
D’Aurevilly and Maupassant “are the great-
est of women’s authors, not the authors for
the women of yesterday, today or tomor-
row, but the interpreters of woman, authors
from whom we can learn to understand
ourselves as we gaze upon the reflection of
our own images in the soul of man” (213).
221. Norris, Frank. McTeague: A Story
of San Francisco. New York: Doubleday and
McClure, 1899. In this provocative novel
about the progressively destructive nature
of greed, the author portrayed realism in a
style reminiscent of Stephen Crane’s Mag-
gie: Girl of the Streets. The female actor ex-
hibits tendencies toward self-sufficiency and
self-reliance combined with a propensity to
frugality, but she vacillates between that na-
ture and her desire to be the submissive
wife. Her natural bent toward frugality,
however, becomes an obsession to the point
that it completely destroys her and those
she loves. Norris also made an indictment
on the evils of alcohol abuse.
222. Paston, George (aka Emily Morse
Symonds). A Writer of Books. New York: D.
Appleton, 1899. The protagonist Cosima,
a budding writer, struggles to survive and
write a great novel. Haunted by novelists
of the past such as George Eliot, she goes
through life expecting it to unfold as a
novel. Along the way, Cosima forges her
own experimental style, going against con-
vention not only as a novelist but also as a
woman.
223. Schreiner, Olive. “The Woman
Question.” The Cosmopolitan (December
1899:) 45–54. Schreiner did not identify
the modern woman as New Woman,
67 221–227
though she certainly attacked the issue
of woman’s labor. Her thesis was that
while man’s work became broader and
more meaningful over time, woman’s work
became narrower and less important.
Woman’s most momentous labor, giving
birth to and rearing children, lost its status
as the work children did (on farms, for
instance) was taken over by machinery.
When the children were not as necessary to
family productivity, the role of mother lost
social acceptability. Men moved to a myr-
iad of jobs in the nineteenth century,
Schreiner wrote, but women were more
confined to the home and boredom as fam-
ily size diminished.
224. Stanton, Elizabeth Cady. “The
New Woman.” Independent 51 (30 Novem-
ber 1899). In this response to Sen. John J.
Ingalls’s article on the “Woman Question,”
Stanton maintained that, though men and
women are different, they must work to-
gether as equals to better society.
225. Trémauden, Ernestine de. The
Ideal New Woman after Real Old Models. St.
Louis: B. Herder: 1899. This small book,
an English translation of the French work,
is a knee-jerk reaction to the emergence of
the New Woman as acknowledged in the
introduction. The author credited/blamed
freemasonry and socialism for the emer-
gence of late-nineteenth-century feminism,
while pointing to the equality she believed
Christianity had accorded women. Trémau-
den advised women to observe the follow-
ing twenty chapters, wherein she provided
biblical female role models.
226. Williams, Ellen. Anna Masden’s
Experiment. London: Greenig, 1899. Un-
available worldwide.
1900
227. Amin, Quasim. Al-Mar’a al-ja-
dida (The New Woman (1900). Trans.
Samiha Sidhom Peterson. Cairo: The
228–232
American University in Cairo Press, 1995.
Influenced by Western thinkers, the Egypt-
ian lawyer Amin divided this landmark
book regarding the status of Egyptian
women into the following sections: “A His-
torical Perspective on Women,” “Women’s
Freedom,” “A Woman’s Obligation to Her-
self,” “A Woman’s Obligation to Her Fam-
ily,” “Education and Seclusion,” and “The
Current State of Thought on Women in
Egypt.”
228. Carey, Rosa Nouchette. The Mis-
tress of Brae Farm. London/New York:
Macmillan, 1900. Ellison Lee, the mistress
of Brae Farm, is a capable young woman
who owns and operates a working farm in
rural England. Her widowed cousin, Col.
Gavin Trevor, owns the adjoining property,
and they become fast friends. Though Lee
seems to prefer single life, eventually they are
engaged. The story involves three other sin-
gle women: Trevor’s sister Muriel; Lee’s
cousin on her mother’s side, the widow Lor-
raine Herbert; and an elderly woman who
befriends the lovable Herbert. Although
each woman exhibits some New Woman
characteristics, none is as independent as
the mistress of Brae Farm. It appears that
Trevor and Lee will marry in spite of
Trevor’s preference for Mrs. Herbert, but
love wins over commitment and responsi-
bility, and Lee releases Trevor to marry Lor-
raine Herbert. Lee’s New Woman’s status is
thus assured, and she continues life as the
efficient manager of the farm while doting
on the Trevor children.
229. Dix, Gertrude. The Image-Break-
ers. London: William Heinemann, 1900.
This novel examines socialist Utopianism
and sexual relationships through the expe-
riences of two protagonists, Rosalind Dan-
gerfield and Leslie Ardent. Rosalind, the
upper-class wife of a wealthy factory owner,
and Leslie, a working-class artist, briefly live
together in a socialist community. When
Leslie leaves the community to pursue a ca-
reer as an illustrator, Rosalind questions her
68 Primary Works (1894–1938)
friend’s loyalty to the cause. Their attempts
to maintain unconventional relationships
with men further challenge the women’s
eroticized relationship. While Rosalind’s
asexual relationship with her co-leader,
Justin Ferrar, ultimately fails, Leslie discov-
ers that by refusing traditional marriage and
continuing to work to support herself, she
is able to craft a satisfactory relationship.
230. Forbes, Athol. “My Impressions
of Sarah Grand.” Lady’s World 11 ( June
1900), 880–83. In this rare interview Grand
claimed to regret how the New Woman had
come to be characterized. She said she
meant the New Woman to be “one who,
while retaining all the grace of manner and
feminine charm, had thrown off all the silli-
ness and hysterical feebleness of her sex.”
231. Grant, Robert. Unleavened Bread.
New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1900.
This novel charts the rise of Selma White
from her life as an orphan in a small Mass-
achusetts town to that of the wife of a pow-
erful senator. Selma’s soul longs for inde-
pendence and her capabilities warrant the
desire, but due to societal restrictions on
women, she put her energies into making
the men in her life successful and power-
ful. After two marriages in which she allows
love to rule, her aspirations are not met,
and she marries James Lyons, a lawyer with
whom she can become a partner in life as in
work. Their interests and political views are
compatible. Lyons encourages her to be-
come involved in projects that involve keep-
ing her intellectual, social, and moral inter-
ests fine-tuned. Although most of her
energy is geared toward his success, he val-
ues her as an equal, and when a crisis occurs
during his tenure as governor of the state, he
listens to Selma’s advice, assuring his elec-
tion as senator from Massachusetts.
1901
232. Filene, Peter G. Him/Her/Self: Sex
Roles in Modern America. Baltimore: Johns
Primary Works (1894–1938)
In dress and demeanor this caricature refers to ancient Greek Amazons. While
the women go off to fight in the Trojan War, the men and children remain at
home in tears. Life, 9 August 1900.
Hopkins Press, 1974. This book only briefly
mentions the New Woman, providing gen-
eral information to define her. Although
not in the index, there is also reference to
Caroline Ticknor’s Atlantic Monthly article,
“The Steel Engraving Lady and the Gibson
Girl” ( July 1901).
233. Stewart, Ella Seass. “Some An-
cient New Women.” The Arena 26 (No-
vember 1901): 513–18. This article is a lively
discussion of the feminist roles of Lady
Mary Wortley Montagu and Abigail Adams,
with quotes by each historical woman.
234. Ticknor, Caroline. “The Steel
Engraving Lady and the Gibson Girl.” At-
lantic Monthly 88 ( July 1901): 105–08. In
69 233–235
this brief article, Ticknor juxtaposed the
New Woman (Gibson Girl), who was out in
the world, with the homebody (Steel En-
graving Lady), who awaited the return of
her man.
1902
235. Anonymous. “Passing of the ‘New
Woman.’” New York Tribune, 22 June 1902,
p. 6. The author celebrated the fact that
many commencement addresses delivered
by “prominent men” at women’s colleges
and universities were unanimous in pro-
claiming that the era of the New Woman
was over. The article presents excerpts from
236–243
the addresses and discusses an address by
a (Kansas) congressman lamenting that
nowhere had he seen an article titled
“Woman in the Home” though, in his
opinion, it was high time for one.
236. F. A. J. “The New Woman.” The
Woman’s Standard 14 (Waterloo, Iowa: Feb-
ruary 1902), 1–2. In this brief column the
author defined the New Woman as the
old woman in a new package wrapped in
equality.
237. Robertson, Peter. The Seedy Gen-
tleman. San Francisco: Stanley-Taylor,
1902. This novel addresses many topics, one
of which is the New Woman (119–28).
Robertson explored the reasons for which
some men had become amenable to the no-
tion of the New Woman. He postulated
that a painful revelation evolved when they
realized that the New Woman enriched
rather than harmed the lives and interac-
tions of the two genders.
238. Shaw, George Bernard. Mrs. War-
ren’s Profession. London: Grant Richards,
1902. Though Shaw’s controversial play,
written in 1893 but not published until
1902, predated the naming of the New
Woman, the character Vivian Warren (Mrs.
Warren’s daughter) fits the mold. Shaw jux-
taposed the prostitute and accountant
as “professions” available to mother and
daughter in mid-to-late-nineteenth-cen-
tury England in a poignant portrayal of
women coming to terms with limited
choices. Due to censorship, Mrs. Warren’s
Profession was not performed until 1925.
239. Syrett, Netta. Roseanne. London:
Hurst and Blackett, 1902. Roseanne Lavell,
the daughter of an alcoholic artist and a
music-hall dancer who died when Roseanne
was a baby, considers vocations including
dancer and artist. But after a childhood
spent at boarding school, she ultimately is
frustrated by them all. She falls in love with
an old friend of her father’s, Jim Clifford,
who is married to her former teacher, Mar-
70 Primary Works (1894–1938)
garet Irwin. Theirs is a marriage undertaken
out of mutual loneliness rather than mutual
passion. Clifford repents his passionless
marriage after he falls in love with Roseanne
but feels duty-bound to his wife. Roseanne
recognizes the impossibility of the relation-
ship and leaves for America. Clifford and
Margaret remain married but live separate
lives.
240. Winchester, Boyd. “The Eternal
Feminine I: The New Woman.” The Arena
(April 1902): 367–73. In this polemic on
the role and responsibilities of New
Women, the author praised the self-reliance
and initiative of the New Woman, then ex-
postulated that the area in which she should
be in charge was “home life.”
1903
241. Clement, Ernest W. “The New
Woman in Japan.” The American Journal of
Sociolog y 8 (March 1903): 693–98. This
short article deals primarily with a new
Civil Code enacted in Japan in the early
twentieth century. The author acknowl-
edged prominent historical women in Japan
and blamed Buddhism for imposing grave
restrictions on women’s rights. He noted
the double standard extant in Japan and
that the country had not come up to the
standard of treatment of women in the West
though he believed the new code improved
Japanese women’s legal rights. He was am-
bivalent about women in Japan reaching the
level of independence attained by Western
women, stating that it would definitely
upset the status quo.
242. ____. A Handbook of Modern
Japan. Chicago: A. C. McClurg, 1903.
Outside of a few editorial changes, chapter
8, “The New Woman in Japan” is a reprint
of what Clement wrote for The American
Journal of Sociolog y, above.
243. Dodd, Anna Bowman. “The New
Woman in Turkey.” The Century Illustrated
Primary Works (1894–1938)
Monthly Magazine 44 (1903): 925–33. The
subtitle of the article, “How Ancient Rights
and Modern Dress Protect and Improve the
Lot of Turkish Women,” says it all. This
piece is about social and cultural conditions
in Turkey at the beginning of the twentieth
century and has nothing to do with the
New Woman.
244. London, Jack. A Daughter of the
Snows. New York: Grosset and Dunlap,
1903. In London’s first novel, Frona Welse
is the Alaskan-born daughter of a wealthy
and influential trader. She returns to the
Klondike after ten years away at school to
assume a role on the frontier. She narrowly
escapes the machinations of Gregory St.
Vincent, a coward and scoundrel who is
tried for and acquitted of murder. Gregory
turned his back as a white man killed the
“squaw” he had abducted, and her Indian
husband killed the white man in revenge.
Frona finally rejects Gregory in favor of
Vance Corliss, a young mining engineer
with whom she shares many adventures.
1904
245. Anonymous. “Women and Their
Work.” The Outlook (October 1904):
256–58. This short essay denies the exis-
tence of the New Woman. The author sup-
ported a conservative agenda, espousing
that women develop their capabilities so as
to become better housewives and mothers.
246. Baker, Mary Hime. “Ethics of the
New Woman’s Social and Domestic Life.”
The Club Woman: Woman’s World 3 (Octo-
ber 1904): 8–9. This short essay provides a
brief history of the improvements in educa-
tion for women in America and a plea for
equality in professional opportunity, greater
access to birth control, and representation in
all organizations, especially those dealing
with the welfare of children.
247. Cooley, Winnifred Harper. The
New Womanhood. New York: Broadway
71 244–250
Publishing, 1904. By relating specific exam-
ples of the New Woman’s predecessors,
Cooley provided an excellent understand-
ing of the historical development of the
New Woman. She also noted that every
aspect of human life (education to propaga-
tion) is related to females. She was support-
ive of women pushing for as much educa-
tion as possible and encouraged them to
engage in suffrage activities so they could
be elevated to equal status with males. She
also listed the professional women, espe-
cially Americans, she knew of.
248. Meyrick, Geraldine. The Club
Woman: Woman’s World 1 (October 1904):
109. This five-stanza poem relates the mes-
sage that those who criticize the New
Woman have never bothered to find out
who she really is.
1905
249. Malet, Lucas. “The Threatened
Re-Subjection of Women.” Fortnightly Re-
view (1 May 1905): 806–19. In this endorse-
ment of Theodore Roosevelt’s viewpoint re-
garding separate spheres, Malet analyzed
women’s situation in England according to
class. He reported that in the upper and
lower classes man remained master, whereas
in the middle class his position was threat-
ened (Malet wished women of this group
would heed T. R.’s words). The author re-
ferred to the New Women as threatening
all of society with their “sexless, homeless,
unmaternal” independence. He predicted
that the women’s movement would dissolve
but that some good would come of it —
specifically, the elevation of wifedom and
motherhood.
250. Wharton, Edith. The House of
Mirth. 1905. Reprint, New York: Penguin,
1985. In this novel, Lily Bart’s fortunes
steadily decline, leaving her at a loss as to
how to support herself. Nearly raped by
Gus Trenor, to whom she is in debt, she
251–253
struggles to maintain employment without
success. She even ponders blackmail. Ulti-
mately, the legacy that might have saved her
goes to her creditors. Lily is defined by an
unrealized love affair with Lawrence Sel-
don, who eventually finds her in her board-
inghouse, dead of an overdose of sleeping
potion.
72 Primary Works (1894–1938)
1906
251. Black, Helen C. Notable Women
Authors of the Day. London: MacLaren,
1906. See the entry on Sarah Grand on
pages 320–28.
252. Deland, Margaret Wade Camp-
bell. The Awakening of Helena Ritchie. New
York: Harper and Brothers, 1906. In this
novel, Helena Richie awakens to the shame
of pretending to be a widow when actually
she is the longtime mistress of Lloyd Pryor,
who has posed as her brother. Pryor has lost
interest in Helena and fears the response of
his daughter should he carry through with
his promise to marry her. Realizing his
growing disinterest, Helena gives up her
charge of David, an orphan entrusted to her
by the local clergyman, Dr. Lavendar, and
plans to leave town for a fresh start. Laven-
dar returns David to Helena’s care, how-
ever, due to the sincerity of her remorse and
her bond with the child.
253. Jones, J. Wilton, and Gertrude
Warden. Woman’s Proper Place: A Duologue.
London: S. French, 1906. Richard and
Mary Montagu Robinson are the only char-
acters in this brief play. It opens with “Mr.
M. R.” at home. “Mrs. M. R.” soon returns
from meeting with some feminist women
who have been discussing the book Women’s
Proper Place. She rails about it to her hus-
band, who listens attentively and says lit-
tle. When Mrs. M. R. learns she has lost
money in an investment scam, she turns to
her husband for solace, and he offers to re-
coup her loss with money from the sales of
Woman’s Proper Place. The play ends with
the Mrs. returning to her wifely duties.
This cigarette card, a collectible en-
closed within a pack of cigarettes,
shows a New Woman decked out in a
new-fangled golf costume as she swings
her golf club.
Primary Works (1894–1938) 73 254–257

255. Moore, Frank

Frankfurt. The Marriage
Lease. London: Hutchin-
son, 1907. In this novel set
in the fictional land of Aza-
lea, a planned community,
Bernard Blamforth wants to
be president. He and Vio-
let Castledene fall in love
and marry just as the state
undertakes to abolish con-
ventional marriage in favor
of a marriage lease. Chaos
ensues and the story con-
Smoking and drinking “extra fine” wine indicates the cludes with the Azaleans,
kind of lifestyle to which this New Woman “mon- under Bernard’s leadership,
key” has become accustomed. Life, 18 January 1906. devolving from their highly
successful utopian experi-
1907 mentalism to utter conventionalism, which
produces higher birthrates.
254. Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. “A 256. Robins, Elizabeth (aka C. E. Rai-
Woman’s Utopia.” The Times Magazine mond). Votes for Women! London: Mills and
( January–March), 1907. This incomplete Boon, 1907. Originally titled The Friend of
utopian fiction was Gilman’s first foray into Women, this play opens with a gathering at
the genre to which she would return in a country estate in Hertfordshire. Miss Vida
Moving the Mountain (1911) and Herland Levering is staying there when Jean Don-
(1915). Morgan G. Street, about to go trav- barton, betrothed to a politician, comes for
eling for twenty years, challenges his cousin, a visit. Levering seeks support for a woman’s
Hope Cartwright, to improve New York, shelter, but the topic of the day is a ruckus
while he is away, with the aid of a $20 mil- made by suffragettes. Donbarton becomes
lion donation. Returning in 1927, he wit- interested in the subject because of her
nesses vast change effected largely by the in- fiancé’s position but soon breaks off her en-
creased political influence of women. These gagement to attend a march for suffrage in
include environmental improvements London with Levering. Playwright/pro-
(clean air and water), the introduction of ducer Robins, a renowned actor who played
free trade, and revisioned roles—specifically Hedda in Ibsen’s Hedda Gabler (1890) in
women’s roles — within society. Only London, returned to America after her
women who wish to become mothers and actor-husband committed suicide. She
raise children do so, while other women wrote prose under the pseudonym C. E.
specialize in different areas productive to Raimond.
the community. The changes improve not
only the position of women but of men and 257. Siganou-Parren, Kalliroi. “The
children as well. Gilman’s idealized vision of New Woman: A Drama in Four Acts”
society is undermined somewhat by her (1907). In Modern Women Playwrights of
problematic attitude towards race — partic- Europe. Ed. Alan P. Barr. New York: Ox-
ularly towards immigration and, as she ford University Press, 2001. This New
terms it, “the Negro problem.” Woman play was set in Constantinople and
258–262
Athens between 1897 and 1916. The pro-
tagonist, Mary Myrton, is a young self-
sufficient artist who falls in love with a
young man from an upwardly mobile fam-
ily. He says he wants to break from the de-
ceit and superficiality of his dysfunctional
family, but he does not have the courage to
do so. He marries Mary in secret but suc-
cumbs to his mother’s dictates and leaves
Mary pregnant and fending for herself.
Mary moves to America and rears their son,
Paul. He becomes an Olympic star; his vic-
tories capture his father’s attention and lead
him to self-understanding.
258. Smedley, Constance. “The Hedda
Gabler of To-Day,” Fortnightly Review 8
( July 1907): 77–90. Using Ibsen’s Hedda
Gabler as a point of departure, Smedley
provided a thoughtful analysis of the mul-
tifaceted aspects of men’s lives versus the
sterility of women’s. She noted that men
and women had preconceived notions of
what it means to be a spouse but that men
were not expected to fit the mold as women
were. Smedley wrote about Victorian
women of the 1870s and 1880s who inspired
the independent women about whom Ibsen
and Rhoda Broughton later wrote.
1908
259. Anonymous. “The ‘New’ Woman.”
Life (3 December 1908): 52. This short
piece references an article regarding the
American woman by the London physician
Andrew Macphail. The subject is the future
of women’s hips, which he predicted would
be slim due to childlessness.
260. Hankin, St. John. The Last of the
DeMullins. 1908. This play was first per-
formed at the Stage Society at the Haymar-
ket Theatre in London, December 6–7,
1908. The patriarch of the rural DeMullins
family is suddenly stricken with a slight
stroke, and his wife sends for their wayward
daughter, Janet, a single mother who lives
74 Primary Works (1894–1938)
in London with her young son. As the story
unfolds, the paternity of her son Johnny is
revealed. Janet prefers her independence
and her work as a milliner to marriage. Her
father has grown attached to the boy, how-
ever, and seeing that his other daughter’s
chance for a “suitable” marriage is slim, he
orders Janet to return to the family home,
suggesting he and his wife adopt Johnny.
Janet will have no part of it, and after a
family disagreement of huge proportions,
she and Johnny leave the family home
never, it seems, to return. Janet is a true
New Woman, sticking to her mandate for
independence.
261. Martin, Edward Sandford. In a
New Century. New York: Charles Scribner’s
Sons, 1908. This collection of essays ad-
dresses topics of importance at the preced-
ing turn of the century. Those of particular
interest are “Divorce” and “Woman Suf-
frage.” Martin concluded that the increase
in divorce did not necessarily indicate
an increase in failed marriages generally
but only in failed marriages in which the
couples chose not to continue until death.
As for woman suffrage, he conjectured, giv-
ing women the vote would not be revolu-
tionary as many women would not vote
anyway.
1909
262. Hamilton, Cicely. Marriage as a
Trade. New York: Moffat, Yard, 1909/Lon-
don: Chapman and Hall, 1912. The ideas
Hamilton put forth in this text are modern
even in the early twenty-first century. She
examined the intellectual, moral, and emo-
tional inferiorities that women are led to
believe they are created with and likened
these “so-called” absolutes with the tenets
that despotic governments purport to keep
weaker citizens under their control. Hamil-
ton related the plight and woes of women to
men, society, and marriage. She called mar-
riage a trade that women must apply for in
Primary Works (1894–1938)
order to be taken care of and discussed this
trade in the context of being a wife, mother,
low-wage earner, intellectually constrained
and without choices. In other words, the
housekeeping trade was the only one open
to women and therefore they had to enter it
to live. Only when enough women resisted
marriage would improvement be made.
263. ____. “The New Woman on
the Stage by a Critic’s Wife.” The Lady’s
Realm 25 (1909): 684–88. In this brief ar-
ticle Hamilton asserted that women were
influential in theater as playgoers, actors,
and managers. She then reviewed several
shows, ending in a surprising way, with a
note that playwrights had become too neg-
ative in regard to men.
264. Wells, H. G. Ann Veronica. Lon-
don: T. Fisher Unwin, 1909. In this novel,
the heroine is symbolic of Wells’s ideology
regarding the New Woman at the begin-
ning of the twentieth century. She was no
longer “new,” and though she had suc-
ceeded in some of her battles, she took one
giant step forward and many baby steps
back.
1910
265. Anonymous. (No title). Life (19
May 1910): 55. In this ditty, a New Woman
encourages the beaver wife to become in-
volved in the suffrage movement, but “Mrs.
Beaver” declines as she is too “dam” busy.
266. Caird, Mona (aka Mona Alison or
Alice Mona Henryson Caird). “The Lot
of Women.” Westminster Review 174 ( July
1910): 52–59. This article is a plea for
women of all social classes to awaken to the
legal and political disadvantages that befall
them due to disenfranchisement.
267. Deland, Margaret Wade Camp-
bell. “The Change in the Feminine Ideal.”
Atlantic Monthly 105 (1910): 289–302. De-
land’s position on the New Woman was
75 263–269
ambivalent. She worried about the future
of the advances that women (who, like she,
dared to speak in public) had made, but
then stated that the two evils of feminism—
individualism and social responsibility —
were threatening the well-being of the fam-
ily. Divorce was, in most cases, “supreme
individualism.” Deland’s diatribe on uni-
versal suffrage rests on racist and class-based
remarks. She concluded that all was not bad
with the New Woman — she just wanted
things to change too fast.
268. Farr, Florence (aka Emery). Mod-
ern Woman: Her Intentions. London: F.
Palmer, 1910. This collection of essays ad-
dresses topics including the fight for suf-
frage, the role of money in marriage (and
divorce), the impact of prostitution on pub-
lic health and on the lives of the women
who practice it, the potential benefits of eu-
genic sterilization of certain members/
classes of society, the application of con-
temporary emerging theories of conscious-
ness to women, and the desirability of an-
drogyny in both sexes.
269. Forster, E. M. Howard’s End
(1910). London: Edward Arnold, 1973. This
novel opens with an exchange of letters be-
tween the Schlegel sisters — Margaret and
Helen. They have a younger brother, Tibby
(Margaret, the elder, reared him due to the
death of their mother during his birth), who
later attends Cambridge University. Both
sisters have emancipated views of woman-
hood, though Margaret is of a serious nature
and Helen is more flippant. The story re-
volves in two circles both of which the sis-
ters had become part of incidentally: that
of the Wilcoxes, an English family of pre-
tense, and that of Leonard Bast, a common
clerk with intellectual leanings. Margaret
and Helen are interested in living authen-
tic lives, and by novel’s end honesty and
fairness win out with the revelation that
Margaret’s friend Mrs. Wilcox (a Howard)
has willed Howard’s End to her — a fact the
270–273
Wilcox family kept from her even after
Margaret wed the widowed Henry Wilcox.
The unfortunate Bast (eventually killed by
Charles Wilcox) impregnates Helen. Mar-
garet points to a double standard when hus-
band Henry will not allow Helen to spend
the night in his home, reminding him of
the affair he had with Jacky (Mrs.) Bast dur-
ing the time he was married to his first wife
and the mother of his children. At first
Wilcox refuses to see any connection be-
tween the two events, but Margaret prevails,
Helen has her child, and Howard’s End be-
comes her lawful property.
270. Harvey, Alexander. “The New
Woman’s Literary Work.” Life (10 Novem-
ber 1910): 56. In regard to a new edition of
the Encyclopedia Britannica, Harvey re-
sponded sarcastically to Miss Christobel
Pankhurst’s suggestion that women write
entries on historical women.
271. London, Jack. Burning Daylight.
New York: Macmillan, 1910. In this novel,
Elam Harnish, aka “Burning Daylight,” is
a self-made man who uses ruthless tactics
until stenographer Dede Mason convinces
him his exploitative money-grubbing is
wrong. Elam gives up his fortune and busi-
ness for her, and they lead a simple life to-
gether. He demonstrates his devotion to
Dede and the ideals they share when he has
the opportunity to remake his fortune but
deliberately passes it up to return to Dede.
272. Meredith, George. Lord Ormont
and His Aminta. New York: Charles Scrib-
ner’s Sons, 1910. Lord Ormont, a retired
British military man, is Matthew Weyburn’s
hero. Aminta, a student at the “sister”
school that Weyburn attends, is an orphan
under the jurisdiction of a domineering
aunt. The aunt has aspirations for Aminta
way beyond the schoolboy and connives a
match between the lord and her part Span-
ish niece, whose social standing is not equal
to that of Ormont. Due to the circum-
stances of Victorian society, Aminta is never
76 Primary Works (1894–1938)
granted status equal to that of her husband.
Through a series of coincidental meetings,
Aminta and Matthew meet again, and
though at first there is little interest, the re-
lationship grows at about the pace of Or-
mont’s realization that he cares about his
wife enough to grant her the privileges she
believes due. It comes too late, and the
young couple goes off to Switzerland to
found a coeducational and multinational
school where young women and men re-
ceive equal advantage. Aminta’s reliance on
men may put her standing as a New
Woman in question, but throughout the
long novel she is willing to “go it on her
own” if need be.
273. Sharp, Evelyn. Rebel Women. New
York: John Lane, 1910. The short stories in
this collection were previously printed in
the Manchester Guardian, the Daily Chron-
icle and Votes for Women. Many of them
relate the difficulties suffragettes had in
securing meeting places. “The Women at
the Gate” is about thirteen suffragettes who
attempt entry of Parliament. “The Person
Who Cannot Escape” tells the story of
a female lodger in a small country cottage.
The family is large, and the lodger sympa-
thizes with the wife, who works from early
morning to late night. Worn down, the
woman/mother admits to her boarder that
she never wants to bring a girl-child into
the world to follow in her footsteps as a
workhorse. “Votes for Women-Forward” is
about opening a “suffrage shop” and the
struggles by women to be taken seriously.
Other stories include: “To Prison while the
Sun Shines,” “Shaking Hands with the
Middle Ages,” “Filling the War Chest,”
“The Conversion of Penelope’s Mother,”
“At a Street Corner,” “The Crank of all the
Ages,” “Patrolling the Gutter,” “The Black
Spot of the Constituency,” “The Daughter
Who Stays at Home,” “The Game that
Wasn’t Cricket,” and “Dissention in the
Home.”
Primary Works (1894–1938)
274. Syrett, Netta. Olivia L. Carew.
London: Chatto and Windus, 1910. This
novel charts the progress of the eponymous
heroine, a woman who abhors the idea of
fulfilling the typical domestic role: “I am
not one of those women … who can be
content with domestic life” (10). Neverthe-
less, she agrees to marry Richard Carew,
asking why as she does so. After almost a
year of marriage, Olivia becomes pregnant;
distraught at the prospect of motherhood,
she believes it will hinder her development
as a scholar. While away on a business trip,
Carew receives a letter from his wife stat-
ing that she is ill. When he returns, he dis-
covers “she had now no cause to dread the
arrival of the undesired child” (34). Olivia
resolves not to fall pregnant again. As a con-
sequence of her refusal to conduct a physi-
cal relationship with him, Carew seeks sol-
ace elsewhere. He is honest with his wife
about this, saying she can divorce him if she
wishes. He leaves for England; Olivia agrees
to join him in six months. When reunited,
they travel to Italy, where they meet a num-
ber of Carew’s acquaintances, including
Sylvia Carnegie, who has recently inherited
a large fortune, and Hugh Alison, a writer.
Olivia becomes almost obsessed with Ali-
son and attempts some writing of her own.
She finally separates from her husband, ac-
knowledging that the marriage has been “a
great mistake” (155). Carew decides to re-
turn to America for a year. Just before he
leaves, he realizes Sylvia Carnegie is in love
with him and promises to marry her once he
returns and divorces Olivia. Olivia com-
pletes her novel and pays for its publica-
tion. It meets with little success. She reviews
her position and begins to regret the sepa-
ration from her husband. She enters into an
illicit relationship with Hugh Alison, but
he grows bored and leaves her. On the day
Carew is due back in England, someone
runs in front of Sylvia’s car, which hits her.
Sylvia realizes it is Olivia, attempting to kill
herself. When Carew returns, Sylvia tells all
77 274–277
that has happened and sacrifices their rela-
tionship so that he may return to Olivia.
He reaches Olivia just as she is about to
shoot herself, and they are reunited.
1911
275. Anonymous. “A Born Politician.”
Life (5 January 1911): 57. In this short ex-
change between two New Women, one
mentions that cooks should be encouraged
to become interested in suffrage because, if
they do, so will their mistresses.
276. Crothers, Rachel. He and She
(1911). Boston: Walter H. Baker, 1933. This
three-act play, apparently written in 1911,
was originally titled The Herfords, but after
eight years Crothers revised and renamed
the script. It premiered at the Little The-
atre in New York in 1920 with the author
playing the role of the protagonist, Ann
Herford. The story is about women’s proper
place. A married couple, both parties New
York sculptors, shares equally in professional
life though it is understood that only Tom
Herford will enter a frieze competition. He
works hard on his preparatory drawings,
but they do not ring true with Ann Her-
ford, who tries to cajole him into altering
them. He refuses. She draws something of
her own and offers it to him. He refuses
again but encourages her to submit sketches
on her own. She wins the competition and
a large cash prize. In the midst of their ela-
tion, teenage daughter Millicent comes
home from boarding school and announces
she has decided to quit school and marry.
Ann convinces Tom he must carry through
with the execution of the frieze while she
takes Millicent to Europe in hopes she’ll
forget her “love.” Subplots involve the con-
cerns of friends and relatives about whether
women have a right to work outside the
home.
277. Deland, Margaret Wade Camp-
bell. The Iron Woman. New York/London:
278 78 Primary Works (1894–1938)

This postcard was written to “Nellie” in Fairfield, Iowa, in 1911, thus indicating
that the New Woman, at least in the United States, was still alive and well. This
New Woman goes out to a feminist rally, leaving the doll-like twins in the care
of the stiff and unhappy husband.

Harper and Brothers, 1911. In this sequel to
The Awakening of Helena Richie, the reader
finds David grown and in love with Eliza-
beth, an impulsive girl who marries David’s
spoiled rival, Blair, in a fit of petty rage.
Sarah Maitland, Blair’s mother, is the driv-
ing force behind Maitland Iron Works, and
she disinherits Blair after he steals Elizabeth
from David. After Sarah dies in a plant ex-
plosion, however, her will is unclear. David
and Elizabeth (who has quickly realized her
mistake in marrying Blair) are about to defy
convention and embark on an affair when
Helena reveals her shameful past and warns
that they will find themselves in the same
situation if they proceed. Helena’s shame
prevents her from marrying Elizabeth’s
uncle.
278. George, W. L. A Bed of Roses.
London: Frank Palmer, 1911/New York:
Boni and Liverigh, 1919. George wrote this
novel for the explicit purpose of exposing
the plight of single women — especially
those of the middle class — in London in
the early twentieth century. The novel
opens with Victoria Fulton sailing back to
England after her military husband has
killed himself by abusing alcohol during his
assignment in India. Determined to make
it on her own, Victoria enters several situ-
ations ending in economic disaster due to
the ineptness/weakness of men. She finally
works as a waitress in a restaurant in which
she meets a socialist customer who lends her
books that change her way of thinking.
Standing ten to twelve hours a day results in
a severe case of varicose veins, and Victoria
must quit her job. She calculates how best
to make a living and chooses prostitution.
This book was banned in libraries. In the
preface to the New York edition, George
Primary Works (1894–1938)
answered critics, pointing out that women
might regard men as commodities just as
men had considered women, for decades if
not centuries. A more suitable title might
have been A Bed of Thorns, as Victoria Ful-
ton’s story is far from pretty.
279. Houghton, Stanley. Hindle Wakes.
London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1912. This
three-act play is set in the milling commu-
nity of Hindle in early twentieth-century
Britain. The issue that takes center stage,
exposes, and ultimately examines the dou-
ble standard is the illicit weekend escapade
of the mill owner’s spoiled son, Alan Jeff-
cote, and a young woman who works in the
mill, Fanny Hawthorn. Jeffcote is engaged
to another, religious, young woman, which
complicates resolution. Each parent has an
opinion as to what should be done, but in
the end New Woman Fanny settles it all by
refusing to marry Alan (his fiancée Beatrice
has already refused on religious grounds).
The play is about the chattel of women,
moral and class issues, and the New
Woman’s independence. First performed by
Miss Horniman’s Repertory Company of
Manchester at the Aldwych Theatre on June
16 1912, Hindle Wakes is a little-known play
deserving scholarly attention.
280. Kenton, Edna. “How Women
Propose.” Bookman 33 (1911): 274–79.
With no mention of the New Woman per
se, this review of contemporary literature
in which women propose to men is no
doubt about these progressive women. After
introducing Jane Eyre as someone who
comes close to proposing, author Kenton
discussed male authors who cast their pro-
tagonists in traditional male roles.
281. Schreiner, Olive. Women and
Labor. New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1911.
Author Schreiner focused on the need for
the Woman’s Movement to become firmly
established so as to enable women to exer-
cise their abilities and power. In chapter 6,
“Certain Objections,” she proposed that so-
79 279–284
cial freedom in the workforce would benefit
the interactions and relationships of men
and women. Greater equality would result
not only in a closer union between the gen-
ders but, along with the development of the
New Woman, her compatriot — the New
Man — would evolve.
282. Wharton, Edith. Ethan Frome.
1911. In this novel, Mattie Silver, the cousin
of Zeena Frome, Ethan’s hypochondriac
wife, comes to live with the couple after her
parents die. She and Ethan fall in love, and
Zeena, suspecting, sends Mattie away.
Ethan and Mattie make a suicide pact that
backfires, crippling them both.
1912
283. Atherton, Gertrude. Julia France
and Her Times. New York: Macmillan, 1912.
This novel subtly explores the shortcom-
ings of the “Cult of True Womanhood”
against the backdrop of the inception of the
women’s suffrage movement in the late
1800s. This is an eloquent record of the
transformation of the young, sheltered, and
naïve Julia Edits. Julia, forced by her mother
into an arranged, loveless marriage to the
tyrant, soon-to-be duke, Harold France.
Author Atherton ascertained that not many
women are strong enough to go through life
without love, unless they have undergone
a process of disillusion similar to Julia’s. She
made the story believable by introducing
historically accurate information through
the storyline about life in England and the
British aristocracy.
284. Daviess, Maria Thompson. The
Elected Mother. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill,
1912. This convincing argument for the
ability of women to hold public office and
still perform their duties as wives and moth-
ers explores the concept of strong women
being supported and encouraged by men
who are secure with their manhood —
unselfish men who want what is best for all
women.
285–291
285. Dumont, Frank. The New Woman’s
Husband: A Satire in One Scene. Philadel-
phia: Penn, 1912 (©1897). This anti–New
Woman play in one scene features Mrs.
Sheep as the New Woman and Mr. Gentle
Sheep as her long-suffering husband. The
play opens with Mr. Sheep doing the
housework and lamenting his marriage to
a New Woman. The postman brings a let-
ter from Mr. Sheep’s brother, saying he will
arrive shortly; Sheep panics at the prospect
of revelation of the true state of his mar-
riage. Mrs. Sheep appears, threatening to
box her husband’s ears unless he proceeds
with the housework. Then she leaves to at-
tend a dogfight. As her husband continues
his chores, his brother, John, arrives. Mr.
Sheep says he is doing the housework be-
cause his wife is an invalid, but Mrs. Sheep
arrives home, revealing the lie. When John
laughs at his brother’s predicament, Mrs.
Sheep throws him out and strikes her hus-
band with a broom. At this point, Mrs.
Sheep’s mother, Mrs. Flash, arrives to “pro-
tect” her “poor little abused daughter” from
her husband, with the aid of a large bull-
dog. When Mr. Sheep defies his wife and
mother-in-law, they set the dog on him.
286. Gerould, Katharine Fullerton.
“The Newest Woman.” Atlantic Monthly
109 (1912): 606–11. In this article, author
Gerould denounced the female protagonists
in works by Shaw, Wells, and Bennett. Ger-
ould claimed that the sexual freedoms as-
cribed to the women were not realistic even
though the genre in which they professed
to write was realism. She called them “mis-
represented heroines,” saying the male au-
thors simply did not understand contem-
porary women.
287. Grand, Sarah (Frances Elizabeth
Bellenden-Clark McFall). Adnam’s Orchard.
London: William Heinemann, 1912. In this
allegorical novel, Adnam Pratt undertakes to
operate an orchard owned by his father for
profit as well as for the benefit of the men
who work for him. His half-brother, Ser-
80 Primary Works (1894–1938)
aph, destroys the orchard in a drunken rage,
for which he is never held accountable. Be-
fore his father can make amends for blam-
ing Adnam, the father is killed in an acci-
dent; Adnam’s mother dies after the funeral.
When Adnam discovers that his father did
not update his will after Adnam’s birth, he
goes in search of his fortune. The female
characters—Adnam’s mother, Ursula Pratt,
and the determined Ella Banks — prompt
this novel’s categorization as “New Woman.”
288. Sowerby, Githa. Rutherford and
Son: A Play in Three Acts. New York: George
Doran, 1912. Throughout this play, the fe-
male characters strive hopelessly to achieve
a sense of independence and power, thus
demonstrating the harsh reality that men
maintain superiority over women through
political prominence.
289. Stocking, Annie W. “The New
Woman in Persia.” Woman’s Work 27 (1912):
279. Stocking related improvements made
from clothing to education in liberating
Persian women. She was most excited that
in 1902 only a half-dozen Moslem girls at-
tended the American Mission School,
whereas in 1912 there were more than 160,
and an additional 70 schools had been
started with total female enrollment at
about 5,000.
290. Syrett, Netta. Three Women. Lon-
don: Chatto and Windus, 1912. In this
novel, three very different women sharing a
few common characteristics face the chal-
lenges and choices of life each in her own
way. Phillida, the protagonist, displays the
variety of ways and degrees to which a
woman could characterize herself a New
Woman. The New Woman’s desire for self-
identity and love is evident.
291. Wharton, Edith. The Reef. New
York: D. Appleton, 1912. A chance meeting
robs Sophie Viner, the New Woman of this
novel, of her second and presumably last
chance to live a comfortable life. After es-
caping an unpleasant working/living situa-
Primary Works (1894–1938)
tion, Viner spots the familiar face of George
Darrow. The two indulge in a brief ro-
mance and part without planning to meet
again, but when they do meet again, their
lives and the lives of those around them
change dramatically.
1913
292. Baker, Elizabeth. Chains: A Play in
Four Acts. Boston: John W. Luce, 1913. In
this play, Maggie Massey — the unwed sis-
ter of Lily Wilson (married to Charlie)—
breaks her engagement after she discovers
her true motive for marrying Walter is to
escape the grind of her job. Maggie alone
defends Charlie when he suggests abandon-
ing his secure but tedious position as a clerk
to emigrate to Australia, from which he
proposes to send for Lily. His future is de-
cided when Lily tells him she is pregnant.
293. Boyce, Frank M., Jr. Governor Jane:
A Story of “The New Woman.” Niverville,
New York: M. S. Boyce, 1913. Jane Carmen
and MacDonald Stuart finally marry after a
long engagement, but discontent surfaces
when Jane realizes MacDonald is underpay-
ing miners in the western United States.
Jane’s socialist inclinations cause her to offer
aid to the strikers, and MacDonald’s learn-
ing of this causes a rift and she strikes out
on her own. She wants to become a jour-
nalist and adopts Jane Laurence as a pen
name. She writes about the rights of labor-
ers and women and speaks at a women’s
club on the New Woman in regards to suf-
frage. Her views appeal to the residents of
the fictitious state of Columbia, and she is
nominated as the Democratic candidate for
governor. She loses by a narrow margin but
after trouble erupts in the mills and the
newly elected male governor is killed, she
is forced to assume the position (the law re-
quires the runner-up to do so). As gover-
nor, Jane settles the strike and becomes im-
mensely popular, but the predominantly
Republican legislature rescinds female suf-
81 292–295
frage on all but local issues. Jane becomes
tired of the challenges of political life and
concludes that politics is not intended to be
in women’s realm. Then she goes to meet
the next Republican candidate for gover-
nor and finds him to be none other than
her husband, MacDonald Stuart. Learning
he has softened his views and provided the
miners more support, she says she has made
a big mistake, and they renew their mar-
riage.
294. Cather, Willa Sibert. O Pioneers.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1913. Not with-
out her own old-fashioned notions, Alexan-
dra Bergson serves as a sort of pioneer for
women. The business-savvy protagonist,
following the death of her father, leads her
mother and three younger brothers through
a period of extreme hardship, and because
of her good choices brings them into great
fortune. But her success and position of
prominence cost plenty. Though Bergson
suffers through a tragic subplot (the death
of her younger brother), she gets her own
happy ending when she is reunited with a
friend and love interest from her youth.
295. Daviess, Maria Thompson. The
Tinder-Box. New York: Century, 1913.
Evelina Selby is a small-town Tennessee girl
who goes away to college, then completes an
advanced degree in Paris’s Ecole des Beaux
Arts. Jane, her wealthy friend from college,
lives in Boston and greets Evelina upon her
return from Paris. Jane is an avowed femi-
nist and proposes a scheme to Evelina
whereby young women will achieve equal-
ity with young men by taking the lead in
romantic relationships to the extent of pro-
posing. Evelina agrees it is worth a try. Im-
mediately upon her arrival in Glendale,
Evelina asserts herself by living independ-
ently in her childhood home (her parents
are both deceased). She sees that the women
there are much too dependent on men and
plans to revolutionize the town with verbal
warfare. Jane arrives from Boston and takes
the initiative that Jane lacks, setting every-
296–301
thing in order in a short time. Meanwhile,
Evelina falls in love with a fifth cousin,
James Hardin. Jane appears to reform the
town ladies’ man, and they become a cou-
ple. Several others, who heretofore await-
ing the male initiative, follow suit.
296. Glasgow, Ellen. Virginia. New
York: Doubleday, 1913/Doubleday Doran,
1929. This novel traces the life of the title
character from her girlhood in the postwar
South through her marriage to Oliver, an
idealistic playwright who eventually sells
out. After devoting her life to her husband
and three children, Virginia finds herself
alone after her children have grown up and
her husband leaves her for an actress. Her
daughter, Jenny, points out the folly of a
woman’s being altruistic when no such
selflessness is expected from a man.
297. Kenton, Edna. “A Study of the
Old ‘New Woman,’ Part I.” Bookman 37
(April–May 1913): 154–58. This article ex-
amines “New Woman” literature published
before the christening of the New Woman.
Starting with Jane Eyre, author Kenton
pointed to New Women characters preced-
ing those in the novels of the 1890s. Ken-
ton’s argument is unconvincing, as fre-
quently she pointed to independent fictional
characters succumbing to marriage and self-
sacrifice.
298. ____. “A Study of the Old ‘New
Woman,’ Part II.” Bookman 37 (1913):
261–64. Kenton claimed that the New
Women of the 1890s were, by 1913, hope-
lessly old-fashioned. As to the conventional
attitudes of the so-called New Women, she
wrote, they were not free because they re-
acted against or within contemporary soci-
ety. She recommended Frances Hodgson
Burnett’s A Lady of Quality, Sudemann’s
Magda, and Harold Frederic’s Celia Mad-
den. The women in these works make no
excuses for who they are, which Kenton
maintained was the hallmark of a free
woman.
82 Primary Works (1894–1938)
299. ____. “The Militant Woman —
and Women.” Century 87 (November 1913):
13–20. This article defends the “militant”
or New Woman of early twentieth-century
Britain. Kenton wrote that suffrage was an
outward sign of women’s discontent and
only one aspect of the women’s movement.
Women generally, she claimed, were tired
of living in a man’s world with rules and
ideologies created by men. She believed that
woman’s spiritual freedom would evolve
after women obtained economic freedom.
According to Kenton, men were having
problems because they could not abide
women’s bid for independence.
300. Münsterberg, Margarete. Anna
Borden’s Career: A Novel. New York and
London: D. Appleton, 1913. This work ex-
amines cosmopolitan life at the turn of the
century, and one girl’s personal quest to find
meaning and purpose. Münsterberg re-
vealed her broad, thorough knowledge of
life in the political realm both domestically
and abroad, in the upper echelons of Amer-
ican society, and in the plight of lowly fac-
tory workers who fight to survive in the
tenements. She artfully wove the life of one
Anna Borden in and out of each of these
sectors of society, subtly suggesting the un-
derlying message that young girls would do
well to heed the guidance of their parents.
At the end, the reader has hope that Anna
realizes her true calling.
301. Raimond, C. E. (aka Elizabeth
Robins). Way Stations. New York/London/
Toronto: Hodder and Stoughton, c. 1913.
This compilation of Robin’s speeches and
articles (1905–1913) deals with the Women’s
Movement in England. Some appeared in
various magazines and newspapers; others
were not previously published. Robins
called her preface “Women’s Secret,” there
acknowledging that men did not deliber-
ately set out to enslave women — it simply
happened that way. But she believed that
the twentieth century must put an end to
Primary Works (1894–1938)
it. Basically her pieces discuss how little is
known about women because of the silence
imposed on them —“a conspiracy of si-
lence.” Women buy into it, and it keeps
them subjugated, she wrote. Women who
spoke out were thought exceptional, not
normal. Men talked about what women
were like, and their views were accepted.
Robins advocated that women speak out
about women and that men represent
women honestly and fairly.
302. Robins, Elizabeth (aka C. E. Rai-
mond). Way Stations. New York: Dodd,
Mead, 1913. This series of essays chronicles
the women’s movement in England from
October 1905 to June 15, 1912. It denies that
all men have consciously conspired against
women or that all women are angels but ad-
vocates that both are victims of circum-
stance. It contends that suffrage did not cre-
ate sex antagonism, but that suffrage
brought it to light, and that the struggle for
suffrage reinforced the faith of all people in
human nature.
303. Wharton, Edith. The Custom of
the Country. New York: Charles Scribner’s
Sons, 1913. This novel details the experi-
ences of the protagonist Undine Spragg, her
attempts to gain wealth and position
through a series of marriages and divorces.
Wharton contrasted American and French
society through her heroine’s unions with
an American businessman and a member
of the French aristocracy. Undine is an un-
sympathetic character — selfish and merce-
nary, with little regard for others, includ-
ing her parents and her own child.
Although this is not a typical New Woman
novel, Wharton’s satirical examination of
society life highlighted the limitations
placed on middle-class women as a conse-
quence of the expectations of society, in
which the only means available for self-im-
provement for a woman like Undine was
marriage. Wharton criticizes the protago-
nist’s ideology — money and position are
all — through a satirical narrative voice.
83 302–307
1914
304. Anonymous. “The New Woman
and New Dances.” (London) The Times (20
January 1914): 5. This syndicated article
from a New York correspondent describes
a Boston sermon in which Cardinal O’Con-
nell expounded upon the evils of dancing,
laying the “problem” at the feet of the New
Woman, who he believed might cause the
family to collapse. The article mentions
other religious denominations eschewing
dance and purports that a couple of U.S.
Episcopal bishops believed it was less harm-
ful than other vices.
305. Hale, Beatrice Forbes-Robertson.
What Women Want: An Interpretation of the
Feminist Movement. New York: Frederick
A. Stokes, 1914. This book is an in-depth
analysis of the state of affairs of women and
feminism in the early twentieth century.
Hale placed the position of women (prima-
rily in the United States though she made
some reference to Britain) within the con-
text of democracy and Christianity, stating
that both sanction equality for women in
all areas of life.
306. Kiper, Florence. “Some American
Plays: From the Feminist Viewpoint.”
Forum 51 (1914): 921–31. Kiper critiqued
twelve American plays and their playwrights
dealing with issues between the sexes. She
believed that The High Road by Edward
Sheldon and A Man’s World by Rachel
Crothers dealt most sensitively with the
modern independent woman. She said
Crothers had a better understanding of the
issues facing early twentieth-century women
and preferred A Man’s World to all the other
plays.
307. Patten, Simon N. “The Evolution
of a New Woman.” Annals of the American
Academy of Political and Social Science 56
(November 1914): 111–21. This article’s intro-
duction discusses the manner in which the
English dealt with “social problems,” which
according to Patten, depended upon polar-
308–309 84 Primary Works (1894–1938)

308. Peattie, Elia W. The

Precipice: A Novel. Boston and
New York: Houghton Mifflin,
1914. This work is a call for
women to ignore the pressures
of society and take the road less
traveled — to deprive them-
selves of love if necessary so as
to achieve equality and inde-
pendence. Author Peattie, how-
ever, suggested that women did
not have to fight this age-old
battle alone if men truly valued
them. These extraordinary men
could help women by standing
beside them in their struggle,
thus significantly narrowing the
great crevasse between them.
309. Weber, Marianne.
“Die Neue Frau.” Frauenfragen
und Fauengedanken (Questions
and Thoughts of Women). Tüb-
ingen, Germany: J.C.B. Mohr,
1914. After a general introduc-
tion to the historical woman,
Weber turned to the modern
woman who wanted to become
her own person and wished to
be defined by something other
As the old year goes out in the guise of an aged than her role in the domestic
male, the New Year comes in with an elderly sphere. To achieve this, wrote
woman encouraging her to take her place as a New Weber, the New Woman must
Woman. Life, 15 January 1914. take responsibility for her ac-
tions — a brave and challenging
ization (men are intellectual, women sex- move but one that could bring liberation
ual, and so forth.). Women and men were from all old conventions. Weber noted that
described with opposing attributes. Patten women no longer felt the need of a man to
believed that in America the pattern was be compete but instead were compelled to
more evolutionary, and he provided exam- develop their own capabilities and profes-
ples of how physical characteristics were sional skills to achieve completeness. The
linked to virtues. He pointed out that girls New Woman wanted to develop her own
and women were evolving from a primitive spirituality and discover for herself the sense
sexual phase and that, with better nutrition, of life. According to Weber, this was an im-
the gender gap would diminish. He be- portant step in the development of human-
lieved that it behooved men to embrace ity. The New Woman retained her tradi-
women’s ambitions and aid them in devel- tional female character (that of motherhood,
oping their intellects. childcare, and so forth), but she could move
Primary Works (1894–1938)
beyond personal matters to realize her inner
wishes and follow her own path. Weber said
she wanted the synthesis of both forms of
living. In early twentieth-century Germany.
this New Woman was referred to as the du-
alistic type.
310. Williams, Jesse Lynch. And So
They Were Married: A Comedy of the New
Woman. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons,
1914. In this play, Helen is a scientist and a
New Woman. In the course of two days and
three acts, her conservative family, Ernest
(her equal in work and love), and she man-
age to examine marriage inside and out.
Through a series of manipulations and
amid much consternation, Helen and
Ernest are finally married by the judge
(Uncle Everett). Though the play is a farce,
it provokes considerable thought regarding
a woman’s options at the beginning of the
twentieth century.
1915
311. Caird, Mona (aka Mona Alison or
Alice Mona Henryson Caird). Stones of
Sacrifice. London: Simpkin, Marshall, 1915.
Unavailable worldwide.
312. Crothers, Rachel. A Man’s World:
A Play in Four Acts. Richard G. Badger,
1915. In this play, Frank Ware is a female
writer who has adopted the child of a dis-
graced woman who died in childbirth.
Frank falls in love with Malcolm Gaskell,
but when she discovers he is the man who
fathered her adopted child and deserted the
mother, she ends their relationship despite
her conviction that he is the only man she
will ever love.
313. Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. Her-
land (1915). New York: Pantheon, 1979.
This is the tale of three young men who dis-
cover a utopian land populated entirely by
women who, through a supposed miracle
of evolution, reproduce asexually. The nar-
rative exalts the virtues of the land and its
85 310–316
inhabitants, describing their superior style
of clothing, governing, and producing food
as well as controlling the population. The
three young men learn the language and be-
come part of an experiment to reintroduce
bisexual union in Herland. This fails when
the most supermasculine of the three, Terry,
attempts to rape his native wife. One of the
three friends, Jeff, stays and acknowledges
the superiority of Herland to America.
Terry is expelled as a criminal, and the other
male, Van Dyck, leaves with his wife, who
has decided to experience the inferior ways
of the outside world so that she can tell her
people about Herland.
314. Syrett, Netta. Rose Cottingham.
London: G. P. Putnam, 1915. This novel,
originally titled The Victorians, challenges
traditional roles and ideologies placed on
women by society and reveals some of the
mental and physical transitions necessary
for the acceptance of the New Woman. Fac-
ing constant ridicule, emotional neglect,
and oppression, Rose Cottingham’s show
of strength and determination are symbolic
of women’s ability to succeed.
315. Woolf, Virginia. The Voyage Out.
London: Hogarth, 1915. In this novel,
Rachel Verinder, sheltered and unworldly,
embarks on a sea voyage to South America.
Along the way she falls in love with Terence
Hewet and meets Mr. and Mrs. Dalloway
and a motley collection of others. Her aunt,
Helen Ambrose, sets out to teach her the
ways of the world, trying to craft her into the
elegant hostess her mother had been.
Rachel’s sensitive temperament and lack of
worldly wiles lead both to self-discovery
and to disaster.
316. Wormwood, Edyth M. The New
Woman in Mother Goose Land. Franklin,
Ohio/Denver: Eldridge, 1915. In this take-
off on the Mother Goose rhyme, “Peter,
Peter, Pumpkin Eater.” Peter, followed by
his wife, uses a paper-maché pumpkin to
obtain their desires — she wants financial
317–322
and political equality, and he wants her at
home.
1916
317. Anonymous. “The New Woman:
An Historical Note.” The Times (6 January
1916): 11. Following a brief history of the
New Woman over twenty-two years, the
author extolled the virtues of the “New
New Woman” in terms of the enormous
help she could give in the war effort.
318. Dodge, Arlita. “New Woman.”
The Bookman: A Review of Books and Wife
(May 1916): 43. In this poem of eight stan-
zas the author acknowledged the existence
of the New Woman in her second incarna-
tion, evolving into a suitable wife.
319. Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. With
Her in Ourland (1916). Westport, Connecti-
cut: Praeger Publishers, 1979. This novel is
the sequel to Herland, Gilman’s utopian
novel of 1915. Here Van Jennings and El-
lador leave the otherworldly Herland to in-
vestigate The World. As man and wife, they
embark from West to East visiting Europe,
Asia, and then the Americas. The astutely
perceptive and intelligent Ellador analyzes all
countries and cultures using a varied
methodology. Due to her “tools,” her de-
tached posture, and her use of Herland as a
barometer, Ellador is able to pinpoint the
positive and negative aspects of every coun-
try and culture the couple visits. Jennings’s
America (the United States) is saved for last,
and Ellador is brutally honest in her assess-
ment of his homeland. In the end, she de-
cides there is nowhere in The World where
she could raise a child. She and Van Jen-
nings return to Herland, where their son is
born.
320. London, Jack. The Little Lady of
the Big House. New York: Grosset and Dun-
lap, 1916. Paula Forrest, a wife but not a
mother, draws attention as the little lady of
the book’s title and London’s portrait of the
86 Primary Works (1894–1938)
New Woman. With pride and skill (both
artistic and athletic) typically reserved for
males, Mrs. Forrest demands respect, but
with full awareness of her own sensuality,
does not forsake her more feminine attrib-
utes. For twelve years, she serves as a hap-
pily married and faithful Circe of sorts, who
harmlessly toys with her male admirers. Her
husband blesses the game, but when Mr.
Forrest’s old friend Evan Graham arrives,
the sport swiftly spirals out of control. Still
in love with her husband but mad about
another man, Paula views herself as a big
game hunter and, unable to pick between
prizes, takes her own life.
321. Stokes, Rose Pastor. The Woman
Who Wouldn’t. New York: G. P. Putnam’s
Sons, 1916. In this three-act play about a
Pennsylvania working-class family, Mary
Lacey, the protagonist, works as a flower
maker in her parents’ home, helping to sup-
port the family suffering economic duress
due to a strike at her father’s plant. Mary is
engaged to Joe, but a prettier young woman
turns his head. When Mary learns she is
pregnant, she asks the family doctor to per-
form an abortion, but he flatly refuses.
Mary’s parents eventually learn about her
“condition,” and her father banishes her
from home. She ends up in Pittsburgh
working as a spokeswoman for the union,
showing up in her hometown when her
child is eight years old. Joe is now a widower
and proclaims his love for her and the child,
Josephine ( Joey), but Mary cannot return
his love. She is willing to face the world as
a single, working mother.
322. Syrett, Netta. Rose Cottingham
Married. London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1916.
In this novel, the protagonist Cottingham
is a published novelist from a prominent
family of rural England who goes to London
to visit old friends. She finds everything
much different from her previous visits:
some young women are trying to live inde-
pendently (especially as artists), while oth-
Primary Works (1894–1938)
ers are into competitive sports such as ten-
nis and golf. Many are against marriage and
enter into “free love” partnerships. Cotting-
ham begins to investigate these ideas and
becomes interested in socialism and labor
leader John Dering. Although her grand-
mother/guardian does not consider Dering
a suitable partner, Cottingham marries
him. Their life together is far from perfect,
but the birth of their child brings them to-
gether. Though married, Rose produces
several novels, and Dering reclaims his seat
in Parliament.
1917
323. Wharton, Edith. Summer. New
York: D. Appleton, 1917. This is the story of
Charity Royall, a young woman who evades
the improper advances of her lawyer-
guardian until she falls in love with a young
architect, Lucius Harney, and becomes
pregnant with his child. She finally gives in
to the marriage proposals of her guardian,
realizing that her options are limited, as
Harney is engaged to another.
1918
324. Kollontai, Alexandra. “New
Woman.” In The New Morality and the
Working Class. Moscow: N.p., 1918. Avail-
able online at www.marxists.org/archive/
kollonta/1918/new-morality.htm. This essay,
first published as part of Kollontai’s book
in Moscow in 1918, was not translated into
English until 1971. Although Kollontai for-
mally divided the essay into two parts, it
appears to be in three. In part 1 she set out
the advances made in women’s independ-
ence, which she maintained are reflected in
the literature of the early twentieth century
in Russia and other European countries.
Women were experiencing liberation in the
personal as well as professional realms of
life, and they did not subvert their life am-
87 323–326
bitions to nurture their love relationships. In
part 2 Kollontai constrasted the “love” roles
of female protagonists in contemporary lit-
erature to those of their literary foremoth-
ers. In the latter part of the essay she devi-
ated from an analysis of New Women in
literature to concerns of women in contem-
porary life. She said the industrial revolution
and capitalism made clear the need for in-
dependent women, and she was concerned
about unequal opportunities among women
of divergent classes to advance economically
and socially.
325. Ragan, Ruth. Saki, “New Woman.”
New York: Young Women’s Christian Asso-
ciation, 1918. Saki is a Japanese girl who has
exhausted the educational opportunities of
her village. With her parents’ blessing, she
goes off to Tokyo to pursue studies related
to a career in writing. City life both attracts
and repells her, but she recognizes her inde-
pendent streak and joins a New Woman so-
ciety. Subsequently she lives openly with a
young man, believing this is the liberation
professed by her New Woman colleagues
and by Western society. He cheats on her,
and she stabs him and ends up in jail, where
eventually she is given a Bible. Reading the
Bible changes her life, and she becomes a
New Woman for the second time — now
living a Christian life, helping girls like
herself.
1919
326. Dixon, Thomas. The Way of Man:
A Story of the New Woman. New York: D.
Appleton, 1919. In this novel, New Woman
Ellen West carves out a career as an editor
of The New Era, a feminist journal. She is
beautiful and surrounded by several serious
suitors, but she wants nothing to do with
marriage and seeks to live freely with the
man of her choice, the nephew of her best
friend. This aspiring and ambitious writer,
Ralph Manning, sweeps Ellen off her feet,
but his traditional views on marriage and
327–331
family life are something to be reckoned
with, and Ellen is intent on making Ralph
see things her way. They finally consum-
mate their love affair without the sanction
of traditional marriage. After a year the so-
called honeymoon is over, and their dis-
agreements, plus Ellen’s jealousies, lead to
Ralph’s falling for Ellen’s southern niece,
who has come to live with her. Ellen con-
cludes that she had been wrong about her
feminist views. After arranging for Ralph
to marry the niece, Ellen marries a former
suitor.
327. Woolf, Virginia. Night and Day.
London: Hogarth, 1919. Set in London be-
fore the outbreak of World War I, this novel
explores the inanity of social conventions.
Four characters — Katharine Hilbery, Wil-
liam Rodney, Ralph Denham, and Mary
Datchet—chafe against the restraints of do-
mestic life, participate in social reform,
question traditional marriage, and challenge
class hierarchy.
1920
328. Abbott, Harriet. “What the Newest
New Woman Is.” Ladies’ Home Journal (Au-
gust 1920): 154. This short story chronicles
two women engaged in business during
World War I. When family finances stabi-
lize after the war, they return to their homes
and babies, celebrating during lunch their
wise choice and concluding that the “old
freedom” is preferable to the “new free-
dom.” Author Abbott professed that only
self-centered women preferred “the excite-
ment and adventures of the working-day
world.” She further linked feminist activi-
ties to the Bolshevist Party. A woman’s “Bill
of Rights” is ensconced in a flowery frame
at the bottom of one page — a woman on
the left ponders which kind of freedom to
choose; on the right the same woman holds
an infant and smiles. The final statement of
the “Bill of Rights” reads: “The newest new
88 Primary Works (1894–1938)
woman deifies not herself, but through her
new freedom elects to serve others.”
329. Gerould, Katharine Fullerton.
Modes and Morals. New York: Charles
Scribner’s Sons, 1920. The chapter titled
“The Newest Woman” considers the state
of the jeune fille in English literature. Al-
though Gerould pointed out that young
women have played many roles in the game
of love in literature of the past, the differ-
ence in the early twentieth century was that
the new liberated women were of a more
respectable class. She complained that
though the authors believed they were deal-
ing in realism, young women would not
react to love in the manner that many of
them depicted.
330. Lawrence, D. H. The Lost Girl.
London: William Heinemann, 1920. In this
novel Lawrence traced the steady descent of
Alvina Houghton as she moved down the
rungs of Britain’s social ladder from society
lady to lost girl. The story for the most part
spans the years of Houghton’s life between
her earliest days in the 1880s and the en-
trance of Italy into World War I. Due to her
family’s decline in status and her own strong
yet wavering will, Houghton faces the
threat of spinsterhood and poverty, still
working against that threat and the wishes
of those who care to advise her. Through a
series of personal trials, she loses the respect
of townsfolk but finds love in the form of a
troubled young Italian whom she eventu-
ally marries. By novel’s end, she is with
child yet, because of the war, soon to be
without her husband. Lawrence suggested
death would follow quickly for the married
pair, but that is left as a question rather than
a conclusion.
1921
331. Galsworthy, John. To Let. New
York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1921. This novel
brings to light the detrimental effect of the
Primary Works (1894–1938)
devaluation of women on all members of
society. Galsworthy made this serious sub-
ject somewhat more palatable through his
clever use of tongue-in-cheek. He advo-
cated that change was inevitable and that
those who adapted and found innovative
ways to deal with it would survive.
1923
332. Fabian, Warner (aka Samuel
Hopkins Adams). Flaming Youth. New
York: Macaulay, 1923. This novel portrays
a fantasy world, where women are free to
make their own choices and to live life as
they please. Fabian brought authenticity to
his story by discussing hot-button issues of
the day such as abortion and euthanasia and
alluding to the fashionable Dr. Silas Weir
Mitchell, the nervous-disease specialist,
whom women of the elite class were in-
clined to visit. He skillfully injected the un-
derlying reasons for the “flapper” philosophy
and the “Salamander” school of thought —
namely, flash novels, movies, and the the-
ater. The protagonist is the epitome of the
modern flapper (pleasure before all else),
but she is enlightened and ultimately saved
by her lover, Fabian, who, possessing a trace
of the pedagogue, claimed embodied all
men of strong intellect.
333. Norris, Charles G. Bread. New
York: E. P. Dutton, 1923. The novel char-
acterizes the “new woman” as torn between
a life of self-indulgent pleasure and self-
sufficiency and one of self-sacrifice in the
traditional role of woman in a patriarchal
society — the former free of financial wor-
ries, the latter mere existence lacking even
basic necessities. Norris nevertheless made
a strong case for the life of self-sacrifice,
portraying it the more fulfilling of the two
lifestyles. In the end, the protagonist is left
only with regrets.
334. Randolph, A. Philip, and Chan-
dler Owen. “The New Negro Woman.” The
89 332–337
Messenger 5 ( July 1923): 757. In a brief
paragraph under “Editorials,” Randolph
and Owen heralded the New Negro
Woman as one who would lead Negro men
and women to greater freedom and realiza-
tion of potential in all areas of life.
1924
335. Dorr, Rheta Childe. A Woman of
Fifty. 2d. ed. New York: Funk and Wag-
nall, 1924, 101. Dorr was a biographer of
Susan B. Anthony and author of books per-
taining to women and the evils of drink.
On page 54 she described the New Woman
as wanting “to belong to the human race,
not to the ladies aid society to the human
race.”
336. Hall, Radclyffe (aka Marguerite
Hall). The Unlit Lamp. London: Jonathan
Cape, 1924. This novel is the story of the
Ogden family of Seabourne-on-Sea (Great
Britain). The family is provincial and pre-
tentious — especially the matriarch, who is
excessively proud of her overblown heritage.
There are two daughters: the elder, a bril-
liant girl named Joan, and Milly, who as-
pires to be a violinist. The parents secure
governess Elizabeth Rodney, who remains
with the family many years, teaching and
encouraging the young women. The sickly,
demanding parents do everything possible
to keep their daughters homebound, while
the girls, assisted by Rodney, plot to leave
home without aid of husbands. Finally,
with Joan’s assistance, Milly succeeds in at-
tending music school in London. Mean-
while the relationship between mentor and
Joan intensifies, with Rodney scheming to
enable Joan to achieve her dream of becom-
ing a doctor. In the end, all the potential
New Women acquiesce to tradition. Milly
dies, Rodney marries, and Joan cares for in-
valids, including her domineering mother.
337. Seaton, Grace Thompson. Chi-
nese Lanterns. New York: Dodd, Mead,
338–340
1924. In this long book, Seaton recorded
labor practices among the female popula-
tion in China at the end of the nineteenth
century and into the 1920s. She used the
term “New Woman” in many instances and
identified the occupations in which they en-
gaged. She said women in southern China
labored more stringently than women in
other parts of the country; they worked as
stone breakers, road builders, and menders.
Seaton saw women transporting coal in bas-
kets to a military hospital, propelling Chi-
nese junks, and working as gondoliers.
These women were wearier than their con-
temporary farmers of either gender. She re-
ferred to the Chinese women as amazons
but believed they were healthier than their
contemporaries in the factories because they
labored out-of-doors. She detailed occupa-
tions including the establishment by three
women of a commercial press in 1896, those
in the hairnet industry at its height in the
early 1910s and in the silk-hosiery industry,
embroidery workers, prostitutes, and more.
This is an excellent resource for the study of
fin-de-siécle Chinese women.
1925
338. Crothers, Rachel. Mary the Third:
A Comedy in Prologue and Three Acts.
Boston: Walter H. Baker, 1925. This play
deals with the romantic fates of three gen-
erations of women, all named Mary. Act I,
set in 1870, focuses on the grandmother’s
courtship with the grandfather. Act II, set
in 1897, chronicles the mother’s courtship
with the father. Act III, set in 1922, is about
their ambivalent young daughter. Although
the third Mary and her brother urge their
parents to admit their error and divorce,
Mary repeats the error. She believes her love
for her future husband is unique and
blessed (as the other two named Mary be-
lieved when they married).
90 Primary Works (1894–1938)
339. Hamilton, Cicely Mary. Diana of
Dobson’s: A Romantic Comedy in Four Acts.
New York/London: S. French, 1925. In this
play, Diana Messingberd is a downtrodden
assistant at Dobson’s Drapery, who decides
to spend the entire sum of a small inheri-
tance on a few months’ pleasure rather than
invest it for little interest. She goes to an
upper-class resort, pretends to be a wealthy
widow, and rejects the proposal of a man in
whose business she once labored. In addi-
tion, she casts away the shiftless Victor
Bretherton, whom she challenges to pro-
vide for himself for even six months — as
she has had to do for years. He takes her up
on it, which she discovers only later when
they find each other in poverty. Eventually
they marry.
340. Williams, Harold Herbert. Mod-
ern English Writers, 1890–1914. London:
Sedgewick and Jackson, 1925. (Reissued as
Vol. 2. New York/London/Port Washing-
ton, New York: Kennikat Press, 1970.) This
book is a running commentary and criti-
cism of literature of the era of the title.
Williams devoted chapter 4 to “Women
Novelists” and examined the following au-
thors and their oeuvres: Mrs. Humphry
Ward, Olive Schreiner, Sarah Grand,
George Egerton, Iota, Elizabeth Robins,
May Sinclair, M. P. Willcocks, Beatrice
Harraden, Lucas Malet, John Oliver
Hobbes, Mary E. Coleridge, “Elizabeth,”
Ellen Thorneycroft, Lady Ritchie, Margaret
Louisa Woods, John Strange Winter, Mrs.
W. K. Clifford, Mrs. Alfred Sidgwick, Netta
Syrett, Una L. Silberrad, Ethel Sidgwick,
Jane Barlow, Katharine Tynan, Nora Hop-
per, E. C. E Somerville and Martin Ross,
Ouida, Mary Elizabeth Braddon, and Marie
Corelli. The chapter “A Note on American
Novelists” includes excerpts on Mary
Eleanor Wilkins, Ellen Glasgow, Gertrude
Franklin Atherton, Kate Douglas Wiggin,
and Edith Wharton, as well as on many
men.
Primary Works (1894–1938) 91 341–342

On this postcard the father peels an apple as the unhappy daughter reaches for
it. One baby wails from the high chair while the other one sucks on a bottle on
the floor. The wife looks quite together in her bicycle outfit and appears to be
giving instructions to her frowning mate.

1926 1926. An American, Faust asserted his

341. Cather, Willa Sibert. My Antonia.
Boston/New York: Houghton Mifflin,
1926. In this novel, Antonia, the daughter
of Bohemian immigrants, struggles to sur-
vive on the tough Nebraska frontier. Jim
Burden, a friend who grew up on a neigh-
boring farm, is the narrator. After working
as a hired girl in a neighboring town, get-
ting a bad reputation for her love of danc-
ing, and eventually having a child by a man
who deserts her, Antonia loses contact with
Jim, who has left Nebraska for the East.
Twenty years later, Jim returns to find her
happily married in an egalitarian relation-
ship, raising almost a dozen children and
working a thriving farm.
342. Faust, Allen K. The New Japanese
Womanhood. New York: George H. Doran,
qualifications for authorship of a book on
Japanese women in the first chapter, stat-
ing he had served as president of a women’s
college for twenty-five years. The book is
about the customs and culture of Japan,
both historically and in modern days. Al-
though the author heralded the improve-
ment in women’s educational opportunities
and disdained Japanese marriage customs,
his outlook was conservative. He professed
that women enjoyed being dominated by
men in conditions that smacked of slavery
(having to mind the mother-in-law and
being sequestered in the back of the home).
He made much of the Japanese tradition of
ancestor worship and its ramifications in so-
ciety. In the final chapter Faust related his
hopes for advances for Japanese women and
provided short biographical sketches of sev-
eral women who had achieved success.
343–349
343. Kelly, George. Craig’s Wife: A
Drama. Boston: Little, Brown, 1926. In this
play Harriet Craig is the wife of Walter
Craig, whose aunt, Miss Austin, lives with
them. The aunt moves out, declaring that
Harriet’s controlling manner is aimed at
driving everyone away from her home, over
which she feels the need to exercise com-
plete sovereignty. In the end, Harriet gains
the control she desires, but only after
achieving total isolation as well.
344. Kerr, Sophie. “The Tyrant.”
Woman’s Home Companion ( July 1926):
7–8, 84–88. Avery Madden, the protagonist
of this short story, is a New Woman, though
not so named. At age seventeen she must
become the family breadwinner, and she
does so. She retains her interest in art and
manages to save enough to study in Paris.
An American architect discovers her, and
she return to the United States to under-
take an important commission. Meanwhile,
she reconnects with a rich American man
and falls in love with him. When Avery re-
alizes he will not support her life as an artist,
she breaks off the relationship and devotes
her life to her work.
1927
345. Hollingsworth, Leta Stetter. “The
New Woman in the Making.” Current His-
tory (October 1927): 7–20. This scientific
examination of the origins of self-awareness
addresses reproduction and other issues
women have faced. Hollingsworth had
strong feelings regarding women’s desire to
find self-fulfillment and the problems they
continued to face in attaining it.
346. Hum-Ishu-Ma, Mourning Dove.
Cogewea: The Half-blood. Boston: Four
Seas, 1927. This romantic novel is believed
to be the first literary work produced by a
Native American. It portrays life on the
great Montana cattle range, where the pro-
tagonist struggles with conflicts resulting
92 Primary Works (1894–1938)
from her deep cultural roots and Native
American spiritual traditions being chal-
lenged by the modernist ideas promoted by
a new, so-called civilized society.
347. Schreiner, Olive. From Man to
Man. New York/London: Harper and
Brothers, 1927. Author Schreiner began this
posthumously published novel in the 1870s
and worked on it until her death in 1920. Set
in colonial South Africa, it follows the
lives of two sisters — Rebekah and Bertie —
as they struggle within the limited roles
offered to late–Victorian women. Rebekah
marries a man she does not respect, and
Bertie, seduced by a visiting tutor, finds
herself lost in a foreign country, the mis-
tress of a Jewish merchant. The story ends
tragically with Bertie’s death and Rebekah’s
unfruitful search for her lost sister.
1928
348. Fauset, Jessie. Plum Bun: A Novel
without a Moral. New York: Frederick A.
Stokes, 1928. In this novel, Angela Murray,
a light-skinned black woman who passes as
white, struggles to be a painter. She be-
comes the concubine of a wealthy white
man, Roger Fielding, who fails to fulfill her
dreams of romance. Angela reclaims her
racial identity, recognizing that there is no
quick fix for social inequality. She ends up
with Anthony, the black man she loves, and
studies art in Paris.
349. Hall, Radclyffe. The Well of Lone-
liness (1928). New York: Covici-Friede,
1934. In this novel, the love of a lesbian cou-
ple, Stephen Gordon and Mary Llewellyn,
is put to the test by an unsympathetic soci-
ety during World War I. Ultimately Stephen
recognizes she can never give Mary a normal
life, so she sacrifices her happiness by con-
vincing Mary that she is having an affair
with another woman, even though she is
not. Stephen steps aside, having arranged
Primary Works (1894–1938)
for Mary’s male admirer, Martin, to help
Mary pick up the pieces.
350. Ide, Kikue. “Japan’s New Woman:
Legal and Political Relationships of Women
of Japan Today. An Interpretation.” Pacific
Affairs 1 (August–September, 1928): 1–11. In
this reprint of an address to the Pan-Pacific
Woman’s Conference in 1928, Ide presented
a brief history of historical Japanese women,
then turned to the rights they were seeking
to acquire. She maintained that the only
way to achieve advances was through en-
franchisement. She quoted 1925 census
figures relevant to women working in the
professions as well as in factory jobs. Re-
garding education, she said, girls custom-
arily attended primary school and special
high schools for girls that were not the ac-
ademic equal of boys’ schools. Girls were
not permitted to attend preparatory mid-
dle schools enabling them to succeed in
high school. All reforms had to start with
suffrage, she said.
351. Larsen, Nella. Quicksand. New
York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1928. In this novel,
Helga Crane, the child of biracial parents,
leaves a Chicago slum to teach school in the
South but finds it not to her liking. After
having been raised from the age of fifteen by
her white uncle, Helga is not welcomed by
his new wife upon her return to Chicago, so
she finds employment as the companion to
a black woman lecturer, Mrs. Hayes-Rore.
They travel to Harlem, where Helga finally
finds an identity as a black woman that is
worth celebrating. She lives for a while in
Copenhagen and refuses the proposal of
Axel Olsen, a white painter. Back in Amer-
ica, Helga marries the Rev. Mr. Pleasant
Green on impulse, then finds she can’t rem-
edy this mistake by running away because of
the burdens of pregnancy and motherhood.
Neither can she run away from her identity
as a black American woman.
352. Mueller, H. F. “The New
Woman.” Life (26 July 1928): 92. This is a
93 350–355
brief exchange between a generic bride and
groom, regarding cooking. The groom has
assumed the bride had gone to his mother’s
to learn to cook. The bride arrives at her
mother-in-law’s only to find all appliances
and plumbing in need of repair and must
put her attention to fixing them before tak-
ing the older woman to the airport for a
flying lesson.
353. Woolf, Virginia. Orlando: A Bi-
ography (1928). New York: Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich, 1956. In this novel, Orlando
travels through three centuries, beginning
in Queen Elizabeth’s court and ending up in
the modern world. At various historical mo-
ments he/she wakes up with a different gen-
der. The novel considers the nature of sex-
uality, particularly its performative qualities,
as well as the construction of history.
1929
354. Anonymous. “Enigma of the New
Woman Voter.” The Times (London) (30
May 1929): 8. Although votes by women
were new in Britain in 1929, this article does
not focus on any way in which their votes
might change the election but notes that
the possibility of changed outcomes is an
unspoken issue.
355. Larsen, Nella. Passing. New York:
Alfred A. Knopf, 1929. This three-part
novella lays out the trauma of biracial
women able to pass for white. Two school
chums, Irene Westover and Clare Kendry,
are both of light complexion and do pass,
but each has chosen a different path in early
adulthood: Clare marries a wealthy white
man who believes she is white, and Irene
marries a Harlem doctor. Their paths cross
when a chance meeting in their hometown,
Chicago turns the world of each young
woman upside down. Clare claims she
misses her roots and is weary of the façade,
and so she enlists Irene to help her reenter
black society. Problems ensue as Clare takes
356–359
advantage of Irene’s goodwill to make ad-
vances on her husband; one wonders how
sincere her motivation might be.
356. Rice, Elmer. Street Scene. New
York: Samuel French, 1929. The setting for
this three-act period piece is New York City
during a summer heat wave. Rose Maur-
rant is the New Woman in a tenement oc-
cupied by Italian, Jewish, Swedish, and
German immigrants and the all–American
Joneses. Young Rose is mature, responsible,
and sensible beyond her years. She attempts
to counsel her mother, who is having an af-
fair with a younger man. Her alcoholic fa-
ther is not responsive to the needs of his
family and becomes violent when drunk.
Rose is afraid of the situation, especially for
how if may affect her younger brother. Sam,
the college-educated son of a Jewish social-
ist, is in love with Rose. Though he might
provide security, Rose refuses his proclama-
tion of love as she does the advances of her
boss. Her worst fears are realized when her
father finds his wife and her lover together
and kills them both. Rose accepts responsi-
bility for her brother but is determined to
move on with her life. Although rejected by
many houses in New York, The Playhouse
finally performed Street Scene, which subse-
quently won a Pulitzer Prize.
357. Syrett, Netta. Portrait of a Rebel.
London: Geoffrey Bles, 1929. This novel,
Syrett’s last, relates the life of Pamela
Thistlewaite of Gideon Grange, Hamp-
stead. From her teen years, Thistlewaite (a
twin of her sister Fanny), rebels against the
restrictions imposed on girls and women by
Victorian society and their lack of educa-
tional equality. The girls are practically se-
questered until their great-aunt’s return
from India. Shortly thereafter Fanny is en-
gaged, and Pamela is impregnated by a
young man claiming love but who, she dis-
covers, is already married. Pamela’s shame
takes her to France where Fanny awaits the
arrival of her first child. When Fanny dies in
94 Primary Works (1894–1938)
childbirth Pamela decides to raise her
daughter and Fanny’s son as Fanny’s twins.
Pamela’s father, a well-respected judge, ex-
pects her and the children to move into his
household, but Pamela stands her ground
and opens a bookstore in Chelsea, where
she succeeds as a single mother, shopkeeper,
and campaigner for women’s rights. Love,
not without its trials (the distance between
her and her daughter Fanny, for instance)
enters Pamela’s life. In the last part of the
novel, after the death of her intended,
Pamela returns to Gideon Grange and lives
her life among friends and relatives, the
most precious of whom is her granddaugh-
ter Pamela.
1931
358. Chappell, Clovis Gillham. Christ
and the New Woman. Nashville: Cokesbury,
1931. A lectureship set for Wesleyan Col-
lege in 1924 resulted in this first presentation
in April 1927 by the Rev. Clovis G. Chap-
pell, pastor of the First Methodist Church
in Memphis, Tennessee. Chappell spoke
(for 117 pages) on the New Woman. He ex-
pressed empathy for the modern woman
but also pointed out the problems that
could arise should she not hold herself to
Christian ideals.
1932
359. Crothers, Rachel. When Ladies
Meet: A Comedy. New York/Los Angeles: S.
French, 1932. In this two-act play, Mary
Howard is a writer in love with her married
publisher, Rogers Woodruff. His wife,
Claire, realizes, when they meet, that Mary’s
latest plot about extramarital love is about
Mary’s affair with Rogers. When he denies
Mary’s importance to him during the
women’s confrontation, Mary realizes she
has been played for a fool. Claire, having
met one of her philandering husband’s mis-
Primary Works (1894–1938)
tresses, cannot go on pretending that their
life together is happy. Both women are
changed, and Rogers loses them both.
1933
360. McCracken, L. “Madam Sarah
Grand and Women’s Emancipation.” The
Vote (25 August 1933): 1–2. McCracken
noted the privilege of a personal interview
with Grand, though Grand had written to
McCracken about women’s emancipation
from her home in Bath. Grand had been
president of the Tunbridge Wells Branch of
the Women’s Constitutional Suffrage Soci-
ety. The society had a parade at the time of
the first election, and Grand led the pro-
cession to the polling place and was the first
woman to cast her vote. Grand paid tribute
to all pioneers (women and men) who had
worked to achieve female suffrage. She also
discussed dress reform and how that one
initiative worked to give women power in
other areas of their lives. She said that many
changes were due to World War I and men-
tioned future publication of her memoirs.
1934
361. Curtayne, Alice. The New Woman:
Text of a Lecture (The Renaissance of
Woman). Dublin: Anthonian, 1934. Cur-
tayne wrote that a century of women began
in 1833 in America with “little feminist
groups.” She divided feminism into three
lots — secular, Catholic, and Irish. She
championed Catholic women for recogniz-
ing the accomplishments and virtues of bib-
lical women and extolled Irish feminism for
its advanced thought. Secular feminists, she
wrote, had made masculinity the feminine
ideal — it was a large problem! Women
should not compete with men in the pub-
lic arena. Workingwomen and the women’s
club movement were both curses because
95 360–363
they encouraged women to entertain away
from home. The Church and the Irish were
way ahead, she believed, in granting women
their rights.
1937
362. Borsodi, Mrs. Ralph. “The New
Woman Goes Home.” Scribner’s Magazine
(February 1937): 52–6 and 76–77. In this
article Borsodi made a plea for women to
return to the home, specifically the kitchen.
She used scientific data as proof that it was
more economical for twentieth-century
women to leave paid jobs and come home,
where they could use new-fangled appli-
ances to do their own work. Borsodi did
acknowledge that the low value placed on
women’s work made the prospect of leav-
ing paid work unappealing for a lot of
women, and she suggested that men and
society try to remedy this, though she fell
short of suggesting that wives and mothers
be paid real wages.
1938
363. Atherton, Gertrude. Can Women
Be Gentlemen? Freeport, New York: Books
for Libraries, 1938. In this series of essays
Atherton claimed that aside from obvious
anatomical differences, women were no dif-
ferent from men. She also asserted that
women could succeed if they became plan-
ners as opposed to dreamers. If one was re-
sourceful, she could make a clear-sighted
plan for unforeseen circumstances over
which she had no control. Atherton held
that such a woman was the one who made
history and was responsible for progress
(however small). She could develop tenac-
ity with which to fight the battle of life, and
she could survive no matter how much bat-
tering she might be forced to endure.
This page intentionally left blank
 Part II
SECONDARY WORKS,
1962–2008
Works are listed alphabetically by author.
364. Abram, Trudi, “Representations
of American Femininity: True-woman, New
Woman and Thomas Wilmer Dewing’s
Enigmatic Woman.” Ph.D. diss., Univer-
sity of Southern California, 1999. Although
the title references the New Woman, this
dissertation is in reality a reading of the im-
ages of women in the paintings of American
artist Thomas Wilmer Dewing (1851–1938).
As women were moving out of the box cre-
ated for them in the Victorian era, their
choices made it unclear as to exactly what/
who the fin-de-siècle woman was. Accord-
ing to Abram, this ambiguity —“woman-
as-enigma”— appears in Dewing’s work.
365. Adickes, Sandra. To Be Young Was
Very Heaven: Women in New York before the
First World War. New York: St. Martin’s,
1997. See chapter 4, “Movers and Shakers:
The New Women,” and chapter 8, “New
Woman in Love.” In chapter 4 Adickes in-
terweaved biographical materials with the
feminist accomplishments of the following:
Marie Saul Jenney, Rose Pastor Stokes, Elsie
Clews Parsons, Mabel Dodge Luhan, Mar-
garet Sanger, Crystal Eastman, Inez Mil-
holl and Henrietta Rodman, Elizabeth
Gurley Flynn, and Dorothy Day.
97
366. Ahrens, Rüdiger. “Motivgeschicht-
liche Aspekte der New Woman im Englis-
chen Drama der Jahrhundertwende.” Mo-
tive and Themen in Englischsprachiger
Literatur als Indikatoren Literaturgeschichtl-
icher Prozesse: Ed. Heinz Müllenbrock and
Alfons Klein. Tübingen, Germany: Nie-
meyer, 1990. The author concluded on
pages 319–20 that the motif of the New
Woman at the turn of the century was nei-
ther uniform nor clear but that it changed
the social-historical development of the
women’s movement. Its association with
other types, such as the woman with a past
or the femme fatale, evolved to an orienta-
tion of male rationality. Feminine inde-
pendence largely overcame sex-specific
stereotypes, allowing the New Woman to
step out of the frame of imaginative texts
and play a role in public life. The New
Woman no longer limited herself to tradi-
tional areas of the arts and social care but be-
came increasingly involved in politics and
business.
367. Aikins, Janet E. “Clarissa and the
New Woman: Contexts for Richardson
Scholarship.” Studies in the Literary Imagi-
nation 28 (Spring 1995): 67–86. Women
368–373
contributed extensively to the profession-
alization of studies on Samuel Richardson
(1689–1861) at the beginning of the twenti-
eth century. In this special issue on Richard-
son’s Clarissa, Aikins examined the shaping
of Clarissa in light of the time when women’s
rights were at the fore.
368. Allen, Louise Anderson. “Laura
Bragg: A New Woman Practicing Progres-
sive Social Reform as a Museum Adminis-
trator and Educator.” Ed.D. diss., Univer-
sity of South Carolina, 1997. This biography
chronicles the life and work of an impor-
tant but little-known New Woman. Orig-
inally from Massachusetts, Laura Bragg
found herself in Charleston, South Car-
olina, as the first female director of a major
American museum. As a result of Bragg’s
innovative educational programs in the
early twentieth century, she was lured back
to Massachusetts, where she replicated and
expanded the work she had done in Charles-
ton.
369. Allen, Raye Virginia. Gordon Con-
way: Fashioning a New Woman (American
Studies Series). Houston: University of Texas
Press, 1997. Born in Texas to wealthy parents,
Conway became an artist/illustrator who
fashioned an image of the New Woman
during the 1910s. Her illustrations were
based on her own image and found their
way into major fashion magazines in the
United States and abroad.
370. ____. “An Image-maker from
Texas: Gordon Conway and a New Look
for a New Woman.” Southwest Historical
Quarterly 101 ( July 1997), 17–57. This arti-
cle is related to the book published in the
same year. It expands Conway’s importance
as a costume designer in the nascent movie
industry in Great Britain.
371. Amin, Quasim. The New Woman:
A Document in the Early Debate on Egyptian
Feminism. Trans. Samiha Sidhom Peterson.
Cairo: American University in Cairo Press,
1995. First published in Arabic in 1900 as
98 Secondary Works (1962–2008)
Al-Mar’a al-jadida, this short book fol-
lowed on the heels of another by Amin
dealing with women’s issues —The Libera-
tion of Woman, published in 1899. Revers-
ing his opinion of 1894 in which he chas-
tised Western society for allowing women
too much freedom in The New Woman,
Amin promoted adoption of the thinking
and writing of Western authors as to the
freedom of Egyptian women. He believed
the advancement of Egyptian society de-
pended upon the education and freedom of
women, especially in regard to better edu-
cating their sons. He was amazingly aware
of particular European and American women
who had made their mark as professionals,
indicating that he had traveled a good deal.
372. Amin, Sonia Nishat. The World of
Muslim Women in Colonial Bengal, 1876–
1939. Leiden, New York/Köln: E. J. Brill,
1996. Given the dearth of information on
the New Woman in India, of special inter-
est is chapter 8, “The New Woman in Lit-
erature.” The first part of the chapter gives
a background of feminist literature in India.
Amin then turned to specific works, which
though far from being considered “femi-
nist” from American or English standards,
enlightened the reader as to how restrictive
women’s lives were in India. The chapter
then discusses the work of several authors
dealing with New Woman issues: Majibar
Rahman, Nurunnessa Khatrin Bidyabino-
dini, Akhter Mahal Syeda Khatun, and
Roketa Sakawat Hossein. In works by these
authors, the protagonists’ revolutionary
moves included marriage for love rather
than parental arrangement and education
to improve domestic skills.
373. Ammons, Elizabeth. “The New
Woman as Cultural Symbol and Social Re-
ality: Six Women Writers’ Perspectives.”
1915, the Cultural Moment: The New Poli-
tics, the New Woman, the New Psycholog y,
the New Art, and the New Theatre in Amer-
ica. Ed. Adele Heller and Lois Rudnick.
Secondary Works (1962–2008) 99 374–375

This advertisement encourages liberated women to use a Sweeperette rather than

rely on old-fashioned implements such as brooms. Ladies’ Home Journal, August
1895.

New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers Uni-
versity Press, 1991. The introduction deals
with the state of women’s work as the cen-
tury was changing from the nineteenth to
the twentieth. Elizabeth Stuart Phelps advo-
cated professions other than writing for
women. But Ammons claimed that women
wanted to write, and she discussed the writ-
ing of six New Women: Willa Cather, Jessie
Fauset, Mary Austin, Angeline Grimké,
Edith Wharton, and Sui Sin Far.
374. Ardis, Ann Louise. “‘The Apple
and the Ego of Woman’: A Prehistory of
English Modernism in the ‘New Woman’
Novels of the 1890s.” Ph.D. diss., Univer-
sity of Virginia, 1988. In this dissertation,
Ardis situated New Woman novels within
the literary criticism of the era and within
the limited scholarship of the late 1970s/
early 1980s. She was especially interested in
crediting authors of the novels with break-
ing into modernism, though she stopped
short of claiming that the New Woman au-
thors of the turn of the century were a di-
rect influence on the modernists. Ardis ar-
gued for bringing New Woman novels from
the margins to the mainstream so as to un-
derstand the culture of the era.
375. ____. “E. M. Hull, Mass Market
Romance and the New Woman Novel in
376–380
the Early Twentieth Century.” Women’s
Writing 3 (1996), 287–96. Although most
romantic/sensationalist fiction has been
omitted from the canon, in this essay Ardis
examined the interwar-era works of Edith
Maude Hull, categorizing them and the au-
thor as New Women. Ardis argued that by
accepting the negative criticism of works by
Hull and other mass-culture writers, the in-
tertextuality of the era is ignored. She con-
sidered sexual issues of the protagonists in
Hull’s The Sheik, Captive of the Sahara, and
Jungle Captive, juxtaposing them with New
Woman characters in works by Sarah Grand,
George Egerton, and Iota.
376. ____. “‘The Journey from Fantasy
to Politics:’ The Representation of Socialism
and Feminism in Gloriana and The Image-
Breakers.” Rediscovering Forgotten Radicals:
British Women Writers, 1889–1939. Ed. An-
gela Ingram and Daphne Patai. Chapel
Hill: University of North Carolina Press,
1993. In this thoughtful and thought-
provoking essay comprising chapter 2, Ardis
exposed the central theses in Gloriana: or
The Revolution of 1900, written in 1890 by
Lady Florence Dixie and The Image Break-
ers by Gertrude Dix. Ardis was interested
in the characters each author constructed
so as to depict change in British feminist/
socialist ideology. The idealistic Dixie
dreams about a revolution led by her pro-
tagonist, Gloriana DeLara, whereas Leslie
Ardent, the more practical supporting figure
in Dix’s The Image Breakers, understands
the limitations of her power and the social-
ist agenda to inspiring anything so grand
as a revolution. Her contribution to femi-
nism and social change is through her ac-
tions in life situations. Ardis also incorpo-
rated the role of critics in their reluctance to
recognize feminism’s important role in the
Socialist movement.
377. ____. New Women, New Novels:
Feminism and Early Modernism. Brunswick,
New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1990.
100 Secondary Works (1962–2008)
In this comprehensive study of the New
Woman in fiction and in life, Ardis wove
together critics’ responses to the novels, the
publishing business, the role of the circulat-
ing libraries, audience response, and literacy
rate. She took into account the social and
cultural milieu in the closing decade of the
nineteenth century and pre–World War I
era, linking reality to fiction.
378. ____. “Organizing Women: New
Woman Writers, New Woman Readers, and
Suffrage Feminism.” Victorian Women Writ-
ers and the Woman Question. Ed. Nicola
Diane Thompson. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1999. Here Ardis argued
that the more radical nature of lesser-known
New Woman authors and their works was
the very aspect that kept them more ob-
scure. She maintained that the better-
known authors such as Sarah Grand and
Olive Schreiner straddled the feminist fence
in their outspokenness in the popular press.
Ardis called for scholars to research “recep-
tion histories” and the construction of per-
sonal personae in New Woman authors.
With regard to Grand, Ardis purported that,
to neutralize a radical image, she purposely
constructed a persona at odds with the fem-
inist protagonists in her novels.
379. ____. “‘Retreat with Honour’:
Mary Cholmondeley’s Presentation of the
New Woman Artist in Red Pottage.” Writing
the Woman Artist: Essays on Poetics, Politics,
and Portraiture. Ed. Suzanne W. Jones.
Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania
Press, 1991. With references to the New
Woman throughout the text, Ardis’s paper
deals specifically with Hester Gresley, the
New Woman protagonist of Red Pottage.
380. Ashton, Elaine. “The ‘New
Woman’ at Manchester’s Gaiety Theatre.”
The New Woman and Her Sisters: Feminism
and Theatre, 1850–1914. Ed. Vivien Gard-
ner and Susan Rutherford. Ann Arbor: Uni-
versity of Michigan Press, 1992. The Gaiety
Theatre was managed by New Woman
Secondary Works (1962–2008) 101
Annie Horniman. In addition to this re-
markable feat, Horniman backed Florence
Farr’s season of New Drama at the Avenue
Theatre in London in 1894 and Yeats’s Abbey
Theatre in Dublin. She was supportive of
women playwrights and those who dealt
with working-class issues, airing their pro-
ductions at The Gaiety.
381. Attwood, Lynne. Creating the New
Soviet Woman: Women’s Magazines as Engi-
neers of Female Identity, 1922–53. Hound-
mills/Basingstoke/Hampshire/London:
Macmillan, 1999. In this book Attwood in-
vestigated women’s roles from the Russian
Revolution into post–World War II by look-
ing at stories in two women’s magazines:
Rabotnitsa and Krest’yanka. These stories
point to the complex roles women played—
from workers and producers of goods under
Bolshevic Socialism to producers of chil-
dren after the population was ravaged by
the war. The stories reveal the ambiguity of
women’s roles over a thirty-year period.
382. Bair, Barbara. “‘Our Women and
What They Think’: Amy Jacques Garvey,
New Negro Womanhood, and the Woman’s
Page of the Negro World.” Feminist Forerun-
ners: New Womanism and Feminism in the
Early Twentieth Century. Ed. Ann Heilmann.
London, Sydney, and Chicago: Pandora
Press, 2003. This paper, presented at a con-
ference at Manchester Metropolitan Uni-
versity in July 2000 and included as chap-
ter 8 of the proceedings, chronicles the
feminist activities of Marcus Garvey’s wife,
Amy Jacques. She started a women’s page
in The Negro World, the journal of the Uni-
versal Negro Improvement Association
(UNIA) to promote a feeling of comrade-
ship, problem sharing, and social/political
awakening. Although the page was short-
lived (February 1924–April 1927), Jacques
Garvey was able to enlighten thousands of
women with its articles, editorials, letters
to the editor, and even advertisements. The
page featured women of many hues suc-
ceeding despite adversity.
381–385
383. Banta, Martha. Imaging American
Women: Idea and Ideals in Cultural History.
New York: Columbia University Press, 1987.
Chapter 1, “American Girls and the New
Woman,” deals with New Woman images in
the United States. Long and somewhat ram-
bling, it identifies female types and conflates
them with the New Woman to produce a
composite type. Her argument is first set
within the literary canon, but it moves to
the visual, where it is less convincing.
384. Bardsley, Janice Bridges. “Writing
for the New Woman of Taishnõ Japan:
Raichõ Hiratsuka and the Seitõ Journal,
1911–1916.” Ph.D. diss., University of Cal-
ifornia, Los Angeles (UCLA), 1989. The
Seitõ was Japan’s Bluestocking Society of
the early twentieth century and also the title
of its journal published 1911–1916. Hirat-
suka Raichõ was its leader. Striving toward
independence against establishment and
governmental restrictions and constraints,
these New Women (atarashii onna) fought
the hard fight. This dissertation is divided
into three parts — a biography of Hiratsuka
Raichõ, the history of the Seitõ Society and
its short-lived journal, and an analysis of
the push toward New Womanhood and
how this played out in the family life of its
members.
385. Bean, Lawless. “Gissing’s ‘Com-
rades in Arms’: New Women, Old Atti-
tudes. Turn-of-the-Century Women 1 (Win-
ter 1984), 37–42. This essay examines a
short story, “Comrades in Arms,” originally
published in the English Illustrated Maga-
zine (September 1894). Bean summarized
the story and provided some analysis of the
relationship between its protagonists, Wil-
fred Langley and Bertha Childerstone. He
pointed to incidents of role-reversal that so-
ciety and Langley were not ready to accept.
Bean maintained that the story was “pro-
feminist,” reflecting the anxieties of a time
when women were becoming more inde-
pendent.
386–389 102
386. Beck, Claire. The New Woman as
Librarian: The Career of Adelaide Hasse.
Metuchen, New Jersey: Scarecrow Press,
2006. This is a biography of Adelaide Hasse
(1868–1953), whose career spanned the
United States with her first library position
at the Los Angeles Public Library (LAPL)
and the last at the New York Public Library.
Hasse first became interested in government
documents at the LAPL; she went from there
to become the first librarian in the office of
the Superintendent of Documents at the
Government Printing Office (GPO). Hasse’s
Proctor & Gamble indicates using Ivory Soap
will help women become stronger and health-
ier to take on roles as New Women. Ladies’
Home Journal, September 1895.
Secondary Works (1962–2008)
concerns about librarianship are as relevant
today as during her momentous career.
387. Beckson, Karl. London in the 1890s:
A Cultural History. New York/London:
W.W. Norton: 1992. Beckson’s chapter 6,
“The New Woman,” is a thorough discus-
sion of feminist activities before and, to a
limited extent, after the emergence of the
naming of the New Woman. He carefully
wove the issue of suffrage together with the
“woman question” and New Woman novels.
He focused on 1890s London, with some
mention of the American New Woman.
388. ____. A Magazine of Her
Own? Domesticity and Desire in the
Woman’s Magazine, 1880–1914.
London/New York: Routledge,
1996. In chapter 8, “The New
Woman and the New Journalism,”
Beetham introduced the concept
of the New Woman with histori-
cal underpinnings and then dis-
cussed the phenomenon within the
context of the New Journalism
(term coined by Matthew Arnold
in 1887). She drew attention to
how the “new” was in actuality the
beginning of the shattering of Vic-
torian rigidity in terms of class
and gender. The work notes the
founding of the Institute of
Women Journalists in 1895 and
that between 1880 and 1920 as
many as 120 new magazines in
Britain dedicated themselves to
women’s issues. On the whole,
women, as may be expected, were
accorded secondary roles in terms
of professional journalism. A
common thread was the definition
of femininity in opposition to
New Womanhood.
389. ____. “The Reinvention
of the English Domestic Woman:
Class and ‘Race’ in the 1890s
Woman’s Magazine.” Women’s
Secondary Works (1962–2008) 103
Studies International Forum 21 (May–June
1998), 223–233. This study focuses on
British women’s magazines read by women
in the 1890s both at home (England) and
in the colonies. Concentrating on Woman at
Home, it presents an analysis of the corre-
spondence columns that editor Annie S.
Swan ran in the journal. Many of the letters,
particularly those written by missionaries
and missionary wives, reinforced England’s
imperialist ideology. Although not spe-
cifically about the New Woman, Beetham
theorized that the “woman at home” was
constructed to counteract independent
women and reassert England’s white, mid-
dle class, domestic claim on its women as
well as on its colonies.
390. Beetham, Margaret, and Kate
Boardman. Victorian Women’s Magazines:
An Antholog y. Manchester, England: Man-
chester University Press, 2001. This collec-
tion of reprinted articles and images is pri-
marily from British newspapers of 1837–
1901. Although not one of the articles is ti-
tled “The New Woman,” the last entry is a
reprint of Jim’s Wife’s Husband’s “A Chat
with Mme. Sarah Grand,” Woman (21 May
1894 Literary Supplement). See entry under
Jim’s Wife’s Husband in “The New Woman
Debate” in this volume.
391. Bennett, Alma J. “A Critic’s Re-
sponse to Stage Representations of the ‘New
Woman’ during the Progressive Era.” Amer-
ican Theater Quarterly 10 (September 1996):
219–30. This special issue on theater his-
tory in part examines the reviews of Amy
Leslie, theater critic for the Chicago Daily
News from 1890 to 1930. Bennett main-
tained that Leslie’s opinions and behavior
mirrored the New Woman characters in the
plays she reviewed. Both were outwardly
liberated, challenging the boundaries of tra-
ditional notions of how women should be-
have, but both also held traditional views
and were thought to be “womanly women.”
392. Bergman, Jill. “‘Natural’ Divi-
390–394
sions/National Divisions: Whiteness and
the American New Woman in the General
Federation of Women’s Clubs.” New Woman
Hybridities: Femininity, Feminism, and In-
ternational Consumer Culture, 1880–1930.
Ed. Ann Heilmann and Margaret Beetham.
London/New York: Routledge, 2004. Berg-
man’s essay centers on the General Federa-
tion of Women’s Clubs (GFWC) and how
their attitudes and policies regarding race
and desegregation paralleled the U.S. gov-
ernment’s expansionist policies. Social evo-
lution, she said, also played a role in the ex-
clusion of black women from membership
in the GFWC — though black women had
made significant strides, white women did
not recognize them.
393. Birkle, Carmen. “Multicultural-
ism and the New Woman in Early Twenti-
eth-Century America.” Feminist Forerun-
ners: New Womanism and Feminism in the
Early Twentieth Century. Ed. Ann Heil-
mann. London, Sydney, and Chicago: Pan-
dora, 2003. This paper, presented at a
conference at Manchester Metropolitan
University in July 2000 is included as
chapter 5 of the proceedings. Birkle inves-
tigated one short story each of five authors:
In “A Warrior’s Daughter” by Native Amer-
ican author Zitkala-sa (1876–1938), the pro-
tagonist is a trickster enacting gender rever-
sals to achieve a semblance of independence.
Sui Sin Far (1865–1914), a Chinese Ameri-
can/Canadian, deals with cultural hybrid-
ity challenging traditional marital arrange-
ments. Mexican American author Maria
Cristina Mena (1893–1965) examines the
role of patriarchy in its relationship to the
Catholic Church. The protagonist of Ger-
man Protestant Helen Reimensnyder Mar-
tin (1868–1919) rebels against her control-
ling husband when he orders their daughter
to assume traditional a “true woman” life-
style that excludes an education. All these
women also grapple with ethnic issues.
394. Bland, Lucy. Banishing the Beast:
Sexuality and the Early Feminists. New York:
395–400
The New Press, 1995. Bland honored her
grandmother Sybil Cooper by including a
photograph of her as a New Woman. Of
special interest is the section of chapter 4
called “‘New Woman’ Writings and Mar-
riage Exposed.” Here Bland discussed the
courage of New Woman novelists in expos-
ing the dangers of male promiscuity in mar-
riage relationships.
395. ____. Labor and Love: Woman’s
Experience of Home and Family, 1850–1940.
Ed. Jane Lewis. Oxford: Blackwell, 1986.
In chapter 5 Bland addressed late nine-
teenth-century concern in Britain about
gender inequalities in marriage. She stated
that these issues went from being revealed in
fiction during the 1890s to fact in the early
twentieth century. The segments in the
chapter titled “New Women” and “Ship-
Wrecked Sailors” and “From ‘New Woman’
to ‘Freewoman’” are most geared to these
issues.
396. ____. “The Married Woman, the
‘New Woman’ and the Feminist: Sexual
Politics of the 1890s.” Equal or Different:
Women’s Politics 1800–1914. Ed. Jane Ren-
dall. Oxford: Blackwell, 1987. The title lays
out the content of this article, which deals
with the women’s movement of the 1890s,
the inequality of the law and lawmakers’ re-
luctance to change, and the function of
New Woman novels in bringing issues re-
lated to women’s unequal positions to the
fore.
397. Blankley, Elyse. “Beyond the ‘Tal-
ent of Knowing’: Gertrude Stein and the
New Woman.” Critical Essays on Gertrude
Stein. Ed. Michael J. Hoffman. Boston:
Hall, 1986. Blankley’s thesis is that Stein re-
jected the New Woman because of her in-
tuitiveness in sensing that, even with the
equivalent of a man’s education, a woman
would never be equal to a man. She ob-
jected to the composite image of the New
Woman, preferring to be viewed within the
context of her personal identity rather than
104 Secondary Works (1962–2008)
as one of a group. Her views on the subject
are most apparent in Fernhurst, Blankley
wrote, though in 1898 Stein delivered a lec-
ture in Baltimore in which she supported
the New Woman.
398. Bohata, Kirsti. “Bertha Thomas:
The New Woman and ‘Anglo-Welsh’ Hy-
bridity.” New Woman Hybridities: Feminin-
ity, Feminism, and International Consumer
Culture, 1880–1930. Ed. Ann Heilmann
and Margaret Beetham London/New York:
Routledge, 2004. In this paper Bohata
examines the hybridity relative to late nine-
teenth- and early twentieth-century writ-
ings of Bertha Thomas (1845–1918). Per-
haps best known as the biographer of
George Sand, Thomas traversed the emo-
tional, physical, and geographical distances
between Wales and England and between
tradition and feminism. Like the author,
who never lived outside England but
had paternal roots in Wales, the protago-
nists (male and female) deal with dis-
placement issues and for one reason or an-
other never experience a sense of belong-
ing. Some of the women characters in
Thomas’s oeuvre, though ambivalent, do
exhibit New Woman tendencies.
399. ____. “For Wales, See England?
Suffrage and the New Woman in Wales.”
Women’s History Review 11 (2002), 643–56.
Although the title incorporates the New
Woman, the article is more about Welsh
women and the issue of suffrage than the
total concept.
400. Bonnell, Marilyn. “Sarah Grand
and the Critical Establishment: Art for
Woman’s Sake.” Tulsa Studies in Women’s
Literature 14 (Spring 1995), 123–48. Bon-
nell looked at Grand’s literary contributions
within the context of the novel writing of
the 1890s. She presented a comprehensive
picture of the critical reception of Grand’s
work, concentrating on The Heavenly
Twins, reprinted six times between 1897 and
1923. She pointed out the gender-specific
Secondary Works (1962–2008)
response to the novel. Her thesis was that
women novelists were more interested in
presenting a moral within their works,
but that men, wishing to retake the mar-
ket, elevated the novel to an art form. The
author used a propensity of primary source
material.
401. ____. “Sarah Grand: The New
Woman and Feminist Aesthetics.” Ph.D.
diss., Pennsylvania State University, 1992.
Sarah Grand’s work has been interpreted
and reinterpreted, but Bonnel maintained
that few scholars used a “feminine” para-
digm for doing so. Using the theories of
twentieth-century author Carol Gilligan,
this dissertation attempts to reassess Grand
in a less radical light.
402. Boos, Florence. “The Socialist
‘New Woman’ and William Morris’s ‘The
Water of the Wondrous Isles.’” Victorian
Literature and Culture 23 (1995): 159–175.
The author posited the protagonist, Bird-
alone, in William Morris’s penultimate
novel, as an example of the quintessential
New Woman of the 1890s, though her ar-
gument is far from convincing. Providing
adequate summary of the novel, Boos in-
serted material on contemporary socialist
issues and legislation regarding the liberation
of women (changing the age of consent for
a young woman from twelve to thirteen).
But the fact that Birdalone swims, engages
in physical work, and embraces her sexual
nature hardly proves that she is an inde-
pendent New Woman. Part of the problem
may lie in William Morris’s predilection for
the medieval era and that, though Birdalone
and her associates live in contemporary
times, the language and setting is feudal.
403. Bordin, Ruth Birgitta Anderson.
Alice Freeman Palmer: The Evolution of a
New Woman. Ann Arbor: University of
Michigan Press, 1993. This work is a biog-
raphy of Alice Freeman Palmer.
404. Brandon, Ruth. The New Women
and the Old Men: Sex and the Woman Ques-
105 401–406
tion. New York: W.W. Norton, 1990. Bran-
don examined the “modernist theories” of
several late nineteenth-century couples, no-
tably Eleanor Marx and Edward Aveling,
Hubert and Edith Bland, Olive Schreiner
and Henry Havelock Ellis, and later Henry
Havelock Ellis and his wife, Edith Lees. Li-
aisons among the couples caused friction
and relationship ruptures despite their es-
pousal of liberal attitudes toward gender
relationships.
405. Brandt, Maria F. “‘For His Own
Satisfaction’: Eliminating the New Woman
Figure in McTeague.” American Transcen-
dental Quarterly 18 (March 2004): 5–23.
The 1924 film Greed is based on the 1899
novel by Frank Norris —McTeague. Direc-
tor/producer Erich von Stroheim admitted
trying to replicate the novel in his film. The
story centers on Trina, a New Woman, and
McTeague, a dentist infatuated with her.
Brandt speculated about Norris’s autobio-
graphical relationship to McTeague, at least
in his fascination with the New Woman.
First intrigued with the notion of the inde-
pendent woman, after marriage to Trina,
McTeague turns against her and becomes
abusive. Trina then abandons her New
Woman role to conform to McTeague’s in-
creasing disinterest in strong women. Even-
tually he leaves her and takes her money.
Her stress over the loss of funds is greater
than that over the loss of her husband, and
she is perceived as “greedy.” In the end,
McTeague murders Trina. Though schol-
ars claim other versions made more of the
event, the published novel trivializes the
murder along with the buried New Woman.
Brandt interspersed contemporary criticism
with Freudian analysis in her essay.
406. ____. “Reading Anxiety: The
New Woman and Narrative Strategy in
American Literature, 1899–1909.” Ph.D.
diss., Boston College, 2003. Using Kate
Chopin’s The Awakening, Frank Norris’s
McTeague, and Gertrude Stein’s Three Lives,
Brandt examined the anxiety that the New
407–410 106
Woman created in white, middle-class so-
ciety, which had previously been fairly sta-
ble in terms of woman’s role and “place.”
The anxiety, she theorized, was due to the
white, middle-class envisioning of the po-
tential for other groups to break away from
their containment and disrupt their own
stability.
407. Brennen, Matthew C. “Repres-
sion, Knowledge, and Saving Souls: The
Role of the ‘New Woman’ in Stoker’s Drac-
ula and Murnau’s Nosferatu.” Studies in the
Humanities 19 ( June 1992), 1–10. Brennen
argued that the female characters in Drac-
ula (Lucy Westenra and Mina Harker) have
been misinterpreted as antifeminist back-
lashes to the New Woman. He believed that
while Lucy may be a continuation of the
“Ideal Woman” of the nineteenth century,
Mina is totally different. She is able to come
into her own and take responsibility not
only for herself but also for the people of
Bremen. (In a sense she becomes a Christ-
like figure in that she dies so that they might
live.) Her character, according to Brennen,
becomes even more enlightened in the film
adaptation of Dracula by F. W. Murnau,
Nosferatu (1922). Brennen examined the
women in terms of intelligence, self-aware-
ness, and the New Woman prototype
whereas other scholars have looked only at
their sexual behavior.
408. Brooks, Kristine. “New Woman,
Fallen Woman: The Crisis of Reputation in
Turn-of-the-Century Novels by Pauline
Hopkins and Edith Wharton.” Legacy:
A Journal of American Women Writers 13
(1996): 91–112. In this extensive study of
the protagonists of Hopkins’s Contending
Forces: A Romance Illustrative of Negro Life
North and South and Wharton’s The House
of Mirth, Brooks analyzed the women’s sit-
uation within the sociocultural context of
the era. Both Hopkins’s Sappho Clark and
Wharton’s Lily Bart attempt to find them-
selves and their uniqueness, but both are
bound by stereotype and tradition. Brooks
Secondary Works (1962–2008)
looked at every angle using several tools of
analysis.
409. Brouwer, Ruth Compton. New
Women for God: Canadian Presbyterian
Women and India Missions, 1876–1914.
Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1990.
This is the first book to examine the role of
Protestant Canadian women who under-
took missionary work in Central India.
Brouwer’s study focuses on the forty-nine
women associated with the Toronto-based
Women’s Foreign Missionary Society
(WFMS), a branch of the Presbyterian
Church organized in 1876 and merged
with the Home Mission Society in 1914. In
general the women missionaries came up
against more resistance from their male
colleagues than from their potential con-
verts. They likely experienced a greater
sense of freedom and status in India than
they would have in Victorian Canada. They
were responsible for setting up hospitals
and schools, but their particular brand of
learned feminism did not lead to their or-
dination once they returned home. The
majority of the women were upper-middle
class, and although a number of the women
likely entered missionary work as an accept-
able work alternative to domesticity, many
left the work to marry and fulfill family
responsibilities.
410. Buckberrough, Sherry. “Delaunay
Design: Aesthetics, Immigration, and the
New Woman.” Art Journal 54 (Spring
1995): 51–55. This is a discussion of Sonia
Delaunay’s printed textiles and clothing de-
sign of the 1920s. Buckberrough wrote of
the designer’s interest in linking the move-
ment of color, form, and physical material
to the movement of populations, including
the migration of the international avant-
garde to Paris before and after World War I.
She also posed the argument that Delau-
nay’s clothing designs — based on African,
Egyptian, and Eastern sources — were pro-
tective of personal privacy.
Secondary Works (1962–2008) 107 411–414

411. Burke, Carolyn. “The New Po- first two decades of the twentieth centuries.
etry and the New Woman: Mina Loy.” Chapter 5, “Feminism and the Woman Cit-
Coming to Light: American Women Poets izen in the Inter-War Years,” is divided thus:
in the Twentieth Century. Ed. Diane Wood “The Legacy of War,” “A Feminist Pro-
Middlebrook and Marilyn Yalom. Ann gramme,” “Training Women for Citizen-
Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1985. ship,” “Feminist Questions and Party Pol-
Mina Loy was once considered the quintes- itics,” “From Politics to Culture,” “Feminist
sential emancipated female poet. She was Theory in the 1920s and 1930s,” and “Fem-
in the center of the New York avant-garde. inism and Internationalism.”
Writing poetry for Others: A Magazine of
the New Verse, her work paralleled the 414. Camp, Karen Mechel. “Crossing
activities of Alfred Stieglitz, Gertrude Over: New Women at the Turn of the Cen-
Stein, and the Italian Futurists. Loy wrote tury.” Ph.D. diss., University of Alabama,
her “Feminist Manifesto” in 1914. She was 2000. Using the works of the well-known
influenced by and influenced feminists New Woman novelists (Hardy, Gissing,
Marianne Moore, Mabel Dodge, Margaret Schreiner, and Grand) as well as some by
Sanger, and Emma Goldman. Author lesser-known authors such as Mary Chol-
Burke likened Loy’s vers libre to the free ex- mondeley, Amy Levy, and Michael Fields,
pression of the dance of Isadora Duncan Camp investigated the “trickle down” effect
and wrote that Loy was trained as a painter of images and writing in popular culture.
and transposed the visual expres-
sion of the genre to her poetry.
Burke reviewed critical response to
Loy’s poems and provided her own
analysis plus comment by contem-
porary critics.
412. Burks, Mary Fair. Survey
of Black Literary Magazines in the
United States: 1859–1960. Ph.D.
diss., Columbia University Teach-
ers College, 1975.
413. Cain, Barbara. English
Feminism, 1780–1980. Oxford and
New York: Oxford University Press,
1997. Two chapters of this text
are related to the New Woman of
the 1890s–1930s. Chapter 4, “The
‘New Woman’ and the Militant,” is
divided into segments titled: “Fem-
inism and the ‘New Woman’”;
“Feminism, the Labour Movement,
and Working-Class Women”; “Mil- This little New Woman appears to have lead-
itancy”; and “Feminism and Impe- ership potential! The young lad stands by with
rialism.” This chapter focuses on hands in his pockets while she indicates a
British women of the last two “take charge” stance. Punch, or the London
decades of the nineteenth and the Charivari, 1 September 1894.
415–421
The first portion of the dissertation deals
with New Woman cartoons in Punch with
analysis of their meaning, the second part on
reactions to New Woman literature both by
critics of the era and by contemporary crit-
ics and scholars.
415. Campbell, Sandra, and Lorraine
McMullen, eds. New Woman: Short Stories
by Canadian Women, 1900–1920. Ottawa:
University of Ottawa Press, 1991. Many
of the writers of the stories in this collec-
tion, arranged chronologically from 1901
to 1919, were journalists. They include
Adeline M. Tekey, Winnifred Eaton Reeve
(Onoto Watanna), Kathleen “Kit” Cole-
man, Susan Jones (S. Carleton), Sara Jean-
nette Duncan, Isabel Ecclestone Mackay,
Alice Jones, Jean Blewett, Marjorie Pick-
thall, E. Pauline Johnson (Tekahionwake),
Mabel Burkholder, L. M. Montgomery,
Madge Macbeth, Edith Eaton (Sui Sin Far),
Nellie McClung, Mazo de la Roche, Ethel-
wyn Wetherald, Jean N. McIlwraith, Mary
Lowrey Ross, and J. G. Sime.
416. Cash, Eric. “Confessions of a
Skirt-Chasing Feminist: Wells’s Tono-
Bungay and the Idea of a New Woman.”
The Wellsian: The Journal of the H. G. Wells
Society 17 (Winter 1994), 32–45. This arti-
cle is an examination of H. G. Wells’s novel
Tono-Bungay and the roles of his female
characters. Cash set his work against other
scholarship dealing with the novel but pur-
ported that his analysis focused on feminist
and class issues. That Cash cast the protag-
onist’s “Aunt Susan” and his lover Effie Rink
in the mold of the New Woman may give
some scholars pause, as neither female em-
bodies the spirit of the New Woman (Cash
acknowledged this in his final paragraph).
417. Cassidy, Cheryl M. “Bringing the
‘New Woman’ to the Mission Site: Louise
Manning Hodgkins and the Heathen
Woman’s Friend.” American Periodicals 16
(2006): 172–99. This article charts changes
in the journal of the female missionary so-
108 Secondary Works (1962–2008)
ciety of the Methodist Episcopal Church
from its inception in 1869 to the early twen-
tieth century. Mrs. Harriet Merrick War-
ren was the first editor and remained until
her death in 1893. Her daughter-in-law
took over for six months until Miss Louise
Manning Hodgkins, an English professor
at Wellesley College, was hired for the po-
sition. Changes during the sojourns of the
two editors reflect changes in administra-
tion: Warren focused on “heathens” in need
of conversion while Hodgkins championed
young single women who became profes-
sional missionaries. The renaming of the
journal —Woman’s Missionary Friend from
the original The Heathen Woman’s Friend—
reflected that change. Warren touted mis-
sionary work as an extension of home life,
while Hodgkins emphasized its professional
aspects.
418. Chadwick, Whitney. Women, Art,
and Society. London: Thames and Hudson,
1990. Chapter 8, “Modernism, Abstraction,
and the New Woman, 1910–1925,” is
framed within the context of modernity and
the production of textiles and fashion.
419. Cherry, Deborah. Painting Women:
Victorian Women Artists. London/New
York: Routledge: 1993. This is a history of
British women artists of the Victorian era
with black-and-white illustrations. One
artist, Flora Reid, is singled out for her self-
portrait as a New Woman depicted in
“manly” garb, but no image is provided.
The artistic McDonald sisters, Margaret
and Frances, were eulogized as “Women
New” in a satirical poem in The Glasgow
Evening News on 13 November 1894 (206).
420. Chesler, Ellen. “New Woman:
New World: The Life of Margaret Sanger.”
Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1990.
421. Chothia, Jean. “The New Woman
and English Theatre in 1894.” European
Theatre in Turmoil: Meaning and Significance
of the Theatre a Hundred Years Ago. Ed. Hu-
bert Hermans, Wessel Krull, and Hans van
Secondary Works (1962–2008)
Maanen. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1996. In this
paper (presented at a conference held at
Groningen University in March 1994)
Chothia discussed the prototypes for
Grundy’s The New Woman and several other
plays.
422. ____, ed. The New Woman and
Other Emancipated Woman Plays. New
York: Oxford University Press, 1998. This
compilation of reprinted turn-of-the-
century plays includes: The New Woman by
Sidney Grundy, The Notorious Mrs. Ebb-
smith by Arthur Wing Pinero, Votes for
Women! by C. E. Raimond (Elizabeth
Robins), and The Last of the De Mullins by
St. John Hankin. Jean Chothia’s introduc-
tion provides a brief literary history of the
emancipated woman as well as a sociocul-
tural backdrop for each play and a synop-
sis of its plot. She also listed the cast of each
premier performance.
423. Chou, Katherine Hui-ling. “Stag-
ing Revolution: Actresses, Realism, and the
New Woman Movement in Chinese Spo-
ken Drama and Film, 1910–1949.” Ph.D.
diss., New York University, 1997. This dis-
sertation challenges prevailing attitudes to-
ward the New Woman as exhibited in male
discourse in Chinese drama and film. Chou
examined a large body of what she called
“alternative text” to present a broader and
more accurate picture of the role of the New
Woman in modern Chinese drama and
film.
424. Chung, Hilary. “Questing the
Goddess: Mao Dun and the New Woman.”
Autumn Floods: Essays in Honour of Marian
Galik. Ed. Raoul D. Findeisen and Robert
H. Gassman. Berne, Switzerland: Peter
Lang, 1998. Mao Dun was an important
male author of the May Fourth period in
early twentieth-century Chinese literature.
He participated in Chiang Kai-Shek’s
Northern Expedition to unite China in the
late 1920s. Though he never graduated from
the university he attended, he wrote pro-
109 422–427
fusely on issues regarding modern intellec-
tuals. He and other young writers published
the Western literature of authors such as
Shaw, Keats, Byron, Zola, Flaubert, Balzac,
Chekhov, and Tolstoy (whom he admired
most). He also studied and often referenced
Norse mythology. In this paper Chung ex-
amined the connections made by Mao Dun
between Norse goddesses, the emancipated
Chinese woman, and his own ambivalence
toward the New Woman.
425. Churgin, Jonah Reuben. “The
Quiet Revolution: the New Woman and the
Old Academe.” Ed.D. diss., Columbia
Teachers College, 1976.
426. Clements, Kendrick A. “The New
Era and the New Woman: Lou Henry
Hoover and ‘Feminism’s Awkward Age.’”
Pacific Historical Review 73 (August 2004):
425–61. Lou Henry Hoover’s life paralleled
those of many Progressive Era women. In
this essay her biography is interspersed with
descriptions of her attitudes and philoso-
phy regarding women’s rights. Her interest
in women succeeding in fitness, business,
and the sciences likely stemmed from her
education at Stanford University (her de-
gree was in geology), while her business acu-
men came from her banker-father. Hoover
was active in promoting and supporting
both the Girl Scouts and the National Am-
ateur Athletic Foundation (NAAD), which
encouraged physical fitness (though not
necessarily competitive sports) for young
women. Although her sympathies were
with all women wishing to participate fully
in both the professional world and family
life, her wealth enabled a level of freedom
unavailable to most women of her era.
427. Connor, Holly Pyne, ed. Off the
Pedestal: New Woman in the Art of Homer,
Chase, and Sargent. Newark, New Jersey,
and London: Rutgers University Press, 2006.
This exhibition catalog accompanied a show
originating at The Newark Museum and
moving to the Marion Koegler McNay Art
428
Museum in San Antonio, then the Frick Art
and Historical Center in Pittsburgh. The
show and catalog included many images of
New Women, including Gibson Girls and
other types predating the naming of the
New Woman. The incorporation of the
names of well-known American painters
was likely a marketing technique, as many
of the women in their works were less lib-
erated than images exhibited from the pop-
ular press. The exhibition included a motion
picture of two women boxing.
428. Cooper, Emmanuel. The Sexual
Perspective: Homosexuality and Art in the
Last 100 Years in the West. London/New
York: Routledge, 1994. In chapter 8 Cooper
identified and provided biographical infor-
E. W. Hoyt & Co. appeals to all New Women to use Rubifoam for their dental
needs. Ladies’ Home Journal, April 1896.
110 Secondary Works (1962–2008)
mation and artistic analysis regarding a
significant number of visual artists who
worked from the 1920s to the post–World
War II era, when a return to family life
compromised their output. He linked them
through an exploration of sexuality and
gender issues identified in their work. He
also included a reproduction of at least one
piece in each artist’s oeuvre. His review
includes the following: the American au-
thor Djuana Barnes and her partner of ten
years, the sculptor Thelma Wood, and
Berenice Abbott, an American photogra-
pher who captured the lovers on film;
Frenchwoman Marie Laurencin; the En-
glish artist Gladys Hynes; the South Amer-
ican surrealist (though she disdained the
term due to its macho associations) Leonor
Secondary Works (1962–2008)
Fini; Polish-born Tamara de Lempicka; the
German Jeanne Mammin; Scottish realist
Joan Eardley. Overall the chapter is a con-
tribution to the knowledge of these New
Woman artists, many of them otherwise lit-
tle known.
429. Corbin, Pamela Beth. “Feminist
Performance in New York City, 1880–1927:
Staging the Collision of Victorianism,
Woman Suffrage, and the New Woman
Movement.” Ph.D. diss., New York Uni-
versity, 2003. Corbin’s thesis is that it did
not matter which performance genre women
engaged in (parades, speeches, theater), the
theme was consistently that of protest.
Women needed an outlet to express their
views, and in performance they were able
to make public their presence and force the
recognition of issues of equality.
430. Cothran, Casey Althea. “Love,
Marriage, and Desire in the Era of the New
Woman.” Ph.D. diss., University of Ten-
nessee, 2003. In this dissertation Cothran
investigated fictional New Woman charac-
ters in terms of their romantic inclinations
and how authors dealt with these issues.
431. Crow, Duncan. The Victorian
Woman. New York: Stein and Day, 1972.
Crow mentioned the New Woman over
several pages in the final chapter, “The New
Daughters of Propriety,” but the work is
primarily a discussion of the reticence of so-
ciety in offering higher education to young
British women. Crow identified several
“types” of young women: intellectual, ath-
letic, social, and homebodies. Much of the
discussion centers on women of earlier than
1893 and what contemporary authors have
written of them.
432. Cruse, Amy. The Victorians and
Their Reading. Boston and New York:
Houghton Mifflin, 1935. Chapter 16 of this
work examines the lives and works of au-
thors (male as well as female) of fiction and
nonfiction before the naming of the New
Woman in 1894. Cruse has shed light on
111 429–435
Eliza Lynn Linton’s transformation from
feminist to antifeminist and provided lit-
erary examples of Linton’s change of views,
questioning whether Queen Victoria’s role
as “chief of state” had anything to do with
the rise of the New Woman, not as an ad-
vocate but as an example in the life she
lived. She has also discussed many lesser-
known “Girls of the Period,” thus provid-
ing fodder for future researchers.
433. Cunningham, Abigail Ruth. “The
Emergence of the New Woman in English
Fiction, 1870–1914.” Ph.D. diss., Univer-
sity of Oxford, 1974.
434. ____. The New Woman and the
Victorian Novel. London: Macmillan, 1978.
This investigation into the New Woman in
late Victorian novels is primarily a look at
the new freedoms accorded women—being
able to read about, write about, and talk
about sex. In the introduction, Cunning-
ham charted reforms in the law and educa-
tion as parallel to the advancement of the
New Woman. She discussed how the nov-
els caused readers to question traditional
notions regarding love (sex) and marriage
and how they “discard their old assump-
tions and strike out into a more radical
course of thought or action.” By the early
twentieth century, she wrote, the New
Woman was practically passé— she had
made her point. Women could travel more
freely, speak freely on a number of subjects,
and return to home and hearth.
435. ____. “The ‘New Woman’ Fiction
of the 1890s.” Victorian Studies 17 (1973/
74): 177–86. This overview of New Woman
novels pays attention to Thomas Hardy’s
Jude the Obscure. Although Cunningham
identified one common bond in New
Woman novels — the New Woman’s frank-
ness regarding previously taboo subjects —
she distinguished between the types of New
Women portrayed in the novels, among
them the “bachelor girl” and the woman of
more conservative vein or “purity school.”
436–440 112
436. Cunningham, Patricia A. Fashion-
ing the New Woman: Dress Reform — Poli-
tics, Health, and Art, 1850–1920. Kent,
Ohio: Kent State University Press, 2003. In
the final chapter, “Fashion, Dress Reform,
and the New Woman,” Cunningham ad-
dressed the changes in fashion occurring
from the end of the nineteenth century to
the end of World War I. In terms of haute
couture she discussed the influence of the
aesthetic (which promoted a return to clas-
sical and medieval styles) and reform move-
ments on dress design as well as refuting
earlier claims regarding designer Paul
Poiret’s fashion innovations and contribu-
tions to dress reform. Cunningham re-
garded Poiret as a self-promoter and gave
Mariano Fortuny more credit for creative
design. She also commented on the need
for reform in garments worn by working-
class women.
437. Davis, Jill. “The New Woman and
the New Life.” The New Woman and Her
Sisters: Feminism and Theatre, 1850–1914.
Ed. Vivien Gardner and Susan Rutherford.
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press,
1992. In the introduction to this chapter,
Davis linked Fabian Socialism with the pro-
gressive New Drama in England, investi-
gated socialism and Darwinism within the
context of feminism in the early twentieth
century, and posited the “eugenics move-
ment” as hampering the progress of femi-
nism. She wrote, “Feminism in this period
was appropriated and reorganised by male
discourse.” The second part deals with
“Shaw and the New Woman,” particularly
in respect to Mrs. Warren’s Profession, Man
and Superman, and Getting Married.
438. Davis, William A., Jr. “Reading
Failure in[to] Jude the Obscure: Hardy’s Sue
Bridehead and Lady Jeune’s ‘New Woman’
Essays, 1885–1900.” Victorian Literature and
Culture 26 (1998): 53–70. This article ex-
plores the close friendship between Thomas
Hardy and the antifeminist Lady Mary
Secondary Works (1962–2008)
Jeune, proposing that their conversations
influenced Hardy in framing the character
of New Woman Sue Bridehead in Jude
the Obscure. Davis noted a difference in
the attitudes of the two authors (Lady
Jeune wrote short essays) towards the New
Woman, however. Lady Jeune firmly be-
lieved the New Woman to be a passing fad,
while Hardy dealt seriously and sympathet-
ically with the reality of Sue Bridehead and
the problems she faced in striving for inde-
pendence. In positing Sue’s New Woman
ideas and allowing her failure, Hardy re-
vealed his ambivalence toward his protago-
nist and, according to Davis, the influence
of Lady Jeune.
439. DeBerg, Betty. Ungodly Women:
Gender and the First Wave of American Fun-
damentalism. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1990.
Using fundamental Christian periodicals
of the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries plus contemporary (1980s) femi-
nist scholarship, DeBerg situated the fam-
ily and the church within the context of the
times. The author’s many references to the
New Woman and the threat she posed to
the paternalism of home and church are
useful as are the sexist quotes she pulled
from the conservative literature of the late
Victorians.
440. Deegan, Mary Jo, ed. The New
Woman of Color: The Collected Writings of
Fannie Barrier Williams. DeKalb, Illinois:
Northern Illinois Press, 2002. Known as a
“leader, an orator, an intellectual, and a so-
ciologist,” Williams was an educated
woman of the northern United States, who
mingled with the Negro elite of the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
She was born in Brockport, New York, and
was the first African American to graduate
from the local teachers’ college. After grad-
uation Williams went to the South to teach,
but while attending art school in Washing-
ton, D.C., she met attorney Samuel Laing
Williams. They married and settled in
Chicago. There she became active in black
Secondary Works (1962–2008)
social and intellectual circles and was briefly
employed by Mrs. Potter Palmer and the
Board of Lady Managers to gather works
made by African-American women for the
1893 World’s Columbian Exposition. Fan-
nie Williams spoke formally on two occa-
sions at the fair, sharing the podium with
Anna Julia Cooper and Mary Church Ter-
rell. She also wrote profusely for several
publications, one of which was Woman’s
Era, a newspaper for African-American
women published in Boston in 1894. This
book is a collection of her speeches and ar-
ticles from a variety of sources.
441. Deutsch, Sarah. Women and the
City: Gender, Space, and Power in Boston,
1870–1940. New York: Oxford University
Press, 2000. Chapter 3, “The Moral Geog-
raphy of the Working Girl (and the New
Woman)” is about Boston’s South End.
Using primary materials of the late nine-
teenth century, Deutsch attempted to dis-
pel assumptions made by the so-called
helping professions (white police, white
reformers and white religious figures) re-
garding racial stereotypes of immigrants
and African Americans prevalent at the
time. Although moralists suspected inde-
pendent women of unsavory activities when
left unchaperoned, the young women
generally bound themselves together in
family-like units where they felt safe. The
chapter identifies many young Boston
women of the era who would otherwise re-
main anonymous.
442. Diethe, Carol. “Nietzsche and the
New Woman.” German Life and Letters 48
(October 1995): 428–40. After a brief intro-
duction to the backwardness of German
feminism at the turn of the century and a
limited discussion of Nietzsche’s views, the
discussion turns to Nietzsche as an eligible
bachelor. Scholarly attention to the era of
the New Woman in Germany is superseded
by a gossipy discussion of women who were
interested/uninterested in Nietzsche as a
possible husband. The women discussed in-
113 441–446
clude Malwida von Meysenbug, Meta von
Salis, Resa von Schirnhofer, Helene von
Druskowitz, and Helen Zimmern.
443. Dijkstra, Bram. Idols of Perversity.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986.
This encompassing work analyzes late nine-
teenth and early twentieth-century visual
images of British, western European, and
American origin within a sociocultural
context and juxtaposes the images with
contemporary literature. A helpful index
identifies specific New Woman passages,
but the New Woman theme weaves through-
out. In chapter 10, Dijkstra wrote that the
theme of the vampire and Dracula emerges
from an unrealistic fear of the New Woman
run amuck. This book of enlightening ideas
is written in easy-to read, matter-of-fact
language.
444. Dittrich-Johansen, Helga. “La’
Donna Nuova; di Mussolini Tra Evasione
E Consumismo.” Studi Storica 36 (1995),
811–43. Written in Italian, this is an exposé
on Rachele Guidi Mussolini, the wife of
Benito Mussolini.
445. Doughty, Terri. “Sarah Grand’s
The Beth Book: The New Woman and the
Ideology of Romance Ending.” Anxious
Power: Reading, Writing, and Ambivalence
in Narrative by Women. Ed. Carol J. Sin-
gley and Susan Elizabeth Sweeney. Albany:
State University of New York Press, 1993.
This short piece argues for the conservative
aspect of Beth, the New Woman protagonist
in Grand’s The Beth Book. Doughty main-
tained that though most critics claim Beth
to be revolutionary, she never totally re-
jected the need for a man in her life.
446. Dowling, Linda. “The Decadent
and the New Woman in the 1890s.” Nine-
teenth Century Fiction 33 (March 1979):
434–53. This article examines the roles of
the “decadent dandy” and the New Woman
in Olive Schreiner’s The Story of an African
Farm (1882). Dowling called books like this
the “twin programs” of the New Woman
447–452
and the decadent. She claimed that contem-
porary Victorian critics transferred deca-
dent traits from the dandy to the New
Woman.
447. Dreves, Vivien E. “The New
Woman Goes Home: Myrtle Mae Borsodi
Pits Home Production against Industrial-
ization, 1929–1940. New York History ( July
1990): 283–307. Myrtle Mae Simpson Bor-
sodi was a New Woman who, in leaving
rural Iowa for the liberation of a career and
city life, actually became confined. The title
of the article practically tells the story. After
Myrtle’s marriage, she applied new technol-
ogy to housekeeping, hoping to convince
her reading public that the monetary value
of women’s work at home would make
working outside the home seem foolhardy.
448. Duberman, Martin Bauml, Martha
Vicinus, and George Chauncey Jr. Hidden
from History: Reclaiming the Gay and
Lesbian Past. New York: New American
Library, 1989. This collection includes,
among others, essays by Carroll Smith-
Rosenberg, “Discourses of Sexuality and
Subjectivity: The New Woman, 1870–
1936,” and Esther Newton, “The Mythic
Mannish Lesbian: Radclyffe Hall and the
New Woman.”
449. Duke, Debra. “From True Woman
to New Woman: Mary Kelly Edwards, Sin-
gle Woman Missionary to Natal, South
Africa, 1868–1927.” Ph.D. diss., Princeton
Theological Seminary, 2004. In this long
work, essentially a biography set in the cul-
tural and historical context of the era be-
tween the “true woman” and the “new
woman,” Edwards is born and reared in
Ohio to fallen-away Quakers. She becomes
a teacher and marries, but after her husband
dies she is again considered single and de-
cides to devote her life to mission work in
Natal. Affiliated with the Congregational
Church, she is the first white woman to un-
dertake such work in South Africa. The au-
thor’s effort to distinguish Edwards as strad-
114 Secondary Works (1962–2008)
dling the two polar women’s movements of
the nineteenth century is a refreshing as-
pect of the work.
450. Dupree, Ellen. “The New Woman,
Progressivism, and the Woman Writer in
Edith Wharton’s The Fruit of the Tree.”
ALR: American Literary Realism 31 (Winter
1999): 44–62. After a theoretical discussion
of her methodology, author Dupree has
explored the role of Wharton’s New
Woman characters in The Fruit of the Tree in
terms of their relationship to patriarchy.
Dupree identified three types of independ-
ent women: the progressive-era social
worker ( Justine Brent), the selfish and
superficial “transitional New Woman”
(Bessy Wetmore), and the self-supporting
single woman (for which she provided no
singular example).
451. Dyck, Reginald. “Willa Cather’s
Reluctant New Woman Pioneer.” Great
Plains Quarterly 23 (Summer 2003): 161–
73. This article provides an analysis of gen-
der issues relevant to both modernism and
anti-modernism in the second decade of the
twentieth century, through Cather’s protag-
onist Alexandra in O Pioneers! As a man-
ager of her family farm, Alexandra’s roots
are set deep into the Nebraska soil, and
though she shows no signs of the rebellion
that characterized many New Women in
fiction, she is a strong and determined
woman holding fast to her ideals. Dyck
pointed to Alexandra as a “transitional”
New Woman due to her not-fully-devloped
feminism. Alexandra appears, however, to
be the quintessential New Woman in her
isolation from other women (including her
mother) and from men (primarily her
brothers) as a result of her misunderstood
“manly” actions. And, though she, like
many New Woman, succumbs to marriage
at novel’s end, Dyck assures his readers that
Alexandra’s marriage to Carl is based on
friendship and not silly romantic love.
452. Ehrenpreis, David. “Cyclists and
Secondary Works (1962–2008) 115
Amazons: Representing the New Woman
in Wilhelmine Germany.” Woman’s Art
Journal 20 (Spring/Summer 1999): 25–31.
This article discusses images created by sev-
eral German male artists — Bruno Paul,
Hugo Höppener, Arthur Strasser, Karl
Bauer, Albert Knob, in reference to the
New Woman movement, and Lily Braun’s
1896 essay, “Die Neue Frau in der Dich-
tung.” Outside of Bruno Paul’s caricature—
The Breadbasket— the images chosen por-
tray the New Woman as cyclist or Amazon.
This is a reaction, Ehrenpreis has posited, to
the increased use of the new-fangled wheel
by females and the publication of the novel
Die Amazonenschlacht, by Maria Janitschek.
When used as an advertisement, the image
of a woman with a bicycle frequently de-
picted confidence and forward movement,
but the Amazon was the epitome of anti-
feminism.
453. Elliott, Bridget J. “Aubrey Beard-
sley’s Images of ‘New Women’ in the Yel-
low Book.” Ph.D. diss., University College,
London, 1985.
454. ____. “New and Not So ‘New
Women’ on the London Stage: Aubrey
Beardsley’s Yellow Book Images of Mrs.
Patrick Campbell and Rejane.” Victorian
Studies 31 (Autumn 1987): 33–57. This ar-
ticle examines the predominantly critical at-
titudes of Victorians toward the “woman
question” and suggests that their harsh at-
tacks on many of Aubrey Beardsley’s pic-
tures of women went beyond objections to
his style and sexual explicitness. Elliott ar-
gued that Beardsley’s embodiment of the
integrally linked causes of the New Woman
and the New Theater in his Yellow Book
portrait of Mrs. Patrick Campbell was
threatening to many and therefore con-
demned as deviant. His portrait of the
French actress Madame Rejane gave critics
the opportunity to marginalize Beardsley—
by categorizing him as a Francophile.
455. Elz, A. Elizabeth. “Kate Chopin’s
453–457
The Awakening and Willa Cather’s A Lost
Lady: the Evolution of the New Woman.”
Ph.D. diss., Baylor University, 2001. In her
dissertation, Elz juxtaposed the novels
noted in her title and through them traced
the development in America between the
eras of the entrapped True Woman and the
freedom-bound New Woman. In her 1899
novel, Chopin investigated the possibility of
change for the perfect wife/mother, whereas
Cather’s protagonist, Marian Forrester, ex-
periences more options in her quest for self-
fulfillment during the second decade of the
twentieth century.
456. Engle, Sherry Darlene. “New
Woman Dramatists in America, 1890–1920:
Martha Morton and Madeleine Lucette
Ryley.” Ph.D. diss., University of Texas at
Austin, 1996. The new freedoms that New
Women enjoyed during the Progressive Era
made theater a popular genre for women.
They became performers, playwrights,
managers, producers, agents, and critics as
well as the larger segment of the audience.
Engle focused on pioneer writers Martha
Morton (1865–1925) and Madeleine Lucette
Ryley (1858–1934). Known in the early
twentieth century for their many accom-
plishments and their ability to live inde-
pendent, comfortable lives, these women’s
names and works became obscure in the
following century. Relying primarily on
magazine and newspaper articles and con-
temporary reviews, Engle wove these women
and many other female playwrights into her
discourse on the Progressive Era.
457. Erdim, Esim. “The Ring or the
Dove: The New Woman in Katherine Anne
Porter’s Fiction.” Women and War: The
Changing Status of American Women from
the 1930s to the 1950s. Ed. Maria Diedrich
and Dorothea Fischer-Hornung. New
York/Oxford/Munich: Berg, 1990. The pro-
tagonists in most Porter stories are named
Miranda. Though Porter explored gender
relations and her protagonists often realized
458–463
their inability to break from stereotypical
feminine roles, according to Erdim, the tide
of the times between the two wars kept
them in their traditional roles. They were
never able to orchestrate their own rebirths
and thus were unsuccessful in achieving
New Woman status.
458. Evans, Heather Anne. “The New
Woman’s New Appetite: Cooking, Eating
and Feeding in Sarah Grand’s New Woman
Fiction (Ireland).” Ph.D. diss., Queen’s
University at Kingston, 2004. This disser-
tation deals with women’s roles in cooking,
eating, and feeding people in fin de siècle
Britain, as portrayed in Grand’s Ideala
(1888), The Heavenly Twins (1893), The Beth
Book (1897), and Babs the Impossible (1897).
459. Ewen, Stuart. Captains of Con-
sciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of
the Consumer Culture. New York: McGraw-
Hill, 1976. Chapter 6, “Consumption and
the Ideal of the New Woman,” deals with
the New Woman of the 1920s and how she
was used in advertising ploys to market a
variety of new-fangled timesaving devices
for the home (from packaged yeast to
Hoover sweepers), which, though modern,
were far from liberating.
460. Faue, Elizabeth. Writing the
Wrongs: Eva Valesh and the Rise of Labor
Journalism. Ithaca, New York: Cornell Uni-
versity Press, 2002. This biography of the
Minnesota journalist Eva McDonald Valesh
(penname Eva Gay) relates her involvement
with labor and working-class issues. The
introduction notes that Valesh dyed her hair
red, smoked cigars, and wore green silk pa-
jamas! But Valesh was a serious muckraker
who worked for some time as Samuel Gom-
pers’s “right-hand man.” Author Faue has
provided an even-handed analysis of the
contributions of this New Woman of the
Progressive Era.
461. Fauré, Christine. “The Utopia of
the New Woman in the Work of Alexandra
Kollontai and Its Impact on the French
116 Secondary Works (1962–2008)
Feminist and Communist Press.” Trans.
Debra Irving. Women in Culture and
Politics: A Century of Change. Ed. Judith
Friedlander, Blanche Wiesen Cook, Alice
Kessler-Harris, and Carroll Smith-Rosen-
berg. Bloomington: Indiana University
Press, 1986. Alexandra Kollontai was a Rus-
sian feminist whose writing influenced
French feminism in two waves — over her
lifetime she wrote prodigiously on women’s
issues, especially in the 1970s when femi-
nism came again to the fore in France (she
went into exile there for political reasons).
According to Fauré, Kollontai’s contribu-
tions to liberal thinking of the era are ar-
ticulate, but perhaps because of the trans-
lation to English, the integration of her
work into the French psyche and political
scene has not been coherent.
462. Federico, Annette R. “An ‘Old-
fashioned’ Young Woman: Marie Corelli
and the New Woman.” Victorian Women
Writers and the Woman Question. Ed. Nicola
Diane Thompson. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1999. Although certainly
she was not categorized as a New Woman
author, some aspects of Marie Corelli’s
work mirror the characteristics associated
with the New Woman. Corelli believed in
strict adherence to nineteenth-century gen-
der stereotypes despite her belief in woman’s
intellectual and economic equality and the
fact that she was a single professional
woman. This essay focuses on The Sorrows
of Satan (1895), Corelli’s bestseller, pointing
out inconsistencies between Corelli’s life
and works.
463. Feng, Jin. The New Woman in
Early Twentieth-Century Chinese Fiction.
West Lafayette, Indiana: Purdue University
Press, 2004. In this comprehensive study
Feng examined issues related to the fictional
Chinese New Woman and her relationship
to the Chinese woman’s movement of the
early twentieth century. The male authors
whose works are included in the study are
Secondary Works (1962–2008) 117
Lu Xun, Yu Dafu, Ba Jin, and Mao Dun.
The female authors include Bing Xin, Fang
Yuanjun, Lu Yin, and Ding Ling. Feng ad-
dressed the differences that authorial gender,
class, and modernity posed in the May
Fourth-era literature as well as audience re-
sponse to the works. He “evolutionized” the
emancipation of women from the earliest
type, dubbed the “girl student,” to the later
liberated New Woman.
464. Fernando, Lloyd. “New Women”
in the Late Victorian Novel. University Park
Pennsylvania: Penn State University Press,
1977. Though Fernando was one of the first
U.S. scholars to identify the New Woman
in late nineteenth-century literature, he
limited his study of her to her involvement
in the cause for suffrage. In light of that
issue, he examined the novels of Thomas
Hardy and the four Georges—Eliot, Mered-
ith, Moore, and Gissing.
465. Fleischmann, Ellen L. The Nation
and Its “New” Women: The Palestinian
Women’s Movement, 1920–1948. Berkeley/
Los Angeles/London: University of Cali-
fornia Press, 2003. This work chronicles
women’s contributions to nation building,
especially during the British Mandate pe-
riod (1920–48). The first part of the book
examines the history and background of the
women’s movement in Palestine in relation-
ship to British politics. The second part ex-
plores and analyzes various facets of the
Palestinian women’s movement, stressing
the intertwined aspects of feminism, na-
tionalism, and colonialism.
466. Flint, Kate. “The American Girl
and the New Woman.” Special issue:
“Women’s Writing at the Fin de Siécle,” ed.
Sally Ledger. Women’s Writing 3 (1996):
217–29. In this article discusses young
American New Woman characters as they
were represented both through travel liter-
ature written by foreign authors as well as in
novels/short stories by American, English,
and Canadian authors. The discussion jux-
464–470
taposes male and female authors and how
the New Woman novel served both feminist
and anti-feminist agendas. Although some
of the literary sources predate 1894, the
study is worthwhile because of the lack of
scholarly attention given the American New
Woman.
467. ____. “Reading the New Woman.”
Browning Society Notes 17 (1987/88): 55–63.
The English “love-story” novel is juxta-
posed with the New Woman novel in this
brief article. Concerned journalists and
physicians feared that novels would arouse
women’s sexual appetites and were there-
fore dangerous. Flint pointed out that New
Women novels exposed the dangers of
venereal disease and that, as a result, women
often put off having sex.
468. Fluhr, Nicole M. “Figuring the
New Woman: Writers and Mothers in
George Egerton’s Early Stories.” Texas Stud-
ies in Literature and Language 43 (Fall
2003): 243–65. The essay examines works
by George Egerton (Mary Chavelita Dunne
Bright), considered by the author to be pro-
tomodernist writing, and particularly the
protagonists in Keynotes and Discords, who
exemplify the roles of mothers and writers.
469. Formanek-Brunell, Miriam. Made
to Play House: Dolls and the Commerciali
zation of American Girlhood, 1830–1930.
New Haven, Connecticut/London: Yale
University Press, 1993. Chapter 5, “New
Women and Talismen: Rose O’Neill and
the Kewpies, 1909–1914,” investigates
the biographical underpinnings of Rose
O’Neill’s cartoon creation of the Kewpie
(based on the Renaissance Cupid). Al-
though O’Neill’s Kewpie originally was an-
drogynous (the artist intended it as a liber-
ating father figure or New Man), it lost
every possibility that New Woman O’Neill
intended when it became commercialized.
470. Forrey, Carolyn. “Gertrude Ather-
ton and the New Woman.” Ph.D. diss., Yale
University, 1971. After a broad grounding
471–476
in New Woman fiction in the first chapter,
Forrey focused on Atherton’s works and the
possible consequences of her works on read-
ers. Atherton’s long career mirrored the
changes women were experiencing in the
social arena: the romantic novels of the
1880s, the works of the early twentieth cen-
tury in which she offered alternatives to
women, her most radically feminist works
of the early 1920s, a return to more tradi-
tional lives for women after the suffrage war
was won, and the culminating novel of her
career, Black Oxen.
471. ____. “Gertrude Atherton and the
New Woman.” California Historical Quar-
terly 55 (1976), 194–209. This short biog-
raphy of novelist Gertrude Atherton reveals
two sides of her character: serious intellec-
tual and consummate socialite. Atherton
was a prolific author whose works chroni-
cled the settling of California as well as his-
torical fictions related to famous women
such as Aspasia, Madame de Staël and
Madame Récamier. Forrey made a valid
case for considering Atherton a New
Woman because, though the novelist loved
society and dressed as a “glamor girl” well
past middle age, she always put her career
first. Segments of Forrey’s dissertation are
incorporated into this article.
472. ____. “The New Woman Revis-
ited.” Women’s Studies 2 (1974): 37–56. Fol-
lowing the introduction, in which she de-
veloped a succinct portrait of the New
Woman, Forrey discussed eight New Woman
novels.
473. Forster, Laurel. “‘Nature’s Dou-
ble Vitality Experiment’: May Sinclair’s In-
terpretation of the New Woman.” Feminist
Forerunners: New Womanism and Feminism
in the Early Twentieth Century. Ed. Ann
Heilmann. London, Sydney, and Chicago:
Pandora Press, 2003. This paper, presented
at a conference at Manchester Metropoli-
tan University in July 2000 and included
as chapter 12 of the proceedings, focuses on
118 Secondary Works (1962–2008)
Feminism, May Sinclair’s long response to
the anti-feminist tract by Sir Almroth
Wright in The Times (1912), as well as on
her fictional work. Forster has maintained
that Sinclair was influenced by the views of
Jean-Baptist Lamarck and Herbert Spencer
in regard to evolutionary theory and phi-
losophy. She believed that women were de-
veloping both greater intellectual capacity
and physical strength (the “double vital-
ity”).
474. Fourie, Fiona. “A ‘New Woman’ in
the Eastern Cape.” English in Africa 22
(October 1995), 70–80. Englishwoman
Beatrice Hicks was a self-proclaimed New
Woman who lived in the Eastern Cape from
1894 to 1897. While in Africa, Hicks
worked as a teacher/governess, and after her
return to England she reflected on her expe-
rience in a travel book titled The Cape as I
Knew It. In this article she advocated that
“surplus women” of Great Britain emigrate
to the cape, where they could experience
greater freedom. Fourie’s interpretation of
some passages of Hicks’s book is inconsis-
tent. The manner in which the author in-
termingled contemporary research on the
New Woman into the story of Beatrice
Hicks is disconcerting.
475. Frager, James. Woman’s Chronol-
og y. New York: Henry Holt, 1994. Men-
tion is made on page 420 of the advent of
Japan’s Bluestocking organization, Atarashi
Onna (New Women), founded in 1911 by
Raichõ Hiratsuka and Fusae Ichikawa.
476. Frame, Lynn-Marie Hoskins.
“Forming and Reforming the New Woman
in Weimar Germany.” Ph.D. diss., Univer-
sity of California, Berkeley, 1997. Frame’s
dissertation is an in-depth study of the
modern German woman using primary
source material in German literature and of
popular culture created during the Weimar
Republic (1918–1933). One positive conse-
quence of the New Woman is that it mir-
rored the Weimar notion of Germany as an
Secondary Works (1962–2008) 119
emerging modern nation, but her particu-
lar modernity was acceptable only when
of benefit to the nation. Using popular-
culture genres, particularly Vicki Baum’s
Helene Willfüer, Thea von Harbou’s novel
Frau im Mond, and the film version directed
by Fritz Lang, Frame set the German Neu
Frau within the context of Weimar society,
culture, and politics.
477. ____. “Gretchen, Girl, Garconne?
Weimar Science and Popular Culture in
Search of the Ideal New Woman.” Women
in the Metropolis: Gender and Modernity in
Weimar Culture. Ed. Katharina von
Ankum. Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1997. During the Weimar era, many
so-called scientific theories of categoriza-
tion emerged. Frame divided her article into
two sections, the first dealing with the male-
dominated world of science and medicine
and the second, which analyzes the late-
1920s, German, New Woman novel Stud.
Chem. Helene Willfüer by Vicki Baum. The
connections that the scientific community
made between body and character are
reflected, Frame posited, in this novel, thus
defining women according to male theories.
478. Freedman, Estelle B. “The New
Woman: Changing Views of Women in the
1920s.” Journal of American History 61 (Sep-
tember 1974): 372–93. This article deals
with the New Woman of the 1920s. Freed-
man challenged prevailing historical rhet-
oric about how women’s history was writ-
ten. She reviewed and analyzed the
historiography of women’s history, calling
for revisionist histories that accurately and
adequately portray women’s status in the
post-franchise era. This article is reprinted
as chapter 1 in Decades of Discontent: The
Women’s Movement, 1920–1940 (ed. Lois
Scharf and Joan M. Jensen, pages 21–42).
479. Friedenreich, Harriet Pass. “Jew-
ish Identity and the ‘New Woman’: Cen-
tral European Jewish University Women in
the Early Twentieth Century.” Gender and
477–482
Judaism: the Transformation of Tradition. Ed.
T. M. Rudavsky. New York: New York Uni-
versity Press, 1995. This short article ap-
pears as chapter 8 in the form of a report
on the research Friedenreich was undertak-
ing on four hundred Central European
women of Jewish origin who graduated
from university. She was interested in their
degree of “Jewishness” and how they related
to the lifestyles of their mothers and grand-
mothers. One Jewish New Woman, Käte
Frankenthal, a doctor and socialist, receives
extra attention.
480. Friedlander, Judith. Women in
Culture and Politics: A Century of Change.
Bloomington: Indiana University Press,
1986. This is a compilation of twenty-four
papers presented at three conferences (1979,
1980, and 1982) organized by the New
Family and the New Woman Research
Group. The purpose of the meetings was to
bring feminist scholars from the United
States, France, England, Italy, Germany,
and the Netherlands together to share
knowledge related to “women’s roles in
Western Europe and the United States. The
only paper with “New Woman” in the title
is Christine Fauré’s on the Russian feminist
Alexandra Kollontai.
481. Fryer, Judith. The Faces of Eve:
Women in the Nineteenth Century American
Novel. New York: Oxford University Press,
1976. Chapter 5, “The New Woman” ex-
amines literature of the late nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries. Fryer maintained
that no male author (she examined only
Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry James, and
William Dean Howells) was capable of de-
veloping a New Woman character. And
among women authors she contended only
Kate Chopin’s Edna Pontellier achieved
New Woman status in The Awakening.
482. Fryer, Sarah Beebe. Fitzgerald’s
New Women: Harbingers of Change. Ann
Arbor, Michigan: UMI Research Press,
1988. Fryer maintained that other critics’
483–487
(especially male) readings of Fitzgerald’s fe-
male protagonists have not reflected a deep
understanding of the limitations on women
in the years between the two world wars.
Although women purportedly were becom-
ing more in control of the sexual and social
aspects of their lives and they were awarded
suffrage, they were still dependent econom-
ically. This, she said, limited their auton-
omy. In addition, their new independence
was analyzed by the new psychology, and
unconventional behavior was considered
abnormal. Fryer looked at the female char-
acters in Fitzgerald’s fiction within a femi-
nist context.
483. Furer, Andrew J. “Jack London’s
New Women: A Little Lady with a Big
Stick.” Studies in American Fiction 22 (Au-
tumn 1994): 185–215. This is an examina-
tion of the female protagonists of three
London novels: Frona Welse in A Daughter
of the Snows, Dede Mason in Burning Day-
light, and Paula Forrest in The Little Lady of
the Big House. Furer stated that though
London constructed images of New
Women, they were geared to the feminine
and heterosexual. To do this the authors re-
strained the sexual aggressiveness of female
adventurers and athletes. Though they were
economically independent and free
thinkers, they competed in feminine dress,
and their femininity provided for a certain
social acceptance.
484. Furlough, E. “Selling the Ameri-
can Way in Interwar France: Prix-Uniques
and the Salons-des-Art-Menagers,” Journal
of Social History 26 (Spring 1993), 491–519.
The New Woman is mentioned only briefly,
on page 507, though the entire article deals
with women’s issues and is an important
discussion of the relationship between
France and the United States during the
World War I.
485. Gainor, J. Ellen. “G. B. S. and the
New Woman.” New England Theatre Jour-
nal 1 (1990), 1–17. In the first section of this
120 Secondary Works (1962–2008)
three-part essay, Gainor introduced several
of G. B. Shaw’s novels, rather unrecognized
in the late twentieth/early twenty-first cen-
turies but much better known than his plays
at the time of conception. She then dis-
cussed his best-known plays from the Plays
Unpleasant series, Candida and Mrs. War-
ren’s Profession. Following the New Woman
literary canon, Shaw’s protagonists exhibit
independent spirits and actions that com-
promise them in the final scenes.
486. ____. Shaw’s Daughters: Dramatic
and Narrative Constructions of Gender. Ann
Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1991.
The first part of this book, “G.B.S.’s New
Women,” examines themes and issues
reflected in the novels and plays of George
Bernard Shaw. The first chapter, “The New
Woman and the Victorian Novel,” takes up
Shaw’s relationship to the New Woman
when the phenomenon emerged in the
1880s, reached its apex in the 1890s, and
died out (according to Gainor) in the early
twentieth century. Chapter 2, “New Women
and Odd Women at Work,” focuses on two
of Shaw’s early plays, Candida and Mrs.
Warren’s Profession (both written in 1898).
The protagonist Vivie Warren in Mrs. War-
ren’s Profession is more representative of New
Woman. The last chapter of the trilogy,
“The New Woman in Love,” appears as an
oxymoron and is. There Gainor discussed
New Woman issues in relation to the twen-
tieth century
487. Ganobesik-Williams, Lisa. “Char-
lotte Perkins Gilman and The Forerunner:
A New Woman’s Changing Perspective on
American Immigration.” Feminist Forerun-
ners: New Womanism and Feminism in the
Early Twentieth Century. Ed. Ann Heil-
mann. London, Sydney, and Chicago: Pan-
dora Press, 2003. This paper, presented at
a conference at Manchester Metropolitan
University in July 2000, is included as
chapter 4 of the proceedings. Ganobesik-
Williams focused on the increasingly con-
Secondary Works (1962–2008) 121 488–490

servative views on immigration that Gilman ‘New Woman’ at Manchester’s Gaiety The-
exhibited through the periodical The Fore- atre” by Elaine Ashton.
runner, which she published single-hand- 490. ____. New Woman Plays. London:
edly from 1909 to 1916. From the first arti- Methuen Drama, 1991. This is a collection
cles Gilman wrote on the subject (“The of four New Woman plays written between
Making of Americans” and “Malthusian- 1890 and 1914 by four British women play-
ism and Race Suicide”) to her last serialized
book (With Her in Ourland), Ganobesik-
Williams traced Gilman’s “social-evolution-
ary” views, concluding that the author’s fear
of diluting her pure New England roots
provided her motivation.

488. Gardiner, Juliet, ed. The New

Woman: Women’s Voices, 1880–1918. Lon-
don: Collins and Brown, 1993. This collec-
tion revives New Woman literary works of
the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries. Gardiner summed up the book:
“The New Woman is an attempt to present
a selection of women’s voices from a wide
spectrum of feminists, anti-feminists, ob-
servers and polemicists.” Her focus, how-
ever, was on Britain, and she included
a piece from Grant Allen’s The Woman
Who Did as well as excerpts from other fa-
miliar works. The poem “The New Woman”
by “D.B.M.,” reprinted from Shafts ( Janu-
ary 1894), has not enjoyed a significant
revival.

489. Gardner, Vivien, and Linda

Fitzsimmons, eds. The New Woman and Her
Sisters: Feminism and Theatre, 1850–1914.
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press,
1992. These papers from a conference on
the New Woman in theater provide a vari-
ety of viewpoints. The introduction deals
with understanding the New Woman
movement, especially within the context of
theater. A valuable chronology of interna-
tional feminist activities from 1890 to 1918 Although dress and undergarment
is included in the introduction (xv–xxi). reform appealed to New Women, this
This has three headings: Social and Politi- Chicago manufacturer encourages New
cal, Cultural, and Theatrical. There is no Women to purchase its Bicycle and
index, but two chapters contain “New Chicago waists professing they will
Woman” in their titles: “The New Woman provide health, freedom, and flexibil-
and the New Life” by Jill Davis and “The ity. Ladies’ Home Journal, May 1896.
491–496
wrights —Alan’s Wife by Florence Eveleen
Bell and C. E. Raimond (Elizabeth Robins),
Diana of Dobson’s by Cicely Hamilton,
Chains by Elizabeth Baker, and Rutherford
and Son by Githa Sowerby.
491. Gerson, Carole. “Fitted to Earn
Her Own Living: Figures of The New
Woman in the Writing of L. M. Mont-
gomery.” Children’s Voices in Atlantic Liter-
ature and Culture. Ed. Hilary Thompson.
Guelph: Canadian Children’s Press, 1995.
The article examines the oeuvre of Cana-
dian author of the 1920s and 1930s L. M.
Montgomery. Montgomery wrote novels,
essays, and left an unpublished journal.
Gerson discussed the range of feminist ideas
with which Montgomery imbued her pro-
tagonists. Though some showed independ-
ent qualities, Montgomery conveyed her
most liberal ideas to her journal rather than
through her characters.
492. ____. “Wild Colonial Girls: New
Women of the Empire, 1883–1901.” Jour-
nal of Commonwealth and Postcolonial Stud-
ies 3 (Fall 1995), 61–77. This essay compares
Olive Schreiner’s The Story of an African
Farm, Sara Jeannette Duncan’s A Daughter
of Today, and Miles Franklin’s My Brilliant
Career (made into a film in 1979). The pro-
tagonists of each novel straddle construc-
tions of gender and class and deal with is-
sues related to imperialism and colonization
as each occupies a place alien her rearing (as
the author lived in a place alien to hers).
Gerson saw the taming of the female char-
acters in all three novels as emblematic of
the taming of the countries by their so-
called mother.
493. Giddings, Paula. When and Where
I Enter: The Impact of Black Women on Race
and Sex in America. New York: William
Morrow, 1984. Amy Jacques Garvey is
mentioned on page 194 as a “New Negro
Woman.”
494. Gilbert, Pamela. “Ouida and the
other New Woman.” Victorian Women
122 Secondary Works (1962–2008)
Writers and the Woman Question. Ed. Nicola
Diane Thompson. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1999. Gilbert’s thesis is
that although Ouida is cast as an antifemi-
nist, two of her female characters, Cigarette
(Under Two Flags, 1867) and Folle-Farine
(Folle-Farine), exhibit New Woman ten-
dencies and predate the naming of the New
Woman. Ouida considers race, sex, gender,
imperialism, and colonization, using these
young women to illustrate the complexity of
these issues.
495. Gilbert, Sandra M., and Susan
Gubar. No Man’s Land: The Place of the
Woman Writer in the Twentieth Century.
Vol. 2: Sex Changes. New Haven, Connecti-
cut/London: Yale University Press, 1989:
47–82. Chapter 2, “Home Rule: The
Colonies of the New Woman,” deals pri-
marily with an in-depth analysis of Olive
Schreiner’s The Story of an African Farm
(1833) and Charlotte Perkin Gilman’s Her-
land in terms of the social, spiritual, and
biological realms of the era. The first section
investigates the relationship between impe-
rialism and the role of women as seen in the
characters in Schreiner’s The Story of an
African Farm. The chapter goes on to relate
the influence of Schreiner’s landmark book
on subsequent authors and how the actions
of early twentieth-century feminists often
paralleled those of Lyndall, even in the re-
ligious overtones her martyrdom implies.
The final section deals with a juxtaposition
of Rider Haggard’s She with Gilman’s Her-
land as well as an investigation into theo-
logical issues relating to male dominance.
It concludes with the notion that both
Schreiner and Gilman’s views were tied too
closely to women’s anatomy.
496. Glendening, John. “The Bartlett
Trial Revisited: Delicacy, Judicial Bias, and
New Women.” Dalhousie Review 70 (Fall
1990): 308–37. Although the famous
Bartlett trial predated the naming of the
New Woman, Glendening’s analysis of the
Secondary Works (1962–2008) 123 497–501

trial focused on Mrs. Bartlett’s rather sur- Bridehead to Olive Schreiner’s Lyndall in
prising acquittal and its relationship to the The Story of an African Farm and the hero-
women in the courtroom audience. ine of George Egerton’s “A Cross Line.”
497. Godard, Barbara. “A Portrait with 500. Goodyear, Frank H., III. Zaida
Three Faces: The New Woman in Fiction by Ben-Yusuf: New York Portrait Photographer.
Canadian Women, 1880–1920.” The Liter- London/New York: Merrell, 2008. Al-
ary Criterion 19 (1984): 72–92. This author though this book has no chapters per se, a
examined the works of the Canadian fin de section on The New Woman presents im-
siécle authors Sara Jeanette Duncan, Joanna ages of noted individuals that photographer
E. Wood, and Margaret Adeline Brown in Ben-Yusuf created at the fin de siécle. Ben-
relationship to their biographies. Godard Yusuf was a British citizen who aspired to be
concluded that though the women and their the new Julia Margaret Cameron, and like
female characters set out to attain inde- the pioneer Cameron, she focused her lens
pendence and may have come close, every on portraits. She also aimed the viewfinder
one of them opted for the “happy ever after” on herself— as Goodyear notes, there are
ending that society maintained was ten extant self-portraits. The author placed
achieved through marriage. Ben-Yusuf in the world of fine art and pho-
tography, exploring her understanding of
498. Gold, Janet N. Clementina Suárez: the work of J. M. Whistler and John
Her Life and Poetry. Gainesville: University
Alexander as well as her relationships with
Press of Florida, 1995. Of special interest is
F. Holland Day and Frances B. Johnston.
the section “The ‘New Woman’ in Hon-
duras” (pages 76–88). Suárez lived her en- 501. Gorsky, Susan Rubinow. Feminin-
tire life in Tegucigalpa, Honduras, where she ity to Feminism: Women and Literature in
rejected the traditional Catholic
model of home and family to
write and perform her poetry.
Author Gold noted Suárez’s fem-
inist characteristics as well as
pointing out a number of Hon-
duran women, who contributed
politically, socially, and artistically
but about whom nothing was
written.
499. Goode, John. “Sue
Bridehead and the New Woman.”
Women Writing and Writing about
Women. Ed. Mary Jacobus. Lon-
don: Croom Helm, 1979. Chap-
ter 5, “Sue Bridehead and the
New Woman,” is a critique of D.
H. Lawrence’s, Kate Millet’s, and
John Lucas’s criticism of the role Mrs. New Woman turns the tables when she
of Sue Bridehead in Thomas indicates her displeasure with her husband’s
Hardy’s Jude the Obscure. Follow- cooking by telling him her mother’s cooking was
ing is Goode’s argument (though much better than his. Cincinnati Enquirer, 11
it lacks cohesion) for comparing August 1895.
502–506 124
the Nineteenth Century. New York: Twayne,
1992. Chapter 2, “Marriage and Family:
Gentle Ladies and New Women,” provides
a comprehensive look at the title subjects
in nineteenth/early twentieth-century En-
glish and American literature and juxta-
poses them with life during that era. It con-
siders marriage and family and myriad
related topics: love and engagement, chil-
dren and childrearing, birth and death,
choice of marriage partners, separation, and
divorce. Although the pre–New Woman era
is its focus, there is enough material on the
New Woman to interest scholars as Gorsky
has consulted an astounding number of
sources.
502. ____. “Old Maids and New
Women: Alternatives to Marriage in the
English Woman’s Novel.” Journal of Popu-
lar Culture 7 (Summer 1973): 68–85. A sur-
vey of New Woman novels from the mid-
nineteenth century to World War I. Gorsky’s
discussion begins with the period before the
naming of the New Woman, with Brontë’s
Jane Eyre (1847). She concluded with Mar-
ion Vincent in Testing of Diana Mallory
(1908) by Mrs. Humphry Ward.
503. Gottlieb, Lois C. “The Perils of
Freedom: The New Woman in Three
American Plays of the 1900s.” Canadian Re-
view of American Studies 6 (1975): 84–98.
This is an analysis of women’s roles in the
Progressive Era as shown in three plays: The
Easiest Way (1908) by Eugene Walter, The
City (1909) by Clyde Fitch, and The Faith
Healer (1910) by William Vaughn Moody. It
concludes that though the female protago-
nists desire freedom, the men in their lives
exercise control and the women acquiesce,
returning to traditional gender expecta-
tions.
504. Grossman, Atina. “The New
Woman, the New Family and the Rational-
ization of Sexuality: The Sex Reform Move-
ment in Germany, 1928–1933.” Ph.D. diss.,
Rutgers University, 1984. This dissertation
Secondary Works (1962–2008)
has much more to do with the medical pro-
fession, social issues related to reproduc-
tion, and eugenics in Weimar Germany
than with the literary New Woman.
505. Guenther, Irene. Nazi Chic? Fash-
ioning Women in the Third Reich. Oxford/
New York: Berg, 2004. Although the en-
tire book delineates the dress of German
women from the World War I to World
War II, chapter 3, “The ‘New Women’,” ad-
dresses most directly the way in which lib-
erated women dressed and the reception
given them by the press. According to
Guenther, the era of the New Woman was
limited to the years from 1924 to 1929,
termed the “Golden Years.” Before that
time the Germans were involved in a
conflict with the French, and out-of-control
inflation ensued. After the five-year era,
worldwide economic depression and the rise
of Nazism led to conservative dress and the
decline of the New Woman. The chapter is
packed with social, political, and cultural
aspects of the era related fashion and the
anti–Semitism of the ready-to-wear indus-
try in Berlin, where the Jewish population
was prominent.
506. Hackett, Robin. Sapphic Primi-
tivism: Productions of Race, Class, and Sex-
uality in Key Works of Modern Fiction. New
Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University
Press, 2004. Chapter 3, “Olive Schreiner
and the Late Victorian New Woman,” is the
piece most directly related to New Woman
literature. Here author Hackett provided
an analysis of race and sexuality in Olive
Schreiner’s literary works, including non-
fiction and letters, with an emphasis on her
fiction, primarily The Story of an African
Farm. Hackett argued that Schreiner was
inconsistent and contradictory in these
works. She theorized that Schreiner’s judg-
ment of modernity and her literary develop-
ment of the New Woman and New Man
were in contradistinction to her African
characters.
Secondary Works (1962–2008) 125
507. Haire-Sargeant, Lin. “American
Girl to New Woman: Themes of Transfor-
mation in books for Girls, 1850–1925.”
Ph.D. diss., Tufts University, 2004. This
dissertation treats the role of girls/women
in children’s literature from the mid-
nineteenth century and the Seneca Falls
Convention in New York State to 1920,
when women in the United States were
granted the vote. It examines a number of
pre–New Woman books as well as A Little
Princess (1905), Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm
(1903), Anne of Green Gables (1908), and A
Girl of the Limberlost (1909), written after
the advent of the phenomenon. It notes
changes in theme and amount of independ-
ence exhibited by characters within that pe-
riod.
508. Hamilton, Lisa K. “New Women
and ‘Old’ Men.” Women and British Aes-
theticism. Ed. Talia Schaffer and Kathy
Alexis Psomiades. Charlottesville/London:
University Press of Virginia, 1999. Chapter
3 juxtaposes the works of decadent fiction
writers with those of New Woman authors,
notably Oscar Wilde and Sarah Grand.
It notes that the Victorian obsession with
health and the scientific study of physiog-
nomy brought the male body into main-
stream discussion. It maintains that the
dissolution of “separate spheres” caused
assertive women to be considered mascu-
line and aesthetic males as effeminate, thus
conflating the decadent with the New
Woman, despite Grand’s purposeful use
of the term “degenerate” in charging men
with immoral behavior so as to set them
apart.
509. Harmon, Sandra D. “The Club
Woman as New Woman: Late Nineteenth-
Century Androgynous Images.” Turn of the
Century Women 1 (Winter 1984), 27–37.
This in-depth discussion of articles related
to the New Woman appeared in The Club
Woman (the official journal of the General
Federation of Women’s Clubs) from 1897
507–512
to 1900. The membership of that organiza-
tion was predominantly white and middle-
class. The essays begins with a look at a
story called “A Week with a New Woman”
by Marie Maule, from the May 1898 issue
of The Club Woman.
510. Harris, Katharine Sumner. “The
New Woman in the Literature of the 1890s:
Four Critical Approaches.” Ph.D. diss., Co-
lumbia University, 1963. In this early schol-
arly study of New Woman literature, Har-
ris set the stage for an examination of four
New Woman novelists by reviewing the
writings of John Stuart Mill, John Ruskin,
and George Eliot. Although Harris dis-
cussed many New Woman novels and nov-
elists of the 1890s, she concentrated on
those of George Gissing, George Bernard
Shaw, George Meredith, and Thomas
Hardy.
511. Harris, Kristine. “The New
Woman: Image, Subject, and Dissent in the
1930s Shanghai Film Culture.” Republican
China 20 (1995), 55–79. Harris suggested
that the controversy regarding social mes-
sages in the 1935 silent film The New
Woman (Xin Nüxing) led to the suicide of
leading actress Ruan Lingyu (1910–1935).
In so doing, she duplicated the role and fate
of the film’s protagonist — the teacher/
writer/single mother, Wei Ming. This is an
earlier version of the chapter in Sheldon
Hsiao-peng Lu’s book.
512. ____. “The New Woman Inci-
dent: Cinema, Scandal, and Spectacle in
1935 Shanghai.” Transnational Chinese Cin-
emas: Identity, Nationhood, Gender. Ed.
Sheldon Hsiao-peng Lu. Honolulu: Uni-
versity of Hawaii Press, 1997. This essay, in-
cluded in chapter 11, is about the silent film
The New Woman (Xin Nüxing), which fea-
tured actress Ruan Lingyu in the role of Wei
Ming, a teacher who had aspirations to
write, and opened during the 1935 lunar
festival in Shanghai. Harris’s detailed syn-
opsis accompanies an analysis of critical and
513–517
popular response to the film and to Ruan’s
tragic suicide. For the scene relating the
trauma of Wei’s death, Harris provided the
words for “Song of the New Woman,” com-
posed by musician Nie Er (see that entry
for text of the song), and sung by under-
paid female factory workers. Ruan’s death
invoked questioning in the minds of many
Chinese feminists, who saw Wei/Ruan as
weak rather than seeing society as harsh and
critical.
513. Harris, Robin O. “‘A New Repre-
sentative of Southern Intellect’: Julia Anna
Flisch, A New Woman of the New South.”
Ph.D. diss., Georgia Institute of Technol-
ogy, 1998. This dissertation is essentially a
study of the life of Julia Anna Flisch
(1861–1941). She was an educator and au-
thor who advocated for opportunities for
southern women who were not a part of the
southern aristocracy or the working classes.
As she fought to provide opportunities and
choices, Flisch was a powerful role model
for women forced to fight to find their
niches.
514. Hartman, Kabi. “‘What Made Me
a Suffragette’: The New Woman and the
New (?) Conversion Narrative.” Women’s
History Review 12 (2003), 35–50. In the
early twentieth century, British suffragettes
were often imprisoned for speaking in pub-
lic or in lobbying for the vote. Their “con-
version” to suffragism was often likened to
Christian conversion, and the tribulations
they faced, with Jesus Christ’s death and
resurrection. This article investigates the ex-
periences of a few British suffragettes who
wrote of their imprisonments and resulting
abuses in the Suffragette, as well as in Votes
for Women, the journal of the Women’s So-
cial and Political Union (WSPU).
515. Hawkesworth, Celia. “A Serbian
Woman in a Turkish Harem: The Work of
Jelena DimitrijeviW.” SEER (The Slavonic
East European Review) 77 (1) ( January
1999): 56–73. The prolific writing of Jelena
126 Secondary Works (1962–2008)
DimitrijeviW, Serbian intellectual/author/
traveler, was ignored from before her death
until the end of the twentieth century. Her
masterpiece, Nove (New Woman, 1912), is a
novel about young Muslim Turkish women.
Known and respected at the time of publi-
cation, it was forgotten until its reemer-
gence with this article. Through its protag-
onist Emir Fatma the novel explores the
central theme of arranged marriage — ex-
posing both sides of the question and the
perspectives of both genders. It was Fatma’s
childhood dream to go to Paris; there she
died but her diaries keep her views alive.
DimitrijeviW traveled the world and spent a
year in America. She wrote one novel about
that experience, acknowledging that Amer-
ican women were more conservative than
she had been led to believe.
516. Heilmann, Ann. “Mona Caird,
[1843–1932], Wild Woman, New Woman,
and Early Radical Feminist Critic of Mar-
riage and Motherhood.” Women’s History
Review 5 (1996): 67–95. Heilmann placed
Caird within the context of first-wave fem-
inism and discussed what that meant in
light of her theories and her works. She
maintained that Caird was a woman ahead
of her times in that her writing dealt with
some issues that other authors took up later,
including the feminists of the 1970s/80s.
She dealt with Caird’s militant feminist
ideas and questions about the sanctity of
marriage and motherhood, which would
appear radical even in the twenty-first cen-
tury. She lamented the limited scholarly at-
tention paid to Caird’s oeuvre. The second
section of the paper, titled “Vita,” contains
biographical information on Caird and a
number of pictures. The third section,
“Mothers Versus Daughters,” investigates
relations between mothers and daughters,
particularly Daughters of Danaus (1894) and
Stones of Sacrifice (1915).
517. ____. “Feminist Resistance, the
Artist, and ‘A Room of One’s Own’ in New
Secondary Works (1962–2008) 127 518–519

Woman Fiction.” Women’s Writing: The erature written by men and women at the
Elizabethan to Victorian Period 2 (1995), end of the nineteenth century and con-
291–308. New Woman novels of the fin cluded that their writing is different. She
de siècle addressed the issue of a “room of posited that New Woman fiction by women
one’s own” that Virginia Woolf dealt with dealt with multiple issues and concerns but
decades later. Through her investigation of that that written by men focused primarily
themes relating to space and privacy in six on sexuality and sensuality. Women’s writ-
to seven New Woman novels, Heilmann as- ing dealt with the real-life problems of con-
serted that the authors were projecting their temporary women, but because the fiction-
frustration at not having space in which to alized New Women were primarily of the
work and time in which to pursue creativ- middle class, working-class women had lit-
ity through the protagonists in their novels. tle in common with the feminists in the
novels and so were provided few role mod-
518. ____. The Late-Victorian Marriage els. Male authors and antifeminist female
Question: A Collection of Key New Woman authors provided confusing messages by
Texts. Vols. 1–5. London/New York: Rout- trying to harness their New Woman pro-
ledge with Thoemmes, 1998. This five- tagonists after having introducing them as
volume set is a comprehensive collection of liberated.
reprinted primary materials
and early novels related to the
New Woman debate. The
subtitles of the set are: Mar-
riage and Motherhood; The
New Woman and Female In-
dependence; New Woman Fic-
tion (1): Marriage, Motherhood
and Work; New Woman Fic-
tion (2): Gender and Sexual-
ity; and Literary Degenerates.
Invaluable to New Woman
scholars of British origin,
many of Heilmann’s excerpts
are from little-known publi-
cations and are thus difficult
to locate. Her introduction to
each volume provides suc-
cinct information regarding
the works she selected.
519. ____. “The ‘New
Woman’ Fiction and Fin-de-
Siècle Feminism.” Special
issue: “Women’s Writing at
the Fin de Siècle,” ed. Sally The “ideal” husband washes the clothing using a
Ledger. Women’s Writing: The scrub board while rocking the cradle with one foot.
Elizabethan to Victorian Period The New Woman oversees the scene in an author-
3 (1996): 197–216. Heilmann itative pose while smoking a cigarette. Toledo
juxtaposed New Woman lit- Blade, 26 February 1895.
520–526 128
520. ____. New Woman Fiction: Women
Writing First-wave Feminism. New York: St.
Martin’s, 2000. This book is a theoretical
investigation of the so-called first and sec-
ond waves of feminism, that is, the late
nineteenth, early twentieth, and late twen-
tieth centuries. Heilmann juxtaposed and
compared the two movements within the
context of the social, cultural, and political
contexts of each era.
521. ____. “The New Woman in the
New Millennium: Recent Trends in Criti-
cism of New Woman Fiction.” Literature
Compass 3 ( January 2006): 32–42. This re-
view of the historical underpinnings and
the current state of scholarship regarding
the New Woman includes a wide spectrum
of criticism, some of which is not included
in this bibliography. Its hails the recent in-
vestigation of scholars delving into New
Women from a variety of cultures.
522. ____. New Woman Strategies:
Sarah Grand, Olive Schreiner, and Mona
Caird. Manchester and New York: Man-
chester University Press, 2004. This apt title
describes Heilmann’s highly theoretical, an-
alytical, and critical work regarding works
by a triad of British New Woman authors.
This study delves into issues of race, gender,
and representation in the literary works of
Grand, Schriener, and Caird, at times uti-
lizing the theoretical framework of French
feminists Hélene Cixous and Luce Irigary.
Heilmann examines the works of Sarah
Grand in a chronological manner drawing
from feminist theory, all the while taking
into account biographical events in Grand’s
life. The analysis of Schreiner’s oeuvre is
more random, though the beginning of the
section—“Transitions and Transfigurations:
Dreams (1890), The Story of an African Farm
(1883), and From Man to Man (1926)”—
examines the function of allegory and
dreams in Schreiner’s short stories. The final
segment, Part III, is devoted to Mona
Caird’s examination of myth in her stories
and novels. Heilmann proposed that Caird
Secondary Works (1962–2008)
was ahead of her time and that many of her
ideas were more radical than those proposed
by other authors. Caird and Grand, Heil-
mann noted, both espoused freedom for
women, but they approached the topic
from different perspectives.
523. ____. “New Women and the New
Hellenism.” The New Woman in Fiction and
in Fact. Ed. Angelique Richardson and
Chris Willis. London: Palgrave/Macmillan,
2001. In this essay Heilmann investigated
the manner in which Hellenism (an intense
interest in things Greek) functioned in sex-
ual relationships of the late nineteenth cen-
tury, especially as concerns the protagonists
of Olive Schreiner’s “The Buddhist Priest’s
Wife” and Ethel Arnold’s Platonic (1894).
524. ____. “(Un) Masking Desire:
Cross-dressing and the Crisis of Gender in
New Woman Fiction,” Journal of Victorian
Culture 5 (1) (Spring 2000): 83–11.
525. ____. “Wilde’s New Women: The
New Woman on Wilde.” The Importance
of Reinventing Oscar: Versions of Wilde
during the Last 100 Years. Ed. Uwe Böker,
Richard Corballis, and Julie Hibbard. Am-
sterdam/New York: Rodopi, 2000. Heil-
mann’s essay is one of many papers pre-
sented at a September 2000 conference to
reassess Wilde and commemorate the cen-
tenary of his death. Using texts by Lady
Florence Dixie, Sarah Grand, and Charlotte
Perkins Gilman, Heilmann posited that al-
though the popular press attempted to link
dandies and New Women, the aforemen-
tioned authors distanced themselves from
dandies such as Wilde.
526. Heilmann, Ann, ed. Feminist
Forerunners: New Womanism and Feminism
in the Early Twentieth Century. London/
Sydney/Chicago: Pandor, 2003. This collec-
tion of essays derives from a July 2000 con-
ference held at Manchester Metropolitan
University in conjunction with the Univer-
sity of Wales Swansea. Its theme was “Fem-
inist Forerunners: The New Woman in the
Secondary Works (1962–2008) 129
National and International Periodical Press,
1880 to the 1920s.” See entries in this vol-
ume for Lisa Ganobcsik-Williams, Carmen
Birkle, Sabina Matter-Seibel, Sue Thomas,
and Laurel Forster. Heilmann wrote the in-
troduction.
527. Heilmann, Ann, and Margaret
Beetham, eds. New Woman Hybridities:
Femininity, Feminism, and International
Consumer Culture, 1880–1930. London/
New York: Routledge, 2004. This collec-
tion of essays branches from traditional
New Woman scholarship to consider issues
and information related to New Woman in
overlooked geographical and racial commu-
nities. Though each article is valuable, only
those with New Woman in the title and
pertinent to the time frame are annotated
here; see entries for Kirsti Bohata, Nóra
Séllei, Ingrid Sharp, Angelika Kóhler, Trina
Robbins, Muta Kazue, and Jill Bergman.
528. Heilmann, Ann, and Stephanie
Forward, eds. Sex, Social Purity, and Sarah
Grand. London/New York: Routledge,
2000.
529. Helland, Janice Valerie. “The
‘New Woman’ in Fin-de-Siècle Art: Frances
and Margaret MacDonald.” Ph.D. diss.,
University of Victoria, 1991.
530. Heller, Adele, and Lois Rudnick,
eds. 1915, the Cultural Moment, the New Pol-
itics, the New Woman, the New Psycholog y,
the New Art, and the New Theatre in Amer-
ica. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers
University Press, 1991. Part 2 of this book is
devoted to three articles about the New
Woman. The articles, listed separately in
this bibliography, are by Lois Rudnick, Eliz-
abeth Ammons, and Kay Trimberger.
531. Hewitt, Nancy A. Southern Dis-
comfort: Women’s Activism in Tampa,
Florida, 1880s–1920s. Urbana/Chicago:
University of Illinois Press, 2001. Chapter 8,
“New Women,” deals with the manner in
which women moved into the political
527–534
arena through unions, starting with a cigar-
factory strike and moving into the war ef-
fort and suffrage. Hewitt points to differ-
ences in race and class among the Latin,
African American, and Anglo populations in
Tampa and to how the women there be-
came involved in various aspects of society
and politics.
532. Hickok, Kathleen. Representations
of Women: Nineteenth Century British
Women’s Poetry. Westport: Greenwood,
1984. In chapter 8, “The New Woman,”
Hickok has provided a short discussion re-
garding a few women poets who dealt with
the subject of female independence in their
work. Several of them predate the naming
of the New Woman, but one poem by Dol-
lie Radford is significant in openly praising
the comfort provided by the cigarette.
533. Higishi, Sumiko. Cecil B. De Mille
and American Culture: The Silent Era.
Berkley University Press, 1994. Chapter 4
is titled “The Screen as Display Window:
Constructing the New Woman.” Subtitles
within the chapter are “The New Woman as
a Consumer,” “Cinderella on the Lower
East Side: The Golden Chance,” “The New
Woman versus the New Immigrant: The
Cheat,” and “The Sentimental Heroine ver-
sus the New Woman: The Heart of Nora
Flynn.” The New Woman is of interest to
De Mille because his mother, Beatrice,
seemed to epitomize the New Woman. She
became a successful theatrical agent after
the death of De Mille’s father. De Mille’s
play The Golden Chance is likened to a dis-
course on the New Woman.
534. Himmelfarb, Gertrude. The De-
Moralization of Society: From Victorian
Virtues to Modern Values. New York: Alfred
A. Knopf, 1995. In her chapter “The New
Women and the New Men,” Himmelfarb
juxtaposed several works of the fin de siècle
with the life situations of their authors. Of
particular note to her were Olive Schreiner,
George Gissing, Eleanor Marx, H. G.
535–538
Wells, and Oscar Wilde. Although many
critics and politicians regarded them as
going too far in terms of liberated moral-
ity, Himmelfarb concluded that the roles
they advocated and played seem more tra-
ditional in considering them a century later.
535. Höfele, Andreas. “Dandy und
New Woman.” Die ’Nineties: Das Englische
Fin de Siècle zwischen Dekadenz ud
Sozialkritik. Ed. Manfred Pfister and Bernd
Schulte-Middelich. Munich: Francke,
1983: 147–63. In the 1890s Oscar Wilde,
Max Beerbohm, and Aubrey Beardsley were
known as the new Dandies, and like New
Women, they broke with so-called “socie-
tal norms” regarding gender. While the
Dandy practically disappeared by the close
of the century, the New Woman of the
1890s was clearly a part of the emancipa-
tion movement continuing into the twenti-
eth century. The New Woman phenome-
non was a civil shock that quickly became
a cliché and the subject of caricature — she
smoked, rode the bicycle, played tennis,
climbed the Alps, appeared in intense con-
templation of scientific books, disdained
the corset, and despised men. G. B. Shaw
expressed motifs of resistance (insecurity
and fear of men) to the New Woman in
Mrs. Warren’s Profession. In this play, New
Women are not only able to liberate them-
selves from the power of man, but they also
appear strong enough to take care of them-
selves. However popular the image of the
New Woman, there is no clearly defined
“authentic” type. New Women such as
Thomas Hardy’s Sue Bridehead — a femme
fatale— seem to have contradictory im-
pulses. Enlightened intellectually, she re-
tains a neurotic aversion to all physical
being (in terms of the body). Even as the
New Woman protests the norms of Victo-
rianism, she remains caught in these norms.
The Dandy and the New Woman share the
same opponent: the Victorian middle class.
Both protest it in neuralgic manner. Never-
theless both the Dandies and the New
130 Secondary Works (1962–2008)
Woman shook rigid definitions of mas-
culinity and femininity in the 1890s
536. Holm, Brigitta. “Vierge Mod-
erne: The New Woman in Karelia.” Edith
Södergran: A Changing Image — Looking for
a New Perspective on the Work of a Finnish
Avant-garde Poet. Ed. Petra Broomens,
Adriaan van der Hoeven, and Jytte Kronig.
Groningen: Werkgroep Vrouwenstudies,
1993. The five papers in this slim book are
selected presentations from a 1992 interna-
tional symposium commemorating the cen-
tenary of the birth of Edith Södergran. Au-
thor Holm theorized that Södergran’s 1916
collection Dikter (Poems) was particularly
influenced by the New Woman movement.
She stated that other scholars have misinter-
preted Södergran’s “Vierge Moderne” (her
magnum opus) and that its modern theme
is related to women’s independence. Söder-
gran, she said, would have been familiar
with “New Woman,” by the Russian author
Alexandra Kollontai as well as an essay by
the German Elisabeth Dauthendey, who
was born in St. Petersburg.
537. Honey, Maureen, ed. Breaking the
Ties that Bind: Popular Stories of the New
Woman, 1915–1930. Norman: University of
Oklahoma Press, 1992. This is a collection
of New Woman stories published as serials
in the American popular press between 1915
and 1930. The introduction describes
Honey’s methodology and the uniting
themes in the stories she chose. She referred
to them as New Woman “fantasy” tales but
extolled their usefulness in bringing role
models and hope to the masses of women
who read them.
538. ____. “So Far Away from
Home — Minority Women Writers and the
New Woman.” Women’s Studies Interna-
tional Forum ( July–August 1992), 473–85.
The image of the New Woman was prima-
rily white, but Honey unearthed some New
Women of color from the 1920s. After a
long introduction in which she discussed
Secondary Works (1962–2008) 131
white New Woman stories, she turned to
Cogewa, a novel by the Native American
Mourning Dove, and A Daughter of the
Samurai by the Japanese-American author
Etsu Sugimoto. She gave brief mention to
novels by the African Americans Jessie
Fauset and Nella Larsen. Honey argued that
New Women of color had more in common
with first-generation white New Women
because of their circular trajectory, moving
away from small towns to cities and return-
ing again to the protection of their ethnic
communities.
539. Hopper, Helen M. A New Woman
of Japan: A Political Biography of Katô
Shidzue. Boulder, Colorado: Westview,
1996. Shidzue was reared in the early twen-
tieth century in traditional Japanese upper-
class culture to be a “good wife and wise
mother.” After marrying the Baron Istimoto
Keikichi at age seventeen, Shidzue shed tra-
ditional roles. Her husband took her to
New York because he wanted her to assim-
ilate what he perceived as New Woman be-
havior, and at his insistence, she became
schooled in independence.
540. Howard, Angela, and Sasha Ranaé
Adams Tarrant. Redefining the New Woman,
1920–1963. New York: Garland, 1997. This
is a collection of feminist and antifeminist
articles written by noted individuals, such
as Henry Ford, and lesser-known authors
who published in American journals from
the 1920s to the 1960s. Many of the readings
deal with the issue of women’s place.
541. Hu, Ying. Tales of Translation:
Composing the New Woman in China,
1899–1918. Stanford, CA: Stanford Univer-
sity Press, 2000. This book deals with is-
sues related to Chinese women in life and in
fiction from the end of the Qing era to the
beginning of that known as the May
Fourth. The terms xin nü xin and xin funü
(New Woman) did not, however, enter the
Chinese vocabulary until after this time pe-
riod. The work covers characters in a myr-
539–543
iad of texts by male and female authors and
relates them to their contemporaries in
Western life and fiction. Advances in the
lives of women outside the country are
compared with those of Chinese women,
who were being observed by outsiders and
held to so-called Western standards regard-
ing progress in women’s rights. Hu main-
tained that a single view of woman as back-
ward was projected to the outside world,
and her intent in this revisionist history was
to alter that view.
542. Hughes, Linda. New Woman
Poets: An Antholog y. London: The Eighteen
Nineties Society, 2001. Hughes’s introduc-
tion, acknowledges that poetry by New
Woman authors has not been given the at-
tention it deserves and encourages scholars
to examine this genre. This slim volume re-
produces poems by eighteen women, rang-
ing from the lesser known to well-known
names such as E. Nesbit and Mary E. Co-
leridge, published between 1884 and 1905.
Hughes divided the poems into three sec-
tions: “Desire and Sexuality,” “Social Inter-
ventions,” and “Revising Literary Tradi-
tion.” The poems are indeed little known
and provide a deeper understanding of the
literary tradition of the era.
543. Hunter, Jane H. How Young
Ladies Became Girls: The Victorian Origins
of American Girlhood. New Haven, Con-
necticut/London: Yale University Press,
2002. In chapter 10, “New Girls, New
Women,” Hunter used imaginative re-
sources (class prophecies and alumni
records) as well as diaries, standard surveys,
and percentages to chart the importance of
the high-school-educated girl to the devel-
opment of the New Woman. She followed
the progress of eleven of the young women,
learning how the hopes for independence
expressed in youth were dashed in adult-
hood. She argued that many New Woman
scholars have ignored this group of white
women who provided the courage and in-
544–546 132 Secondary Works (1962–2008)

cal state of the rights of women

and the status of woman suf-
frage in Japan.
545. Ingram, Angela, and
Daphne Patai, eds. Rediscover-
ing Forgotten Radicals: British
Women Writers, 1889–1939.
Chapel Hill: University of
North Carolina Press, 1993.
This collection of thirteen es-
says by well-respected Ameri-
can and British scholars, deals
with social, economic, literary,
and gender issues found in lit-
erature from the fifty years
spanning London’s East End
dock strike of 1889 to the be-
ginning of World War II in
1939. Most directly related to
the New Woman are the first
two essays: “New Women and
Socialist-Feminist Fiction: The
Novels of Isabella Ford and
This cartoon is a spoof on the New Woman who, Katharine Bruce Glasier” by
when approached by a tramp, indignantly corrects Chris Waters and “The Jour-
his assumption that she is a man. Whether she is ney from Fantasy and Politics:
mentioning her husband to simply let the stranger The Representation of Social-
know she is a woman or whether she is put in this ism and Feminism in Gloriana
position so others get the message that she still and The Image-Breakers” by
needs the protection of a man is up for grabs. The Ann Ardis. They are treated in-
Broad Axe, St. Paul, Minnesota, 11 July 1895. dependently in listings under
each author’s name.
spiration to new matriculating college 546. Ishii, Kazumi. “Josei: A Magazine
women. Most of the study focuses on New for the ‘New Woman.’” Intersections: Gen-
England though some examples, especially der, History and Culture in the Asian Context
those of African-American women, are 11: 1–13. Josei, first published in Japan in
from the South. 1922 as a literary magazine for women, was
544. Ide, Kikue. “Japan’s New Woman.” launched by Kurabu (Club) Cosmetics as a
Pacific Affairs (August–September 1928): public relations ploy. Josei’s editor, Osanai
1–11. This reprint of a keynote speech de- Kabru, tried to keep it in production by in-
livered to the Pan-Pacific Women’s Confer- troducing lighter material, but it folded in
ence in Honolulu in August 1928 presents 1928. In this article, Kazumi discussed Josei
a history of the state of affairs of Japanese and other women’s journals of the same era.
women. It laments that though there were She also covered the origins and specific
liberated women in Japan who accom- meanings of a variety of words related to
plished great feats, they have been written women and elaborated on the contents of
out of history. It also reports on the politi- Josei.
Secondary Works (1962–2008) 133
547. Israel, Betsy. Bachelor Girl: The Se-
cret History of Single Women in the Twenti-
eth Century. New York: HarperCollins,
2002. The subtitle is somewhat disturbing
in that so many scholarly books have been
written on this topic that the Bachelor Girl
is hardly a secret. Chapter 3, “Thin and
Raging Things: New (New) Women, Gib-
son Goddesses, Flapping Ad Darlings, and
the All-new Spinster in Fur,” includes a dis-
cussion of the aforementioned categories
that Israel characterizes as New Women.
548. Jacobus, Mary, ed. Women Writing
and Writing About Women. New York:
Barnes and Noble, 1979. This book con-
tains a brief chapter on “Sue Bridehead and
the New Woman,” by John Goode, pages
100–13.
549. Johnson, Joan Marie. Southern
Ladies, New Women: Race, Region, and
Clubwomen in South Carolina, 1890–1930.
Gainesville: University Press of Florida,
2004. This book provides a comparative
study of black and white women’s clubs in
South Carolina as well as their counterparts
in the northern United States. It focuses
on these: South Carolina Federation of
Women’s Clubs (SCFWC), South Carolina
Federation of Colored Women’s Clubs
(SCFCWC), and the United Daughters of
the Confederacy (UDC). According to
Johnson, the women in these late nine-
teenth- and early twentieth-century clubs
shaped the stories comprising Southern
memory and identity—for both whites and
blacks. A significant amount of material re-
lates to the two most prominent leaders of
the clubwomen: Louisa Poppenheim of the
SCFWC and Marion Birnie Wilkinson of
the SCFCWC.
550. Johnson, Josephine. Florence Farr,
Bernard Shaw’s “New Woman.” Gerrards
Cross, England: Smythe: 1975. This is a bi-
ography of Florence Farr, an actress in
George Bernard Shaw’s plays.
551. Johnson, Patricia E. “The New
547–555
Woman and the Old Prostitute: Women
and the Professions in the Late Nineteenth
Century.” Victorian Studies 10: 2004.
552. Jordan, Ellen. “The Christening
of the New Woman: May 1894.” Victorian
Newsletter 63 (Spring 1983): 19–21. This
is a recounting of the literary events leading
to Sarah Grand’s use of the term “the
new woman” in her March 1894 article,
“The New Aspect of the Woman Ques-
tion,” in The North American Review.
Ouida literally capitalized on Grand’s term
with her retort in her May 1894 article “The
New Woman,” in the same journal. Al-
though these were English and French au-
thors, respectively, the articles were pub-
lished in New York.
553. Juana, Alcira Arancibia, and
Yolanda Rosas, eds. The New-Woman in
Works by Hispanic Women-Writers. Monte-
video, Uruguay: Instituto Literario y Cul-
tural Hispanico, 1995.
554. Jusová , Iveta. The New Woman
and the Empire. Columbus: The Ohio State
University Press, 2005. In this short book of
four chapters, Josová explored issuses related
to race, gender, and class within the con-
text of fin de siècle imperialism. The first
chapter, “Sarah Grand: The New Woman as
an Imperialist Feminist,” deals with Grand’s
female protagonists and the way in which
Grand created them to support both evo-
lutionary theory and Britain’s racial superi-
ority. The three other chapters bring new
light on the works of George Egerton, Eliz-
abeth Robins and Amy Levy in terms of the
ethnic backgrounds of their characters.
555. Kazue, Muta. “The New Woman
in Japan: Radicalism and Ambivalence To-
wards Love and Sex.” New Woman Hybridi-
ties: Femininity, Feminism, and International
Consumer Culture, 1880–1930. Ed. Ann
Heilmann and Margaret Beetham. Lon-
don/New York: Routledge, 2004. Kazue
charted the origins of the New Woman in
Japan through new journals dedicated to
556–563
women — in particular, Seitõ (Blue-stock-
ing ). Initiated in the first decade of the
twentieth century, the movement was
squelched before World War I. Attention
focused on the changes that New Woman
pioneers made in their personal lives, neg-
ative publicity regarding their behavior, and
Japan’s ingrained conservatism led to its
early demise.
556. Keathley, Elizabeth Lorraine. “Re-
visioning Musical Modernism: Arnold
Schoenberg, Marie Pappenheim, and Er-
wartung’s New Woman.” Ph.D. diss.,
SUNY/Stonybrook, 1999.
557. Kent, Susan Kingsley. Sex and Suf-
frage in Britain, 1860–1914. Princeton, New
Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1987.
Some New Woman references appear
throughout the book, but on pages 83–84
are notes that the New Women novelists
concentrated on two areas of subject matter:
purity and the bachelor girl.
558. Kersley, Gillian. Darling Madame:
Sarah Grand and Devoted Friend. London:
Virago, 1983. The first segment (not quite
half ) of this book is a biography of Sarah
Grand interspersed with quotations from
Grand’s voluminous writings. The second
half consists of diary excerpts from Grand’s
confidant Gladys Singers-Bigger on her
friendship with Grand from 1922 until
Grand’s death in 1943. The year 1922 is
significant because that is when Grand took
up her duties as “mayoress” of Bath, and
she and Singers-Bigger met there. Singers-
Bigger spoke of Grand as “Darling,” but
Kersley indicated that Grand held her at
bay, only fully embracing her when she
pulled away. Quotations from their corre-
spondence intersperse the diary excerpts.
559. Kessemeier, Gesa. Sportlich, Sach-
lich, Männlich: Das Bild der “Neuen Frau” in
den Zwanziger Jahre (Sporty, Practical and
Masculine: The Image of the “New Woman”
during the 1920.). Dortmund, Germany:
Ebersbach, 2000. Dortmund, Germany:
134 Secondary Works (1962–2008)
Museum Kunst Kulturgesch, 2000. Writ-
ten in German, this title gives every indica-
tion of an exhibition, but the book does not
appear to be an exhibition catalog.
560. King, Lynda J. “The New Woman
in Robert Musil’s Comedy Vinzenz und Die
Freundin Bedeutender Manner.” Modern
Austrian Literature 16 (1983): 23–37. Musil
was interested in relations between men and
women in the first quarter of the twentieth
century. King analyzed the complex rela-
tionships that Musil set up in his 1923 farce
and incorporated an astute discussion of
Austrian women’s history of the same era.
561. Kitch, Carolyn L. The Girl on
the Magazine Cover: The Origins of Visual
Stereotypes in American Mass Media. Chapel
Hill: University of North Carolina Press,
2001.
562. Kóhler, Angelika. “Charged with
Ambiguity: The Image of the New Woman
in American Cartoons.” New Woman Hy-
bridities: Femininity, Feminism, and Interna-
tional Consumer Culture, 1880–1930. Ed.
Ann Heilmann and Margaret Beetham.
London/New York: Routledge, 2004. Köh-
ler looked beneath images of the Gibson
Girl and cartoons by anonymous artists pic-
tured in Life magazine from 1900 to 1915.
She discussed the ambivalence that the Gib-
son Girl presented to viewers — was she a
modern Ideal Woman or a true New
Woman? The cartoons, in an attempt to
stabilize society and restore the “natural”
roles advocated by the rough-riding presi-
dent of the United States, Theodore Roo-
sevelt, offered caricatures of gender roles,
their then-recent upheaval, and liberated
women.
563. Kolb, Deborah. “The Rise and
Fall of the New Woman in American
Drama.” Educational Theatre Journal 27
(May 1973), 149–60. Juxtaposing women’s
situation between 1890 and 1920 with fem-
inist plays of the same era, Kolb exposed
the “rise and fall” of the actual New Woman
Secondary Works (1962–2008)
with the New Woman protagonists. She
paid particular attention to these New
Woman plays: A Man’s World, He and She,
and Mary the Third by Rachel Crothers;
Why Marry? by Jesse Lynch Williams; and
Margaret Fleming by James Herne.
564. Kosta, Barbara. “Unruly Daugh-
ters and Modernity: Irmgard Keun’s
Gilgi — Eine von Uns.” The German Quar-
terly 68 (Summer 1995): 271–86. This arti-
cle focuses on Keun’s novel Gilgi — Eine
von Uns, written in 1931. Gilgi was a Ger-
man New Woman whose personal life par-
alleled the new freedoms women were seek-
ing after World War I. The protagonist’s
problems are indicative of those that young
independent women encountered in the
Weimar period — unwanted pregnancies,
rifts between mothers and daughters, soci-
etal marginalization, and pressure to con-
form to traditional roles. Gilgi was contro-
versial, and the National Socialist Party
blacklisted her in 1933.
565. Kovikova, Irina. “Representations
of Women in Russian Culture and the New
Woman in Soviet Gender Ideology: Liter-
ary Ideological Discourse of the 1920–30s.”
Der Weibliche Multikulturelle Blick: Ergeb-
nisse eines Symposiums. Ed. Hannelore
Scholz and Brita Baume. Berlin: Trafo,
1995. Though the focus of this article is not
on the 1920–30s as one would expect, its
general theme centers on the fact that
women throughout Russian history could
achieve a sense of independence only when
serving the state.
566. Kramarae, Cheris, and Paula A.
Treichler. Feminist Dictionary. Boston: Pan-
dora, 1985, 300–01. The New Woman is
defined by a compilation of three quotes
contemporary with the advent of the phe-
nomenon (the 1890s) as well as two quotes
from the 1980s.
567. Kryder, LeeAnne Giannone. “Self-
Assertion and Social Commitment: The
135 564–569
Significance of Work to the Progressive Era’s
New Woman.” Journal of American Culture
6 (Summer 1983): 25–30. Kryder claimed
that, unlike men, Progressive Era women
found meaning in their work. She used the
lives and careers of Jane Addams, M. Carey
Thomas, Ida Tarbell, and Charlotte Perkins
Gilman to substantiate her claim.
568. Kucich, John. The Power of Lies:
Transgression in Victorian Fiction. Ithaca:
Cornell University Press, 1994. This trea-
tise deals with New Woman fiction in chap-
ter 6, “Feminism’s Ethical Contradictions:
Sarah Grand and New Woman Writing.”
Its thesis concerns the tension between hon-
esty and performance in works by Sarah
Grand; the author believes that the lack of
honesty holds back the development of
New Woman fiction. Grand’s works, ac-
cording to Kucich, are windows through
which the changing roles of women as well
as Grand’s own ambivalence toward femi-
nist issues can be seen. Because of the per-
formative aspects of Grand’s life and oeuvre,
he related her work to sensation fiction and
claimed that The Beth Book (by Grand) and
A Sunless Heart (by Edith Johnstone) are the
only two novels to present an optimistic
view of the New Woman.
569. Kuhn, Anna K. and Barbara D.
Wright. Playing for Stakes: German-language
Drama in Social Context. Oxford and
Providence: Berg Publishers, 1994. Set in
Weimar Germany, both Der Fröhliche
Weinberg (The Merry Vineyard), 1925, by
Carl Zuchmayer and Hoppla!, Wir Leben!
(Hoppla! That’s Life!), 1927, by Ernst Toller
are considered within the context of their
feminist agendas and the perception of crit-
ics writing from the 1920 to the 1970s.
Wright maintained that critics and review-
ers either purposely ignored the feminist
agendas of the plays or could not come to
grips with the notion of strong, competent
women. Through their respective protago-
nists — Klärchen Gunderlach and Eva
570–575
Berg — Zuchmayer and Toller reflected on
women’s roles during the Weimar Republic.
This article is as much an investigation of
the role of the New Woman of the 1920s as
an analysis of critical response.
570. Kulba, Tracy. “New Woman, New
Nation: Emily Murphy, the Famous Foun-
dation and the Production of a Female Cit-
izen.” Ph.D. diss., University of Alberta,
2004.
571. Laity, Cassandra. “From Fatal
Woman to New Woman: Yeats’s Changing
Image of Woman in His Art and Aesthetic.”
Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1984.
This discussion of the works of Irish
poet/playwright W. B. Yeats examines how
his views of women changed both person-
ally and in his works from one century to
the next. Laity maintained that Yeats’s
“conversion” from viewing women as
femme fatales to viewing them as the
“New” took place in relationship to the
shift from women of the Romantic and
Pre–Raphaelite era to those of the Ibsen era.
She closed with an examination of his three
New Woman plays, The Shadowy Waters,
Deirdre, and The Play Queen.
572. ____. “W. B. Yeats and Florence
Farr: The Influence of the ‘New Woman’
Actress on Yeats’s Changing Images of
Women.” Modern Drama 28 (December
1985): 620–37. Yeats first saw Farr in A Si-
cilian Idyll and thought of her as the quin-
tessential New Woman. He was drawn to
her “unwomanly womanliness.” He created
several characters with her in mind though
she acted in only one of his plays. Though
her name was excluded from the title, Maud
Gonne, the “other” New Woman discussed
in the article, was also a major figure in
Yeats’s life.
573. Larson, Jil. “Sexual Ethics in Fic-
tion by Thomas Hardy and the New
Woman Writers.” Rereading Victorian Fic-
tion. Ed. Alice Jenkins and Juliet John.
Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire:
136 Secondary Works (1962–2008)
Macmillan, 2000. This paper, originally
“Rethinking Victorian Culture,” was pre-
sented at a conference in Liverpool in 1996.
Here Larson juxtaposed “The Buddhist
Priest’s Wife”(written in 1890 but published
posthumously in 1923) by Olive Schreiner
with Thomas Hardy’s Jude the Obscure
(1895) as well as Schreiner’s The Story of an
African Farm (1893) with Sarah Grand’s The
Heavenly Twins (1893) by comparing and
contrasting their New Women characters.
The literature is devoted to the ideology of
“separate spheres [in which] males are cred-
ited with reason and females with feeling
or emotion,” but Larson pointed out that
women grappled with their awareness of
both intellect and feeling; she proposed that
the authors’ intent was to challenge readers
to rethink the notion of separate spheres.
574. Lavin, Maud Katherine. “Hannah
Höch, Photomontage and the Representa-
tion of the New Woman in Weimar Ger-
many, 1918–1933.” Ph.D. diss., City Univer-
sity of New York, 1989. The focus of this
study is on the Berlin Dada artist Hannah
Höch and her use of mass media in pho-
tomontage. It examines in particular a
scrapbook made with images related to the
New Woman. Lavin considered how the use
of common media images intersected
within the context of both the modern
avant-garde and popular culture.
575. ____. “The New Woman in Han-
nah Höch’s Photomontages: Issues of An-
drogyny, Bisexuality, and Oscillation.” Re-
claiming Female Agency: Feminist Art History
after Postmodernism. Ed. Norma Broude
and Mary D. Garrard, Berkley: University
of California Press, 2005. Lavin’s interest in
this essay centered on prevailing theories of
sexuality in Weimar Germany within the
context of images of women in Hanna
Höch’s photomontages. She investigated the
depiction of cross-gendered women in se-
lected works by Höch, maintaining that the
artist purposely left interpretation open to
Secondary Works (1962–2008)
viewer and theorist alike. Thus there is no
clear-cut resolution regarding women’s
then-changing roles or the place they
would/could hold in Weimar society in the
1920s. Although Lavin did not discuss the
relationship of Höch’s own fluid sexual re-
lationships to her imagery, a symbiotic as-
sociation seems likely.
576. Law, Graham. “New Woman
Novels in Newspapers. Medial History 7
(2001): 17–32. In this article Law analyzes
New Woman literature appearing in the
popular press in Britain in the 1880s and
1890s. While its focus is serialized novels,
it also delves into the history of the syndi-
cated press, treats shorter works within the
popular weeklies and biweeklies, and in-
cludes images of the New Woman. Law
theorized that the stories and images he
found — advertisements in The Illustrated
London News as well the image of a black
New Woman riding a bicycle depicted on
a 1896 Christmas card — provide an under-
standing of a multidimensional New Woman
persona rife with contradictions. Overall
the article aids in understanding the func-
tion and role of newspapers in disseminat-
ing literature in the late Victorian era.
577. Leaker, Catherine Joan. “Break-
ing Possibilities: The New Woman Novel
and the Failures of Feminist Fiction.” Ph.D.
diss., University of Rochester, 2000. This
dissertation investigates the manner in
which the late-nineteenth-century New
Woman and New Woman novel were
doomed. Leaker focused on the works of
Olive Schreiner, George Egerton, and
Mona Caird, using critical response to the
novels and the correspondence of Schreiner
to substantiate her thesis. She explored the
intersection of politics and feminism
through the novels, concluding there was
no way for the writers to reach consensus
and thus, as Schreiner had feared, the ex-
periment failed.
578. Ledger, Sally. “Gissing, the Shop-
137 576–581
girl and the New Woman.” Women: A Cul-
tural Review 6 (Winter 1995): 263–74. This
is a study of Gissing’s New Woman protag-
onists Rhoda Nunn and Mary Barfoot
along with shop girl Monica Madden of
The Odd Women. Gissing’s 1893 work was
one of many anticipating the naming of the
New Woman. As middle-class women be-
came more visible in city life toward the
close of the nineteenth century, they were
frequently mistaken for and/or accused of
being prostitutes. Ledger juxtaposed the
male flâneur with the female shop girl, illus-
trating the double standard regarding be-
havior of men and women on the streets of
London.
579. ____. “Ibsen, the New Woman
and the Actress.” The New Woman in Fiction
and Fact: Fin-de-Siecle Feminisms. Ed. An-
gelique Richardson and Chris Willis. Lon-
don: Palgrave/Macmillan, 2001. Although
the majority of the essay consists of Ledger’s
investigation into the manner in which sex-
uality and motherhood function in Henrik
Ibsen’s plays, she turned in the final section
to the enactment of Ibsen’s female roles, fo-
cusing primarily on those of Elizabeth
Robins.
580. ____. “The New Woman and
Feminist Fictions.” The Cambridge Com-
panion to the Fin de Siècle. Ed. Gail Mar-
shall. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2007. Ledger focused in chapter 8 on
morality, sexuality, and motherhood — key
concerns in the New Woman novels and
short stories of Sarah Grand, George
Egerton, Grant Allen, Thomas Hardy,
Mona Caird, and Ménie Muriel Dowie.
This essay is especially valuable in its analy-
sis of these themes, found in many of
Egerton’s short-stories in the collection Dis-
cords and Keynotes and in Sarah Grand’s
1894 collection, Our Manifold Nature: Sto-
ries from Life.
581. ____. “The New Woman and the
Crisis of Victorianism.” Cultural Politics at
582–590
the Fin de Siècle. Ed. Sally Ledger and Scott
McCracken. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 1995. Ledger began where
Elaine Showalter left off in making connec-
tions between the New Woman, the deca-
dent, and the dandy. She claimed that
though the popular press and much of so-
ciety connected the alleged sexual impro-
priety of the New Woman with the trial of
Oscar Wilde, the reality was that New
Woman authors were simply advocating
that men raise their level of sexual purity to
that of women. Ledger placed the New
Woman within the politics of empire
through eugenics movements and dealt
with the relationship of the New Woman
and various socialisms of the late nineteenth
century. She related the failure of the New
Woman to coalesce to the feminist move-
ment a century hence.
582. ____. The New Woman: Fiction
and Feminism at the Fin de Siècle. Manches-
ter, England: Manchester University Press,
1997. In this encompassing work, Ledger
examined New Woman fiction within the
cultural and sociopolitical context of the era
of the New Woman in Great Britain. Her
introduction provides a brilliant analysis of
the underpinnings of the New Woman in
relation to other social and political move-
ments.
583. ____. “The New Woman, the
Bostonians, and the Gender of Modernity.”
Barcelona English Language and Literature
Studies 7 (1996): 55–62. Unavailable for re-
view.
584. Ledger, Sally, ed. Women’s Writ-
ing at the Fin de Siècle. Special edition of
Women’s Writing 3 (1996): Introduction.
Ledger provided a brief history of New
Woman scholarship and summarized the
work of other contributors to this issue:
Ann Heilmann, Kate Flint, Scott Mc-
Cracken, Rosie Miles, Talia Schaffer, Ann
Ardis, and Eileen Sypher.
585. Ledger, Sally, and Scott Mc-
138 Secondary Works (1962–2008)
Cracken, eds. Cultural Politics at the Fin de
Siècle. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1995.
586. Lefko, Stefana Lee. “Female Pio-
neers and Social Mothers: Novels by Fe-
male Authors in the Weimar Republic and
the Construction of the New Woman.”
Ph.D. diss., University of Massachusetts,
1998. Through analysis of novels by Clara
Viebig, Lisbeth Burger, Vicki Baum, and
Thea von Harbou, Lefko showed how the
ordinary lives of New Woman protagonists
paralleled larger political issues of the era.
For example, an unwanted pregnancy,
seemingly only a personal problem, was re-
lated to issues of birth control and abortion
being debated in the legislature. Women’s
concerns about contemporary issues were
the subject matter of novels written by these
women of the Weimar Republic.
587. Lemons, J. Stanley. “The New
Woman in the New Era: the Woman
Movement from the Great War to the Great
Depression.” Ph.D. diss., University of
Missouri, 1967.
588. Lerner, Gerda, ed. The Female
Experience: An American Documentary. In-
dianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1979. This work
includes a variety of essays examining the
New Woman from the late eighteenth cen-
tury to the 1970s. Chapter 8, “Creating
New Women,” discusses many New Women,
but only Belva Lockwood and Elizabeth
Gurley Flynn are from the turn of the
century.
589. Lewis, Jane, ed. Labor and Love:
Woman’s Experience of Home and Family,
1850–1910. New York and Oxford: Basil
Blackwell, 1986. Lucy Bland’s chapter 5,
“Marriage Laid Bare: Middle-Class Women
and Marital Sex, 1880–1914,” discusses the
New Woman.
590. Lin, Li-Chun. “The Discursive
Formation of the ‘New’ Chinese Woman,
1860–1930.” Ph.D. diss., University of Cal-
ifornia, Berkeley, 1998. Lin investigated the
Secondary Works (1962–2008)
rise and fall of independence for Chinese
women from the 1860s to the 1930s. Her
first revelation is that Protestant missionar-
ies in China were first to link its weak inter-
national status with the miserable state of af-
fairs for women in the mid-nineteenth
century. A number of male intellectuals
took up the cause of the missionaries, but
improvement for women was short-lived.
Lin examined popular literary genres such
as magazines as well as the higher-brow
genres of poetry and novels in charting the
position of women and their difficulties
during this era of change.
591. Liu, Jui-Chi (Rachel). “Carnival
Culture and the Engendering of Florine
Stettheimer.” Ph.D. diss., Bryn Mawr Col-
lege, 1999. Using highly theoretical under-
pinnings, Liu examined the ultra-feminized
pinkness of painter Florine Stettheimer’s
self-portraits as statements countering the
masculinization of modernism. Liu brought
attention to the notion of woman as an-
drogynous, the mass culture of the early
twentieth century, how a woman such as
Stettheimer negotiated women’s positions,
and to the Jewish Diaspora.
592. Lowy, Dina B. The Japanese “New
Woman”: Contending Images of Gender and
Modernity, 1910–1920. Ph.D. diss., Rutgers
University, 2000. Central to this dissertation
is the Seito (or Bluestocking) organization/
periodical and how both shaped and reacted
to debate regarding the New Woman in
early twentieth-century Japan. The period
of 1910–26, the Taisho era, was one of
emerging modernity in Japan, and Lowy
examined the New Woman within this con-
text. As in other countries, reaction to the
New Woman varied, ranging from the view
that she embodied all of society’s modern
ills to the notion that she represented hope
for the future. Reactions (or overreactions)
to the Seito movement included the found-
ing of a conservative group known as “The
True New Women.”
139 591–594
593. ____. The Japanese “New Woman”:
Issues of Gender and Modernity. New
Brunswick, New Jersey/London: Rutgers
University Press, 2007. This work is based
on Lowy’s dissertation, above. In the first
decades of the twentieth century Japan was
struggling to define itself in terms of
modernity. The New Woman (atarashii
onna) movement converged with the na-
tion’s push toward creating a national iden-
tity; this book explores the intersection of
feminism, modernity, and the influence of
the West in shaping Japan’s future. At the
close of the Menji period (1868–1912) a new
women’s organization, the Seitõsha (Blue-
stocking Society) emerged to counter the
prevailing ideology of the “good wife, wise
mother.” Raichõ Hiratsuka, an unconven-
tional upper middle-class woman educated
at the Japan Women’s College, was the
founder of the movement and editor of
Seitõ, the journal associated with it. Seitõ
was inaugurated the same month (Septem-
ber 1911) that the Literary Society presented
Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll House, thus creating
a furor related to the role of women in Japa-
nese culture. Following on the heels of this
production, the Literary Society produced
(May 1912) Hermann Sudermann’s Magda,
another play about the aberrant behavior of
a woman. The government censored it.
Lowy chronicled the decade of the teens in
terms of the emergence of independent
women and the role of another organiza-
tion, The True New Women (Shinshin Fu-
jinkai), as a more conservative alternative
to the Seitõsha and a subsequent short-lived
organization, the New Woman’s Associa-
tion, begun by Raichõ in 1919 after Seitõsha
folded in 1916. The final chapter is a brief ex-
ploration of the New Woman movements
of Egypt, China, and Korea, with empha-
sis on the parallelism of the subordinate po-
sitions of women to men and the status of
colonial nations to imperialist powers.
594. Mackay, Barbara. “The New
Woman in the Drama of Beuchner, Ibsen,
595–600
Strindberg and Brecht.” DFA thesis: Yale
School of Drama, 1974.
595. Mackie, Vera. Feminism in Mod-
ern Japan: Citizenship, Embodiment and
Sexuality. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 2003. Chapter 3, “The New
Woman,” chronicles the political progress
women made from the early inauguration of
the Bluestocking Society in 1911 (and its ac-
companying journal, Seitõ,) through the
1940s. Central to women’s advancement in
Japan and the focus of their action was the
repeal of Article 5 of the 1905 Public Peace
Police Law, prohibiting women from at-
tending political meetings. After the Blue-
stocking Society disbanded in 1916, the
New Women’s Association formed to or-
ganize and lobby—first for the repeal of this
law and then for suffrage. Although univer-
sal suffrage was granted to men in 1920,
women did not win the privilege until after
World War II. The article also addresses
other issues related to women’s progress and
the control over their bodies such as birth
control, abortion, and support for single
mothers.
596. MacPike, Loralee. “The New
Woman, Childbearing, and the Recon-
struction of Gender, 1880–1900.” NWSA
Journal 1 (1989), 368–97. The author viewed
the new concept of women’s identity in
British and American culture during the
1880s and 1890s through contemporary
novels and the new occupational freedoms
available to women. Because of changing
patterns of marriage and childbearing,
MacPike claimed the New Woman was eco-
nomically self-sufficient and freed from the
biological imperatives of maternity. That
idea, however, grew from Social Darwinist
and other reductive theories of sexuality at
the turn of the twentieth century.
597. Maier, Sarah E. “Subverting the
Ideal: The New Woman and the Battle
of the Sexes in the Short Fiction of Ella
D’Arcy.” Victorian Review: The Journal of
140 Secondary Works (1962–2008)
the Victorian Studies Association of Western
Canada and the Victorian Studies Associa-
tion 20 (Summer 1994), 35–48. This article
addresses Ella D’Arcy’s collections of short
stories in Monochromes (1895) and Modern
Instances (1898). Maier claimed that D’Arcy’s
New Woman stories are more radical than
those by other authors, but in the sum-
maries provided, the New Women fre-
quently commits suicide. Maier explained
that the protagonists in D’Arcy’s stories feel
overwhelmed by the enormity of the prob-
lems they face. Unable to cope with the
pressure of being molded into the Ideal
Woman, they succumb to the coward’s way
out. Maier noted that D’Arcy’s works have
not received the attention they deserve.
598. Mäkinen, Helka. “Elli Tompuri:
Uusi Nainen Ja Punainen Diiva.” Ph.D.
diss., University of Helsinki, 2001.
599. Mally, Lynn. “Performing the New
Woman: The Komsomolka as Actress and
Image in Soviet Youth Theater.” Journal of
Social History 30 (Fall 1996): 79–95. Kom-
somolka was the symbol for the New So-
viet Woman of the 1920s. In this informa-
tive article Mally investigated the image of
the Komsomolka in the Leningrad Theatre
of Working Class Youth (TRAM or The-
ater for Working-Class Youth). Young
participants of the theater wrote all of the
ten plays presented. TRAM was based at
Gleron House in the Moscow-Noriskir dis-
trict of Leningrad. Mally disclosed that al-
though TRAM plays did not show women
as equal partners in the family, they did
present the possibility of a redistribution of
gender roles at some time. The plays’ wide-
spread appeal may have been due to that
hope. The women involved in production
of the plays were treated so inequitably that
the reader wonders whether there was any
real understanding of the roles of New
Women.
600. Mangum, Teresa. “Feminist Fic-
tion and Fictional Feminism: Sarah Grand
Secondary Works (1962–2008)
and the New Woman Novel.” Ph.D. diss.,
University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign,
1991. This examination of Sarah Grand’s
New Woman novels falls within the con-
text of the influence of the new scientific
and medical theories of the late nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries. Magnum’s
thesis was that these new beliefs and laws
regarding gender difference affected Grand’s
ideas and that they were played out in the
plots of her novels.
601. ____. Married, Middlebrow and
Militant: Sarah Grand and the New Woman
Novel. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan
Press, 1998. In this in-depth study of
Grand’s novels and the role they played in
examining the institution of marriage at the
fin de siècle, Mangum addressed Grand’s
two trilogies. Ideala, The Heavenly Twins,
and The Beth Book comprise the first tril-
ogy. Grand completed the first two books of
the second trilogy —Adam’s Orchard and
The Winged Victory— but because of her
disillusionment with World War I, she
never finished the third.
602. ____. “Style Wars of the 1890s:
The New Woman and the Decadent.”
Transforming Genres: New Approaches to
British Fiction of the 1890s. Ed. Nikki Lee
Manos and Meri-Jane Rochelson. New York:
St. Martin’s, 1994. Chapter 3, Mangum’s
contribution on Sarah Grand, likely was
spun from her dissertation. She identified
Grand as “one of the foremothers of New
Woman literature.” Basically this is an in-
depth study of Grand’s The Beth Book
(1897) and its relationship to the contempo-
rary Decadent or Aesthetic movement in
Britain.
603. Manos, Nikki Lee. “New Woman
(Feminism).” The 1890s: An Encyclopedia of
British Literature, Art and Culture. Ed. G. A.
Cevasco. New York: Garland, 1993. In
this extensive entry on the British New
Woman of the 1890s, Manos defined the
New Woman, including discussion of the
141 601–606
leading New Woman novels, plays, and ar-
ticles. In identifying the arrival of the New
Woman in the 1890s, she wrote: “[The]
New Woman may have exploded on the
social scene, but she embodied the simmer-
ing resentment that women had felt for
decades.”
604. Manos, Nikki Lee, and Meri-Jane
Rochelson. Transforming Genres: New Ap-
proaches to British Fiction of the 1890s. New
York: St. Martin’s, 1994. There are refer-
ences to the New Woman throughout the
volume.
605. Marchant, Jamie. “Ellen Glas-
gow’s New Women: Barren Ground and
They Stooped to Folly.” Centennial Review 41
(Winter 1997), 63–81. In this reappraisal of
two of Glasgow’s novels and their female
protagonists — Dorinda Oakely in Barren
Ground and Milly Burden and Mary Victo-
ria Littlepage in They Stooped to Folly—
Marchant challenged former analysis (pri-
marily by male critics) of them as loveless
and therefore unsatisfied. Instead these
characters relinquished their dependence on
men to develop their own unique natures.
Milly and Mary Victoria, in particular, em-
bodied dimensions of the New Woman of
the 1910s regarding sexual freedom and
career.
606. Marcus, Jane. “Salome: The Jew-
ish Princess Was a New Woman.” Bulletin
of the New York Public Library 78 (1974),
95–113. In this captivating analysis of O.
Wilde’s Salome, Marcus reevaluated the
characters of Salome and John the Baptist,
following Wilde’s lead in pronouncing it
the duty of the artist to rewrite history.
Marcus maintained Salome and John were
precursors of Christ, on equal footing with
each other and Christ, saying Wilde “trans-
forms her [Salome] from sinner to saint and
makes her a real person as well.” Marcus
wrote that people were confused by Beard-
sley’s illustrations of Salome in Wilde’s pub-
lication of the play, but that this was so be-
607–609 142 Secondary Works (1962–2008)

Three New Women whose facial features appear identical call the shots by indi-
cating exactly where the men with whom they wish to dance must wait for them.
Punch, or the London Charivari, 27 July 1895.

cause Beardsley never read it. Beardsley
likened Salome to Isben’s Hedda Gabler (al-
beit Salome is a biblical figure)— strong
women cast as sex objects thwarted in their
artistic careers — much like Wilde’s own
mother. Marcus maintained that Beards-
ley’s images are insensitive to Wilde’s inten-
tions.
607. Marks, Patricia. Bicycles, Bangs,
and Bloomers: The New Woman in the Pop-
ular Press. Lexington: University Press of
Kentucky, 1990. In this work, primarily
made up of the images of New Women as
depicted in satire and caricature in Punch,
Life, and London Truth, Marks theorized
that men in fear of change produced the ex-
aggerated comic figures.
608. Marriner, Gerald L. “A Victorian
in the Modern World: The ‘Liberated’
Male’s Adjustment to the New Woman and
the New Morality.” South Atlantic Quar-
terly 76 (Spring 1977), 190–203. In this
article Marriner pointed to the discrepancy
between the views of so-called liberated
men and their reluctance to carry them
out in their relations with women. He fo-
cused on Hutchins Hapgood and Neith
Boyce and how their unconventional mar-
riage suited Hapgood until Boyce engaged
in the same liberated sexual activities as
her husband. In the last paragraph Marriner
referred to the New Woman, but the arti-
cle is really about Hutchins Hapgood and
how he functioned as a “Victorian in the
Modern World,” which was the title of his
autobiography.
609. Martin, Margaret Kathleen. “Dis-
covering Lily Lewis: A Canadian Journalist
and New Woman.” Ph.D. diss., University
of Saskatchewan, 2001. Lily Lewis and Sara
Jeannette Duncan, both Canadian journal-
ists of the late nineteenth and early twenti-
Secondary Works (1962–2008) 143
eth centuries, accompanied one another on
a trip around the world in 1888. According
to Martin, attention was paid to the life and
oeuvre of Duncan, but Lewis was shrouded
in obscurity. This dissertation attempts to
exhume Lewis and in the process examine
the complex web that kept her and her
works hidden. One of Martin’s theses is that
Lily Lewis’s involvement with feminism
made her undesirable in the view of histo-
rians.
610. Martin, Susan K. “The Newest
Woman in a New World: Gender Anxiety
and New Women in Turn-of-the-Century
Australian Fiction.” Futures Exchange: ACH
23 (2004): 121–36. This is an analysis of the
futuristic novel The Newest Woman: The
Destined Monarch of the World (1895), by
Millie Finkelstein. Set in Melbourne in
1950, it involves an inversion of gender
roles, with women at the helm. The book
was serialized in a journal titled Melbourne
Sportsman, and according to Martin the
story is more about “feminine romance than
masculine sporting”(123). It portrays women
running the government successfully albeit
perversely in terms of cross-dressing, and
men’s perception of the situation, thus play-
ing out the anxiety of the modernist era.
611. Martin, Wendy. “Brett Ashley as
New Woman in The Sun Also Rises.” New
Essays on The Sun Also Rises. Ed. Linda
Wagner Martin. New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1987. According to Mar-
tin, the protagonists of Ernest Hemingway’s
The Sun Also Rises— Brett Ashley and Jake
Barnes—represent the quintessential female
and male of the jazz era (post–World War I).
Brett is modeled after the modern woman of
the 1920s known as “The Flapper,” but her
independence is limited by dependence
upon men for financial and psychological
security.
612. Matter-Seibel, Sabina. “Pauline
Hopkins’s Portrayal of the African-American
New Woman in Contending Forces and the
610–615
Colored American Magazine.” Feminist
Forerunners: New Womanism and Feminism
in the Early Twentieth Century. Ed. Ann
Heilmann. London, Sydney, and Chicago:
Pandora Press, 2003. Literary editor of
Colored American Magazine in the years be-
fore 1904, Pauline Hopkins was the first
black American woman to hold such a po-
sition. In her short tenure with the journal
she published ten of her short stories and
three serialized novels. But Hopkins’s
outspokenness caused her to be dismissed
after the conservative Booker T. Washing-
ton purchased the journal. She then took
a position with Voice of the Negro, an At-
lanta-based magazine focusing on the “New
Negro Man.”
613. Matthews, Jean V. The Rise of the
New Woman: The Women’s Movement in
America, 1875–1930. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee,
2003. The entire work is about women’s
issues in the late nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries. Chapter 2, “The New
Woman and the New Politics” provides
some background on New Woman issues
in America, including a brief history of pro-
fessions available to women and the con-
comitant education required. Despite the
title, limited attention is paid to women’s
organizations and their “influence” in mak-
ing positive change for women.
614. McArthur, Judith N. Creating the
New Woman: The Rise of Southern Women’s
Progressive Culture in Texas, 1893–1918.
Chicago/Urbana: University of Illinois
Press, 1997. In this important contribution
to understanding women’s history in the
southern United States, McArthur provided
limited information on African-American
women, and all the photographs are of
white women.
615. McCarthy, Kathleen D. Women’s
Culture: American Philanthropy and Art,
1830–1930. Chicago/London: University of
Chicago Press, 1991. A few sporadic sections
of this work refer to the art collectors Is-
616–621
abella Stewart Gardner and Gertrude Van-
derbilt Whitney as New Women.
616. McClure, Nancye Jane. “New
Woman Satire: A Gynocentric Weapon of
Change.” Ph.D. diss., University of Mis-
sissippi, 2001. This dissertation examines
how British and American New Woman
authors employed satire, generally thought
to be a masculine idiom, in their works.
McClure analyzed authors Ella d’Arcy,
George Egerton, Sara Grand, Kate Chopin,
and Elizabeth Barstow Stoddard.
617. McCullough, Mary Katherine.
“Figuring Gender: British and American
Women’s Narratives of the 1890s.” Ph.D.
diss., University of California, Berkeley,
1992. Using the New Woman novels of
Pauline Hopkins, Kate Chopin, Sarah Orne
Jewett, and Florence Converse, McCul-
lough examined the polemics of maternity
and eroticism appearing to define the
identity of the protagonists. In chapter 1
she investigated works of the 1860s but
otherwise focused primarily on those of the
1890s. She grounded the phenomena of the
New Woman in texts by Sarah Grand and
George Egerton, then turned to examples
of American fiction by Pauline Hopkins and
Kate Chopin in regard to their reposition-
ing of class, race, and desire within the con-
text of liberation. Finally she turned to the
sexologists and how Sarah Orne Jewett and
Florence Converse rejected and/or reflected
their theories.
618. McDonald, Jan. “New Women in
the New Drama.” New Theatre Quarterly 6
(1990): 31–42. This is a comprehensive dis-
cussion of the faces of the New Woman in
late nineteenth- and early twentieth-cen-
tury theater. The new dramatists moved
woman to center stage and brought issues
related to the “woman question” to the fore.
Although they revealed woman’s plight but
made few suggestions to remedy it, Mc-
Donald concluded that a few “ladies” had
become women.
144 Secondary Works (1962–2008)
619. McKenna, Isobel Kerwin. “Sara
Jeannette Duncan: The New Woman: A
Critical Biography.” Ph.D. diss., Queen’s
University at Kingston, 1981. This is the bi-
ography of a little-known Canadian writer
who authored twenty books and several
plays. Duncan was born in 1861 and became
a journalist who traveled around the world
and used material from her journey as the
basis for her first book. Although she mar-
ried, she continued writing even after her
husband’s retirement to Great Britain. Only
one of her novels, The Imperialist, was in
print in 1981, when the dissertation was
written.
620. McKinney, Lauren D. “From New
Money to New Woman: Social Change and
Melodrama in Three British Novels of
the 1890s.” Ph.D. diss., Temple University,
1995. McKinney examined Thomas Hardy’s
Jude the Obscure, Mona Caird’s The Daugh-
ters of Danaus, and George Gissing’s The
Whirlpool, claiming that, although the
first two novels were regarded as tragedies
and the third was considered a naturalistic
novel, the works fall within the Victorian
genre of melodrama.
621. McLaren, Angus. Sexual Black-
mail: A Modern History. Cambridge, Mass-
achusetts: Harvard University Press, 2002.
Chapter 7, “Blackmail and the New
Woman,” treats the issue of women black-
mailing men for monetary advantages or
moral consequences during the 1920s and
’30s. In the popular press these lawsuits
(“heart balm”) centered on seduction,
breach of promise, and alienation of affec-
tion. McLaren investigated legislation deal-
ing with the cases as well as stories in the
press regarding a variety of cases. While
most of the situations he exposed were in
British newspapers and journals, Holly-
wood took up stories about blackmail and
made them into popular movies at home
and abroad. The notoriety of the subject,
McLaren maintained, was due to a shifting
Secondary Works (1962–2008) 145
of moral codes and loosening of sexual
standards.
622. McNamara, Mary Jo. “Minerva
Chapman’s Miniatures: Costume and the
New Woman.” Dress 29, 2002: 75–85. This
article discusses the American painter and
miniaturist Minerva J. Chapman, whose
work from 1905 to 1915 reflects the chang-
ing fashion of women as they donned the
more “rational” dress enabling them to be-
come more active participants in the pub-
lic sphere.
623. McNease, Francesca Mallory.
“The New Woman as Bifurcated Female in
‘Jude the Obscure,’ ‘The Story of an African
Farm,’ ‘The Odd Women,’ and ‘Ann
Veronica.’” Ph.D. diss., Oklahoma State
University, 1994. The novels mentioned in
McNease’s title are generally regarded as
New Women novels, but she maintained
that they fall within the Victorian era’s
predilection for biological determinism.
The female protagonists in the novel may
seem to be New Women, but, McNease
wrote, they are actually femme fatales who
carry out their predetermined biological
roles as wives and mothers.
624. Meskimmon, Marsha, and
Shearer West, eds. Visions of the “Neue
Frau”: Women and the Visual Arts in Weimar
Germany. Brookfield, Vermont: Ashgate,
1995. In this collection of essays developed
from a 1992 symposium at Leicester Uni-
versity about German women artists of the
1920s and 1930s, the writers examined the
role of women in the arts (painters, sculp-
tors, photographers, dancers, and women
in film) during the Weimar period. Among
the essayists are Marsha Meskimmon, Erika
Esau, Erich Ranfft, Ute Eskildsen, Renate
Berger, Shulamith Behr, Carol Diethe,
Stephen Lamb, and Dorothy Rowe.
625. Miller, Nina. “Love Poetry and
the New Woman: Literary Negotiations
in Edna St. Vincent Millay, Genevieve Tag-
gard, and Dorothy Parker.” Ph.D. diss.,
622–628
Northwestern University, 1991. Miller jux-
taposed the masculine, bohemian, literary
world of New York City (particularly
Greenwich Village and the Algonquin
Round Table) with the three women writ-
ers of the title, who attempted to navigate
that world both personally and profession-
ally.
626. Mitchell, Delores. “The New
Woman as Prometheus: Woman Artists De-
pict Women Smoking.” Woman’s Art Jour-
nal 12 (Spring/Summer 1991): 3–9. This ar-
ticle is primarily about images of women
smoking by Jane Atché, Louise Lavrut, and
Frances Benjamin Johnston. Mitchell jux-
taposed the work of the women with the
images of women smoking created by men.
She related sexual and gender differences in
smoking iconography and revealed that the
images created problems for viewers who
accepted gender stereotypes.
627. Moreland, Kim. “Henry Adams,
the Medieval Lady, and the ‘New Woman.’”
Clio: A Journal of Literature, History, and
the Philosophy of History 18 (Spring 1989):
291–305. This is an analysis of how, after
the death of Marian “Clover” Hooper
Adams (Adams’s wife), Henry Adams re-
treated to Chartres and the medieval world
of the Madonna. According to Moreland,
Adams did this out of his need for a
queen/mother/caretaker and to negate the
threatening presence of the New Woman.
628. Mori, Maryellen T. “The Splen-
dor of Self-Exhalation: The Life and Fic-
tion of Okamoto Kanoko.” Monumenta
Nipponica 50 (1995), 67–102. Mori wrote
that Kanoko, reared in a privileged Japa-
nese household, the Onuki, grew up think-
ing herself special. She wanted to become
a novelist and but achieved this goal only
through the total devotion of her husband
(cartoonist Ippei) and his willingness to as-
sume the duties traditionally assigned to
women. Kanoko associated with other fem-
inists in Japan, briefly joining the Seitõ, or
629–634
Bluestocking Society, but found those or-
ganizations were not for her. Her poetry
and prose were as controversial and non-
conforming as she.
629. Munro, Eleanor. Originals; Amer-
ican Women Artists. New York: Simon and
Schuster, 1979. In the section titled “Meth-
ods and Matriarchs”(pages 38–58), is a seg-
ment called “A Century of History and the
New Woman Artist.”
630. Murphy, Gretchen. “New Women
in the New Pacific: Japanese-American Ro-
mances in the Context of U.S. Empire.”
Prospects 29 (2004), 395–428. This article
examines issues related to women in fin de
siécle fiction, especially that written by John
Luther Long and Winnifred Eaton (Reeve)
(Onoto Watanna). Murphy’s thesis is that
the love triangles revealed in Long’s 1895
novella, Miss Cherry Blossom of Tokyo (which
morphed into Madame Butterfly), his novel
The Fox Woman (1900), and several novels
by Eaton (possibly based on Long’s works)
are indicative of the relationship between
Japan and the United States between 1895
and 1907. One might question the use of
the term New Women in the title, as the
female protagonists had intense relation-
ships with and depend heavily on men on
both sides of the Pacific.
631. Murphy, Mary Patricia. “Timely
Interventions: Gender, Temporality, and
the New Woman (Thomas Hardy, Olive
Schreiner, H. Rider Haggard, Sarah Grand,
Mona Caird).” Ph.D. diss., University of
Iowa, 1997. Using as an example one novel
by each of the aforementioned authors,
Murphy addressed issues of the construc-
tion of time and how time relates to gender
and temporality.
632. Murphy, Patricia. “Disdained and
Disempowered: The ‘Inverted’ New Woman
in Rhoda Broughton’s Dear ‘Faustina.’”
Tulsa Studies in Women’s Literature 19
(Spring 2000): 57–79. In the beginning of
the article Murphy positions Dear Faustina
146 Secondary Works (1962–2008)
as an anti–New Woman novel though her
subsequent discussion of criticism contem-
porary with the novel refuted this designa-
tion. After a long grounding of fin-de-siè-
cle literature related to emancipation and
women’s issues, Murphy directed her atten-
tion to a careful analysis of female homosex-
uality in relationship to the New Woman
and within the context of the then-current
theories of sexologists such as Havelock
Ellis. The “inverted” New Woman is Althea,
whose promise as a New Woman (and
Faustina’s partner) is reversed by the novel’s
conclusion in which a gentleman provides
her with more support and encouragement
in pursuing activities related to “woman’s
work” than Faustina has previously given in
molding her into a socialist/feminist.
633. ____. Time Is of the Essence: Tem-
porality, Gender, and the New Woman. Al-
bany, New York: Albany State University
Press, 2001. Based on her dissertation at the
University of Iowa, Murphy investigated
the dual issues of time and the New Woman
in fin de siécle Britain in this book. She
found analogies between “Women’s Time”
by Julia Kristeva and the manner in which
New Woman writers have challenged the
prevailing acceptance of the male construc-
tion of time. Her scholarship centers on the
deconstruction of the semiotics of time
in the following novels: She by H. Rider
Haggard (1887), Tess of the D’Urbervilles
by Thomas Hardy (1891), The Beth Book
by Sarah Grand (1897), the Daughters of
Danaus by Mona Caird (1894), and The
Story of an African Farm by Olive Schreiner
(1883).
634. Nash, Mary. “Milicianas and
Homefront Heroines: Images of Women in
Revolutionary Spain (1936–39).” History of
European Ideas 11 (1989): 235–44. In the
Spanish Civil War, two new and important
types of women appeared —“the militia
woman and the home-front heroine.” The
impact of “this new female image in the
Secondary Works (1962–2008) 147
Mrs. Tompkins is assisted in getting
dressed by her husband and son while
she reads over the article she has writ-
ten about the independence of the New
Woman. Life, 17 October 1912.
light of the collective experience of Span-
ish women” is the focus of the article. Ac-
cording to Nash, these examples of highly
visible Spanish women did not reflect the
reality of women in Spain but rather the
unique turmoil into which gender roles and
perceptions are thrown during wartime.
635. Nelson, Carolyn Christensen, ed.
A New Woman Reader: Fiction, Articles,
Drama of the 1890s. Peterborough, On-
tario/Orchard Park, New York: Broadview,
2000. The book is divided into three sec-
tions —“Short Stories by New Woman
Writers,” with works by George Egerton,
Sarah Grand, Netta Syrett, Victoria Cross,
Ada Radford, Mabel E. Wotton, and Ella
D’Arcy; “Articles,” including reprints of
“The Debate over Women’s Suffrage,”
“Sarah Grand on the New Woman: Her
Critics Respond,” “The Marriage Ques-
tion,” “The Attack on the New Woman
Writers,” “The Revolting Daughters,” and
635–638
“Drama,” featuring The New Woman: An
Original Comedy in Three Acts by Sydney
Grundy.
636. Newlin, Keith, ed. American Plays
of the New Woman. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee,
2000. This anthology includes the follow-
ing plays identified by Newlin as containing
New Woman subject matter. The Great Di-
vide by William Vaughn Moody (1906), A
Man’s World by Rachel Crothers (1910), As
a Man Thinks by Augustus Thomas (1911),
Overtones by Alice Gerstenberg (1913, first
performance two years later), The Outside by
Susan Glaspell (1917), and Why Marry? by
Jesse Lynch Williams (1917). The editor
provided a synopsis of each with biograph-
ical information for each playwright. He
concluded with a discussion of the demise
of New Woman plays and attention to the
New Woman in a general sense.
637. Newton, Esther. “The Mythic
Mannish Lesbian: Radclyffe Hall and the
New Woman.” Signs (Summer 1984): 557–
75. Newton did a creditable job of differen-
tiating between first- and second-genera-
tion New Women in Hall’s novels —The
Unlit Lamp (1924) and The Well of Loneli-
ness (1928). The Unlit Lamp portrays the
first generation of lesbians, who battled to
find autonomy outside the family, who
ignored questions of sexuality because the
Victorian woman was defined as sexless.
They dealt in romantic friendships. The sec-
ond generation, however, became identified
with Stephen Gordon in The Well of Lone-
liness, defined by masculine traits and
gender inversion. This article is also in-
cluded in Hidden from History: Reclaiming
the Gay and Lesbian Past, ed. Martin Bauml
Duberman, Martha Vicinus, and George
Chauncey Jr. (1989).
638. Ng, Yee-Ling. “Modern Fiction
and the Creation of the New Woman:
Madame Bovary, Jude the Obscure and
Women in Love.” Ph.D. diss., University
of Hong Kong, 1998.
639–644
639. Nie, Er. “Song of the New
Woman.” Reprinted in “The New Woman
Incident: Cinema, Scandal, and Spectacle in
1935 Shanghai.” Transnational Chinese Cin-
emas: Identity, Nationhood, Gender. Ed.
Sheldon Hsiao-peng Lu. Honolulu: Uni-
versity of Hawaii Press, 1997: 286. This is
a poem to the New Woman.
640. Niemtzow, Annette. “The Marital
Whip: Literary Reactions to the New
Woman in Hawthorne, James, and Adams.”
Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1973. This
dissertation does not circulate.
641. Nord, Deborah Epstein. Walking
the Victorian Streets: Women, Representation
and the City. Ithaca, New York/London:
Cornell University Press, 1995. The book
has three parts with part 3 titled “New
Woman.” The index indicates only three
references to the New Woman, but the de-
scription/definition of her on pages 216–17
deserves consideration.
642. Norton, Mary Beth and Ruth M.
Alexander, eds. Major Problems in Ameri-
can Women’s History: Documents and Essays.
Boston/New York: 2007. Chapter 11 is titled
“The ‘New Woman’ in Public Life and Pol-
itics, 1900–1930.” A brief introduction
defining the American New Woman of the
early twentieth century precedes reprints of
these essays: “Mary Church Terrell Praises
the Club Work of Colored Women,” 1901;
“Mary Church Terrell Describes Lynching
from a Negro’s Point of View,” 1904; “The
U.S. Supreme Court Upholds a Maximum
Hours Law for Working Women in Muller
v. Oregon,” 1908; “Margaret Dreier Robins
Describes the Purposes of the Women’s
Trade Union League,” 1909; “Jane Addams
Applauds the ‘Beginnings of a New Con-
science’ Regarding the ‘Ancient Evil’ of
Prostitution,” 1912; “Inez Haynes Irwin Re-
calls the Militance of Suffragists in the Na-
tional Woman’s Party,” 1921; “Elsie Hill and
Florence Kelley Take Opposing Positions
on a Proposed Woman’s Equal Rights Bill,”
148 Secondary Works (1962–2008)
1922; and “Margaret Sanger Publishes Let-
ters Documenting American Wives’ and
Husbands’ Urgent Need for Legal Birth
Control,” 1829.
643. Owens, Carolyn Jill Tedford.
“Topical Themes in the Fiction of Netta
Syrett, 1890–1920.” Ph.D. diss., University
of Mississippi, 1984. Owens dealt with the
contemporary issues of the New Woman
and marriage she identified in Syrett’s No-
body’s Fault, Drender’s Daughter, Rose Cot-
tingham, The Tree of Life, and Ann Page. In
discussing Nobody’s Fault, The Tree of Life,
Drender’s Daughter, Rose Cottingham, and
Rose Cottingham Married, she focused on
socialist theory. She investigated themes of
the supernatural in Syrett’s Barbara of the
Thorn, “Sylvia,” A Castle of Dreams, and “A
Birthday.” She proposed that in Syrett’s
New Woman novels, the female protago-
nists become independent after rebelling
against parents, teachers, and/or marriage
partners and discovering how difficult being
on one’s own can be.
644. Patterson, Martha Helen. Beyond
the Gibson Girl: Reimagining the American
New Woman, 1815–1915. Chicago/Urbana:
University of Illinois Press, 2005. The first
four chapters of this 2005 volume rest
on earlier scholarship published in journals
and/or Patterson’s 1997 dissertation. Chap-
ter 5, “Mary Johnston, Ellen Glasgow, and
the Evolutionary Logic of Progressive Re-
form,” has added Glasgow to the mix
( Johnston’s oeuvre was considered in the
dissertation). In the final chapter, “Willa
Cather and the Fluid Mechanics of the New
Woman,” Patterson provided extensive
analysis regarding New Women protago-
nists in Cather’s short stories as well as in the
following novels: Alexander’s Bridge (1912),
Oh Pioneers! (1913), and The Song of the Lark
(1915). Patterson’s analysis considers issues
related to the eastern and western parts of
the United States, the meaning of water and
land, and gender and ethnicity.
Secondary Works (1962–2008)
645. ____. “Incorporating the New
Woman in Wharton’s The Custom of the
Country.” Studies in American Fiction 26
(Fall 1998): 213–36. The protagonist of
Wharton’s The Custom of the Country, Un-
dine Spragg, is the subject of this article.
Patterson believed Undine was the closest
Wharton came to inventing a New Woman
character, but Undine’s dependence upon
men makes that questionable, particularly as
a good portion of Patterson’s argument
places Undine in the “shift in patriarchal
tactics from the old entrepreneurial to the
new managerial corporate capitalism.”
646. ____. “Survival of the Best Fitted:
Selling the American New Woman as Gib-
son Girl, 1895–1910.” American Transcen-
dental Quarterly 9 (1995): 73–87. In this
encompassing discussion of Charles Dana
Gibson’s “Gibson Girl,” a turn-of-the-
century icon of female modernity, Patter-
son suggested that the plethora of Gibson
girl images helped create a stabilized Amer-
ican identity during a period of “immense
social and political turmoil.” The images,
popular enough to appear on a variety of
objects, were collected by and exchanged
among contemporary women. In the era of
Darwinist theory, the rights and freedoms of
women exploited and were exploited by this
New Woman imagery.
647. ____. “‘Survival of the Best Fit-
ted’: The Trope of the New Woman in
Margaret Murray Washington, Pauline
Hopkins, Sui Sin Far, Edith Wharton, and
Mary Johnston, 1895–1914.” Ph.D. diss.,
University of Iowa, 1996. What is now
known as the Progressive Era (1895–1914)
produced many important women writers.
This dissertation explores the works the au-
thors of the title in light of their reflecting
the many reform issues that society grap-
pled with at the time.
648. Pepper, Harriet Murdock. “The
New Woman: Images of Women in the
Short Stories of Harriet Prescott Spofford.”
149 645–651
Ph.D. diss., State University of New York,
Albany, 1990. Although examining Spof-
ford’s portrayal of women within the con-
text of the New Woman, Pepper admitted
that the characters fall into the traditional
roles of wife and mother. Nevertheless she
argued that Spofford’s women are not sub-
missive to their men but exist on an equal
plane.
649. Perkins, Wendy. “Virginia Woolf ’s
Dialogues with the ‘New Woman.’” Family
Matters in the British and American Novel.
Ed. Elizabeth Mahn Nollen and Sheila Re-
itzel Foor. Bowling Green, Ohio: Popular
Press, 1997. The discussion centers on Mrs.
Ramsey and Lily, the female protagonists in
To the Lighthouse. Perkins argued that these
characters mirror Woolf ’s ambivalence as
to liberated and to domestic woman.
650. Perrot, Michelle. “The New Eve
and the Old Adam: French Women’s Con-
dition at the Turn of the Century.” Behind
the Lines: Gender and the Two World Wars.
Ed. Margaret Randolph Higonnet et al.
New Haven, Connecticut/London: Yale
University Press, 1987. This short piece on
the New Woman in France discusses how
World War I reined them in, returning
them to traditional roles.
651. Pfisterer, Susan. “Cultural Anxiety
and the New Woman Playwright: Mrs. E.
S. Haviland’s On Wheels.” Australasian
Drama Studies 27 (October 1995), 143–50.
In 1896 Mrs. E. S Haviland wrote On Wheels,
a New Woman play in three acts that
Pfisterer located in handwritten manuscript
form in Sydney’s Mitchell Library. Pfisterer
surmised from the costume descriptions
that Haviland’s play had been performed,
but she found no reviews or further evi-
dence to prove it. Her analysis of the play
focuses on the freedom the bicycle provided
New Women, on the role cross-dressing
played in framing the older, self-proclaimed
New Woman protagonist Moggs, and on
gender-role issues as a whole.
652–658
652. Pitavy, Souques D. “Presenting
the New Woman: Some Narrative Strate-
gies Used by Ellen Glasgow, Kate Chopin,
and Willa Cather.” Revue Francois d Etudes
Americaines 69 ( June 1996), 67–76. This
article presents an analysis of turn-of-the-
century authors presenting the New Woman
by rejecting conventional images of women.
Avant-garde painting, music, and political
discussions inspired them. They aimed to
redefine the traditional role of women
through their novels: Ellen Glasgow in The
Descendant (1897) and Virginia (1913), Kate
Chopin in The Awakening (1899), and Willa
Cather in My Antonia (1918) and A Lost
Lady (1923). Each author presented women
who are strong, intellectual, and on a par
with men. The female characters in the
novels see themselves as important and re-
alize their positions in the world around
them.
653. Priesand, S. Judaism and the New
Woman. New York: Behrman, 1975. Chap-
ter 7, “The Jewish Mother Stereotype,” of
this survey of the position of women
through Jewish history puts her in the con-
text of modern literature in the United
States. Chapter 8, “Great Jewish Women,”
includes names as well as information on
some women who made their mark at the
turn of the twentieth century.
654. Prieto, Laura R. At Home in the
Studio: The Professionalization of Women
Artists in America. Cambridge, Massachu-
setts/London: Harvard University Press,
2001. Chapter 5, titled “Portrait of the Artist
as a New Woman,” runs the gamut of fin
de siécle issues from bohemianism to suf-
frage. Prieto stressed links with suffrage and
the New Woman and how these little-
known artists depicted feminist women.
Though she described the pictures, a great
void in the reproductions weakens her argu-
ment.
655. Pullen, Christine. “Amy Levy:
Her Life, Her Poetry and the Era for the
150 Secondary Works (1962–2008)
New Woman.” Ph.D. diss., Kingston Uni-
versity, 2000.
656. Pushkareva, Natalia. Women in
Russian History: From the Tenth to the Twen-
tieth Century. Trans. and ed. Eve Levin. Ar-
monk, New York, and London: M. E.
Sharpe, 1997. Chapter 4, “The New Women
of the New Epoch: Nineteenth and Early
Twentieth Centuries,” is a valuable contri-
bution to understanding Russian women of
the era. The chapter is divided into themes
progressing chronologically. The first seg-
ment of the chapter deals with women in
politics, economics, and education, the sec-
ond with customs of peasant women and
their unenviable lives. It moves on to discuss
women’s rights and organizations related to
emancipation. The last topic is Russian
fashion of the era.
657. Pykett, Lyn. The “Improper” Fem-
inine, the Women’s Sensational Novel and the
New Woman Writing. London: Routledge,
1992. Pykett’s thesis centers on the difficulty
of New Women and New Women authors
in divorcing themselves from the concept
of True Womanhood. The book is divided
into thirds with the first part providing a
definition of the New Woman. The second
part deals with Mona Caird’s The Daughter
of Danaus and Ménie Muriel Dowie’s Gal-
lia and provides a brief introduction to
Grand’s novels. The third part, “Breaking
the Bounds: The Improper Feminine and
the Fiction of the New Woman” is divided
into subsections dealing with identifying
and defining the New Woman. Through-
out the work, Pykett draws on the works
of Mona Caird, Sarah Grand, Iota (K. M.
Caffyn), George Egerton, Mary Chol-
mondeley, and Ella Hepworth Dixon in
juxtaposition with contemporary criticism
and modern theories.
658. ____. “Portraits of the Artist as a
Young Woman: Representations of the Fe-
male Artist in the New Woman Fiction of
the 1890s.” Victorian Women Writers and
Secondary Works (1962–2008) 151 659

In this Adam Forepaugh & Sells Brothers Circus poster, c. 1896, a New Woman
jumps through hoops while riding lightly on the bare back of the white
horse. Two “clown women” look askance at her amazing tricks! Library of Con-
gress.

the Woman Question. Ed. Nicola Diane
Thompson. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 1999. Chapter 8 in this com-
pilation of essays discusses issues related to
several women writers that Thompson has
arranged chronologically in terms of sub-
ject matter. Pykett’s contribution juxtaposes
the biographical aspects of several Victorian
writers with the lives of the female charac-
ters in their books, concluding that though
the New Woman artist (musician, painter,
or writer) may acquiesce to tradition in
both life and fiction, striving toward non-
conformity is a defining trait.
659. Quance, Roberta. “Concha
Mendez [Towards a New Woman]: Una
Mujer Moderna.” Revista de Occidente 211
(December 1998): 103–14. This article de-
scribes the life and times of the modern
woman from 1926 to 1936 in the “Genera-
tion of the 27” in Spain. Concha Mendez is
one of these women. Part of the middle class
of the era, Mendez lacked nothing materi-
ally, but spiritually and intellectually she was
crushed, not being allowed to read a book
or a newspaper. Other rebellious women
such as Margarita Nelken reflected on the
social condition of women, saying they
needed moral emancipation to liberate them
from their conventionalism, including the
expected marriage. Despite Mendez’s mar-
riage, she became an accomplished author,
poet, and world traveler who hoped to
produce some theatrical projects when she
visited the United States. Various critics
660–665 152
have stated that Mendez’s best work oc-
curred during her marriage, and though
Quance agreed to some extent, she was
quick to point out that Mendez’s poetic ma-
turity also coincided with the new dignity
women enjoyed as citizens of the Republic,
which broadened the legal status of women.
660. Raftery, Judith. “Chicago Settle-
ment Women in Fact and Fiction: Hobart
Chatfield Chatfield-Taylor, Clara Elizabeth
Laughlin, and Elia Wilkinson Peattie Por-
tray the New Woman.” Illinois Historical
Journal 88 (Spring 1995), 37–58. This arti-
cle investigates the connections between
novels by Chatfield-Taylor, Clara Elizabeth
Laughlin, Elia Eilkinson Peattie and the life
situations of prominent Chicago settlement
workers, notably Jane Addams and her Hull
House associates. The novels are: Two
Women and a Fool by Chatfield-Taylor, Just
Folks (1910) by Laughlin, and The Precipice:
A Novel by Peattie. The protagonists in the
three novels are far from rubber-stamped;
each New Woman has a way of fulfilling her
calling to undertake social/settlement work,
but their methods differ as do their personal
lives. Raftery noted that the New Woman
characters change between the first and
third novel to reflect the changes in settle-
ment work.
661. Raub, Patricia. “A New Woman
or an Old-fashioned Girl? The Portrayal
of the Heroine in Popular Women’s Novels
of the Twenties.” American Studies 35
(Spring 1994): 109–30. In examining pop-
ular women’s novels of the 1920s for their
influence in shaping the attitudes of middle-
class women of the era, Raub found that
single female protagonists were not as
liberated as might be expected. Often
the women who gave the impression of
being “flappers” were in their hearts old-
fashioned.
662. Reesman, Jeanne Campbell. “Jack
London’s New Woman in a New World:
Saxon Brown Roberts’s Journey into the
Secondary Works (1962–2008)
Valley of the Moon.” American Literary Re-
alism 24 (Winter 1992): 40–54. Reesman
argued that London’s female protagonist,
Saxon Brown Roberts, in The Valley of the
Moon displays New Woman characteristics.
In light of her husband Billy’s weaknesses,
Saxon is a strong woman and makes major
decisions, but she seems unrelated to the
independent New Woman of the era. The
section investigating London’s commentary
on contemporary short stories is interest-
ing, but otherwise the article is reminiscent
of a book report.
663. Reilly, Joy Harriman. “From
Wicked Woman of the Stage to New
Woman: The Career of Olga Nethersole
(1870–1951).” Ph.D. diss., Ohio State Uni-
versity, 1984. This dissertation examines the
life and works of little-known fin-de-siècle
English actress/manager Olga Nethersole.
Her theatrical roles as temptress/seducer/
fallen woman were in direct opposition to
her personal life. She was better appreciated
in America, where she made eleven major
theatrical tours between 1894 and 1914,
more than in her native England. A success-
ful businesswoman, she managed her own
company and later left the stage to promote
woman’s suffrage, health education, and so-
cial reform, thus proving herself a capable
New Woman.
664. Rennick, Gregory. The Neue Frau:
Representations of Women from Expression-
ism to the New Objectivity. McMaster Mu-
seum of Art with support from the City of
Hamilton. Hamilton, Ontario: 2006. This
2006 exhibition featured images of women
in German art from the first quarter of the
twentieth century. A brochure accompanied
the exhibition.
665. Rich, Charlotte Jennifer. “Trans-
gression and Convention: The New Woman
and the Fiction of Kate Chopin, Edith
Wharton, and Charlotte Perkins Gilman.”
Ph.D. diss., University of Georgia, 1998. In
the works of each of the novelists that Rich
Secondary Works (1962–2008)
chose to investigate, the protagonists expe-
rience a tug-of-war between conventional
and unconventional roles for women at
the end of the nineteenth century. In her
nonfiction writing, Gilman called for a new
literature to explore modern options for
women. These novels answer the call, re-
vealing how difficult it was for women to
break out of traditional roles while main-
taining respectability.
666. Richardson, Angelique. “The Eu-
genization of Love: Darwin, Galton, and
New Woman Fictions of Heredity and
Eugenics.” Ph.D. diss., Birkbeck College,
University of London, 1999.
667. ____. “The Eugenization of Love:
Sarah Grand and the Morality of Geneol-
ogy.” Victorian Studies 42 (Winter 1999/
2000): 227–55. This thoughtful piece pro-
vides a new interpretation of Sarah Grand’s
novels, thus countering Teresa Mangum’s
claim that Grand rejects late nineteenth-
century interest in eugenics. Richardson
substantiated her argument with the intro-
ductions Grand wrote to her novels. She
maintained that Grand’s novels had more
to do with eugenics than with modern fem-
inism. Grand, Richardson argued, was inter-
ested in women taking control of their bod-
ies for the purpose of racial progress.
Grand’s work, Richardson maintained, was
not an attack on the institution of marriage
but was misinterpreted by late twentieth-
century scholars who made Grand into an
anti-institutional figure.
668. Richardson, Angelique, and Chris
Willis. The New Woman in Fiction and in
Fact: Fin de Siècle Feminisms. London: Pal-
grave/Macmillan, 2001. This collection of
articles investigates the complexity and con-
tradictory aspects of the New Woman at the
fin de siècle. See those related to New
Woman fiction under authors Talia Schaf-
fer, Chris Willis, Sarah Wintle, and Sally
Ledger, in this volume.
669. Richardson, LeeAnne Marie. “En-
153 666–670
gendering Empire: The New Woman and
the New Imperialism in Fin de Siècle
Fiction.” Ph.D. diss., Indiana University,
2000. Especially pertinent to study of the
New Woman and Britain are chapters 3,
“Staking Claims: Colonizing the New
Woman Novel,” and 4, “‘Aboriginal’ Inter-
ventions: The New Woman Adventure
Novel.” In chapter 3 Richardson examined
Bram Stoker’s Dracula (1897), H. Rider
Haggard’s She (1887), and Mr. Meeson’s Will
(1888). Richardson has theorized that in
these works the male authors appropriated
New Woman tropes to serve their own mas-
culine interests. Chapter 4 compares the lit-
erary works of Rudyard Kipling and those
of the little-known author Flora Annie
Steel, which have been all but forgotten. On
the Face of the Waters (1896) is the focus.
Race and gender figure in Richardson’s as-
sessment of Steel’s oeuvre, with Richardson
defending her against the criticism of those
who have maintained that Steel’s work em-
braces Britain’s imperialism.
670. ____. New Women and Colonial
Adventure Fiction in Victorian Britain:
Gender, Genre, and Empire. Gainesville:
University Press of Florida, 2006. Especially
pertinent to study of the New Woman and
Britain are chapters 3, “Staking Claims:
Colonizing the New Woman Novel,” and
4, “‘Aboriginal’ Interventions: The New
Woman Adventure Novel.” In chapter 3
Richardson examined Bram Stoker’s Drac-
ula (1897) plus H. Rider Haggard’s She
(1887) and Mr. Meeson’s Will (1888). In
these works, Richardson theorized, the
male authors appropriated New Woman
tropes to serve their own masculine interests.
Chapter 4 compares the literary works
of Rudyard Kipling with those of the
little-known author Flora Annie Steel,
primarily On the Face of the Waters (1896).
Race and gender figure in the assessment;
Richardson defends Steel against those
maintaining that her work embraces
Britain’s imperialism.
671–675 154
671. Rijnbout, Frans A. “The ‘New
Woman’ in Plays by Granville Barker and
His Contemporaries.” Ph.D. diss., New
York University, 1997. This dissertation ex-
amines New Woman characters in the plays
of little-known Harley Granville Barker in
comparison with the New Women in plays
by better-known playwrights of the same
era. Rijnbout identified the New Women
in The Fugitive and A Family Man by John
Galsworthy, Getting Married and Misal-
liance by George Bernard Shaw, and Votes
for Women! by C. E. Raimond (Elizabeth
Robins). These he juxtaposed with The
Marrying of Ann Leete, The Voysey Inheri-
tance, Waste, and The Madras House by
Barker. He concluded that while all of the
New Women exhibit meritorious charac-
teristics, Barker’s characters exhibit greater
truthfulness and individuality.
672. Robbins, Trina. “The Day of the
Girl: Nell Brinkley and the New Woman.”
New Woman Hybridities. Ed. Ann Heil-
mann and Margaret Beetham. London/
New York: Routledge, 2004. Essayist Rob-
bins investigated the popular illustrations
that Nell Brinkley created for Hearst pub-
lications from 1910 to 1930. Her thesis is
that Brinkley’s gender influenced the tone of
her writing and the progressive imagery she
produced for works in the popular press.
Rather than depict the leisured upper-class
“girls” that Gibson drew, Brinkley depicted
active working “girls,” drawing attention to
the differences between the two. Robbins
maintained that although the images may
at first appear to be glamour girls, they are
more like the New Women of the early
twentieth century.
673. Roberts, Mary Louise. Disruptive
Acts: The New Woman in Fin-de-Siècle
France. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 2002. Chapter 1, “The New Woman,”
in this valuable study of New Woman nov-
els and plays set in fin de siécle France is of
particular interest. Roberts discussed the
Secondary Works (1962–2008)
novels and plays within the context of con-
temporary criticism. The following chap-
ters have more to do with the following ac-
tors/newswomen: Marguerite Durand,
founder of the newspaper La Fronded; actor
Sarah Bernhardt, Caroline Rémy (Séver-
ine), and their relationships with the pop-
ular press. Often female reporters put on
disguises or wrote under pseudonyms and
likewise, actresses played men on stage, thus
demonstrating how gender identities could
be adopted and were in flux.
674. Rodd-Rasplica, Laurel. “Yosano
Akiko and the Taisho Debate over the ‘New
Woman.’” Recreating Japanese Women,
1600–1945. Ed. Gail Lee Bernstein. Berke-
ley: University of California Press, 1991. A
university production of Ibsen’s A Doll’s
House opened in Tokyo in November 1911,
starring Matsui Sumako (1886–1919). The
critic Ihara Seiseien noted the reaction of
two women in the audience (one a sister of
a playwright and the other a playwright)
and dubbed them atarashii onna (new
women). During the fairly liberal era of
“Taishõ democracy,” four prominent women
came to the fore in an attempt to redefine
the roles of contemporary women: Yosano
Akiko (1878–1942), Hiratsuka Raichõ
(1886–1971), Yamakawa Kikue (1890–1980),
and Yamada Waka (1879–1957). Seitõ
(Bluestockings), founded by Raichõ in 1911
became the forum for feminist debate. This
article, illustrated with wonderful photo-
graphs of the women and their families,
deals with the lives of these New Women
and their trials in trying to effect change.
675. Rosenberg, Rosalind. “New Psy-
chology and the New Woman.” Beyond
Separate Spheres: Intellectual Roots of Modern
Feminism. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale
University Press, 1982. Chapter 3 links John
Dewey and the “new psychology” of the
1890s with the New Woman. The footnotes
provide additional references to the New
Woman.
Secondary Works (1962–2008) 155 676–678

676. Rosenzweig, Linda W. The An-

chor of My Life: Middle-Class American
Mothers and Daughters, 1880–1920. New
York: New York University Press, 1991.
Chapter 5, “I Am So Glad You Could Go
to College’: The ‘New Woman’ and Her
Mother,” is specifically related to the New
Woman. In this chapter Rosenzweig has
presented information gleaned from jour-
nals and letters by the first wave of young
women who attended college in the United
States. Her interest was in the reactions
of the mothers of the young women: how
these women from the generation of the
“true woman” relate to their college-
educated offspring. She found the major-
ity of the mothers extremely supportive
though they did not always agree with their
daughters’ decisions. The majority of jour-
nals/letters are from young women attend-
ing eastern U.S. colleges and universities, In Cigarette Girl, photographer Robert
especially the private “sister colleges.” Most Demachy depicted the smoking New
are from upper-middle-class families, and Woman in a dramatic chiaroscuro for an
most expressed concern regarding finances issue of Alfred Steiglitz’s publication, Cam-
and how their absences affected their era Notes, 6 July 1902.
families. Those who went to graduate school
generally did so in Europe (due to the plishments in the title and occasionally in
reluctance of American universities to the text, there is little of the New Woman
admit them), and sometimes their mothers in the women of the federation. They were
accompanied them. A few of the New primarily interested in maintaining tradi-
Women’s names are recognizable: M. Carey tional roles for women (albeit improving
Thomas (later president of Bryn Mawr them), Ross admitted that the federation
College), author Willa Cather, Virginia “had long denied women’s rights interests.”
Gildersleeve (who taught at Columbia and 678. Ross, Sara. “The Americanization
became a dean at Barnard), and Crystal of Tsuru Aoki: Orientalism, Melodrama,
Eastman (whose mother was an exception to Star Image, and the New Woman.” Camera
the “stay-at-home mom” stereotype in be- Obscura 60 (Fall 2005): 129–56. The title of
coming the first woman ordained in the this article practically sums up its content of
Congregational Church). this article. Tsuru Aoki was a Japanese
677. Ross, Frances Mitchell. “The New American who found her way to a career on
Woman as Club Woman and Social Activist the stage and to the arm of a Japanese
in Turn of the Century Arkansas.” Arkansas actor/husband during the 1910s and 1920s.
Historical Quarterly I (Winter 1991): 317–51. In her career she bridged the images of Japa-
This article deals with the progressive re- nese doll, sexualized Oriental courtesan,
forms the Arkansas Federation of Women’s and modern American woman to become
Clubs was able to enact statewide. Though a respected actor. Ross explored the way in
the New Woman is linked to these accom- which the contemporary press cast Aoki and
679–686
compared her with other female Hollywood
actors of the era. Aoki was able to rise above
both the courtesan/doll stereotypes and
emerge as the honest working girl/good wife
that suited both American and Japanese
audiences.
679. Rotkirch, Anna. “New Woman
with Old Feelings? Contrasting Kollontai’s
and Colette’s Writings on Love.” Available
online at www.valt.helsinki.fi/staff/rotkirch/
kollontai%20and%20colette.pdf. In this
article Rotkirch juxtaposed the political and
personal views of the Russian author
Alexandra Kollontai and the French author
Colette (Willy), who were contemporaries
(Kollontai lived from 1871 to 1952 and Co-
lette from 1873 to 1953). The author ana-
lyzed themes in Kollontai’s famous essay of
1918, “The New Woman,” as well as her
novel Red Love, originally published as
Vasilisa Malygina (1924), and some lectures
and essays. As to Colette’s work, Rotkirch
focused on The Vagabond (1910) and The
Pure and the Impure (1932).
680. Rowe, Victoria. “The ‘New Ar-
menian Woman’”: Armenian Women’s
Writing in the Ottoman Empire, 1880–
1915.” Ph.D. diss., University of Toronto,
2000.
681. Rowland, Diane Baker. “Sister-
hood and Social Conscience: The Emer-
gence and Evolution of the Feminist New
Woman in Selected American Fiction,
1864–1933.” Ph.D. diss., University of
Miami, 1985. Although the title suggests a
broader time frame, this study focuses on
pre–World War I and the era between the
two world wars. Rowland’s thesis is that the
New Woman type in fiction was following
the example of historical women who were
active in reform causes. Fifteen American
literary works are referenced chronologi-
cally, ending with the demise of the New
Woman in relationship to the Great De-
pression and the onset of America’s involve-
ment with World War II.
156 Secondary Works (1962–2008)
682. Royster, Beatrice. “The Ironic Vi-
sion of Four Black Women Novelists: A
Study of the Novels of Jessie Fauset, Nella
Larsen, Zora Neale Hurston, and Ann
Petry.” Ph.D. diss., Emory University, 1975.
683. Rudnick, Lois Palken. “Feminist
Utopian Visions and the ‘New Woman’:
Jane Addams and Charlotte Perkins
Gilman.” Gender, I-Deolog y: Essays on The-
ory, Fiction and Film. Ed. Cornut Gentille
Chantal and Jose Angel Garcia-Landa. Am-
sterdam: Rodopi, 1996.
684. ____. Mabel Dodge Luhan: New
Woman, New Worlds. Albuquerque: Uni-
versity of New Mexico Press, 1984. One
section of chapter 3, “Movers and Shakers,”
deals with “The New Woman.” It includes
a brief discussion of women such as Crys-
tal Eastman, Henrietta Rodman, and Ida
Rauh of Greenwich Village, all associates
of Luhan.
685. ____. “The New Woman.” 1915,
the Cultural Moment: The New Politics, the
New Woman, the New Psycholog y, the New
Art and the New Theatre in America. Ed.
Adele Heller and Lois P. Rudnick. New
Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University
Press, 1991. Rudnick distinguished between
the two generations of the New Woman —
the first, which came to the fore in the
1890s, and her cultural descendant, who
emerged in the 1910s. While the chapter is
a general discussion on New Women, it
specifies several “literary, progressive, and
radical” New Women.
686. Ruether, Rosemary Radford. New
Woman New Earth: Sexist Ideologies and
Human Liberation. New York: Seabury
Press, 1975. Although not specifically ori-
ented toward the New Woman of the 1890s,
this is a valuable text. Ruether explained the
transfer of control from a matriarchy to pa-
triarchy in world religions. She also linked
psychological and sociological movements
to religion in this historical survey.
Secondary Works (1962–2008)
687. Rupp, Leila J. “Feminism and the
Sexual Revolution in the Early Twentieth
Century: The Case of Doris Stevens.” Fem-
inist Studies 15 (1989): 372–93. Doris
Stevens was a New Woman in the 1910s and
1920s. Born in Nebraska, graduated from
Oberlin College in 1911, and a major player
in the National Women’s Party, she is now
all but forgotten. Rupp relates her story and
tells how her liberated heterosexual notions
caused rifts with some, including Alice
Paul, in the suffrage movement.
688. Russell, Mona L. “Creating the
New Woman: Consumerism, Education,
and National Identity in Egypt, 1863–
1922.” Ph.D. diss., Georgetown University,
1997. In this work on women’s involvement
in the rise of consumerism in Egypt , Rus-
sell used popular media (travel books, ad-
vertising, magazines) to reveal the impetus
for change within the household and in
women’s roles. She began by concentrating
on Egyptian women of the middle and
upper classes but concluded by comparing
women’s roles in Egyptian consumer cul-
ture with those of the United States and
western Europe.
689. Russell, Penny. “Recycling Femi-
ninity: Old Ladies and New Women.” Aus-
tralian Cultural History 13 (1994), 31–51.
Russell examined the relationship between
the use of bicycles and the debate over the
emergence of the New Woman in New
South Wales. While some made arguments
for the physical and mental benefits of bi-
cycle riding, the image of women on bicy-
cles raised concerns about the nature of
femininity, female emancipation and fem-
inism, and female immorality. The analysis
of contemporary writings reveals an empha-
sis on the bifurcation of the female body,
health issues, and female sexuality.
690. Russell, Thomas Arthur. “Women’s
Leadership Roles in the Student Christian
Movement and the Rise of the New
Woman, 1880–1920.” Ph.D. diss., Vander-
157 687–692
bilt University, 1999. This dissertation in-
vestigates the women leaders of the Anglo-
Protestant Student Christian Movement
(SCM) within the context of the New
Woman movement of the late nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries. Although the
two movements may seem incongruous,
Russell’s theorized that the leaders of the
Christian organization intersected with
feminism and became New Women them-
selves.
691. Ryan, Mary P. “The Projection of
a New Womanhood: The Movie Moderns
in the 1920s,” 113–30. Decades of Discontent:
The Women’s Movement, 1920–1940. Ed.
Lois Scharf and Joan M. Jensen. Westport,
Connecticut/London: Greenwood, 1983.
This overview of movies looks primarily at
those of the 1920s in which female protag-
onists were imaged as the carefree, modern
flapper, or New Woman. Unlike the New
Woman of the 1890s, she was presented
within the context of looser modern sexual
codes and thereby was somewhat objectified.
She was usually a “working girl,” but un-
like her mother who was a domestic or older
sister who was a factory worker, this New
Woman had a job behind a counter or a
desk. And always, the way out of her low-
paying, unsatisfying job was to marry a rich
man.
692. Sato, Barbara Hamill. The New
Japanese Woman: Modernity, Media, and
Women in Interwar Japan. Chapel Hill,
North Carolina: Duke University Press,
2003. Sato identified three types of mod-
ern Japanese women during the era between
the two world wars: the modern girl (modan
gã ru), the self-motivated housewife (shufu),
and the professional working woman
(shokug yõ fujin). Her thesis is that the three
types were directly motivated by a new con-
sumer culture and by the women’s maga-
zines that promulgated these new com-
modities and modernist ideas. Subsequently
they brought about change in women’s
identities, points of view, and behavior.
693–699
This comprehensive study of Japanese
women during that era includes black-and-
white photos (and a few color plates) from
contemporary magazines.
693. Scanlon, Leon. “New Women in
the Literature of 1883–1909,” University
of Michigan Papers in Women’s Studies 2
(2) (1976): 133–58. Beginning with Olive
Schreiner’s The Story of an African Farm
(1883) and concluding with Ann Veronica
by H. G. Wells (1909), Scanlon provided
analysis of the chronological progression of
New Woman characteristics in the fictional
protagonists of the era he identified. His
thesis is that from 1883 to 1909 a gradual
integration of the Victorian “Ideal” woman
took place: Lyndall of The Story of an African
Farm is militant and aggressive (essentially
more male), whereas Ann Veronica, definitely
an independent creature, exhibits feminine
traits, thus signifying a more realistic and
acceptable New Woman.
694. Schaffer, Talia. “‘Nothing But
Foolscap and Ink’: Inventing the New
Woman.” The New Woman in Fiction and in
Fact. Ed. Angelique Richardson and Chris
Willis. London: Palgrave/Macmillan, 2001.
Here Schaffer challenged other scholars in
their interpretations of Sarah Grand and
Ouida’s famous March and May articles in
North American Review (1894). Focusing
more on Ouida than on Grand, she theo-
rized that Ouida constructed a radically
feminist persona for the New Woman so
that her views and lifestyle might be seen
in a more conservative light. Further, she
argued that though scholars have polarized
Grand and Ouida, their views on women’s
issues were not so far afield and that both
used the press to construct a New Woman
that suited their purposes. The quote in the
title comes from a line in a jingle published
in Punch (26 May 1894).
695. Scharf, Lois, and Joan M. Jensen,
eds. Decades of Discontent: The Women’s
Movement, 1920–1940. Westport, Connecti-
158 Secondary Works (1962–2008)
cut/London: Greenwood, 1983. In this
compilation, two articles — chapter 1, “The
New Woman: Changing Views of Woman
in the 1920s” by Estelle B. Freedman, and
chapter 5, “The Projection of a New Wom-
anhood: The Movie Moderns in the 1920s”
by Mary P. Ryan, are especially pertinent to
the New Woman. See annotations under
the name of the respective authors.
696. Schneider, Dorothy, and Carl J.
Schneider. American Women in the Progres-
sive Era, 1900–1920. New York: Facts on
File, 1993. A division of chapter 5 is titled
“Sex and the New Woman” though refer-
ences to the New Woman occur throughout
the text. The claim (p. 16) that the New
Woman was “quintessentially American” is
in error.
697. Schoemperlen, Diane. Vital Signs:
New Woman Writers in Canada. Ottawa,
Ontario, Canada: Oberon Press, 1998.
698. Scott, Ann Firor. “The ‘New
Woman’ in the New South.” The South
Atlantic Quarterly 56 (Autumn 1962): 473–
83. Southern women’s experiences were
tempered by the ideas and influence of
their northern sisters, causing them to
reassess traditionally proscribed gender
roles. The southern New Woman tended to
be wealthy and educated, and Scott asserted
that in the Reconstruction Era increased
travel opportunities provided access to
new places and new ideas, and women so
responded to the “Women’s Movement.”
Their membership in respectable groups
such as missionary societies, the Woman’s
Christian Temperance Union (WCTU),
women’s clubs, and village improvement
societies, made their activities socially ac-
ceptable.
699. ____. “What, Then, Is the Amer-
ican: This ‘New Woman?’” Journal of Amer-
ican History 65 (December 1978): 679–705.
This is an article about Emma Willard
(1787–1870), best known for starting the
Troy (New York) Female Seminary in 1821.
Secondary Works (1962–2008)
The school became one of the most famous
in the United States due to Willard’s insis-
tence that the curriculum mirror that of
men’s institutions, where mathematics and
sciences were taught.
700. Seaton, Esta Klein. “The Chang-
ing Image of the American Woman in a
Mass-Circulation Periodical: The Ladies’
Home Journal, 1890–1919.” Ph.D. diss.,
University of Minnesota: 1967. In the first
section, titled “The New Woman,” of chap-
ter 8, titled “Continuity, Challenge, and
Change: 1914–1919,” Seaton outlined The
Ladies’ Home Journal’s previous anti–New
Woman stance and how it changed some-
what with the September 1914 issue. She
then advocated the “busy woman” and the
more relaxed attitudes toward the New
Woman, still extolling the advantages of the
woman at home.
701. Séllei, Nóra. “A Hungarian New
Woman Writer and a Hybrid Autobio-
graphical Subject: Margit Kaffka’s ‘Lyrical
Notes of a Year.’” New Woman Hybridities.
Ed. Ann Heilmann and Margaret Beetham.
London/New York: Routledge, 2004. Es-
sayist Séllei located the hybridity between
writer Margit Kaffka and her autobiograph-
ical work. The work Séllei analyzed is Kaff-
ka’s “Lyrical Notes of a Year,” dealing with
the early years of World War I and Kaffka’s
early marriage. Though Séllei identified
Kaffka as a “New Woman writer,” few New
Woman characteristics are evident in either
her life or in that of her female protagonist.
702. Senf, Carol A. “Dracula: Bram
Stoker’s Response to the New Woman.”
Victorian Studies 26 (1982): 33–49. This
discussion about New Woman issues in
Dracula treats Stoker as ambivalent toward
the New Woman — he believes in gender
equality but not in regard to sex, choosing
the traditional career of wife and mother
for his heroines.
703. Shapiro, Susan C. The Mannish
New Woman: Punch and Its Precursors.”
159 700–705
The Review of English Studies, New Series
42 (November 1991): 510–22. As the title
suggests, the author juxtaposed imagery and
prose regarding the New Woman of the
1890s (especially that found in Punch) with
liberated women of previous eras. Shapiro
maintained that the New Woman was part
of the scene at least from the medieval era
as manuscript illustrations depict athletic
women on their borders. Although the au-
thor’s focus on sports and sports-related
clothing, no illustrations are included.
704. Sharp, Ingrid. “Riding the Tiger:
Ambivalent Representations of the New
Woman in the Periodicals of the Weimar
Republic.” New Woman Hybridities: Femi-
ninity, Feminism, and International Con-
sumer Culture, 1880–1930. Ed. Ann Heil-
mann and Margaret Beetham. London/
New York: Routledge, 2003. This essay dis-
cusses the manner in which women were
depicted both in literature and in images in
Germany during the era known as the
Weimar Republic (1919–33). Sharp inves-
tigated the manner in which the controver-
sial New Woman was marketed differently
in three of Berlin’s popular periodicals: Die
Dame (Lady), Berliner Illustrierte Zeitung
(Berlin Illustrated Newspaper or BIZ), and
UHU. Sharp also discussed the manner in
which each journal responded to the New
Woman protagonist in Vicki Baum’s seri-
alized novel, Stud. Chem. Helene Willfüer.
705. Shen, Ruihua. “New Woman,
New Fiction: Autobiographical Fictions
by Twentieth-Century Chinese Women
Writers.” Ph.D. diss., Eugene: University
of Oregon, 2003. In the first half of the
twentieth century, Chinese women writers
adopted autobiographical fictional writing
so that their voices could be heard. This dis-
sertation examines these works called “au-
thentic literature” by the authors and places
it within the context of the New Woman
movement. Shen theorized that their liter-
ature is not any more coherent than the
image of the New Woman and that gener-
706–712
ally it conflicts with male portrayals of the
modern Chinese female.
706. Sherrard-Johnson, Charlene. Por-
traits of the New Negro Woman: Visual and
Literary Culture in the Harlem Renaissance.
New Brunswick, New Jersey/London: Rut-
gers University Press, 2007. Chapter 2,
“Jessie Fauset’s New Negro Woman Artist
and the Passing Market” is most pertinent
to New Woman study. Fauset’s protagonist
in Plum Bun, Angela Murray, is light-
skinned and can pass for white. She is a
New Woman pursuing a career as a painter.
She encounters problems related to gender,
class, and race during the 1920s/30s in New
York’s Fourteenth Street artistic milieu. This
works also relates Fauset’s work to that of
her contemporaries and to issues of the con-
sumerism of the era. Into this investigation
of other artists in the area and to the
Harlem Renaissance, the author has woven
real-life incidents and experiences into
her analysis of Fauset’s works. Although
Sherrard-Johnson did not imply that
Fauset’s stories are autobiographical, she re-
lated incidents from the lives of African-
American artists that illustrate Fauset’s
knowledge of contemporary events.
707. Shor, Francis Robert. Utopianism
and Radicalism in a Reforming America,
1888–1918. Westport, Connecticut: Green-
wood, 1997. Chapter 2, “The ‘New Woman’
in Turn-of-the Century Utopian Fiction:
Bellamy’s Equality and Gilman’s ‘A Woman’s
Utopia,’” relates specifically to the title text.
Shor juxtaposed Bellamy’s and Gilman’s
feminist writings and found them lacking in
“equality,” especially as they relate to gen-
der, race, and class. Though both intellec-
tualized gender equality, motherhood and
family life remained paramount for them.
708. Showalter, Elaine. “Feminists
under Fire: Images of the New Woman
from the Nineties to the 1990s.” Times Lit-
erary Supplement ( June 25, 1993): 14–15.
This short piece tells how the New Woman
160 Secondary Works (1962–2008)
was, and continues to be, the butt of
ridicule and misogynist insecurity.
709. ____. Sexual Anarchy: Gender and
Culture at the Fin de Siècle, New York: Pen-
guin, 1991. References to the New Woman
are made throughout the book, but chapter
3, “New Women,” is devoted to an explo-
ration of gender relations. Showalter exam-
ined these relations from the perspective of
the socialist underpinnings of the women,
particularly through in the works of Olive
Schreiner and Eleanor Marx.
710. Showalter, Elaine, ed. Daughters
of Decadence: Women Writers of the Fin de
Siècle. London: Virago, 1993. This collection
of eighteen short stories written by women
from 1880 to 1918 takes a feminist bent. The
authors range from famous women such
as Charlotte Perkins Gilman to the little
known Ada Leverson and Vernon Lee.
Showalter’s introduction provides histori-
cal context for the stories.
711. Silverman, Debra. “The ‘New
Woman,’ Feminism and the Decorative
Ants in Fin de Siècle France.” Eroticism and
the Body Politic. Ed. Lynn Hunt. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991. Fe-
male images that proliferated at French art
exhibitions turned from femme fatale to
femme féconde as the nineteenth century
moved into the twentieth. Silverman posited
that this conservative backlash was overre-
action to concern about the emergence of
the femme nouvelle (New Woman). Because
women’s sphere was linked historically with
the interior of the home and its associative
decorative arts in France, the male estab-
lishment of the Central Union of the Dec-
orative Arts assigned women a greater role
in developing their own exhibition (1895)
and in conceiving the art nouveau style.
This, according to Silverman was done not
out of generosity but of fear of the New
Woman.
712. Simpson, Anne B. “Architects of
the Erotic: H. G. Wells’s ‘New Woman.’”
Secondary Works (1962–2008) 161 713–715

Seeing Double: Revisioning Edwardian and
Modernist Literature. Ed. Darola M. Kaplan
and Anne B. Simpson. New York: St. Mar-
tin’s, 1996. In this chapter Simpson analyzes
the protagonists in Wells’s Edwardian nov-
els Ann Veronica (1909) and The Wife of Sir
Isaac Harman (1914). Though Simpson
credits Wells for having made an attempt
to infuse both Ann Veronica and Lady Ellen
Harman with a semblance of independ-
ence, both women abandon New Woman-
hood for tradition. Wells also wrote two
tracts indicating empathy for the “Woman
Question,” but in the novels he was unable
to create female characters who attained
equality, likely reflecting his reticence to-
wards modernity.
713. Singh, Uma. New Woman and
Mass Media. Jaipur, India: Surabhi, 2002.
714. Slaybaugh, Douglas. “From New
Womanhood to Companionate Marriage in
the Progressive Era: The Case of Frances
Cochran MacDaniels.” Ohio History 111:
183–97. From every indication, Frances
Cochran (the great-granddaughter of Charles
Grandison Finney) would become a New
Woman in the area of social work after her
graduation from Oberlin College in 1912.
Her plans went awry, however, and she
married a former classmate and settled into
marriage and domestic life. In this article.
Slaybaugh investigated the brief period
when these changes took place in Cochran’s
life.
715. Smith, Catherine Munn. “Marion
Moodie: From Proper Lady to New
Woman.” Alberta History 49 (Winter 2001):
9–15. This brief biographical sketch depicts

Crusade against the New Woman. It is apparent that this Cincinnati assembly-
man was dead set against the New Women depicted in active poses around his
cameo portrait. Cincinnati Enquirer, 27 December 1896.
716–722
how the Canadian nurse Marion Moodie
transformed herself from ideal woman to
New Woman as she went from caring for
the family at home to caring for people in
rural communities to becoming a nurse in
the Canadian Army Medical Corps during
World War I.
716. Smith, Greg M. “Silencing the
New Woman: Ethnic and Social Mobility in
the Melodramas of Norma Talmadge.”
Journal of Film and Video 48 (Fall 1996):
3–16. The silent film star Norma Talmadge
was capable of portraying women of dis-
parate ethnic identities, Smith wrote,
through her use of costume. Talmadge
crossed class barriers in her portrayal of
New Women who were upwardly mobile,
thus transcending their humble beginnings.
Her characters found success in careers
and turned later to the traditional roles of
wives and mothers, choosing mates who
provided a secure future. This is the path
of the second-generation New Woman, and
though Smith did not make the distinction,
he painted a representative portrait.
717. Smith, Joan, ed. Femmes de Siécle
from the 90s: Women Writing at the End of
Two Centuries. London: Chatto and Win-
dus, 1992. This is a collection of short sto-
ries from the ends of two centuries — the
nineteenth and the twentieth. About half
of the late Victorian-era stories were pub-
lished in The Yellow Book. The reader may
recognize some of them: Ella D’Arcy, Ada
Leverson, Charlotte Mew, Olive Schreiner,
Evelyn Sharp, Netta Syrett (Christina Mid-
dleton), and Edith Wharton.
718. Smith, Sherri Catherine. “Civic
Fantasy: New Women Fiction, Citizenship,
and the Limits of the Aesthetic.” Ph.D.
diss. Indiana University, 2000. In chapters
1 and 2 of this dissertation Smith used the
novels of Mona Caird, Sarah Grand, Mrs.
Everard Cotes, and Iota to explore the ten-
sion between politics and what she referred
to as “aesthetic perversion.” Chapters 3 and
162 Secondary Works (1962–2008)
4 investigate themes related to childhood,
women’s friendship, and cross-dressing in
works by George Egerton, Ménie Muriel
Dowie, Emma Frances Brooke, and Mary
Cholmodeley, which Smith suggests showed
greater potential for wishful thinking than
political change.
719. Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll. “Dis-
courses of Sexuality and Subjectivity: The
New Woman 1870–1936.” Hidden From
History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past.
Ed. Martin Duberman, Martha Vicinus.
and George Chauncey Jr. Harmondsworth,
England: Penguin, 1991. Rhetoric con-
structed by male sexologists at the start of the
twentieth century controlled the responses of
the first generation of New Women, who
had no sexual language with which to re-
tort and thus enraged their younger sisters.
These New Women of the World War I era
and beyond used the sexologists’ discourse
to combat gender distinctions, thereby in-
verting “the very process of bourgeois myth
formation.” At the end are literary exam-
ples of how New Woman discourse was for-
mulated and how it challenged the men’s
language.
720. ____. Disorderly Conduct: Visions
of Gender in Victorian America. New
York: Knopf, 1985. In this examination of
education and the New Woman, Smith-
Rosenberg asserted that the New Woman
originated as a “literary phrase popularized
by Henry James” but then stated that James
was referring to American women in Eu-
rope. The last chapter, “The New Woman
as Androgyne: Social Disorder and Gender
Crisis, 1870–1936” considers issues of sex.
721. ____. “The New Woman and the
New History.” Feminist Studies 3 (Fall 1975):
185–98. In this article Smith-Rosenberg
suggested new methodologies for studying
the history of women, heretofore the silent
majority.
722. Sochen, June. The New Woman:
Feminism in Greenwich Village, 1910–1920.
Secondary Works (1962–2008)
New York: Quadrangle, 1972. This book
discusses literary figures in Greenwich Vil-
lage — New Women and their men. The
second-wave New Women featured are
Crystal Eastman, Henrietta Rodman, Ida
Rauh, Neith Boyce, and Susan Glaspell.
723. Sokolsky, Anne Elizabeth. “Not
Just a New Woman Writer: The Political
Awakenings in Tamura Toshiko’s Fiction
from 1936 to 1938.” Ph.D. diss., University
of California, Berkeley, 2003. Sokolsky
maintained that Toshiko is the most impor-
tant Japanese New Woman writer of the late
Meiji (1968–1912) and the Taishô (1912–
1926) eras. After having lived in North
America for eighteen years she returned to
Japan from 1926 to 1938, when Japan was
under military rule. Her books relate the
racism she and others experienced while
abroad and the alienation she felt as a
“returnee.” Her works predate the post-
colonial theories of better-known male
scholar/authors such as Edward Said, Homi
Bhabha, and Trinh T. Minh-ha. Sokolsky
noted the manner in which Toshiko was
able to traverse East and West, referring to
this as “fluid marginality.”
724. Solomon, Alisa. Re-dressing the
Canon: Essays on Theatre and Gender. Lon-
don/New York: Routledge, 1997. Chapter 2,
“The New Drama and the New Woman:
Reconstructing Ibsen’s Realism,” is of spe-
cial interest. Here the author argued for a re-
alistic and feminist interpretation of Ibsen’s
A Doll House and Hedda Gabler. Solomon
juxtaposed contemporary criticism with re-
cent scholarship to support her argument
ending with three productions of the late
twentieth century (1981 and two in 1991)
that she believed show the female protago-
nists in the manner Ibsen intended.
725. Sorel, Nancy Caldwell. The Women
Who Wrote the War. New York: Arcade,
1999. In the very short chapter 19 are pro-
vided biographical sketches of several
women who became foreign correspondents
163 723–727
at the end of World War II. Although all of
them were employed by American newspa-
pers/magazines, Iris Carpenter of the Boston
Globe was British. The others were Virginia
Irwin of the Saint Louis Post-Dispatch, Lee
Carson of INS (International News Ser-
vice), Marjorie “Dot” Avery of the Detroit
Free Press, Catherine Coyne of the Boston
Herald, Helen Kirkpatrick of the Chicago
Daily News, and Martha Gellhorn (wife of
Ernest Hemingway) of Collier’s.
726. Spires, Robert C. “New Art, New
Woman, Old Constructs: Gomez de la
Serna, Pedro Salinas, and Vanguard Fic-
tion.” Modern Language Notes 115 (March
2000): 205–23. Although written in En-
glish, this theoretical discussion of Gómez’s
El Novelista and Salinas’s Vispera del Gozo
includes pertinent passages in Spanish. The
novels were written in reaction to 1920s and
’30s modernism, and Spires refuted the fe-
male protagonists representation the New
Woman. He also concluded that although
the protagonists’ were more objectified than
liberated, they paved the way for more pos-
itive feminist representations later in the
century.
727. Spring, Joel H. Images of American
Life: A History of Ideological Management in
Schools, Movies, Radio, and Television. Al-
bany: State University of New York Press,
1992. In chapter 4, “Controlling Sexuality:
Youth Culture, The New Woman, and
Movies in the 1920s,” Spring investigated
the sexuality of youth in the 1920s. Educa-
tors and sexologists agreed then that the
emancipated woman, movies, and youth
culture all contributed to a loosening of sex-
ual mores. People believed the solution was
to direct young men’s sexual energy into so-
cially acceptable and constructive activities
such as athletics, clubs, student govern-
ment, and other extracurricular activities
and that young women’s sexual urge was
confined to reproduction. Both were ad-
monished to engage in sexual activity only
within the sanctity of marriage.
728–730 164 Secondary Works (1962–2008)

728. Stein, Joseph. “The New Woman
and the Decadent Dandy.” Dalhousie Re-
view 5 (1975): 54–62. In this short article
Stein situated the Regency Dandy and the
New Woman of the 1890s primarily within
the context of Max Beerbohm’s literary
works: Works and More, Yet Again, and
Zuleika Dobson.
729. Stephens, Judith L. “Why Marry?:
The ‘New Woman’ of 1918.” The Theatre
Journal 34 (May 1982): 183–96. Jesse Lynch
Williams’s three-act play Why Marry? won
the first Pulitzer Prize for the genre. In this
essay, Stephens analyzed the New Woman
protagonist according to four characteris-
tics that identified as those “assigned to
women … as standards for comparison.”
Stephens lamented the identification of the
female protagonists in the novels of five
major Western authors by their first names
only while she referred to the protagonist
of Why Marry? only as “Helen.”
730. Stetz, Margaret Diane. British
Women’s Comic Fiction, 1890–1990: Not
Drowning, but Laughing. Burlington, Ver-
mont: Ashgate, 2001. In chapter 1, “The
Laugh of the Medusa,” Stetz dealt with the
difficulty the New Woman writers of the
1890s had in working with humor in their
short stories and novels. Literally a double-
sided sword, feminist humor could be inter-
preted in two ways — simply as defensive,
countering men’s vitriolic humor, or as re-
inforcing all that was negative about the
New Woman. Little about this long chap-
ter (forty-nine pages) seems humorous
(Stetz was defensive at times), but she raised
issues that many New Women scholars have
ignored and investigated literature that oth-
ers did qualify as “New Woman.”

These New Women await being served tea, but the man of the house indicates
his displeasure with their liberated views by deciding to have his tea with the
servants who, he indicates, are more feminine. Punch, or the London Charivari,
15 June 1895.
Secondary Works (1962–2008)
731. ____. “Keynotes: A New Woman,
Her Publisher and Her Material Studies.”
Studies in the Literary Imagination 30
(Spring 1997): 89–105. This is a long but
fascinating tale of a first-edition copy
of Keynotes, a novel by George Egerton
(Mary Chavelita Dunne Bright). Egerton
gave the hand-inscribed book to her pub-
lisher, John Lane, in March 1895. Because
it was a presentation copy, and perhaps be-
cause she did not care for the original cover,
the author made a satin embroidered cover
especially for Lane. Thus, Stetz argued,
Egerton conflated the meaning of brain-
work and handiwork. The book turned up
at a Christie’s auction in 1988, and Stetz
carefully researched for its earlier where-
abouts.
732. ____. “The Laugh of the New
Woman.” The Victorian Comic Spirit: New
Perspectives. Ed. Jennifer A. Wagner-Lawlor.
Aldershot, GB, Brookfield, U.S.A., Singa-
pore, and Sydney: Ashgate, 2000. Chapter
12 examines the role of laughter/humor in
mid-to-late nineteenth-century literature.
It reveals how laughter was used to con-
struct unequal gender relations; though
women may have been able to make tempo-
rary strides by subjugating male humor, its
long-term effects were not successful. The
authors investigated are Ella Hepworth
Dixon, Edith Nesbit, Alice Meynell, Laura
Marholm Hansson, and George Egerton
(Mary Chavelita Dunne).
733. ____. “Odd Woman, Half
Woman, Superfluous Woman: What was
the New Woman?” Iris 11 (1984): 20–21.
The first page is a summary defining the
New Woman of the late nineteenth century.
The second contains two New Woman car-
toons.
734. Stevens, Sarah E. “Fuguring
Modernity: The New Woman and the
Modern Girl in Republican China.” NWSA
Journal 15 (Fall 2003): 82–102. Stevens fo-
cused on Chinese Women in fiction during
165 731–737
the Republican era in China (1911–1949).
She divided women into the two groups ref-
erenced in the title: the New Woman and
the Modern Girl. Her thesis was that the
New Woman was a symbol for modernity in
China, whereas the Modern Girl repre-
sented anxieties regarding China’s attempt
to become a modern nation. The term New
Woman was likely first used in China by
Hushi, an intellectual of the May 4 upris-
ing after World War I. Stevens character-
ized the two types with similar visual traits,
New Woman more politically astute and the
Modern Girl as a femme fatale with an ad-
vanced libido. According to Stevens, many
people, including some scholars, did not
distinguish between them.
735. Stott, Annette. “Prairie Madon-
nas and Pioneer Women: Images of Emi-
grant Women in the Art of the Old West.”
Prospects: An Annual of American Cultural
Studies 21 (1996): 299–325. Stott divided
images of women and children in the
American West into two groups. Those cre-
ated between 1840 and 1890 she called
“Prairie Madonnas” and likened to the Ideal
Woman. Those created after 1890 she called
“Pioneer Women,” likening them to the
New Woman of the era. She admitted that
they and their earlier sisters were independ-
ent types.
736. Stubbs, Patricia. Women and Fic-
tion: Feminism and the Novel, 1880–1920.
London: Methuen, 1981. The only mention
in this work of the New Woman is a dis-
cussion of Eliza Lynn Linton’s antifeminist
novel The New Woman in Haste and at
Leisure (1895).
737. Studlar, Gaylyn. “Out-Salomeing
Salome: Dance, the New Woman and Fan
Magazine Orientalism.” Michigan Quarterly
Review 34 (Fall 1995): 487–510. This essay
discusses the popularity of Orientalism in
Hollywood films and in dance from 1916 to
1926. The New Woman’s desire for freedom
was exemplified in the American concert
738–744
dance. This was a place where the “em-
blematic value of the Orient as a locus of
release from repression could be safely acted
out with pagan abandon.”
738. Sutton, Katie. “Female Masculin-
ity in Weimar Cinema.” Traffic 4 ( January
2004): 27–48. During the interwar era in
Weimar Germany, three films that posed
the New Woman in terms of her new sex-
uality were produced in three consecutive
years: Pandora’s Box (Die Büchse der Par-
dora) directed by Georg Wilhelm Pabst,
1929, Morroco (Marokko) directed by Josef
von Sternberg, 1930, and Girls in Uniform
(Mädchen in Uniform) directed by Leontine
Sagan, 1931. This paper examines the role
of the New Woman in the films through
the psychoanalytic theory of previous schol-
arship, while proposing a new interpreta-
tion using queer film criticism.
739. “Symposium on The New
Woman.” Current History 27 (1927): 1–48.
The editors made it clear in the preface that
they had no opinion on the “controversy.”
The proceedings include the following
papers:
• Carrie Chapman Catt. “Woman
Suffrage Only an Episode in Age-Old
Movement,” 1–6
• Charlotte Perkins Gilman. “Wom-
an’s Achievements Since the Franchise,”
7–14
• Leta S. Hollingsworth. “The New
Woman in the Making,” 15–20
• Anthony M. Ludovici. “Woman’s
Encroachment on Man’s Domain,” 21–
25
• Martha Bensley Bruère. “The High-
way to Woman’s Happiness,” 26–29
• Hugh L. McMenamin. “Evils of
Woman’s Revolt against the Old Stan-
dards,” 30–32
• Joseph Collins. “Woman’s Moral-
ity in Transition,” 33–40
166 Secondary Works (1962–2008)
• Magdaleine Marx. “Frenchwomen’s
Lack of Political Progress,” 41–48.
740. Tanner, Ailsa. Bessie MacNicol:
New Woman. Edinburgh: The author, 1998.
This biography of the late nineteenth-
century Glasgow artist Bessie MacNicol in-
cludes material on the art scene in Glasgow
during the era. MacNicol studied briefly in
Paris and was influenced by the Impression-
ists. She exhibited many places in Scotland,
England, on the Continent, and in the
United States. Her works are primarily por-
traits, many among the collections of mu-
seums including the National Gallery of
Scotland. Since MacNicol’s career was
largely undocumented and she died in 1904
at age thirty-four, Tanner relied on extant
letters and newspaper reports for much of
her information. The book is highly illus-
trated with fine-quality color reproduc-
tions.
741. Terborg-Penn, Rosalyn. “Discon-
tented Black Feminists: Prelude and Post-
script to the Passage of the Nineteenth
Amendment.” Decades of Discontent: The
Women’s Movement, 1920–1940. Ed. Joan
and Lila Scharf. Westport, Connecticut:
Greenwood Press, 1983.
742. ____. “Discrimination against
African-American Women in the Women’s
Movement.” Afro-American Woman: Strug-
gles and Images. Ed. Sharon Harley and
Rosalyn Terborg-Penn. Port Washington,
New York: Kennikat, 1987.
743. Thébaud, Françoise. A History of
Women in the West: Toward a Cultural Iden-
tity in the Twentieth Century. Cambridge,
Massachusetts/London: Belknap, 1994. In
this collection of essays several authors deal
briefly with New Women of Russia, France,
Italy, Great Britain, and Germany.
744. Thomas, Mary Martha. The New
Woman in Alabama: Social Reform and Suf-
frage, 1890–1920. Birmingham: University
of Alabama Press, 1992. In this work, the
Secondary Works (1962–2008) 167
author elaborated on article above and cel-
ebrated Alabama women who were hereto-
fore overlooked. The chapter on Black
Women’s Clubs is an important contribu-
tion. A list of unpublished manuscripts in
the back of the book is a find for anyone
examining southern women.
745. ____. “The ‘New Woman’ in Al-
abama, 1890 to 1920.” Alabama Review 43
( July 1990), 163–80. Thomas juxtaposed
the activities of white women with those of
black women throughout the text, but all
the pictures she chose are of white women.
Both white and black women were of the
middle class, though the black women
worked outside of home and the white
women for the most part did not. Thomas
posited that the women went from domes-
tic feminism to municipal housekeeping.
African Americans supported suffrage ear-
lier than their white sisters, who approached
the issue with trepidation.
746. Thomas, Sue. “Elizabeth Robins,
the ‘New Woman’ Novelist, and the Writ-
ing of Literary Histories of the 1890s.” Fem-
inist Forerunners: New Womanism and Fem-
inism in the Early Twentieth Century. Ed.
Ann Heilmann. London/Sydney/Chicago:
Pandora, 2003. This paper, presented at a
July 2000 conference at Manchester Metro-
politan University, is chapter 9 of the pro-
ceedings. Thomas analyzed both contem-
porary and recent criticism of Robins’s
works, particularly her novel The Open
Question: A Tale of Two Temperaments
(1898) and her collection of short stories.
Thomas questioned earlier interpretations
of Robins’s works and offered new insight
into the actress/author/business woman.
747. Thompson, Doreen Helen. “Pro-
priety and Passion: Images of the New
Woman on the London Stage in the 1890s.”
Ph.D. diss., University of Victoria, 1992.
This dissertation is a broad overview of the
position of women in the English theater
of the late nineteenth century. Although
745–751
conservative playwrights maintained the
status quo in regard to opportunities for
women, the New Woman emerged in many
productions challenging outdated attitudes.
In chapter 7, Thompson explored drama
that attempts to reconcile the New Woman
with the Old in posing liberated marriages.
748. Tichi, Cecelia. “Women Writers
and the New Woman.” Columbia Literary
History of the United States. Ed. Emory El-
liott, Martha Banta, Terence Martin, et al.
New York: Columbia University Press,
1987. This is an overview of American New
Woman fiction written by women from the
1880s to the 1930s. Tiche concentrated on
the authors Sarah Orne Jewett, Margaret
Deland, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Mary
Wilkins Freeman, Ellen Glasgow, Kate
Chopin, Willa Cather, Edith Wharton,
Gertrude Stein, and their works.
749. Todd, Ellen Wiley. “Art, the ‘New
Woman’ and Consumer Culture: Kenneth
Hayes Miller and Reginald Marsh on Four-
teenth Street, 1920–1940.” Gender and
American History since 1890. Ed. Barbara
Melosh. London/New York: Routledge,
1993. The introduction to chapter 6 sets the
stage for Todd’s juxtaposition of the New
Woman that Miller depicts in popular im-
agery with Marsh’s shopping girls.
750. ____. The “New Woman” Revised:
Painting and Gender Politics on Fourteenth
Street. Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1993. The entire book provides schol-
arship regarding images of New Women of
the so-called Fourteenth Street School in
the 1910s, ’20s, and ’30s in the United
States.
751. Tomlinson, Susan. “Vision to Vi-
sionary: The New Negro Woman as Cul-
tural Worker in Jessie Redmon Fauset’s
Plum Bun.” Legacy 19 (2002), 90–97. This
analysis of Plum Bun provides insight into
Fauset’s construction of her protagonist, the
African-American artist Angela Murray, as
well as into Murray’s personal journey to
752–755
self-realization. Tomlinson discussed Mur-
ray as an outsider in Union Square’s artis-
tic milieu while comparing the white artists
who were a part of the so-called Fourteenth
Street School. Murray’s introduction to new
womanhood was through an artist-friend,
Paulette. Tomlinson acknowledged Mur-
ray’s struggle with race and gender within
the context of both the New Woman and
New Negro movements of the 1920s.
752. Trimberger, Ellen Kay. “The New
Woman and the New Sexuality: Conflict
and Contradiction in the Writings and
Lives of Mabel Dodge and Neith Boyce.”
1915, the Cultural Moment: The New Poli-
tics, the New Woman, the New Psycholog y,
the New Art and the New Theatre in Amer-
ica. Ed. Adele Heller and Lois Rudnick.
New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers Uni-
versity Press, 1991. Trimberger’s essay cen-
ters on Dodge and Boyce, New Women of
Greenwich Village in the early twentieth
century. She examined their lives and works
in a detailed comparison in the areas of sex-
uality, love, and intimacy. She also investi-
gated the childishness of the men with
whom both Dodge and Boyce associated.
753. Tusan, Michelle Elizabeth. “In-
venting the New Woman: Print Culture and
Identity Politics during the Fin-de-siècle.”
Victorian Periodicals Review 31 (1988):
169–82. This article distinguishes between
the fictional and the feminist New Woman
and between images of the New Woman
presented by the mainstream and the fem-
inist press. The thesis is that the mainstream
press reacted to the phenomenon whereas
the feminist press acted. Feminist periodi-
cals such as Shafts, The Women’s Herald (first
to use the term New Woman with initial
caps), The Woman’s Gazette, and The
Woman’s Signal were British journals posit-
ing the New Woman as a liberated home-
body. Published by feminists, the journals
nevertheless did not want to present the
New Woman as a type making a clean break
168 Secondary Works (1962–2008)
with her foremothers. The journals and the
British New Woman were all but phased
out, according to Tusan, after the defeat of
the 1897 bill for female enfranchisement
and the image of the suffragette took her
place.
754. Tyrer, Pat. “‘A Bird Alive in a
Snake’s Body’: The New Woman of Evelyn
Scott’s The Narrow House.” Southern Liter-
ary Journal 38 (Fall 2005), 43–61. Novelist
Evelyn Scott positioned The Narrow House
in the early 1920s, a time of rapid change
in the United States. Tyrer pointed to Scott
as a pioneer of modernism in tackling the
hardships of women breaking from the
confines of traditionalism. There is a ten-
sion between the opportunities of the mod-
ern era and women’s inability to become
independent. All women in the novel are
confined by their inability to transcend the
strictures society has put on them, and the
darkness and narrowness of the house
confines each in a different way. Although
Tyrer characterized Winnie (the daughter-
in-law) as a New Woman and Alice (the
adult daughter) spoke the phrase in the title
of the article and by association is believed
to be one, neither appears representative of
this liberated female. Tyrer made many
comparisons with literature of the era by
other female authors and related incidents
in the novel that she believed were auto-
biographical.
755. Ullman, Sharon. “The ‘Self-Made
Man’: Male Impersonation and the New
Woman.” Passing: Identity and Interpreta-
tion in Sexuality, Race and Religion. Ed.
Maria Carla Sánchez and Linda Schloss-
berg. New York: New York University
Press, 2001. Ullman’s chapter 7 deals with
gender anxiety in the era of woman suffrage
and the New Woman played out in vaude-
villian acts of male impersonation. In the
early twentieth century, traditional gender
roles were called into question in conjunc-
tion with men’s insecurities regarding the
Secondary Works (1962–2008)
emergence of the New Woman. Ullman
discussed several women who impersonated
men, including the famous English actress
Vesta Tilley.
756. Vedder, Catherine Mary. “New
Woman, Old Science: Readings in Late
Victorian Fiction.” Ph.D. diss., Cornell
University, 1993. Vedder examined New
Woman novels by George Meredith, Grant
Allen, Thomas Hardy, and Olive Schreiner
within the context of Darwin’s theories of
evolution.
757. Vicinus, Martha. “Rediscovering
the ‘New Woman’ of the 1890s: The Sto-
ries of ‘George Egerton.’” Feminist Re-
Visions: What Has Been and Might Be. Ed.
Vivian Patraka and Louise A. Tilly. Ann
Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1983,
12–25. The essays in this book celebrate the
tenth anniversary of the inauguration of the
Woman’s Studies program at the University
of Michigan. Vicinius’s essay is the first of
the collection and obviously relates to the
short story writer George Egerton (Mary
Chavelita Dunne Bright, 1859–1945). Vici-
nus has interwoven the themes in Egerton’s
stories (published as Keynotes and Discords)
through the lens of biography. In her stories,
Egerton focused on women’s interest in and
awareness of sexuality and the ramifications
that issue, in some ways reflecting her own
tumultuous relationships with men.
758. Von Ankum, Katharina. “Mater-
ial Girls — Consumer Culture and the
‘New-Woman’ in Anita Loos’s Gentlemen
Prefer Blondes and Irmgard Keun’s Das Kun-
stseidene Mädchen.” Colloquia Germanica
27 (1994), 159–72. The author juxtaposed
the German novel Das Kunstseidene Mäd-
chen (1932) with its American prototype,
Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1925). The pro-
tagonists in the two novels are similar in
some ways and different in others, though
Von Ankum, using Frame’s typography,
characterized them both as “The Girl.” This
is an interesting sociocultural study of the
169 756–762
economic situation of the two countries and
how it influenced post–World War I femi-
nism. In light of Von Ankum’s declaration
of their New Women status, the manner in
which both Loos’s and Keun’s protagonists
depend on men would make some shud-
der.
759. ____. “Motherhood and the ‘New
Woman’: Vicki Baum’s Stud. Chem. Helene
Willfüer and Irmgard Keun’s Gilgi — Eine
von Uns.” Women in German Yearbook:
Feminist Studies in German Literature and
Culture 11 (1995), 171–88. Using the protag-
onists of Baum and Keun’s novels as reflec-
tive of postwar Weimar’s desire for an anti-
dote to the New Woman, von Ankum
proposed the “New Mother.” This female is
a professional as well as a single mother.
Both Helene Willfüer and Gilgi (actually
Gisela) are young women searching for in-
dependence, which, though beset by un-
wanted motherhood, each pursues while
raising her child.
760. Von Papen, Manuela. “Opportu-
nities and Limitations: The New Woman
in Third Reich Cinema.” Women’s History
Review 8 (1999): 693–724. This article pro-
vides a reassessment of women’s roles in
Third Reich Germany through investiga-
tion of the cinema of the era. Although
preparations for and the final enactment of
war provided women with opportunities
for self-determination and independence,
government control of movie-making en-
sured that these roles were seen as sub-
servient to the nation and a temporary de-
tour to women’s ultimate vocations as wives
and mothers.
761. Wachter, Phyllis E. “Surname
Arnold; Occupation: Spinster; Avocation:
New Victorian Woman.” Ph.D. diss., Tem-
ple University Press, 1984.
762. Waelti-Walters, Jennifer. “‘New
Women’ in the Novels of Belle Epoque
France.” History of European Ideas 8 (1987):
537–48. In the introduction, Waelti-
763–768
Walters identified five French novelists of
the early twentieth century whom she char-
acterized as dealing with New Woman
themes. The focus of her discussion, how-
ever, is on only two authors—Louise-Marie
Compain and Colette Yver — and their re-
spective novels, L’Un vers l’autre (One to-
wards the Other) and Les Cervelines (The
Brainy Women), both published in 1903.
The New Women protagonists are
identified and their issues are related in
terms of tradition/marriage/dependence
and modernity/professions/independence.
In a footnote, Waelti-Walters revealed that
she was working on a book about New
Women themes in French literature.
763. Wallinger, Sylvia, and Monika
Jonas, eds. Der Widerspenstigen Zähmung:
Studien zur Bezwungenen Weiblichkeit in der
Literatur vom Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart.
Innsbruck: Institute für Germanistik, 1986.
764. Walls, Elizabeth MacLeod. “A
Domestic Feminist: The New Woman and
the Rhetoric of British Literary Modernism,
1880–1935.” Ph.D. diss., Texas Christian
University, 2001. In this dissertation Walls
maintained that nineteenth-century femi-
nism was trivialized in the twentieth cen-
tury and provided the platform for a back-
lash of what she referred to as “domestic
feminism.” The “New New Woman” nov-
elists whose works she examined — E. M.
Forster, D. H. Lawrence, Joseph Conrad,
James Joyce, Evelyn Waugh, and Virginia
Woolf— recast the nineteenth-century ver-
sion into a less melodramatic (that is, Vic-
torian), more sensible and improved New
Woman.
765. ____. “A Little Afraid of the
Women of Today”: The Victorian New
Woman and the Rhetoric of British Mod-
ernism.” Rhetoric Review 21 (2002):
229–46. In the aftermath of the New
Woman phenomenon of the 1890s, no rec-
ognizable female identity formed in Great
Britain. Thus authors noted as part of the
170 Secondary Works (1962–2008)
construction of modernism both drew on
and rejected the literary canon from the
writing of the end of the previous century.
According to Walls, “Modernists outwardly
disdained Victorian women’s writing; yet
they revived ‘the woman of the past’ in their
art.” They eventually crafted these seem-
ingly incongruous views into a coherent vi-
sion that became known as the “modernist
movement. “
766. Ware, Susan. Modern American
Women: A Documentary History. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1997. Part 1 contains a collec-
tion of primary materials arranged chrono-
logically from the 1890s to the 1970s. New
Women are specifically targeted in chapter
1, “Visions of the New Women.” An intro-
ductory essay precedes essays by prominent
and not-so-prominent American women:
Nellie Bly, Bertha Palmer, Anna J. Cooper,
Frances Willard, Anzia Yezierska, Belle
Lindnar Israels, and Eudora Amnons. A
short biography precedes each piece. Chap-
ter 6, encompassing 1920 to 1963, includes
a reprint of Eudora Ramsay Richardson’s
short story “Men Are Like That” from a
1928 issue of Ladies’ Home Journal that
Ware retitled “The New Woman in Fic-
tion.” Richardson’s tale is that of Emma
Morrison, a bank employee constantly
passed over for promotion and totally aware
of the reason. In the end, her new boss ad-
mits to the bank president that Emma is re-
sponsible for saving him from financial dis-
aster (as she saved the old boss on many
occasions) and gives her a promotion.
767. Warford, Pamela Neal. The Social
Origins of Female Iconography: Selected Im-
ages of Women in American Popular Culture.
Ph.D. diss., St. Louis University, 1979. In
chapter 1 Warford explained that though
the Gibson Girl was touted as the New
Woman, in reality she was a continuation of
the Victorian lady.
768. Warne, Vanessa, and Colette Col-
ligan. “The Man Who Wrote A New
Secondary Works (1962–2008) 171
Woman Novel: Grant Allen’s The Woman
Who Did and the Gendering of New
Woman Authorship.” Victorian Literature
and Culture 33 (2005): 21–46. This essay
primarily addresses the manner in which
Grant Allen constructed an identity for
himself through his role as a male author of
New Woman novels. The authors probed
all known works by Allen as well as the crit-
ical responses to these works, pointing to
discrepancies the critics saw between Allen’s
words and actions. Warne and Colligan also
investigated how Punch lampooned New
Woman literature and the manner in which
New Woman imagery in Punch related anx-
iety regarding male authorship. A direct re-
tort to Allen’s The Woman Who Did was a
piece in Punch titled “The Woman Who
Wouldn’t Do,” 30 March 1895.
769. Waters, Chris. “New Women and
Socialist-Feminist Fiction: The Novels of
Isabella Ford and Katharine Glasier.” Re-
discovering Forgotten Radicals: British Women
Writers, 1889–1939. Ed. Angela Ingram and
Daphne Patai. Chapel Hill: University of
North Carolina Press, 1993, 25–42. Ford
and Glasier were socialist-feminist writers
and friends. Walters identified the novels of
the 1890s as best embodying New Woman
sensibilities within the context of socialism.
Waters picked Ford’s On the Threshold and
Glasier’s Aimée Furness, Scholar, her thesis
that, with varying degrees of success, Ford
and Glasier created characters making con-
scious efforts to reconcile socialism with
feminism.
770. Watson, Barbara Bellow. “‘The
New Woman’ and The New Comedy.”
Fabian Feminist: Bernard Shaw and Woman.
Ed. Rodelle Weintraub. University Park,
Pennsylvania: Penn State University Press,
1977. Watson claimed that Shaw challenged
the existing “order of society.” In a thor-
ough examination of Shaw’s female charac-
ters, she saw that Shaw cast women in fem-
inist roles. He relegated marriage to stage
left and stage right, whereas the life and in-
769–773
terests of the female protagonists were at
center stage. Shaw according to Watson,
saw a hope for the world in the strong
women characters he created.
771. Watts, Cedric. “Hardy’s Sue
Bridehead and the ‘New Woman.’” Criti-
cal Survey 5 (1993): 152–56. The article
opens with a brief history of the state of ed-
ucation, opportunities for women, and lit-
erary tracts dealing with the subject, start-
ing with J. S. Mill’s The Subjection of Women
(1896). Reacting to Thomas Hardy’s 1912
postscript of a German review of Jude the
Obscure, the remainder of the article deals
with the issue of the newness of the New
Woman character in works by Hardy.
772. Weininger, Susan S. The ‘New
Woman’ in Chicago, 1910–1945: Paintings
from Illinois Collections. Rockford, Illinois:
Rockford College, 1993. This catalog ac-
companied the exhibition of works by
twenty-three women artists considered New
Women who worked and lived in the
Chicago area between 1910 and 1945. The
exhibitions took place between November
1993 and October 1994 at the Rockford
College Art Gallery, Illinois Art Gallery,
Chicago and Illinois State Museum, Rock-
port. Weininger wrote the essay for the cat-
alog; she and Robert Adams co-curated the
exhibition.
773. Weisberger, Bernard A. The La
Follettes of Wisconsin: Love and Politics in
Progressive America. Madison: University of
Wisconsin Press, 1994. Chapter 3, “Belle:
A “New Woman” and Her Family 1891–
1911,” is about Belle Case La Follette, the
wife of Bob La Follette, former governor of
Wisconsin and U.S. Senator during the
Progressive Era. Belle was an advocate of
women’s physical fitness and held progres-
sive ideas and ideals of her own while con-
tinually placing the needs of her husband
and children ahead of her own. She was
Bob’s helpmeet in the most positive defini-
tion, but she continually strove to become
774–778
her own person. Finally, after Bob started
La Follette’s Weekly (a progressive journal)
and Belle contributed a column to the jour-
nal, she developed independence, enough
money, and status; later she promoted fe-
male suffrage.
774. West, June B. “The ‘New
Woman.’” Twentieth Century Literature 1
( July 1955): 55–68. Through a survey of
American literature (novels, plays, poems,
and magazine stories), West charted the
manner in which women were depicted in
an independent manner between World
Wars I and II. She broke her discussion into
subjects of freedom for women: economics,
sex, and attitudes toward marriage, drink-
ing, and smoking. The literary works West
discussed have received little attention and
deserve more. The titles of magazine articles
and periodicals are not always identified in
the text, but they appear in the endnotes.
775. Wheeler, Marjorie Spruill. New
Women of the New South: The Leaders of the
Woman Suffrage Movement in the Southern
States. New York: Oxford University Press,
1993. This book deals primarily with suf-
frage and racial issues through the stories of
eleven women of the South involved with
these causes. Wheeler asserted that the
southern women she dubbed “New
Women” looked and acted like southern
“ladies” to avoid the appearance of mili-
tancy.
776. Wiley, Catherine. “Looking Else-
where: Staging the New Woman as Femi-
nine Subject.” Ph.D. diss., University of
Wisconsin, 1990. This dissertation deals
with images of women in English plays of
the late nineteenth and early twentieth cen-
turies by Oscar Wilde and C. E. Raimond
(Elizabeth Robins).
777. ____. “The Matter with Manners:
The New Woman and the Problem Play.”
Women in Drama. Ed. James Redmond.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1989. In her discussion of the New Woman
172 Secondary Works (1962–2008)
aspects of the “problem play,” Wiley consid-
ered the following plays, ranging from what
she deemed the most conservative to the
most liberal: Mrs. Dane’s Defence (1900) by
Henry Arthur Jones, The Second Mrs. Tan-
queray (1893) by Arthur Wing Pinero, Mrs.
Warren’s Profession (Wiley dated completion
of the manuscript as 1894 and a private
London performance as 1902) by G. B.
Shaw, and Votes for Women (1907) by Eliz-
abeth Robins. The “problem play” dealt
with contemporary problems such as the
Woman Question as well as the very act of
acting, problematic because of the lack of
reality and authenticity of the New Woman
protagonists. In her detailed summaries of
each play, Wiley pointed to the marginaliza-
tion of women and the fact that audiences
read their independence as not having
proper manners. She awarded greatest lib-
erality to the only play of the four to be
written by a woman.
778. Willard, Carla. “Conspicuous
Whiteness: The New Woman, the Old
Negro, and the Vanishing Past of Early
Brand Advertising.” Turning the Century:
Essays in Media and Cultural Studies. Ed.
Carol A. Stabile. Boulder, Colorado: West-
view Press, 2000. This article (chapter 9)
discusses the role of the newly developed
abbreviated syntax of brand advertising in
the late nineteenth century. Ads admon-
ished housewives (the new consumers) to
shed their old ways of keeping house and
use the new brand-name products. New
Women were cast as youthful and more
freewheeling in contrast to the women of
the past who were housebound. Willard’s
thesis is that an “epiphany” occurs when the
consumer’s needs and the brief textual mes-
sage of the ad meet in her mind. Blacks in
advertisements functioned as signifiers of
the old images of aunts and uncles (such as
Jemima and Rastus). Consumers saw them
as the old order, much like the darkened
past, that the new streamlined ads were cre-
ated to counter.
Secondary Works (1962–2008) 173 779–782

779. Williams, Sian Rhiannon. “Y Fry- the New Woman. It identifies her and pro-
thones”: Portread Cyfnodolion Merched y vides a succinct profile of the American
Bedwaredd Ganrif ar Bymtheg o Gymraes woman from 1870 to 1920.
Yr Oes [Images of Women in Nineteenth- 782. Winston, Diane H. Red-Hot and
Century Welsh Women’s Periodicals].” Lla- Righteous: The Urban Religion of the Sal-
fur: Journal of the Society for the Study of vation Army. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
Welsh Labour History 4 (1984), 43–56. The Harvard University Press, 1999. Winston
first Welsh periodical intended principally chronicled the rise of the Salvation Army
for women in Wales was Y Gymraes, which from its inception in Britain in 1880 until
appeared in 1850. The image of women it about 1950. Chapter 2, “The New Woman,
portrayed was one of domesticity and sub- 1886–1896,” is about Maud Booth, who de-
mission. It avoided issues of birth control livered her controversial speech, “The New
and working women. Y Frythones, the first Woman,” in New York City in 1895. Win-
Welsh magazine for women, edited by a ston maintained the speech was antifemi-
woman, was published in 1879 but did not nist though Booth extolled the egalitarian
offer a new view of women. Only in the aspects of the Salvation Army. This long
1880s did any of the women’s
periodicals in Wales publish ar-
ticles related to the status of
women.
780. Willis, Chris. “‘Heaven
Defend Me from Political or
Highly Educated Women!’:
Packaging the New Woman for
Mass Consumption.” The New
Woman in Fiction and in Fact.
Ed. Angelique Richardson and
Chris Willis. London: Palgrave/
Macmillan, 2001. Willis exam-
ined New Woman characters in
“commercial” novels, short sto-
ries, and detective fiction, a rel-
atively unexplored genre in
New Woman literature that
makes Willis’s contribution es-
pecially valuable. She pointed
out that most of the plots are
similar but that the “commer-
cial” fiction reached a broader
audience.
781. Wilson, Margaret
Gibbons. The American Woman
in Transition: The Urban
Influence, 1870–1920. West-
port, Connecticut.: Green- The young boy in this cartoon appears perplexed
wood, 1979. The introduction when his young New Woman boxing opponent
gives excellent information on obeys his command. Life, 10 March, 1921.
783–786
chapter provides a complete picture of the
“female soldiers” of the organization before
1896, though the opening paragraph focuses
exclusively on Booth. Maud and her hus-
band, Ballington, were Brits answering a
call to Salvation Army leadership in the
United States. Ballington was the son of the
founder, William Booth, and Maud was a
convert whose Anglican pastor/father’s re-
ligion did not serve, she felt, enough prac-
tical purpose. The chapter provides histor-
ical data on both female and male
“soldiers,” though the New Woman is cen-
tral to the discussion.
783. Wintle, Sarah. “Horses, Bikes and
Automobiles: New Woman on the Move.”
The New Woman in Fiction and in Fact. Ed.
Angelique Richardson and Chris Willis.
London: Palgrave/Macmillan, 2001. This
essay focuses on the progression of women’s
mobility and accompanying independence
from horseback riding to bicycle riding to
driving the new-fangled car in the early
twentieth century. Wintle noted a variety
of sources related to the three modes of
transportation, but the works of a Mrs. Ed-
ward Kennard comprise the bulk of her
discussion.
784. Witt-Brattström, Ebba, ed. The
New Woman and the Aesthetic Opening: Un-
locking Gender in Twentieth-Century Texts.
Stockholm: Södertörns högskola: 2004.
This collection of essays was originally pre-
sented at a conference of the same title at
Södertörn University College in Stock-
holm, 10–12 October 2003. The conference
investigated New Woman fiction/films/
biography spanning the twentieth century,
encompassing works from both East
(Poland) and West (none from the United
States). The volume of essays is diverse and
deals with women and their works from
areas heretofore uninvestigated. In addition
to Witt-Brattström, the contributors are:
Annegret Heitmann, Lisbeth Larsson, Unni
Langäs, Viola Parente-Capková, Helena
174 Secondary Works (1962–2008)
Forsäs-Scott, Birgitta New, Britt Andersen,
Ursula Naeve-Bucher, Anna Rotkirch,
Claudia Lindén, Kristina Fjelkestam, Rita
Paqvalén, Antje Wischmann, Malgorzata
Anna Packalén, and Christine Frisch.
785. Wittman, Livia Käthe. “The New
Woman as Doubly Other: Aspects of the
Constitution of Jewish Femininity in the
Early Twentieth Century Novel; Papers
Offered for Gyorgy N. Vajda and Istvan
Fried.” Celebrating Comparativism. Ed.
Katalin Kürtosi and József Pal. Szeged,
Hungary: University of Szeged, 1994. At
the outset of her paper, Wittman noted that
she had read fifty novels with New Woman
protagonists in several languages though she
chose to discuss only Die Intellektuellen (The
Intellectuals) by German author Grete
Meisel-Hess. Set in Budapest in the early
twentieth century, the two New Women of
the novel are Tekla, a poet who adores her
husband, and Eva, a divorced visual artist
and interior designer. Tekla is Jewish, and
Eva is described as a “goy lady” in the novel.
Wittman analyzed their positions as friends
who negotiate the terrains of race, class, and
gender in quest of emancipation.
786. Wittman, Livia Z. “Liebe oder
Selbstverlust: Die Fiktionale Neue Frau im
Ersten Drittel Unseres Jahrhundrets.” Der
Widerspenstigen Zähmung: Studien zur
Bezwungenen Weiblichkeit in der Literatur
vom Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart. Ed.
Sylvia Wallinger and Monika Jonas. Inns-
bruck: Institute für Germanistik, 1986.
Around the turn of the twentieth century,
numerous comparative critiques appeared
to deal with the New Woman, the becom-
ing woman, and the modern woman. The
authors (both female and male) were aware
of the connection between scientific and po-
litical recognitions and fights, economically
caused social changes as well as new pro-
posals of femininity in literature. This essay
discusses the issue how female authors of
different languages projected the New
Secondary Works (1962–2008) 175
Woman in the first third of the twentieth
century. This fiction has certain themes in
common: the New Woman fought for real-
ization of her own personality, desires, and
dreams — not only for the right to educa-
tion, work, and political activity, but to
self-realization and the rights to the most
intimate area of their lives. They experi-
enced the tense sphere of love affairs as well
as the destroying force of prejudice and the
predominance of the male world.
787. ____. “The New Woman as a Eu-
ropean Phenomenon.” Neohelicon 19 (1992),
49–68. This three-part article starts with
an argument that the category “classic real-
ism” is not appropriate for works by New
Woman authors. The second section ana-
lyzes three New Woman texts: Pages from
the Diary of an Emancipated Woman (Tage-
buchblåtter Emanzipierten), 1902, by Elsa
Asenijeff; the 1906 short story by Virginia
Woolf, “Phyllis and Rosamund”; and The
Anthill (Hangabody), 1917, by Margit Kaffka.
Within a highly analytical framework,
Wittman argued that the mobility and flex-
ibility of the characters in these works
negated their inclusion as examples of clas-
sic realism. In the third part Wittman dis-
cussed New Woman novels within the con-
text of pleasure and the theories of Roland
Barthes.
788. ____. “Träume, Utopien und
Wege zur Verwirklichung: Entwurfe der
‘Neuen Frau’ in Romanen des Auslands um
1900.” Deutsche Literatur von Frauen I: Vom
Mittelalter bis zum Ende des 18. Ed. Gisela
Brinker-Gabler. Munich: Verlang C. H.
Beck (1988): 205–20. The representation
of the New Woman in literature was mainly
a European phenomenon. Most relevant
works appear in West European and Scan-
dinavian literature. This article analyzes the
process of emancipation, social-economic
aspects, and the prospects of education for
women in the treated works of fiction. The
New Woman fights for a balance between
787–790
marriage, relationships with men, and pro-
fessional life—between binding love on one
side and independency on the other side.
Fiction projects the ideal man for the New
Woman and analyzes the psychological pat-
tern of the reality. In the famous Dreams by
Olive Schreiner, the New Woman is pro-
posed as free woman. Franz Kafka relates
in Stationen the different stages of realization
of emancipation. This important work is
dedicated to the New Woman as a female
educational and social fiction. The female
authors of different European languages dis-
cussed the many-facetted process of the
search for the identity of women in the
fiction they wrote.
789. ____. “Zwischen ‘Femme Fatale’
und ‘Femme Fragile’— die Neue Frau? Kri-
tische Bemerkungen zum Frauenbild des
Literarischen Jugendstils.” Jahrbuch fur In-
ternationale Germanistik 17 (1985), 74–110.
At the turn of the twentieth century, women
started to liberate themselves from socio-
economic and social-psychological con-
straints leading to changes in roles and in
art expressions that resulted in the Jugend-
stil (youth style). Some of the female fiction
authors aligned not only style and figura-
tion but also the conception of femininity
along the two dominating types of the Ju-
gendstil (femme-fatale and femme fragile).
Some female authors discussed in their the-
oretical and fictional works the types of
women who were a product of the male
imagination, hence revealing the back-
ground for the emergence of such projec-
tions of femininity. Some interesting con-
clusions found in the literature include
those in Fried von Bülow’s Die Stilisierte
Frau and Hedwig Dohm’s Christa Ruland.
The New Woman of the turn of the cen-
tury may be characterized as the searching,
the fragment, or the transition-like, as is
evident in evolving models of femininity.
790. Woloch, Nancy. Women and the
American Experience. New York: Alfred A.
791–795
Knopf, 1984. In chapter 12, “The Rise of
the New Woman,” Woloch enumerated the
contributions that women made during the
Progressive Era. Although Woloch’s discus-
sion centered on “shrinking families, the
college woman, the professional woman,
clubwomen and crusaders, educated home-
makers, and social housekeepers,” she con-
tinually returned to Jane Addams, whom
she apparently considered the quintessen-
tial New Woman.
791. Wright, Barbara D. “The New
Woman of the Twenties: ‘Hoppla! That’s
Life!’ and ‘The Merry Vineyard.’” Playing
for Stakes: German Language Drama in So-
cial Context. Ed. Anne K. Kuhn and Bar-
bara D. Wright. Oxford/Providence: Berg,
1994. This work considers Carl Zuch-
mayer’s Der Fröliche Weinberg (The Merry
Vineyard, 1925) and Ernst Toller’s Hoppla!
Wir Leben (Hoppla! That’s Life, 1927) in
terms of the context of their feminist agenda
and of how critics viewed the plays from
the 1920 to the 1970. Wright argued that
critics and reviewers purposely ignored the
feminist agenda in the plays or could not
come to grips with the notion of the strong,
competent women protagonists, Klärchen
Gunderlach and Eva Berg. This article is as
much an investigation of the works as an
analysis of critics’ responses to the role of
the New Woman of the Weimar Republic.
792. Wright, Dorothea Curtis. “Vi-
sions and Revisions of the ‘New Woman’ in
American Realistic Fiction from 1880 to
1920: A Study in Authorial Attitudes.”
Ph.D. diss., University of North Car-
olina–Chapel Hill, 1971. This dissertation
is about American authors who dealt with
New Woman issues in their writing. Wright
divided her thesis into two sections: the
first, “Questions,” considers works by
William Dean Howells, Henry James, and
Henry Adams, and the second, “Answers,”
examines works by Robert Grant, Edith
Wharton, and Robert Herrick.
176 Secondary Works (1962–2008)
793. Wright, Emily Powers. “The New
Woman of the New South.” The History of
Southern Women’s Literature. Ed. Carolyn
Perry and Mary Louise Weaks. Baton
Rouge: Louisiana State University Press,
2002. The first part of the article provides
an analysis of Josephine Henry’s essay and
the contributions southern women made to
the suffrage movement. Wright then con-
centrated on a survey of extant writing re-
garding two additional aspects: feminist
writers and fictional female characters in the
role of the New Woman. She noted that al-
though Kate Chopin’s work does not sup-
port the criteria of a southern New Woman
character (except perhaps in her short story
“An Egyptian Cigarette” of 1910), Chopin
behaved like one. Other literary works are
mentioned, but Wright maintained that the
New Woman was not fully endorsed in any
southern work until 1913, with Mary John-
ston’s Hagar.
794. Yagil, L. “Family Ideology of the
Vichy Government and the Concept of the
‘New Woman.’” Guerres Mondiales et
Conflits Contemorains 188 (December 1997):
27–49. During France’s Vichy government
women were seen as the hope of the nation
to birth and rear a new generation of strong
males. Young girls were encouraged to be
physically active and to engage in sports so
as to accomplish the government’s mission.
The motto for the national Revolution was
“Work, Family, Country.” Although the fu-
ture New Women were educated to be
healthy and robust, the government had no
interest in developing them to be equal with
men in the stadium and in professions.
Their role was to be gracious and perform
society’s social and moral roles.
795. Yang, Dong. “Edith Wharton: A
Writer of Female Sexual Consciousness in
the Era of the New Woman.” Ph.D. diss.,
Indiana University of Pennsylvania, 1996.
This dissertation examines themes of sexu-
ality in the oeuvre of Edith Wharton.
Secondary Works (1962–2008) 177
Rather than focusing on Wharton’s private
life, Yang argued that Wharton, while deal-
ing with New Woman themes in her work,
was a leader of women’s sexual liberation
and economic independence.
796. Zink, Abbey Lynn. “Between the
Lines: The New Woman as Journalist and
Fiction Writer.” Ph.D. diss., Northern Illi-
nois University, 2001. Zink brought to light
the literary works and journalist careers
of the following American women: Eliza-
796
beth L. Banks, Elizabeth Bisland, Alice
Dunbar-Nelson, Mary Roberts Rinehart,
and Edith Wharton. Whereas male writers
who achieved fame during the late nine-
teenth and early twentieth centuries (when
the little-known women were also active)
moved from journalism to writing fiction
and prose, women writers utilized “cross-
genre practices”— meaning they went back
and forth between literary works and jour-
nalistic writing.
This page intentionally left blank
 INDEX
Numbers refer to entries, except those preceded by I
(as in I-6), which indicate pages in the introduction.
A. S. B., article 72
Abbott, Berenice 428
Abbott, Harriet, short story 328
Abortion see Crime
Abram, Trudi, Ph.D. diss. 364
Adams, Abigail 233
Adams, Henry 627, 640, 792
Adams, Marian “Clover” Hooper 627
Adams, Robert 772
Adams, Samuel Hopkins see Fabian, Warner
Addams, Jane 567, 642, 660, 683, 790
Adickes, Sandra, book 365
The Adult 198
Advertising 459
Africa 410, 474
African Americans I-11, 216, 254, 334, 348,
351, 355, 382, 392, 408, 412, 440, 441, 493,
531, 538, 543, 549, 612, 614, 642, 682, 706,
741, 742, 751, 778; see also Biracial women
Ahrens, Rüdiger, book 366
Aikins, Janet E., article 367
Ainslie, Noel 197
Akiko, Yosano 674
Alabama 744, 745
Alabama Review 745
Alberta History 715
Alexander, John 500
Alexander, Ruth M., editor 642
Allen, Charles Grant Blairfindie 78, 90, 141,
151, 488, 580, 756, 768; novel 55
Allen, Louise Anderson, Ed.D. diss. 368
Allen, Raye Virginia: article 370; book 369
ALR: American Literary Realism 450
The American Catholic Quarterly Review 179
The American Journal of Sociolog y 241
American Literary Realism 662
American Mission School 289
American Periodicals 417
American South 93, 513, 543, 775
179
American Studies 661
American Theater Quarterly 391
American Transcendental Quarterly 405, 646
American West 735
Amin, Quasim, books 227, 371
Amin, Sonia Nishat, book 372
Ammons, Elizabeth 530; book chapter 373
Amnons, Eudora 766
Andersen, Britt 784
Andrew, J. D., article 56
Anglo-Protestant Student Christian Movement
690
Annals of the American Academy of Political and
Social Science 307
Anonymous: advertisement 182; articles 5, 6,
60, 64, 65, 67–69, 120–23, 154–56, 180,
183, 206, 235, 259, 304, 317, 354; ballad 1;
ditty 265; essays 3, 63, 245; fable 61; Jim’s
Wife’s husband, article 39, 390; letters 62,
66, 124; poems 57, 70, 71, 119, 181; rhymes 2,
4, 58, 59; short stories 125, 275
Anthony, Susan B. 335
Aoki, Tsuru 678
Ardis, Ann Louise 545, 584; articles 375; book
chapter 376, 378, 379; book 377; Ph.D.
diss. 374
The Arena 93, 166, 233, 240
Arkansas Federation of Women’s Clubs 677
Arkansas Historical Quarterly 677
Arling, Nat, article 184
Armenia 680
Arnold, Ethel M., novel 8
Arnold, Matthew 388
Arson see Crime
Art and artists I-5, I-11, I-15, 364, 369, 370,
410, 418, 419, 427, 428, 436, 452, 562, 574,
575, 591, 622, 626, 629, 646, 654, 658,
664, 711, 740, 772
Art Journal 410
Index 180

Asenijeff, Elsa 787 Bidyabinodini, Nurunnessa Khatrin 372

Ashton, Elaine 489; book chapter 380 Biracial women 351, 355; see also African
Astor, Laky see Langhorne, Nancy Americans
Atarashi Onna 475 Birkle, Carmen 526; conference paper 393
Atché, Jane 626 Bisland, Elizabeth 796
Atherton, Gertrude Franklin (Mrs.) 195, 340, Björnson, Björnstjerne 220
470, 471; essays 363; letter 5; novel 283 Black, Helen C., biographies 251
Athleticism 210 Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine 115, 141, 177
Atlantic Monthly 234, 267, 286 Bland, Edith 404
Attwood, Lynn, book 381 Bland, Hubert 404
Austin, Mary 373 Bland, Lucy 589; book chapter 396; books
Australia I-6, 94, 473, 526, 610, 651, 689, 732 394, 395
Australian Cultural History 689 Blankley, Elyse, book chapter 397
Aveling, Edward 404 Blathwayt, Raymond, article 185
Avery, Marjorie “Dot” 725 Bleackley, Horace William see Tivoli
Blewett, Jean 415
Bacon,—(Miss) I-11 Bluestocking Society see Japan; Seitõ
Bair, Barbara, book chapter 382 Bly, Nellie 766
Baker, Elizabeth 490; play 292 Boardman, Kate, book 390
Baker, Mary Hime, essay 246 Bogue, Mrs. A. H. see Bell, Lilian Lida
Banks, Elizabeth L. 796 Bohata, Kirsti 527; article 399; book chapter
Banta, Martha: book 383; editor 748 398
Barcelona English Language and Literature Stud- Bois, Jules 165
ies 583 Böker, Uwe, editor 525
Bardsley, Janice Bridges, Ph.D. diss. 384 Bonnell, Marilyn: article 400; Ph.D. diss. 401
Barker, Harley Granville 671 The Bookman 280, 297, 298, 318
Barlow, Jane 340 Boos, Florence, article 402
Barnes, Djuana 428 Booth, Ballington 782
Barry, William Francis: article 9; novel 207 Booth, Maud 782
Bartlett,—(Mrs.) 496 Booth, William 782
Bashkirtseff, Marie 133 Bordin, Ruth Birgitta Anderson, book 403
Bauer, Karl 452 Borsodi, Myrtle Mae Simpson (Mrs. Ralph)
Baum, Vicki 476, 477, 586, 704, 759 447; article 362
Baume, Brita, editor 565 Boyce, Frank M., Jr., novel 293
Bean, Lawless, essay 385 Boyce, Neith 608, 722, 752
Beardsley, Aubrey 453, 454, 535, 606 Boyle, Margaret P., article 158
Beaumont, Mary, short stories 208 Braddon, Mary Elizabeth 340
Bebel, August 9 Bragg, Laura 368
Beck, Claire, book 386 Brandon, Ruth, book 404
Beckson, Karl: article 389; books 387, 388 Brandt, Maria F.: article 405; Ph.D. diss. 406
Beerbohm, Max 535, 728; essay 10 Braun, Lily von Gizycki 452; essay 126
Beetham, Margaret: book 390; editor 527, Brecht, Bertolt 594
555, 562, 672, 701, 704 Brennen, Matthew C., article 407
Behr, Shulamith 624 Brent, Justine 450
Bell, Florence Eveleen 490 Bright, Mary Chavelita Dunne see Egerton,
Bell, Lilian Lida (aka Mrs. A. H. Bogue), book George
157 Brinker-Gabler, Gisela, editor 788
Bellamy, Edward 707 Brinkley, Nell 672
Ben-Yusuf, Zaida 500 Brontë, Emily 502
Bennett,— 286 Brooke, Emma Frances 718; novel 11
Bennett, Alma J., article 391 Brooks, Kristine, article 408
Berger, Renate 624 Broomens, Petra, editor 536
Bergman, Jill 527; essay 392 Broude, Norma, editor 575
Bernhardt, Sarah 673 Broughton, Rhoda 258; novel 159
Bernstein, Gail Lee, editor 674 Brouwer, Ruth Compton, book 409
Betts, Lillian W., article 73 Brown, Herbert E., novel 160
Beuchner,— 594 Brown, Margaret Adeline 497
Bhabha, Homi 723 Browning Society Notes 467
Bible see Religion Bruère, Martha Bensley I-15, 739
Bicycles and bicycling I-8, I-10, I-11, I-13, 165, Bryne, Charles, A. I-14
452, 576, 607, 689, 783 Buckberrough, Sherry, article 410
 181
Buddhism see Religion
Bulletin of the New York Public Library 606
Burger, Lisbeth 586
Burkholder, Mabel 415
Burnett, Frances Hodgson 298
Burke, Carolyn, book chapter 411
Burks, Mary Fair, Ph.D. diss. 412
Butler, Richard see Henry, Richard
Caffyn, Kathleen Mannington see Iota
Cain, Barbara, book 413
Caird, Mona (aka Mona Alison or Alice Mona
Henryson Caird) 195, 516, 522, 577, 580,
620, 631, 633, 657, 718; articles 161, 266;
essay 209; novels 12, 311
California Historical Quarterly 471
Cambrian News 184
Camera Obscura 678
Cameron, Julia Margaret 500
Camp, Karen Mechel, Ph.D. diss. 414
Campbell, Mrs. Patrick 454
Campbell, Sandra, editor 415
Canada I-6, 171, 409, 415, 466, 491, 497, 570,
609, 619, 664, 697, 715
Canadian Magazine 193
Canadian Review of American Studies 503
Carey, Rosa Nouchette, story 228
Carlton, S. see Jones, Susan
Carpenter, Iris 725
Carr, Kittie (Miss) I-11
Carson, Lee 725
Cartoon and caricatures I-9, I-10
Cash, Eric, article 416
Cassidy, Cheryl M., article 417
Cather, Willa Sibert 373, 451, 455, 644, 652,
676, 748; novels 294, 341
Catholic World 137
Catt, Carrie Chapman I-14, 739
Centennial Review 605
Central Bureau for the Employment of Women
170
Century 299
The Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine 3, 243
Cevasco, G. A., editor 603
Chadwick, Whitney, book 418
Chamber’s Journal 104
Chant, L. Ormiston, essay 210
Chantal, Cornut Gentille, editor 683
Chapman, Elizabeth R., book 162
Chapman, Minerva J. 622
Chappell, Clovis Gillham (Rev.), lecture 358
Chatfield-Taylor, Hobart Chatfield 660
Chauncey, George, Jr. 637; book 448; editor 719
The Chautauquan 95
Cherry, Deborah, book 419
Chesler, Ellen, Ph.D. diss. 420
Chicago Daily News 391
Chicago Daily Tribune I-10
Chiang Kai-Shek 424
China I-13, 337, 423, 424, 463, 510, 541, 590,
638, 639, 705, 734
Index
Cholmondeley, Mary 379, 414, 657, 718; novel
211
Chopin, Kate 406, 455, 481, 616, 617, 652,
665, 748, 793; short stories 13, 212
Chothia, Jean: conference paper 421; book 422
Chou, Katherine Hui-ling, Ph.D. diss. 423
Christianity see Religion
Chung, Hilary, book chapter 424
Churgin, Jonah Reuben, Ed.D. diss. 425
Cixous, Hélene 522
Clark, Annie, paper 163
Cleeve, Lucas (aka Adeline G. I. Kingscote),
novel 74
Clement, Ernest W., articles 241, 242
Clements, Kendrick A., article 426
Clifford, Mrs. W. K. 340; novel 75
Clio: A Journal... 627
The Club Woman 201, 509
The Club Woman: Woman’s World 246, 248
The Club Woman’s Magazine 214
Coleman, A. H., review 127
Coleman, Kathleen “Kit” 415
Coleridge, Mary E. 340, 542
Colette, Sidonie G. C. (Willy) 679
Colligan, Colette, article 768
Collins, Joseph I-15, 739
Collins, May L., address 128
Colloquia Germanica 758
Colored American Magazine 612
Colville, William Wilberforce, short story 164
Commencement addresses 235
Compain, Louise-Marie 762
Connor, Holly Pyne, editor 427
Conrad, Joseph 764
Constantinople see Turkey
Contemporary 90
Contemporary Review 197
Converse, Florence 617
Conway, Gordon 369, 370
Cook, Blanche Wiesen, editor 461
Cook County, IL 69
Cooley, Winnifred Harper, book 247
Cooper, Anna Julia 440, 766
Cooper, Emmanuel, book 428
Cooper, Sybil 394
Corbin, Pamela Beth, Ph.D. diss. 429
Corelli, Marie 340, 462
Cornhill 28
Cory, Vivian see Cross, Victoria
Cosmetics 10
The Cosmopolitan 112, 129, 223
Cotes, Mrs. Everard see Duncan, Sara Jeannette
Cothran, Casey Althea, Ph.D. diss. 430
Courtney, William L., treatise 76
Coyne, Catherine 725
Crackanthorpe, Blanche Althea 16, 33, 38, 50;
articles 14, 15, 77
Crane, Stephen 221
Crawford, Virginia M., essay 165
Crime (prostitution, murder, abortion, arson)
219, 268, 496, 551, 621
Index 182

Critical Survey 771 Dorr, Rheta Childe, book 335

Cross, Victoria (aka Vivian Cory) 635; novel 78 Dougall, Lily, novel 82
Crothers, Rachel 306, 636; plays 276, 312, Doughty, Terri, book chapter 445
338, 359 Dowie, Ménie Muriel (aka Mrs. Henry Nor-
Crow, Duncan, book 431 man) 580, 657, 718; novel 83
Cruse, Amy, book 432 Dowling, Linda, article 446
Cuffe, Kathleen 50; article 16 Doyle, A. Conan, novel 84
Cunningham, Abigail Ruth: article 435; book Dress 622
434; Ph.D. diss. 433 Dreves, Vivien E., article 447
Cunningham, Patricia A., book 436 Duberman, Martin Bauml 637, 719; book 448
Current History 345, 739 Duke, Debra, Ph.D. diss. 449
Curtayne, Alice, lecture 361 Dumas, Alexander 165
Dumont, Frank, play 284
D. B. M. 488; poem 17 Dun, Mao 424, 463
Dafu, Yu 463 Dunbar-Nelson, Alice 796
Daily Chronicle 273 Duncan, Sara Jeannette (aka Mrs. Everard Cotes)
Dalhousie Review 496, 728 415, 492, 497, 609, 619, 718; novel 20
Dancing 304 Dunne, Finley Peter, essay 186
D’Arcy, Ella 597, 616, 635, 717; short stories 79 Dupree, Ellen, article 450
Darwin, Charles 756 Durand, Marguerite 673
D’Aurevilly, Jules Barbey 220 Duse, Eleonora 133
Dauthendey, Elisabeth 536 Dyck, Reginald, article 451
Davidson, Mrs. H. Coleman, handbook 18
Daviess, Maria Thompson: book 284; novel 295 Eardley, Joan 428
Davis, Jill 489; book chapter 437 Eastman, Crystal 365, 676, 684, 722
Davis, Sister I-11 Eastwood, Mrs. M., article 22
Davis, William A., Jr., article 438 Eaton, Edith (Sui Sin Foi) 415
Dawson, Miles Menande, poem 166 Eaton, Winnifred (Onoto Watanna) 630
Day, Dorothy 365 Economic dependency 187
Day, F. Holland 500 Edgren-Leffler, Anne Charlotte 133
DeBerg, Betty, book 439 Education 3, 246, 247
Deegan, Mary Jo, editor 440 Educational Theatre Journal 563
De Koven, Mrs. Reginald, article 129 Edwards, Mary Kelly 449
Deland, Margaret Wade Campbell 748; article Egerton, George (aka Mary Chavelita Dunne
267; novels 252, 277 Bright) 133, 340, 468, 554, 577, 580, 616,
de la Ramée, Marie Louise see Ouida 617, 635, 657, 718, 731, 732, 757; short sto-
de la Roche, Mazo 415 ries 22, 85, 167
de la Serna, Gomez 726 Egypt 227, 371, 410, 688
Delaunay, Sonia 410 Ehrenpreis, David, article 452
De Mille, Cecil B. 533 Eliot, George 464, 510
Denison, Thomas Stewart, play 80 “Elizabeth” 340
Denmark I-6 Elliott, Bridget J.: article 454; Ph.D. diss. 453
Deportment 543 Elliott, Emory, editor 748
Deutsch, Sarah, book 441 Elliott, Leota (Miss) 156
Dewey, John 675 Ellis, Henry Havelock 9, 404, 632
Dewing, Thomas Wilmer 364 Elz, A. Elizabeth, Ph.D. diss. 455
Diedrich, Maria, editor 457 Emery see Farr, Florence
Diethe, Carol 624; article 442 Employment and labor 18, 47, 132, 170, 206,
Diijkstra, Bram, book 443 223, 281
Dimitrijevic, Jelena 515 Encyclopedia Britannica 270
Dittrich-Johansen, Helga, article 444 Enfranchisement 151, 266
Divorce 69, 150, 261, 267 England see Great Britain
Dix, Gertrude 376; novels 81, 229 English Illustrated Magazine 385
Dixie, Florence (Lady) 376, 525 English in Africa 474
Dixon, Ella Hepworth 657, 732; essay 213; Engle, Sherry Darlene, Ph.D. diss. 456
novel 19 Entertainment I-11
Dixon, Thomas, novel 326 Erdim, Esim, book chapter 457
Dodd, Anna Bowman, article 243 Esau, Erika 624
Dodge, Arlita, poem 318 Eskildsen, Ute 624
Dodge, Mabel 411, 752 Evans, Heather Anne, Ph.D. diss. 458
Dohm, Hedwig 789 Ewen, Stuart, book 459
 183
The Examiner (San Francisco) 60
Exponent, An 127
F. A. J., article 237
Fabian, Warner (aka Samuel Hopkins Adams),
novel 332
Fabian Socialism 437
Far, Sui Sin (Edith Eaton) 373, 393, 415, 647
Farr, Florence (aka Emery) 550, 572; essays 268
Farrar, John I-14
Fashion 436
Faue, Elizabeth, book 460
Fauré, Christine 480; book chapter 461
Fauset, Jessie 373, 538, 682, 706, 751; novel
348
Faust, Allen K., book 342
Federico, Annette R., book chapter 462
Feminist movements 214
Feminist Studies 687, 721
Feng, Jin, book 463
Fernald, James Champlin, tract 23
Fernando, Lloyd, book 464
Ferrero, Signor 197
Fields, Michael 414
Filene, Peter G., book 232
Film and movies I-13, I-14, 511, 512, 533, 691,
716, 727, 737, 738, 760
Fini, Leonor 428
Finkelstein, Millie see Henry, Richard
Finland I-5, 598, 679
Finney, Charles Grandison 714
Fischer-Hornung, Dorothea, editor 457
Fitch, Clyde 503
Fitzgerald, F. Scott 482
Fitzsimmons, Linda, editor 489, 490
Fjelkestam, Kristina 784
Fleischmann, Ellen L., book 465
Flint, Kate 584; articles 466, 467
Flisch, Julia Anna 513
Fluhr, Nicole M. essay 468
Flynn, Elizabeth Gurley 365, 588
Foot, Isabella O., novel 86
Forbes, Athol, article 230
Ford, Henry 540
Ford, Isabella 545, 769
Formanek-Brunell, Miriam, book 469
Forrey, Carolyn: articles 471, 472; Ph.D. diss.
470
Forsäs-Scott, Helena 784
Forster, E. M. 764; novel 269
Forster, Laurel 526; conference paper 473
Fortnightly Review 34, 38, 47, 161, 165, 170,
249, 258
Forum 306
Forward, Stephanie, editor 528
Fourie, Fiona, article 474
Frager, James, book 475
Frame, Lynn-Marie Hoskins: book chapter
477; Ph.D. diss. 476
France 165, 225, 484, 650, 652, 673, 711, 743,
762, 794
Index
Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Weekly 156
Franklin, Miles 492
Frederic, Harold 298; novel 130
Free Review 127
Freedman, Estelle B. 695; article 478
Freeman, Mary Wilkins 748
Freemasonry 225
French, Pauline (Miss) 1–11
French Revolution 9
Friedenreich, Harriet Pass, book chapter 479
Friederichs, Hulda, article 87
Friedlander, Judith: book 480; book editor 461
Frisch, Christine 784
Fryer, Judith, book 481
Fryer, Sarah Beebe, book 482
Furer, Andrew J., article 483
Furlough, E., article 484
Furness, Aimée 131
Futures Exchange: ACH 610
Gainor, J. Ellen: article 485; book 486
Galsworthy, John 671; novel 331
Ganobesik-Williams, Lisa 526; book chapter
487
Garcia-Landa, Jose Angel, editor 683
Gardiner, Juliet 17, 136; editor 488
Gardner, Isabella Stewart 615
Gardner, Vivien, editor 489, 490
Garrard, Mary D., editor 575
Garvey, Amy Jacques (Mrs. Marcus) 382, 493
Gellhorn, Martha (Mrs. Ernest Hemingway)
725
Gender: equality 140; inequality 395; roles 161
George, W. L., novel 278
Gerald, Katharine Fullerton: article 286; book
329
The German Quarterly 564
Germans and Germany 158, 309, 366, 372,
428, 442, 476, 477, 504, 505, 535, 536,
559, 565, 624, 704, 738, 743, 758, 759,
760, 763, 785, 786, 788, 791
Gerson, Carole: article 492; book chapter 491
Gerstenberg, Alice 636
Gibson, Charles Dana (and Gibson Girl) 562,
646, 672, 767
Giddings, Paula, book 493
Gilbert, Pamela, article 494
Gilbert, Sandra M., book 495
Gildersleeve, Virginia 676
Gilligan, Carol 401
Gilman, Charlotte Perkins I-14, 487, 495, 525,
567, 665, 683, 707, 710, 739, 748; book 187;
novels 313, 319; short story 254
Gissing, George 414, 464, 510, 534, 578, 620
Glasgow, Ellen 340, 605, 644, 652, 748; nov-
els 188, 296
The Glasgow Evening News 419
Glasier, Katharine Bruce 545, 769; writings
131
Glaspell, Susan 636, 722
Glendening, John, article 496
Index
Godard, Barbara, article 497
Gold, Janet N., book 498
Golf 129
Goldman, Emma 411
Gompers, Samuel 460
Goode, John 548; book chapter 499
Goodyear, Frank H., III, book 500
Gorsky, Susan Rubinow: article 502; book 501
Gottlieb, Lois C., article 503
Graffenried, Clare de, article 132
Grand, Sarah (aka Frances Elizabeth Bellenden-
Clark McFall) I- 5, I-7, 1, 9, 39, 44, 56, 123,
151, 183, 185, 200, 230, 251, 340, 360, 378,
390, 400, 401, 414, 445, 458, 508, 522, 525,
528, 552, 554, 558, 568, 573, 580, 600–02,
616, 617, 631, 633, 635, 657, 667, 694, 718;
articles 24, 26, 189–93; booklet 194; essay
25; novel 168, 287
Grant, Robert 792; novel 231
Grant, Sadi, novel 196
Great Britain I-5-, I-6, I-15, 10, 17, 69, 249,
299, 301, 307, 354, 376, 388–90, 395, 413,
419, 421, 431, 437, 518, 545, 557, 576, 582,
602–04, 743
Great Plains Quarterly 451
Greece 257
Grimké, Angeline 373
Grossman, Atina, Ph.D. diss. 504
Grundy, Sydney 421, 422, 635; play 27
Guenther, Irene, book 505
Guerres Mondiales et Conflits Contemorains 794
Gwynn, Stephen, article 197
Hackett, Robin, book 506
Haggard, H. Rider 495, 631, 633, 669, 670
Haire-Sargeant, Lin, Ph.D. diss. 507
Hale, Beatrice Forbes-Robertson, book 305
Hall, E. B., article 28
Hall, George F., novel 88
Hall, Radclyffe (aka Marguerite Hall) 448,
637; novels 336, 349
Hall, Sharlot Mabridth, essay 214
Hamblin, Jessie de Foliart, novel 89
Hamilton, Cicely Mary 490; article 263; book
262; play 339
Hamilton, Teresa F. (Lady) 195
Handcrafts 132
Hannigan, D. F., critique 90
Hankin, St. John 422; play 260
Hansson, Laura Marholm 732; biog. studies
133, 215, 220
Hapgood, Hutchins 608
Hardy, Thomas 141, 151, 204, 414, 435, 438,
464, 499, 510, 535, 573, 580, 620, 631, 633,
756, 771; novel 91
Harland, Marion 23
Harley, Sharon, editor 742
Harmon, Lillian, article 198
Harmon, Sandra D., article 509
Harper, Charles, “diatribe” 29
Harper’s Bazaar 181, 205
184
Harraden, Beatrice 340; novel 31; short stories
30
Harris, Katharine Sumner, Ph.D. diss. 510
Harris, Kristine, article 511; book chapter 512
Harris, Robin O., Ph.D. diss. 513
Harrison, Constance Cary, novels 32, 92
Hartman, Kabi, article 514
Harvard Law Review 69
Harvey, Alexander, article 270
Harvey, H. E. essay 134
Hasse, Adelaide 386
Haviland, Mrs. E. S. 651
Haweis, M. E., article 33
Hawkesworth, Celia, article 515
Hawthorne, Nathaniel 481, 640
Heathen Woman’s Friend 417
Heilmann, Ann 167, 200, 584; articles 516,
521, 524; books 518, 520, 522; book chapter
519, 523, 525; editor 473, 526–28, 555,
562, 612, 672, 701, 704, 746
Heitmann, Annegret 784
Helland, Janice Valerie, Ph.D. diss. 529
Heller, Adele, editor 530, 685, 752
Hemery, Gertrude, essay 34
Hemingway, Ernest 611, 725
Henry, Josephine K. 793; essay 93
Henry, Richard (aka Henry Chase Newton,
Richard Butler, Millie Finkelstein) 610;
book 93
Hermans, Hubert, editor 421
Herrick, Robert 792
Hewitt, Emma Churchman, article 169
Hewitt, Nancy A., book 531
Heyse, Paul 215, 220
Hickok, Kathleen, book 532
Hicks, Beatrice 474
Higishi, Sumiko, book 533
Higonnet, Margaret Randolph, editor 650
Hill, Elsie 642
Hilton, Alice, article 95
Himmelfarb, Gertrude, book 534
Hiratsuka, Raichõ 384, 475, 593, 674
Hispanic writers 553
History of European Ideas 634
Hobbes, John Oliver 340
Hobson, Florence 68
Höch, Hannah 574, 575
Hodgkins, Louise Manning 417
Höfele, Andreas, book chapter 535
Hoffman, Michael J., editor 397
Hogarth, Janet E., report article 170
Holdsworth, Annie E., novel 35
Holland see Netherlands
Hollingsworth, Leta Stetter I-15, 739; article
345
Holnut, W. S., novel 96
Holm, Brigitta, book chapter 536
Home Chat I-8
Homosexuality 428
Honduras 498
Honey, Maureen: article 538; editor 537
 185 Index

Hoover, Lou Henry 426 Jenkins, Alice, editor 573

Hopkins, Pauline 408, 612, 617; novel 216 Jenney, Marie Saul 365
Höppener, Hugo 452 Jensen, Joan M.: book 695; editor 691
Hopper, Helen M., book 539 Jeune, Mary (Lady) 34, 438; article 38; essay
Hopper, Nora 340 200
Horniman, Annie 380 Jewett, Sarah Orne 617, 748
Horses, racing and riding 156, 783 Jews see Religion
Hossein, Roketa Sakawat 372 Jim’s Wife’s Husband see Anonymous
Houghton, Stanley, play 279 Jin, Ba 463
Howard, Angela, book 540 John, Juliet, editor 573
Howells, William Dean 481, 792 Johnson, E. Pauline (Tekahionwake) 415
Hu, Ying, book 541 Johnson, Joan Marie, book 549
Hughes, Linda, book 542 Johnson, Josephine, book 550
Hull, Edith Maude 375 Johnson, Patricia E., article 551
Hultin, Ida C. (Rev.) 65 Johnston, Frances Benjamin 500, 626,
Humanitarian 21, 68, 136, 140, 151, 213 Johnston, Mary 644, 647,793
Humboldt Standard I-15 Johnstone, Edith, novel 40, 568
Hum-Ishu-Ma, Mourning Dove, novel 346 Jonas, Monika, editor 763, 786
Humor 730, 732 Jones, Alice 415
Humphreys, Eliza see Rita Jones, Henry Arthur 777
Hungary 785 Jones, J. Wilton, play 253
Hunt, Lynn, editor 711 Jones, Susan (S. Carleton) 415
Hunt, Violet: novels 36, 97, 217; short stories Jordan, Ellen 552
135 Josei 546
Hunter, Jane H., book 543 Journal of American Culture 567
Hurd, John (Dr.), novel 199 Journal of American History 478, 699
Hurston, Zora Neale 682 Journal of Commonwealth and Postcolonial Stud-
Hynes, Gladys 428 ies 492
Journal of Film and Video 716
Ibsen, Henrik 220, 258, 579, 593, 594, 606, Journal of Popular Culture 502
674, 724 Journal of Social History 484, 599
Ichikawa, Fusae 475 Journal of Victorian Culture 524
Ide, Kikue, address 350, 544 Journalism and journalists I-5, I-9, I-10, 388,
Illinois Historical Journal 660 609, 725, 796
The Illustrated London News 576 Joyce, James 764
Independent 224 Juana, Alcira Arancibia, editor 553
India 124, 409, 713 Jusová, Iveta, book 554
Inferiorities 262
Ingalls, John J. (Sen.) 224 Kabru, Osanai 546
Ingram, Angela, editor 545, 769 Kaffka, Margit 701, 787
Institute of Women Journalists 388 Kafka, Franz 788
Intersections: Gender, History and Culture in the Kanoko, Okamoto 628
Asian Context 546 Kaplan, Darola M., editor 712
Iota (aka Kathleen Mannington Caffyn) 56, Kazue, Muta 527; article 555
340, 657; novels 37, 98 Keathley, Elizabeth Lorraine, Ph.D. diss. 556
Irigary, Luce 522 Keikichi, Istimoto (Baron) 539
Iris 733 Keller, Gottfried 220
Iron, Ralph see Schreiner, Olive Kelley, Florence 642
Irving, Debra, translator 461 Kelly, George, play 343
Irwin, Inez Haynes 642 Kenealy, Arabella 210; article 136; novels 99,
Irwin, Virginia 725 218
Ishii, Kazumi, article 546 Kennard, Mrs. Edward 783
Israel, Betsy, book 547 Kent, Susan Kingsley, book 557
Isreals, Belle Lindnar 766 Kenton, Edna, articles 280, 297–99
Italy 444, 743 Kerr, Sophie, short story 344
Kersley, Gillian, book 558
Jacobus, Mary, editor 548 Kessemeier, Gesa, book 559
James, Henry 481, 640, 720, 792 Kessler-Harris, Alice, editor 461
Janitschek, Maria 452 Keun, Irmgard 564, 758, 759
Japan 241, 242, 325, 342, 350, 384, 475, 539, Khatun, Akhter Mahal Syeda 372
546, 555, 595, 628, 674, 692, 723 Kikue, Yamakawa 674
Index
King, Lynda J., article 560
Kingscote, Adeline G. I. see Cleeve, Lucas
Kinross, Albert, novel 100
Kiper, Florence, article 306
Kipling, Rudyard 669, 670
Kirkpatrick, Helen 725
Kitch, Carolyn L., book 561
Knob, Albert 452
Kóhler, Angelika 527; book chapter 562
Kolb, Deborah, article 563
Kollontai, Alexandra 461, 480, 536, 679; essay
324
Kopchovsky, Annie “Londonderry” I-10, I-11
Kosta, Barbara, article 564
Kovalevsky, Sonia 133
Kovikova, Irina, book chapter 565
Kramarae, Cheris, book 566
Kronig, Jytte, editor 536
Krull, Wessel, editor 421
Kryder, LeeAnne Giannone, article 567
Kucich, John, book 568
Kuhn, Anna K.: book 569; editor 791
Kulba, Tracy, Ph.D. diss. 570
Kürtosi, Katalin, editor 785
Labé, Louise 149
Labor see Employment and labor
The Ladies’ Home Journal I-9, 328, 700
Lady’s Pictorial 42
The Lady’s Realm 183, 190, 191, 195, 200, 209,
263
Lady’s World 230
La Follette, Belle Case (Mrs. Robert) 773
La Follette, Robert 773
La Follette’s Weekly 773
Laity, Cassandra: article 572; Ph.D. diss. 571
Lamarck, Jean-Baptist 473
Lamb, Stephen 624
Lancefield, R. T., novel 171
Lang, Fritz 476
Langäs, Unni 784
Langhorne, Nancy I-6
Larsen, Nella 539, 682; novels 351, 355
Larson, Jil, article 573
Larsson, Lisbeth 784
Latchkey I-8
Latinos 531
Laughlin, Clara Elizabeth 660
Laurencin, Marie 428
Lavin, Maud Katherine: book chapter 575;
Ph.D. diss. 574
Lavrut, Louise 626
Law, Graham, article 576
Lawrence, D. H. 499, 764; novel 330
Leaker, Catherine Joan, Ph.D. diss. 577
Ledger, Sally I-15, 668; articles 578, 583;
books 581, 582; book chapter 580; editor
466, 519, 581, 584, 585; essay 579
Lee, Vernon 710
Lees, Edith (Mrs. Henry H. Ellis) 404
Lefko, Stefana Lee, Ph.D. diss. 586
186
Legacy: A Journal of American Women Writers
408, 751
Leighton, Dorothy, novel 41
Lemons, J. Stanley, Ph.D. diss. 587
Lempicka, Tamara de 428
Lerner, Gerda, editor 588
Lesbian relationships 8, 349, 428, 637
Leslie, Amy 391
Leslie’s Weekly I-13
Leverson, Ada 710, 717
Levin, Eve, translator/editor 656
Levy, Amy 414, 554, 755
Lewis, Jane, editor 589
Lewis, Lily 609
Libraries and librarians 278, 386
Life I-9, 138, 181, 182, 259, 265, 275, 352, 607
Lin, Li-Chun, Ph.D. diss. 590
Lindén, Claudia 784
Ling, Ding 463
Lingyu, Ruan I-14, 511, 512
Linton, Elizabeth (also Eliza) Lynn 432, 736;
novels 42, 101
The Literary Criterion 497
Literature 296, 340, 374, 377, 411, 414, 507,
780
Literature Compass 521
Liu, Jui-Chi (Rachel), Ph.D. diss. 591
Llafur: Journal of the Society ... 779
Lockwood, Belva 588
Lombraso, Caesar, scientific study 219
London, Jack 483, 662; novels 244, 271, 320
A London Magazine 172
London Truth 607
Long, John Luther 630
Loos, Anita 758
Lowy, Dina B.: book 593; Ph.D. diss. 592
Loy, Mina 411
Lu, Sheldon Hsiao-peng 511; editor 512, 639
Lubin Manufacturing Co. I-13
Lucas, John 499
Ludovici, Anthony M. I-15, 739
Luhan, Mabel Dodge 365, 684
Macbeth, Madge 415
MacCorrie, John Paul, essay 137
MacDaniels, Frances Cochran 714
Mackay, Barbara, DFA thesis 594
Mackay, Isabel Ecclestone 415
Mackie, Vera, book 595
MacNicol, Bessie 740
Macphail, Andrew (Dr.) 259
MacPike, Loralee, article 596
Maier, Sarah E., article 597
Mäkinen, Helka, Ph.D. diss. 598
Malet, Lucas 340; article 249
Mally, Lynn, article 599
Mammin, Jeanne 428
Manchester Guardian 273
Mangum, Teresa 667; book 601; book chapter
602; Ph.D. diss. 600
Mann, Mary E., novel 102
 187
Manners 118, 189, 193
Manos, Nikki Lee: book 604; book chapter
603; editor 602
Marchant, Jamie, article 605
Marcus, Jane, article 606
Marcus, Laura I-15
Marholm Hansson, Laura see Hansson, Laura
Marholm
Marks, Patricia, book 607
Marriage I-7, 192, 194, 195, 213, 262, 268,
280, 395, 430, 497, 501, 502, 727, 774
Marriner, Gerald L., article 608
Marsh, Reginald 759
Marsh, Richard, novel 103
Marshall, Gail, editor 580
Martin, Edward Sandford, essay 261
Martin, Helen Reimensnyder 393
Martin, Linda Wagner, editor 611
Martin, Margaret Kathleen, Ph.D. diss. 609
Martin, Susan K., article 610
Martin, Terence, editor 748
Martin, Wendy, book chapter 611
Marx, Eleanor 404, 534, 709
Marx, Magdaleine I-15, 739
Mass media 561, 574
Matheson, E., poems 43, 104
Matter-Seibel, Sabina 526; book 612
Matthews, Jean V., book 612
Maule, Marie K. 509; short story 201
Maupassant, Guy du 220
McArthur, Judith N., book 614
McCarthy, Kathleen D., book 615
McClung, Nellie 415
McClure, Nancye Jane, Ph.D. diss. 616
McCracken, L., article 360
McCracken, Scott 584; editor 581, 585
McCullough, Mary Katherine, Ph.D. diss. 617
McDonald, Frances 419, 529
McDonald, Jan, article 618
McDonald, Margaret 419, 529
McFall, Frances Elizabeth Bellenden-Clark see
Grand, Sarah
McIlwraith, Jean N. 415
McKenna, Isobel Kerwin, Ph.D. diss. 619
McKinney, Lauren D., Ph.D. diss. 620
McLaren, Angus, book 621
McMenamin, Hugh L. I-15, 739
McMullen, Lorraine, editor 415
McNamara, Mary Jo, article 622
McNease, Francesca Mallory, Ph.D., diss. 623
Meade, Elizabeth Thomasina, novel 202
Meade, T. A., article 105
Meisel-Hess, Grete 785
Melbourne Sportsman 610
Melosh, Barbara, editor 749
Mena, Maria Cristina 393
Mendez, Concha 659
Meredith, George 203, 464, 510, 756; novel 272
Meskimmon, Marsha: book chapter 624; edi-
tor 624
Metcalfe, poem 138
Index
Mew, Charlotte 717
Meynell, Alice 732; diatribe 139
Meyrick, Geraldine, poem 248
Michigan Quarterly Review 737
Middleton, Christina see Syrett, Netta
Miles, Rosie 584
Milholl, Inez 365
Mill, John Stuart 56, 510, 771
Millay, Edna St. Vincent 625
Miller, G. Noyes 9
Miller, Kenneth Hayes 749
Miller, Nina, Ph.D. diss. 625
Millet, Kate 499
Minh-ha, Trinh T. 723
Mitchell, Delores, article 626
Modern Austrian Literature 560
Modern Language Notes 726
Montagu, Mary Wortley (Lady) 233
Montgomery, L. M. 415, 491
The Monthly Packet 118
Moodie, Marion 715
Moody, William Vaughn 503, 636
Moore, Frank Frankfurt, novel 255
Moore, George 464; short stories 106
Moore, Marianne 411
Morality I-5
Moreland, Kim, article 627
Morgan-Dockrell, Mrs. C. essay 140
Mori, Maryellen T., article 628
Morris, William 402
Morton, Martha 456
Morton, R. I-14
Mourning Dove 538
Movies see Film and movies
Mueller, H. F., article 352
Munro, Eleanor, book 629
Münsterberg, Margarete, novel 300
Murder see Crime
Murnau, F. W. 407
Murphy, Emily 570
Murphy, Gretchen, article 630
Murphy, Mary (Patricia): article 632; book
633; Ph.D. diss. 631
Music I-14
Musil, Robert 560
Mussolini, Rachele Guidi (Mrs. Benito) 444
Mutual Life of New York 182
Naeve-Bucher, Ursula 784
Nash, Mary, article 634
Nation Woman’s Party 642
National Academy of Design I-15
Native American 346, 393, 538
Negro see African Americans; Biracial women
Nelken, Margarita 659
Nelson, Carolyn Christensen, editor 635
Neohelicon 787
Nesbit, Edith 542, 732
Netherlands I-6, 421, 525, 683
Nethersole, Olga 663
New, Birgitta 784
Index 188
New England Magazine 146
New England Theatre Journal 485
New Orleans, LA 13
New Outlook 73
New Theatre Quarterly 618
New York History 447
New York Times 43
New York Tribune 104, 205
New York World I-10, I-11
Newlin, Keith, editor 636
Newton, Esther 448; article 637
Newton, Henry Chase see Henry, Richard
Ng, Yee-Ling, Ph.D. diss. 638
Nie, Er, poem 639
Niemtzow, Annette, Ph.D. diss. 640
Nineteenth Century 14–16, 33, 38, 50, 161, 210
Nineteenth Century Fiction 446
Noble, James Ashcroft 90
Nord, Deborah Epstein, book 641
Nordau, Max 115
Norman, Mrs. Henry see Dowie, Mènie Muriel
Norris, Charles G., novel 333
Norris, Frank 405, 406; novel 221
Norton, Mary Beth, editor 642
North American Review 24–26, 44, 161, 552, 694
NWSA Journal 596, 734
Occupations see Employment
O’Connell,—(Cardinal) 304
Ohio History 714
Ohio Liberal Society 128
Old Woman 64, 71, 87, 190, 191, 200
Oliphant, Margaret, article 141
O’Neill, Rose 469
Oppenheim, Annie Isabella, short story 172
Osborne, Deirdre I-15
Others: A Magazine of the New Verse 411
Ouida (aka Marie Louise de la Ramée) I-5, 25,
340, 494, 552, 694; article 44
The Outlook 158, 245
Owen, Chandler, article 334
Owens, Carolyn Jill Tedford, Ph.D. diss. 643
Pabst, Georg Wilhelm 738
Pacific Affairs 350
Pacific Historical Review 426
Packalén, Malgozata Anna 784
Pal, József, editor 785
Palestine 465
Pall Mall Gazette 1, 139
Palmer, Alice Freeman 403
Palmer, Bertha 766
Palmer, Mrs. Potter 440
Pankhurst, Christobel (Miss) 270
Pan-Pacific Woman’s Conference 350
Papillon, Edward Thomas, novel 45
Pappenheim, Marie 556
Paqvalén, Rita 784
Parker, Dorothy 625
Parsons, Deborah I-15
Parsons, Elsie Clews 365
Paston, George (aka Emily Morse Symonds),
novels 46, 107, 173, 222
Patai, Daphne, editor 545, 769
Patraka, Vivian, editor 757
Patten, Simon N., article 307
Patterson, Martha Helen: article 646; book
644; book chapter 645; Ph.D. diss. 647
Paul, Bruno 452
Peard, Frances Mary, novel 174
Pearson, Karl, article 47
Peattie, Elia Wilkinson 660; novel 308
Pepper, Harriet Murdock, Ph.D. diss. 648
Periodicals Review 753
Perrot, Michelle, book chapter 650
Perry, Carolyn, editor 793
Persia 289
Peterson, Samiha Sidhom, translator 227
Petry, Ann 682
Pfister, Manfred, editor 535
Pfisterer, Susan, article 651
Phelps, Elizabeth Stuart 373
Philanthropy 3
Photographers and photography 500
Pickering, Percival, novel 108
Pickthall, Marjorie 415
Pilot 72
Pinero, Arthur Wing 422, 777; plays 109, 110
Piper, P. M. I-14
Pitavy, Souques D., article 652
Plays see Theater
Poets and poetry I-5, I-8, 411, 532, 542, 655
Poland 428, 784
Politics I-5, I-6, 3, 5, 266, 284, 354, 396,
436, 531
Pope, Barbara E., short story 142
Poppenheim, Louisa 549
Popular Science Monthly 132
Porter, Katherine Anne 457
Potter, Beatrix I-5
Priesand, S., book 653
Prieto, Laura R., book 654
Prospects 630, 735
Prostitution see Crime
Psomiades, Kathy Alexis, editor 508
Puck I-10
Pulitzer Prize 356, 729
Pullen, Christine, Ph.D. diss. 655
Punch, or the London Charivari I-9, I-10, 1, 2,
4, 57, 59, 61, 62, 66, 71, 119, 122, 154, 414,
607, 694, 703, 768
Pushkareva, Natalia, book 656
Pykett, Lynn: book 657; book chapter 658
Quance, Roberta, article 659
Quarterly Review 6, 9
Racial issues 775
Radford, Ada 635
Radford, Dollie 532
Raftery, Judith, article 660
Ragan, Ruth, novel 325
 189
Rahman, Majibar 372
Raimond, C. E. (aka Elizabeth Robins) 422,
490, 671, 776; articles/speeches 301; novels
48, 111; see also Robins, Elizabeth
Ralph, Julian, short story 112
Randolph, A. Philip, article 334
Ranfft, Erich 624
Rankin, Jeannette I-6
Raub, Patricia, article 661
Rauh, Ida 684, 722
Redmond, James, editor 777
Reesman, Jeanne Campbell, article 662
Religion 120, 121, 184, 225, 304, 305, 358,
361, 393, 417, 439, 449, 690; Bible 63, 121,
178; Buddhism 241; Jews and Judaism 479,
505, 591, 606, 653; Moslems/Muslims 289,
372, 515
Reid, Flora 419
Reilly, Joy Harriman, Ph.D. diss. 663
Rejane,—(Madame) 454
Rémy, Caroline (Séverine) 673
Rennick, Gregory, exhibition 664
Republican China 511
Reve, Winnifred (Onoto Watanna) 415
The Review of English Studies 703
Review of Reviews 7, 68
Revista de Occidente 659
Revue Francois d Etudes Americaines 652
Rhetoric Review 765
Rice, Elmer, play 356
Rich, Charlotte Jennifer, Ph.D. diss. 665
Richardson, Angelique I-15; article 667; book
668; editor 523, 579, 694, 780, 783; Ph.D.
diss. 666
Richardson, Eudora Ramsay 766
Richardson, LeeAnne Marie: book 670; Ph.D.
diss. 669
Richardson, Samuel 367
Rijnbout, Frans A., Ph.D. diss. 671
Rinehart, Mary Roberts 796
Rita (aka Eliza Humphreys), novels 49, 113
Ritchie,—(Lady) 340
Robbins, Trina 527; book 672
Roberts, Mary Louise, book 673
Robertson, Peter, novel 237
Robins, Elizabeth (aka C. E. Raimond) 340,
554, 746, 777; essays 302; play 256; see also
Raimond, C. E.
Robins, Margaret Dreier 642
Robinson, John Bunyon, poems, diatribe 143
Rochelson, Meri-Jane: book 604; editor 602
Rodd-Rasplica, Laurel, book chapter 674
Rodman, Henrietta 365, 684, 722
Roman Empire 10
Roosevelt, Theodore 249
Rosas, Yolanda, editor 553
Rosenberg, Rosalind, book chapter 675
Rosenzweig, Linda W., book 676
Ross, Frances Mitchell, article 677
Ross, Martin 340
Ross, Mary Lowrey 415
Index
Ross, Sara, article 678
Rotkirch, Anna 784; book 679
Rowe, Dorothy 624
Rowe, Victoria, Ph.D. diss. 680
Rowland, Diane Baker, Ph.D. diss. 681
Royster, Beatrice, Ph.D. diss. 682
Rudnick, Lois Palken: article 530; books 684,
685; editor 530, 685, 752; essay 683
Ruether, Rosemary Radford, book 686
Rugg, George, skit 144
Rupp, Leila J., article 687
Ruskin, John 510
Russell, Mona L., Ph.D. diss. 688
Russell, Penny, article 689
Russell, Thomas Arthur, Ph.D. diss. 690
Russia 125, 324, 381, 536, 565, 599, 656, 743
Rutherford, Mark (aka William Hale White),
novel 145
Ryan, Mary P. 695; book chapter 691
Ryley, Madeleine Lucette 456
Sagan, Leontine 738
Said, Edward 723
Salinas, Pedro 726
Salvation Army 782
Sánchez, Maria Carla, editor 755
Sand, George 398
Sanger, Margaret 365, 411, 420, 642
Sato, Barbara Hamill, book 692
Saturday Review 64
Scandinavian literature 788
Scanlon, Leon, article 693
Schaffer, Talia 584, 668; book chapter 694;
editor 508
Scharf, Joan, editor 741
Scharf, Lila, editor 741
Scharf, Lois, book 695; editor 691
Schlossberg, Linda, editor 755
Schneider, Carl J., book 696
Schneider, Dorothy, book 696
Schoemerlen, Diane, book 697
Schoenberg, Arnold 556
Scholz, Hannelore, editor 565
Schreiner, Olive (Ralph Iron) 56, 340, 378,
404, 414, 446, 492, 495, 506, 522, 523,
534, 573, 577, 631, 633, 693, 709, 717, 756,
788; article 223; book 281; novel 347
Schulte-Middelich, Bernd, editor 535
Scotland 428
Scott, Ann Firor, articles 698, 699
Scott, Evelyn 754
Scott, H. S., article 28
Scottish Review 178
Scribner’s Magazine 362
Seabury, Emma Playter, rhyme 146
Seaton, Esta Klein, Ph.D. diss. 700
Seaton, Grace Thompson, book 337
SEER (The Slavonic East European Review) 515
Seiseien, Ihara 674
Seitõ Journal 384, 555, 593, 595, 674
Selig Polyscope I-13
Index
Séllei, Nóra 527; essay 701
Seneca Falls Convention 507
Senf, Carol A., article 702
Sex roles 232, 720
Shafts: A Paper for Women and the Working
Classes 17, 104, 488, 753
Shakespeare, William 203
Shapiro, Susan C., article 703
Sharp, Evelyn 197, 717; novels 114, 175; short
stories 273
Sharp, Ingrid 527; essay 704
Shaw, George Bernard 286, 485, 486, 510,
535, 550, 671, 770, 777; plays 176, 238
Sheldon, Edward 306
Shen, Ruihua, Ph.D. diss. 705
Sherrard-Johnson, book 706
Shidzue, Katô 539
Shor, Francis Robert, book 707
Showalter, Elaine 581; article 708; book 709;
editor 710
Sidgwick, Mrs. Alfred 340
Sidgwick, Ethel 340
Siganou-Parren, Kalliroi, play 257
Signs 637
Silberrad, Una L. 340
Silverman, Debra, book chapter 711
Sime, J. G. 415
Simpson, Anne B.: book chapter 712; editor 712
Sinclair, May 340, 473
Singapore 732
Singers-Bigger, Gladys 558
Singh, Uma 713
Singley, Carol J., editor 445
Skram, Amalie 133
Slater, Edith, article 203
Slaybaugh, Douglas, article 714
Smedley, Constance, article 258
Smith, Alys Pearsall, article 50
Smith, Catherine Munn, article 715
Smith, Greg M., article 716
Smith, Joan, editor 717
Smith, John, novel 147
Smith, Sherri Catherine, Ph.D. diss. 718
Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll 448; article 721;
book 720; book chapter 719; editor 461
Sochen, June, book 722
Socialism 225
Södergran, Edith 536
Sokolsky, Anne Elizabeth, Ph.D. diss. 723
Solomon, Alisa, book 724
Somerville, E. C. E. 340
Sorel, Nancy Caldwell, book 725
South Africa I-6, 163, 347, 449
South America 428
South Atlantic Quarterly 608, 698
Southern Literary Journal 754
Southwest Historical Quarterly 370
Sowerby, Githa 490; play 288
Spain 634, 659, 726
Spencer, Herbert 473
Spires, Robert C., article 726
190
Spofford, Harriet Prescott 648
Sports see Athleticism; Bicycles and bicycling;
Golf; Horses, racing and riding
Spring, Joel H., book 727
Stannard, Henrietta see Winter, John Strange
Stanton, Elizabeth Cady 178; article 224
Steel, Flora Annie 669, 670
Stein, Gertrude 397, 406, 411, 748
Stein, Joseph, article 728
Stephens, Judith L., article 729
Stettheimer, Florine 591
Stetz, Margaret Diane: articles 731, 733; book
730; book chapter 732
Stevens, Doris 687
Stevens, Sarah E., article 735
Steward, Ella Seass, article 233
Stieglitz, Alfred 411
Stocking, Annie W., article 289
Stoddard, Elizabeth Barstow 616
Stoker, Bram 407, 669, 670, 702
Stokes, Rose Pastor 365; play 321
Stott, Annette, article 735
Strasser, Arthur 452
Strindberg, August 220, 594
Stubbs, Patricia, book 736
Studi Storica 444
Studies in American Fiction 483
Studies in the Humanities 407
Studies in the Literary Imagination 367, 731
Studlar, Gaylyn, article 734
Stutfield, Hugh, articles 115, 177
Suárez, Clementina 498
Sudermann, Hermann 593; play 116
Suffrage I-6, 3, 65, 247, 261, 267, 268, 273,
275, 283, 299, 360, 387, 399, 464, 514, 557,
595, 642, 654, 744, 745, 775
Sugimoto, Etsu 538
Sumako, Matsui 674
Sutton, Katie, article 738
Swan, Annie S. 389
Sweden 784
Sweeney, Susan Elizabeth, editor 445
Switzerland 424
Sykes, A. G. P., article 117
Symonds, Emily Morse see Paston, George
Symphonies 167
Symposia I-15
Sypher, Eileen 584
Syrett, Netta (Christina Middleton) 340, 635,
643, 717; novels 148, 239, 274, 290, 314,
322, 357
T. P. W., article 178
Taggard, Genevieve 625
Talmadge, Norma 716
Tanner, Ailsa, book 740
Tarbell, Ida I-5, 568
Tarrant, Sasha Ranaé Adams, book 540
Taylor, James M. 155
Tekahionwake see Johnson, E. Pauline
Tekey, Adeline M. 415
 191
Temple Bar 125
Temple Magazine 189
Terborg-Penn, Roslyn: book chapter 741, 742;
editor 742
Terrell, Mary Church 440, 642
Texas Studies in Literature and Language 468
Theater (includes buildings, plays) 27, 109, 260,
263, 276, 279, 306, 356, 380, 391, 421–23,
429, 437, 454, 485, 486, 489, 490, 503, 530,
563, 569, 571, 572, 579, 594, 599, 618, 635,
636, 663, 673, 729, 747, 770, 791
The Theatre Journal 729
Thébaud, Françoise, book 743
Thomas, Augustus 636
Thomas, Bertha 398
Thomas, M. Carey 567, 676
Thomas, Mary Martha: article 745; book 744
Thomas, Sue 526; book chapter 746
Thompson, Doreen Helen, Ph.D. diss. 747
Thompson, Hilary, editor 491
Thompson, Maurice, essay 149
Thompson, Nicola Diana, editor 378, 462, 658
Thorneycroft, Ellen 340
Tichi, Cecelia, book chapter 748
Ticknor, Caroline 232; article 234
Tilley, Vesta 755
Tilly, Louise A., editor 757
The Times 317, 473
Times Literary Supplement 708
The Times Magazine 254
Tivoli (aka Horace William Bleackley) novel 51
To-day’s Woman 105
Todd, Ellen Wiley: book 750; book chapter 749
Todd, Mary Ives, novel 204
Toller, Ernst 569, 791
Tolstoy, Leo 220
Tomlinson, Annie E. I-7, article 150
Tomlinson, Susan, article 751
Tompuri, Elli 598
Tooley, Sarah A., article 151
Toshiko, Tamura 723
Traffic 738
Treichler, Paula A., book 566
Trémauden, Ernestine de, translator 225
Trimberger, Kay 530; essay 752
Troubridge,—(Lady) 195
Truth, or, Testimony for Christ 121
Tulsa Studies in Women’s Literature 400, 632
Turkey 243, 257, 515
Turn-of-the-Century Women 385, 509
Tusan, Michelle Elizabeth, article 753
Twentieth Century Literature 774
Tynan, Katharine 340
Tyrell, George (Rev.), tract 179
Tyrer, Pat, article 754
U. V. W., article 118
Ullman, Sharon, book chapter 755
U. S. Supreme Court 642
Univ. of Michigan Papers in Women’s Studies
693
Index
Valesh, Eva 460
Vanity Fair 5
van der Hoeven, Adriaan, editor 536
van Maanen, Hans, book editor 421
Vedder, Catherine Mary, Ph.D. diss. 756
Vereker, Mabel (The Hon.) 195
Vicinus, Martha: book 448; editor 719; essay
757
Victorian Literature and Culture 402, 768
Victorian Newsletter 552
Victorian Review: The Journal... 597
Victorian Studies 435, 551, 667, 702
Viebig, Clara 586
Voice of the Negro 612
von Ankum, Katharina: articles 758, 759; edi-
tor 477
von Bülow, Fried 789
von Druskowitz, Helene 442
von Harbou, Thea 476, 586
Von Papen, Manuela, article 760
von Meysenbug, Malwida 442
von Salis, Meta 442
von Schirnhofer, Resa 442
von Sternberg, Josef 738
von Stroheim, Erich 405
Von Troll-Borostyani, Von Irma 9
Wachter, Phyllis E., Ph.D. diss. 761
Waelti-Walters, Jennifer, article 762
Wagner-Lawlor, Jennifer A. 732
Waka, Yamada 674
Wales 399, 779
Walker, William H. I-7
Wallinger, Sylvia, editor 763
Walls, Elizabeth MacLeod: article 765; editor
786; Ph.D. diss. 764
Walter, Eugene 503
Ward, Mrs. Humphry (aka Mary Augusta) 9,
340, 502; novel 52
Warden, Gertrude: novel 152; play 253
Ware, Susan, book 766
Ware, Theron (Rev.) I-6
Warford, Pamela Neal, Ph.D. diss. 767
Warne, Vanessa, article 768
Warren, Harriet Merrick (Mrs.) 417
Washington, Booker T. 612
Washington, Margaret Murray 647
Watanna, Onoto see Eaton, Winnifred; Reve,
Winnifred
Waters, Chris 545; book chapter 769
Watson, Barbara Bellow, book chapter 770
Watts, Cedric, article 771
Waugh, Evelyn 764
Waverly Magazine 142
Weaks, Mary Louise, editor 793
Webb, Charles Henry, poem 205
Webb, Frank Rush I-14
Weber, Marianne, book 309
The Weekly Call (Topeka, KS) 84
Weininger, Susan S., exhibition catalog 772
Weintraub, Rodelle, editor 770
Index 192

Weisberger, Bernard A., book chapter 773 The Woman’s Column 65, 70, 155
Wells, H. G. 286, 416, 534, 693, 712; novel 264 Woman’s Era 440
The Wellsian: the Journal of the H. G. Wells So- The Woman’s Gazette 753
ciety 416 Woman’s Home Companion 344
West, June B., article 774 Woman’s Journal 72, 119, 120, 124, 150
West, Shearer, editor 624 Woman’s Missionary Friend 417
Westminster Gazette 58 The Woman’s Signal 6, 183, 191, 753
Westminster Review 34, 90, 117, 134, 161, 169, The Woman’s Standard 180, 236
184, 203, 266 The Woman’s Tribune 63
Wetherald, Ethelwyn 415 Woman’s Work 289
Wetmore, Bessy 450 Women: A Cultural Review 578
Wharton, Edith 340, 373, 408, 450, 645, 647, Women in fiction 215
665, 717, 748, 792, 795, 796; novels 250, Women’s Club 201
282, 291, 303, 323 Women’s clubs 549
Wheeler, Marjorie Spruill, book 775 Women’s Foreign Missionary Society 409
Whistler, J. M. 500 The Women’s Herald 753
Whitby, Beatrice, novel 53 Women’s History Review 399, 514, 516, 760
White, William Hale see Rutherford, Mark Women’s rights 9
Whitney, Gertrude Vanderbilt 615 Women’s Studies 472
Wiggin, Kate Douglas 340 Women’s Studies International Forum 389, 538
Wilde, Oscar 508, 525, 534, 535, 581, 606, 776 Women’s Trade Union League 642
Wilder, Helen 206 Women’s Writing 375, 466, 517, 584
Wiley, Catherine: book chapter 777; Ph.D. Wood, Joanna E. 497
diss. 776 Wood, Thelma 428
Wilkins, Mary Eleanor 340 Woods, Margaret Louisa 340
Wilkinson, Marion Birnie 549 Woolf, Virginia 517, 649, 764, 787; novels
Willard, Carla, book chapter 778 315, 327, 353
Willard, Emma 699 Working-class 15
Willard, Frances 766 World War I 484, 502, 555, 650, 681, 701, 719
Willcocks, M. P. 340 World War II 595, 681
Williams, Ellen, work 226 Wormwood, Edyth M., rhyme 316
Williams, Fannie Barrier (Mrs. Samuel L. Wotton, Mabel E. 635
Williams) 440 Wright, Almroth (Sir) 473
Williams, Harold Herbert, book 340 Wright, Barbara D.: book 569; book chapter
Williams, Jesse Lynch 636, 729; play 310 791; editor 791
Williams, Sian Rhiannon, article 779 Wright, Dorothea Curtis, Ph.D. diss. 792
Willis, Chris I-15, 668; book 668; book chap- Wright, Emily Powers, book article 793
ter 780; editor 523, 579, 694, 780, 783 Wynne, Mary (Mrs.) 195
Wilson, Margaret Gibbons, book 781
Winchester, Boyd, article 240 Xai, Ai I-14
Winslow, Charles Edward Amory, play transla- Xin, Bing 463
tion 116 Xun, Lu 463
Winslow, Mary 60
Winston, Diane H., book 782 Yagil, L., article 794
Winston, Ella W., tract 153 Yang, Dong, Ph.D. diss. 795
Winter, John Strange (aka Henrietta Stannard) Yeats, W. B. 571, 572
340; novel 54 Yezierska, Anzia 766
Wintle, Sarah 668; book chapter 783 Yin, Lu 463
Wischmann, Antje 784 Young Woman 87, 192
Witt-Brattström, Ebba, editor 784 Yuanjun, Fang 463
Wittman, Livia Käthe, book chapter 785 Yver, Colette 762
Wittman, Livia Z.: articles 787, 789; book
chapter 788; essay 786 Zimmern, Helen 442
Woloch, Nancy, book 790 Zink, Abbey Lynn, Ph.D. diss. 796
Woman I-8; Literary Supplement 39 Zitkala-sa 393
Woman at Home 389 Zuchmayer, Carl 569, 791
Woman’s Art Journal 452, 626
Woman’s Christian Temperance Union
(WCTU) 698