Notes Compiled by

BSIT (II) Students

2010-2014
Commercial Software
Commercial software is a type of application software. Commercial software is designed and
developed for sale general public requirements. Commercial software refers to any software
program that must be paid for in some way. There is several type of commercial software:
1- Stand Alone Programs:
It is a form of commercial software. Standard Alone software are those which are build for any
particular task. It is an application that performs only one type of task. e.g. internet explorer,
window media player etc...

2- Software Suits:
Software suits is also a type of commercial software. This software is available in package
format they are very common in used. E.g. Microsoft Office family, Coral family etc....

3- Shareware Software:
Shareware software is an important and very popular type of commercial software. In which the
developer share it with other user through Internet without paying for certain days. After that, if
user wants to use that software then he has to pay for it and purchase it.

Data Retrieval / Data Recovery

Data recovery is the process of salvaging data from damaged, failed, corrupted, or inaccessible
secondary storage media when it cannot be accessed normally. Often the data are being salvaged
from storage media such as hard disk drives, storage tapes, CDs, DVDs, RAID, and other
electronics. Recovery may be required due to physical damage to the storage device or logical
damage to the file system that prevents it from being mounted by the host operating system.

Data Storage
Computer data storage, often called storage or memory, refers to computer components and
recording media that retain digital data used for computing for some interval of time. Computer
data storage provides one of the core functions of the modern computer, that of information
retention. It is one of the fundamental components of all modern computers, and coupled with a
central processing unit (CPU, a processor).

Storage Devices
A storage device is necessary for recording data. One of the most important tasks performed by
computers is storing data. Different types of devices are used to store data. The data stores in
digital forms. The computer has two main types of data storage devices that are given here
under:
Magnetic Storage Devices:
Magnetic storage device is a technology available in multiple forms, such as a floppy disk drive,
a tape drive and a hard drive. A magnetic storage device works on a principal of magnetic

1
 Notes Compiled by
BSIT (II) Students
2010-2014
charge. Magnetic storage was first used for audio recording, and is generally referred to as
magnetic recording. A magnetic storage device is a device that uses a magnetic head to read and
write data to and from a magnetically medium. There are many types of magnetic storage
devices. Audiotape is an early example of magnetic recording that later transitioned into use for
computer data storage. A computer's hard disk is a more modern example of magnetic data
storage. A floppy disk is yet another example.
Optical Storage Devices:
An optical storage device is an electro-mechanical unit that can save and retrieve information on
a special disc medium using a laser light. Optical drives are designed to work with several types
of media CDs, DVDs and Blu-ray discs.
The standard storage capacity for CDs is about 700MB (megabytes). The data on optical discs is
conservatively estimated to be viable for five to 10 years, so discs storing valuable data should
be checked occasionally and fresh copies made after several years Optical discs are used to store
audio, video and computer data. A laser beam reads optical storage devices. Generally they have
a more limited storage capacity when compared to magnetic devices.

Data Analysis
Analysis of data is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling data with the
goal of highlighting useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting decision making.
Data analysis has multiple facets and approaches, encompassing diverse techniques under a
variety of names, in different business, science, and social science domains.

Computer Data Processing

Computer data processing is any process that uses a computer program to enter data and
summaries, analyze or otherwise convert data into usable information. The process may be
automated and run on a computer. It involves recording, analyzing, sorting, summarizing,
calculating, disseminating and storing data. Because data is most useful when well presented and
actually informative, data-processing systems are often referred to as information systems.
Nevertheless, the terms are roughly synonymous, performing similar conversions; data-
processing systems typically manipulate raw data into information, and likewise information
systems typically take raw data as input to produce information as output.
Element of Data Processing:
In order to be processed by a computer, data needs first be converted into a machine-readable
format. Once data is in digital format, various procedures can be applied on the data to get useful
information. Data processing may involve various processes, including:
Data summarization
Data aggregation
Data validation
Data tabulation
Statistical analysis

Network Protocol
A network is a set of technologies including hardware, software, and media that can be used to
connect computer together enabling them to communicate, exchange information, and share
2
 Notes Compiled by
BSIT (II) Students
2010-2014
resources in real time. Network allows many users to access shared data and programs almost in
scantly. When data and programs are stored on a network and are shared, individual user can
substantially reduce the need for programs on there own computer.
One way to categorize the different types of computer network designs is by their scope or scale.
For historical reasons, the networking industry refers to nearly every type of design as some kind
of area network. Common examples of area network types are:
 LAN - Local Area Network
 MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
 WAN - Wide Area Network
Protocols:
Each LAN is governed by a protocol, which is an agreed –upon for transmitting data between
two devices. There are many standard protocols. Each has particular advantages and
disadvantages. Some protocols are simpler than others, some are more reliable, and some are
faster. To effectively communicate, a user must have the same protocol installed on the local PC
and the remote PC to make a connection Protocols take the form of software or hardware that
must be installed on every computer on the network. For an Ethernet network, usually the
operating system software tells the computer exactly how to break up, format, send receive, and
reassemble data using the TCP/IP, Net BIOS / NetBEUI, or IPX/SPX protocols. Without such
software installed, a computer cannot participate in the network.
Protocols, using their own methods, break data down into small packets in preparation for
transportation. Linking devices pass these packets to the various pieces of equipment, including
other computer and printers that are attached to the network. As discussed earlier in this chapter,
a packet is a data segment that includes a header, payload, and control elements that are
transmitted together.
TCP/IP Originally associated with UNIX hosts, TCP/IP is the protocol of the Internet and is
required on any computer that must communicate across the Internet.
Network Hardware:
Network hardware is the individual components of a network system that are responsible for
transmitting data and facilitating the operations of a computer network. Although a network
contains many hardware components, there are several basic categories that make up the
complete operations of a network system. Here are some of the different categories and how they
contribute as a whole to the overall functioning of a network system.
Categories of Different Network Hardware:
Network Router: A network router is a hardware device that is connected to multiple channels
for different networks through an interface that is situated on each network. The router is usually
located within the layers of a network that determine the path for the transfer of data with the
router acting as a processing unit for information packets.
Network Interface Card: Network interface cards are used to connect each computer to the
network so they can communicate with the network router to receive information packets. The
interface cards determine the infrastructure of a local area network (LAN) and allow all of the
computers to connect to the network.
Network Switches: Network switches work similar to routers because they both copy
information from one area of the network to the other. However, network switches contain
multiple ports for copying frames of information from one port to the other. Like routers,
switches operate within the layers of a network and evaluate every frame before determining the
port in which the frame should be copied

3
 Notes Compiled by
BSIT (II) Students
2010-2014
Network Bridge: A network bridge divides traffic on a local area network by separating the
LAN into several different segments. It is also responsible for filtering data by determining the
data destination or discarding unnecessary data. Network bridges operate within the layers of the
network and also control the data that crosses the boundaries from one local area network to the
other.
Microprocessor
A microprocessor incorporates most or all of the functions of a computer's central processing
unit (CPU) on a single integrated circuit (IC, or microchip). The first microprocessors emerged in
the early 1970s and were used for electronic calculators. Using binary-coded decimal (BCD)
arithmetic on 4-bit words. During the 1960s, computer processors were often constructed out of
small and medium-scale Cs containing from tens to a few hundred transistors. The integration of
a whole CPU onto a single chip greatly reduced the cost of processing power. Since the early
1970s, the increase in capacity of microprocessors has been a consequence of Moore's Law,
which suggests that the number of transistors that can be fitted onto a chip doubles every two
years.
Working:
The microprocessors are used to process data in a C.P.U. It is the main part of computer. All the
processing is done in processors. The processors are also work when we start our computers all
the instruction can be copied in RAM with the help of processors. We can say that the processor
is the part, which convert data into information after processing.
Manufacturer of processors:
The main manufacturers of processors are:
1. INTEL
2. AMD.
3. FREE SCALE.
4. IBM.
Now a day, Intel microprocessors are very popular and very common used in everywhere
CELERON is the newest processor of Intel its speed clock is about 500MHZ and up.

Flash Memory
Flash memory is a non-volatile computer storage chip that can be electrically erased and
reprogrammed. Flash memory is non-volatile, meaning no power is needed to maintain the
information stored in the chip.
Flash memory was developed on 1994 IBM, Intel, Microsoft and other four companies. Mr.
Shoji Ariizumi suggested the name “Flash”. It is primarily used in USB (Universal Serial Bus)
Flash Drives, Memory Cards (Digital Camera’s, Mobile Phones, Digital Audio\Video Players
etc) for general storage and transfer of data between computers and other digital products.

Virtual Memory

4
 Notes Compiled by
BSIT (II) Students
2010-2014
In computing, virtual memory is a memory management technique developed for multitasking
kernels. This technique virtualizes a computer architecture's various hardware memory devices
(such as RAM modules and disk storage drives), allowing a program to be designed as though:
• There is only one hardware memory device and this "virtual" device acts like a RAM
module.
• The program has, by default, sole access to this virtual RAM module as the basis for a
contiguous working memory (an address space).
Systems that employ virtual memory:
• Use hardware memory more efficiently than systems without virtual memory.
• Make the programming of applications easier by:
o Hiding fragmentation.
o Delegating to the kernel the burden of managing the memory hierarchy; there is
no need for the program to handle overlays explicitly.
o Obviating the need to relocate program code or to access memory with relative
addressing.

Smart Card
A smart card, chip card, or integrated circuit card (ICC), is any pocket-sized card with embedded
integrated circuits. There are two broad categories of ICCs. Memory card contain only non-
volatile memory storage components, and perhaps dedicated security logic. Microprocessor cards
contain volatile memory and microprocessor components. The card is made of plastic, generally
polyvinyl chloride or polycarbonate.
A smart card resembles a credit card in size and shape, but inside it is completely different. First
of all, it has an inside -- a normal credit card is a simple piece of plastic. The inside of a smart
card usually contains an embedded microprocessor. The microprocessor is under a gold contact
pad on one side of the card. Think of the microprocessor as replacing the usual magnetic stripe
on a credit card or debit card.
Smarts cards may have up to 8 kilobytes of RAM, 346 kilobytes of ROM, 256 kilobytes of
programmable ROM, and a 16-bit microprocessor. The smart card uses a serial interface and
receives its power from external sources like a card reader. The processor uses a limited
instruction set for applications such as cryptography.

Number System
A number system is a system, which are used to solve our calculations or our daily calculation
problems. A number system is simply a manner of counting. Many different number systems
exsit. Consider a clock, clocks have 24 hours, each composed of 60 minutes. Each minute is
composed of 60 seconds.
Computers, like clocks, have their own number system, the binary number system. For a
computer, everything is number. Number is numbers, letters and puntuation, marks are numbers,
sound and pictures are numbers. Even the computer own instruction are numbers.
The two main types of number system are;
1) Binary system
2) Decimal system
5
 Notes Compiled by
BSIT (II) Students
2010-2014
Binary system:
The binary or base-two numeral system is a system for representing numbers in which a radix of
two is used; that is, each digit in a binary numeral may have either of two different values.
Typically, the symbols 0 and 1 are used to represent binary numbers. Owing to its relatively
straightforward implementation in electronic circuitry, virtually all-modern computers use the
binary system internally.
Computer data is reduced to binary numbers because transistors that have only two possible
states perform computer processing: ON and OFF. The binary number system works the same
way as the decimal system, except that has only two variables symbols (0 and 1) rather than ten
(0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 and 9).
Decimal system:
A number system that uses ten numeral digits (decimal digits), 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9. Each digit
position has a place value of 1,10,100,1000, and so on, beginning with the least significant (right
most) digit. Also known as Base 10.

User Interface
The user interface is the space where interaction between humans and machines occurs. The goal
of interaction between a human and a machine at the user interface is effective operation and
control of the machine, and feedback from the machine, which aids the operator in making
operational decisions. Examples of this broad concept of user interfaces include the interactive
aspects of computer operating systems, hand tools, heavy machinery operator controls, and
process controls.

A user interface is the system by which people (users) interact with a machine. The user interface
includes hardware (physical) and software (logical) components. User interfaces exist for various
systems, and provide a means of:

• Input, allowing the users to manipulate a system, and/or

• Output, allowing the system to indicate the effects of the users' manipulation.

Graphical User Interface

Graphical user interface (GUI) is a type of user interface that allows users to interact with
electronic devices with images rather than text commands. GUIs can be used in computers, hand-
held devices such as MP3 players, portable media players or gaming devices, household
appliances and office equipment. A GUI represents the information and actions available to a
user through graphical icons and visual indicators such as secondary notation, as opposed to text-
based interfaces, typed command labels or text navigation. The actions are usually performed
through direct manipulation of the graphical elements.
The term GUI is historically restricted to the scope of two-dimensional display screens with
display resolutions capable of describing generic information. The term GUI earlier might have
been applicable to other high-resolution types of interfaces that are non-generic, such as
videogames, or not restricted to flat screens, like volumetric displays.