Critical Book Review

“Educational Design Research”

LECTURE : Dr. WidyaArwita, M. Pd

Submitted by Group 1st

Dinda Anggita Maysarah 4183141061
Ratu Mashlihan Hasibuan 4181141023
TishaTabhitaSiregar 4183141081
Tyas Kinanti Layung H. 4181141014

BIOLOGY DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL SCIENCES
STATE UNIVERSITY OF MEDAN
2020
 PREFACE
Praise me for the presence of Allah SWT, for the blessings of grace, health and
opportunity, so that I can compile or complete the preparation of the Critical Book Report (CBR)
course for Research Methodology for Biology Education entitled " Educational Design
Research".
The making of this paper aims to fulfill the KKNI tasks of the Research Methodology for
Biology Education course. I say many thanks to those who have helped in making this task.
I am sure from this task there are still many shortcomings in terms of both content and
composition. Therefore I really hope for constructive criticism and suggestions to perfect this
task. Hopefully this assignment can be useful for writers and readers.

Medan, 15 November 2020

Author

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TABLE OF CONTENT
PREFACE i
TABLE OF CONTENT ii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of Paper 1
1.2 Purpose of Paper 1
1.3 Identity of Book 1
CHAPTER II SUMMARY OF BOOKS 3
2.1 Summary of Main Book 3
2.2 Summary of Comparison Book 10
CHAPTER III ADVANTAGES OF BOOKS 19
3.1 Linkage of Subchapters 19
3.2 Book Up-To-Date 19
CHAPTER IV WEAKNESS OF BOOKS 20
4.1 Linkage of Subchapters 20
4.2 Book Up-To-Date 20
CHAPTER V BOOK IMPLICATION 21
5.1 Implications of the book for theory 21
5.2 Implications of the book for development program in Indonesia 21
5.3 Implications of the book for student analysis 21
CHAPTER VI CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION 22
6.1 Conclusion 22
6.2 Suggestion 22
BIBLIOGRAPHY 23

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 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of Paper
Progress in almost every field of science depends on the contributions made by
systematic research; thus research is often viewed as the cornerstone of scientific progress.
Broadly defined, the purpose of research is to answer questions and acquire new knowledge.
Research is the primary tool used in virtually all areas of science to expand the frontiers of
knowledge. For example, research is used in such diverse scientific fields as psychology,
biology, medicine, physics, and botany, to name just a few of the areas in which research makes
valuable contributions to what we know and how we think about things. Among other things, by
conducting research, researchers attempt to reduce the complexity of problems, discover the
relationship between seemingly unrelated events, and ultimately improve the way we live.
Although research studies are conducted in many diverse fields of science, the general goals and
defining characteristics of research are typically the same across disciplines. For example, across
all types of science, research is frequently used for describing a thing or event, discovering the
relationship between phenomena, or making predictions about future events. In short, research
can be used for the purposes of description, explanation, and prediction, all of which make
important and valuable contributions to the expansion of what we know and how we live our
lives. In addition to sharing similar broad goals, scientific research in virtually all fields of study
shares certain defining characteristics, including testing hypotheses, careful observation and
measurement, systematic evaluation of data, and drawing valid conclusions. In conducting
research, one of the important things is to make a research design. The research design is like a
road map for the researcher who guides and determines the direction of the research process
correctly and precisely in accordance with the stated objectives.
1.2 Purpose of Paper
students are able to understand the topic of research design and are able to compare two books
that discuss research design
1.3 Identity of Book
Identity of main book
Title : An Introduction to Educational Design Research
Author : Jan van den Akker, Brenda Bannan, Anthony E. Kelly, Nienke Nievee and
Tjeerd Plomp
ISBN : 978 90 329 2329 7
Publication Year : 2007
Place : the East China Normal University, Shanghai (PR China)
Order address : www.slo.nl/organisatie/international/publications

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Identity of comparison book
Title : Essentials of Research Design and Methodology
Author :Geoffrey Marczyk, David DeMatteo and David Festinger
Publisher :John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Publication Year : 2005
Pages : xi+290

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 CHAPTER II
SUMMARY OF BOOK
2.1 Summary of Main Book
Educational Design Research: an Introduction
Introduction
Educational design research is perceived as the systematic study of designing, developing
and evaluating educational interventions, - such as programs,teaching-learning strategies and
materials, products and systems - as solutions to such problems, which also aims at advancing
our knowledge about the characteristics of these interventions and the processes to design and
develop them.
Research functions – research approaches
The key focus in all scientific research is the search for‘understanding’ or for‘knowing’
with the aim of contributing to the body of knowledge or a theory in the domain of research.
Other broad aims of doing educational research are to provide insights and contributions for
improving practice, and to inform decision making and policy development in the domain of
education. various research functions, each reflecting certain types of research questions are :
1. to describe: e.g. what is the achievement of Chinese grade 8 pupils in mathematics; what
barriers do students experience in the learning of mathematical modelling
2. to compare: e.g. what are the differences and similarities between the Chinese and the
Netherlands curriculum for primary education; what is the achievement in mathematics of
Chinese grade 8 pupils as compared to that in certain other countries
3. to evaluate: e.g. how well does a program function in terms of competences of graduates;
what are the strengths and weaknesses of a certain approach; etc
4. to explain or to predict: e.g. what are the causes of poor performance in mathematics (i.e. in
search of a ‘theory’ predicting a phenomenon when certain conditions or characteristics are
met)
5. to design and develop: e.g. what are the characteristics of an effective teaching and learning
strategy aimed at acquiring certain learning outcomes; how can we improve the motivation
of learners.
At the level of a research project, starting from a research problem or question, we are
supposed to have the following sequence: Research question => (primary) research function
=>choice of research approach. In this chapter we focus on research which has design and
develop as the primary research function.
examples of research approaches and their possible research functions are:
• survey: to describe,to compare,to evaluate
• case studies: to describe,to compare,to explain

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• experiments: to explain,to compare
• action research: to design/develop a solution to a practical problem
• ethnography: to describe,to explain
• correlational research: to describe, to compare
• evaluation research: to determine the effectiveness of a program
As a final remark, it is important that design researchers, like all researchers, keep in
mind that also for their research the guiding principles for scientific research (Shavelson &
Towne, 2002) apply, viz:
• Pose significant questions that can be investigated
• Link research to relevant theory
• Use methods that permit direct investigation of the question
• Provide a coherent and explicit chain of reasoning
• Replicate and generalize across studies
• Disclose research to encourage professional scrutiny and critique
What is design research?
educational design research is the systematic study of designing, developing and
evaluating educational interventions (such as programs, teaching-learning strategies and
materials, products and systems) as solutions for complex problems in educational practice,
which also aims at advancing our knowledge about the characteristics of these interventions and
the processes of designing and developing them.
design research comprises of a number of stages or phases:
• preliminary research: needs and context analysis,review of literature, development of a
conceptual or theoretical framework for the study
• prototyping phase: iterative design phase3 consisting of iterations, each being a
microcycle of research4 with formative evaluation as the most important research activity
aimed at improving and refining the intervention
• assessment phase: (semi-) summative evaluation to conclude whether the solution or
intervention meets the pre-determined specifications. As also this phase often results in
recommendations for improvement of the intervention, we call this phase
semisummative. Throughout all these activities the researcher or research group will do
systematic reflection and documentation to produce the theories or design principles
characteristics of this type of research
Interventionist: the research aims at designing an intervention in a real world setting;
• Iterative: the research incorporates cycles of analysis, design and development,
evaluation, and revision;

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 • Involvement of practitioners: active participation of practitioners in the various stages
and activities of the research
• Process oriented: the focus is on understanding and improving interventions (a black box
model of input – output measurement is avoided);
• Utility oriented: the merit of a design is measured, in part by its practicality for users in
real contexts; and
• Theory oriented: the design is (at least partly) based on a conceptual framework and upon
theoretical propositions, whilst the systematic evaluation of consecutive prototypes of the
intervention contributes to theory building
The features and characteristics of design research are nicely captured by Wademan
(2005) in what he calls the Generic Design Research Model (Figure 3). His model clearly
illustrates that the ‘successive approximation of practical products’ (what we call ‘interventions’)
is going hand in hand with the ‘successive approximation of theory’ (which he also calls ‘design
principles’).

A closer look at design research

design research is research and therefore the appropriate yield for design research (apart
from a usable and effective intervention) is empirically founded theory, i.e. the challenge for
design research is to capture and make explicit the implicit decisions associated with a design
process, and to transform them into guidelines for addressing educational problems. This aspect
refers to the theory orientation, mentioned above as one of the characteristics of design research
use the concept of‘design principles’ when they refer to the theoretical yields of design research,
where others speak of new theories
based on analysis of the problem in context, and utilizing relevant, state-of-the-art
theories – designs and develops (in an iterative way) the intervention with the aim that after a
number of cycles the intended outcomes are realized, i.e. a satisfying solution to the problem
identified. Each iteration or cycle is a micro-cycle of research, i.e. a step in the process of doing
research and will include systematic reflection on the theoretical aspects or design principles in

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relationship to the status of the intervention,resulting in the end in design principles or theoretical
statements. Given my context, if I do then I expect . This can be displayed schematically as:

 the outcomes of the intervention are indicated as Y1 , Y2 , …, Yn , because often an

intervention is designed to realize multiple outcomes (e.g. better achievement, improved
student attitude, increased teacher satisfaction, etc).
 the intervention is presented as ‘input  process’, because designing a process (e.g.
learning environment) has to take into account also the inputs necessary to make the
process function (e.g. certain instructional learning materials,teacher development)
In design research, interventions are developed in a cyclical process of successive prototypes:

A key idea is that when in a certain cycle the prototype of the intervention does not result
in the desired outcomes, one may conclude that the design principles (or intervention theory)
applied are not (yet) effective (or, in other words,that the intervention theory ‘fails’). This has to
result in a re-design or refinement of the intervention, which goes hand-in-hand with the
refinement of the intervention theory or design theory. When after a number of iterations the
researcher (or research group) concludes that based on the analysis of the evaluation data the
‘realized outcomes’ are close enough to the ‘intended outcomes’then he can be satisfied:the
design principles appear to be effective. Or, in other words,the researcher (or research group) has
developed a ‘local’ (intervention) theory (i.e. for the context in which he/she works): in context
Z the intervention X (with certain characteristics) leads to outcomes Y1 , Y2 , …, Yn.
The research question in design/development research
By now it is clear that designing and developing an intervention is in itself not yet design
research. But one may conduct a design/development project as a research project by employing
rigorously social science research methodology. As the researcher is striving to find design
principles (or an intervention theory) that are valid in a certain context,the research question can
be phrased as: what are the characteristics of an for the purpose/outcome Y (Y1 , Y2 , …, Yn) in
context Z
The outputs of design research
1. On design principles or intervention theory, Design research aims at producing knowledge
about whether and why an intervention works in a certain context
2. Generalizability in design research, In design research, like in case studies and experimental
studies,the findings cannot be generalized to a larger universe – there is no statistical

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 generalization from sample to population, like can be the case in survey research. in case
studies and experimental studies,the investigator is striving to generalize a particular set of
results to a broader theory. This is also the case in design research,the researcher should
strive to generalize ‘design principles’to some broader theory
3. On interventions, Design research by its character aims to be practically relevant. It is
initiated to design and develop innovative interventions to meet a need felt in a complex,
practical situation for which no ready-made solutions or guidelines are available
4. On professional development, One of the features of design research is the collaboration of
researchers and practitioners. This collaboration increases the chance that the intervention
will indeed become practical and relevant for the educational context which increases the
probability for a successful implementation
Design research differentiation
Stages or phases in design research
1. needs and content analysis
2. prototyping phase (iterative cycles of design and formative evaluation)
3. assessment phase (semi-summative evaluation
Validation studies have a focus on designing learning environments or trajectories with
the purpose to develop and validate theories about the process of learning and how learning
environments can be designed. Validation studies aim at advancing learning and instruction
theories, such as
 micro-theories
 local instruction theories
 domain-specific instruction theories
stages in validation studies are
 environment preparation
 classroom experiment
 retrospective analysis
Development studies aim towards design principles for developing innovative
interventions that are relevant for educational practice. “Development studies integrate state-of-
the-art knowledge from prior research in the design process and fine-tune educational
innovations based on piloting in the field. . Two main types of design principles can be
distinguished (Van den Akker,1999):
1. procedural design principles: characteristics of the design approach
2. substantive design principles: characteristics of the design (= intervention) itself.
Figure three summarizes the characteristics of a research cycle consisting of design studies and
effect studies

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the differentiation between types of design research, such as validation studies versus
development studies, serves mainly conceptual purposes. In practice, design researchers may
combine the two orientations in their research. For example, starting from a complex and
persistent problem in e.g. science education,the research group may decide to apply the design
principles (local theories) resulting from other studies in their research. In doing so they are not
only developing an intervention, but at the same time exploring the validity of design principles
(theory) developed in another context for their own problem context.
How is design research conducted?
Design research is conducted iteratively as a collaboration of researchers and
practitioners in a real-world setting. Only then the two principal outputs (design principles and
empirically underpinned innovative interventions) can be realized. Doing research in such a
setting is challenging and demands a careful research design. It is therefore important to reflect
not only on the cyclical, iterative character of the systematic design of the intervention, but also –
because it is research - to make explicit the tenets that form the foundation of this type of
research
 Rigor – for design research to be able to result in valid and reliable design principles,the
research has to meet rigorous standards and apply the guiding principles for scientific
research. Much literature is available to guide research in natural settings that offers
support to issues like internal and external validity,reliability and utililization of the
research.
 Relevance: Design research aims to be relevant for educational practice (and policy). A
necessary condition for this is that the research group must have a good working
knowledge of the target setting and be informed by research and developments activities
taking place in natural settings (or test beds).

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  Collaboration: for design research to be relevant for educational practice,the design and
development activities must be conducted in collaboration with and not just for
professionals from educational practice.
Formative evaluation in development research
The components of the intervention should be based on state-of-the- art knowledge
(content validity) and all components should be consistently linked to each other (construct
validity). If the intervention meets these requirements it is considered to be valid. Another
characteristic of high-quality interventions is that end-users (for instance the teachers and
learners) consider the intervention to be usable and that it is easy for them to use the materials in
a way that is largely compatible with the developers’ intentions. If these conditions are met, we
call these interventions practical. A third characteristic of high quality interventions is that they
result in the desired outcomes, i.e. that the intervention is effective

Formative evaluation takes place in all phases and iterative cycles of design research

 expert review and/or focus groups (important to consider‘experts in what’)

 self-evaluation or screening (using check list of important characteristics or design
specifications)
 one-to-one evaluation or walk through (with representative of target audience) • small
group or micro-evaluation
 field test or try-out

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 Suppose a researcher would restrict himself to the development of prototypes of the
intervention, and does not plan to investigate whether Version IV works in the target context. In
such a situation the most he can conclude is whether his intervention is expected to be practical
and effective for the target context. Only when he would conduct a field test, he will be in the
position to decide upon actual practicality and actual effectiveness
Design research dilemmas
1. the researcher is designer and often also evaluator and implementer
2. real-world settings bring real-world complications
3. adaptability
2.2 Summary of Comparison Book
Chapter I
What Exactly is Research?
1. Correlational research: In correlational research, the goal is to determine whether two or
more variables are related. (By the way, “variables” is a term with which you should be
familiar. A variable is anything that can take on different values, such as weight, time, and
height.)
2. Experimental research: In its simplest form, experimental research involves comparing two
groups on one outcome measure to test some hypothesis regarding causation.
The scientific method is best thought of as an approach to the acquisition of new
knowledge, and this approach effectively distinguishes science from nonscience. To be clear, the
scientific method is not actually a single method, as the name would erroneously lead one to
believe, but rather an overarching perspective on how scientific investigations should proceed. It
is a set of research principles and methods that helps researchers obtain valid results from their
research studies. Because the scientific method deals with the general approach to research rather
than the content of specific research studies, it is used by researchers in all different scientific
disciplines.
The Scientific Method

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 The development of the scientific method is usually credited to Roger Bacon, a
philosopher and scientis t from 13th-century England, although some argue that the Italian
scientist Galileo Galilei played an important role in formulating the scientific method. Later
contributions to the scientific method were made by the philosophers Francis Bacon and René
Descartes. Although some disagreement exists regarding the exact characteristics of the scientific
method, most agree that it is characterized by the following elements:
 Empirical approach
 Observations
 Questions
 Hypotheses
 Experiments
 Analyses
 Conclusions
 Replication
Empirical Approach
The empirical approach is an evidence-based approach that relies on direct observation
and experimentation in the acquisition of new knowledge
Observations
Observation refers to two distinct concepts—being aware of the world around us and
making careful measurements. Observations of the world around us often give rise to the
questions that are addressed through scientific research.
Questions
After getting a research idea, perhaps from making observations of the world around us,
the next step in the research process involves translating that research idea into an answerable
question. The term “answerable” is particularly important in this respect, and it should not be
overlooked. It would obviously be a frustrating and ultimately unrewarding endeavor to attempt
to answer an unanswerable research question through scientific investigation
Hypotheses
A key feature of all hypotheses is that each must make a prediction. Remember that
hypotheses are the researcher’s attempt to explain the phenomenon being studied, and that
explanation should involve a prediction about the variables being studied. These predictions are
then tested by gathering and analyzing data, and the hypotheses can either be supported or
refuted on the basis of the data.
Relationship Between Hypotheses and Research Design
Hypotheses can take many different forms depending on the type of research design
being used. Some hypotheses may simply describe how two things may be related, the researcher
might hypothesize that using alcohol causes poor decision making.Therefore, as may be evident,

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the hypothesis being tested by a researcher is largely dependent on the type of research design
being used.
Experiments
After articulating the hypothesis, the next step involves actually conducting the
experiment (or research study)
Analyses
After conducting the study and gathering the data, the next step involves analyzing the
data, which generally calls for the use of statistical techniques. The type of statistical techniques
used by a researcher depends on the design of the study, the type of data being gathered, and the
questions being asked. Although a detailed discussion of statistics is beyond the scope of this
text, it is important to be aware of the role of statistics in conducting a research study. In short,
statistics help researchers minimize the likelihood of reaching an erroneous conclusion about the
relationship between the variables being studied. A key decision that researchers must make with
the assistance of statistics is whether the null hypothesis should be rejected. Remember that the
null hypothesis always predicts that there will be no difference between the groups. Therefore,
rejecting the null hypothesis means that there is a difference between the groups. In general,
most researchers seek to reject the null hypothesis because rejection means the phenomenon
being studied (e.g., exercise, medication) had some effect.
The decision of whether to reject the null hypothesis is based on the results of statistical
analyses, and there are two types of errors that researchers must be careful to avoid when making
this decision—Type I errors and Type II errors. A Type I error occurs when a researcher
concludes that there is a difference between the groups being studied when, in fact, there is no
difference. This is sometimes referred to as a “false positive.”
By contrast, a Type II error occurs when the researcher concludes that there is not a
difference between the two groups being studied when, in fact, there is a difference. This is
sometimes referred to as a “false negative.” As previously noted, the conclusion regarding
whether there is a difference between the groups is based on the results of statistical analyses.
Specifically, with a Type I error, although there is a statistically significant result, it occurred by
chance (or error) and there is not actually a difference between the two groups. With a Type II
error, there is a nonsignificant statistical result when, in fact, there actually is a difference
between the two groups.
Conclusions
After analyzing the data and determining whether to reject the null hypothesis, the
researcher is now in a position to draw some conclusions about the results of the study.
Replication
One of the most important elements of the scientific method is replication. Replication
essentially means conducting the same research study a second time with another group of
participants to see whether the same results are obtained. The importance of replication in

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research cannot be overstated. Replication serves several integral purposes, including
establishing the reliability (i.e., consistency) of the research study’s findings and determining
whether the same results can be obtained with a different group of participants.
GOALS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
1. Description
description refers to the process of defining, classifying, or categorizing phenomena of
interest. One example of descriptive research is correlational research. In correlational
research (as mentioned earlier), the researcher attempts to determine whether there is a
relationship that is, a correlation between two or more variables
2. Prediction
Prediction-based research often stems from previously conducted descriptive research. If a
researcher finds that there is a relationship (i.e., correlation) between two variables, then it
may be possible to predict one variable from knowledge of the other variable. Many
important questions in both science and the so-called real world involve predicting one thing
based on knowledge of something else.
3. Understanding/Explanation
Being able to describe something and having the ability to predict one thing based on
knowledge of another are important goals of scientific research, but they do not provide
researchers with a true understanding of a phenomenon. One could argue that true
understanding of a phenomenon is achieved only when researchers successfully identify the
cause or causes of the phenomenon. the type of research designs they use. Correlational
research, as previously noted, does not permit researchers to make causal inferences
regarding the relationship between the two things that are correlated.
Chapter II
Planning And Designing A Research Study
Through research, scientists attempt to answer age-old questions, acquire new
knowledge, describe how things work, and ultimately improve the way we all live. Despite the
exciting and rewarding nature of research, deciding to conduct a research study can be
intimidating for both inexperienced and experienced researchers alike. Novice researchers are
frequently surprised—and often overwhelmed—by the sheer number of decisions that need to be
made in the context of a research study. Depending on the scope and complexity of the research
study being considered, there are typically dozens of research related issues that need to be
addressed in the planning stage alone. As a result, the early stages of planning a research study
can often seem overwhelming for novice researchers with little experience
CHOOSING A RESEARCH TOPIC
1. Interest
First and foremost, researchers typically choose research topics that are of interest
to them. Although this may seem like common sense, it is important to occasionally
remind ourselves that researchers engage in researc presumably because they have a

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 genuine interest in the topics that they study. A good question to ask at this point is how
research interests develop in the first place. There are several answers to this question.
Many researchers entered their chosen fields of study with longstanding interests in those
particular fields.
2. Problem Solving
Some research ideas may also stem from a researcher’s motivation to solve a
particular problem. In both our private and professional lives, we have probably all come
across some situation or thing that has caught our attention as being in need of change or
improvement.
3. Previous Research
Researchers also choose research topics based on the results of prior research,
whether conducted by them or by someone else. Researchers will likely attest that
previously conducted research is a rich and plentifu source of research ideas. Through
exposure to the results of research studies, which are typically published in peer-reviewed
journals, a researcher may develop a research interest in a particular area.
4. Theory
Theories often serve as a good source for research ideas. Theories can serve
several purposes, but in the research context, they typically function as a rich source of
hypotheses that can be examined empirically. This brings us to an important point that
should not be glossed over specifically, that research ideas (and the hypotheses and
research designs that follow from those ideas) should be based on some theory

LITERATURE REVIEW
Once a researcher has chosen a specific topic, the next step in the planning phase of a
research study is reviewing the existing literature in that topic area. If you are not yet familiar
with the process of conducting a literature review, it simply means becoming familiar with the
existing literature (e.g., books, journal articles) on a particular topic. Obviously, the amount of
available literature can differ significantly depending on the topic area being studied, and it can
certainly be a time-consuming, arduous, and difficult process if there has been a great deal of
research conducted in a particular area. Ask any researcher (or research assistant) about
conductin literature reviews and you will likely encounter similar comments abou the length of
time that is spent looking for literature on a particular topic. Fortunately, the development of
comprehensive electronic database has facilitated the process of conducting literature reviews. In
the past fe years, individual electronic databases have been developed for several specific fields
of study
Literature reviews are absolutely indispensable when planning a research study because
they can help guide the researcher in an appropriate direction by answering several questions
related to the topic area. Have other researchers done any work in this topic area? What do the
results o their studies suggest? Did previous researchers encounter any unforesee methodological
difficulties of which future researchers should be awar when planning or conducting studies?
Does more research need to b conducted on this topic, and if so, in what specific areas? A

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thorough literature review should answer these and related questions, thereby helpin to set the
stage for the research being planned
FORMULATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM
The research problem typically takes the form of a concise question regarding the
relationship between two or more variables. When articulating a research question, it is critically
important to make sure that the question is specific enough to avoid confusion and to indicate
clearly what is being studied. In other words, the research problem should be composed of a
precisely stated research question that clearly identifies the variables being studied. A vague
research question often results in methodological confusion, because the research question does
not clearly indicate what or who is being studied
ARTICULATING HYPOTHESES
hypotheses attempt to explain, predict, Know and explore the phenomenon of interest. In
many types of studies, this means that hypotheses attempt to explain, predict, and explore the
relationship between two or more variables. To this end, hypotheses can be thought of as the
researcher’s educated guess about how the study will turn out. As such, the hypotheses
articulated in a particular study should logically stem from the research problem being
investigated.
Null Hypotheses and Alternate Hypotheses
the null hypothesis always predicts that there will be no differences between the groups
being studied. If, however, a particular research study does not involve groups of study
participants, but instead involves only an examination of selected variables, the null hypothesis
predicts that there will be no relationship between the variables being studied. By contrast, the
alternate hypothesis always predicts that there will be a difference between the groups being
studied (or a relationship between the variables being studied). In scientific research, keep in
mind that it is the null hypothesis that is tested, and then the null hypothesis is either confirmed
or refuted (sometimes phrased as rejected or not rejected). Remember, if the null hypothesis is
rejected (and that decision is based on the results of statistical analyses, the researcher can
reasonably conclude that there is a difference between the groups being studied (or a relationship
between the variables being studied). Rejecting the null hypothesis allows a researcher to not
reject the alternate hypothesis, and not rejecting a hypothesis is the most we can do in scientific
research. To be clear, we can never accept a hypothesis; we can only fail to reject a hypothesis.
Accordingly, researchers typically seek to reject the null hypothesis, which empirically
demonstrates that the groups being studied differ on the variables being examined in the
study.bThis last point may seem counterintuitive, but it is an extremely important concept that
you should keep in mind.
Directional Hypotheses and Nondirectional Hypotheses
A simple example should help clarify the important distinction between directional and
nondirectional hypotheses. Let’s say that a researcher is using a standard two-group design (i.e.,

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one experimental group and one control group) to investigate the effects of a memory
enhancement class on college students’ memories.
CHOOSING VARIABLES TO STUDY
1. Independent Variables vs. Dependent Variables
The independent variable is the factor that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher.
In most studies, researchers are interested in examining the effects of the independent
variable. In its simplest form, the independent variable has two levels: present or absent.
The dependent variable is a measure of the effect (if any) of the independent variable.
2. Categorical Variables vs. Continuous Variables
Categorical variables are variables that can take on specific values only within a defined
range of values. continuous variables are variables that can theoretically take on any
value along a continuum.
3. Quantitative Variables vs. Qualitative Variables
Qualitative variables are variables that vary in kind, while quantitative variables are those
that vary in amount. As stated at the beginning of this section, there are several other
categories of variables that we will not be discussing in this text. What we have covered
in this section are the major categories that most commonly appear in research studies.
One final comment is necessary. It is important to keep in mind that a single variable may
fit into several of the categories that we have discussed. For example, the variable
“height” is both continuous (if measured along a continuum) and quantitative (because
we are gettingbinformation regarding the amount of height). Along similar lines, the
variable “eye color” is both categorical (because there is a limited number of discrete
categories of eye color) and qualitative (because eye color varies in kind, not amount).
RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS
Selecting participants is one of the most important aspects of planning and designing a
research study. For reasons that should become clear as you read this section, selecting research
participants is often more difficult and more complicated than it may initially appear. In addition
to needing the appropriate number of participants (which may be rather difficult in large-scale
studies that require many participants), researchers need to have the appropriate kinds of
participants (which may be difficult when resources are limited or the pool of potential
participants is small). Moreover, the manner in which individuals are selected to participate, and
the way those participants are subsequently assigned to groups within the study, has a dramatic
effect on the types of conclusions that can be drawn from the research study.
1. Selecting Study Participants
For those research studies that involve human participants, the selection of the
study participants is of the utmost importance. There are several ways in which potential
participants can be selected for inclusion in a research study, and the manner in which
participants are selected is determined by several factors, including the research question
being investigated, the research design being used, and the availability of appropriate
numbers and types of study participants. In this section, we will discuss the most

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 common methods used by researchers for selecting study participants. For some types of
research studies, specific research participants (or groups of research participants) may be
sought out. For obvious reasons, however, it is typically not practical to include every
member of the population of interest (e.g., all recent college graduates) in a research
study. Time, money, and resources are three limiting factors that make this unlikely.
Therefore, most researchers are forced to study a representative subset—a sample—of the
population of interest.
2. Assigning Study Participants to Groups
There is almost universal agreement among researchers that the most effective
method of assigning participants to groups within a research study is through a procedure
called “random assignment.” The philosophy underlying random assignment is similar to
the philosophy underlying random selection. Random assignment involves assigning
participants to groups within a research study in such a way that Research participant has
an equal probability of being assigned to any of the groups within the study. Although
there are several accepted methods that can be used to effectively implement random
assignment, it is typically accomplished by using a table of random numbers that
determines the group assignment for each of the participants. If the sample size is large
enough, the researcher can assume that the nuisance variables are evenly distributed
among the groups, which increases the researcher’s confidence in the equivalence of the
groups.
MULTICULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
Multicultural considerations are important in two distinct ways when in comes to
conducting research studies. First, multicultural considerations often have a considerable effect
on a researcher’s choice of research question and research design (even if the researcher is
unaware of the role played by multicultural considerations in those decisions). Second,
multicultural considerations are important in the selection and composition of the sample of
participants used in particular research studies.
1. Multiculturalism and Researchers
To increase awareness of multicultural issues in the conceptualization of research
designs, the researcher often benefits from consulting with members of diverse and
traditionally underrepresented cultural groups. This serves the purpose of providing
perspectives and insights that may not have otherwise been considered by the researcher
acting alone. Considering different view points from members of diverse cultural groups
facilitates the development of a culturally competent research design that has the
potential to benefit people from many different cultures. Along similar lines, it is also
important for researchers to recognize the limitations of their research designs in terms of
applicability to diverse cultural groups
2. Multiculturalism and Study Participants
In the preceding section, we emphasized the importance of multicultural
considerations in terms of formulating a research question, choosing an appropriate
research design, selecting assessment strategies, and analyzing data and drawing

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conclusions. In this section, we will focus on multicultural considerations as they relate to
selecting the research participants who make up the study sample. As you will see, the
inclusion of people from diverse cultural backgrounds in study samples has attracted a
great deal of attention in recent years. According to the NIH Guidelines, because research
is designed to provide scientific evidence that could lead to a change in health policy or a
standard of care, it is imperative to determine whether the intervention being studied
affects both genders as well as diverse racial and ethnic groups differently. Therefore, all
NIH-supported biomedical and behavioral research involving human participants is
required to be carried out in manner that elicits information about individuals of both
genders and from diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds. According to the Office for
Protection From Research Risks, which is part of the U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, the inclusion of women and minorities in research will, among other
things, help to increase the generalizability of the study’s findings and ensure that women
and minorities benefit from the research.

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 CHAPTER III
ADVANTAGES OF BOOKS
3.1 Linkage of Subchapter
Main Book
• Sub chapter 1 provide an introduction to educational design research as research
approach suitable to address complex problems in educational practices for whichno clear
guidelines for solutions are available
• Sub chapter 2 describes the research function and approach
• Sub chapter 3 describes the research design, the research process, the phases and stages
of the research, as well as the characteristics of the research section 3 defines the aims of
design research is designing and developing intervention as an (innovative) solution to a
complex problem, and therefore the startingpoint for design research are educational
problems for which no or only a few validatedprinciples
• Sub-chapter 4 describes the expected results after research and research design in various
fields related to the results of the research
• Sub chapter 5 describes design research differentiation, where design research has been
in a validated manner effective intervention (as a solution for the problem under study),
and in design principles can be followed by effect studies. Differentiation in design
studies is possible on the basis of variations in goals of design research viz validation
studies versus development studies
• Sub chapter 6 describes the dilemma that will be experienced by researchers such as
1. the researcher is designer and often also evaluator and implementer
2. real-world settings bring real-world complications
3. adaptability
Sub chapters are still interconnected sub chapters after that explain the problems in the
previous sub chapters by deepening the description and help with various illustrations such as
pictures, charts, and research tables
Comparison Book
Each sub-chapter explains the previous sub-chapter, is related to each other and deepens
the subject as the number of chapters increases. This book describes the research design and the
stages and basic rules for conducting research
3.2 Book Up To Date
Both books were published in the 2000s, the knowledge described and explained in the
book is still quite up-to-date aided by citations that cover the knowledge in it, this book is still
worth reading with the help of references to other sources newest published.

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 CHAPTER IV
The Weakness of The Book
4.1 Linkages between subchapters
4.1.1 The first book
Overall, this book has good linkages between sub-chapters where the presentation
is conveyed through the stages of a coherent research design so that readers can
understand well, but the exposure is too much so it takes a lot of time to read as a
whole and there are also sub-chapters that are not too important but are delivered too
complex in this book.

4.1.2 The second book

Overall this book also has good linkages between sub-chapters where the
presentation is conveyed through the stages of a coherent research design and is
complemented by examples that are relevant and easy to understand for readers, but
the explanation does not specifically discuss sub-chapters on education. as stated in
the first book, where the content of this book is more towards quantitative and
scientific research.

4.2 Book up-to-date

If this book is seen from the year it was published, the first book was published in 2007
and the second book was published in 2005 where this includes that this book is an old book,
this has resulted in the theories presented in this book not necessarily being used until now
and the correctness is not guaranteed in the present for that in addition maybe the readers can
look for more up to date references from this book. However, even though this is the case,
the writer still uses accurate and reliable references such as books with ISBNs, accredited
journals and with books whose authors are experts in the field of research methodology. The
author of the first book also provides a link that we can access if we want to see the reference
sources he uses in his sub-chapters.

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 CHAPTER V
Book Implications
5.1 Implications of the book for theory
The theories regarding research design in these two books are clearly presented, and have
an impact on research development. So that readers can deepen and expand existing
knowledge. The author also provides reliable references and a large number. In addition, the
author's success in proving the theories presented in the references in each of these sub-
chapters is very good, thereby increasing the security of information for each of these sub-
chapters. One thing that is lacking in these two books is the publication year which is
somewhat too far, more than 5 years ago, this is what makes the theory presented is not
necessarily still in use today.

5.2 Implications of the book for development programs in Indonesia

In this book, it can be seen clearly that the development programs that can occur if the
readers fully understand the complex and systematic research design. This book can be used
as self-development, especially among young people and students in Indonesia so that later
they can become young researchers who are able to compete with other countries. With the
complexity of the contents of these two books, readers are asked to learn to be good
researchers and be able to advance their own country in the field of research.

5.3 Implications of books for student analysis

This book can be used as an insight-enhancing material for students, especially students
who want to do research or write a thesis. Students will be able to be more careful when
making research designs in solving problems that often occur in their research. The
explanation of the research design that is quite clear, starting from the meaning, objectives,
characteristics, validation studies, development studies in research design and so on is very
helpful for readers to always fully understand the contents of this book. The presentation that
was delivered also used relevant and easy-to-understand examples to enable students to apply
it to research which would later convince the research examiners of the contribution of
science and theory used to solve research problems.
5.4

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 CHAPTER VI
Conclusion and Suggestion
6.1 Conlusion
Educational design research is perceived as the systematic study of designing, developing
and evaluating educational interventions, such as programs,teaching-learning strategies and
materials, products and systems as solutions to such problems, which also aims at advancing
our knowledge about the characteristics of these interventions and the processes to design
and develop them. The key focus in all scientific research is the search for ‘understanding’ or
for ‘knowing’ with the aim of contributing to the body of knowledge or a theory in the
domain of research. Various research functions, each reflecting certain types of research
questionsare : to describe, to compare,to evaluate, to explain or to predict and to design and
develop. Design research comprises of a number of stages or phases: preliminary research,
prototyping phase and assessment phase.characteristic of scientific research are: empirical
approach, observations, questions, hypotheses, experiment, analyses, conclusion, replication.
For planning research design, we can choosing research topic, literature review, formulating
research problem, articulating hypotheses, choosing variables, research participants, and
multicultural consideration. The differentiation between types of design research, such as
validation studies versus development studies, serves mainly conceptual purposes.validation
studies have a focus on designing learning environments or trajectories with the purpose to
develop and validate theories about the process of learning and how learning environments
can be designed. While development studies aim towards design principles for developing
innovative interventions that are relevant for educational practice. “development studies
integrate state-of-the-art knowledge from prior research in the design process and fine-tune
educational innovations based on piloting in the field.there are some design research
dilemmas, such as the researcher is designer and often also evaluator and implementer, real-
world settings bring real-world complications and adaptability.

6.2 Suggestion
As a suggestion for readers, readers should be able to read and understand these two
books, especially for readers among students, this book is very helpful for readers to make
research designs that are in accordance with scientific systematics among researchers.

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Bibliography
Marczyk, G., DeMatteo, D., &Festinger, D. (2005). Essentials of research design and
methodology. USA :John wiley& sons, Inc..

Plomp, Tjeerd. (2007). Educational Design Research: an Introduction. Netherlands: Netherlands

Institute for Curriculum Development.

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