The Concept of Plot and the Plot of the "Iliad"

Author(s): Matthew Clark

Source: Phoenix, Vol. 55, No. 1/2 (Spring - Summer, 2001), pp. 1-8
Published by: Classical Association of Canada
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 THE CONCEPT OF PLOT AND THE PLOT OF THE ILIAD

MATTHEW CLARK

THE MEANING OF A WORK OF ART is not somethingwhich can be extractedfrom

a container, likea messagefroma bottle;everyelementis potentially meaningful,
potentially expressiveof the author'smindand intention.And one potentially
expressive elementofa storyis theshapeoftheplot.In thisessayI examinethe
plotof theIliad, usingsomeconceptsderivedfromrecenttheoriesof narrative.
The complexnestingstructure ofsuccessiveconflicts in thisnarrative I
expresses,
believe,a worldofradicalinstability, a worldin whichno resolution leadsfinally
to peace.This pattern beginswiththefirst incidentin thestoryand continues to
theveryend.
Chryses'supplication ofAgamemnonat thebeginning oftheIliad (1.17-21)
takesthe formof speech,but it is also an action: a speechact, to use the
terminology of theschoolinitiatedbyJ.L. Austin(1975 [1962]) and continued
byJohnSearle(1979; 1985) amongothers.1 It is alsoan actionin a sensespecific
to narrative-without it, the storyof the Iliad could hardlyhappen. Cedric
Whitman(1965: 131) quiterightly callsAgamemnon's insultto Chryses"the
germof theplot."If Chryseshad notcomeas a suppliant to Agamemnon, and
ifAgamemnonhad not scornfully rejectedthesupplication, thenApollowould
nothavesenttheplague,Agamemnon wouldnothavearguedwithAchilles,and
Achilleswouldnothavewithdrawn fromthebattle.Chryses'speechis partofthe
sequenceof cause and effect whichmakesup thespecificplotof theIliad, and
thusit is an actionwithintheplot.Not everyspeech(or speechact) is an action
in thissense.2
As ithappens,thetextoftheIliad provides a convenient testofthisdistinction.
AfterAchillesand Agamemnonargue,Achillescallsto hismotherforhelp.She
comesto himfromthedepthsofthesea andaskswhyhe is grieving:
tCKov, 6~ oc 4pva; 7trvOo;:
~i KXcai~tC:
ti i'Kto
p Kc\0iev6p,i'vaE'80oCEv
ActG68a, 6Ltpo.
(1.362-363)
Child,whydoyouweep?Andwhatgrief hasreached
yourheart?
Speak,do nothideitinyourmind,
so thatwemaybothknow.
Achillesanswers:
sti tot totuta18uin (1.365)
oioat- idtvt'd~yopc6oo:
Youknow;whyshouldI tellallthesethings
toonewhoknows?
1 For discussion
ofChryses'supplication
as a speechact,see Clark1998.
2"Somethingsthathappenin theepic tale maybe movingor frightening to theaudience,but
theyarenotessentialforthestory.Had theynothappened,theIliad wouldstillbe theIliad" (Bakker
1997: 166). Bakkerarguesthatthemoments when"theveryfateofepiccharacters, ortherightcourse
ofepicaction,areat stake"arethemoments whenepiccharacters receivetheirepithets(166-167).

1
PHOENIX,VOL. 55 (2001) 1-2.

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2 PHOENIX

Epic is inconsistent:in principlethe gods knoweverything, but omniscient

charactersareinconvenientfora story,
so in practicethenarrative
treatsthegods
as iftheyneedto be told-even as iftheycan be deceived.Narratology trumps
theology.And so Achillessummarizes forThetistheargument and theevents
whichled to it.3
Althoughthe firstfewlines of Achilles'explanation introduceinformation
new to theaudience,thebulkof it simplyrepeatswhatwe havealreadyheard.
Aristarchusathetized1.366-392,butG. S. Kirk(1985: 91) defendsthepassage:
Aristarchus
evidently as hewould,thatneither
noticed, thesummary as a wholenorthe
itcontained
exactrepetitions arestrictly andathetized
necessary, on thataccount alone.
Butweknow(a) thatrepetitions
arepartoftheoralstyle,
and(b) thatsotoo,onoccasion,
aresummariesorr~sum~es.
Aftera closeanalysisofthepassage,Kirk(1985: 92) concludes:
Sucha survey
demonstrates thatthewholepassageis farfrom beinga meremechanical
summary ofwhathas it
preceded;naturallymakes
extensive useoftheearlier but
language,
often
departsfrom itin ordertobypasstheomittedspeeches ormakethecondensation
Thisisnottheworkofa rhapsode
morefluent. ordecadent butofa singer
singer, working
within
theliving Thereis noobvious
oraltradition. reason fordenyingthatheisthemain
composerhimself....
I haveno doubtthatthepassageshouldstandin thetext,butallthesamewe may
taketheathetization as a hintthatthesummary oftheeventsdoes nothavethe
samestatusas theeventsthemselves. The eventswerenarrative actionsand their
authenticitycouldnotbe questioned;thissummary is nota narrative actionand
ifitwereremovedfromthetext,thestorycouldstillproceed.
The distinctionI am makinghere-betweennarrative actionsand those
actionswhichare notproperly a partof thenarrative-isroughly equivalentto
thedistinction madeby RolandBarthesbetween"kernels" (also called"cardinal
functions")and "catalysts."Kernelsare the hingesof the story:"Pourqu'une
fonctionsoit cardinale,il suffit que l'actiona laquelleelle se rf'ereouvre(ou
maintienne, ou ferme)une alternative consequentpourla suitde l'histoire, bref
qu'elleinaugureou conclueune incertitude .. ." (Barthes1981: 15). Catalysts,
on theotherhand,serveto fillin thenarrative spacewhichseparates thekernels:
"entreces pointsd'alternative ..., les catalysesdisposentdes zones de s~curitC,
des repos,des luxes..." (Barthes1981: 16). As SeymourChatman(1969: 14)
notes,"catalystsare alwaysdeletable,"and thustheyare thepassageswhichin
the Homerictextmaybe subjectto athetization.It is not the case, however,
thatcatalystsareinsignificant:"unr~citn'estjamaisfaitde fonctions: tout,a des
degrdsdivers,y signifie..." (Barthes1981: 13). The issueis notthesignifying

ofII. 1.366-392as a "mirror

3Fordiscussion seedeJong1985. De Jongargues
story," that
assumesthesame"authorial
Achillestemporarily position" thatthemirror
as thenarrator, storyallows
Achilles'mentalstate,and thattherepetition
us to understand oflongpassagescan be explainednot
onlyin termsoforalcomposition,butalsodefended in termsofnarrativetechnique.

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 THE CONCEPT OF PLOT AND THE PLOT OF THE ILIAD 3

powerofthenarrative unit,butthepositionoftheunitwithinthenarrative act:

"disonsqu'on ne peutsupprimer une noyausansaltdrer maisqu'onne
l'histoire,
peutsupprimer unecatalysesansaltdrer le discours"(Barthes1981: 16).
The methodof analyzingnarrative in termsof its kernelevents,its cardinal
functions, hasbeenelaborated byClaudeBremond;in hissystem, cardinalevents
occurin triads,"elementary sequences," made up of the three obligatoryphases
of all processes:theeventwhichopenstheprocess,theeventwhichrealizesthe
process,and theeventwhichclosestheprocess(Bremond1981: 66).4 Bremond
notes,however, thatanytriadcan be leftunaccomplished, so thecompletetriad
is an ideal formnot alwaysrealizedand closed. Furthermore, thelastelement
of one triadcan becomethefirst elementofanothertriad:thusthelastelement
in thetriad"mdfait I commettre/malfaissance/mdfait commis"maybe thesame
eventas thefirstelementin thetriad"faithr~tribuer/processus r~tributeur/fait
r~tribuC." The linkingand subordination of kerneleventscan producecomplex
structures.The powerofthisanalytical system hasbeendemonstrated in practice
by Thomas Pavel; in Pavel's modification of Bremond's system, thefundamental
narrativeunitis the"move,"whichis composedofonlytwoparts,the"problem"
and the "solution";in addition,a movemayincludean "auxiliary" in orderto
reachitssolution(Pavel1985: 17-18).
In theseterms,the storyof the Iliad beginswithChryses'problem:his
daughterhas been takenby Agamemnon.Chrysestriesto solvehis problem
throughsupplication,but his supplicationfails,and this failurebecomesa
problemin itsownright,an actofevilto be revenged. Chrysesattempts to solve
thisnewproblemthroughappealto Apollo,whichsucceeds,and thissuccessis
theact of revenge, in theformoftheplague.The plagueitselfis a problemfor
theAchaeans,but(aftersomeotherevents)itis eliminated: Chryses'daughter is
returned to himand he praysto Apolloto relievethesuffering oftheAchaians.
But in the meantime,the elimination of the problemwhichis theplaguehas
produced another the
problem: quarrelofAgamemnon andAchilles,andAchilles'
subsequent withdrawal. It would be possible to chartthe wholeplotoftheIliad
in thisway,and althoughsuchan analysis woulddemonstrate thecomplexity of
thenarrative structure, it is notclear thata of
completeanalysis every move in the
plotwouldrepaytheeffort.
A notablefeatureof Bremond'ssystem whichis retainedbyPavelis thatall
theelementary sequences are at thesame level ofanalysis: no sequenceis marked
in thetheoryas particularly important in the formation of theplotas a whole.
It seemsclear,however,thatnot all eventsin a plot are on an equal footing.5
FollowingEugene Dorfman,we maydividethe incidentsof a storyintotwo
4Bremond'ssystem likemostmodernplottheory,
ofplotanalysis, canbe considered an attempt
fundamental
to elucidateAristotle's but ratherenigmaticremark(Poet.7) thata plot musthavea
beginning,a middle,and an end.
5"In anygivennarrative,someincidents
aremoreimportant thanothers;itwouldbe difficultto
imaginean artistic inwhicheveryhappening
narrative carriedequalweightin thedevelopment ofthe
story"(Dorfman1969:5).

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4 PHOENIX

classes:"centralorcoreincidents, whosefunction is to serveas thecentral focusofa

largerepisode,and marginal incidents, whichclusteraroundthecore,supporting
it and fillingout the episode"(Dorfman1969: 5).6 It is not necessary hereto
detailtheresultsof Dorfman'sstudy,whichis restricted to a particular
classof
narrative,medievalromanceepic,buthis generalconclusionis quiterelevant to
ourtopic.In Dorfman'sanalysis, thecoreincidents ofmedievalromanceepicfall
intoa sequenceoffourtypes:Quarrel,Motive,Act,and Result.Each ofthesehas
subtypes; thus,theQuarrelmaybe Family,Dynastic,Lovers',orLovers'-triangle;
theMotivemaybe Insult,Killing,Inheritance, orMaritalbreak;theAct maybe
Treachery or Prowess;and theResultmaybe Punishment or Reward(Dorfman
1969: 71).
Dorfman'sschemacan be simplified, I believe,leavingonlytwotypesofcore
incidents:theMotive,whichis forthemostpartsomekindof Insult,and the
Result,whichmaybe eitherPunishment or Reconciliation; theQuarrelis really
identicalto theInsultor thesettingforit,whiletheAct is reallythemeansby
whichthe Resultis broughtabout. This simplification assimilatesDorfman's
system to Pavel'ssystem ofProblemandSolution,butwiththecrucialstipulation
thattwo incidents,one at the beginningand one at the end, have a special
importance in thearchitecture oftheplot.
Althoughthissystemseemsintuitively reasonable, it is not,therefore,trivial,
especiallysince onlya veryfewkindsof incidentseem to fall in thesetwo
positions.In the narratives analyzedby Dorfman,the crucialincidentat the
beginningof the storyis almostalwayssomekindof Insult,whilethe crucial
incidentat theendis eitherPunishment orReconciliation. A broaderselection of
narratives,including,forexample,novels,wouldalso discoverBirthand Death,
MeetingandMarriage,ArrivalandDeparture, DepartureandReturn, withsome
variationsandcombinations ofthesepairs;although otherpairsoccur,theseseem
to accountfora verylargenumberof narratives, perhapssomething like nine
out of ten.7This system, whichdistinguishes a structural hierarchyofincidents
and whichalso specifiesthatonlycertainkindsof incidents ordinarilyoccurin
thecrucialstructuralpositions, is morepowerful thanearliermodelsofnarrative
construction.
Some narratives fittheschemaI haveproposedquiteeasily.The Argonautica,
forexample,is fundamentally a plotofDeparture andReturn, although a Meeting
and Marriageplotis embeddedin thelargerstory.The firstpartof theAeneid
is fundamentally a plotof Arrivaland Departure,withan embeddedMeeting,

6Note herethatthisdistinction
betweencoreand marginal incidentsis notthesameas Barthes's
betweenkernalsand catalysts;
distinction bothcoreand marginal incidentsarekernels.
7To saythatsomeincidents havea particular
structuralimportance is notto saythattheother
areunimportant:
incidents "The superstructure,
definedhereas thetotalinventory of incidents
that
occurfromthebeginning to theend ofthestory,is notto be considereda minoror inferioraspect
of thenarrative
to be analyzed,butsimplya functionally
differentkindof structurefromthatof the
narremiccore"(Dorfman1969: 6).

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 THE CONCEPT OF PLOT AND THE PLOT OF THE ILIAD 5

thoughthecorresponding Marriagenotably doesnotoccur,exceptin themindof

Dido. Thereis no requirement, however,thatthefitbe easy,and difficultcases
do notinvalidatethesystem ifthesystem can showhowandwhythedifficulties
occur;a failure
offitmaybe significantrather thanfaulty.
In the termsof the schemawhichI havederivedfromDorfman'smodelof
narrative,
Chryses'supplication ofAgamemnon, whichwe haveseento be botha
speechactand an actionofplot,andwhichaccording toWhitman(1965: 131) is
thegermoftheplot,mustnevertheless be a subordinateelement,at leastin the
structureofthenarrative;itsstructural
subordination, ofcourse,doesnotdeprive
it of thematicsignificance.The crucialincidentat thebeginning of thepoem
mustbe theQuarrelbetweenAgamemnon andAchillesandtheresulting Insult:
ictc,
CivtyvO&, idE o 'AXthiio;...
o~ ti t pp&
o c,
oa6tuaitrlv Apic~avt
06 rt
z
'Atpe'&qS; &v6povKcL\ Sio; 'AxtdX6c. (1.1, 6-7)
vat
Sing,goddess,thewrathofAkhiles,Peleus'son...
Fromthetimewhenfirst theystoodapartin contention,
kingofmen,andbrilliant
ThesonofAtreus, Akhilleus.
The placement ofthefirst crucialincidentcanvary:it cancomedirectly at the
beginning ofthestory oritcanfollowa fewotherincidents whichleadtoit.In the
Iliad,thefirstcrucialelement, theargument betweenAchillesandAgamemnon,
followsthe "germ"of theplot,thesupplication of Chryses.If a largenumber
of incidentsprecedethefirstcrucialincident,theymaybe heldoffand toldin
retrospect.8These choicesarenotsimplya matterofconvenience. HenryJames
notedin his prefaceto Roderick Hudsonthat"Really,universally, relationsstop
nowhere,and the exquisiteproblemof the artistis eternally but to draw,by a
geometry ofhis own,thecirclewithinwhichtheyshallhappilyappearto do so"
(James1934: 5). However,some authors-Balzacis a good example-liketo
emphasizetherelationship betweentheeventswhichlie withinthecircleofthe
storyand thosewhichlie outsideit,and thuswe oftenfinda longand leisurely
accountoftheeventswhichprecedethefirst crucialincident.
The epic storiesarenotjustlikenovels.The epicpoetcouldnotsimplydraw
a circlearoundhis story,evenifhe wantedto, and pretendthattherestof the
traditiondid not exist.The epic cycleis largerthananyepic'snarrative circle.
Of coursethepoetcan emphasize,alter,or omitparticular incidentswithinthe
tradition:thedeathof Iphigeneia,forexample,is neverexplicitly mentioned in
theIliad.9But thetradition as a wholecannotbe omitted;thenarrator ofDavid
CopperfieldknowsnothingaboutOliverTwist,butthenarrator oftheHomeric
epicsknowsaboutHeraklesandNiobe andJason-and so on.
81ntheAeneid,forexample,theArrivalis narrated in Book One, butBooksTwo andThreeare
A morecomplicated
retrospective. deploymentofthesamestructureoccursin theOdyssey,
and even
withtheCatalogueand theTeichoskopia.
in theIliad we see tracesofa retrospect
9ButI arguein Clark1998 thatthisincidentmaybe impliedin BookOne.

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6 PHOENIX

Even so, thepoethas someconsiderable powerto deploytheelementsofhis

particularlystory.The deployment ofthefirst crucialevent,theQuarrel,aftera
numberof otherincidentssuggeststhattheQuarrelis partof a largerworld,a
worldwhichcontainscharacters likeChrysesandhisdaughter, whomayplayno
further rolein thestory,butwhoexistin theepicworldnonetheless.
Could theIliad havebegundirectly withtheQuarrelandtheInsult?Analysis
of timerelationships in the Homericpoemssuggeststhatthe sortof massive
dislocationsof time commonin modernnarratives was not a featureof the
Homericstyle,but somesummaries and flashbacks do occur(Richardson1990:
89-108). In effect we havea summary of theeventsleadingup to theQuarrel,
in Achilles'reportto Thetis(II. 1.366-392). What abouta plotwhichwould
leaveouttheChrysesepisode,whichwouldbegin,say,withAgamemnon's taking
BriseisfromAchillesjust becausehe wantsto and becausehe can enforcehis
will?The effect of sucha plotwouldsurelybe verydifferent fromtheeffect of
theIliad; it is notourtask,however, to construct other,inferior
poems,butto
analyzethepoemwhichwe have.
The episodeof Chrysesis in itselfa littleepic of Insult,Punishment, and
Reconciliation.10 Moreover,the episodeof Chrysesdoes not so muchlead to
theQuarrel,sincetheplotsarenotchainedend-to-end.Rather,thefirst crucial
incidentof the Iliad properis containedwithinthe littleepic of Chryses.In
Pavel's system,thisfirstcrucialincidentis embeddedand subordinate-even
though,as we haveseen,in Dorfman'smodel,it is theepisodeofChryseswhich
is subordinate to thelargerplot:thetwomodelsgivetwodifferent accountsofa
complexplot. In theworldof Homericnarrative, one problemleadsto another
problem;moreover, thesecondproblemis contained withinthefirst,
andyetthat
whichis containedis largerthanits container.The storyof Chrysesis settled
by the end of Book One, but the conflict whichit producedgrowsbeyondits
boundaries.
Essentiallythe same structure continuesin thelargerstoryof thepoem. In
Book Nineteen,as we haveseen,theissueof theQuarrelhas been settledand
somemeasureof reconciliation in theranksof theAchaianshas beenachieved.
ButnowAchillesis consumed byanother thestory
story, ofthedeathofPatroklos,
whichhas itsbeginning withintheQuarrel,butwhichis largerthantheQuarrel.
Thus themicrocosmic structure
oftheChrysesepisodeis mirrored in theplotof
thewholepoem.
The deathofPatroklosis thusan unforeseen consequenceoftheinitialplotof
Insultand Reconciliation, whichbeginsin Book One and whichendsin Book
Nineteen,and whichitselfwas the consequenceof anotherstory,the storyof
1 For a similaranalysisof theplaceof thefirstincidentin theIliad, see Lord 1960: 188: "The
eventsleadingup to thewrathof Achillesin Book I followa patternsimilarto thatof the poem
itself."Lord'sanalysisoftheplotof theIliad recognizes therepeatedplotstructures; thevocabulary
providedbyBremond,Pavel,and Dorfmanallowsfora morespecific accountofhowthesepatterns
fittogether.

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 THE CONCEPT OF PLOT AND THE PLOT OF THE ILIAD 7

Chryses'supplication.The narrative problemcreatedbythedeathof Patroklos

withthedeathofHektor;buteveniftheplotmaybe satisfied,
shouldbe satisfied
Achillesis not. The psychology of the herothusfailsto matchthe shape of
theplot:Achillescan no longerfitcomfortably withintheboundariesofheroic
narrative.Formis essentialto art,butthisearliestworkofthewesterntradition
showstheartofrejecting a slavishadherence to formalprinciples.
Achilles'attemptsto defileHektor'sbodyarefrustrated bythegods,butit is
hardto imaginethatiftheyweresuccessful Achilles'angerwouldbe appeased.
The psychologicalendingofthisplotmustawaitthedevelopment ofa newplot,
initiatedbythedeathof Hektor.This plot,however, shiftsto theotherside of
thewar:Priam'sproblemis liketheproblem whichfacedChrysesinBook One.11
Like Chryses,he daresto approachtheenemycampto makehis supplication,
and,alsolikeChryses, he has divinehelp.In thechiasticstructure ofBooksOne
andTwenty-Four, divineassistance comesafterChryses'supplication, butbefore
Priam's.ThetiscomestoAchilleswitha messagefromZeus,andAchillesagrees,
withno argument, to releaseHektor'sbody;perhapshe nowrealizesthatthereis
nothingmorehe cando to satisfy hisanger.
Justas thestorybeganbeforethebeginning ofthecrucialQuarrel,witha hint
ofa largerworldinwhichthestory occurs,so thestoryendsafter theresolutionof
thefinalproblem,afterthereconciliation ofAchillesandPriam,withthereturn
ofHektor'sbodytoTroy,withthelamentsofAndromache, Hekabe,andHelen,
and withHektor'sfuneral.In fact,the tradition suppliedtwo endingsforthe
poem.The textwhichwe usuallyreadendswitha summary line:
&Gjoi' y'
" isnrov td6ov "E'Ktopogiriro6dpoto. (II. 24.804)
totheburial
attended
So they ofHektor, ofhorses.
thetamer
a different
Butthescholiaoffer ending:
oi y'y"&4ECov jX098' 'Apdwov
Ac T6.ov "'EKTopoo.
&v~po)6voto ....
Ouydrilp
psyatitopo;
"Apoc.
So they totheburial
attended AndtheAmazoncame,
ofHektor.
Ares,theslayerofmen....
ofgreat-hearted
thedaughter

This versiondropstheadjectivefollowing thebucolicdiaeresisand beginsthere

a new sentencewhichleads directlyintotheAithiopis,thenext partof theepic
cycle.12Althoughthe textwe read endswithHektor'sfuneral,the tradition
allowedan endingwhichlooksforward to otherpartsofthecycle.
ofa workofliterature
The mentality notonlyintheovertmeaning
is displayed
ofitswords,noreveninthesymbols whichitmaydeploy, butalsointheshapeand

11The parallelbetweenthe beginningof the Iliad and the end has oftenbeen noted: see, for
example,Whitman1965:257-260; Lohmann1970: 169; MacLeod 1982:32-34.
12Forthis treatment of adjectivesafterthe bucolicdiaeresis,see Bassett1905. A different
A.D.manuscript:
is foundin one first-century
continuation see Richardson 1993: 361.

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8 PHOENIX

structure In theworldoftheIliad,storiesarenotindependent
ofitsnarrative. and
divisible;theyconnectto a largerworldofnarrative,
a worldwhichexistsbefore
and aftertheparticularstorywhichhas been selectedfornarration.Moreover,
evenwithintheboundaries beforeone problemis resolved,
oftheselectedstory,
a newproblembegins.This is a worldofconstantdisruption, withno visionof
anyfinalresolution.
DivisioN OF HUMANITIES/
PROGRAMME IN CLASSICALSTUDIES
YORKUNIVERSITY
ONTARIO
TORONTO,
M3J 1P3 matthewc@yorku.ca

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