TABLE OF CONTENTS

LESSON ONE: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

LESS0N TWO: SYSTEMATIC PLANNING FOR THE USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA.

LESSON THREE: PRODUCTION OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA TOOLS

LESSON FOUR : INTERELATIONSHIP OF COMMUNICATION THEORY

LESSON FIVE: SELECTION, UTILIZATION AND PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

LESSON SIX: PRINT AND NON-PRINT MEDIA

LESSON SEVEN:EDUCATIONAL BROADCASTING

LESSON EIGHT: TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONAL MEDIA

LESSON NINE: DISTANCE EDUCATION

LESSON TEN: MANAGEMENT OF LEARNING RESOURCES

 LESSON ONE

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

1.0 Introduction
This LESSON briefly discusses the process nature of communication and its
effects in learning. We are saying that the quality of classroom instruction is
directly related to the quality of the teacher’s communication with the learners.
The LESSON defines educational technology, looks at the application of that
technology from the point of view of putting more humanity in that use and
delineates the communication barriers in classroom situations. The LESSON
gives some research findings about learning and argues that the nonverbal
elements of classroom communication are more important than the verbal
elements.

Overview
One of the trends within education is learner-centred instruction. All too often
however, when learner-centred-instruction is applied to educational technology, it is
translated to mean leaner-machine-interaction. We want to make it clear that,
instead, we see relationships among three components in the teaching-learning
context: student-content-interaction, student-equipment-instructor-interaction and
student-student-equipment-interaction.

This course aims at imparting technological literacy on learners through all the
three components. We want to find ways and means of making explicit, different
pedagogic applications using equipment and resources to bring about effective
learning.

The course’s locus therefore is a mediated multichannel learning approach where

the available media are used creatively and interactively to connect with learners’
drive for knowledge and skills. We however wish to rationalize too, that this
course is about education not just technology. Hence, the application process is
emphasized through the use of both human and non-human resources to bring
about effective learning.
Simple but practical approaches towards the use of locally available resources for
instance, are included. The inclusion helps to open up various innovative
possibilities for teachers and students alike.

Since the design and use of resources are integral to teaching methodologies,
there are media practical tutorial sessions to serve as points of connection to
module content. Those tutorial sessions focus on planning, designing, selecting,
production and the techniques of utilizing technology-based audio-visual learning
formats.

1.1 Objectives
On completion of this LESSON, you should be able to:
• Define educational technology
• Define communication.
• Describe the notion of process as it relates to communication and
learning.
• Understand the conceptual foundations of technology-based learning.
• List three major categories of barriers to effective classroom communication.
• Differentiate between field and discipline.
• Enumerate five basic things we need to know about classroom
communication.

1.2 The Conceptual Foundation of Technology Based Learning

The perceptions of what constitutes educational technology have evolved over a
period of 50 years. This evolvement has resulted in some confusion as to what
educational technology is or stands for. To most people, the term at best implies
computers or computer-based learning (CBL). At worst, the term tends to put
them off precisely because of the pervasive ambiguity that surrounds its many
definitions. But for us, there is a need to keep good sense alive in this module.

Specifically, the term is often associated solely with the technical equipment and
media of education such as projections, televisions, films, tape-slide programmes,
audiocassette recorders and even computers. Other people take the view that
educational technology involves a systematic studio analysis of the entire
teaching and learning process whereby use of the machines is maximized almost
to the exclusion of teaching methodologies. Indeed, proponents of this latter
view have sometimes been accused of taking a ‘machine approach.’ A machine
approach in teaching has failed to lead to improved levels of educational quality
because it runs contrary to the tutorial principle that demands more humanity in
student-teacher relationship.
Today, we can speak of two different perceptions of educational technology (Percival and Ellington, 1988)
namely;

i. Technology in education and

ii. Technology of education.

1.2.1 Technology in Education

Technology in education is one very important aspect of educational technology.
Indeed, in many developed countries, many of the universities’ and college based
Education Technology Departments evolved from LESSONs which were
previously called ‘audiovisual aids LESSONs’ (Percival and Ellington, 1988).
The argument then, for starting those departments was that by making
appropriate use of hardware along with suitable software, it was possible to
improve the efficiency or quality of learning in a given situation.

One of the earliest phases in the evolution of educational technology was

therefore the ‘hardware phase,’ in which a great deal of work was done in
developing effective instructional equipment. Let us nonetheless examine this
concept in more specific details. Technology in education:

• Embraces every possible means by which information can be presented.

• It concerns itself with the gadgetry of education and training such as:
− Television
− Language laboratories
− Various projected media such as audiovisual aids.
• Audiovisual aids themselves comprise two related but distinguishable
components namely;
− Hardware and
− Software
• Hardware are the actual equipment such as:
− Overhead projectors
− Slide projectors
− Opaque projectors
− Film projectors
− Video cassette recorders −
Computers, etc.
• Software are the various items used to accompany the hardware, examples
being:
− Transparencies −
Slides
− Audiotapes −
Films
− Video and audio cassette recordings −
Computer programmes, etc.
Technology in education is sometimes referred to as the ‘machine approach.’ The machine approach occurs
when the teacher first identifies an equipment and then finds a suitable problem for it. Such
an approach is mechanistic/reductionistic in nature. It focuses on particular technologies and ignores
the educational processes or outcomes. The proper approach is one where the teacher identifies the
problem first and then looks for a suitable equipment to solve that specific problem.

1.2.2 Technology of Education

As we have pointed out in 1.2.1 above, when hardware eventually became
generally available, it was found that there was a shortage of suitable software to
use with it. That situation necessitated a subsequent ‘software phase,’ in which
particular attention was paid to the development of suitable learning materials
and programmes, often based on the contemporary theories of learning and
perception.

The main thrust of educational technology hence changed from hardware to the
development of suitable software for use with the machines. That change
consequently led to a new and broader interpretation of educational technology as the
entire ‘technology of education’ rather than merely as the use of technology in
education. We can therefore say that, ‘technology of education:’

• Concerns itself with the intangible aspects of education for instance, the
techniques of teaching and learning rather than the hardware itself.
• Recognizes that the principal role of educational technology is to help
improve the overall efficiency of the teaching/learning process.
• Technology of Education was developed as a result of three realizations:

i. That there was much more in education than simply the use of machines
(technology in education).
ii. A mere use of machines in teaching and learning does not guarantee the
efficacy expected using resources.
iii. Teaching and learning could be improved by thinking more carefully about
all aspects of design, selection, and application of teaching strategies where a
change in one will impact on the whole either positively or negatively.

A ‘technology of education’ approach to educational technology thus involves a

systematic, scientific approach to a problem. The ideal position is to view
educational technology as technology of education.
Within this view, changes are not made to a system for their own sake, but for good
educational reasons that are generally based on research findings.

1At the heart of technology of education therefore is the ‘systems approach’ where a
system is seen as a collection of interrelated parts that together constitute a larger
whole. These component parts, or elements of the system are intimately linked
with one another either directly or indirectly. And any change in one or more
elements may affect the overall performance of the whole system either positively
or negatively (Romiszowski, 1974).
 Technology in education on the other hand is one of the possible means to an
end. It emphasizes on the selection and designing appropriate hardware and
software to back up a particular strategy so as to achieve a given set of
educational aims or objectives.

1.3 Definitions of Educational Technology

We have so far looked at different perceptions of educational technology from
three viewpoints. These are: technology in education, technology of education,
and technology from the general systems approach. We now want to specifically
focus on some of the definitions of educational technology so that we can link
these definitions with the classroom discourse or classroom communication
between teacher and pupil.

(a) Definition One

• Educational technology is the development, application and evaluation of
systems, techniques and aids to improve the process of human learning.

Source: Council for Educational Technology for the United Kingdom (CET).

(b) Definition Two

• Educational technology is the application of scientific knowledge about
learning and the conditions of learning to improve the effectiveness and
efficiency of teaching and training.
Source: National Centre for Programmed Learning UK.

(c) Definition Three

• Educational technology is a systematic way of designing, implementing and
evaluating the total process of teaching and learning in terms of specific
objectives, based on research in human learning and communication, and
employing a combination of human and non-human resources to bring about
more effective instruction.

Source: Commission of Instructional Technology USA.

 Activity 1.A

 Differentiate between technology in education and technology of education. 

Find out which approach is more prevalent in the schools around your area. 
What do you understand by the term the ‘machine approach?’

1.4 Communication in the Classroom

There are four major problems that have hindered our understanding of classroom
communication. According to Budd and Ruben (1979), these problems are:
(a) Its ubiquitousness. Being everywhere even in our own dreams, we find
that as such we cannot not communicate even if we tried not to.
(b) Lack of discipline. Communication is a field rather than a discipline.
Fields are less rigorous than disciplines and they also draw
knowledge/ideas from disciplines. The fact that communication draws ideas
from fields creates for us a problem of understanding because it has no
theories of its own. It borrows theories from fields and different fields define
communication differently.
(c) Familiarity. Communication is a very familiar term to most people.
Familiar terms like slogans tend to loose their vigour and vitality
whenever they are overused. For example, the meaning of the word
democracy depends on the person defining it. Communication is that
kind of a term.
(d) Approachable both operationally and Scientifically. Communication
can be approached either as an operational or as a scientific phenomenon
or both. That is, communication is not only something that can be
studied, it is something most of us do.

1.5 Things we need to know about classroom communication

i. Information is not communication. Information can be defined as that which
reduces uncertainty in the learners. When a teacher dictates notes, for
example to students he/she has only transferred information from his/her
notes to the students’ exercise books. In that sense, we cannot say with
certainty that he or she has communicated.
ii. Not all information is relevant or useful. In other words, the learner must be
able to make use of the information as intended.
iii. Communication is incomplete unless it is received and understood. The
implication of this in teaching and learning is that the learner must be able to
use the information passed on to him/her to:
− Do something with it;
− Perform a task after appropriate help from the teacher.
iv. We do not communicate meanings. Meanings are in us or are generated from
within each individual learner depending on the way he/she
understands/interprets the information passed on to him/her.
v. All classroom communication is verbal and nonverbal, situation dependent
and interdependent meaning what I do affects you and what you do affects
me. But neither of us determines the other’s behaviour or feelings.
 Interdependence does not mean linear causality. Therefore, my poor teaching
does not cause a specific response in you. I cannot for example, make you angry.
You choose to be angry on the basis of the things I have done to you. In the final
analysis, you have many options open to you.

1.6 Communication Defined

In this sub-section, we want to recognize the fact that there are many definitions of
communication. This is because every practitioner defines the term in a
manner that is appropriate to his/her discipline. The definition we have given
below is relevant to classroom teaching and learning.
Communication is a process through which we are constantly offering definitions
or images of ourselves and responding to definitions or images of the others
through a multiple of feedback mechanisms. That process is ongoing in the sense
that it has no beginning or end. We only arbitrarily assign those beginnings and
ends. That process is verbal and non-verbal, interpersonal unless intrapersonal,
irretrievable, irreversible, situational or situation specific and transactional.

The key word in our definition of communication is process. A process has no

tangible attributes in the sense that you cannot see it or feel it. Communication is
that kind of thing. Learning too, is a process and through that ongoing process, the
teacher is constantly defining himself or herself both verbally and nonverbally
in relation to the students.

Activity 1.B

• Approach your colleagues and request them to define

communication for you.
• Compare the differences in their definitions and explain why
there are variations.
• Why is the traditional concept of communication as the transfer
of ‘meaning’ untenable?

1.7 Verbal and Nonverbal Aspects of Human Communication

In offering definitions of others, we find that the non-verbal elements of teacher
communication are more important than the verbal elements because learning is
basically a visual activity.

Research has indeed shown that we learn through our senses with each sense
accounting for a different percentage of that learning as follows:
Taste accounts for 1%
Touch accounts for 1½%
Smell accounts for 3½%
Hearing accounts for 11%
Sight accounts for 83%.

The onus is therefore on the teacher to try and reduce those barriers so that
learning can take place.
 Note:
• In all statistics of this nature, there is always a margin of error of plus
or minus three percentage points.
• Nature does compensate those learners like the visually impaired and
physically challenged, who are not able to utilize all their senses.
• A mere utilization of the sense of sight will not automatically
guarantee one the attainment of the 83% learning efficiency because
every classroom communication situation has its own unique barriers
otherwise referred to as noise.

Activity 1.C

 Discuss the notion of process as it applies to classroom communication.

 What are the implications of viewing classroom communication as a
process of offering definitions of selves and responding to definitions of
others?

1.8 Barriers to Effective Classroom Communication

In dealing with communication barriers, the first thing is to recognize that
communication does not occur in a vacuum, rather, it always takes place within a
context or situation. Moreover, each situation comes with its own unique barriers
which affect the quality of the communication transaction.

We generally speak of three broad categories of barriers which affect both verbal and
nonverbal communication.

(a) Physiological Barriers. These include all kinds of illnesses such as

headache, toothache, heartburn, hunger pangs, etc.
• Since these illnesses are confined in the learners, the teacher is limited
in the extent to which he/she can control them.
• It is nevertheless important for the teacher to recognize that those
barriers exist in any classroom and that they do affect teaching and
learning.

(b) Physical Barriers. Physical barriers are influential non-verbal cues and
they are of two types, namely:
• Those that use mostly teacher created such as physique or body
appearance, teacher’s general attractiveness and even body odours. We may
also add to this list fatigue and stress which may be in either the teacher
or his/her pupils.
• The second kind of physical barriers are those that are environmentally
determined such as:
− Furniture (desks) arrangement. −
Lighting in the room
 − Lack of ventilation or stuffiness in the room. −
External noises.
It is the responsibility of every teacher to try and eliminate any physical
barrier that may emanate from him/her or the classroom environment.

(c) Psychological Barriers. The psychological characteristics of a situation

exist in the mind of the teacher or pupil and can be controlled because they
are external to the learning situation. Some examples are attitudes,
anxieties, mental anguish, strong opinions of any land, prejudices, etc.

Like physiological barriers, psychological barriers too, are mostly confined inside the
teacher or learners. Unless they are spoken or written they remain primarily
nonverbal in nature.

The important thing for the teacher to do is to be aware that psychological

barriers exist and can affect teaching and learning if not alleviated. Being aware
means more than knowing what is around us. It means being aware of our own
awareness:
• Being able to question the consequences of our own choices.
• Being reflective.
• Being able to empathize with the learners and
• Being an active listener.
• Active or emphatic listening is motivational in nature. A teacher should
motivate learners by giving them positive reinforcements.
• Teacher reinforcements can be verbal, nonverbal, positive and negative.

1.8 Types of Teacher Reinforcements

One basic assumption in writing this LESSON is that the quality of each student’s
learning is directly linked to the quality of the communication he or she
experiences. If in the process of teaching and learning a learner is constantly
bombarded with disparaging remarks from the teachers, the net effect will be
reflected in his/her poor performance. The reverse is also true that teachers’
encouraging comments are related to learners’ improved performance. Powell in
Stewart (l982:7) puts the same idea in simpler terms.
What I am, at any given moment in the process of my
becoming a person, will be determined by my relationships with
those who love me or refuse to love me, with those I love or
refuse to love.
Our thesis here is that the things we do and say to one another affect people’s lives
either positively or negatively. Let us then look at the four types of reinforcements
mentioned above.

(a) Positive Verbal Reinforcements. These include statements a teacher

makes to the learner that serve to reinforce the later positively.

Examples
− Good, very good
− Right, great
− Good trial/attempt −
Excellent
 − That is correct
− Well done, etc.

(b) Positive Nonverbal Reinforcement. Since these are nonverbal, they are
not verbalized, rather, they are made through body language or kinesic
behaviour.
− Nodding affirmatively −
Smiling
− Eye contact
− Writing the learner’s answer on the board −
Moving closer to the learner
− Giving positive hand gestures, etc.

(c) Negative Verbal Reinforcements. These come about when we

disconfirm others. Disconfirmation means communicating as if the other
person does not exist. There are two ways through which we disconfirm
others namely;

• By being impervious. Imperviousness in communication means

speaking for the other person. It comes when we assume that we know
what the leaner is thinking or feeling. Imperviousness also comes with
some accompanying statements like:
− You are disappointing;
− Where were you when I taught this?
− You are wasting your parents money.
• By Disqualification. This is responding in a manner that is totally
irrelevant to the other’s prior utterance. It is refusing to respond or
acknowledge the learner’s statement. Once a teacher disqualifies a
learner through this behaviour he/she is denying the legitimacy of the
learner’s contribution to the learning process. He/she is in a sense
communicating rejection.

(d) Negative Nonverbal Reinforcements. This is the situation where a

teacher refuses to audibly express his/her feelings but does it nonverbally
albeit negatively. It includes behaviours like:
− Deliberate lack of eye contact.
− Grimacing of the face (frowning).
− Silence or failure to reinforce.
− Ignoring the learner’s contribution in class.

1.9 Consequences of Negative Reinforcements

The fundamental fact of classroom discourse is that something is continually
happening between teacher and learners. The reason is because human beings as
such cannot not communicate (Stewart, J & B. Angelo, G., 1980). We are
constantly interpreting the behaviours of others towards us. Hence, the
perceptions learners forming of their teachers affect them either positively or
negatively.

One basic assumption then about teacher-learner interaction is that the quality of
learning is linked to the quality of the communication. This assumption underlies
 everything we have said in this LESSON about the process nature of
communication and its effect in learning. When a teacher constantly discourages
his/her learners through negative reinforcements the consequences are that he/she
creates:
− non-listeners.
− the impatient types.
− the negative personalities.
− the know-it-all types of learners.

1.10 Suggestion for an Effective Teacher/Communicator

(a) Listen to confirm.
− Both verbally and non-verbally by saying I may not agree or accept your
point of view, but I care about what you are saying - I care about your
learning.

(b) Listen to understand.

− The key characteristic of listening to understand is that it is primarily
verbal. As a teacher you must verbalize your positive
feelings/reinforcements.

(c) Listen to diminish defensiveness.

− Defensiveness occurs when a teacher perceives threat.
− Such a teacher therefore listens not to understand but to prepare
himself/herself to tear down the learner’s argument - to belittle the
learner.

Activity 1.D

Conduct a classroom observation of a colleague in your school for one working day.
Make a minute-by-minute account of what he or she does. By the end of the day,
group the types of communication barriers you observed if any.
• How many of those barriers were teacher-created that is, psychological, how
many were contextual (environmentally determined) and how many were
physiological in nature?
• Pay special attention to teacher’s kinesicbehaviour (body language). How
much did it seem to reinforce the message either positively or negatively?
• Was there any evidence of a multisensory approach to teaching and learning
in this class?

1.11 Summary
In this LESSON, you have learnt a new definition of communication which
relates specifically to teaching and learning. You have been introduced to the
process nature of communication and helped to delineate barriers to effective
classroom communication. The conceptual foundations of technology-based
learning is highlighted and a distinction made between technology in education and
technology of education.

We have argued that although ‘technology of education’ involves a systematic

and scientific approach, the tutorial principle that advocates more humanity in the
use of technology be emphasized as a means of bringing about effective learning.
 This is unlike in the mechanistic and reductionistic approach found in technology in
education whereby the use of machines is maximized to the exclusion of other
methodologies.

Communication is revisited and the problems that have prevented our

understanding of the process enumerated. More significantly, we have said that
all classroom communication is verbal, nonverbal, situation-dependent and
interdependent-meaning that what a teacher does or says affects learning but
neither the behaviour of the teacher nor that of the learner cause the others
behaviour or feelings.

After examining the barriers to effective classroom communication, you realize

that it is not what we say to our learners that matters but how we say it
(paralanguage). Finally, we posit that the nonverbal elements of classroom
communication are more important than the verbal elements because we learn
through our senses with the sense of sight accounting for the highest percentage
of that learning.

REFERENCES
Bertalanffy, Von Ludwig (1995). 12 th Ed. General System Theory. George Braziller.
New York.

Budd, R.W., and B.D. Ruben (1979). Interdisciplinary Approaches to Human

Communication. Hayden Book Co., Inc. Rochelle Park, New Jersey.

Commission on Instructional Technology, U.S.A

Council For Educational Technology for the United Kingdom (CET).

National Centre for Programmed Learning UK.

Percival, F., and Ellington (1988). A Handbook of Educational Technology 2nd Ed.
Kogan Page, London/Nichols Publishing Co., New York.

Romiszowski, A.J. (1974). The Selection and use of Instructional Media: A Systems
Approach. Kogan Page, London.

Sampath, K., A. Pannirselvan and S. Sauthanam (1981). Introduction to Educational

Technology. New Delhi, Sterling.

Stewart, J. (1982). Brigdes Not Walls. Addison, Wesley Publishing Co., Reading,
Massachusetts.

Stewart, J. and Gary D’Angelo (1980). Together, Communicating Interpersonally.

Addison -Wesley Publishing Co., Reading Massachusetts.
LESS0N TWO: SYSTEMATIC PLANNING FOR THE USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA.

2.0 Introduction
The ASSURE Model analyzes the learner's general characteristics, their
specific entry competencies, learning styles, stating the objectives, selecting
media and materials utilizing media and materials, require learner's participation,
and evaluation and revise all that you have done with the learners. Much later in
this model, we are going to go through all these steps one by one to cover the
different aspects of the model. The model has been stated in a systematic manner
to help you learn in a systematic and more coherent manner. But since the
ASSURE model is covered within the ambit of instructional technology, you are
obliged to know as part of your training the meaning of the term instructional
technology, and its concepts thereof. We are therefore going to start by stating
what you are going to cover as part of your learning objectives.
2.1 Instructional Objectives
By the end of this LESSON, the learner should be able to:
 Define the term Instructional Technology
 Define the concept of Instructional Technology
 Define the term media
 Apply media and technology as dynamic learning processes.
 Identify different general uses of media.
 Identify some flaws and confusions in the application and use of
media technology
 Suggest different ways of avoiding such flaws and confusions.
 Identify some of the most common teaching media commonly
being used in our classrooms today.
 Describe six procedures (steps) in systematic planning for the use
of media. (The ASSURE MODEL).
 State the criterion for the selection of the most appropriate media
 Identify at least three characteristics necessary for media
selection procedures.
3.1.1 Definitions of Instructional Technology
The term technology is a systematic application of scientific or other organized
knowledge to practical tasks. Instructional technology may be defined asthe
application of our scientific knowledge about human learning to the practical
tasks of teaching and learning. It is a systematic arrangement of teaching and
learning events designed to put our knowledge of learning into practice in a
predictable and effective manner to attain specific learning objectives.
Instructional technology also involves the learners' application of different
learning styles.Learning style is a cluster of psychological traits that determine
how the individual learner perceives, interacts with and responds emotionally to
learning environments. They are also fixed patterns for viewing the world
(Bonham, 1988). The main purpose of learning style is to select information to
which the learner will organize, attend, and integrate what is to be learned in a
meaningful manner. Learning styles also control and effectively moderate the
learners' different aspects of personalities. The styles also enable the learners to
adapt to different situational constraints as imposed by the different learning
 tasks. Hence, instructional technology is the process by which instructional
problems are analysed and solutions sought through the application of
knowledge about learning, with the help of the learners and the use of media
resources.
Instructional technology is just but what it sounds like using computers, CD-
ROMs, interactive media, modems, satellites, teleconferencing, and other
technological means to support learning. Some educators believe the use of
interactive, computer-based technology is crucial to improving classroom
learning. These educators contend that advanced technology will fundamentally
change the learning process and structure. Other educators believe technology is
merely a tool that has minimal impact on the quality of learning.
2.1.2 Effects of Instructional Technology On Human Learning
Instructional technology may affect human learning in several ways. These are
through:
 Curriculum
 Instruction and
 Assessment
2.1.3 Curriculum: Advanced technology has the potential to significantly expand the
breadth and depth of the curriculum. With the Internet for example, students can
access information far beyond the scope of their traditional textbooks. Curricula
can be individualized and adapted to students' specific learning styles.
Instructional technology therefore has the power to enhance overall knowledge
accumulation, instead of just focusing on content mastery.

2.1.4 Instruction: Advance technology could significantly affect the role of teachers,
as well as the structure of schools and classrooms. The use of instructional
technology also changes the teacher's role from an expert to a facilitator or
coach. For example, students can take courses from a global satellite feed or on
the Internet In this way, learning
can take place either at home, at place of work, or anywhere else that has the
capacity for a television, a telephone, or a computer i.e. distance or open
learning centers.

2.1.5 Assessment. Instructional technology focuses more and more on building

feedback loops directly into the learning process. Students can obtain frequent
and accurate feedback. They can also make corrections of their work on their
own and structure learning experiences around their individual needs. Offsite
instructors can monitor assessment, or it can be on going and cumulative.
Question

 How does instructional technology affect learning?

2.1.6 Procedures of Instructional Technology

The procedures of instructional technology often result in the creation of new
instructional products or strategies. Onemajor goal of the procedures is to
improve instruction by increasing effectiveness and efficiency through learning.
Since the application of instructional technology very often results in the creation
and use of media or both, all educators should have the knowledge and skills
 necessary to use it as a means of solving instructional problems. Some educators
known as media specialists do this on a full-time basis. It is therefore within the
dockets of a teacher to apply the principles of media and instructional technology to
meet their instructional needs whether in the schoolroom, private industries, non-
profit organizations, or in the universities.

2.1.7 The Concepts of Instructional Technology

The concept of instructional technology stresses the use and application of
instructional media in the teaching learning process. The concept relates how
media and technology interacts with human learning with respect to the following
areas:
 Planning
 Selecting.
 Designing
 Using and
 Evaluating all types of media with respect to human learning.
The concept not only explains how each media can be applied in human learning,
but also describes the medium's inherent capabilities. The concept therefore,
assumes that whoever is dealing with the learner in the school, as a teacher must
have had a few teaching skills before getting a chance to go to the classroom.
Going to the classroom means that the teacher must have the ability to interact,
speak, and talk to the students. This is because:
• A great deal of instruction is based on talking.
• The interaction between the teacher and the student is often the main element
that binds them together with other components of teaching.
• The way in which the teacher presents verbal information provides the
foundation for other instructional events to take place during the lesson.
• Quite a great deal of teaching is done with the help of two media i.e. (the
teacher's voice and the chalkboard). Hence, these two media of
communication provide a starting point for any instructional strategy.
However, teaching by talking involves styles that require little activity on the part of
the student. Moving a way teaching and learning out of the realm of a
spectacular spot and into the arena of active involvement is the subject covered
within the perimeters of instructional technology.

2.2 MEDIA
2.2.1 General Uses of Media
Media can be used in many different settings for different purposes. Obtaining
abundant resources for improving human performance and promoting learning
requires the following:
 A broad knowledge of different media.
 Abroad knowledge of different methods for designing instructions and
 A broad knowledge of factors affecting learning and media use.
However, the three general uses of media are:
 For entertainment
 For information and
 For Instruction.
2.2.2 Media for Entertainment
This includes the use of media for recreation and enjoyment. Entertainment
media include fictional stories, and radio broadcasts of music, and movies which
 are typically shown in motion picture theatres and comedies, dramas, and
sporting events on televisions.
2.2.3 Media for Information
This is another common use of media. Through information, media increases the
level of awareness and present facts necessary for the user/consumer. Examples
in this categories are newspapers, news magazines, and their accounts on currents
events that takes place and eventually affects human balance with his natural
environment. Other print media give spellings and stock market analyses, news
broadcasts and documentaries on both radios and TVs. Computerized data bases
for information retrieval and advertisements in all media are included in this
category. Human learning at these levels are largely incidental and are not
necessarily the main intention of the senders or the receivers of information.
2.2.4 Media for Instruction
This is the third use of media. Whenever media are used for this purpose, usually,
programmes are designed intentionally to take the viewer and the listener from the
state of not knowing to one of knowing. It also takes the user or learner from the
state of poor performance to a state of competence.
2.2.5 Examples of Teaching Media Commonly Used in our Classrooms today
 Blackboard, graphics, chalks, chalkboards, and text books. Yet, quite steadily,
there has been increased use of other sophisticated media technologies in our
classrooms today that we cannot enumerate all of them here. Some of these
media include.
 Motion pictures, slides and slide projectors, film strips, records and
audiotapes still picture cameras and computers both hardware and software
gadgets.
The use of computers and TVs in our classrooms today increases day by day. At
the same time, the appearances of other new media technologies like videodiscs
and Liquefied Crystal Discs (LCD) have typically revolutionized our classrooms
and conferences today. The education system today is a welcome of innovations
in the education sector. Media which was originally intended as an entertainment
or information device can now be used as an instructional device with some few
adaptations and moderation where necessary. Such uses require some
adaptations, extra guidance, careful selection, planning, preparations, analyses,
utilization, learners' participation, and proper evaluation before it is put into
practice. Teachers of Literature or drama may require showing short cartoon
films or excerpts from motion pictures to illustrate a lesson on humour. Hence,
the effectiveness of the lesson will automatically depend on the teacher's careful
structuring of the most appropriate examples and class discussions to give a well-
intended output. Incorporating newspapers or reference books into lessons can
help to teach reading skills and improve language status of the learners. Such
media that the teacher incorporates with learning activities may enhance media
technology into mechanisms of learning.
2.2.6 Some Flaws/Confusions in the Application and Use of Media Technology
The adaptation of media, which is originally intended for a particular purpose, is a
good sign of practice when appropriately applied. However, problems, flaws and
confusions arises when:
 The methods of creating entertainment and information programmes are
confused with methods of creating instructional programmes.
 Contending every instructional programme with commercial televisions.
  Most programmes for teaching and training are presented in settings where
students or trainees are cumbered by distractions or by the learners that are
not highly motivated to learn.
 Boring programmes are being used.
 Entertainment in some programmes may interfere with learning, hence,
unnecessarily increases instructional time and expenses.
Activity III- A
 Media which was originally intended as an entertainment or information
device can now be used as instructional devices with few adaptations
and moderation where necessary. Elucidate with reference to the
context.
 Identify some flaws and confusions in the application and use of media
technology.
2.2.7 Different Ways of Avoiding Such Flaws and Confusions
 Make instructions enjoyable but not at the expense of efficiency and
effectiveness.
 The difference between the methods of creating entertainment and
information programmes should be clearly stated to avoid confusion
with the methods of creating instructional programmes.
 Avoid contending every instructional programme with commercial
Televisions.
 Most programmes for education and training should be presented in
settings where students and trainees are unnumbered/ bothered by
distractions and the learners who are not highly motivated to learn.
 Promote interactive, interesting, but not boring instructional
programmes.
 Avoid programmes which may unnecessarily interfere with learning or
increases instructional time expenses of the learner.
2.2.8 Definition
Media are the means (usually audiovisual Electronics) used for transmitting or
delivering messages. It includes such gadgets like:
 Print Media
 Graphics
 Audio-Communications
 TV sets and Monitors
 Simulation and Games and
 Computers.
Hence, media may be subdivided as Print and Non-Print Media having two main
components.
2.2.9 Components of Media
There are two main components of media. These are:
 Hardware and
 Software.
2.2.9.1 Hardware. This is the type of equipment needed to produce and present
information. It is also the machinery or device used to produce or present a
message.
♠ Examples of Hardware Devices
 Film Projectors
 Tape recorders
 Over Head Projectors (OHPs)
  Transparency Projectors
 Record Players
 TV Monitors and
 Computer Terminals

2.2.9.2 Software Devices

In software devices, all information is placed upon these materials. They are the
materials that are transmitted through Hardware.
♠ Examples of Software Devices
 Films
 Audio tapes
 Transparencies
 Records
 Video tapes and
 Computer Programmes
Activity III-B
 Define the term Media.
 What are the various components of Media
 Identify the principles that influence the application, designing,
and use of media
 Identify common results responsible for the application of media
and technology as dynamic learning processes.

2.2.10 Application of Media

The application of the principles for designing instruction and using media is
influenced by factors like:
 Nature of the students.
 Constraints of time and resources
 What media and technology will be expected to accomplish.
 How ready people are to accept innovations that might results and
 How decisions concerning technology and media are made.
2.2.11 Application of Media and Technology as Dynamic Learning Processes
The application of media using knowledge to solve problems and implement
desirable learning outcomes involve procedures like:
 Identification of appropriate theory and relevant resources to solve
problems involving learning and performance.
 Prioritization (setting up) as to which problems are to be solved first and
 Finding outProcedures and Techniques necessary for the application of
theory and resources.
2.2.12 Common Results Responsible for the Application of Media and Technology
as Dynamic Learning Processes
Common results responsible for the application of media and technology as
dynamic learning processes require knowledge of the capabilities and limitations
of different instructional media. Both teachers and trainers who contemplate to
develop and use mediated instructions should first find out what others have done
and how successful or unsuccessful they have been in similar circumstances. In
this way, they can benefit from other's experiences and avoid mistakes or
duplication. Perhaps, they may exchange information with similar persons doing
similar work. This may help avoid time constraints, financial limitations, and

25
 administrative problems arising from different opinions, ideas and opposing
attitudes from different managers and supervisors. However, a dynamic learning
process involve parameters like:
 Acquisition of new knowledge that can often guide future applications.
 Adoption and adaptation of existing products, methods and approaches and
 Development of new products, methods and new approaches to teaching and
training.
Note
 Other dynamic factors like Knowledge of theories and Knowledge of
resources are also responsible for the application of media technology.
 The theories that practitioners who teach with media and technology use
come from researches conducted from many disciplines like
psychology, communications, evaluation, and economics. Theories have
great practical relevance in the field of education and training. Some of
the most important experimental psychologists who have contributed to
the field of education were people of great repute in this discipline. A
quick overview of their contribution has been stated hereunder.

 Thorndike E.L.(1874-1949)-Fundamental Gulf Between Man and

Animal (The Law of Effect)
B.F.Skinner(1904)- Operant conditioning.
 Guthrie E.R.(1886-1959).Contiguity.
 Pavlov I.P. (11849-1936). Classical Conditioning.
 Watson J.B. (1878-1958). Connectionist. The Nervous System.

Experimental Psychologists have discovered that behavior reinforced(Reward)
increases frequency of occurrence. Whereas that which is scolded (Punished),
decreases the occurrence. Thorndike's (1874-1949), Law of Effect maintains that
learning consists of strengthening of connections between a stimuli situation and a
response. If this connection is strengthened, (Reinforced), then, the response has
the effect of producing satisfaction to the animal and not weakened.
However, if the response has the effect of producing discomfort or an annoying
state of affairs, then, extinction occurs.

2.2.13 Educational Implication of the Theory on both Human and Animal

Organisms
Learning is an automatic process that builds a direct connection between the
stimulus and the response(S=>R) with animal awareness. This has brought
about improved performance over the trials.
2.2.14 Educational Implications of the Law on Human Organism

 Praise, Power, Recognition, and Success are all satisfying to human

organism. Human motivation depends upon certain characteristics of
each individual and the immediate circumstances.
 However, one basic principle of Thorndike's Law of Readiness is that
particular states of affair will prove to be satisfying only to the extent
that the subject is ready for it. Food is a satisfier (Reinforcer) only
when the organism is hungry (Stimulus).
 Evasive Case: However, if a certain state of affair may be an annoyer
just because of the momentary state of the organism, then, the organism
will adopt a conflict avoidance situation. Like in the case of an electric
shock.

2.2.15 Impact of Thorndike's Contributions

 Learning depends upon the occurrence of particular events, which today
are termed as reinforcers.
 All learning involves the formation of new (S=>R) connections.
 Learning in human beings was supposed to involve the association of
ideas. However, Thorndike gave us a new alternative on human
learning.
 The basic LESSON used for describing behavior wasno longer to be an
idea or a nerve cell, rather, it was to be the S=>R connections.
 Learning involves association, but it is S and R elements that are
connected.
 This proposal was a radical departure from an earlier established
thinking.
 Thorndike brokered the mentalistic-mechanistic, intelligence-instinct or
Man-AnimalDualism that had such a hold upon psychological thought
at the turn of the century.
 He gave us the concept of reinforcement, the idea that learning occurs
when a response produces a particular kind of event likea satisfying
state of affair.
 He introduced a variety of experimental techniques for studying human
learning and verbal behavior.

Note
 Teachers and trainers can use reinforcement to improve performance.
Other reinforcements like prize giving, praise, gold-medals, giving free
time to school that perform better or well in school increases the
probability that high performance level will continue. Likewise,
employees who receive time off, bonuses and other incentives tend to
increase their workload and responsibilities leading to high productivity.
 Activity III- C
These activities are based on the discussions from the text: Answer all of
them:
 What is the difference between technology of education and
educational technology?
 What is Instructional Technology?
 What is a software device?
 What are the differences between a software device and a hardware
device?
 Explain the meaning of Media and Instruction?
 What are learning styles?
 What are the educational implications of Thorndike's Law of Effect
on Human learning?
 Explain into details the meaning of these statements:
∗ A particular state of affair will prove to be satisfying only to the
extent that the subject is ready for it.'
∗ Sometimes, merely making a particular response in a given
situation will strengthen the connection between S=>R'.
 Identify common results responsible for the application of media and
technology as dynamic learning processes.

2.3 The ASSURE Model

All effective instructions require careful planning. The ASSURE Model is a well-
constructed procedural model designed to ensure effective use of media
instruction. It is also a guide for planning and conducting instructions that
incorporates media. Teaching with instructional media has become paramount.
Since the ASSURE Model is a procedural guide for planning and conducting
instruction that incorporates media. This subsection of the model assumes that
training or instruction really is required where students are to use a new
laboratory microscope or how to handle toxic materials. This LESSON further
continues to examine how to plan systematically for the effective use of
instructional media. The Model therefore focuses on planning surrounding the
actual classroom use of media.
Note
Suppose a teacher wants to teach Form -I students the following:
 How to use and operate microscopes in a laboratory.
 How to safely handle toxic materials or
 How to operate a video camera, an OHP, a film projector etc.
The ASSURE Model through careful planning will help the teacher to focus on
how to handle such situations well in advance before the lesson begins. The
teacher will have to plan, on what materials to use, how to use them, where to get
them and decide on the cost effectiveness of the materials and their availability. The
model is less ambitious than other models of instructional development, which
are intended to guide the entire process of designing instructional systems. Such
processes are required to undergo other procedures like:
 Needs Analysis
 Product Design

28
  Prototype -tryout
 System Implementation and
 Evaluation and Assessment procedures.
These larger-scale instructional development procedures typically involve teams of
specialists and require major commitments in terms of time and money. Yet, this
long-term procedure is not within the purview of the model. Above all, the model
is meant for use by the individual teachers in planning everyday classroom use of
media. The model was the brainchild of Molenda, M.; Russell. J. D. and Heinich.
R R. (1989; 1993). The model therefore proposes six steps or procedures in
Systematic Planning for the Use of Media. These were given in the form of
Acronym ASSURE which means:
A- Analyse the Learners.
S- State the Objectives
S- Select Media and Materials
U-Utilize Media and Materials
R- Require the Learners Participation
E- Evaluate and Revise.
The six different steps of Systematic Planning for the Use of Media are discussed
hereunder.
2.3.1 STEP IAnalyse the Learners
The first step or procedure in planning is to identify the learners who may be the
students, trainees or members of any organization. As a teacher, you must know
your students thoroughly to enable you select the best media to meet your
objectives. The effective use of instructional media involves a match between the
learners' characteristics and the content of the lesson, and its presentation. The
first step in the ASSURE model is therefore the Analysis of the audience
(learners). Analysing the learners also involve knowing the learner's general
characteristics, their specific entry competencies, their learner's learning styles,
analysing more on their information-processing habits, motivational factors and
psychological factors as well. Psychological factors are more related to sex
differences, health and environmental conditions. These factors obviously
influence the effectiveness of learning. In specific entry competencies,
researchers have stressed more on the entry competencies through informal
means such as , in-class-questioning, out-of -class interviews, testing- with-
standardized or teacher-made-tests. Hence, entry tests are assessments, both
formal and informal, that determine whether or not the student possess the
necessary pre-requisites (entry-skills) which are the competencies the learner
must possess in order to benefit from the instruction.
Note
In view of the above discussions, we may conclude this step by summarizing and
identifying several factors about the learners that must be considered for making
good and judicious decisions on media selection. These factors are as stated
below:
 General Characteristics: whereby broad-identifying descriptions must be
identified. They include the following:

∗ Age factor, Grade Level, Job Positions, Cultural back -ground and Socio-
economic status of the learners: These are the factors that are not in
anyway, related to the lesson-content. They help the teacher to determine
the level of the lesson and select contexts and examples that are
meaningful to the audience (students).

 Specification of the Entry Competencies: These include:

∗ Knowledge and skills that the learners have or lack. They are sometimes
referred to, as the (pre-requisite skills) needed by the leaner to start
instruction. Do the learners have the knowledge base required to enter the
lesson. Form I students must have undergone Standard VIII and
successfully passed K C P E.

∗ Mastery: Have they mastered some of the skills you are planning to teach?

∗ Attitude: Are there biases or misconceptions about the subject or the

teacher?

2.3.2 STEP II State the Objectives

This is the second step of the ASSURE Model. Objectives must be stated as
specifically as possible. They must be derived from a course, a syllabus stated in
a textbook, taken from a curriculum guide or developed by the teacher. Every
activity has an objective. Objectives are unifying statements for our daily and
future activities. Objectives may be imposed on or even offered to us by someone
and may even be of our own making. They may be conceived as points marking
the achievements of some effort, ambition, or accomplishment. All objectives rest
upon an assumption or underlying complex of value. They lie at the very heart of
a planning process. Planning objectives enables the teacher to command the
future rather than be commanded by it. Planning a head makes it possible
anticipate and hopefully avoid unforeseen classroom difficulties.

2.3.2.1 Importance of Stating Objectives

Stating the objectives require the teacher to analyse and understand the following
questions.
 What do you hope to accomplish by the end of the instruction and how much
time do you need to present the lesson effectively and successfully? Above all, limit
your objectives and content on the available time.
 As a teacher, you must know your instructional objectives thoroughly in order to
make the correct selection and judgments of media and methods to be used. Your
objectives will undoubtedly dictate your choice of media and the sequence of
learning activities.
  To create a conducive and relevant learning environment in which specific
objectives can be reached i.e. to solve quadratic equations correctly within five
minutes; to change a flat tyre within seven minutes. The learning environment
here must include a sum to be solved, time probably a stopwatch, and a car with a
flat tyre.

 To help assure proper evaluation. The teacher will not know if the learners have
achieved the objective unless proper evaluation is done. Without explicit
objectives, students will not know what is expected of them.
 Objectives must dictate the choice of media and the learning sequence (activities)
 To enable teaching and learning environment become objectively oriented.
Before we conclude this step, it is imperative to say that a statement of objective
is a type of contract between the teacher and the learner.
Note
• Objectives state what learning goals each learner is expected to
reach.
• What new capability should the learner possess at the completion of
instruction. Thus, objectives are not statements of what the teacher
plans to put into the lesson, but, rather, of what the learner ought to
get out of the lesson.Hence, statements of objectives must be:
∗ Specific. The required responses must be acceptable as adequate.
Attempts to describe in the clearest term possible, exactly what a
student will think, act, or feel at the end of a learning experience. ∗
Measurable in Behavioural Terms: Must show details of desired
behaviour,
∗ Observable. Details of any limiting conditions under which the
responses will be gauged must be observed. and
∗ Achievable. Just like goals describe destinations or events, so,
objectives (specific) describes an activity that the learner will be
able to do in order to demonstrate mastery.
Relevancy. Objectives must demonstrate to be related to the real world and
to the problems at hand. Such abstracts, and isolated activities, which are
unrelated to human concerns, are likely to be regarded as irrelevant, unless
steps are taken to demonstrate their utility. Objectives therefore give
clarifications to the intentions for a learning situation.

2.3.2.2 Characteristics of a well stated objective

A well stated objective starts:
 By naming the audience or the learners for whom the objective is intended. The
teacher must give major focus on what the learner is doing rather than what the
teacher is doing. In this way, learning is most likely to take place when the
learner is active, mentally processing an idea, and physically practicing a skill.
This is because, accomplishment of an objective depends upon what the learner
does, but not what the teacher do. All specific objectives must begin by stating
whose capability is going to be changed.
 To specify the behavior or capability to be learned and the conditions under
which capability will be observed. Objectives must be stated in observable and in
behavioural terms. What will the learner be able to do by the end instruction?
Vague terms like understand, know, and appreciate do not communicate the aim
clearly. Behaviours, which denote observable performance, are Recall, Revise,

31
 Demonstrate, Generate, Define, Categorize, Apply, Plot, Select, Illustrate, Solve,
Devise, Categorize, Compute, Write, Describe, Devise, Label, and Classify etcare
action oriented. Hence, recommended for writing objectives.
 Conditions: Any statement of the objective must include conditions under which
performance is to be observed. Given a political map of East Africa, the learner
will be able to mark the major coal mining areas without referring to the
atlas.(any library material, seeking the help of the teacher etc)
 To specify the degree to which the new skills must be mastered i.e. the standard
by which, the capability can be judged. This is the final requirement of a well-
stated objective. It usually indicates the standard under which performance must
be judged. It also states the criterion which acceptable performance will be
fulfilled. To what degree of accuracy or proficiency must the learner display? (Be
judged?).Whether the criteria is stated in qualitative or quantitative terms, they
should be based on some real world requirements i.e. How well must a mechanic
be able to operate a lathe in order to be a productive employee? How much time
should the learner take to be able to solve quadratic equations? (5Minutes).
Activity III-D
After going through the second step of the ASSURE Model, you should try to
attempt the following activities stated below.
 What is the importance of stating instructional objectives?

 What are the major characteristics of a well-stated objective?

 It has been established that a well-stated objective caters for the audience
or learners behaviour (capabilities), conditions, and degree or criteria by
which acceptable performance will be judged. Elucidate.
 In any one of your teaching subjects, write at least five objectives that
include the learner's, behavioural outcome, and conditions (if appropriate)
and degree of mastery.
 Write at least six objectives into the following domains and skills:
Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor Domains, and Motor and
Interpersonal Skills.

2.3.3 \STEP III Selecting Media and Material

A systematic plan for using media demands that media be selected systematically.
The selection process involves, choosing an appropriate media format and,
selecting, modifying, and designing specific materials within that format. There
are four main procedures involved in the selection, modifying, and designing
specific materials. Media selection usually takes different forms. Within these,
instructional situations may take different settings in the form of large group
format, small group, or self-instruction formats. Due consideration must take care
of other key players of learner variables such as reader, non-reader, or auditory
preference and the nature of the objectives like cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor domains and interpersonal skills. Selection of instructional media
must also give more preferences against the presentational capabilities of each of
the media formats e.g. presenting still visuals, motion visuals, and printed and
spoken words. Above all, selection of an appropriate media must give feedback to
both the learner and the teacher. There are certain procedures to be followed when
selecting an appropriate media. These procedures are:
 Choose the Media Format,

32
  Obtaining Specific Materials,
 Survey the Sources,
 Modifying available Materials and
 Design New Materials.
We can now discuss very briefly about these procedures to be followed when
selecting media.
2.3.3.1 Obtaining Specific Materials
As a teacher, having decided what media format suits your immediate
instructional objective, your main task now is to find out specific materials to
convey your lesson so that the learners can be in a position to learn effectively.
Obtaining specific and appropriate materials involve the following alternatives.
 Selecting available materials. If materials are already available that will
allow your students to meet your objectives; then, the materials should be
used to save both time and money. Majority of instructional materials used by
teachers today is ready-made, available in most schools, districts, or Teachers'
Advisory Centers (TAC) and most of them are commonly found on the
shelves in the schools. It is therefore the duty of the teacher to source out
these learning resources and make sure that they are easily available in their
institutions ready for classroom use.
2.3.3.2 Modifying the available and existing materials. However, when the media and
the available material do not meet the requirements of your audience, then
modify them to suit your objectives and needs of the learners. This could be done
if as a teacher you survey some of the published media reference guides to get a
general idea of what is available or not. Modification of the media also comes in
when you cannot locate suitable materials and media in the shelves or at the
various resource centers nearer to you.
2.3.3.3 Designing new materials. However, if no alternatives match your needs, then
design your own materials. It is much easier and less costly to use available
materials and media without modification than to start from the scratch.
Note
Certain basic considerations must be taken into account when designing new
materials. These are:
 Objectives. What do you want your students to learn?
Audience.What are the characteristics of your audience/learners? Do
they have the pre-requisite knowledge and skills to use or learn from
the materials?
Cost.Is sufficient money available in your budget to meet the cost of
supplies (films, audio tapes, videocassettes and TV sets etc? If not,
then you will need to prepare the materials yourself.
 Technical Expertise. Do you have the necessary expertise to design
and produce the kind of materials you wish to use? If not, will the
necessary technical assistance be available to you? Try to keep your
design within the range of your own capabilities. Do not waste time
and money trying to produce expensive materials.
 Equipment. Do you have available the necessary equipment to
produce or use the materials you intend to design?
 Facilities. If your design calls for use of special facilities for
preparation or use of your materials, are such materials available?
 Time. Can you afford to spend whatever time may be necessary to
design and produce the kind of materials you have in mind?

Question

 What are the basic procedures for selecting, modifying and designing
instructional materials?
 Indicate when each procedure is appropriate.
 List two general characteristics of the learners and two types of specific
competencies that could affect media selection.
 Select a topic in your subject area and suggest two media that would be
appropriate for use in your teaching.
 Discuss in your own words, how each of the above procedures may
effectively contribute to the selection of media and materials.

2.3.4 STEP-IV Utilize Media and Materials

This is the fourth step of systematic plan for using media. This step involves the
following procedures:
 Preview of the Materials,
 Practice the Presentations,
 Prepare the Learning Environment,
 Prepare the Audience/Learner,
 Require/Seek for the Learner's Active Participation and Present the Material.

Let us discuss very briefly one by one all the five procedures involved in the
utilization of media and materials.

34
2.3.4.1 Preview of the Materials
As we have discussed earlier during the selection process, you as a teacher, you
should have determined that the objectives and materials you are going to use in
your lesson are appropriate for your audience/learners. Before you go to class,
you must ensure that you have a full mastery of the materials to be effectively
used in your class. Previewing the materials in advance enables you to detect
some parts, which might be objectionable or distract the class participation. It
also enables you to eliminate some sensitive sections or if need be, discuss with
them in advance those portions which might cause ripples in the class. This will
let the learners be aware of what is to take place in advance and avoid classroom
embarrassment.
2.3.4.2 Practice the Presentation
Previewing the materials leads us to actual practice of some important portions of
the presentation. It is advisable for the teacher to go through the presentation at
least once well in advance and then to review your notes just immediately before
the presentation. During this reviewing process, you should avoid over practice.
Depending on the nature of the available resources you have, you should always
try to get some feedback during practice time. Some teachers prefer using
mirrors, others like to have a colleague/friend around to provide feedback.
Usually, and depending on its availability, always try to use media to provide you
with feedback. The type of media can be audiotape, or video recorder, which can
give an accurate replay while practicing the presentation. These two types of
media will not only let you hear what you said but see yourself presenting. This
will definitely make you improve and correct yourself where you went wrong.
Note
It is important for us to tell you that you should observe the following:
 That during the practicing time, the newness of the material, the
importance of the presentation, and the amount of time available will
automatically determine how many times you should practice.
 Always try to use a real mirror, a friend, an audiotape, or a video
cassette recorder for immediate feedback.
 That the importance of practice cannot be overstated. Do not just walk
through it in your mind but you should actually stand up and practice it.

2.3.4.3 Prepare the Learning Environment

Depending on the place where presentation may take place, always remember to
consider the following factors, which might make delivery of instruction become
more comfortable.
 Consider the seating plan of the class.
 Adequate ventilation.
 Suitable lighting.
 A good conducive classroom climate.
 Many media require a darkened room, a convenient power supply, and access
to light and switches. Ensure that all these facilities are available at the right
time before you begin your lesson.
 As a teacher, you should always check if the equipment is in good working
order.
 Always try to arrange the facilities in such a way that the learners, audience
can see and hear properly whatever is going on in the classroom.



2.3.4.4 Prepare the Audience/Learner
Various researches conducted on human learning have concluded that whatever is
learned from a presentation depends highly on how the learners are prepared for
the presentation. Starting a lesson by giving a broad overview of the content and
its rationale. Telling the learner how the content is related to the topic being
studied. At the same time, giving motivating statements, which relates to the
content will definitely capture the learner's attention and interests. This is
sometimes termed as giving warm-up to the learner in preparation for the real
classroom presentation. Warm ups prepare the learners to have the need and urge
to know how they are going to profit from paying attention and provide cues
which directs their attention to specific aspects of the presentation.
2.3.4.5 Present the Material.
This is the most opportune time you have been preparing for. You are therefore
ready to show your learners that you really know your subject matter quite well.
You have to control the attention of your students during the presentation time.
You are therefore considered to act like a general showmanship that you are in
charge of the class. The success of the lesson will depend on how you present the
lesson and how you conduct yourself throughout the entire period.

ACTIVITY III E
 Give examples of five basic procedures in Utilizing Instructional
Materials.
 Explain how these five basic procedures may be used effectively to aid
teaching learning process.
 Describe several methods for eliciting student response during and after
using media.
 Justify the need for requiring the learner's response when using media.

2.3.5 STEP V Require Learner Response

The fifth step in theASSURE Modelis to provide opportunities for learners to
practice the capability of being taught. This is because active participation in the
learning process enhances learning. In order to enhance active classroom
participation, the teacher should incorporate topics, which promote more
classrooms activities. Such topics are, class discussions, short quizzes, and
application exercises. These may provide immediate response and reinforcement
during instruction. Follow-up activities may also provide further opportunities for
learning. At the same time, teachers' guides and manuals that accompany
instructions elicit a lot of learner's responses and reinforcement during
instruction. Since the utmost aim of the teacher is to provide learning, it is his/her
utmost duty to ensure that meaningful learning is actually taking place during
instruction. Several researchers and psychologists have realized that active
participation in the classroom learning process enhances meaningful learning.
Some of their contributions, which gave more emphasis on active learner
participation, have been highlighted hereunder.
 Note
Contributors of Learner's Active Participation
• In the early 1900s, John Dewey campaigned for the reorganization of
curriculum and instruction to make students participation a central part
of the teaching learning process.
• B.F.Skinner, a behavioural psychologist demonstrated that
instructions providing for constant reinforcement of desired
behaviour are more effective than instruction in which responses are not
reinforced.
• Cognitive theories of learning, more recently focused on internal
mental processes and have also supported the principle that effective
learning demands active manipulation of information by the learners. •
Gagne. R.M. (1985), concluded that there are several necessary
conditions for effective learning of each type of objective. Gagne
therefore asserted that:
∗ The one condition that pertains to all objectives is practice of
the desired skills.
∗ The most effective learning situations are those that require
learners to perform activities that build toward the objective. The
form of participation may include repetitive drill of new spelling or
vocabulary words, solving mathematical problems, rehearsal of a basketball
play, and creating an original product such as term paper.

2.3.6 STEP VI Evaluate/Revise

There is need for teachers to know the total picture of the entire instructional
episode being undertaken in any instruction. The teacher is the master and
essential player in the game of teaching learning process. He is the one in charge
of everything going on in the classroom. While in the classroom, the teacher's
duty is to facilitate meaningful learning. Evaluating and revising instruction
definitely makes the teacher aware of any loophole if any in his lesson. In order
to do this he needs to:
 To get the total picture of the entire instructional process very clearly.
 Ask himself, did the learners meet the objectives?
 Did the media use help in assisting the learners reaching the objectives? and
 Did all the learners use the materials properly? etc.
After going through this type of checklist, you are likely to identify some
discrepancies. Wherever there are discrepancies between what you intended to do
and what you actually attained, you need to revise your plan for the next attempt.
There are many different types of evaluating the learners. For proper evaluation
to take place, the teacher should try to evaluate the student's achievement, media
and methods used during instruction, and evaluation of the entire instructional
process.
One utmost question in the instructional process is whether or not the students
have learned what they were supposed to learn. Are they able to display the
capabilities specified in the original statements of objectives? When the
objectives were formulated in the initial stage, remember to include statements of
objectives criteria of acceptable performance which will be evaluated by the end
of instruction because you must assess whether the learner's skills meet that
criteria. The method of evaluating achievement also depends on the nature of the
objective itself. Some objectives call for relatively simple cognitive skills, others
may call for process- type behaviour i.e. (operating a lathe machine, and solving
quadratic equations, and observing safety procedures in the laboratory etc).
Lastly, evaluating objectives must indicate that the learners have the capabilities
of the process, product, or attribute to solve problems. Evaluation must also show
that the learner by the end of instruction must display a behavior in action. This
means setting up a situation where the learner must demonstrate the new skills in
which instructional judgment can be based. Although attitudes are rather difficult
to evaluate at all time, setting up long time goals and observation may be required
to determine if the learner really attained the goals set. Depending on the
outcomes of your evaluation, you as a teacher will be free to Revise the
instruction. Revising and evaluation of instruction are essential elements that
determine whether or not the lesson is a success.

Activity III F
In view of the topic discussed in the last step of systematic planning for
the use of media, briefly discuss how you would
 Evaluate media and the methods used during instruction.
 Evaluate the learner's achievement
 Evaluate his/her performance and attitude towards the instruction.
 Evaluate the instructional objectives. Were the objectives very clear?
/Unclear? Dull?
 Appraise the modules/content used. Was the lesson very interesting?,
Dull? Was the module difficult? Simple? etc.

Hints
The hints listed below are meant to enable you gain more confidence before you go
to class to meet your students.
 Always Remember to Mentally run through the presentation to review
each idea in sequence.
 Do a stand-up rehearsal of your presentation. Try to practice in the room
where you will be presenting or the one similar to it. Give a simulated
presentation, idea for idea (but not word for word) using all visual aids
and props.
 Practice answers to questions you anticipate from the audience or
learners.
 Videotape or (audiotape) yourself or have a colleague sit on your
rehearsal to give you immediate feedback.
 Always Use Keyword Notes. Not a script. Print keywords on index
cards. Never Read from a script because written language is different
from spoken language.
 2.4 Summary
We have discussed at length all the six steps of systematic planning for the
use of media commonly known as the ASSURE Model. During our
discussions, we learned of the various stages under which the model can
help ASSURE learning. In our discussions, we learned that:
 The first step of the model is Analyze Learners.
 The second step is State the Objectives.
 The third step is Select Media and Materials.
 The fourth step is Utilize Media and Materials and
 The fifth step is Require Learner Participation.
 The sixth step is Evaluate/Revise.

2.5 REFERENCES
♠ Gagne R.M. (1985). The Conditions of Learning, 4 th Edition (New
York:Holt,Rinehart and Winston.
♠ Gloria,F.(1981). The Educational Use of Mass Media. World Bank Staff Working
PAPER No.491.Washington D.C. 20433, USA.
♠ Lewis,J.Perelman, (2001). Schools' Out. Funderstanding Instructional
Technology.Sitemap. Engaging Kids about Curriculum and Instruction.pp1-2.
♠ Lumsdaine. A .A. and May. M. A. (1958).Learning From Films. New Haven, CT:
Yale University Press.
♠ Pinckney,R.L. (1980). Syllabi for Educational Technology Courses and Selection and
Maintenance of AV Equipment. Ginn Custom Publishing, 191 Spring Street,
Lexington, Massachusetts, 02173.
LESSON THREE: SELECTION AND UTILIZATION OF TEACHING MATERIALS
3.0
Introduction
Teaching is an important aspect of teachereducation. In training schools and colleges, trainee teachers
basically learn about their: subject, that is, specialized knowledge in a particular subject area. The techniques of
teaching subject content (pedagogy/methodology) and how children learn are acquired through courses in basic
education and the study of education principles. Through practice teaching, trainee: teachers are introduced into the
teaching profession in a practical manner. This ensures that teacher education is not only theoretically supported,
but also practice oriented. Therefore, teaching practice provides students teachers with the opportunity to become
fully acquainted with practical way, the details of classroom procedure, control and relationship with students and
immediate matters of teaching materials, syllabus, and methods of evaluation, among others.
Effective practice teaching is dependent on good communication between the trainee teacher and the
students. Verbal instruction, which seems to be the easiest form of instructional delivery system besides real
experience, is always very abstract. Since students enter into schools with varying degrees of abilities and
potentials, trainee teachers need instructional media to help them communicate effectively, and thus cope with
students needs based on their abilities. Instructional media are all forms of information carriers which can be used to
record, store, preserve, transmit, or retrieve information for purposes of teaching and learning. They are materials
used by practising and trainee teachers to present, illustrate, and elucidate teaching posits. Educators have long
recognized the intrinsic value of instructional media in the teaching and learning processes. This-recognition
engendered the inclusion of components of media education in teacher training programmes. Educational.
Technology, theoretical and "hand on" experience in media design, production, utilization and evaluation, and so
on.
3.3 ADVANTAGES OF THE USE OF MEDIA IN TEACHING
There are several inherent advantages in the use of media in practice teaching by trainee teachers. First,
effectively used media are vital for encouraging and facilitating students' learning.
Second, through the use of media, subject content can be more carefully selected and organized. Thus, the
quality of instruction delivered by trainee teacher can be improved as subject content can be delivered in a well
organized, consistent, specific, and clearly defined manner.
Third, trainee's delivery of instruction can be much more standardized as learners' with varying abilities can
receive the same message and their individual differences catered for using media.
Also, instructional media usage in practice teaching can make instruction to be much more interesting and
enjoyable. The changing images and use of special effects, among others, can reduce boredom on the part of
learners.
Furthermore, classroom interaction can be interactive.
Media can also promote student-student interaction, student-teacher interaction, and teacherstudent
interaction, if pre-instructional planning incorporates principles such as stimulus variation, feedback, reinforcement,
learner' participation, and so on.
Media also save teaching time as they require short-time to present large information. They can be used to
reveal needs and stimulate students' question. Thus learners' interest can be aroused, maintained, and stimulated to
promote their imaginative power. On the whole, media ensure the application of classroom-oriented communication
techniques. Therefore, [earners should be assisted, encouraged and motivated not only to learn, but also to continue
to learn .
3.4 Types of Media and their Application in Teaching
There is a profusion of instructional media, which can be used by trainee teachers to enrich their classroom
teaching. The plethora of media offers trainee teachers considerable opportunities to make their teaching more
effective and efficient. Effectiveness in this context implies how well educational goals and objectives are achieved,
while efficiency refers to how instructional media are utilized to achieve teaching goals and objectives.
Generally, media are categorized as print, non-print, audio, audio-visual electronics, non-electronics, and so
on. Some of the instructional media considered relevant to trainee teachers in the classroom are discussed as follow.
3.4.1 Print Media:
The print media are some of the oldest media in education, this category of media are useful for
informational or motivational purposes. They are used to convey verbal information through print. They form the
most widely used media in education and they include textbooks, periodicals encyclopedia, newspapers magazines,
file records minutes, and so on. They provide good source for trainee teachers to structure their lesson plans and
notes. There are legions of textbooks on all areas of subject discipline. Sometime, they carry the main responsibility
of organizing instruction and they can be used as basic instructional guide. Newspapers, magazines, documents, file
record and so on, are also very relevant for disciplines in the social sciences, art, and the pure sciences. Information
contained in them can be current. Almanac also provides useful source of medium for trainee teachers in their
classroom. Print medium can be used to supplement other media with maximum effect. Print can also incorporate
several other media, like pictures and graphic materials, thus serving as multi-media.
3.4.2Chalks and Chalkboard:
They can be used to present instructional content as immediate sketchbook, and they are essentially
temporary, for delineating ideas. When integrated with other media, they can give full explanation. However, most
teachers do not use chalk and classroom presentation in all subject areas. Neatness of the chalkboard must be
ensured through the use of guidelines, templates, compasses and straight-edged rulers. Chalkboard should be
divided into sections. Lettering should follow the occidental form of lettering, that is from the left sector of the
chalkboard to the right, or use of only the middle portion of the chalkboard. Chalks to be used for teaching must ,be
in form for wedges and cones, so as to give uniform thickness of line. Coloured chalks may be used when it is
appropriate to show distinction among parts of drawings and for emphasis of teaching points.
3.4.3 Graphic Materials:
They are non-photographic, two-dimensional materials designed to communicate a message to the learners.
They may incorporate symbolic visual and verbal cues. Graphic media include drawings, charts graphs, posters,
among others. Drawings are more finished and representational arrangement of lives to represent persons, places,
things, and concepts. Charts are abstract representations of abstract relationships, like tabular charts, time line, and
classification charts. Graphs are visual representation of numerical data, like polar graphs, scatter graph, line graph,
and so on. Graphs are useful for trainee teachers in subjects like economics, geography, and mathematics. Posters
are also useful graphic media using combination of lines, colour and texts. Cartoons are line drawings that can be
used to encourage students and enliven instruction. Flip charts and well charts can be used as speaker support and
key point reference. They should be designed in a way, to ensure that they are large and short in content.
3.4.4Realia:
These are real things or objects (as opposed to representation or models) as they are without alteration.
They include coins, tools, artifacts, plants and animals among others. Specimen, exhibits, and cut-away objects are
some of the classifications used for realia which have great value in virtually every subject. They can be relevant in
subjects in the sciences (biology, physics, chemistry), history, economics, and so on. For instance, the of realia by a
trainee biotogy teacher can do much promote student's interest in life science and care for insects, fish and animals.
Students would also become much more involved in the classroom learning. Realia eliminate distortion in student's
knowledge on the topics being taught. Furthermore, using the display and exhibit method, realia provide students
with opportunities for "hand on" interactions and experience.
. 3.4.5 Still Pictures: They are non-projected, non-motion pictures in opaque form. They are photography
representation of people, places or things, and can be used to present information in all subject areas: They are
readily available for resourceful trainee teachers, in magazine, calendars, illustrations from textbooks, newspapers,
and so on. When still pictures are properly mounted on cardboard, with proper edges, as individual pictures or in
composite form, that is, combination of one or more pictures to produce a single visual, they can be used to pass
across wide range of information.
3.4.6 Models and Mock-Ups:
Models and mock-ups are three-dimensional representation of a real thing. Like actual objects, a model or
mock-up can be looked at from all sides as it has breadth, length and depth. Models are representations of real
things that are infinitely large, like earth or solar system, or real things that are small, whether animate or inanimate.
They may be complete or real things that are small, whether animate or inanimate. They may be complete in every
detail or more simplified than the original. Some models can be disassembled for learners' close observation. On the
other hand, mock-ups are differentiated from models by their usually larger size and by their moving and operating
parts. Models and mock-ups have wide application in such subjects like physics, geography, biology, chemistry,
and so on. Trainee teachers can buy commercially produced models or they can be improvised, using paper match .
. 3.4.7Audio Media:
Audio media offer a wide range of opportunities for group or individual use. They can be used to deliver
instruction involving verbal information, and also for guiding the learning of intellectual and motor skills. With the
availability of small compact cassette recorders, audio medium can be produced by trainee teachers. It can also be
used to supplement other media like filmstrips and slides. They are also relevant for learning objectives related to
the affective domain of learning. Audio recording can provide response drill in mathematics, and language.
Furthermore, several copies of the media can be produced easily. Audio medium is equally good for all types of
instruction, from the precision of speech to the mental imagery formed by music and sound effect .
3.4.8 Overhead Projectors:
Using the overhead projector, transparent materials are projected so that a group can see. It is simple to
operate, and it is a versatile media for teachers to use. Transparency can face the audience from the front of the
room and maintain eye-to-eye contact with students while projecting transparencies in a lighted room.
3.4.9 Slide Projectors and Filmstrip Projector:
Slide projectors are used to project slides-small format photographic transparency in colour or black and
white, individually mounted and used to transmit instructional content. On the other hand, filmstrip projectors
project images container in filmstrips, which are series of small slides photographed in permanent sequence on a
35mm or 16mm film either in colour, or black and white. Some filmstrip .projectors can also be used to project
slides. Trainee teachers can use filmstrips and slides to enrich their instruction. They are less expensive, easily
handled and stored for future use. They are adaptable for use in every subject area, and the rate of presentation for
classroom use\can be controlled by trainee teachers using remote, reverse, and advance mechanisms. Their
presentations can be accompanied with print or audio recording
3.4.10 Film Projector and Video Player/Projector:
Film projectors and videotape projectors are used to project motion pictures, when motion is a significant
factor of a subject. Educational films are in black and white, and colour. There are also sound and silent motion
pictures. Videotape availability has further widened the possibilities for the use of motion pictures, as they can be
shown through monitor, that is, cathode ray tube, or projected using video projector or through the digital projector,
for group use. Motion pictures are relevant for all subject disciplines, in sciences, art, social sciences, and physical
education. Motion pictures when accompanied by sound, may constitute a very effective way of emphasizing
distinctive features for the tasks, which needs distinguishing the visual aspects of simulation. Motion pictures are
also very good for ensuring students' positive attitude toward the subject of instruction. They can also be used to
modify students' attitude in such areas like ecology, good work habit, hygiene in health education, and so on
3.5 Multi-Media Presentation:
This involves combinations of visual materials. It is a learning resource package, which can be effective
when several media are used concurrently for specific instructional purposes. When two or more pictures are
projected simultaneously, on one or more screens for group viewing, the compound concept multi-image is used.
However, when two or more different types of media are used, sequentially in a single instruction or for self-paced
learning package, the term multi-media is used. Using multi media or multiimage, a large amount of information
can be passed across to students, and high interest can be created in students. Furthermore, different media can be
tailored towards different objectives outlined for the lesson
.3.6 General Guidelines for the Use of Instructional Media in Teaching
While the instructional value of media in enriching the teaching of students by teachers cannot be doubted,
media in themselves cannot assure good teaching. Their effective use can be through the integration of media in
teaching practice by trainee teachers. The following guidelines can be followed to ensure successful integration of
media in practice teaching
(a) A trainee teacher should consider the entire school environment as a laboratory for students' learning
and the practical application of his/her knowledge. Therefore, instructional media selection, arrangement and re-
arrangement of learning environment, and the use of materials and equipment to promote learning are basic in self-
contained classroom.
(b) The entire neighborhood of the school and community resources should be viewed and utilized as a
laboratory for student learning.
(c) Media should be designed, produced, selected, or used as resources to attain specific instructional
objectives. That is, objectives should not be tailored to the media, rather, objectives should guide media
utilization.
(d) Media to be used by a trainee teacher should be considered in terms of concreteness or abstractness of
experience which the media would produce. Trainee teachers should be sensitive to the changing situation
within the classroom and have alternative media to meet individual differences of the learners.
(e) Media should be selected for instructional purpose based on specific criteria which are directly related to
instructional planning. These include:
(i) the nature of the audience, in terms of chronological age, sex social, cultural,
environmental, and economic background of the learners,
 (ii) entry level,
(iii) motivation,
(iv) the physical abilities or disabilities of learners,
(v) learners long-established perception and cultural characteristics, (vi) the objectives to be
achieved (whether cognitive, affective or psychomotor),
(vii) nature of the subject content,
(viii) physical qualities of the media, that is, the attributes, authenticity and significance of
the content,
(ix) cost of the media,
(x) expected role of students, and
(xi) the mode of instruction among others.
(f) Instructional media should be utilized in the content of a variety of teaching strategies. Use of resources should
be observed and guided. The possibility of using multi-media should be considered. This is because a single media may not
be adequate to achieve all the objectives outlined for a lesson.
(g) Media utilization should require learners' response. Thus, when designing any media, the trainee teacher should
build into the programme things that will ensure learners' participation, through discussion, project, dramatization, and so
on.
(h) Evaluating the use of media can be done through observation, individual project, and use of questionnaire. The
information from the evaluation can be used to improve on media usage in subsequent lesson. 3.7 Summary
The foregoing presentation has shown the significance of media in practice teaching, the myriad of media available
for trainee teachers to enrich their instruction, and the guidelines for effective use of media. Through resourceful use of
media, trainee teachers can present their lesson in an understandable way. Media, when carefully selected and integrated,
can ensure that student develop the right attitude toward-instructional content. Furthermore, classroom interaction between
the trainee teacher and students can be enhanced. The use of media would also promote trainee teachers' efficiency in the
design, production and handling of media. The experience could be transferred to their post training assignment as teachers,
thus bringing about near perfection in later years as serving teachers. When media are used by trainee teachers, they can
make students' attitude more positive, encourage their self-motivation, demonstrate associated factors and ideas, highlight
specific topics and concepts, encourage relevance and credibility, and enhance understanding. This is because with media
trainee, teachers can deliver their lessons with much more vigour. Vigour implies brevity with exactness, as sophisticated
and delicate ideas 'can be expressed with the faintest shades of meaning revealed through media
.3.8 References
Association for Educational Communication and Technology (AECT) (1977). The definition of educational
technology. Washington DC: Author Agun, I. (1988) Educational media management. In I. Agun& I. Imogie (Eds.).
Fundamentals of educational technology. Ibadan: Y: Books. Apel, H.J. (1993). Teacher training in theory and practice.
/Education, 47. 25- 43.
Blythe-Lord, R. (1991). The educational media design handbook. London: Macmillan.
Du Boulay, J.B.H. (1987). Computers and teacher education. In E. Scanlon & T.O. Oshea (Eds.), Educational
Computing. London: Open University.
Erickson, C.W.H. & Curl, D.H. (1972). Fundamentals of teaching with audio visual technology (Second ed.) New
York: Macmillan Publishing Company Inc.
Farrant, J.S. (1981). Principles and practice of education. London: Longman. Francis, H. (Ed,), (1985). Learning to
teach: Psychology in teacher training.
 LESSON FOUR INTERELATIONSHIP OF COMMUNICATION MODEL

4.0 INTRODUCTION
BASIC COMMUNICATION MODEL
According to Adler and Towne (1978), all that ever has been accomplished by humans and all that ever will be
accomplished involves communication with others. Many social and organizational problems derive from unsatisfactory
relationships brought about by inadequate communication between people. Success on and off the job often stems from
one’s ability to transfer information and express ideas to others. Effective communication frequently results in friendships
that are more meaningful, smoother and more rewarding relationships with people on and off the job, and increased ability
to meet personal needs. Psychologist Abraham Maslow (1970) suggests that the capability to satisfy personal needs arises
mainly from the ability to communicate.
4.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of the lesson, students should be able to;
1) Describe the process of communication
2) Discuss the communication model
3) Explain the causes of communication breakdown
4) Explain convergence as a strategy in communication
4.2 THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION
Adler and Towne describe communication as a process between at least two people that begins when one person
wants to communicate with another. Communication originates as mental images within a person who desires to convey
those images to another. Mental images can include ideas, thoughts, pictures, and emotions. The person who wants to
communicate is called the sender . To transfer an image to another person, the sender first must transpose or translate the
images into symbols that receivers can understand. Symbols often are words but can be pictures, sounds, or sense
information (e.g., touch or smell). Only through symbols can the mental images of a sender have meaning for others. The
process of translating images into symbols is called encoding.
4.3 The Communication Model
Once a message has been encoded, the next level in the communication process is to transmit or communicate the
message to a receiver. This can be done in many ways: during face-to-face verbal interaction, over the telephone,
through printed materials (letters, newspapers, etc.), or through visual media (television, photographs). Verbal,
written, and visual media are three examples of possible communication channels used to transmit messages
between senders and receivers. Other transmission channels include touch, gestures, clothing, and physical
distances between sender and receiver. When a message is received by another person, a decoding process occurs.
Just as a sender must encode messages in preparation for transmission through communication channels, receivers
must sense and interpret the symbols and then decode the information back into images, emotions, and thoughts that
make sense to them. When messages are decoded exactly as the sender has intended, the images of the sender and
the images of the receiver match, and effective communication occurs.

4.4 HOW COMMUNICATION BREAKSDOWN

If everyone were to have the same experiences, all messages would be encoded, transmitted, and decoded alike.
Symbols would have the same meanings for everyone, and all communication would be received as the senders
intended. However, people differ in their personal histories, ways in which they experience things, and emotional
responses, leading to differences in the ways in which communications are encoded, transmitted, received, and
understood. Different people attach different meanings to the words, pictures, sounds, and gestures used during
communication. Difficulty with the encoding and decoding of images is not the only factor that affects the
effectiveness of communication between people. Adler and Towne use the concept of noise to describe physical and
psychological forces that can disrupt communication. Physical noise refers to conspicuous distractions in the
environment that make it difficult to hear or pay attention. For example, when the environment is excessively hot or
excessively cold, or when one is in a noisy nightclub, one may tend to focus more concern on the situation than on
the message. Physical noise can inhibit communication at any point in the process—in the sender, in the message, in
the channel, or in the receiver. Psychological noise alludes to mechanisms within individuals that restrict a sender’s
or receiver’s ability to express and/or understand messages clearly. For example, senders with limited vocabularies
may have difficulty translating images into symbols that can be understood easily by receivers. Receivers with
inflated self-concepts may filter messages that disagree with their self-perceptions and put energy into defending
themselves rather than into understanding the messages. Psychological noise most often results in defensiveness
that blocks the flow of communication between sender and receiver. With the many ways in which communications
can be encoded, channeled, and decoded, there is little wonder why so many difficulties exist when people attempt
to communicate with one another. Yet communication processes become more complex. Discussing
communication in terms of sender-receiver implies one-way communication. However, human communication
often is a two-way process in which each party shares sending and receiving responsibilities. As the quantity of
people taking part in a communication increases, the potential for errors in encoding and decoding increases, along
with the potential for physical and psychological noise.
4.5 CONVERGENCE STRATEGIES
Walt Boshear and Karl Albrecht developed the convergence-strategies model to deal with the concept of motion in
relationships between people. It leads to deliberate strategies for establishing, maintaining, and improving
relationships. STABLE, CONVERGING, OR DIVERGING RELATIONSHIPS
The model categorizes all relationships as stable, converging, or diverging. In a stable relationship, two persons
have reached a conscious or unconscious agreement regarding the ways in which they will relate to each other.
They avoid any behavior that will change the relationship. On the other hand, relationships that are in a state of
change can be either converging or diverging. A converging relationship is changing in ways that enhance the
benefits of the relationship to the participants. A diverging relationship is changing in ways that tend to destroy the
relationship or detract from its benefits to the participants. Personal Versus Impersonal Relationships Any of the
three types of relationships can be predominantly personal or predominantly impersonal. At the personal extreme,
the ego-involvement of the participants—their attitudes, beliefs, and feelings—are an integral part of the
relationship. On the other hand, emotional and personal issues are not considered in the impersonal relationship and
generally will be disruptive to it if they arise. A premise of the model is that forces, such as the consequences of
growing up and the mores of Western culture, push individuals in the direction of impersonal, stable relationships.
From birth through adolescence, individuals are cast in roles of dependency and inadequacy. They are surrounded
by people who, by virtue of their age and experience, are better able to cope with their environment and who have
been placed in positions of authority by cultural tradition. In Western culture, individuals are taught to control their
emotions and follow the traditions of society. They are strongly encouraged to refrain from making any emotional
attachments except those that are approved by society, such as courtship, marriage, and a few close friendships. In
addition to the forces of culture that guide the individual in establishing and maintaining relationships with people,
there are the forces of time and exposure. The human intellectual and emotional system is highly adaptive and it
tends toward stability. Experiences that initially may provoke a strong intellectual or emotional response will, when
sustained or repeated, tend to elicit a lesser response. The figure diagrams the structure of the model and the
relationships between its elements. The internal arrows indicate the natural course of relationships under the
influence of time, exposure, and cultural forces. A relationship that originates with or presently has the
characteristics described in any of the squares in the diagram tends to progress in the direction shown by the arrows.
However, this progress is contingent on the absence of deliberate strategies by the participants or disruptive events
outside the relationship.
4.6 CONCLUSION
The process of communication has been discussed. Causes of communication breakdown have also been explained.
This emphasizes the importance of communication in the classroom.
 LESSON FIVE: SELECTION, UTILIZATION AND PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

5.0 INTRODUCTIONSelecting Media and Material

A systematic plan for using media demands that media be selected systematically.
The selection process involves, choosing an appropriate media format and,
selecting, modifying, and designing specific materials within that format. There
are four main procedures involved in the selection, modifying, and designing
specific materials. Media selection usually takes different forms. Within these,
instructional situations may take different settings in the form of large group
format, small group, or self-instruction formats. Due consideration must take care
of other key players of learner variables such as reader, non-reader, or auditory
preference and the nature of the objectives like cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor domains and interpersonal skills. Selection of instructional media
must also give more preferences against the presentational capabilities of each of
the media formats e.g. presenting still visuals, motion visuals, and printed and
spoken words. Above all, selection of an appropriate media must give feedback to
both the learner and the teacher. There are certain procedures to be followed when
selecting an appropriate media. These procedures are:
 Choose the Media Format,
  Obtaining Specific Materials,
 Survey the Sources,
 Modifying available Materials and
 Design New Materials.
We can now discuss very briefly about these procedures to be followed when
selecting media.
5.1 Obtaining Specific Materials
As a teacher, having decided what media format suits your immediate
instructional objective, your main task now is to find out specific materials to
convey your lesson so that the learners can be in a position to learn effectively.
Obtaining specific and appropriate materials involve the following alternatives.
 Selecting available materials. If materials are already available that will
allow your students to meet your objectives; then, the materials should be
used to save both time and money. Majority of instructional materials used by
teachers today is ready-made, available in most schools, districts, or Teachers'
Advisory Centers (TAC) and most of them are commonly found on the
shelves in the schools. It is therefore the duty of the teacher to source out
these learning resources and make sure that they are easily available in their
institutions ready for classroom use.
5.2 Modifying the available and existing materials. However, when the media and
the available material do not meet the requirements of your audience, then
modify them to suit your objectives and needs of the learners. This could be done
if as a teacher you survey some of the published media reference guides to get a
general idea of what is available or not. Modification of the media also comes in
when you cannot locate suitable materials and media in the shelves or at the
various resource centers nearer to you.
5.3 Designing new materials. However, if no alternatives match your needs, then
design your own materials. It is much easier and less costly to use available
materials and media without modification than to start from the scratch.
Note
Certain basic considerations must be taken into account when designing new
materials. These are:
 Objectives. What do you want your students to learn?
Audience.What are the characteristics of your audience/learners? Do
they have the pre-requisite knowledge and skills to use or learn from
the materials?
Cost.Is sufficient money available in your budget to meet the cost of
supplies (films, audio tapes, videocassettes and TV sets etc? If not,
then you will need to prepare the materials yourself.
 Technical Expertise. Do you have the necessary expertise to design
and produce the kind of materials you wish to use? If not, will the
necessary technical assistance be available to you? Try to keep your
design within the range of your own capabilities. Do not waste time
and money trying to produce expensive materials.
 Equipment. Do you have available the necessary equipment to
produce or use the materials you intend to design?
 Facilities. If your design calls for use of special facilities for
preparation or use of your materials, are such materials available?
 Time. Can you afford to spend whatever time may be necessary to
design and produce the kind of materials you have in mind?

Question

 What are the basic procedures for selecting, modifying and designing
instructional materials?
 Indicate when each procedure is appropriate.
 List two general characteristics of the learners and two types of specific
competencies that could affect media selection.
 Select a topic in your subject area and suggest two media that would be
appropriate for use in your teaching.
 Discuss in your own words, how each of the above procedures may
effectively contribute to the selection of media and materials.

5.4 Utilize Media and Materials

This is the fourth step of systematic plan for using media. This step involves the
following procedures:
 Preview of the Materials,
 Practice the Presentations,
 Prepare the Learning Environment,
 Prepare the Audience/Learner,
 Require/Seek for the Learner's Active Participation and Present the Material.

Let us discuss very briefly one by one all the five procedures involved in the
utilization of media and materials.
5.4.1 Preview of the Materials
As we have discussed earlier during the selection process, you as a teacher, you
should have determined that the objectives and materials you are going to use in
your lesson are appropriate for your audience/learners. Before you go to class,
you must ensure that you have a full mastery of the materials to be effectively
used in your class. Previewing the materials in advance enables you to detect
some parts, which might be objectionable or distract the class participation. It
also enables you to eliminate some sensitive sections or if need be, discuss with
them in advance those portions which might cause ripples in the class. This will
let the learners be aware of what is to take place in advance and avoid classroom
embarrassment.
5.4.2 Practice the Presentation
Previewing the materials leads us to actual practice of some important portions of
the presentation. It is advisable for the teacher to go through the presentation at
least once well in advance and then to review your notes just immediately before
the presentation. During this reviewing process, you should avoid over practice.
Depending on the nature of the available resources you have, you should always
try to get some feedback during practice time. Some teachers prefer using
mirrors, others like to have a colleague/friend around to provide feedback.
Usually, and depending on its availability, always try to use media to provide you
with feedback. The type of media can be audiotape, or video recorder, which can
give an accurate replay while practicing the presentation. These two types of
media will not only let you hear what you said but see yourself presenting. This
will definitely make you improve and correct yourself where you went wrong.
Note
It is important for us to tell you that you should observe the following:
 That during the practicing time, the newness of the material, the
importance of the presentation, and the amount of time available will
automatically determine how many times you should practice.
 Always try to use a real mirror, a friend, an audiotape, or a video
cassette recorder for immediate feedback.
 That the importance of practice cannot be overstated. Do not just walk
through it in your mind but you should actually stand up and practice it.

5.4.3 Prepare the Learning Environment

Depending on the place where presentation may take place, always remember to
consider the following factors, which might make delivery of instruction become
more comfortable.
 Consider the seating plan of the class.
 Adequate ventilation.
 Suitable lighting.
 A good conducive classroom climate.
 Many media require a darkened room, a convenient power supply, and access
to light and switches. Ensure that all these facilities are available at the right
time before you begin your lesson.
 As a teacher, you should always check if the equipment is in good working
order.
 Always try to arrange the facilities in such a way that the learners, audience
can see and hear properly whatever is going on in the classroom.



5.4.4 Prepare the Audience/Learner
Various researches conducted on human learning have concluded that whatever is
learned from a presentation depends highly on how the learners are prepared for
the presentation. Starting a lesson by giving a broad overview of the content and
its rationale. Telling the learner how the content is related to the topic being
studied. At the same time, giving motivating statements, which relates to the
content will definitely capture the learner's attention and interests. This is
sometimes termed as giving warm-up to the learner in preparation for the real
classroom presentation. Warm ups prepare the learners to have the need and urge
to know how they are going to profit from paying attention and provide cues
which directs their attention to specific aspects of the presentation.
5.4.5 Present the Material.
This is the most opportune time you have been preparing for. You are therefore
ready to show your learners that you really know your subject matter quite well.
You have to control the attention of your students during the presentation time.
You are therefore considered to act like a general showmanship that you are in
charge of the class. The success of the lesson will depend on how you present the
lesson and how you conduct yourself throughout the entire period.

ACTIVITY III E
 Give examples of five basic procedures in Utilizing Instructional
Materials.
 Explain how these five basic procedures may be used effectively to aid
teaching learning process.
 Describe several methods for eliciting student response during and after
using media.
 Justify the need for requiring the learner's response when using media.

5.5 Require Learner Response

The fifth step in theASSURE Modelis to provide opportunities for learners to
practice the capability of being taught. This is because active participation in the
learning process enhances learning. In order to enhance active classroom
participation, the teacher should incorporate topics, which promote more
classrooms activities. Such topics are, class discussions, short quizzes, and
application exercises. These may provide immediate response and reinforcement
during instruction. Follow-up activities may also provide further opportunities for
learning. At the same time, teachers' guides and manuals that accompany
instructions elicit a lot of learner's responses and reinforcement during
instruction. Since the utmost aim of the teacher is to provide learning, it is his/her
utmost duty to ensure that meaningful learning is actually taking place during
instruction. Several researchers and psychologists have realized that active
participation in the classroom learning process enhances meaningful learning.
Some of their contributions, which gave more emphasis on active learner
participation, have been highlighted hereunder.
 Note
Contributors of Learner's Active Participation
• In the early 1900s, John Dewey campaigned for the reorganization of
curriculum and instruction to make students participation a central part
of the teaching learning process.
• B.F.Skinner, a behavioural psychologist demonstrated that
instructions providing for constant reinforcement of desired
behaviour are more effective than instruction in which responses are not
reinforced.
• Cognitive theories of learning, more recently focused on internal
mental processes and have also supported the principle that effective
learning demands active manipulation of information by the learners. •
Gagne. R.M. (1985), concluded that there are several necessary
conditions for effective learning of each type of objective. Gagne
therefore asserted that:
∗ The one condition that pertains to all objectives is practice of
the desired skills.
∗ The most effective learning situations are those that require
learners to perform activities that build toward the objective. The
form of participation may include repetitive drill of new spelling or
vocabulary words, solving mathematical problems, rehearsal of a basketball
play, and creating an original product such as term paper.

5.6 Evaluate/Revise
There is need for teachers to know the total picture of the entire instructional
episode being undertaken in any instruction. The teacher is the master and
essential player in the game of teaching learning process. He is the one in charge
of everything going on in the classroom. While in the classroom, the teacher's
duty is to facilitate meaningful learning. Evaluating and revising instruction
definitely makes the teacher aware of any loophole if any in his lesson. In order
to do this he needs to:
 To get the total picture of the entire instructional process very clearly.
 Ask himself, did the learners meet the objectives?
 Did the media use help in assisting the learners reaching the objectives? and
 Did all the learners use the materials properly? etc.
After going through this type of checklist, you are likely to identify some
discrepancies. Wherever there are discrepancies between what you intended to do
and what you actually attained, you need to revise your plan for the next attempt.
There are many different types of evaluating the learners. For proper evaluation
to take place, the teacher should try to evaluate the student's achievement, media
and methods used during instruction, and evaluation of the entire instructional
process.
One utmost question in the instructional process is whether or not the students
have learned what they were supposed to learn. Are they able to display the
capabilities specified in the original statements of objectives? When the
objectives were formulated in the initial stage, remember to include statements of
objectives criteria of acceptable performance which will be evaluated by the end
of instruction because you must assess whether the learner's skills meet that
criteria. The method of evaluating achievement also depends on the nature of the
objective itself. Some objectives call for relatively simple cognitive skills, others
may call for process- type behaviour i.e. (operating a lathe machine, and solving
quadratic equations, and observing safety procedures in the laboratory etc).
Lastly, evaluating objectives must indicate that the learners have the capabilities
of the process, product, or attribute to solve problems. Evaluation must also show
that the learner by the end of instruction must display a behavior in action. This
means setting up a situation where the learner must demonstrate the new skills in
which instructional judgment can be based. Although attitudes are rather difficult
to evaluate at all time, setting up long time goals and observation may be required
to determine if the learner really attained the goals set. Depending on the
outcomes of your evaluation, you as a teacher will be free to Revise the
instruction. Revising and evaluation of instruction are essential elements that
determine whether or not the lesson is a success.

Activity III F
In view of the topic discussed in the last step of systematic planning for
the use of media, briefly discuss how you would
 Evaluate media and the methods used during instruction.
 Evaluate the learner's achievement
 Evaluate his/her performance and attitude towards the instruction.
 Evaluate the instructional objectives. Were the objectives very clear?
/Unclear? Dull?
 Appraise the modules/content used. Was the lesson very interesting?,
Dull? Was the module difficult? Simple? etc.

Hints
The hints listed below are meant to enable you gain more confidence before you go
to class to meet your students.
 Always Remember to Mentally run through the presentation to review
each idea in sequence.
 Do a stand-up rehearsal of your presentation. Try to practice in the room
where you will be presenting or the one similar to it. Give a simulated
presentation, idea for idea (but not word for word) using all visual aids
and props.
 Practice answers to questions you anticipate from the audience or
learners.
 Videotape or (audiotape) yourself or have a colleague sit on your
rehearsal to give you immediate feedback.
 Always Use Keyword Notes. Not a script. Print keywords on index
cards. Never Read from a script because written language is different
from spoken language.
 5.7 Summary
We have discussed at length all the six steps of systematic planning for the
use of media commonly known as the ASSURE Model. During our
discussions, we learned of the various stages under which the model can
help ASSURE learning. In our discussions, we learned that:
 The first step of the model is Analyze Learners.
 The second step is State the Objectives.
 The third step is Select Media and Materials.
 The fourth step is Utilize Media and Materials and
 The fifth step is Require Learner Participation.
 The sixth step is Evaluate/Revise.

5.8 REFERENCE
♠ Gagne R.M. (1985). The Conditions of Learning, 4 th Edition (New
York:Holt,Rinehart and Winston.
♠ Gloria,F.(1981). The Educational Use of Mass Media. World Bank Staff Working
PAPER No.491.Washington D.C. 20433, USA.
♠ Lewis,J.Perelman, (2001). Schools' Out. Funderstanding Instructional
Technology.Sitemap. Engaging Kids about Curriculum and Instruction.pp1-2.
♠ Lumsdaine. A .A. and May. M. A. (1958).Learning From Films. New Haven, CT:
Yale University Press.
♠ Pinckney,R.L. (1980). Syllabi for Educational Technology Courses and Selection and
Maintenance of AV Equipment. Ginn Custom Publishing, 191 Spring Street,
Lexington, Massachusetts, 02173.
LESSON SIX: PRINT AND NON-PRINT MEDIA

6.0 INTRODUCTION What this LESSON is about

Teaching and subsequently learning by nature is a complex process that cannot take
place in a vacuum and requires more than just the in put of the human resource namely
the teacher. The teacher and the pupil cannot interact on their own for effective learning
but needs the interaction between the teacher, the pupils and several other in puts. There
is always need for other players in the game of learning. The teacher must refer to and
use these inputs to increase the effectiveness of the teaching learning exercise. These in
put come in the form of learning resources. This lesson shall strive to take you through
some of these in puts that are in the form of print and non-print media. There will be a
deliberate attempt to bias you to have a proper mix of both print and non-print media to
reduce boredom, arouse interest and generally create the much needed link between
content and everyday life experiences.
Teachers today certainly do not produce all the media they use to support their teaching.
It takes a commitment of time, equipment, and interest to edit videotape, create
sophisticated transparencies, or write a computer programme. Teachers have a natural
interest in making media and often prefer to create materials because they are more
personalized. These materials are tailored to fit the teacher's students, subject area and
style. It is therefore assumed in this lesson that teachers- to- be have used media already.
Since both print and non-print media like books, newspapers, journals and magazines,
tape players, televisions, photographic equipment, and even computers etc are commonly
available in our schools today.
The lesson will in essence look at some of the resources that can be used to support
learning.

6.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 Define print and non-print media
 State and describe the different varieties of print media.
 Distinguish between print and non-print media.
 Discuss the advantages of text books
 Criticize the use of text books
 Describe the criteria to be followed in the selection of textbooks.
 Explain the importance of textbook utilization for maximum learning.
 State and describe the different varieties of non-print media.
 Explain the use of various non-print media to supplement print media.
 Name some of the unique characteristics of both print and non-print media.
 Name some of the unique steps that must be taken into consideration while
selecting and using print and non-print media.
6.2 Variety of Instructional Media Available:
Instructional media are of different types and forms. Some of them are:
 Print Media: Examples of print media include the following hard copy
(paper), microfilm, microfiche, questionnaires, handouts, forms, brochures,
manuals, pamphlets, written reports, newspapers, books, magazines of all
varieties and, braille.
 Graphic Media: Over Head Projectors (OHP), transparencies, charts, mobiles,
graphs, models, dioramas, maps, globes and drawings.
 Photographic Media: Prints, slides, film strips, motion pictures, multi-image,
etc.
 Audio Media: Audio tapes, audio cassettes, records, telecommunications, etc
 Television/Sets: Broadcast Televisions, Cable TVs, Micro Waves,(2500
Megaherts) TV, Video -texts, etc.
 Computers: Maxi-Computers, Mini-computers Micro-computers
 Simulation/Games: Board, Written, Human interaction, and Machine games
etc.

Let us now differentiate between print and non-print media. The differences are as
stated below.

Print Media Non-Print Media

 Dominate ways of delivering  Instructional delivery may occur
instructions without it.
 Involves printed materials like,
 Do not require all these materials
papers, newspapers, journals, for meaningful learning to take
grating of stones etc. place.
 Can be read by literate persons
 Their operations do not necessarily
only. require literate persons. Even
illiterates may use them to suit
their needs.
 They often supplement visual  Do not require print materials for
programmes. supplementation.
 Documents may be displayed  Some non-print materials do not
electronically. necessarily require electronic
devices to disseminate or impart
learning/instruction.

6.2.1 Selection and use of Print and Non-Print Media:

The principles of selection and use of both print and non-print media depends on
how well their unique capabilities accommodate instruction and how well they fit
the learning environment. These principles assumes that:
 Instructional Goals and Objectives have been specified before selections
are made. The goals and objectives of the content must be covered. The
choice of the print and non-print media has to correspond to the objectives to
be achieved in the teaching learning process.
 Relevance: We select only the materialsthat can make a distinct contribution
to carefully identified learning objectives. The media chosen must be relevant
to the content to be taught. Hence, clarity is of paramount importance.
  Choice: The choice of both types of media must be judiciously selected, and
related to the content, which is to be learned.We choosethe best combination
of these and other teaching materials to achieve the best results.
 We use these learning materials in the ways most likely to accomplish our
specific learning objectives, i.e. define the objectives; select the materials
accordingly; select the appropriate technology/material and use the best
combination to achieve the best results.
 Print's Unique capabilities for providing instruction comes from the kind of
information it can present, i.e. its capacity for accommodating the learner
responses and its effects on the way instruction is sequenced and paced.
 Planning: While planning to teach, the teacher must know the level of the
learners to help him/her in planning adequately on what type of media
(print/non-print) to be applied and at what time will it be used. So, adequate
consideration must be given to planning of both types of media to be used for
the purposes of delivering instruction.
 Visibility: The media used must be easily visible by all the learners. The
symbols used must be correctly spelt, well written, and judiciously spaced for
easy visibility in the entire class. The learners must be in a position to see the
type of media being used in the classroom. They must also be able to utilize
the materials provided adequately. In the case of printed materials,
interpretations and readability must be ensured in the entire classroom.
 Cost Effectiveness: Both types of media being used in the class must be
within the economic reach of the learners and must not be expensive to buy.
 Literacy Skills: Printed media should be able to process the literacy skills of
the learners. Any print-media, which do not challenge the understanding
ability of the learners, should not be used in the process of teaching.
 Accessibility: Any type of media selected for the purpose of parting
information to the students should always be accessible to all the learners.
 Clarity: While selecting print and non-print media, the principle of clarity of
language must be applied. The type of language used must also be well
understood by all the students.
The following steps should be taken into consideration when selecting/using print
and non-print media.

STEP I: Obtain information about available print and non-print media.

STEP II: Get to know about the material in advance. The teacher must obtain some
prerequisite knowledge and skills about the print and non-print material. This
prior knowledge will encourage familiarization to determine various ways in
which such materials may be used.
STEP III: Survey students reading levels and interests. This will help in reading
guidance for teaching subjects where students may choose what they want to
read. Materials below the students reading levels may be boring to them while
those above their levels may be frustrating.
STEP IV: Prepare the learners. For students who already possess appropriate reading
skills, preparation for using print and non-print media is minimal. They will have
to be told how to obtain materials from the teacher, media centers and or public
libraries.
STEP V: Integrate prints and non-print materials. Students will perceive reading
assignments and other activities that do not contribute to course requirements as
irrelevant.
STEP VI: Evaluate the results. Once print and non-print media are used, their
effectiveness should be evaluated.
Question
 What are the various steps that must be taken into consideration while
selecting print and non-print media?
While selecting non-print media, the following precautions or procedures must be
taken into consideration.
 Conduct an Inquiry in Advance: Find out the information about the non-print
media to be used for the purposes of imparting instruction.
 Knowledge ability: The teacher must be knowledgeable about the use and
operations of the type of non-print media he/she is going to use during the lesson.
 Accessibility/Availability: The non-print media must be easily accessible to the and
available to the learners as well as the teacher.
 Age Factor: The teacher must consider the age of the learners who are going to
benefit from the material. The teacher must always try to use the correct material
keeping in view the learners' age.
 Storage and Portability: These must be taken into consideration because some
materials are too heavy, rather expensive, and cumbersome to be used in the
classroom for a single lesson only.
 Cost Effectiveness: This is quite relevant particularly when considering the
economy of scale and its application in the classroom particularly in the rural and
urban areas.
 Durability and Size: Some non-print media are foreign manufactured with
instructions written in foreign languages. This should be avoided because starting
teaching using such materials may bring confusions.

6.3 PRINT MEDIA

6.3.1 Definition of Print Media

In the historical perspectives, print media have been a predominant way of
delivering information and instruction and remain to be so. The evolution of print
media dates back from the invention of the printing press in the 1450s. However,
the earlier forms dates back to the invention of paper and even before with
markings inscribed on stones or clay. Today, print is found everywhere in places
like billboards, buses, street corners, walls, posters, news magazines, news
papers, books, forms, questionnaires and regulations, menu, packages, and
restaurants etc. The word print may be defined in terms of symbols or in terms of
the surface on which symbols appear and therein lie a dilemma of symbolism.
Print media therefore may be defined as any surface having symbols. The
definition of print media based on surface has been criticized as troublesome to
some extent. Print media has also been defined as a paper. It is a giant paper sign,
which may be placed in the store, window, etc. It may also be a small piece of
paper containing only a sketch. Print media are electronic or photographic means
of storing and presenting documents. Where as non-print media does not
necessarily have printed materials on it.

Print media are usually opaque paper-based materials suitable for individual use.
They have characters, numerals, and words and may contain pictures and
illustrations. They include electronic and photographic means of storing and
presenting documents. Print media was introduced during the Renaissance period
 (16th, 17th, 18th and early 19th century). Since then, print media have been in use in
almost all-learning institutions as well as in other sectors as a convenient
source of information. For private use outside the school, the print media has
been very popular in such form as newspapers and magazines. In this LESSON, we
shall limit our discussions to written work and symbols. For convenience of
grouping, we therefore talk of written works and symbols.

6.3.2 Characteristics of Print Media:

Print media have the following characteristics:
 They are usually on a paper surface. Note that even when printed documents
can be displayed electronically by computers or projected on films, they are
often also available in paper or 'hard copy' form.
 Symbols in the form of characters, numerals, and words are arranged on an
area or surface called a page, which may include pictures and illustrations in
the form of sketches, photographs, charts, graphs, tables, or line drawings.
Although pictures and illustrations can appear a lone, (some printed reports
might consist entirely of charts graphs, and tables). They are usually
accompanied by some explanatory texts.
 Print media have some mechanism for production. The most common being
the typewriter, computers, and word processors. Once created documents can
be produced in large quantities by use of machines such as photocopiers and
high-speed printing presses.
 Most print media for instructional purposes are intended for use by a single
individual, even when printed documents are displayed electronically or
projected.
6.3.3 Advantages of Print Media
Print media have the following advantages:
 They are convenient and powerful media besides catering for
individual working rates.
 They provide useful and easy access to the messages contained and
facilitate easy revision.
 They are highly portable and economical to buy and maintain.
 They often contain outstanding visualization of concepts and
information with accompanying text to explain them.
 Being literate enables the individual to communicate through print
media.
 Print media is essential not only for survival, but also for self-
improvement, self-fulfillment, and self-satisfaction as well.
 Companion print materials often supplement visual programmes and
when print media are the primary source of instruction, they can include
visuals to make them more effective.
6.3.4 Disadvantages of Print Media
Though print media are predominantly used in instruction, they have the
following advantages:
 They are largely non-interactive.
 Usually, their authors ignore the needs a of the audience.
 If used as a class text (in the case of textbooks), it can mislead the teacher to
ignore the syllabus, schemes of work and even the lesson plan.

6.3.5 Types of Written Works and Symbols

 There are several types of written works. We shall now go a head and discuss
some of them in this lesson.

6.3.5.1 Textbooks: These are published in various forms to specifically serve certain
purposes. In classrooms, a textbook is the chief source of information for both the
teacher and the pupil. For it to be good use to the pupils, it should be attractive,
colourful, and well illustrated. The textbook can be in soft paper cover or hard
paperback covers. One main drawback in the use of textbooks is that with time,
they can become outdated and obsolete.

6.3.5.1.1 Functional Uses of Textbooks:

Some of the functional uses of textbooks are:
 They can be used as teaching assistants. They allow the teacher to mention
the most important points only, and leave the rest to be covered in
assignments. They also act as source material for both the teacher and the
pupils.
 They can be used to individualize learning through independent study
assignments. The pupils can use them to do assignments individually. The
teacher needs only to identify individual difficulties and attend to them
accordingly.
 They can be used as the base on which content can be made come a live by
the use of appropriate accompanying media , taking field trips, arranging and
explaining displays or exhibits, listening to recordings and using other
suitable audio-visual media.
 They help the learners to improve language and research skills through:
∗ Condensing the essence of several pages into a brief
paragraph.
∗ Comparing viewpoints of several books or of different sections
in the same book.
∗ Having pupils look up the meaning of new words and use them
in new ways.
∗ Teaching pupils to read footnotes and to use the library to
locate references.
 Avail visual content use. The visual content of a textbook includes the
presence of items like: charts, maps, graphs, pictures, diagrams, etc. These
supplement the text and provide extra visuals. They also help the pupils to
develop and practice the skills of graphic interpretation. That is essential to
visual literacy.
6.3.5.1.2 Basic Consideration In Evaluating School Textbooks
The following criteria or schemes of evaluation can be followed in selecting
school textbooks for use in schools:
♠ Content: Is the author competent? Does the textbook interpret the curricular
objectives well? How is the textbook handling controversial issues? Does the
subject matter contained therein promote sound moral values?
♠ Content Treatment: Is the style adapted to the age level of the learners
(length of sentences, length of the paragraphs). Is the vocabulary suitable to
the grade? In addition, does the material cater for individual differences?
♠ Arrangements of the Content: Are the index and table of contents
complete? Is there a glossary for difficult words? Are there illustrations,
maps, sketches, tables, and graphs, to supplement print matter?Do the visual
 aids add interest to the textual matter (reality in colour, artistic, page
arrangement, and minimum irrelevant details). Are the suggested related
activities practical? Do well-organized summaries and overviews appear at the
end of each chapter/ lesson? In addition, do the bibliographies include the most
up to date materials?
♠ Mechanical Standards: Is the type clear? Is there good spacing between
lines for easy reading? Example For under 7years old--10 lines per 4 inches.
For 7-9 years old---20lines per 4 inches. For 9--12 years old--22 lines per 4
inches and For 12 years and above--24 lines per 4 inches. Are the lines of
proper length for easy reading (3 to 4 inches)? Is the paper of good quality,
weight and durability? Is the binding reinforced? In addition, are the pages
planned for easy readability?
Activity IV A
 Evaluate the recommended class textbook for one of your teaching
subjects using the evaluation criteria as outlined above.
 Does the book you are evaluating meet all the required criteria?
6.3.5.2 Encyclopaedia
Encyclopaedias are a set of source books that contain background information on
all aspects of learning to the learners. They are very useful to the learner as a
source book. They can be used to supplement information in textbooks, motion
pictures, film trips, and other media in exciting curiousity and desire for more
information. There are many different types and sets of encyclopaedias, but each
gives an opportunity to find, organize, and evaluate basic facts. It is important to
note that though they contain useful information, they stand the risk of being out
dated. Encyclopaedias are normally printed on paper of very good quality and can
last for longer periods. The main hindrance to their use is the unavailability in
most institutions and the cost as well as the lack of ease in updating them to make
them contain current information.

Activity IV B
 Visit a nearby-established public library. With one of your teaching
subjects in mind, peruse through a set of encyclopaedia. Evaluate and
comment whether the set would be useful in teaching one of your subjects?

6.3.5.3 Newspapers and Magazines:

These are very good common sources of information for the general audience. They
may be subdivided into two categories:
 Those published for general audience, and
 Those published for school readers.
Newspapers are quite useful in the following ways:
 They provide a study guide and analysis of current events taking place.
 They provide background studies on important local, national and
international problems.
 They provide practice in improving reading and discussion skills.
 They may be used for analysing propaganda.
 Provide best opportunities to study writing and editorial styles.
 Foreign language training and bulletin board display material and scrapbook
collection items.
 Newspapers tend to have the latest and up to date information. This is mainly
because most of them are daily, weekly, or monthly publications. However,
because most of them are not necessarily well-researched before publication, they
may be in accurate at times. They are normally printed on cheap and low quality
paper and therefore cannot last very long or even withstand rough usage.
Newspapers also have the advantage of being relatively cheap compared to other
print media.

ACTIVITY IV C
 Look through several newspapers / magazines and identify one with content
that could be used to teach a topic in one of your teaching subjects. Prepare a
lesson plan incorporating the newspaper / magazine clip.

6.3.5.4 Comics
A comic is a form of cartooning in which the same cast of characters enacts a story in a
sequence of closely related diagrams designed to entertain the reader. Unlike the cartoon, the
comic consists of continuing story situations. Most comic book series have turned into
straight picture stories in strip or pamphlet forms. The use of cartoons capitalizes on the
fact that young readers enjoy picture stories, the comic books employ the use of visual
materials possibly in colour . Most historical, scientific and literary subjects can be
represented well and accurately in comic book forms.
ACTIVITY IV D
Make a survey of comic book materials being sold at essential newspaper stands in
your neighborhood. Find which comics are best sellers, which are
objectionable and which are useful from an educational standpoint.

6.3.5.5 Programmed teaching and learning materials.

This is a kind of instructional format where information is presented in steps, the
presentation stimulus demands an active response by the learner, and the learner is either
told whether his/her response is correct or s/he compares them with the ones given in the
programme . The most important advantage of this format is that each learner can learn
at his/her own pace. These programmed teaching / learning materials can be used when
the teacher intends to:
 Teach new knowledge and skills independently of other materials of
presentation
 Enrich and complement the teaching programme
 Review the teaching / learning materials
 Assist poor pupils or those who have been absent to catch up with the regular
class work
Programmed materials have the following advantages:
 They allow educators to organize their teaching materials into logical step by
step presentation
 Offer flexible teaching / learning possibilities that can be used by groups or
individual learners in the classroom , in learning resource centers or at home
 They give teachers a concrete and immediate feedback on a learners progress
 They incite learners to become active
 They reduce learner error by being more efficient in realizing specific goals
than are other forms of teaching / learning
 They are normally pre-tested and revised to ensure validity and reliability
However, programmed materials have limitations, some of which are :
  They lack intrinsic motivation as the learners work in isolation
 There is little provision in the programme for the learner to develop or to
express himself as creatively as an individual
 They compartmentalize knowledge in a manner that makes cross-disciplinary
approaches to subject content difficult.
 Major principles and concepts are at times lost in programmed teaching /
learning because knowledge is so broken down in small steps that the broad
aspects of the subject maybe lost.
6.3.5.6 Teacher prepared handouts
Handouts are normally prepared to :
 Present some required information
 Guide individual study and practice
 Inform learners of objectives and evaluation procedures
Handouts give additional content not found in pupils textbooks but available in
rare textbooks available to the teacher only.
Question
 How often do you use handouts in teaching your class. Are there
limitations in your plans when utilizing handouts?

6.4 Non-Print Media

This group includes audio (sound), visual, audio-visual media and teaching machines.
Audio media include radio, audiocassette, discs and the telephone. Visual media include
chalkboard, radio-vision, live lecture, silent film, overhead projector, filmstrips, slides
etc. Audio-visual media include television, videocassette 16-mm film, 8-mm film (with
sound), slides (with synchronized sound) etc. Teaching machines include computers and
microprocessors.
6.4.1 Audio Media
Audio media uses the sense of hearing. This is a very powerful sense as it accounts for
83% of what we learn. It is also known that we retain a substantial percentage of what
we hear. To utilize the hearing sense we use the ear. The human ear can respond to and
identify tones as low as 30 cycles per second (Hz.) to 15000 Hz. Speech maybe recorded
in the range 1000 to 2500 Hz. Musical events, drama, and panel discussions are recorded
in stereo to preserve the full dimensional quality of the original performance.
Audio materials constitute one of the most commonly used teaching / learning materials in
the classroom. The teacher can use ready made or design materials. The advantage of
making one's own materials are numerous but of importance are:
 The teacher takes into account the objectives of the particular lesson
 .The environment is taken into account
 The needs of the learner are taken into account
 The learners have a chance in collecting , assembling and manipulating parts
of the finished product
 The urge to improvise locally available materials is highly encouraged
Audio materials are preferable because :
 The materials are relatively cheap
 The materials are readily available
 The technical equipment required to record , edit or playback them are easy to
operate , they are portable , and can be used anywhere
 They are open to improvisation , revision ,additions or omissions
6.4.1.1 Radio
There is need to install a facility to produce radio programmes commonly known as a
studio . The studio must on the minimum have a mixer console , microphones for
presenters , record / disc playing decks also known as turntables , tape recording decks ,
editing facilities and monitoring facilities . Scriptwriters prepare materials for recording as
outlined in lesson ----- of this module.
6.4.1.2 Radiovision
This is a hybrid mode, which combines audio materials with visuals thus enabling
multisensory stimulation of the learner to take place. The audio materials can be
combined with textual materials, slides, or photographic materials. They are
ideal for individualized instruction.

6.4.1.3 Tape / Audio Cassette

When selecting a tape or cassette recorder for instructional purposes, we should bear in
mind portability and ease of use on one hand and ease of editing on the other hand . Tape
recorders also known as reel to reel provide for easy editing while cassette recorders are
portable and easy to use . Many portable tape recorders give reasonable performance for
special and popular music recording and reproduction although the frequency response of
cassettes is below the 15Khz audible by human beings.
6.4.1.4 Phono Discs , turntable / Record Player
These media were common and useful before the 1980's when the audiocassette
technology literally phased them out. They had the disadvantage of not being copied or
duplicated, although this was also good for copyright purposes.
6.4.1.5 Telephone
The telephone can be very useful as an instructional media especially for distance
education students. They can easily get in touch with their lecturers for individual
assistance. With good organization, it is also possible to network and carry out
teleconferencing. However, this is prohibited by the high telecommunication tariffs. In
addition, lack of infrastructure especially in rural areas makes it impossible to access
telephone facilities. The introduction of the cell telephone technology has slightly
improved accessibility though the cost is still prohibitive. The cell telephone has also in a
way opened new ways to phone-in participation, which are popular in most radio as well
as television programmes.
6.4.2 Visual Media
These instructional materials utilize the sense of sight only and normally require to
be accompanied by explanations from the teacher. They include the following other
items like chalkboard, and transparencies.
6.4.2.1 Chalkboard: This is the most common and widely used type of display media in
schools. Chalkboards may be used to give key words, outlines, diagrams graphs
and sketches. For an effective use of the chalkboard, the teacher should:
 Plan to develop explanations on the board point by point as the lesson
proceeds.
 Draw complex diagrams well in advance, cover them with a pull down
projection screen and remove only when ready to use. Always allow enough
time to the learner.
 Use coloured chalk to make diagrams attractive and highlight important
information
 Use templates made of plywood or heavy cardboard for tracing frequently use
shapes.
6.4.2.2 Over Head Projector and Transparencies:
This is a useful visual aid to support mass instruction. It has largely replaced the
chalkboard despite its unavailability in most schools.
⇒Advantages of Over Head Projectors (OHP)
The OHP has some advantages and these include the following:
 The teacher can use it while facing the class unlike the blackboard.
 It can be used to show prepared materials, which can be re-used repeatedly.
 It is clean, quiet, and user friendly and requires minimum technical skills a
part from replacing the bulb.
 It requires no room darkening thus, allowing pupils to take or make notes
simultaneously.

6.4.2.3 Slides
These are simple forms of graphic presentations. The main item of cost is taking
the photographs, but the slides themselves are easy and cheap to make and put
together. Slides consist of frames of 35mm or similar films mounted in
cardboards, metal or plastic binders often between glass sheets for added
protection. Many slides can also be arranged to form a filmstrip.
⇒ Advantages of Slides:
Some of the major advantages of slides are:
 They are easier to make, handle, use, and store besides being cheap.
 They are useful for showing photographs, diagrams and other graphics.
 One main disadvantage of slides is that they require the room to be darkened.
This means that the learners cannot take note as the lesson continues.
⇒ Check List to be Considered while making Slides, and Film Strips:
 Express the idea and limit the topic.
 Decide whether the program is motivational, informative, and instructional or
not.
 Consider your audience.
 Prepare the content outline.
 Organize the content and sketch the storyboard to assist in visualizing the
content as well.
 Decide whether you need a single slide or filmstrip to achieve your objective.
 Prepare a scene by scene script as guide.
 Consider the specifications necessary for your materials.
 If need be, select other people to assist in the preparation.

.
 D

6.4.2.5 Other Non-Print Instructional Media are computers, photographic materials,

cameras, duplicating machines, photocopiers, fax machine, electronic mails (e-
mail), and typesetting with printers.
6.4.3 Audio-visual Media
These are those materials that combine both sound and vision. They are more
useful in teaching and learning as they appeal to both senses. Audiovisual
technology plays the following roles:
 They provide the teacher with the means to extend the student's horizon of
experience
  They provide meaningful information
 They stimulate student's interest
 They guide student's response
 They overcome physical limitations
 They stimulate problem solving
 They provide diagnostic and remedial tools.
6.4.3.1 Television:
Televisions may come in several formats. These may be open circuit televisions
(OCTV), close circuit televisions (CCTV), Cable Televisions, One-way
televisions, and Two-way televisions (Interactive). Television is a hybrid mode,
which combines audio materials with visuals, thus, enabling multi-sensory
stimulation of the learner to take place. The audio materials may be combined
with textual materials, slides or photographic materials. They are ideal for
individualized instruction. Problems of cost and maintenance inhibit the use of
TV in many areas. Features of TVs are similar to those of radio, but the visual
element of it gives an added dimension. So, given a choice, people will often
prefer TV to radio as they find it more interesting and the TV makes it possible to
use broadcasting for visual presentation. Television is of course ideal for
communication with illiterates. Some evidence exists that illiterates listen
educational TVs less often than literate viewers do.

6.4.3.2 Video Cassette/Recorder and Video Camera:

The use of video camera to produce instantly on location has slowly diminished
the educational quality as well as reliance on the film. Through its use, it is
possible for the learners in the field excursions or listening to a guest speaker to
record the events for future reference. The use of video camera also allows for
immediate use of the product. Comparatively, it is cheaper to do this than to
shoot and produce a film. Unlike films, it is not sensitive to light. Both loading
and unloading the tape is much simpler and easier. Both sounds and pictures are
more easily recorded together. It is also cheaper than the film and can be re-used
many times. It requires little effort to operate because you only need a video-
camera, a microphone, a videocassette, and an operator. It is also possible to
make many copies of instructional material directly and retain your copyright at
the same time.
6.4.3.3 Film:
Films can be used to present information, describe a process, clarify complex
concepts, teach a skill, condense and expand time and affect attitude of the user.
Compared to video, films have high resolutions, better colour fidelity, wider
exposure latitude, and greater contrast range. Films also produce superior
projected pictures especially when enlarged for large group viewing. The films
format especially the 16mm and the projectors are standardized. Motion picture
cameras and projectors require less maintenance than video equipment. However,
today, more advanced technological high-resolution digital video cameras are in
use.
Question
 Discuss the merits and demerits of a film, a video camera and a
videocassette recorder as used for instructional purposes.
6.5 Operating Audio-visual Equipment:
Since the classroom can decide to use instructional materials, at anytime, it is
necessary for the teacher to know how to operate a large variety of media
 equipment. It is wrong for the teacher to be over dependent on a technician, as the
institutions may not be endowed enough to afford the much needed technical
staff. Since the institutions may have various equipment, they should have copies of
the manuals of operating instructions for each model of equipment. The
manuals contain detailed features of the equipment, their operations and minor
repairs if need be. It is important that all users maintain a high standard of
performance in order to realize the following benefits.
 The cost of equipment maintenance their repair and replacement may be
minimized if the users know how to operate and maintain them.
 Equipment can be kept in good working order/ condition for a maximum
amount of time so long as the users are well versed with their operations.
 While producing sound, proper care must be taken into consideration by
ensuring that it is similar to the original one because the quality of sound is
affected by:
∗ The type and quality of the equipment used/selected and
∗ The skill of the operator while using the equipment.
⇒Factors That Affect the Quality of Sound Produced during Playback.
 Characteristics of the original sound.
 Environmental conditions during /and in recording/playback.
 Capability of the playback system to reproduce programme material in full
frequency and without distortion.
 Ability of the operator to maintain the equipment.
 Matching all the components in an audio system should be of equal quality
and have similar performance characteristics.
Note

 For operating most of the equipment, the teacher as well as the learners
must master the use of controls such as the normal play, record, fast
forward, speed selection procedures, pause, dubbing, and rewind and
stop buttons. In some cases, the controls may be manual as well as
through a remote controlled device.

6.6 Locating Sources of Audio Visual Materials:

Having discussed most of the audio visual resources, we have seen that some of
them could be designed and produced by the teacher and the learners as well. It is
therefore advisable to note that the following materials are also available at the
following locations:
 The Kenya Institute of Education (KIE)
 The British Council Libraries
 Teachers Advisory Centers
 The Kenya National library Services
 Learning Resource Centers of any Local Teachers Training Colleges.
 Community Media Centers.
 Media Centers in Other Schools.
 Community Resources available within the locality such as factories.
 Question
 Visit one of the locations where instructional materials can be found.
Enumerate the broad groups of audiovisual materials that can be found at
the location.

6.7 FURTHER READINGS

1. Brown, J.W. Lewis,R.B. Hracleod. AV Instruction: Technology, Media and
Methods.
2. Gloria F.(1981). The Educational Use of Mass Media. World Bank Staff Working
Paper No. 49. Washington D.C. 2OO4, USA.
3. Heinich, Molenda and Russel. Instructional Media.
4. Postgate R.ET.AL. Low Cost Communication Systems for Educational Development
Purposes in 3rd world countries. UNESCO Paris, 1979.
5. SAMSON M.R and Volker R.P. (1984).Media Playing and Production. Charles
Merril Publications Company A.Bell and Howell Company.
6. WittichW.A.,andSchuller,C.F. Audio Visual Material : Their nature and use.Harper
and Row Publishers.3rd Ed. New York 1962.
LESSON SEVEN:EDUCATIONAL BROADCASTING
7.0 Introduction
This LESSON tries to give a historical overview of educational broadcasting ,the
broad purposes of broadcasting and discusses some of the teaching qualities of radio (
audio ) and television when used in classroom teaching . The LESSON will also
look at the limitations of using live transmissions besides giving hints on how to
handle a radio lesson effectively . Finally the LESSON will take the reader through the
steps of producing an audio lesson .
7.1 Objectives

By the time you finish reading this LESSON you should be able to:
• Narrate the historical development of educational radio and educational
television
• Discuss the purposes of using broadcasts in general and in relation to
teaching
• State and discuss the teaching qualities of radio and television as instructional
media
• State and discuss the limitations of using live transmissions of radio lessons
• Explain the preparations a classroom teacher should make prior to using a
broadcast lesson
• Explain the roles of the teacher and the pupils before , during and after
listening to or viewing a broadcast lesson
• Explain the kinds of follow up work to be done after the listening or viewing
session
Distinguish between centrally produced programmes and
institutional productions
• Plan and write an audio script for a radio ( audio ) lesson
• Carry out editing of an audio script or of an audio recording
• Prepare for and record an audio program using locally available equipment
• Develop support materials for the recorded materials

7.2 Definition Of Broadcasting

The first question we are going to ask is , What is broadcasting ? This question can
be answered by analyzing the word broadcasting. The word is composed of two
parts namely broad and casting . Turned the other way round the word
becomes casting broad. Broadcasting can therefore be looked at as casting
broadly messages to some audience just as the sower in the parable of the Sower as
outlined in the Holy Bible. The audience is therefore not within reach of the source.
The source must therefore employ the use of some channel. The channel can be in the
form of radio or television
Broadcasting can therefore be defined as the transmitting and distributing to the
general public information over the radio or the television. Educational
broadcasting can therefore be defined as the process of transmitting and
distributing to schools and the general public educational information over the
radio or the television. Educational broadcasting is mostly for schools and
colleges but it can also serve individuals working on their own at home. The
 learning system must be designed in such a way that it has the required support in the
form of printed package . The printed package should include the broadcast
timetable , teachers’ notes / manual , posters, diagrams, maps and any other
teaching materials deemed necessary by the producers .

7.3 Historical Development Of Broadcasting

The idea of passing messages through wireless apparatus was mooted around the
1890’s. However the breakthrough was made by an American Reginald
Fessenden on December 24 1906 when his station in Massachusetts ( USA )
transmitted voice and music over a distance of 24 kilometers to ships and shore
stations . Broadcasting to homes began in earnest in 1920.
Educational broadcasting in America developed out of efforts by educators to
establish radio stations for purposes of technical research and development rather
than to establish a viable new form of education . However from these humble
beginnings educational radio grew very quickly to encompass 171 stations by
1925 . The British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC) had its first public radio
service in November 1922 , and proceeded to pioneer international broadcasting
in November 1927 .
School broadcasting was started by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)
in 1924 (radio), followed by Japan in 1931, Australia and New Zealand in 1932,
India 1938, and Canada 1941. It extended to the third world in the 1950's .The
educational television followed later in 1957 (BBC) and 1959 (Japan) , and
extended to the third world in the 1960's notably in Ivory Coast , Thailand and
Latin America . In the USA most of the radio stations were owned by colleges
and universities who aimed at offering educational programs in college work and
extension courses , presenting programs of a broadly cultural nature that were a
cut above what was usually available from commercial stations and using the
facilities to train students in the techniques of broadcasting .
Educators were drawn into this medium because of its potentiality to reach large
audiences with ease and instantaneously, its ability to enlarge the effect of
teaching resources and also because it was appealing and contemporary. School
broadcasts enriched the learning process by offering experiences of the world
beyond the classroom walls , tapping the pupil’s experience on the immediate
environment and in the process making learning interesting . It was also thought
that a well-organized broadcast could do much to offset a poorly trained or poorly
motivated teacher. The setting was however not meant to replace the teacher but
rather to supplement his / her efforts.
Due to rapid technological development , educational radio just barely survived
the 1920’s through to 1940’s only to be confronted by stiff competition by
another technological advancement namely the television . In the 1950's new
patterns of media development emerged in form of the television. During this
period the educational radio was extended to the developing world. The early
enthusiasm for radio produced a natural counter-reaction, that is the fact that it is
purely audial. To some extent producing a wide range of accompanying support
materials (visuals) offset this. The television came out to be a powerful medium
of communication as it could be used to broadcast visual impressions of reality
through space . The television with its wider range of audiovisual resources
seemed to offer a new solution . Both the radio and the television had one
advantage of stretching the scarce resources (i.e. teachers and specialists) to
benefits several millions of pupils.
 In Kenya, the Kenya Broadcasting Corporation (KBC) started a School's
Broadcasting Service (SBS) in 1963. The service aimed at beaming its programs
to primary schools. At this time KBC used to broadcast BBC produced programs
to teach Mathematics and English. In 1965, the SBS became a division in the
ministry of Education. Later in the early 70’s the SBS became known as the
Educational Media Service (EMS) and was transferred to Kenya Institute of
Education (KIE). This was to enable it integrate its materials production with
printed materials production and curriculum development which was already
underway at KIE. The KIE itself had been established by an act of parliament in
1968, to among other things prepare educational materials connected with the
training of teachers and development of education and training.
By 1975, the air time allocated to school’s broadcasts was six hours a day, the
British Council offered scholarships to nine professional teachers to train at the
Kenya Institute of Mass Communication (KIMC) on how to produce radio
programs and supporting visuals. In 1976, the World Bank granted a loan to
enable the EMS develop facilities for audio, video, film, tape, slides and
photographic materials. However the use of these equipment has not been
maximized due to lack of funds . By 1991 the EMS was still producing only radio
programs for broadcasts . Television and film facilities have not been fully
functional due to the high cost of production . The only audio-visual materials
produced by the EMS have been for the exclusive use of the teacher training
colleges.
Upto 1995, the EMS produced and aired radio programs to primary , secondary
schools , teacher training colleges and in-service teachers .The Kenya
Broadcasting Corporation halted the service due to non payment of air time by
K.I.E .Television facilities had also been installed but due to the high costs of
production have not been fully functional.

7.4 Purposes Of Broadcasts

Generally there is no one particular best medium for instructional purpose .
However radio and television receive a high rating . Both media can be used for
training purposes , for practical instruction in agriculture and health , for talks on
national policies and priorities , for correspondence schooling , for community
development action , for study groups , for literacy and in training and
development campaigns such as family planning as well as for general
entertainment . Educational broadcasts when used effectively can serve five
purposes .
The first purpose served by educational broadcasts is that of educating the
audience.
.

The second purpose served by broadcasts is to inform the audience .

The third purpose of broadcasts is to entertain the audience .
The fourth purpose of broadcasts is to motivate the audience. This is mostly
evident in commercials . The commercials aim at changing the attitude of the
audience towards the advertised product. If it is medicine then a serious attempt
is made to give the impression that taking the medicine leads to instant recovery.
This approach has been found to motivate the audience thus leading to higher
sales of the product.

The fifth purpose of broadcasts is to change the behavior of the audience..

To summarize this section , we recall the definition of learning as that which

involves a relatively permanent change in behavior or performance as a
consequence of practice or experience rather than other influences such as
maturation , fatigue or drugs It is important that educational
broadcasts work towards achieving the five purposes namely that besides being
educative , they must inform , entertain , motivate and finally change the
behavior of the pupils . Only then will learning be said to have taken place.
7.5 Teaching Qualities Of Radio
Educational broadcasts have both strengths and weaknesses. The classroom
teacher should bear in mind these strengths and weaknesses as s/he plans for
instruction and especially in selecting the media to support the teaching.
Sometimes the teacher might have to use complementary media to make up for the
weaknesses of the radio or television. Live transmission of radio programs have the
following advantages / qualities’
(i) Inexpensive
Both the radio and the television have the advantage of stretching scarce
resources ( human and material) to benefit millions of listeners / viewers
.Radio is the cheapest medium for courses with more than 500 listeners . This
is true if the cost of production and transmission are taken into account. This cost
is about one fifth that of producing and transmitting a television program (

(ii) Up to date and immediate

The second teaching quality of radio and television is that the content carried is
both up to date and immediate. Comparing these two media with textbooks, one
finds that the textbooks can be several years out of date, whereas the broadcast on
the other hand brings fresh and up to date ideas, more recent than even what
the classroom teacher knows.
(iii) Leaping Barriers of Space and Time.
The third teaching quality of both radio and the television is that they can leap
barriers of space and time . By using them we can reconstruct and bring the past
to the present by use of drama. In this way we can also leap forward and
dramatize future events . Radio can also pass messages to places that are
otherwise inaccessible. It is common knowledge that the new millenium has been
ushured in with the fact that the world has become a small village . Thanks to the
introduction of modes such as e-mail , internet and mobile cell phones. This
implies that one can access events that are happening thousands of kilometers
away through a combination of these new technology .
(iv) Emotional impact .
The fourth teaching quality of radio and television is that the duo are also able to
bring dramatic feelings into the classroom thus creating emotional impact on the
learners . Content in some of the subjects can be very ‘dry’. Reading a text from a
textbook can be very boring , but if the same content is passed across through a
radio / television program then the listeners will be able to identify with the
voices , benefit from the voice variations and be motivated generally to listen to and
respond to the program content .

(v) Authenticity and Realism.

Radio and television can be used to bring the voice of an authority into the
classroom thus making learning authentic and real. The two can for example be used
to teach language through the use of native speakers. This would go alongway in
offsetting problems faced by most teachers in such areas as pronunciation, intonation
and idioms. Through these media we can interview and record the ideas of
professionals such as doctors, teachers, trade unionists, veteran nationalists,
religious leaders and opinion leaders. These can then be brought to class and used to
teach history or any other subject .

(vi) Fostering imagination of the listeners.

The sixth teaching quality of radio and television is that through them the
producers are able to foster the imagination of the audience. Through radio the
producer creates a visual scene for the play or story that is being told in the
program . However it is worth noting that radio is rated higher than television in
this respect as it is easier to dramatize historical concepts with imaginary scenery
in radio than to realistically create the past in motion pictures for television. To
enrich radio we can complement its use together with pictures, slides and
illustrated texts.

7.6 Limitations Of Live Radio Broadcasts .

As mentioned earlier in this LESSON every medium has strengths and
weaknesses and it is therefore incumbent on the teacher to take this into account
every time s/he selects media to use in classroom instruction. The limitations
discussed in this section apply mostly to live radio transmissions. Live
transmission of radio programs have the following limitations ( or weaknesses ):-

(i) Concentrated attention .

Radio being an audial media requires a high degree of concentration from the
listener in view of its dependence on the aural sense (we learn only 11% through
the aural sense and 83% through the sense of sight). However it is advantageous
when teaching or listening to musical programs. This limitation forces the
producer to make the program presentation interesting so that the audience can
stay tuned . One way of doing this especially for young learners is to make the
 programs have attractive musical interludes that adversely reduce boredom.
Better still the length of the program should be appropriate , normally a 20
minute program is most suitable ( Survey : ).
Television on the other hand rates high on this point as it has both sound and
vision and is perceived by both the eye and the ear .

(ii) One way Communication .

The second limitation of both radio and the television is the lack of interactive
facility that is the listeners have no way of talking back to the presenter. In
normal teaching / learning there is need for the learner to be able to get back at
the presenter ( teacher ) through verbal as well as non-verbal reactions . This is
not possible when using radio or the television as the communication is one way
namely from the teacher to the learner .

(iii) Timing and scheduling.

The media service ( in our case the Educational Media Service ) follows a
timetable sent out to schools earlier that spells out the time and day for the
subjects to be taught through radio that year . These timetables reach schools late
with some not reaching their destinations at all . Again within schools, school
timetables do not agree with the transmission timetable with most of them being
out of phase with the broadcast timetable. Also the order of topics in the teachers’
notes may not synchronize with the school teacher's schemes of work. This lack
of harmony leads to schools ignoring the transmissions. One disadvantage of
using broadcasts is that unless there are repeat transmissions of each program the
classroom teacher must commit himself / herself to the series well in advance by
way of knowing exactly what its content and approach will be . In this regard the
media service or broadcasting station should avail timetables as well as
general information on the content and approach of the radio lessons as early as
possible ( seven months is fair ) . The information can be in the form of teachers’
notes giving a detailed program outline, suggestions for further work and
questions for further discussions on the broadcasts.
Administrative problems.
The receiving equipment namely the radio set or the television must be well
maintained if the users are to benefit from it. The operation cost is sometimes
very high and this forces some schools not to use them. The equipment should
always be in an excellent operating condition , be properly tuned in on time and be
available when needed. Sometimes there maybe only one radio set in a
multistreamed school. There maybe no large room where all the streams may listen
or view the program together. In such cases inevitably some pupils might have to
miss the broadcast. That is why there should be provision for repeat transmissions of
each program to cater for such cases. The ministry of education should in
conjunction with the media service organize for regional centres at district or
provincial level to repair and maintain the radio sets.

(v) Reception.
Reception of the transmission is yet another limitation. The electromagnetic
waves that carry the signals are often weak especially when they have to go
round mountains. Places far away from the transmitting station suffer from poor
reception. There is also lack of booster stations to strengthen the reception. In
Kenya, areas far away from Nairobi (where the transmission is done ) do not
receive the General Service well , yet it is through the general service that the
school broadcasts are aired out. The government of Kenya has over the years
made efforts to set up booster stations across the country to improve the
reception. When the reception is poor, the pupils will not be able to listen and
benefit from the radio broadcast. Poor reception can also be due to poor weather.
(vi) No pre-hearing and re-usability.
Radio and television have no provisions for previewing and reusability. Whereas
it is possible to revise a chapter in a textbook, ask a teacher to repeat a piece of
explanation, it is not possible to "turn back a page' of a radio program to review.
The pupils must be encouraged to make careful, concentrated use of the
broadcast while it is occurring. The class teacher should read and understand the
teachers' notes well before the broadcast to acquaint himself with the content.

(vii) Level of listeners .

During the production of the broadcast material, the script writer , producer and
media specialist assume an average listener. Therefore the product maybe too
advanced for some pupils and yet too low for some. The classroom teacher
should therefore make an attempt to bridge the gap in ability. The gap can be
bridged by preparing pupils in well in advance for the broadcast , conducting
them through the broadcast and finally during the follow up.
7.7 Solutions To Some Of The Limitations .
Most of the limitations discussed above can be overcome by the use of recordings
instead of using the 'live' transmissions . The teacher must decide well in advance
how s/he wants to integrate the programmes into the schemes of work .
Sometimes it is advisable for the teacher to prepare to record the series and use
them at a convenient time , this is so because radio programmes are suitably used
when in recorded form . Once the materials are dubbed, the class teacher can :-

(i) Use parts of the audio lesson interpersed with the teaching, that is s/he can pause
the tape recorder/ audio cassette recorder and discuss a point before proceeding
with the listening.

(ii) Pause the equipment each time a response is called for, and allow pupils to
respond at their own pace.

(iii) Use the recording as and when the scheme of work allows and breathe a sigh of
relief from the tight schedule of the 'live' transmission.

(iv) Use the same materials for other streams at different times as well as use it in
subsequent years.

(v) He/she will have solved the problem of poor reception as s/he can use the audio
recording at any time and anywhere. S/he can also rewind sections to allow
pupils to listen again.

7.8 How To Handle A Broadcast Lesson.

The teacher should well in advance go through and understand the teachers’ notes on
the series s/he intends to use . At this stage an attempt should be made to match
the material with the schemes of work . The teacher must also be sure that that s/he
knows the transmission date and time and where possible adjust the school
timetable accordingly. The teacher’s role in the successful utilization of broadcasts
to schools can be accomplished in three stages :
(i). Just before the broadcast , the class should be seated about 15 minutes early.
The class teacher should spare enough time ( say 10 minutes ) to allow for
revision of previous related work and also introduce new words likely to come up
during the radio lesson . In case there are such new words or terms the teacher
should write them on the chalkboard and explain them well in advance. The
pupils can also prepare by reading appropriate printed matter , collect some realia
if required , do some writing , study some graphics and attempt related questions .
The teacher should display the required graphics or other materials if advised to
do so in the teacher’s notes . If the listeners are adults , the teacher can avail the
objectives and detailed summary of the lesson content , these can be used to set
induct the listeners .The teacher should decide on how to integrate the
programme into the daily teaching , otherwise the programme should be dubbed
and used when appropriate . Resource materials such as maps , charts , posters
and textbooks the programme would be referring to. Finally the teacher should
set the radio or television set taking into account the acoustics of the room in
particular in arranging pupils with hearing / viewing problems .
(ii). During the broadcast the class teacher must be physically present to listen ,
view and react to the programme together with the pupils , absorb the content
 and be completely tuned in . If the series is to refer to certain texts , the texts
should be made available well in advance , the reference pages for a particular
broadcast be communicated to the pupils in good time .. S/he should assist with
spellings , tracing routes on a map pointing at a graphic as and when they are
referred to by the radio teacher . The chalkboard may be useful for writing on
new words ( detailed in the teacher’s notes ) , drawing a map , diagram , or a
chart , or even projecting something using an opaque projector . S/he should
encourage pupils to perform learning activities as demanded by the radio teacher .
Pupils ( especially younger learners ) must be discouraged from note taking but
simply listen to the broadcast .
(iii). After the broadcast there should be no time gap ( even of hours ) between
programme transmission and follow up , it is often difficult to recapture the
interest aroused at a later date . The teacher can do follow-up by way of
discussion or assignment.
The class can break into small groups and hold discussion. The group leaders can
then report to the entire class, this is ideal for mature learners.
The teacher should summarize the main points, the pupils can do this under the
teacher's guidance. In other words the class teacher should reinforce the main
points of the lesson , expand on the new words ,allow for pupils questions and
follow up the radio teacher’s assignment . The assignment can be provided in
form of a project. This assignment should motivate the learner to listen to further
broadcasts .

7.9 References
1. Wittich W. A and Schuller C.F . Audio-visual materials . Harper and
Brothers . New York.
2. Standa , Patel and Ayot. Multi-media approaches for teachers .[ a
prototype ]. A project sponsored by UNESCO.
Regional office. Dakar. 1982.
3. Walter A.W &Schuller C. Instructional technology : Its nature and use
5th edition. Harper Brothers . New York .
4. Mukwa C.K Design and use of Educational Media in
primary education .Nairobi .
LESSON EIGHT: TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONAL MEDIA

8.0 Introduction
In this lesson, we shall concern ourselves with two and three-dimensional
kinds of media and some of the skills required to produce them. Essentially, 2- and 3-D
media (as they are often referred to) are separate media and as such we shall discuss
them in this lesson separately. We shall begin with 2-D and then follow with 3-D.

8.1.Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Define the term media.
2. Explain the difference between two and three dimensional media

8.2.0 Two- Dimensional Media or Graphic Instructional Materials

Graphic instructional materials or simply graphics are teaching/learning
materials that use a combination of drawings, words and pictures to communicate facts and
ideas clearly and concisely.
Graphic materials have always been among the most useful and versatile aids at the
disposal of a teacher. Their general benefits are that:
1. They are relatively inexpensive and may be obtained at little or no cost,
2. They are easy to use as they require no equipment or hardware,
3. They are applicable to all subject areas in the curriculum and at different levels of
education.
Their benefits from an instructional view-point are that they help to:
1. Visualize ideas or concepts that would otherwise be difficult to understand if
treated only in words; they make abstract concepts and ideas a little more real.

2. Simplify complex concepts by highlighting features.

3. Summarize certain types of information and ideas such as statistical data.
4. Motivate learning in that the interest of learners is increased when the materials
are used.

8.3 Kinds of Graphic Instructional Materials

Graphic materials include: charts, diagram, graphs, posters, maps, and
cartoons and comics. Besides these six materials, we can also add pictures and
photographs. The boundary between one and another kind of graphic material is often
blurred; for example, where does a chart begin and a diagram end. Despite this, we shall
attempt below to define each of the six kinds of graphic materials.

8.3.1 Charts
A chart is a combination of pictorial, numerical or verbal materials
designed to present a clear visual summary of an important process or set of
relationships. A well-designed chart should communicate its message primarily through the
visual channel; the verbal material should only supplement the visual material and not the
reverse. Depending on the information presented on a chart, charts can be classified
into the following groups:
1. Classification charts, are used to classify or
categorize object, events and so on; for example, taxonomy of animals, parts of speech,
foods and the like.
2. Flow or process charts, show a sequence,
procedure or as the name implies the flow of a process. These charts are usually
presented on a horizontal format.
3. Relationship or organizational charts,
they show a chain of command in an organization; for example, a company or a
government department.
4. Tabulation charts, usually display
information in form of a table; for example a time table, a scheme of work and so on.

5. Chronology charts, show time

relationships or historical sequence of events. In addition to the above,
another form of charts is the flip-chart. A flip-chart comprises a pad of large sized paper
fastened together at the top. The individual sheets each holds/presents a limited
verbal/visual message that is arranged for a sequential presentation to a group of people.

8.3.2 Diagrams, Drawings and Sketches

Diagrams, drawings and sketches mean more or less the same things; in
general however, a diagram is a more finished representation than a sketch. A diagram
can be defined as a drawing illustrating the main features of an object, process or area.
Generally, diagrams should be simple and bold.

8.3.3 Graphs
A graph is a visual representation of numerical data. It usually
allows people to grasp quickly and accurately the masses of statistical data. Forms of
graphs include: line graphs, bar graphs, circle graphs, or pie-charts. The form of graph
you choose will depend on the complexity of the information you wish to present and
the level of your audience.

8.3.4 Maps
A map is a flat representation of some or the entire earth’s surface on a
scale. Maps are tricky to use in front of an audience, because the features presented on a
map may be too tiny to be visible to an audience. Consequently, every effort must be
made to produce “readable” maps. Readable maps can be achieved by: matching
function to size of the map, avoiding irrelevant details, and making good use of colour.
Maps may be used to show many kinds of information; for
example, surface features, places and their directions and distances, scientific data such as
ocean currents, socio-cultural factors such as population and language patterns,
boundaries, and economic data.

8.3.5 Posters
A poster is a visual combination of bold design and colour and/or a brief
written message. It is meant to instantly catch attention and convey the message.
Usually, a poster deals with one idea at a time. It must also be clear and large enough to be
read from a good distance.

8.3.6 Cartoons and Comics

A cartoon uses satire, caricature or exaggeration to represent pictorially
ideas, persons, groups or situations. It is serious in intent and has the power to capture
attention and influence behaviour. Most cartoons have the following features: minimal
details, familiar symbols and characters and stereotypes that are quickly recognized and
understood. The message is usually crispy and clearly communicated.
Cartoons can prove to be very useful tools in a number of subject areas in the
school curriculum; particularly, languages and social studies. In social studies, for
instance, cartoons have proved to be an effective means of motivating current events
discussions and examining different political views. Valuable learning also results from
learners drawing their own cartoons. Note that cartoons can be an indispensable tool in
changing peoples’ attitudes; this is because people respond better to sensitive
information through this means as opposed to information that is written or spoken. A
comic is a form of cartoon in which characters enact a story in a sequence.
 8.4. Some Production Considerations
The effectiveness of any graphic material is largely dependent on its production
quality. It must be emphasized that like any skill, improvements in the production of
these materials can only be achieved through constant practice. Here below, an attempt
is made to provide some useful guidelines to improve production skills. The guidelines
are discussed under the three headings: composition/layout, lettering and illustrations.

8.4.1 Composition/Layout
1. Select appropriate size of working area. The area should be large enough to be seen by the
entire class/audience.

2. Consider whether the information is better suited with the working surface positioned
horizontally or vertically. Note that posters are almost always presented in a vertical
format; whereas tabulation charts are generally positioned horizontally.

3. Choose for presentation only the major points since only few points can realistically
be shown in a graphic material. Note that a graphic material deals with only one idea at a
time.

4. Use as much of the working area as possible, leaving only a reasonable margin
around the area.
5. Work out the general layout on the area faintly in pencil first before adding colour.

8.4.2 Lettering
1. Make use of horizontal guidelines drawn faintly in pencil. These should help mark the
heights of letters.
2. Lower case (small) letters when used together with upper case (capital) letters are
usually half the height of capitals.
3. Some lower case letters (with descenders) extend downwards and some (with
ascenders) extend upwards to heights equal to that of their bodies.
4. Ascenders and descenders could be vertical but all must be parallel to each other.
6. Lines between sentences should be far apart so that ascenders and descenders do not
touch.
7. Space between words should be about one letter space and between sentences about
two letter spaces.
8. Use simple and bold lettering style.
9. Use colour and if this is not available then underline for emphasis.

8.4.3 Illustrations
Illustrations could comprise photographs, drawings, paintings, diagrams,
maps or actual specimens.
1. Their quality will depend largely on their clarity and suitability for the intended
purpose.
2. Drawings and diagrams should be simple and bold.
3. Make use of colour, it adds realism as well as attraction to a given work.
4. Select harmonious and effective colour.
6. For accuracy, reduction or enlargement of pictures, make use of such methods as
grid, projection and templates if necessary.
 8.4.4 Activity

Choose a topic from one of your teaching subjects and produce a suitable graphic
instructional material to illustrate some aspect of the content.

8.5.0 Criteria for Good Graphics

A good graphic material should be:
1. Clear in that, its production technique brings out the message clearly.
2. Precise in that, the message is straight forward.
3. Accurate in that, the information presented is authentic in all respects.
4. Simple in that, it is not loaded with unnecessary details.
5. Bold in that, it is big enough to be seen at a good distance.
7. Readable in that, it can be interpreted by the intended audience.
8. Interesting in that, it is well made, attractive to look at, tidy and well-preserved.

. 8.5.1 Activity

Take three graphic instructional materials that have been produced and used by teachers
in teaching their lessons and critique each of them using the above criteria of good
graphics.

8.6 Three-Dimensional Media

Types of three dimensional materials include:
1. objects, real things or specimens (Realia),
2. models in general, and
3. special types of models (Dioramas and Mock-ups).
We shall discuss each of the above media in respect to what they are and
how best to use them to enhance instruction.

8.6.1 Objects or Real Things

An object is a real thing. The technical term for objects in Educational
Technology is- realia. Specimens, on the other hand, are objects that are representative of a
group or class of similar objects. a specimen in Biology, for instance, would be say an animal
or plant used to exemplify say a species or a variety.
Real things are effective for teaching and learning because they make the
learning situation more concrete and authentic, interesting and provide for a more
detailed close-up study. Examples of things or objects that can be used for instructional
purposes include: rock collections, soil types, animals and plants whether whole or parts,
man-made items like traditional artifacts and machines, types of foods, and so on.
Some of the things normally collected as hobbies, such as coins
and stamps can be very useful as teaching aids for illustrating historical events,
architecture, philosophy, and so on. Other collectables that can be used for learning
include: pressed flowers, mounted insects and butterflies, recepies, rocks and stones,
pictures, postcards and photographs, and newspaper articles. In the case of pictures and
newspaper articles, a keen teacher will find it useful to open thematic files on a variety of
topics ordinarily covered in his/her subject.
 Although real things are sometimes accumulated in schools
in a random and unsystematic fashion; collection that involves careful planning,
research, classification, organization, mounting, preservation, storage and displaying in
meaningful and interesting patterns always lead to better learning outcomes.

8.6.2 Models
Models are related to objects in that they are 3-D impressions or
representations of things or objects. Models are 3-D equivalents of things and objects as
drawings and pictures are 2-D equivalents.
There are certain teaching/learning circumstances when the use of models is called for. It
may be that the real thing is difficult to acquire or come by because it is: too large (as the
case of the solar system), too small (as the case of an atom), poses some safety problems,
or does not provide for effective study of its interior view (as the case of the tooth).

Characteristics of models are that:

1. They are three-dimensional in that they posses height, length and width as opposed to 2-
D which possess only height and length.
2. They can reduce or enlarge objects to an observable size.
3. They can provide an interior view of some objects.
4. They simplify complex objects and help in explaining them.
5. They accent or emphasize important features by say adding colour or texture to the
significant parts.
7. They can be made, if so desired, in a way that they can be assembled and
reassembled as the case of a model of the heart.

8.6.3 Mock-ups
A mock-up is an operating model usually at full scale designed to be
worked with directly by the learner for specific training. Mock-ups have many
applications in training such as in the training of pilots, first aid work, and so on. In such
cases as for others, there is a risk in the learner training on the real thing before s/he has
mastered the basics.
8.6.4 Dioramas
A diorama is usually se up on a miniature stage with a group of modelled
objects and figures in the foreground which is blended into a realistically painted
background. A diorama can be used by a teacher to for example teach how layout such
scenes as an ideal farm or a traditional African village. Dioramas are often used in
agricultural shows, in museums and by architects. They can be used in language teaching
to help learners construct sentences, or to teach traffic rules to driver-trainees, among
other uses.
8.6.5 Question

For each of the following special models suggest a learning activity that would lend itself to
its use: 1. Diorama and 2. Mock-up

8.7.0 Considerations for the Production of Models

Models can be made from a wide array of materials, most of which are in many
cases discarded. Models, therefore, should not be very expensive to produce. Examples
of materials for modelling include: carton boxes, package paper, wood scraps, pieces of
cloth, coat hangers, papiermache, clay for pottery, plastic bottles, styrofoam, and many
others.
In addition to the above often discarded materials, some basic materials must be
purchased. These include: paints, glues, thinners, varnish and so on. One would also
need tools to work some of the materials; these include woodwork, leather work and
metal work tools.
It is important that whatever model is produced it ought to be well-made,
attractive, and durable and suit the purpose for which it is made. If a teacher feels
inadequate in terms of skill to produce a required model, then, by all means s/he should
engage someone more competent. Production of the items take time, effort and money its
worth the effort of a teacher to see to it that they are stored well for reuse in subsequent
year
8.7.1 Activity
1. Choose a topic from any one of your teaching subjects and produce a model
suitable for its teaching.
2. Write a lesson plan for a lesson in which the above model can be used. In the plan
indicate what for, how and when the model shall be used in the course of the lesson.

8.8.0 Storage of 2-D and 3-D Materials

The instructional materials discussed in this lesson cost time, money and effort;
consequently, they need to be durable and must be stored well for future use. Two-
dimensional media should always be stored flat in folders, shelves or drawers, or hanged
on racks. Models, on the other hand, can be stored on shelves, in labelled carton boxes or
on the floor depending on their size and durability of material from which they are made.

8.9. Summary

In this lesson, we have discussed the various kinds of 2-D and 3-D instructional
materials. We have also made suggestions on how to produce these materials. It has
emerged that for the materials to have maximum learning impact, they must be attractive
and well-made, and must be presented at just the right moment in the lesson. The
materials cost time, money and effort; consequently, they must be durable and must be
stored well for future use.

8.10 Further Reading

Brown, J.W.,(1973).AV Instruction: Media and Methods. MacGraw-Hill Bk. Co.
Mukwa, C.W. and M.M. Patel, (1986). Design & Use of Education Media. Kenyatta
University.
Faris, G. and J. Moldstad(1973), Improving the Learning Environment: A Study of Local Preparation of
Visual Instructional Media, U.S. Government Printing Office.
LESSON NINE DISTANCE EDUCATION

9.0 Introduction
It is possible to take and finish a
given course without setting foot on the main campus of the university. The education
you are undergoing is known as distance education. This LESSON takes you through the
theoretical basis of distance education, its definitions, forms, methods of teaching, its
characteristics, the philosophy behind it, its advantages, limitations, problems and
constraints faced by distance education students as well as the institutions running the
program and the personnel required to effectively run the distance education program.

9.1 Objectives

By the time you get to the end of this LESSON you should be able to:
1. Define distance education and explain reasons underlying the various definitions
2. Distinguish distance education from conventional / mainstream education
3. Explain the causes for the inception of distance education and its developmental
progress from its earliest times to the current state of the art
4. List and explain the characteristics of distance education while contrasting it to the
conventional / traditional education with respect to form, content, process, teaching
methods and means, provision of feedback, evaluation etc.
5. List and discuss advantages and drawbacks of distance education.
6. Trace the various media and technologies used in distance education from the earliest
times.
7. Discuss the problems of distance education , in terms of instructional / learning needs ,
and available communication technology alternatives
8. Categorize the various methods of teaching at a distance
9. Discuss the roles of the various personnel involved in the day to day running of the
program.

9.2 Definition Of Distance Education

Distance education has existed for more than a century.
There are many definitions of distance education as there are experts in distance
education. Operationally we can look at distance education as “The teaching and learning
process in which a significant proportion of the teaching is conducted by someone who is
removed in space and / or time from the learner. Moore (1973) defines it as those
teaching methods in which, because of physical separation of learners and teachers, the
interactive as well as the proactive phases of teaching are conducted through print
mechanical or electronic devices. Otto Peters (1983) sees it as a method of
imparting knowledge, skills and attitudes which is rationalized by the application of
division of labour and organizational principles, as well as by the extensive use of media
especially for the purposes of high quality teaching materials thus making it possible to
instruct great numbers of students at the same time. He also sees it as an impersonal
mechanical and electronic process in which an artificially created message replaces
educational communication.
From the definitions it is clear that the following concepts apply to distance education:
♦ It takes place at a distance
♦ There is separation between the tutors and the learners ♦
There is lack of face to face interaction
♦ The teaching is done through media and communication technologies
♦ It is open , under the control of the learner in terms of what to learn , when to
learn , how to learn and where to learn

In a nutshell distance education therefore means any system of teaching and learning in
which the students are at a distance from their teachers for most of their time they are
studying

9.3 Forms Of Distance Education

There are various forms of distance education. It is worth noting on the outset that an
effective distance education program should be a good mixture of the forms.
1)The first form of distance education is correspondence education. Here learning
materials are mailed to students in their localities where they use the materials, do
assignments or projects and post back the work to the institution. This work is marked and
sent back to the learner with appropriate remarks / corrections and the instructional materials
for the next piece of work. This approach has been successfully used in Pakistan for
training under-qualified primary school teachers.
2)The second form of distance education is known as External studies. Just like in the first
form the learner use the instructional materials away from the college / university, but in
addition there could be teaching / learning centres spread over the whole country or
catchment area. Also there could be the possibility of occasional residential sessions to give
learners a chance to interact with their tutors.
3) The third form of distance education is through the use ofeducational broadcasts. This
form involves the use of radio, television and lately the internet in reaching the learners. The
learners receive support materials for the courses well before the broadcasts. They go
through the materials and wait for the broadcasts to facilitate learning. Again the learners
do assignments or projects and submit the same for marking and feedback from the tutors.
For successful use of this broadcasts there is need for thorough planning in the distribution of
the accompanying printed matter.
4) The fourth form of distance education is through In-service programs. This is useful in
situations where there is need to update workers who are already serving. Over a long
time this becomes necessary in order to acquaint workers with new skills; familiarize
them with modern ideas and technology. In some cases the workers might have been
 serving without any pre-service training and were learning on the job. Certification should be the
ultimate expectation of the trainees. This cadre of workers need to be trained during spare time without
necessarily withdrawing them from their work places for significantly long periods .In service programs are
ideal for untrained teachers, agricultural extension workers, social, health workers etc.

5) The fifth form of distance education is through the organizing of Radio study groups .In
these form trainees listen to radio programs especially designed to equip them with
relevant skills and knowledge. The trainees are encouraged to listen to these programs in
their various groups and implement some of the knowledge acquired. This has been used
successfully in Columbia for adult peasants especially in areas such as health, social
work and agriculture.

6) The sixth and last form of distance education isExtension service. Governments the
world over pays special attention to small-scale entrepreneurs as they control a
significant proportion of the GDP. This could be in areas such as agriculture, business,
manufacturing etc. Extension service is also useful in health and other community related
services.

In summary, distance education programs should be a mixture of the forms named

above. For example at the Open university of the United Kingdom , 80% of the
instruction is done using printed materials ( correspondence ), 10% through broadcasting
(radio and TV.) and 10% through face to face.
9.4 Characteristics Of Distance Education
Distance education has the following characteristics:
1) The first characteristic is that there is physical separation between teachers and students
in time and space .This should be looked at with the background that it is generally
considered that the educational relationship between teacher and learner should be
dynamic and reciprocal. This demonstrates the fact that distance education is not just
self study but that it is desirable to maintain a two way communication
the role of the tutor in a distance education program as going beyond that of correcting
errors and assessing students progress but also promoting study motivation.
This characteristic notwithstanding it is important to note that learning is not simply a
matter of acquiring knowledge but is a constructive process that involves the negotiation
of meaning , which assumes the participation of others .

2)The second characteristic of distance education is the usage of a wide range of media
with print being the main type . Admittedly , the main type of media used in distance
education is in form of print . This comes in the form of reading materials such as
textbooks , handouts , brochures , worksheets and graphics . Other types of media are
recommended so as to compensate for the lack of facial contact . The multi media
approach caters for the wide variations in student study formats and interests . The print
media must be written in such a way as to be independently used by the pupil.

3) The third characteristic of distance education is that it is a highly individualized system

of instruction. Brookefield (1995) sees distance education as self-directed learning that
focuses on the process by which adults take control of their own learning , in particular
how they set their own learning goals , locate appropriate resources , decide on which
learning methods to use and evaluate their own resources .

4)The fourth characteristic of distance education is that there is a high usage of centralized
high volume production or standardized learning materials . As stated in the third
characteristic above the main media is print . Because of the high enrolment covering a
large catchment area the materials are produced centrally in large quantities for
distribution to the students . The materials are carefully researched , written and edited
for their suitability for the intended audience . Again , it is essential to ensure that the
materials are standardized , so that even if the students do not refer to a variety of reading
materials they will be in a position to compete favorably with conventional students .

5) The fifth characteristic of distance education is that there is no limit to the number of
students receiving instruction at any time . It is common knowledge that conventional
programs are forced to admit a particular number of students depending on the capacity
of the accommodation , the availability of instructional spaces , level of staffing and the
status of instructional materials among other minor factors . It is possible to double the
admission under the distance education mode and simply produce more copies of the
instructional materials .

6) The sixth characteristic of distance education is that there should be counseling and
general support of students’ work by distance study material . The role of the teacher
becomes that of providing supportive and corrective feedback but little personal
communication. In most cases students under distance education are mature age and self
supporting . They would be parents possibly with other dependants . They pay fees ,
provide shelter and other basic necessities to the dependants . When they enroll in the
programs the demands of the course overwhelm their resources and they tend to plunge
into financial problems . This if not detected on time and the student counseled may lead
to dropping out .

9.5 Philosophy Of Distance Education

The philosophy behind distance education system revolves around several issues . Firstly
there is emphasis on individual study and independence of students. This mode of
education is obliged to assume that its students are self-regulated, while at the same time
it practices the ethos of ‘ opening’ education for those who are not able to enroll at
residential institutions. One of the proponents of the theory of autonomy and
independence in distance education was Charles Wedemeyer (1977), who is considered
as the father of American distance education. Influenced by a democratic social ideal and
liberal educational philosophy he considered that everyone should have the right to learn
. He based his assumption of adult learning on the fact that adults are supposed to have
the potential for self-direction .He proposed three main conceptualizations of
independence for learners namely :
• Learning through self-pacing , the learner paces learning according to
his/her circumstances and needs
• Learning to be individualized and learners be free to follow any of
several courses of learning
• The learner should have the freedom to select goals and activities
Willen (1988) challenges those who see distance education as characterized by
independence and autonomy by claiming that the idea of independence and autonomy are
not borne out by reality but that the students have similar characteristics and needs as other
adult conventional students . She refutes Moore’s claims that students choose distance
education because they have special personal qualities of independence and asserts that
the choice is based on practical reasons .

The second philosophical issue is that there is emphasis on self instruction as a method
of learning .The philosophical base of distance education is that learners are on their own
most of the time . The learner is assumed to be sufficiently motivated to read through the
materials , search for more reference materials , carry out experiments , research and
prepare reports.

The third philosophical issue is that materials are presented in small and relatively easy
to master doses to keep learners conscious of their progress. Just like in this module the
LESSONs are accompanied by some exercises and suggested activities. The learners go
through some reading , work out the exercises , present their work to the tutors for
assessment before moving on . Care should be taken to ensure that the exercises are
given in reasonable doses to keep the learner aware and appraised of his / her progress.

The fourth philosophical issue is that the learning materials are organized following the
principle of guided didactic conversation , namely through the provision of a two way
communication and occasional seminars .The thrust of this point should be reflected in
the preparation of the learning materials bearing in mind the fact that distance education
creates a feeling of personal relation between teaching and learning to motivate students .
Borje Holmberg (1995) put forward the theory of distance education as a guided didactic
conversation. He argued that the continuous interaction between students , tutors and
other representatives of the institution should be seen as a kind of conversation . Students
would be more successful in these circumstances than if the course has an impersonal
character .This is why we should use more colloquial language in the preparation of
study material . This conversational style of presentation was designed to promote empathy with the student .

The fifth and last philosophical issue is the creation of a two way communication
through student counseling services, tutoring and use of self checking exercises .Unlike
conventional students distance education learners tend to have more problems that if not
addressed on time can lead to dropout .Since distance learners are normally adults , there
is a tendency for them to take time to adjust their life routines . They will most probably
be having families with children in school , with extended family commitments and with
professional work demands. All these must be met and still ample time be found for
studies . These pressures together with the financial demands tend to wear down the
psychological drive within the student . It therefore becomes necessary to have in place
guidance and counseling services to handle students with symptoms of stress or
depression .

9.6 Advantages Of Distance Education

Distance education has several advantages. In this section we shall discuss the following
advantages:
1)First, distance education is useful when there is political or other pressures to expand
education . There are occasions when the government makes policy changes in areas
such as curriculum , access to education or even the structure of education .

2) Secondly, distance education can be used to train teachers and other professionals
without withdrawing them from their regular work.

2) Thirdly , distance education can be used to meet specific educational and social problems
in local and national settings.
 4)The fourth advantage of distance education is that it can be used to solve educational
crisis . For example there can arise a need to in-service teachers after an educational
review .

5)The fifth advantage is that distance education provides easier access to education to those
who might not have had the opportunity to get it during their youth .
6) The sixth advantage is that distance education provides a lot of student autonomy, and
independent opportunities

7)The seventh advantage of distance education is that it solves the problem of isolation
There are instances where students may be far away from schools or even other educational
facilities such as libraries

8)The eighth advantage is that distance education maximizes the students’ ability and
opportunity to relate what they are learning to the lives they are

9) The ninth advantage is that distance education increases opportunities for education
without a corresponding increase in cost
9.7 Personnel For Distance Education

A well set up distance education program requires the services of various cadres of staff.
Besides the usual support staff we should expect the distance education program to
utilize the services of personnel such as:
The distance education program should be headed by a director who should be the
overall in charge of administrative , academic as well as financial matters . S/he should
ensure that the right calibre of staff are recruited , well remunerated and retained . The
director should also be of the right professional background in education and have some
management skills .
Besides the director the distance education program must have senior staff tutors to look after
preparation of printed materials , preparation of radio materials , radio tutoring , course
editing , counseling , administration , clerical work , co-ordination with field officers /
cooperating teachers / part timers , registration , correspondence , keeping records and
managing studios and laboratories .

9.8 Problems / Constraints Facing Distance Education

Most of the problems are experienced by students, the most important of which are
discussed hereunder . The first problem faced by distance education students is that of
isolation (TonnyDodds p. 10) . Contact with other students and staff is an important
aspect of learning and the external mode limits such contact . If understanding needs to
be constructed , it is difficult for many students to do so in isolation or in the absence of
guidance . In many existing distance education systems , individual student contact with
other students is essentially non-existent .This is not recommended as frequent contacts
allow students to make errors in the presence of their friends and errors are less
pronounced when made among friends , and in such a case students are allowed to
develop the valuable skill of self correction . Distance education therefore needs to set up
circumstances in which students develop self-direction through a process of mediated
interaction .
The second problem indirectly experienced by students is that distance education
encourages rote learning .Though the principal mode of instruction is print , it is
increasingly impossible to provide students with enough reading materials . As a result
of this and other cost related problems the lecturers tend to give handouts or dictate notes

The third problem facing distance education students is the fact that most of them would have
been outside formal education for long
The fourth problem facing distance education is due to the flexibility that is in built in
most of the programs .The flexibility provided by the distance education mode often
becomes a negative factor and leads to non-completion of courses . A general
characteristic of distance education programs is that of dropping out .There is a higher
tendency to drop out at the start of the course and this may be due to a number of
variables such as family or work pressures , lack of strong study motivation or incapacity
to work independently and in some cases lack of prerequisite knowledge and skills.
Other problems are normally faced by institutions running distance education programs ,
and these include firstly lack of capital investment necessary to establish a widely
distributed network of broadband carriers. Most of the institutions start distance
education programs because they lack basic facilities to absorb all the interested
applicants . This lack of funds and by implication facilities ripples over and affects the
quality of the distance education program. The institution will most likely be unable to
stock its existing library / resource centre with the required materials . It will further be
unable to establish , man and equip regional centres to the satisfaction of the students .
Another area that will suffer as a result of these shortcomings will be the planned visits
to the centres , which will in turn reduce the level of interaction considerably . Lack of
capital investment will in fact lower the quality of the education .
The second problem facing institutions is lack of a cost structure favorable to the
purchase of necessary hardware both by institutions and by students. For an institution to
run a distance education program there is need to purchase modern equipment to prepare
the course materials as well as to equip the libraries , workshops and laboratories . The
students need to have the financial capacity to finance their studies . In developing
countries the students mostly rely on their meager earnings to pay the fees , and as a
result are unable to purchase the necessary reading and learning materials .

The third problem facing institutions running distance education is due to lack of a
favorable telecommunication tariff structure. One of the ways through which students
can reduce the effect of physical isolation is by interacting with their tutors through the
telephone , fax or lately the e-mail . These channels unfortunately are out of reach for
almost all the distance education students . They cannot afford to interact with the tutors
to get assistance on assignments and projects . They are also unable because of
prohibitive costs to access materials from the latest journals and periodicals on the
internet . This poses a challenge to provide an education that achieve parity with
conventional provision in quality , quantity and status ( MacDonald 1990 : 103)
The fourth constraint faced by institutions running distance education is unavailability of
courseware. As mentioned earlier cost constraints hinder the institution from supplying
learners with sufficient learning materials . In some cases it is even impossible to supply
course outlines and learners photocopy them at their own cost . It can even lead to failure to
use multi media approach due to unavailability of a wide range of resources such as
computers , radio , television , video materials etc .
The last constraint faced by institutions is lack of staff development programs for
academic staff and support staff . In most cases the institution does not employ new staff
but utilizes existing staff to run the distance education program .Smith and Sheath ( in
Keegan 1991: 98) recommends that distance education should be part of the
conventional system and be undertaken by the same full time academic staff . This
further ensures similarity in quality of the work covered between conventional and
distance education students . This may overload the staff and in the long run low the
quality of education for both groups of students .

Discuss problems a distance education student in Kenya faces today . Give suggestions on
how they could be overcome .
9.9 Methods Of Teaching At A Distance

Most distance education systems employ several methods of teaching. As mentioned

early it is prudent for an institution teaching students at a distance to employ the multi
media approach.
The most prominent method used in all distance education systems is through printed
materials . The materials are normally in the form of study guides, work sheets and notes .
The materials are specially prepared to be used by the student on his / her own . They
present the content in convenient doses punctuated with regular exercises.

The second method is through the use of radio broadcasts and audiocassette recordings .
These are also prepared in such a manner that the student can independently listen at
home . The recordings are made to support the printed materials . The recordings ensure
that the presentation is conversational .

The third method of teaching and which should be in built into the system is through the
use of occasional face to face teaching during residential session and field visits . During
the visits the students get the opportunity to interact with the authors of the printed
materials .
There are obviously other media that can be used in distance education. Rumble and
Keegan (1982) tabulated 13 kinds of media used in distance education. These include
print, study centers, face-to-face tuition, telephone tuition, computer assisted instruction,
access to computer terminals, access to laboratories at study centers, home experiment
kits, residential schools, television, videotapes, radio and audio-cassettes.

Discuss the main methods of teaching employed in a distance education program you are
conversant with .Explain how these methods could be improved for effective delivery of
content.

9.10 FURTHER READINGS

1. Smith Peter (1987). Distance education and the mainstream. Croom Helm. New
York.
2. Mitton Roger (2000). Practical research in Distance Teaching: A handbook for
developing countries.
3. Henning , Elizabeth (Ed.).1998 Education as change . SA
Scientific Publications. South Africa
4. Keegan Desmond . (1986) . Foundations of Distance Education . Routledge .
London
LESSON TEN: MANAGEMENT OF LEARNING RESOURCES

10.0 Introduction

Management of learning resources is a topic which cuts across many disciplines - key
among them being the Human Resource management. Considering that schools deal
with human capital, it is imperative that the lesson incorporates skills of managing
people in as much as people as resources are the key change agents in any curriculum
implementation. What people do and how they do it with respect to acquisition, design
and utilization of resources is ultimately more crucial than the resources themselves.

Other aspects covered in this lesson are resource procurement procedures and the criteria
for allocating funds within a school. The Learning Resource Centre concept is discussed so
as to emphasize the fact that a resource-based learning is more than the building. It is an
idea built up in the mind. That idea implies that any material used in the
implementation of a given curriculum is a learning resources. Hence, we talk of both
human and non-human resources.

Use of resources in teaching and learning is of course not new. The traditional African
mode of education utilized men, tools and materials to impart knowledge and skills to their
children. What is perhaps new is the complexity of learning modes into which learning
resources are being fitted. This lesson brings together in a concise form the essential
skills a student requires such as selection, storage, dissemination and retrieval of information
on resources’ collection.

Management of learning resources in Kenyan schools poses significant financial,

administrative and perceptual problems for the teachers and students alike. For that
reason alone, the lesson presents in a summary way, some skills for budget preparation and
the management of both internal and external publics. Some research findings why teachers
in our schools resist the use of resources are highlighted and solutions offered for
overcoming that resistance.
10.1 Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
• Define the term ‘management’.
• Define the term ‘Learning Resource Centre’.
• List and describe the methods through which the traditional African mode
of education utilized resources to instruct.
• Describe the development and objectives of Learning Resource Centres in
Kenya.
• Analyse the reasons why a majority of teachers in Kenya resist the use of
resources while teaching.
• Discuss the skills a director or manager of a Learning Resource Centre
needs in order to manage both Internal and External Publics of his or her
school.
 • Understand the manager’s responsibilities in changing teachers’ attitudes
towards the use of resources.

10.2: Meaning of the Term Management

Szilagyi (l981:6) defines the term management as the process of integrating
resources and tasks towards the achievement of set objectives and goals of the
organization. Plunkett and Attner (l983:5) define management as the process of
setting and achieving goals through the execution of five basic management
functions that utilize human, financial, and material resources.

In view of the foregoing, this lesson is concerned with the management from the
point of view of equipment, tasks and goals of a school or college. But perhaps
more importantly for this lesson, the management of learning resources involves a
systematic and organized way of doing things in order to bring about Return On
Investment (ROI) through proper utilization of those resources.

10.3 Resource-Based Learning

Resource-based learning is the response to the need to individualize instruction.
Veatch (l970) has clarified the meaning of individualization of instruction as
follows:
Individualization is a way to think about managing the
classroom. It is not a method of instruction. It is a way a
teacher arranges (students), equipment and materials so that
each can eagerly be at the peak of his potential, without undue
stress or strain.

In brief, one can say that resource-based learning is learning that depends on a
variety of resources, how we manage those resources and the classroom which by
extension means students.
10.4 Learning Resource Centre Defined
According to Beswick (l972:10) a Learning Resource Centre (LRC) is a place for
stimulating the active creation and use of resources’ collection, including the
following six functions.

a) Production of home made resources.

b) Selection and acquisition of other resources.
c) Classification and indexing for easier retrieval (cataloguing).
d) Storage
e) Use including guidance and lending out.
f) Evaluation and weeding out, that is, evaluation and disposal of unserviceable
resources.

10.5 Constraints Preventing Proper Management of Resources.

In most Kenyan schools, the above functions are not easily attained because of the
following constraints:
a) Limited funds that are compounded by higher prices.
b) Unavailability of some materials in the local market such as spare parts.
c) Storage problems which lead to poor security.
d) Lack of forward planning.
e) Poor inventory management for instance, lack of a maintenance culture in
our public institutions.
f) Lack of support from school heads and administrators.
g) Unethical practices such as misuse of institutional and government
resources.
h) Lack of sound procurement and resource management policies (neglect of
resources).

Activity 9.A

• Define the term management.

• Define the term resource-based learning and explain how it relates to
individualization of instruction.
• Visit a Learning Resource Centre (LRC) or a Teachers’ Advisory Centre
(TAC) near you, familiarize yourself with the activities, facilities and
resources available there so as to be able to answer the following questions:
i) What are the objectives of the centre you visited?
ii) To what extent does the LRC/TAC you visited meet the needs of
its target audience?
iii) How are the resources procured, utilized and maintained?
iv) Is the centre you visited an LRC/TAC because it is called so or
because it functions as one?

10.6 The Learning Resource Centre Concept.

Although the Learning Resource Centre is a western countries’ idea, the concept
of teaching using resources is as African as any other. Indeed, the tradition
 African mode of education was more resource-based than the pen-paper-
blackboard type of education that was introduced to us by the Missionaries.

Traditional African mode of education utilized the following methods and

instructional resources to teach:

a) Learning through play and other youthful activities such as:

• Games
• Role playing (simulations) and
• Making models.
b) Learning through productive work
• The apprenticeship system (attachment to a blacksmith in order to learn
how to make spears, knives, bows and arrows etc).
• Attachment to a sculptor in order to learn how to make three-dimension
artifacts, pottery etc.
c) Oral literature (expository method).
• Fireside stories depicting myths, legends, fables, proverbs and folk tales.
d) Folk songs and dance
• Used as outlets for creative talents
• Used as media for transmission of messages of good citizenship.
• Used as media for commendation and honour of heroes and role models.
• Used as media for reinforcing memory of historical events.
e) Organized formal classes
• African children (adolescents) were taught in secluded areas the secrets
of the community as well as lessons on good morals. Every elder was a
potential teacher (resource person) on such matters as family life, sex
education and adulthood.

10.7 The Development of Learning Resource Centres in Kenya.

The Learning Resource Centre is a concept that was introduced in Kenya in the mid
seventies as a way of improving the education system. The World Bank Project
Appraisal document summarizes the aims of the project as to:

Promote not only a general qualitative improvement but more

significantly a reorientation of basic education from its traditional role of
preparing the few best pupils for entry to secondary schools, to one of
providing a well balanced education for pupils of varying ability to
develop their talents for diverse employment opportunities especially
those in rural areas (World Bank Project Appraisal l975:19).
In the early l970’s and because of the ‘Harambee’ spirit, primary schools’
enrolment was rising unproportionally to the number of teachers. It even rose
more sharply after the Presidential Decree of December, l973 for free primary
education from Standard I to IV. Following that decree, enrolment increased
specifically from 1.8 million children in l973 to 2.8 million in l974 (World Bank
Report l975:5).

In order to meet this expansion, the Kenya government recruited many untrained
teachers to help cope with the numbers. But the large numbers also lowered the
 standards of basic education in the country. As a way of helping to improve the
standards and effectiveness of teaching, the Kenya Government approached the
World Bank for partial funding for a program to help improve the standards of the
many untrained teachers. The proposal for the Learning Resource Centreswas
therefore written and accepted by the World Bank.
10.8 Objectives of the Kenyan LRC Project.
a) Expansion of Kenya Institute of Education (K.I.E.)
b) Establishment of the Schools’ Broadcasting Service - later named
Educational Media Services (EMS).
c) Establishment of Teachers’ Advisory Centres (TACs).
d) Constructing and equipping of Learning Resource Centres in
Primary Teachers’ Training Colleges.

10.9 Problems Encountered

The establishment of Learning Resource Centres in Kenya’s Primary Teachers’
Training Colleges was a long-range technology plan. It was also a noble idea.
However, before such an undertaking begins, the planners should recognize the
necessity of the following activities.

• Teacher involvement in all aspects of learning resources is

essential.
• Existing curriculum needs to be realigned to include a resource-
based learning in schools.
• Staff development and curriculum applications need to be
incorporated in the plan and undertaken.
• Resource procurement procedures and per year student resource
allocation budgets need to be established.
• Students’ and teachers’ access to technology and resources need
to be planned for.
• A time frame for implementation needs to be set and closely
monitored.

While some of the above activities were addressed in the Kenyan Learning
Resource Centre (LRC) project, funding became a major barrier to resource
integration in Kenyan schools. The high cost of the resources, required Teacher
Training Colleges where the LRCs were initially built, to explore different and
broader funding avenues such as business partnerships, donor collaborations,
resources-sharing and other joint efforts.

Such partnerships and collaborations were never adequately done. As a result, the
following problems were encountered:

a) Delays. The LRC project was finished in l984 instead of the anticipated date
of 1981.
b) Cost overuns as a result of the delays.
 c) Out of the 22 college tutors who finished a staff development course at
Kenyatta University, a majority never joined any Learning Resource Centre
because the LRCs at the Primary Teacher Training Colleges had not been
completed when the course ended in 1981.
d) Misunderstanding created by the existence of the ministries of education
namely;
- Ministry for Basic Education and
- Ministry for Higher Education
The consequences of having two ministries of education resulted in:
• Lack of an integrated approach in policy implementation;
• Tertiary institutions where the Learning Resource Centres were built were
under the Ministry for Higher Education. However, the LRCs and the
Teachers’ Advisory Centres (TACs) were managed by tutors who were
employees of the Ministry of Basic Education. This caused some confusion
as to who was answerable to who.

Activity 9.B

• Imagine for a moment that you are the person in charge of

curriculum implementation in the Ministry of Education Science
and Technology, analyse the activities you would want to see
undertaken to ensure that quality education is maintained or
improved through the implementation of a resource-based
teaching and learning.
• Point out two leadership problems associated with the use and
management of learning resources in a school of your choice
and discuss strategies the head of that school could use to
alleviate those problems.

10.10 Management of Human Resources

The establishment of LRCs in any school is a costly venture and more so
because of the capital outlays needed to renovate existing buildings, put up new
ones and purchase necessary equipment and materials. The problem is
compounded by the fact that Kenyan public schools lack the capital to undertake
major projects. Most of their money come from donations, school levies, fees or is
raised through ‘Harambees.’

Raising money through ‘Harambees’ or self-help initiatives calls for skills in

human resource management. A director or manager of a schools’ resources
must be able to persuade friends of the school to contribute funds for buying
teaching and learning resources. This LESSON then books at human resource
liaison as a core function in the management of resources in a school. It is an
effort of seeking assistance from the public and other stakeholders in order to
make learning more meaningful and efficacious. The LESSON also views the
 LRC as the hub of a resource-based learning where people are seen as means to
that end.

Managing people depends on one’s ability to coordinate, network and

communicate. .

The key people we are talking about here fall into two categories. These are the
Internal and External publics. With accurate and timely information, a manager or
director of a schools’ Learning Resource Centre is able to solicit for support and
acquire additional funds for the purchase of new equipment and resources through
confidence building and accountability to those people.

10.10.1 Managing the Internal Publics

Internal Publics are people working within a school on a regular basis such as:
- Teachers
- Students
- Administrators and
- Support or auxiliary staff.

Because of the importance of their role in a school, a manager of learning

resources is expected to liaise with each and every one of them to ensure that
there is effective utilization and proper management of resources. Teachers in
particular are key determinants to the use or failure to use resources. Research
findings on the use of resources have indeed shown that a majority of teachers in our
schools resist the use of resources for the following reasons:

a) Fear and uncertainty

• Whenever we are unsure, we often feel a desire to play safe.
b) Ignorance or lack of information on the new technologies and resources.
• The tendency then is to ensure that we do not reveal that ignorance by
experimenting with those resources.
c) Resistance due to erroneous logic caused by derogation of evidence.
• Whenever we are faced with a situation of self-doubt, the tendency is to
deride the evidence by causing or convincing ourselves that someone
else’s ideas are inferior to ours.
d) Resistance due to a feeling of fulfillment.
• This is sometimes caused by complacency.
• In this case, we try to justify our resistance by citing our past and
impeccable records such as school results in national examinations in the
subjects we teach.
e) Rejection though interpersonal or peer pressure.
• If colleagues are not using resources, so the argument goes, I do not want to be the
‘odd-man-out.’
f) Rejection because of the attitudes we hold towards the change agent-or
the person advocating the change.
 • Sometimes we reject ideas not because they are bad, but because we do
not like the person selling them to us.

Activity

• Explain how the traditional African mode of educating the young

was more resource-based than the blackboard-pen-textbook method
brought by the missionaries.
• Critically evaluate the opinion that unlike in developed countries,
African countries are faced with common problems in education
when it comes to resource-based learning.
• In light of your experience, evaluate the relevance as far as your
school or college is concerned of the reasons why teachers resist the
use of resources while teaching.

10.10.2 Planning Ahead

Because anti-use of resources’ sentiments are usually encountered during the
development and implementation phases of any resource-based learning
program, it is suggested that a representative of those who are reluctant or
even negative about use of technology and resources in teaching be included
at the planning stage.

The management of resources entails advance planning as the basis for doing.
Different managers however plan for the purposes of:

• Making something happen;

• Preventing something from happening;
• Exploiting a situation;
• Remedying a situation.
Good managers of resources are those who are often engaged in:

• Making something happen rather than preventing something from

happening.
• Taking advantage of a situation rather than remedying it.

10.10.3 Manager’s Responsibilities in Managing the Internal Publics.

When dealing with teachers in particular, leadership should be the focus as
opposed to management.
 the eventual success of human resource management. For a manager or school
head to exercise prudent management, he or she needs to do the following:

a) Understand first, the reasons behind teachers’ resistance to the use of

resources. - seek teachers’ opinions through interviews and questionnaires. b)
Organize educational or awareness campaigns about the value of the use of
resources.
c) Involve teachers in consensus decision-making regarding:
- Planning
- Choice of resources
- Purchasing
- Utilization of media and resources.
d) Disseminate information about the resources available through:
- An up-to-date catalogue
- School newsletter
- Brochures
- Bulletin boards etc.
e) Draw a media utilization guide for each equipment in the school’s Learning
Resource Centre.
f) Show by example by inviting colleagues to your classes where you are using
resources.
g) Encourage teachers to allow their students to have practical sessions where
the latter will have a ‘hands-on’ practice with media and resources.

Activity

• Design a simple questionnaire on the teachers’ use of learning

resources and administer it to five of your colleagues.
• How do your findings compare with what we have presented as
reasons why teachers resist the use of resources?
• Compare your findings with those of your college-mate in this
course who teach in a different school. How do they tally?
10.11 Managing the External Publics

External Publics are all the stakeholders outside the school who have an interest
in the affairs of the school but do not necessarily work there. They include:

- Parents
- Politicians
- Donors
- Government administrators
- Members of the Parents Teachers’ Association (PTA).
- Members of the Board of Governors (BOG).
- Community members or friends of the school.

Since External Publics do not work in the school and are scattered in various
places, the key to dealing with them is networking. Networking means
establishing a communication network and developing goodwill through:
- Fair dealings
- Transparency and accountability
- Maintaining good record of accounts.
- Prompt and courteous attention to all inquiries from interested parties.
Once well treated, External Publics become emissaries of change in the
school.

10.12 Budgeting for Resources

The final step in the management of resources is the conversion of the
management techniques discussed here to budgets. Through budgeting, heads of
schools and directors of Learning Resource Centres ensure that they have the
right combination of resources to carry out the plans for a resource-based
teaching and learning. In return, that will enable them to fulfil the goals of the
school. Budgeting can therefore be described as the allocation of financial and
human resources necessary to achieve the school’s stated objectives. This is
because we normally conceptualize a Learning Resource Centre in terms of:
- Resources
- Equipment
- Facilities
- People
All the above require money to purchase and maintain.

Cost determination is therefore an important component in the management of

resources. It is also important because there will never be a time when our
public schools will have the right amount or all the money they need to
implement a fully resource-based learning into their classrooms. Resource
improvization and prudent planning are thus important.
Budgeting for resources is rarely a one person’s job. Some basic things a
manager needs to do therefore are:
 • Ask section or departmental heads to submit an itemized estimate of the
resources and the quantity they would need;
- An LRC director simply blends all estimates together.
• State your monetary needs clearly.
- No employer will give you a blank cheque to spend on resources as you
wish.
• Support your request for funds with documentary evidence such as:
- Written proposals;
- Genuine cost estimates;
• Know the cost of various items in your Learning Resource Centre.
- This will protect you against price-fixing.
• Understand that the most expensive resource is not necessarily the best.
- Cost is but one way of determining value and that,
- The ultimate value is rarely reflected in the price alone.

10.12.1 Steps in Cost-determination Process.

a) Request for quotations every now and then from different manufacturers
an dealers.
b) Make a complete survey of your resources to determine their present
worth.
c) Ascertain need for new equipment and resources based on demand.
- How often for instance is an item requested for use by clients?
d) Establish operational levels of equipment and resources based on:
- The number of staff and facilities.
- Student enrolment;
- Future projections for staff and facilities;
- Future projections for student population.
e) Whenever you plan to make new purchases, allocate funds according to
need as follows:
- On a per student basis;
- On a per class level basis;
- On a per subject basis;
- In light of special needs.
f) When purchasing media resources, consider their durability,
compatibility, and the availability of spare parts.
g) Always have a reserve fund for emergency purposes. A petty cash fund
will enable the director to purchase small items and pay for minor
repairs.
h) Always evaluate media resources to determine their efficacy in meeting
your objectives.
i) Tabulate data and project costs based on:
- Purchase of materials and equipment;
- Rental costs for materials and equipment;
- Cost and frequency of servicing and repairs,
- Longevity (durability) of equipment.
10.12.2 Budget Preparation
a) Padding the Budget
Padding the budget is the tendency to lengthen or expand the budget with
unnecessary materials such as itemizing for items that are standard and
which are already included in the price of the main item.

Disadvantages:
• Such items are fraudulent in nature;
• Auditors may find out in the long run;
• It is also a sign of poor financial management because you are
creating ground for others to exploit when they want to destroy your
credibility.
b) Hidding the cost
Hidding the cost is the tendency to inflate the cost of materials in
anticipation of getting less money than one requested for. For example, it may
be accomplished by arranging with the supplier to give you two or three
separate but fake quotations in anticipation that the lowest quotation though
doctored, will be picked.

Disadvantage:
• Hidding the cost is risky because people will not be fooled for long.
c) Switching funds
This is a situation where a director utilizes funds from one vote head to
purchase items under a different vote head. It is making up for shortfalls
through utilization of the available funds.

As long as the appropriation in any given fund is not exceeded, the

Learning Resource Centre Director can switch funds from the original
purpose to another rather than returning the money to the donor.

Advantages
• Switching funds provides flexibility in purchasing;
• It also allows the Director to utilize all the funds originally allocated
instead of returning it to the donor.

10.13 Budgetary Controls

In private companies, the ultimate output that most of them desire is profit. In
schools and colleges, the ultimate goal is the acquisition of knowledge, skills and
attitudes by pupils and students. The quality and quantity of education
provided is often seen as means to this end. As part of the planning process,
heads of schools and principals allocate financial resources to different
departments in order to assist them attain their stated objectives.

Financial statements provide valuable information about whether a school,

college, or department is using its allocated finances effectively. Good
budgetary controls offer a way of ensuring that the school, college or
department is performing well financially
 As a rule of thumb, a director or principal must establish a system of double
checking all entries through bank reconciliation. He or she must learn to
scrutinize against mistakes in payments and promptly bringing to the attention
of the authorities monies paid out wrongly. Good budgetary controls can be
achieved by ensuring that expenditure is within what was iitially planned for.
Quite often, we see schools and colleges asking for additional budgetary
allocations in the middle of the financial year simply because they did not
control their expenditure. This can be avoided by regular checking of books of
accounts.

10.14 Budget Administration

In the preceding paragraph, we emphasized the importance of budgetary
control. You may now be wondering as to what is to be controlled if there is no
budget. There are two budgeting approaches an LRC director can adopt,
namely:

a) Variable Budgeting
Variable budgeting recognizes that:
• Certain costs are related to output. We call these variable costs. An
example here would be the cost of materials.
• Other costs are unrelated to output. We call these fixed costs for
example, labour costs in situations of fixed salaries.

Variable budgeting requires adjustments in all areas depending on output and

circumstances.
b) Moving Budgeting
Moving budgeting involves preparing a budget for a fixed period such as one
year, with periodic up-dating and adjustments at fixed intervals like three or
six months.
• Moving budgeting is an on-going process,
• It allows managers to learn through experience and adjust figures
accordingly.
Whichever approach a director of principal chooses, it is always advisable to as
much as possible adhere to an agreed upon budget.

Activity

• Discuss the management style in your school as far as dealing with

both Internal and External Publics are concerned.
• Examine the differences or similarities between the steps in budget
preparation and controls discussed in this LESSON and those
practiced in your school or college.
• How prepared for windfalls is the person in change of the LRC/TAC
you visited earlier?
 10.15 Summary
This LESSON opens with definitions of the terms ‘management’, ‘resourcebased
learning’ and Learning Resource Centre.’ It goes ahead and delineates the LRC
by clarifying that the LRC concept is not exemplified by a building rather, it is a
state of mind. The LESSON further makes an argument that although the
LRC as an edifice was a western countries’ idea, traditional African mode of
educating the young was more resource-based than the one introduced by the
Missionaries.

We have traced the background of LRC project in Kenya, the reasons,

objectives and the problems encountered. We have said that LRCs are the hub of a
resource-based program and the public (people) the linchpin around which proper
management and utilization of resources should revolve. This means that the
director’s or head of school’s leadership skills should be the focus as opposed to
his/her managerial skills.

The LESSON concludes with suggestions for budgeting for resources,

budgetary controls and administration.

10.16 REFERENCES

Szilagyi, A.D. Jr (l981). Management and Performance. Glenview. Scott, Foresman

and Company.
Plunkett, W.R. and Attner, R.F. (l983). Introduction to Management. Boston,
Massachusetts. Kent Publishing Co.
Gannon, M.J. (l982). Management: An Integrated Framework. (Second
Edition). Boston. Toronto. Little, Brown and Company.

ASSIGNMENT 1

Discuss the role of instructional media in teaching and learning

ASSIGNMENT TWO

Explain reasons why broadcasting is no longer popular in teaching and learning today