Gender & Behaviour 2014, 12(2), 6286-6300

Copyright © 2014 Ife Centre for Psychological Studies/Services, Ile-Ife, Nigeria ISSN: 1596-9231
Influence of HIV Testing on Knowledge of HIV/AIDS Prevention Practices and
Transmission among Undergraduate Youths in North-West University, Mafikeng

Bigala Paul1 Adebowale Stephen Ayo1, 2 & Oladipo Samuel Ekundayo1, 3

1 Population Training and Research unit, North West University (MC), South Africa
2 Department of Epidemiology and medical Statistics, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
3 Department of Psychology, Tai Solarin University of Education, Ijebu Ode, Nigeria

This study examines factors influencing knowledge of HIV/AIDS Prevention Practices

and Transmission (KHAPPT) among young undergraduate students (15-24 years).
Knowledge composite index was computed for 820 randomly selected students. Chi-
square, ANOVA and multinomial logistic regression were used for the analyses (α=.05).
The overall mean knowledge score was 16.5±3.4 out of a possible score of 28. About
83% of the students have undergone HIV test, 21.0% have high KHAPPT, 18% said
there is cure for the disease, 23% believed that asking for condom is embarrassing and
11.7% said it is safe to share unsterilized sharp objects with friends or family members.
The likelihood of high KHAPPT was higher among students who have had HIV test
(OR=3.314; C.I=1.787-6.145, p<0.001) even when other variables were used as control.
The identified predictors of high KHAPPT were; ever had HIV test, faculty, and ever
used any HIV/AIDS prevention services. North-West University Mafikeng should
intensify efforts on the HIV/AIDS awareness program on the campus.

Keywords: HIV/AIDS Knowledge; Undergraduate students; HIV testing; Mafikeng

For decades now, the Human Immune-
deficiency Virus (HIV) has attracted more
global attention than any other single issue
because of its impact on human existence.
For example, globally, 34.0 million [31.4
million–35.9 million] people were living with
HIV at the end of 2011 (UNAIDS, 2012).
Although there is a considerable variance in
the burden and impact of the disease
across continents, regions and countries;
sub-Saharan Africa remains the most
severely affected, with nearly 1 in every 20
adults (4.9%) living with HIV and
accounting for 69% of the people living with
HIV worldwide (UNAIDS, 2012).
UNAIDS (2012) report also affirmed that
the regional prevalence of HIV infection is
nearly 25 times higher in sub-Saharan
Africa than other regions of the world. In
other words, two-thirds of all people
infected with HIV live in sub-Saharan
Africa. On a more specific note, in the entire
African region, the scourge of HIV appears
to be even more in South Africa, where
Statistics South Africa (2013) mid-year
report shows the prevalence estimates and
the total number of people living with HIV
between 2002 - 2013 to have increased
from an estimated 4 million despite several
6286
government and private efforts to tackle the
problem (Statistics South Africa, 2013).
Although the highest HIV prevalence
falls within the 30-34 year age group
(41.5%), documented data has also shown
that the sexually active age group is more
vulnerable (Kamala & Aboud 2006) and the
infection rate among 16-24year age group is
still relatively high at 26.6% (Department of
Health, 2010). Within South Africa,
majority of undergraduate students in the
University are likely to be in age group 16-
24 years; this is a period that has been
characterised by explorative risky
behaviours among university students such
as experimenting with drugs and/or alcohol
and unsafe sexual practices which may
increase the risk of contracting HIV
(Cornelissen, 2005; HEAIDS, 2008). This
therefore calls for an urgent intervention in
order to safe this age group and invariably
preserves the future of the nation as the
group would eventually form the workforce
that will be needed for nation building.
Against this backdrop, it becomes
critical that HIV/AIDS intervention
strategies among university students are
actively promoted and evaluated, but this
cannot be done successfully without an
assessment of the level of knowledge of
Gender & Behaviour, 12(2), 2014
HIV/AIDS prevention as well as knowing
the influence this has on sexual behaviour
of undergraduates.
Realizing that young people are more
vulnerable to the disease and that drastic
action must be taken to salvage the
situation, the Association of Commonwealth
University (ACU) and the South African Vice
Chancellors’ Association recommended that
higher institutions must also join other
stakeholders in the fight against the
pandemic (Chetty, 2000) and this has made
almost all tertiary institutions in South
Africa to put policies in place to curb the
scourge of the disease (Ibidayo, 2010). In
addition to putting policies in place, tertiary
institutional response to HIV pandemic also
include incorporating HIV/AIDS into
curricula, development and implementing
awareness and education programmes,
establishment of voluntary testing and
counselling facilities and development of
research programmes in line with curbing
the spread of HIV.
To create effective and culturally
appropriate promotion campaign for any
preventive measure, the beliefs, attitudes,
and behaviours that are associated with
consistent adoption of any measure need to
be better identified and understood,
therefore Assessing knowledge, attitudes
and practices in HIV preventive cognitions
is an important strategy in determining the
gap in knowledge and its relationship with
attitudes and practices, particularly among
undergraduates, hence the need for a study
as this that investigates knowledge of
HIV/AIDS prevention practices among
undergraduates.
The universities in Africa have become
the mine house for human resource
generation and concentration centres of
future potential leaders of government and
industry. University students paradoxically
fall within the age range of the people in
society that have been mostly affected by
the pandemic and any decimation of this
population by HIV infection will amount to
a waste of investment in education and a
challenge to the drive to develop future
manpower base for any society that
witnesses such. Everything must therefore
be done to ensure the preservation and
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survival of this group from the scourge of
HIV/AIDS.
Undergraduate youths also constitute
the most mobile group in any society and if
care is not taken, they can become
dispersal agents for the spread of HIV. For
example, if already infected while at school,
the undergraduate will carry the infection
along anywhere and everywhere he goes,
thereby becoming a ‘time bomb’ that can
explode at any moment. It is therefore
needful to critically investigate the level of
knowledge of HIV/AIDS prevention
practices among this population group.
Although increased knowledge about
HIV/AIDS may not predict behavioural
change (Oladipo and Sabiti, 2014; Onah,
Mbah, Chukwuka and Ikeme 2004;), yet
knowledge about the disease is a
prerequisite for change (Fawole, Asuzu,
Oduntan and Brieger 1999). Assessing the
level of knowledge of HIV/AIDS prevention
practices and how this affects the sexual
behaviour of university students will
provide useful information on the students’
risky sexual behaviour and this will
invariably inform on their vulnerability to
STIs and STDs. This information will in
turn give direction on policy formulation
and the necessary intervention to be put in
place. It may also provide a model for other
institutions to follow in this regard.
In line with the aforementioned, this
present study therefore examines how HIV
testing would impact on the knowledge of
HIV/AIDS prevention among undergraduate
youths in North-West University (Mafikeng
Campus). This is not only to add to the
body of existing literature on HIV/AIDS
among undergraduates, but also to provide
an empirical assessment/evaluation of the
University’s HIV/AIDS prevention programs
and to be able to give informed and useful
suggestions to the university management
based on the findings of the study. Results
of this study will inform the university
programs on HIV/AIDS the need to
intensify efforts on campaign on KHAPP.
Literature Review
Almost four decades since AIDS was first
reported in Africa, the disease has reached
a situation where progress in prevention,
care and support programs confronts
Paul Bigala et al: HIV Testing and Knowledge of HIV/AIDS Prevention Strategies
uncompromising socio-economic and
emerging funding uncertainties.
Unfortunately, attempts to deliver
HIV/AIDS education in higher institutions
of learning may have been severely
constrained by socio-cultural restraints in
discussing HIV/AIDS, sexual relations and
power inequalities. These constraints
manifest themselves in such a way that
messages on HIV/AIDS are either not
communicated at all, or are restricted to
scientific and professional interventions
with very little direct reference to sex or
sexual relationships. While there are
grounds for cautious optimism that the
incidence of HIV infections and AIDS-
related mortality can be further reduced,
they cannot, end the epidemic
independently. This will require overcoming
the barriers like knowledge of prevention
and transmission modes and neglect of
high-risk youth.
A study conducted among Ghana
students revealed that generally, senior
high school girls were knowledgeable on the
nature, modes of transmission, and
prevention of HIV/AIDS (Oppong and Oti-
Boad, 2013). There were however some
students who exhibited limited knowledge
on some issues including the spiritual
causes and treatment of HIV/AIDS,
contacts and associations with infected
persons, as well as determination of HIV
infection from appearances rather than
testing (Oppong and Oti-Boad, 2013). The
study also raised important concerns about
the reluctance of senior high school girls to
use condoms as a preventive measure and
the need to improve HIV/AIDS awareness
interventions in Ghana (Oppong and Oti-
Boad, 2013).
In a similar study in Nigeria where the
analyzed data-set was based on the Nigeria
2007 National HIV/AIDS and Reproductive
Health Survey. The analyses were based on
865 sexually active adolescents. The finding
from this study showed that about 75% of
adolescents had good knowledge of
HIV/AIDS and that HIV knowledge,
accepting gifts for sex among male, and
multiple sexual partners among females
were the significantly identified predictors
of non-use of condom (Omoyeni, Akinyemi
& Fatusi, 2014). The study further reveals
6288
that regardless of HIV knowledge; higher
education, older age at first sex, higher
wealth index and urban residency are
significant predictors of engagement in non-
protective sexual behaviour. It concludes
that high knowledge of HIV/AIDS is not
statistically significant in HIV protective
attitudes among adolescents (Omoyeni et
al., 2014).
Communication means have been
known to show significant relationship with
the knowledge of HIV/AIDS. For instance,
in a method-mix study which was based on
data from a pilot pre- and post-intervention
study conducted in eight secondary schools
in Nairobi, Kenya, between 2010 and 2011
to examine the effectiveness of using comic
books to deliver HIV/AIDS messages to in-
school young people (Obare, Birungi,
Deacon and Burnet 2013). The findings
show that the comic books were effective in
improving students’ knowledge about
modes of infection, enhancing
communication about the epidemic among
them, positively changing their attitudes
towards people living with HIV, reducing
their fear and increasing their likelihood
and intention of getting tested for HIV, as
well as positively changing their sexual
behaviours (Obare et al., 2013). The study
underscores the need for age-appropriate
communications channels to reach young
people with HIV and AIDS information in
settings that are affected by the epidemic
(Obare et al., 2013).
South Africa Context
South Africa experienced the HIV/AIDS
epidemic with about 5.6 million people
living with HIV/AIDS in 2009 (WHO, 2011).
South Africa is in the midst of a devastating
HIV-AIDS epidemic and most new HIV
infections occur among young adults and
adolescents (Leickness et al., 2005).
Consequently, South Africa government
rose up to this challenge by building
HIV/AIDS awareness in schools and
communities; primary health care clinics;
and mass media in collaboration with
public health efforts (UNAIDS, 2010).
Despite these efforts, less than half of
South Africa young men and women, the
worst-hit population group, could correctly
answer basic questions on HIV/AIDS
Gender & Behaviour, 12(2), 2014
(UNAIDS, 2010). Therefore, the National
Strategic Plan on HIV, STIs and TB, 2012-
2016 (South African national AIDS Council,
2011) acknowledged the need for
comprehensive prevention approach that
should include effective communication for
individuals to know their HIV status,
accompanied by prevention services. While
South Africa slowly progresses towards the
MDGs on HIV/AIDS and TB, global
recognition exists that a generic approach
to address epidemics are not successful
without integrating local knowledge and
conditions to create awareness among
communities (Padayatchi, Naidoo, Dawood,
Kharsany and Addool Karim 2010).
Half of the population of South Africa (40
million people) are under 25 years old and
more than half of those newly infected with
HIV each day are between 15 and 24 years
old (Statistics South Africa, 2013). These
figures suggest that the way to halt the
spread of HIV/AIDS is to focus on the
appropriate education of young people. To
respond comprehensively to the crisis of
HIV/AIDS, the Department of Education in
South Africa has set out to reach every
potential learner, to provide quality HIV and
sexual health programmes, and to protect
itself against the impacts of the epidemic.
The institution has also acknowledged its
responsibility in making investments in the
well-being of young people and in engaging
them in the fight against HIV/AIDS
(Department of Education, 1999). This is an
essential investment because it is widely
believed that young people are more likely
than adults to adopt and maintain safe
behaviours.
In a study conducted among young
people living in a Black South African
township which utilized community-based
outreach methods of street intercept and
facility-based surveying of 113 men and
115 women age 25 and younger (Leickness
et al., 2005). The outcome of this study
revealed that men (68%) and women (56%)
reported HIV-related high risk sexual
behaviors. Also knowledge about HIV
transmission was found to be generally
high and there was evidence that
misconceptions about AIDS persist,
particularly myths related to HIV
transmission (Leickness et al., 2005). For
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young men, HIV risk factors were
associated with fewer years of education,
lower levels of AIDS-related knowledge,
condom attitudes, and drug abuse. The
study concludes that despite adequate
general AIDS knowledge and risk
sensitization, South African youth still
demonstrated high rates of sexual practices
that place them at risk for HIV infection
(Leickness et al., 2005).
A community intervention trial was
undertaken in KwaZulu Natal, South Africa
to evaluate the effectiveness of a high
school drama-in-education programme
which involves seven pairs of randomized
secondary schools. The selected schools
were to receive either written information
about HIV/AIDS or the drama programme.
Questionnaire surveys of knowledge,
attitude and behaviour were compared
before and 6 months after the
interventions. Improvements in knowledge
and attitudes about HIV/AIDS were
demonstrated in pupils at schools receiving
the drama programme when compared to
pupils receiving written information alone.
These changes were independent of age,
gender, school or previous sexual
experience. The conclusion from this study
was that it is important to provide
resources to sustain such HIV/AIDS
programmes and to obtain stronger
evidence of effect on behaviour by
measuring changes in HIV incidence
(Harvey, Stuart and Swan, 2000).
Method
Study setting
The study was conducted among
undergraduate students aged 15-24 years
in North-West University, Mafikeng
Campus. The campus has students’
population of 8000 and is one of the three
Campuses of North-West University. As a
result of the awareness of high prevalence
of HIV rate in South Africa particularly
among the youth, the University
Management create a Unit in each of its
three campuses with the role of sensitizing
students and all the members of the
University community with HIV/AIDS
information and programmes.
With its strong passion for community
service and skilful blend of academic and
Paul Bigala et al: HIV Testing and Knowledge of HIV/AIDS Prevention Strategies
research programmes, the Mafikeng
Campus embodies the NWU’s commitment
to being locally engaged, nationally relevant
and internationally recognized. Situated in
Mafikeng, the capital of the North-West
Province, the Mafikeng Campus is the
second-largest of the University’s three
campuses. Students from over 22 countries
were among the students enrolled in the
university at its five faculties, viz:
Education; Law; Agriculture, Science and
Technology; Human and Social Sciences;
Commerce and Administration.
The North-West University recognizes
that South Africa, with the rest of the
continent, is experiencing a devastating
HIV/AIDS pandemic. HIV/AIDS pose
challenges to all institutions, including
universities. The University also recognizes
that HIV/AIDS is not only a health issue,
but one which concerns the entire
University community and our society in
every possible respect. The University has
demonstrated commitment to playing an
active role in its community by mitigating
the impact of HIV/AIDS. The university has
HIV/AIDS office with the specific goals of
responding sensitively, appropriately, and
effectively to the HIV/AIDS pandemic
through its core functions of
teaching/learning, research,
implementation of expertise, and through
the continuum of HIV/AIDS interventions
i.e. prevention, treatment, care and
support.
In principle, the major reason for the
creation of the centre was to: reduce the
impact of HIV/AIDS; protect and up-hold
human rights, ethical principles and gender
equity; provide a comprehensive leadership
response including staff and student
structures; provide a curriculum response
around teaching and learning and an
integrated approach to curriculum within
and between departments and colleges or
faculties; mobilize and safeguard human
and other resources; minimize short- and
long- term impact on and risk to the
institution/campus; and de-stigmatize
HIV/AIDS. The service provided by the
centre include; prevention programme,
educational programme, outreach
programme, peer education programme,
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Voluntary Counseling and Testing/HIV
Counseling and Testing.
The University of North-West has
adopted a policy on HIV and AIDS and
through its implementation; the university
community will work to be free from the
threat of HIV and AIDS.
Sample design
The design for the study was cross-
sectional where the participants were
examined based on prepared questions on
demographic, HIV/AIDS knowledge,
HIV/AIDS attitudes related to sexuality,
awareness and access to HIV/AIDS
prevention programme on campus, and in
addition a section on self esteem.
Training of the Research Assistants and
data collection
The data were collected by trained peer
educators who are students and also work
in collaboration with the University
HIV/AIDS unit. Despite the knowledge and
ability of these peer educators in the
collection of HIV/AIDS survey data; they
were trained for two days on the contents of
the questionnaire designed for this study.
At the training, the peer educators made
contributions based on their expertise to
the inclusion of variables in the
questionnaire. They were given role play
and other activities to ensure that they
understand the technicalities involved in
the collection of HIV/AIDS related data. The
questionnaire was pre-tested for internal
consistency, reliability and validity of its
contents.
The data collection involved a multi-
stage sampling approach where the selected
participants were taking from each of the
five faculties in the University. At the first
stage department were randomly selected
from the faculty and thereafter, students
were randomly selected from each of the
department. However, participants were
selected from each year of study to ensure
that the data composition includes
students from each level. At the end of the
selection, 1500 students were selected from
faculty of Commerce, Humanities and
Social Sciences, Law, Agriculture and
Science, and Education. The number
allotted to each faculty was obtained using
Gender & Behaviour, 12(2), 2014
the proportionate sample approach.
However, this study focused only on
students who are youths (between the ages
of 15 and 24) and as a result those ages
above 24 years were excluded from the
analyses and further, the dataset was
cleaned by excluding those who did not
respond to some of the relevant questions
in the questionnaire thus reducing the
sample size to 820.
Variable description
The dependent variable is knowledge of
HIV/AIDS Prevention Practices and
Transmission (KHAPPT). The variable was
captured in the questionnaire with some
questions as shown in table 1. However, a
composite index was constructed from
these questions and disaggregated into
three groups (poor, fair and good).
The key independent variable used in
this study is HIV testing. This was captured
in the questionnaire with a question that
says “Have you ever had an HIV test?” The
respondents are expected to choose from
the options: “Yes” or “No”. Other
independent variables are age, gender, race,
year of study, access to HIV/AIDS related
information, participation in HIV/AIDS
awareness programme on campus,
utilization of HIV/AIDS prevention services
on Campus.
Data analyses
Data analyses were carried out at
univariate, bivariate and multivariate levels.
The bivariate analyses involved cross
tabulation of the dependent variable and
the independent variables. Analysis of
variance (ANOVA) method was also used to
examine the distribution of mean KHAPPT.
The multinomial logistic regression was
used to identify factors influencing good
KHAPPT among the study participants.
Multinomial was used to identify the
predictors of good KHAPPT. Multinomial
Logistic Regression is the appropriate model
because we classified subjects based on
values of a set of predictor variables. The
method is similar to binary logistic
regression, but is more general because the
dependent variable is not restricted to two
categories (poor, fair and good). Using
multinomial logistic regression, we created
6291
profiles of people who are most likely to
have good KHAPPT. Therefore, for a
dependent variable with K categories, K is
unobserved continuous variables, ,…,
each of which can be thought of as the
"propensity toward" a category. In this
study, Zk represents a student’s propensity
towards good knowledge of HIV/AIDS
Prevention Practices, with larger values of
Zk corresponding to greater probabilities of
having high KHAPPT assuming all other Z's
remain the same.
Mathematically, the relationship between
the Z's and the probability of having high
KHAPPT is described in this formula.
=
⋯
Where; πik is the probability that the ith case
falls in category k, zik is the value of the kth
unobserved continuous variable for the ith
case. Zk is also assumed to be linearly
related to the predictors.
= ξ + ξ x + ξ x + ⋯+ ξ x
Where; xij is the jth predictor for the ith case,
ξkj is the jth coefficient for the kth
unobserved variable, J is the number of
predictors. Since Zk is unobserved, we
therefore relate the predictors to the
probability of interest by substituting for Zk.
=
⋯
(2)
⋯ ⋯ ⋯
As it stands, if a constant is added to each
Z, then the outcome probability is
unchanged. This is the problem of non-
identifiability. To solve this problem, we set
Zk (arbitrarily) to 0. The Kth category is
called the reference category, because all
parameters in the model are interpreted in
reference to it. It's a good idea (for
convenience sake) to choose the reference
category so that it is the "standard"
category to which others would naturally be
compared. with constant c added to Z’s
gives;
=
⋯
Paul Bigala et al: HIV Testing and Knowledge of HIV/AIDS Prevention Strategies

=
× × ⋯ × Results
= = The mean age of the students was 21.1±1.8
⋯ years and those who ever had HIV test were
significantly older than those who had
The coefficients ξi’s in equation (2) are never gone for the test. The data as shown
estimated through an iterative maximum in figure depict that majority of the
likelihood method and the exponential of students have undergone HIV test.
ξi’s produces the odds of high KHAPPT at
95% confidence interval.

Figure 1: Percentage distribution of the Students on their HIV Testing status

17.4

Ever Had HIV Test

Yes No

82.6

The result shown in table 1 shows the
distribution of the students according to
their KHAPPT. For instance, 95.3% of the
students reported that a person infected
with HIV/AIDS can look healthy and 17.9%
said there is cure for the disease. About
.
23% of the students still believe that buying
or asking for condom is embarrassing. Also,
11.7% said it is safe to share sharp objects
such as clippers, nail cutters, etc with
friends or family members without being
sterilized. See table 1 for further results

Table 1: Percentage distribution of responses to questions on Knowledge of HIV/AIDS Prevention Practices and
Transmission
Knowledge of HIV/AIDS Prevention Practices and Yes No Don’t Total
Transmission know Students
Can a person infected with HIV/AIDS look healthy? 95.3(781) 2.8(23) 1.9(16) 820
Can someone die from aids? 88.3(724) 10.2(84) 1.5(12) 820
Is there a cure for AIDS? 17.9(146) 73.2(601) 8.9(73) 820
Using a male condom reduces sexual pleasure 24.9(204) 56.7(465) 18.4(151) 820
It is embarrassing to buy or ask for condom 22.9(187) 70.8(581) 6.3(52) 820
A man would be offended if a woman insists that he uses male 26.2(214) 59.2(486) 14.6(120) 820
condom
A person in possession of male condom is planning to have sex 35.8(293) 53.5(439) 10.7(88) 820
Men and women need to have more than one sexual partner 10.8(89) 87.7(719) 1.5(12) 820
Sexual intercourse should only take place between couples 48.9(401) 45.5(373) 5.6(46) 820
A person can safely accept blood transfusion after screening for HIV 63.1(517) 19.2(158) 17.6(145) 820
It is safe to share sharp objects with friends or family members 11.7(96) 83.8(687) 4.5(37) 820
without sterilization.
Sharing of equipment (without sterilization) to perform circumcision 72.9(597) 22.4(184) 4.7(39) 820
can expose people to HIV infection
Use of unsterilized equipments to perform circumcision on boys and 71.8(590) 19.6(161) 8.6(71) 820
girls can expose them to HIV infection
Can a person get HIV by sharing a glass of water with someone who 13.0(107) 82.8(681) 4.1(34) 820
has HIV
Will pregnant women infected with HIV have their babies born with 26.8(219) 58.5(480) 14.7(121) 820

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Gender & Behaviour, 12(2), 2014

HIV
Do all people who have been infected with HIV quickly show serious 9.2(76) 83.7(686) 7.1(58) 820
signs of the infection
Is there a vaccine that can prevent people from getting HIV 12.9(106) 64.2(526) 22.9(188) 820
Are people likely to get HIV by deep kissing if their partner has HIV 18.9(155) 67.6(554) 13.5(111) 820
Are people likely to get HIV by deep kissing if their partner has HIV 65.5(535) 23.8(195) 10.7(88) 820
(If a partner has mouth sore or wound)
Can a woman contact HIV if she has sex during her menstrual 17.3(142) 59.4(486) 23.4(192) 820
period even when she uses condom
Is there a female condom that can help reduce a woman chances of 54.9(449) 31.4(258) 13.7(113) 820
contracting HIV
Can a flavoured condom work better against HIV than a latex 13.6(112) 63.7(524) 22.6(186) 820
condom
Can a person contract HIV if he or she is constantly using 32.7(268) 41.6(341) 25.7(211) 820
antibiotics
Will taking a test for HIV one week after having sex tell a person if 14.6(120) 67.5(553) 17.9(147) 820
she or he has HIV
Can a person contact HIV by sitting in a hot tub with a person who 55.7(47) 80.4(659) 13.9(114) 820
has HIV
Does using Vaseline or baby oil with condom increase the chances 9.5(78) 62.2(511) 28.3(233) 820
of getting HIV
Does douching after sex keep a woman from contacting HIV 8.9(73) 55.7(456) 35.4(291) 820
Is it possible to contact HIV disease when a person gets tattoo 49.3(403) 28.1(231) 22.6(186) 820

As shown in figure 2, the data reveals that of students who reported that they have had HIV
students who have undergone HIV test had test was consistently higher for knowledge score
higher KHAPPT than those who have never 18 and above than their counterparts who never
gone for such test. In particular, the percentage had HIV test.

Figure 2: Percentage frequency distribution of the Students with respect to their “Knowledge of
HIV/AIDS Prevention Practices and Transmission” according to their HIV Testing status

YES NO TOTAL
16
14
12 11.2
Percentage Frequency

10 9.9
9.2
8
5.6
6 5.6
4 4.3
3.5 2.1
2
1.4 1.4 1.4
0
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Knowledge of HIV/AIDS Prevention Practices and Transmission

As shown in table 2, the overall mean HIV/AIDS awareness program (p=0.000),

knowledge score was 16.5±3.4out of a
possible score of 28. The variables found to
be significantly associated with good
KHAPPT are; ever had HIV Test (p=0.000),
faculty (p=0.000), age (p=0.004), most
channel of getting HIV/AIDS information on
campus (p=0.001), ever attended any
and ever used any HIV/AIDS prevention
services (p=0.000). The data further depict
that 21.0%, 58.0% and 21.0% of the
respondents had goog, fair and poor
KHAPPT respectively. The proportion of
students in the faculty of commerce (38.3%)
who have high KHAPPT was higher than

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Paul Bigala et al: HIV Testing and Knowledge of HIV/AIDS Prevention Strategies

any other faculties in the University while
Education faculty (6.8%) students
constitute the least. The proportion of
students having high KHAPPT increases
with age. For example, 24.8% of students in
age group 22-25 years had high KHAPP as
compared with 14.6% of those in age group
18-19 years.
There was a significant variation in
KHAPPT with respect to most mean of
getting HIV/AIDS information on campus
and campus radio (32.4%) was found to be
reported by the majority of students who
have good KHAPPT as against only 13.1% of
students who got most of their HIV/AIDS
information through friends on campus.
Students who ever attended (25.3%) any
HIV/AIDS awareness program have higher
good KHAPPT than their colleagues on
campus who never attended such program
(14.9%). Students who claimed that they
have used any HIV/AIDS prevention
services for at least once (28.8%) had higher
KHAPPT than those who never used such
services (13.0%). In addition, column 9 of
table 2 shows the result from the ANOVA
on the mean KHAPPT of the students
according to their background
characteristics. The outcomes of ANOVA
analyses justify the result from the Chi-
square analyses and are both in agreement.
It is interesting to know that variables
found to be significantly associated with
KHAPPT using Chi-square were the same
for ANOVA.

Table 2: Percentage distribution of the Students with respect to their “Knowledge of HIV/AIDS Prevention
Practices and Transmission” according to their background characteristics
Background Knowledge of HIV/AIDS PPE Mean±σ p-value Total
Characteristics χ2-value p-value (Knowledge) Students
Poor Fair High
Total 21.0 58.0 21.0 16.5±3.4 820
Ever had HIV Test 17.805 0.000 0.000
Yes 19.4 57.0 23.6 16.7±3.5 679
No 28.4 63.1 8.5 15.3±3.1 141
Faculty 105.1 0.000 0.000
Commerce 13.1 48.6 38.3 17.9±3.6 214
Law 12.3 72.6 15.1 16.2±2.9 73
FAST 22.0 63.1 14.8 16.1±3.2 236
HSS 10.5 60.0 29.5 17.6±3.0 105
Education 37.5 55.7 6.8 14.9±3.1 192
Gender 4.026 0.134 0.599
Male 18.4 61.4 20.2 16.6±3.4 396
Female 23.3 55.0 21.7 16.4±3.5 424
Age 15.214 0.004 0.020
18-19 26.2 59.1 14.6 16.0±3.4 164
20-21 23.0 55.6 21.4 16.4±3.6 430
22-25 13.3 61.9 24.8 17.0±3.2 226
Race 1.657 0.437 0.451
Black 20.4 58.8 20.8 16.5±3.4 721
Others 25.3 52.5 22.2 16.3±3.7 99
Religion 3.237 0.198 0.127
Christian 19.9 59.1 21.0 16.6±3.3 689
Other religion 26.7 52.7 20.6 16.1±4.0 131
Year of study 12.385 0.054 0.167
First 25.3 56.2 18.5 16.2±3.5 297
Second 21.6 56.4 22.0 16.5±3.5 287
Third 15.8 64.6 19.6 16.6±3.2 158
Fourth 12.8 57.7 29.5 17.2±3.3 78
Most channel of getting HIV/AIDS Information on campus 30.285 0.001 0.012
UP 29.4 51.0 19.6 16.0±3.6 102
FOC 23.2 63.6 13.1 15.8±2.9 99
CR 26.3 41.4 32.3 17.0±3.9 99
POC 18.9 56.6 24.6 16.8±3.4 122
CC 15.7 60.8 23.5 17.0±3.4 204
PE 19.6 65.5 14.9 16.2±3.3 194
Ever attended any HIV/AIDS awareness program 31.390 0.000 0.000
Yes 14.9 59.8 25.3 17.0±3.4 478
No 29.5 55.6 14.9 15.8±3.4 342
Ever used any HIV/AIDS prevention services 35.426 0.000 0.000
Yes 16.0 55.2 28.8 17.1±3.6 413
No 26.0 60.9 13.0 15.9±3.2 407
PPE: Prevention Practices and Effect; UP: University program; FOC: Friends on campus; CR: Campus radio; POC: Posters on
campus; CC: Campus clinic; PE: Peer educators

Multivariate results:
In this section of the analysis, we used the relationship between HIV test and
multinomial logistic regression to examine KHAPPT. To conduct this examination, we

6294
Gender & Behaviour, 12(2), 2014

used 3 different models. Model 1 only
involve the use of HIV test while in model 2,
we included the demographic variable (Age)
to see its influence on the relationship
between HIV test and KHAPPT. In model 3
all variables that were found to be
significantly associated with KHAPPT
during the bivariate analyses were included
into the model as control to track the key
predictors of good KHAPPT among young
undergraduate students of North-West
University, Mafikeng Campus.
In table 3, the data show that, the
likelihood of good KHAPPT was significantly
higher among students who have had HIV
test (OR=3.314; C.I=1.787-6.145, p<0.001)
than those who have not had the test
(model 1) and pattern was similar when age
was used as control (model 2). Including all
other variables into the model reduces the
odd ratio of good KHAPPT among students
who have had HIV test to 2.185(C.I=1.134-
4.209, p<0.005). The identified predictors of
good KHAPPT are ever had HIV test, faculty
(p=0.000), and ever used any HIV/AIDS
prevention services. Students in faculty of
Law, Agriculture and Science, and
Education were 0.396(C.I=0.188-0.837,
p<0.05), 0.361(C.I=0.223-0.584, p<0.001),
and 0.110(C.I=0.057-0.212, p<0.001)
respectively less likely to have good KHAPPT
than their counterparts in faculty of
Commerce respectively. The study further
shows no significant differences in good
KHAPPT between students in faculty of
Commerce and HSS. Also, students who
ever used any HIV/AIDS prevention
services have higher (OR=0.582; C.I=0.374-
0.906, p<0.05) likelihood of good KHAPPT
than those who had never used the
services.

Table 3: Multinomial logistic regression of the predictors of high “Knowledge of HIV/AIDS Prevention Practices
and transmission” according to background characteristics
Background Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
Characteristics Odd Ratio 95% CIOR Odd Ratio 95% CIOR Odd Ratio 95% CIOR
Ever had HIV Test
Yes 3.314* 1.787-6.145 3.104* 1.667-5.780 2.185*** 1.134-4.209
No 1.000 Ref. Cat. 1.000 Ref. Cat. 1.000 Ref. Cat.
Age
18-19 1.000 Ref. Cat. 1.000 Ref. Cat.
20-22 1.461 0.889-2.400 1.308 0.770-2.224
23-25 1.661 0.972-2.836 1.512 0.847-2.700
Faculty
Commerce 1.000 Ref. Cat.
Law 0.396*** 0.188-0.837
Agriculture and Science 0.361* 0.223-0.584
Humanities and Social Sciences 0.676 0.395-1.159
Education 0.110* 0.057-0.212
Most channel of getting HIV/AIDS Information on campus
University Programmes 1.000 Ref. Cat.
Friends on campus 0.642 0.286-1.444
Campus radio 1.159 0.563-2.385
Posters on campus 1.042 0.521-2.084
Campus clinic 1.307 0.690-2.477
Peer educators 0.507 0.257-1.001
Ever attended any HIV/AIDS awareness program
Yes 1.000 Ref. Cat.
No 0.788 0.505-1.229
Ever used any HIV/AIDS prevention services
Yes 1.000 Ref. Cat.
No 0.582*** 0.374-0.906
-2 Log LL 823.553 819.878 722.133
Cox&Snell R2 0.023 0.027 0.136
Nagelkerke R 2 0.035 0.042 0.212
*Significant at 0.1%; **Significant at 0.05%

Discussion West University, Mafikeng. The University

This study was designed to examine the conscious of the need to promote
influence of HIV Testing on KHAPPT among information about HIV/AIDS on campus
young undergraduate students in North- has a unit within the university that
6295
Paul Bigala et al: HIV Testing and Knowledge of HIV/AIDS Prevention Strategies
disseminates HIV/AIDS prevention
information to the students. This is with
the view to preventing the spread of the
disease and offer counselling to individuals
who need such on the campus. HIV
counselling and testing is crucial to HIV
prevention, care and treatment programmes
as knowing one's HIV status is a precursor
to accessing the appropriate care and
treatment services. In a high HIV
prevalence setting like South Africa,
knowing one’s HIV status can serve as a
strong motivating factor to access more
information about the preventive or
protective measures of the disease
(Bankole, Biddlecom, Guiella, Singh and
Zulu, 2007). If the result of the HIV test
comes out to be positive, voluntary
counselling services can link the victims to
options for treatment, care and support
thereby exposing them to better access and
understanding of HIV/AIDS information.
Our study found that higher KHAPPT was
observed among students who had done
HIV test and the likelihood of having good
KHAPPT was approximately three times
higher among students who had done HIV
test than those who have never gone for
such test. This likelihood was reduced
slightly but remains significant when other
factors were used as control.
This study reveals that four in five of the
participants have undergone HIV test and
almost all the students claimed that people
living with HIV/AIDS can look healthy. It is
striking that 17.9% of the students said
there is cure for the disease; this finding
has implication for the possibility of
perpetrating risky sexual behaviour among
such students.
Condom use is a critical element in a
comprehensive, effective and sustainable
approach to HIV prevention and treatment
(UNAIDS, 2009). Condom use is one of the
most effective means to prevent HIV
infection among sexually active people, and
has contributed to reductions in HIV
infections in South Africa and other
countries (Farabee-Siers, 2009; Singh,
Darroch and Bankole, 2003; Smith, Herbst,
Zhang and Rose 2013; UNAIDS, 2009 ). It is
rare to see an individual manufacturing
condom for self-use; it is either got from the
health facility or bought in shops and
supermarket. In the North-West University,
6296
Mafikeng campus, condom is made
available in private locations on campus for
easy access by the students. Unfortunately,
the condoms are not always available at
these locations; hence students may have
to acquire one through other means when
in need. The traditional African culture
demands that sex should take place only
after marriage and this is still a common
practice in most African countries today.
However, studies have shown that
premarital sex is becoming more prominent
particularly among youths in recent times
(Biddlecom, Gregory, Lioyd and Mensah,
2008; Mensch, Grant and Blanc, 2006;
Ogunjuyigbe and Adepoju, 2014;
Palamuleni and Adebowale, 2013).
Therefore, the need to use condom becomes
a necessity particularly among young men
and women who are more sexually active
than other population groups. Our study
finding that one fifth of the students
believed that it is embarrassing and
shameful to ask or buy condom is alarming
and has implication for condom use among
the students.
In a University setting where one would
have expected that knowledge of the
possible ways of contracting HIV virus will
be universal, it is surprising that 11.7% of
the studied students said it is safe to share
unsterilized sharp objects such as blade,
clippers, nail cutters, etc with friends or
family members. The sharing and use of
other’s persons’ needles, syringes or other
equipment used to prepare illicit drugs for
injection has been known in the literature
as one of the key ways of contracting HIV
because (Gumodoka, Favot, Berege and
Dolmans, 1997; Pallás, Farinas-alvarez,
Prieto, Llorca and Delgado-Rodriguez,
1999;). This is the reason while it is often
recommended that sharp objects are
sterilized before use particularly when it is
shared. Tattooing or body piercing also
permits a potential risk of HIV
transmission, but no cases of HIV
transmission from these activities have
been documented. Only sterile equipment
has been recommended to be used for
tattooing or body piercing.
The study further revealed that one in
five studied students had poor KHAPPT and
this was more prominent among students
in faculty of education and FAST than other
Gender & Behaviour, 12(2), 2014
faculties in the University. Good KHAPPT
was observed mostly by faculties of
commerce and administration and HSS
students. As corroborated with the
multivariate analysis result, the likelihood
of having good KHAPPT was found to be
significantly lower among students in
faculty of Law, FAST and Education than
their counterparts in faculty of Commerce
and Administration respectively. The reason
for this finding may be attributed to the
differential in the nature of curriculum of
faculties on campus since HIV issues is yet
to be made mandatory as course that
should be taught across all the
departments in the University. For
instance, some of the programs like
population and development studies, social
work, sociology, psychology, economics and
commerce in faculties of commerce and
administration and HSS are health related
where issues that surround HIV/AIDS are
often discussed. Also, students in the
faculties of commerce and administration
and HSS have the tendency to participate
more in social activities like HIV awareness
programs on campus than other faculties.
Information, education and
communication combine strategies,
approaches and methods that enable
individuals, families, groups, organisations
and communities to play active roles in
achieving, protecting and sustaining their
own health. Health information can be
communicated through many channels to
increase awareness and assess the
knowledge of different populations about
various issues, products and behaviours
(UNFPA, 1999). Channels might include
interpersonal communication (such as
individual discussions, counselling sessions
or group discussions and community
meetings and events) or mass media
communication (such as radio, television
and other forms of one-way
communication, such as brochures, leaflets
and posters, visual and audio visual
presentations and some forms of electronic
communication) (UNFPA, 1999. In this
study, among the itemized means of getting
information in North-West University,
Mafikeng campus such as University
program, friends, campus radio, posters,
campus clinic, peer educators, the
proportion of students who had good
6297
KHAPPT was found to be highest among
those who get most of their HIV/AIDS
information through campus radio and the
least among their counterparts who get
their through friends on campus. This is
expected as students listen to campus radio
for information on campus activities.
Fortunately, radio channels can be
accessed via the cell phone which virtually
all students have and is a common practise
among the students. Radio is a better
means of information dissemination that
any other source since it has wider
coverage. For instance, a student may not
visit campus clinic throughout an academic
year and therefore may not have access to
information including those that are HIV
related for the period. Also information from
posters may not be appealing student and
peer educators who also have their
academic responsibilities may not be able
to establish one to one or group contact for
some of the students.
Attending HIV/AIDS awareness program
on campus was found to promote good
KHAPPT among the students. We further
found that students who have used any
HIV/AIDS prevention services previously
had higher KHAPPT than those who never
used such services.
The identified predictors of good KHAPPT
are ever had HIV test, faculty and ever used
any HIV/AIDS prevention services.
Limitation
The study failed to address the reason why
those who have undergone HIV test went
for the test and those who did not failed to
do so. Therefore, a qualitative research is
needed in this regard. The study also did
not find out whether those who went for the
test received any form of counselling after
the test. Information on KHAPPT can be
obtained from other means other than
through counselling received after being
tested.
Conclusion
The study revealed a gap in the KHAPPT
among the studied students and identified
HIV Testing as an important determinant of
KHAPPT. The HIV/AIDS pandemic can
adversely affect the university community if
knowledge of HIV preventive measures is
Paul Bigala et al: HIV Testing and Knowledge of HIV/AIDS Prevention Strategies
inadequate among the undergraduate
students. Our findings assert the intuition
that there is still room for improving
KHAPPT of students particularly those in
faculty of education where the KHAPPT is
least among all the faculties in North-West
University. North-West University should
look into a wider curriculum and ensures
that first-year students are exposed to
information on HIV/AIDS while final year
students should be empowered on how to
apply what they have learnt with regard to
HIV/AIDS prevention in their working
environments upon leaving the university.
In this regard, peer educators on campus
should be awake to their responsibility
about communication skills that can
increase KHAPPT among students in the
university. Improving the KHAPPT among
students should be an integral part of
acquired HIV/AIDS control strategies in the
North-West University, Mafikeng.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no
competing interests.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Niche area in the
faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences,
North-West University, Mafikeng Campus
for funding this study.
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