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594 THE JOURNAL OF T H E AMERICAN 0iL CHFMISTS' SOCIETY VOL.

33

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p. 111, S t a n f o r d University Press, Stanford, C~lif. ( 1 9 5 3 ) .
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(1953). stitute," p. 163, S t a n f o r d University Press, Stanford, Calif. (:1953).
2. Bras, G. H . P., Pet. Refiner 35, (3) 191 ( 1 9 5 6 ) . 25. Lee, D. C., Dorsey, J. W., Moore, G. Z., a n d Mayfield, F. D.,
3. Brooke, M., Pet, Refiner, 35, (3) 183 ( 1 9 5 6 ) . Chem. E n g r . Progress, 5~, 160 ( 1 9 5 6 ) .
4. B r o w n , G. G , a n d co-authors, '"Unit Operations," J o h n Wiley 26. Lemlich, R., Ind. Eng. Chem., 47, 1175 ( 1 9 5 5 ) .
a n d Sons Inc., New York ( 1 9 5 0 ) . 27. Leva, M , a n d Grummer, M., Chem. E n g . Progress, 48, 307
5. Cichelli, M. T., a n d Boucher, D. F., Chem. E n g r . Progress, 52, (1952).
213 ( 1 9 5 6 ) . 28. Lynch, E. P., " H e a t T r a n s f e r - - A t l a n t i c City," Chem. E n g r .
6. Clarke, L., ,~n4 Wir, ston, R. E., Chem. E n g r . Progress, 51, 147 Progress, Symposium Series, 49, no. 5, 12]. ( 1 9 5 3 ) .
(1955). 29. Marshall, W. R. Jr., "Atomization a n d S p r a y D r y i n g , " Chem.
7. Coidiron, D. C., Albright, L. F., a n d Alexander, L. G., p a p e r at E n g r . Progress, M o n o g r a p h Series, 50, no. 2 ( 1 9 5 4 ) .
Amer. Chem. Soc. Meeting, Dallas ( 1 9 5 6 ) . 30. McAdams, r e . tI., " H e a t Transmission," 3rd e d , McGraw-Hill
8. (Joppage, J. E., a n d London,, A. L., Chem. E n g r . Progress, 52; Book Company, New York ( 1 9 5 4 ) .
57-F ( 1 9 5 6 ) . 31. McCarthy, L. J., Chem. E n g r . P r o g r e s s 52, 97-M ( 1 9 5 6 ) .
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(1.955); 34, (11) 175 ( 1 9 5 5 ) ; a n d 35, (1) 155 ( 1 9 5 6 ) . 374 ( 1 9 5 5 ) .
10. Eckert, E. R. G , Ind. Eng. Chem., 46, 932 ( 1 9 5 4 ) . 33. Miller, P., Byrnes, J. J., a n d Benforado, D. M., A. I. C h . E .
11. Eckert, E. R. G., H a r t n e t t , J. P., a n d Isbin, H. S., Ind. Eng. J o u r n a l , I , 501 ( 1 9 5 5 ) .
Chem., 47, 647 ( 1 9 5 5 ) . 34. P e r r y , J. H, (editor), "Chemical E n g i n e e r s ' H a n d b o o k , " 3rd
12. Eckert, E. R. G., H a r t n e t t , J. P., Isbin, H. S., a n d Schneider, ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York ( 1 9 5 0 ) .
P. ft., I n d . E n g . Chore., 48, 655 ( 1 9 5 6 ) . 35. Plautz, D. A., a n d Jobl]s~one, H . F., A. I. Ch. E. J o u r n a l , 1,
13. Forbes, ~[. C., Pet. Refiner, 35, (4) 185 ( 1 9 5 6 ) . 193 ( 1 9 5 5 ) .
14. G a r w i n , L., a n d Smith, B. D., Chem. E n g r . Progr., 49, 591 36. Rohsenow, W. M., "1953 H e a t T r a n s f e r a n d Fluid ~ e c h a n i e s
(1953). Institute," p. 123, S t a n f o r d University Press, Stanford, Calif. ( 1 9 5 3 ) .
15. Gutswiller, G. E,, Pet. Refiner, 35 (3), 189 ( 1 9 5 6 ) . 37. Satterfield, C. N., Reeniek, H., a n d Wentworth, R. L., Chem.
16. H a n r a t t y , T. J., A. I. Ch. E. J o u r n a l , 2, 42 ( 1 9 5 6 ) . E n g r . Progress, 50, 460 a n d 504 ( 1 9 5 4 ) .
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City," Chem. E n g r . Progress, Symposium Series, 49, no. 5, 77 ( 1 9 5 3 ) . City," Chem. E n g r . Progress, Symposium Series, 49, no. 5, 77 ( 1 9 5 3 ) .
18. Hobson, M., a n d Weber, J. ]Ft., Ind. Eng. Chem., 46, 2290 39. Stack, T. G., a n d Frieden, J. E., Chron. E n g r . Progress, 48,
(1954). 409 ( 1 9 5 2 ) .
19. Hoffman, ~[. W., " 1 9 5 3 H e a t T r a n s f e r a n d Fluid Mechanics 40. Toomey, R. D., a n d Johnst.one, J. F., " H e a t T r a n s f e r - - A t l a n t i c
I n s t i t u t e , " p. 83, S t a n f o r d University Press, Stanford, Calif. ( 1 9 5 3 ) . City," Chem. E n g r . Progress, Symposium Series, 49, no. 5, 51 ( 1 9 5 3 ) .
20. H o a g e n , O. A., a n d ~Vat~uon, K. h~., "Chemical Process Prin- 41. ~Veatherby, J. J., Pet. Refiner, 35, (4) 175 ( 1 9 5 6 ) .
ciples," Par~. I I I , pp, 1031--1046 ( 1 9 4 7 ) . 42. V~Test, F. ]3., a n d Taylor, A T , Chem E n g r . Progress, 48, 39
21. Ingebo, R. D., Chem. E n g r . Progress, 48, 403 ( 1 9 5 2 ) . (1952).
22. Jakob, M., " H e a t T r a n s f e r , " Jolm Wiley and Sons Inc., New 43. WhiteselI, J. M., a n d D u r a n d o , A., Pet. Refiner, 35, (3) 186
York ( 1 9 4 9 ) . (1956).

Pumps and Compressors


LYLE F. ALBRIGHT, Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana
~ MOST :OIL PR0C~SSI~G and chemical plants, prog- In scaling up the pump size, the pump characteristics
i ress would stop almost completely if it were not
for pumps and compressors which maintain fluid
often change. Hutton (23) reports however that
model tests are satisfactory for determining the effi-
flow through the equipment. The number and types eieneies of some large-scale pumps and turbines. The
of pumps used are ahnost endless, and recent devel- pump manufacturers are attempting to improve their
opments in pumping are numerous. W i t h i n the last product and service (41). Standardization of pump
few years many studies have been made in the nu- designs will be expensive to the manufacturer, but
clear and aeronautical fields to develop pumping de- the trend appears to be in that direction.
vices for liquids at high temperatures, such as molten A brief survey was made of the various types of
metals and salts, and for air at fairly low pressures pumps and compressors that are of particular inter-
(63, 64, 65). I a most cases those studies will not be est in the oil processing industry. New developments
of immediate value to the oil processing industry al- are also outlined.
though they do give a better understanding of pump
theory and operation. Pumps for Liquids
A concentrated effort is now being made to stand- Reciprocating Pumps. Reciprocating pumps are
ardize pumping equipment in the chemical industry. one type of "positive displacement" pumps (7, 47).
The subcommittee on pumps for the American Insti- The basic design consists of a piston, plunger, or
tute of Chemical Engineers (68) prepared and circu- bucket that passes back and forth in a cylinder and
lated a questionnaire to pump users. Most of the displaces the fluid in the cylinder. Reciprocating
users were satisfied with the pump performances pumps have been designed that are satisfactory for
based on water, but a majority thought there was a viscous liquids, but in general they are not. A power-
need for more data for viscous fluids. Although most driven reciprocating pump gives uniform fluid de-
users indicated the present pumps were in general livery over wide ranges of pressures. A steam-driven
satisfactory, they voiced a need for specific improve- pump has high efficieneies over a wide range of oper-
ments. It is estimated (5) that pump standardization ating conditions and has flexibility of capacity, head,
will save the chemical industry $6,800,000 a year. and speed. Disadvantages of reciprocating pumps in-
Undoubtedly some of the dissatisfaction with the clude high first cost, large floor requirement, noisy
present pumps results from incorrect and inadequate operation, and relatively high maintenance costs.
pump selections. The correct choice of a p u m p for a
particular problem is far from easy since m a n y vari- Within the last few years numerous pilot plants
ables must be considered (27). A complete list of have been built and used for exploratory studies of
process specifications should be prepared and should reaction rates and mechanisms at high pressures.
include fluid characteristics, inlet and outlet pres- Pumping has proven to be one Of the bottlenecks in
sures, flexibility of operations desired, etc. (36). The these plants. Sheen and Fell (53) describe a recipro-
scaling up of pump sizes remains a problem. Mitchell eating pump that will deliver 3-3,000 ml./hr, of fluid
(39) indicates that a type of p u m p satisfactory in at 0-1,000 p.s.i. Jones (29) describes a pump to oh-
the pilot plant is not always so in the full-size plant. tain fluid pressures of 10,000-30,000 p.s.i. The vol-
Nov. 1956 ALBRIGHT: PUMPS ANt) COMPRESSORS 595

ume of the fluid delivered can be varied by changing Stufling box leakage is a persistent problem in op-
the piston displacement. It appears that design mod- erating centrifugal pumps. Sniffen (56) describes the
ifications will allow the pump to be used to even selection and installation of pump seals. Factors to
higher pressures. Hiteshue and Clark (21) have de- be considered include the fluid, temperature, pres-
veloped a pump for pumping liquids or slurries to sure, and stuffing-box design. Certain synthetic rub-
2,000-10,000 p.s.i. When coal-oil slurries were used, bers and flu0rocarbSh compounds are finding wide-
the packing of the pump had to be replaced about spread use as seal materials. Methods of minimizing
every 500-2,000 hrs. packing failures are reported by Coopey (11) and
Rotary Pumps. Rotary pumps are those pumps Norton (46). In most eases the trouble results from
which combine a rotary movement of the working incorrect packing installment or improper design of
parts with positive displacement (7, 47). Pumps in the packing gland. Walmslcy and Ward (62) discuss
this category include gear, lobe, vane, and screw the use of double mechanical seals. These seals are
pmnps. They are capable of developing high heads frequently useful where conventional seals are un-
and relatively constant flows. These pumps are un- satisfatcory, and ahnost anything can be sealed by
satisfactory for slurries because of the close toler- this arrangement. A second liquid is used in the
ance of the pmnps, but they are used for viscous space between the seals at a pressure generally
liquids including oils and fats. slightly above that of the fluid inside the pump. The
Centrifugal Pumps. Centrifugal pmnps are widely second fluid provides lubrication. Auxiliary pumps,
used in the chemical and oil processing industries lines, etc., must be provided to circulate the second
(7,47). Their primary advantages are simplicity, liquid, and they, of course, increase the "cost. In cer-
low first costs, uniform (non-pulsating) flow, small tain eases double mechanical seals are justified
floor space, low maintenance expenses, quiet opera- though. The design and development of a sealless
tion, and adaptability to a motor or turbine drive. pump is reported by Litzenberg and White (34). The
Their pumping rates and efficiencies however vary pump is essentially built within the motor. The
significantly with the head developed. The head de- pump impeller is directly attached to the rotor of the
veloped by a simple centrifugal pump is generally motor. Both the rotor and the impeller rotate in the
quite low compared to that which a reciprocating fluid being pumped. Design characteristics of pumps
pump can develop. Liquids of all viscosities, gases, manufactured by the Chempump Corporation are re-
and even slurries can be pumped, but the pump de- ported. These pumps should prove of importance in
sign varies with the fluid being handled. The pump those operations in which stuffing box leakage has
consists essentially of a rotating impeller. The fluid been a problem.
enters at the axis and is discharged through a radial Pumps for Iiigh-Temperature Fluids. S e v e r a l
port. types of pumps have been developed within the last
Mann (37) compares the horizontal and vertical few years for pumping fluids at high temperatures,
type of pumps. The advantages of a vertical pump particularly molten metals. These pumps are used
are less floor space, no priming, less net positive suc- extensively in nuclear engineering projects, but they
tion head ( N P S H ) , and probably more flexibility. will probably find use in conventional chemical in-
Itorizontal pumps have the advantages of more head- dustries too.
room, easier inspections and maintenance, and better A centrifugal pump for liquids and gases up t o
lubrication. 1,500°F. is described by Savage and Cobb (52). The
The evaluation of the mechanical design of end- sealing problem was one of the most difficult to solve.
suction centrifugal pumps is discussed by Ullock A frozen seal was found to be applicable in the case
(60). Pumps show symptoms of failure when trouble of sodium and lead. The liquid being pumped is
is experienced with their bearings, shafts, or shaft made to form the closure by cooling to the solid state.
sleeves. In many cases these failures result from The result is the shaft rides in a very thin film of
inadequate mechanical design. Although poor hy- molten material. It was found that bearings and seal
draulic performance is quite easy to detect, poor me- boxes must be manufactured to exact specifications.
chanical performance is not. Pump shafts have Cygan and Stelle (14) recently reported on the de-
generally been designed solely on the basis of horse- sign and operation of freeze-seal pumps and valves.
power stransmitted. The study by Ullock proves this Designs for sealing sodium at temperatures above
is often inadequate. A properly designed pump 1,200°F. have been satisfactorily tested. The centrif-
should operate satisfactorily up to 3,500 revolutions ugal pump developed by Clark (9) will handle liquid
per minute. Ullock emphasizes however that a cen- metals up to 750°F. The seaI life was about 2,000
trifugal pump should only be operated within the hrs., and it was unnecessary to cool the shaft. The
range of conditions specified by the manufacturer. capacity of the pump was 400 g.p.m.
Factors which he used in evaluating a pump are dis- Electromagnetic pumps are uniquely suited for
cussed in detaiI. They include unbalanced radial liquid metals. No seals or stuffing boxes, and (at
loads, bearing load, bearing life, shaft deflection, and least in theory) no moving parts, other than the fluid,
axial loads on both sides of the impeller. F u r t h e r are needed. The fluids for these pinups must be
studies by Ullock, Reynolds, and Hudson (61) were electrical conductors. The electrical current flows
made on the mechanical design of centrifugal pumps. through the fluid at right angles to a magnetic field.
They describe a method for measuring shaft deflec- This causes a force to be exerted on the fluid, and, as
tions of the pump. This deflection is caused by im- a result, the fluid flows. Cage (8) and Brill (6) dis-
peller weight and unbalanced radial forces in the cuss the operation and types of electromagnetic
pump casing. Such deflections tend to cause leakage pumps.
and scoring of the shaft at the packing gland. Even- Special Pumps. Turbine pumps are also called
tually the bearings will fail. The situation can be periphery, turbulent, friction, and r e g e n e r a t i v e
improved by increasing the diameter of the shaft at pumps (26). A turbine pump has a rotating impel-
the overhang and using bearings of larger size. ler, which has numerous vanes and relatively close
596 TI~E JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN OIL CHEMISTS' SOCIETY VOL. 33

clearances to the covering case. Flow around the turn-around pump inspection. The pump deteriora-
vanes is restricted because of the close tolerances, tion such as mechanical wear, corrosiion, erosion, and
and the rapidly rotating vanes cause pressure in- improper wear should be evaluated. Relatively fre-
creases of the fluid inside the pump. Iverson (26) quent inspections are desirable since more continuous
has studied these pumps, and he reports on the de- operation and better efficiency will be obtained. A
sign factors which affect their operation. The capac- complete record should be maintained of each pump.
ity is proportional to the speed, the head proportional The Sun Oil Company recently announced (67) the
to the speed squared, and the power proportional to results of their preventive maintenance study. They
the speed cubed. found that a :regular schedule for an internal inspec-
A spindle drag pump was developed by Strub tion of their pumps was desirable. P u m p replace-
(59). It is based on the theory of a screw extruder. ment is always all important consideration. Calcula-
Viscous liquids have been pumped to pressures of tions of the power cost savings and the capitalization
10,000-30,000 p.s.i. A p p a r e n t l y only small pumps amounts can be quickly calculated by use of a chart
have been built so far, but it appears that moderate prepared by Cromwell (13).
size pumps could be designed. Rosen (48) reports on
a pump useful for pumping highly corrosive fluids. Gas Pumps and Compressors
The piston movement in the pump is caused by a Reciprocating Compressors. Reciprocating com-
magnetic field. Fluorine and hydrogen fluoride have pressors are divided by M u r p h y (42) into three
been pumped successfully. The Milton Roy Company classes: light, intermittent-duty; heavy industrial,
(38) has announced operating characteristics of a medium-duty; and large, heavy-duty units. The se-
positive displacement pump which operates through lection of a compressor for a given job is facilitated
one cycle for each electrical impulse delivered to a by classifying compressors in this manner. M u r p h y
solenoid-operated clutch. discusses the factors to be considered, including cool-
The Western Machinery Company (66) now offers ing, for compressors. Several new methods for com-
a new pump for handling slurries, pulps, etc. Power pressor maintenance are reported by Ridgway (51).
is transmitted to the fluid exactly as in a fluid-type Techniques of resleeving the cylinders; metal-spray
torque converter. A recessed impeller creates a vor- reconditioning of rods, pistons, and cylinders; and
tex effect in the fluid in the main pump body. As a chrome-plating cylinder walls have been developed
result, the suction and pressure head necessary for and successfully tested. Ridgway indicates that good
pumping are developed. technicians should always be employed for recondi-
Pumps for non-Newtonian liquids must be chosen tioning compressors.
with care (2). A centrifugal pump is generally satis- Centrifugal, Axial, and Centripetal Compressors.
factory for Bingham-plastic, pseudoplastic, and thix- Centrifugal and axial compressors have been devel-
otropic materials. Open impellers should be em- oped that will compress large quantities of gas up to
ployed where the particles would tend £o plug the pressures of several thousand pounds p.s.i. Lowell
small passages in a closed impeller. A centrifugal (35) has compared these two types of compressors.
pump will sometimes reduce the viscosity of the fluid Centrifugal compressors are machines in which a ve-
so much that a degradation and dispersion of the par- locity and pressure are imparted to a gas in a radial
ticles in the fluid will occur. I n these cases a dia- direction by one or more impeller-diffuser combina-
phragm or piston pump may be preferred. R o t a r y tions. Axial compressors however impart velocity
gear pumps can be used for solutions but not suspen- and pressure to gases in an axial direction by means
sions. When dilatant materials are pumped, a dia- of moving and stationary blades. Centrifugal com-
phragm, piston, or screw pump is often used. pressors are essentially variable-capacity, constant-
Pump Operation and Maintenance. When a pump pressure machines. The axial compressor has how-
is operating at high rates, local pressures in the inlet ever more uniform capacity, more variable pressure,
liquid may fall below the vapor pressure of the liq- and better cfficiencies. Generally centrifugal com-
uid. Vaporization will occur at these points, and the pressors are used for medium capacities and axial
bubbles which are formed will collapse violently when compressors for high capacities. Compressors are
they reach the regions of higher pressures or lower often built with several stages in order to obtain
velocities. This phenomenon is called cavitation and higher gas pressures. As a rule of thumb, axial com-
is highly undesirable since it reduces pump capacity pressors require twice as m a n y stages as a compara-
and tends physically to damage and erode the pump. ble centrifugal compressor for the same pressure rat-
Recent studies (3, 18, 22, 25) have been made on vari- ing. The efficiencies of a single-stage centrifugal
ous aspects of the problem. Most cavitation can be compressor are generally about 50% (16). The over-
prevented if the net positive suction head ( N P S H ) all efficiency decreases as the number of stages in-
is increased somewhat. Inlet lines to the pump are crease and for an eight-stage centrifugal compressor
sometimes too small and hence reduce the N P S H . is about 25%. The efficiencies of axial compressors
Iverson (25) has shown that a vortex formation may depend on the rotative speed and the Reynolds num-
be associated with cavitation. When deep-well tur- ber (45). Basic efflciencies of a two-stage axial com-
bine or propeller pumps are used, vortex formation pressor were found to v a r y between 83 and 86% at a
will sometimes cause air entrainment, which is also Reynolds number of 450,000 and between 67 and
highly undesirable. Model studies will in some cases 81% at a Reynolds number of 50,000.
give sufficient data for design purposes. Several recent papers have discussed various as-
The Worthington Corporation (69) has recently pects of centrifugal compressors. These include dis-
published a list of items to check for steam-pump cussion of the principles and theory of operation (16,
trouble shooters. Their list should be of value to 35), performance characteristics (32,57), process
pump operators and supervisors. Allison and Walms- and mechanical design (54), selection of compressors
ley (1) have listed factors to be determined in a (31, 55), operation and maintenance (10), and seals
Nov. 1956 ALBRIGttT: PUMPS _ANDCOMPRESSORS 597

for compressors (12). These papers are recommended tion (30). Factors to be considered in regular
to the engineer interested in compressors. inspections of a compressor are outlined.
Radial inward-flow (centripetal) turbines have Ghormley (19) reports on the selection of an un-
several advantages over axial-flow turbines. The ad- loading compressor. Such a compressor provides a
vantages are listed by Birmann (4), who thinks the gas pressure above a liquid so that the liquid will
greatest merit of the centripetal turbine is the fact tend to flow from the container due to the increased
that it can be designed for specific outputs far ex- pressure.
ceeding those of the axial compre~or. He presents Conclusions
drawings, photographs, test results, and numerical Many new developments in pumping and compress-
examples to prove this superiority. Centripetal com- ing have recently been reported. The new equipment
pressors have been used to compress steam and ex- and theories reported will probably find frequent
haust gases from cars and airplanes. uses in the oil processing and chemical industries.
Blowers and Fans. Blowers have been defined as The result will be lower pumping costs and better
dynamic-type machines which compress gases up to service.
40 p.s.i. (35). Maintenance costs of blowers are dis- REFERENCES
cussed by Hylton (24). Costs, as might be expected, 1. Allison, W. D., and Walmsley, J. G , Pet. Refiner, 34 ( 3 ) , 160
(1955).
depend on the selection, installation, and start-up of 2. Alves, G. E., Boucher, D. F., and Pigford, R; L., Chem. E n g .
the blower. It has been found that regular inspec- Prog., 48, 385 ( 1 9 5 2 ) .
3. Balhan, J., Ingenier, 65, No. 6 : W 2 9 (Feb. 6, 1 9 5 3 ) ; No. 7 : W 4 1
tions of the blowers will often reduce maintenance (Feb. 13, 1 9 5 3 ) .
4. B i r m a n n , R , Trans. Am. Soe. Mech. Engr., 76, 173 ( 1 9 5 4 ) .
costs. Rostafinski (49) has found that atmospheric 5. B r a n d , D. C., Chem. Eng. Frog., 52, 130 ( 1 9 5 6 ) .
changes often affect the operation of air blowers of 6. Brill, E. F., Mech. Eng., 75, 369 ( 1 9 5 3 ) .
7. Brown, G. G., and co-authors, "Unit Operations," John Wiley
the centrifugal-compressor type. Changes of the hu- a n d Sons Inc., New York ( 1 9 5 0 ) .
8. Cage, J. F. Jr., Mech, Eng., 75, 467 (1953).
midity and temperature of the air affect the capacity 9. Clark, P. M., Mech. Eng., 75, 615 ( 1 9 5 3 ) .
of the blower. Gutzwiller (20) reports that the cor- 10, Cole, S. L., and Peer, G. n . , Petroleum Refiner, 34 ( 1 ) , 140
(1955).
rect design, proper installation, and adequate main- 11, Coopey, W., Pet. Refiner, 33 (12), 233 ( 1 9 5 4 ) .
12. Crego, D. F., Pet. Refiner, 34 (1), 143 ( 1 9 5 6 ) .
tenance of cooling tower fans and gear drives will 13. Cromwell, C. E., Pet. Refiner, 33 ( 9 ) , 300 ( 1 9 5 4 ) .
save money. He makes several suggestions for these 14. Cygan, R., and Stelle, A. M., Chem. Eng. Prog., 52, 157 ( 1 9 5 6 ) .
15. Dotterweich, F. H., and Mooney, C. V., Pet. Refiner, 34 ( 1 0 ) ,
fans and auxiliary equipment. 104 ( 2 9 5 5 ) .
16. Erb, H. A., Pet. Refiner, 34 (1), 123 ( 1 9 5 5 ) .
Vacuum Pumps. The operation and design of high- 17, Fletcher, G. R., Pet. Refiner, 33 (2), 107 ( 1 9 5 4 ) .
vacuum systems are discussed by Stoddard and Mooz 18. G a r n a r , L. H., Pet. Refiner, 33 (8), 117 ( 1 9 5 4 ) .
19, Ghormley, E. L., Pet. Refiner, 35 (5), 211 ( 1 9 5 6 ) .
(58). They report on their observations and experi- 20. Gntswiller, J. E., Pet. Refiner, 35 ( 3 ) , 189 ( 1 9 5 6 ) .
21. Hiteshue, R. W., a n d Clark, E. L., Mech. Eng., 75, 205 ( 1 9 5 3 ) .
ences with mechanical and diffusion pumps and with 22. H u p p e r t , M. C., a n d Benser, W. A., J. Aero. Sci., 20, 835
auxiliary equipment for the pumps. Lawrence (33) (1953).
23, t t u t t o n , S. P., E n g r . Digest, 15, 121 (March 1 9 5 4 ) .
presents several graphs which he has found useful 24, I-Iylton, J. L., Pet. Refiner, 35 (1), 136 ( 1 9 5 6 ) .
25. Iverson, H. W., Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Eng., 75, 635 ( 1 9 5 3 ) .
for selecting a vapor pump (diffusion pump). Fac- 26. Iverson, H . W., Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Eng., 77, 19 ( 1 9 5 5 ) .
tors which he considers important include lowest ob- 27. J a c k , R. L., Chem. Eng. Frog., 49, 235 ( 1 9 5 3 ) .
28. Jackson, D. I-I., Chem. Eng. Prog., 49, 102 ( 1 9 5 3 ) .
tainable pressure, volumetric speed as a function of 29. Jones, n . I t , Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Eng., 75, 361 ( 1 9 5 3 ) .
30. Julian, J. J , and Schaefer, R. A., Pet. Refiner, 35 (1), 129
the inlet pressure or of throughput, throughput limi- (195fi).
tations at high inlet pressures, and maximum allow- 31. Koenig, C. F., and Holveck, L. J., Pet. Refiner, 34 ( 1 0 ) , 110
(1955).
able forepressures. The characteristics of vapor dif- 32. Latimer, T. P., Pet. Refiner, 34 ( 1 ) , 130 ( 1 9 5 5 ) .
33. Lawrence, R. B., Chem. Eng. Prog., 48, 537 ( 1 9 5 2 ) .
fusion pumps have also been reported by Mukherjee 34. Litzenberg, D. P., and White, /-I. T., Chem. Eng. Progress, 50,
(40) and Riddiford and Coe (50). Their papers 436 ( 1 9 5 4 ) .
35. Lowell, %V. 0., Pet. Refiner, 34 (1), 118 ( 1 9 5 5 ) .
should be of assistance in designing such a pump. 36, Mann, M., Pet. Refiner, 32 ( 1 0 ) , 133 ( 1 9 5 3 ) .
37. Mann, M. S., Pet. Refiner, 32 ( 1 2 ) , I l l ( 1 9 5 3 ) .
Gas Jet Compressors. Gas jet compressors are sim- 38. Milton Roy Company, Philadelphia, Pa., Bunetin 654 ( 1 9 5 4 ) .
ple devices with no moving parts. The low-pressure 39. Mitchell, C. J. B., Chem. E n g . P r o g , 50, 431 ( 1 9 5 4 ) .
40. Mukherjee, S. K., and Dutt, P. K., I n d i a n J. Phys., 27, 137
gas is entrained by a stream of gas flowing at high (March 1 9 5 3 ) .
41. Murdock, M. L., Chem. E n g r . Prog., 52, 135 ( 1 9 5 6 ) .
velocities. Although these compressors have low effi- 42. Murphy, L. J., Pet. Refiner, 32 ( 2 ) , 115 ( 1 9 5 3 ) .
ciencies, they find widespread use for compressing 43. Murphy, L. J., Pet. Refiner, ~2 ( 3 ) , 1~7 ( 1 9 5 3 ) .
44. M u r p h y , L. J., Pet. Refiner, 32 ( 4 ) , 173 ( 1 9 5 3 ) .
gases and for obtaining vacuums. The design and 45. New, ~T. R , Redding, A. tt., Saldin, H. B., and Fentress, K. 0.,
Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Eng., 76, 473 ( 1 9 5 4 ) .
operation of gas jet compressors were studied by Dot- 46. Norton, R. D., Chem. Eng., 62 (3), 183 ( 1 9 5 5 ) .
terweich and Mooney (15) and Fletcher (17). They 47. P e r r y , J. H. (editor), "Chemical Engineers' Ylandbook," Mc-
Graw-Hill Book Company Inc., New York ( 1 9 5 0 ) .
present numerous graphs which should be useful for 48. Rosen, F. D., Rev. ScL Inst., 24, 106 ( 1 9 5 3 ) .
49. Rostafinski, W. A., Pet. Refiner, 34 ( I 0 ) , 116 ( 1 9 5 5 ) .
design purposes. In addition, they discuss the selec- 50. Riddiford, L., a n d Coe, R. F., J. Sci. Instr., 31, 33 ( 1 9 5 4 ) .
tion of these compressors. Jackson (28) reportq on 51. Ridgway, R. S., Pet. Refiner, 33 (1), l l O ( 1 9 5 4 ) .
52. Savage, It. W., and Cobb, W. G., Chem. Eng. Prog., 50, 445
corrosion problems in the compressors. New alloys (1954).
53. Sheen, R. T., and Fell, A. D., Chem. Eng. Frog., 49, 299
and plastics, such as Teflon, are finding uses in the (1953).
apparatus, especially in the throats and nozzles. Lead 54. Shields, C., Pet. Refiner, 34 ( 1 ) , 132 ( 1 9 5 5 ) .
55. Smith, O. A., Pet. Refiner, 34 (1), 136 ( 1 9 5 5 ) .
and carbon liners are also provided in some cases. 56. Sniffen, T. J., Pet. Refiner, 35 (3), 207 ( 1 9 5 6 ) .
57. Steinboek, S. R., Pet. Refiner, 33 (2), 133 ( 1 9 5 4 ) .
Maintenance and Miscellaneous. Various compres- 58. Stoddard, C. K., a n d Mooz, V¢. E., Chem. Eng. Frog., 49, 197
sor operating problems are outlined by Murphy (44). (1953).
59. Strub, R. A., Machine Design, 25, 149 ( J u l y 1953).
Problems considered include piping size of inlet and 60. Ullock, D. S., Chem. Eng. Prog., 51, 207 ( 1 9 5 5 ) .
61, Ullock, D. S., Reynolds, J. A., and Hudson, T. W., Chem. Eng.
outlet lines, air leaks, low air pressure, and start-up Frog., 52, 3J ( 1 9 5 6 ) .
procedures. The design of auxiliary equipment for 62. Wahnsley, J. G., and Ward, H . A. Jr., Pet. Refiner, 32 (9),
203 ( 1 9 5 3 ) .
compressors plays a vital role in compressor effieien- 63. W e i n t r a u b , M., I n d . Eng. Chem., 46. 112 ( 1 9 5 4 ) .
64. W e i n t r a u b , M., Ind. Eng. Chem., 47, 558 ( 1 9 5 5 ) .
eies (43). Careful design of filters, after-coolers, 65. W e i n t r a u b , M., Ind. Eng. Chem., 48. 532 ( 1 9 5 6 ) .
cooling water piping, and piping are important. Pre- 66. Western Machinery Corp., San Francisco, Cali:f. Bull. P S B 1 0
(1955).
ventive maintenance starts with the compressor de- 67. Wise, ~,V, M., Pet. Refiner, 35 ( 1 ) , 121 ( 1 9 5 6 ) .
68. ~'ise, W. M., Chem. Eng. Frog., 51 ( 8 ) , 38 ( 1 9 5 5 ) .
sign and follows through the installation and opera- 69. Wise, W. M., Pet. Refiner, 35 ( 6 ) , 140 ( 1 9 5 6 ) .

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