Вы находитесь на странице: 1из 53

Міністерство освіти і науки України

Одеський національний університет ім. І. І. Мечникова

Інститут соціальних наук

О.М. Набока
Н.О. Коваль

ENGLISH TENSES
THEORY

«Астропринт»
Одеса
2006
2

Автори-укладачі: О.М. Набока , старший викладач кафедри іноземних мов гуманітарних


факультетів ОНУ;
Н.О. Коваль, викладач кафедри іноземних мов гуманітарних
факультетів ОНУ;

Друкується за рішенням Вченої ради Інституту соціальних наук Одеського національного


університету ім. І. І. Мечникова
Протокол № ____ від _________ 2006 р.
3
CONTENTS

The Present Indefinite Tense……………………………………………………………….4


The Present Continuous Tense……………………………………………………………..8
The Present Perfect Tense……………………………………………………………….. 30
The Present Perfect Continuous Tense…………………………………………………….33
The Past Indefinite Tense…………………………………………………………………15
The Past Continuous Tense……………………………………………………………….20
The Past Perfect Tense……………………………………………………………………36
The Past Perfect Continuous Tense………………………………………………………39
The Future Indefinite Tense……………………………………………………………….26
The Future Continuous Tense…………………………………………………………….29
The Future Perfect Tense …………………………………………………………………41
The Future Perfect Continuous Tense …………………………………………………….43
The Future-In-The-Past Tense……………………………………………………………..45
4
THE PRESENT INDEFINITE (SIMPLE) TENSE

I. The formation of the Present Indefinite.


1. The Present Indefinite is formed from the infinitive without the particle to.
The third person singular adds –s; -es to the Infinitive.

2. The interrogative and the negative forms are formed by means of the Present
Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to do and the infinitive of the notional verb
without the particle to.

Affirmative Interrogative Negative


I work Do I work? I do not work
He works Does he work? He does not work
She works Does she work? She does not work
We work Do we work? We do not work
You work Do you work? You do not work
They work Do they work? They do not work

3. The contracted negative forms are:

I don’t work
He doesn’t work
They don’t work

4. The negative-interrogative forms are:

Do you not work?


Don’t you work?
Does he not work?
Doesn’t he work?

II. SPELLING NOTES

Verbs ending in -ss, -sh, -ch, -x and -о add es, instead of s alone, to form the third person
singular:
I kiss, he kisses I box, he boxes
I rush, he rushes I do, he does
I watch, he watches I go, he goes
When -у follows a consonant we change the у into i and add -es:
I carry, he carries
I copy, he copies
I try, he tries
but verbs ending in у following a vowel obey the usual rule:
I obey, he obeys
I say, he says

III. The Present Indefinite is used in the following cases:


1. to denote habitual actions, to state facts in the present.
5

I live in St.-Petersburg.
Most dogs bark.

2. to state general rules or laws of nature, that is to show that something was true in the past,
is true in the present, and will be true in the future.

Snow melts at 0 C.
Two plus two makes four.

3. to denote recurrent actions or everyday activity. This use is often associated with such
adverbial modifiers of frequency as often
seldom
sometimes
occasionally
always
never
ever
every year ( week, month, day )
usually
once ( twice, thrice ) a year
daily
on Sundays and the like

He usually wakes up around six o’clock and has his cup of coffee.
On Sundays we stay at home.
Do you often go to the dancing hall?

4. to denote actions and states continuing at the moment of speaking (with stative and
relational verbs).

He wants to see you at the moment.


Who does the car belong to?
I do not understand you at all.

5. to express an instantaneous action which takes place at the moment of speaking but it is not
viewed in its progress. The speaker just names the occurrence itself, the actions as such.

You leave me no choice.


I swear it to you.
I refuse to listen to you .You talk such nonsense.

6. to express declarations, announcements, etc. referring to the moment of speaking.

I declare the meeting open.


I agree to your proposal.

7. to express a succession of point actions taking place at the moment of speaking (in the
outlines of novels, plays, stage directions, films, demonstrations, etc. It is often used by radio
commentators at sports events).
6

Now I peel the apples, slice them and put them into the dish. (demonstration )
When the curtain rises, Juliet is writing at her desk. Suddenly the window opens and
a masked man enters. (the action of the play)

Now watch me closely: I take a match, light it, put it into the glass and … oh,
nothing happens!

8. to denote future actions. Mostly with verbs of motion ( to go, to come, to start, to leave, to
return, to arrive, to sail, etc.) usually if the actions denote a settled plan and the future time is
indicated:

I go to Moscow next.
She leaves for England in two months

9. to denote future actions in adverbial clauses of time after conjunctions when


till (until)
as soon as
as long as
before
after
while
once

She won’t go to bed till you come.


As soon as he earns any money he spends it.

10. to denote future actions in adverbial clauses of condition after conjunctions if


unless
in case
on condition that
provided
providing

But I must have the doctor handy, in case she feels worse.
Unless you take the brake off the car won’t move.

11. to denote future actions in adverbial clauses of concession after conjunctions


even if
even though
no matter how
whenever
whatever
however
Even if he hates me I shall never do him any harm.
I’ll have dinner whenever it’s ready.

12. to denote past actions in newspapers headlines.


7
Students Say No To New Weapon.

13. in narratives or stories to express a succession of actions in the past to make it more
vividly (the so-called historic or dramatic present).

It was so unexpected. You see, I came home late last night, turned on the light and -
Whom do you see I think? Jack, old Jack, sleeping in the chair.
I give a cry and rush to him.

14. to denote completed actions with the meaning of the present perfect (with the verbs to
forget, to hear, to be told).

I forget your telephone number.


I hear you are leaving for England?
I am told she returned from France last week.

15. in object clauses after to see (to), to take care, and to make (be) sure.

I’ll see that the lady is properly looked after.


He will take care that no one interferes with them.

16. in exclamatory and interrogative sentences.

My dear, how you throw about your money!


Why do you talk like that to me?

17. to indicate a future action which is certain to take place according to a timetable,
programme, schedule, command or arrangement worked out for a person or persons
officially. In this case the sentence usually contains an indication of time.
His ship sails tomorrow.
Can you tell me what time the game starts today, please?
When does Tom return from honeymoon?
18. To express immediate future in some special questions.

What do we do next?
Where do we go now?
What happens next?

19. with the verb say, when we are asking about or quoting from books, notices or very
recently received letters.
What does that letter say?
I see you have got a letter from Ann. What does she say?
Shakespeare says, » Neither a borrower nor a lender be”
8
THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

I. The formation of the Present Continuous Tense

1. The Present Continuous is formed by means of the Present Indefinite of


the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the notional verb.

2. In the interrogative from the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject. In the
negative form the negative particle not is placed after the auxiliary verb.

Affirmative Interrogative Negative


I am reading am I reading? I am not reading
He is reading is he reading? He is not reading
She is reading is she reading? She is not reading
We are reading are we reading? We are not reading
You are reading are you reading? You are not reading
They are reading are they reading? They are not reading

3. The contracted affirmative forms are:

I’m reading
She’s reading
We’re reading

4. The contracted negative forms are:

She isn’t reading


We aren’t reading

5. The negative- interrogative forms are:

Am I not reading?
Is she not reading?
Isn’t she reading?
Are you not reading?
Aren’t you reading?

II. SPELLING NOTES

1. When a verb ends in a single e, this e is dropped before in:

Argue, arguing
Hate, hating
Love, loving
Except after age, dye and singe:
Ageing
Dyeing
Singeing
and verbs ending in ее:
agree, agreeing
9
see, seeing

2. When a verb of one syllable has one vowel and ends in a single consonant, this
consonant is
doubled before -ing:

hit, hitting
run, running
stop, stopping
Verbs of two or more syllables whose last syllable contains only one vowel and ends in a
single consonant double this consonant if the stress falls on the last syllable:
admit, admitting
begin, beginning
prefer, preferring
but
budget, budgeting
enter, entering
(stress not on the last syllable).
A final 1 after a single vowel is, however, always doubled:
signal, signalling
travel, travelling
(except in American English.)
3. -ing can be added to a verb ending in у without affecting the spelling of the verb:

carry, carrying
enjoy, enjoying
hurry, hurrying

III. The Present Continuous Tense is used to denote:

1. actions or events which are in progress at the moment of speaking. To emphasize this, we
often use adverbials like now, at the moment, just, etc.:
Someone's knocking at the door. Can you answer it?
What are you doing? - I'm just tying up my shoe-laces.
He's working at the moment, so he can't come to the telephone.
What's the baby doing? ~ He's tearing up a £5 note

Actions in progress are seen as uncompleted.

He is talking to his girlfriend on the phone.

We can emphasize the idea of duration with still.

He is still talking to his girlfriend on the phone.


10
The Present Continuous can be used to denote a certain state or quality peculiar to
the person at a given moment.

You are being nervous.

2. for an action happening about this time but not necessarily at the moment of speaking:

He is teaching French and learning Greek.

Indications of time are not necessary.

They are getting ready to move to their new house.

3. for a definite arrangement in the near future (the most usual way of expressing one's
immediate plans):

I'm meeting Peter tonight. He is taking me to the theatre.


He is having a meeting with the boss this afternoon.

Note that the time of the action must always be mentioned, as otherwise there might be
confusion between present and future meanings, come and go, however, can be used in this
way without a time expression.

4. with a point in time to indicate an action which begins before this point and probably
continues after it:

At six I am bathing the baby. (I start bathing him before six.)

5. to express the action generally characterizing the person denoted by the subject, bringing
out the person’s typical traits. Often the adverbial modifiers always and constantly are found
in these sentences:

You are constantly complaining that you have too much to do.
He is always losing his keys.

The Present Continuous in this case imparts a subjective, emotionally coloured tone.When no
emotional colouring is implied, the Present Indefinite is used:

Old uncle Harry is always thinking he’s going to be ruined.


You people always think I’ve a bag of money.

6. for a frequently repeated action, usually when the frequency annoys the speaker or
seems unreasonable to him:

Tom is always going away for weekends.

(Present continuous) would imply that he goes away very often, probably too often in
the speaker's opinion.
11
7. for an action which appears to be continuous:

He's always working = He works the whole time.

This sort of action quite often annoys the speaker but doesn't necessarily do so

8. to describe current trends:

People are becoming less tolerant of smoking these days


The population of the world is increasing.

VERBS NOT NORMALLY USED IN THE


CONTINUOUS TENSES

The continuous tenses are chiefly used for deliberate actions. Some verbs are, therefore, not
normally used in the continuous and have only one present tense, the simple present. These
verbs can be grouped as follows:

I.Verbs of the senses (involuntary actions): feel, hear, see, smell; also notice and observe
(= notice), and feel, look, taste used as link verbs.
Verbs such as gaze, listen, look (at), observe (= watch), stare and watch imply deliberate
use of the senses, and can, of course, be used in the continuous tenses:
Watch! ~ I am watching but I don't see anything unusual.
He is listening to a tape, but he's wearing earphones so nobody else
hears it.

II. Verbs expressing feelings,emotions and wish , e.g. admire (= respect), 1 adore,
appreciate (= value), care for (= like), desire, detest, dislike, fear, hate, like, loathe,
love, mind (= care), respect, value, want, wish.
But the continuous can be used with admire meaning 'look at with admiration', appreciate
meaning 'increase in value', care for meaning 'look after', long for, mind meaning 'look
after/concern oneself with', value meaning 'estimate the financial worth of, enjoy and
sometimes like/love meaning 'enjoy', and hate meaning the opposite, though it is safer to use
the simple tenses with like, love and hate:
He's enjoying his holiday in the Arctic He hates touristy places and
he doesn 't mind the cold.
I'm minding my own business.
How are you liking/Do you like your new job? ~
I'm hating it/I hate it. I just don't like work, you see.

III. Verbs of mental activity , e.g. agree, appreciate ( = understand), assume, believe,
expect (= think), feel (= think), feel sure/certain, forget, know, mean, perceive,
12
realize, recall, recognize, recollect, remember, see (= understand), see through
someone (= penetrate his attempt to deceive), suppose, think ( = have an opinion), trust
(= believe/have confidence in), understand. But the continuous can be used with appreciate
meaning 'to increase in value', doubt, guess, imagine, prefer.

IV. Verbs of possession : belong, owe, own, possess:


How much do I owe you?

V. Verbs denoting abstract relations: be, have, depend, fit, deserve, include,
involve, lack, need, resemble, appear (= seem), concern, consist, contain, hold
(= contain), keep (= continue), matter, seem, signify, sound (= seem/appear):
It concerns us all. This box contains explosives.
But appear meaning 'to come before the public' can be used in the continuous.
VI. Verbs denoting physical properties of objects: measure (=have length, width, etc.), taste (=have
a flavour), smell (=give a smell), weigh (=have weigh).

VII. Verbs denoting effect or influence: astonish, impress, please, satisfy, surprise.

feel, look, smell and taste used in the continuous forms


1.feel
feel, when followed by an adjective indicating the subject's emotions or physical or mental
condition, e.g. angry/pleased, happy/sad, hot/cold, tense/relaxed, nervous/confident, is normally
used in the simple tenses but can also be used in the continuous:
How do you feel/are you feeling? ~ I feel/am feeling better.
feel meaning 'touch' (usually in order to learn something) can be used in the continuous:
The doctor was feeling her pulse. Similarly, feel for meaning 'try to find something by
touching':
He was feeling for the keyhole in the dark. But feel is not used in the continuous when
it means 'sense':
Don't you feel the house shaking? when it means 'think':
I feel you are wrong and when it is used as a link verb:
The water feels cold.

2. look
The continuous is not used with look used as a link verb, e.g. That cake looks good, or with look
on (= consider), look up to (= respect) and look down on (= despise) (see chapter 38). But
13
look (at), look for/in/into/out and look on (= watch) are deliberate actions and can be used in
the continuous tenses:
He is looking for his glasses.
I'm looking out for a better job.
3. smell
The continuous is not used with smell meaning 'perceive a scent/an odour', e.g. I smell gas,
or with smell used as a link verb, but can be used with smell meaning 'sniff at':
Why are you smelling the milk? Does it smell sour?
4.taste
taste as a link verb is not used in the continuous:
This coffee tastes bitter, (has a bitter taste) But taste meaning 'to test the flavour of
can be used in the continuous:
She was tasting the pudding to see if it was sweet enough.

see and hear used in the continuous forms

1. see can be used in the continuous when it means 'meet by appointment' (usually for
business), 'interview':
The director is seeing the applicants this morning,
1 am seeing my solicitor tomorrow.
Also when it means 'visit' (usually as a tourist):
Tom is seeing the town/the sights.
It can also be used in the continuous in the following combinations: see about = make
arrangements or enquiries:
We are seeing about a work permit for you. (trying to arrange this) see to = arrange,
put right, deal with:
The plumber is here. He is seeing to the leak in our tank. see somebody out =
escort him/her to the door. see somebody home = escort him/her home, see somebody
to + place = escort him/her to + place:
ANN: Is Bill seeing you home after the party?
MARY: No, he's just seeing me to my bus.
see someone off = say goodbye to a departing traveller at the starting point of his journey
(usually the station, airport etc.):
We 're leaving tomorrow. Bill is seeing us off at the airport.

2. hear can be used in the continuous when it means 'listen formally to' (complaints/evidence etc.):
The court is hearing evidence this afternoon.
14
hear meaning 'receive news or letters' can also be used in the continuous form but only in
the present perfect and future:
I've been hearing all about your accident.
You 'll be hearing about the new scheme at our next meeting.

think, assume and expect used in the continuous forms

1.think can be used in the continuous when no opinion is given or asked for:
What are you thinking about? - I ' m thinking about the play we saw last night.
But
What do you think of it? (opinion asked for) ~ / don't think much of it. (opinion
given)
Tom is thinking of emigrating. What do you think of the idea? ~
I think it is a stupid idea. He should stay where he is.

2. assume can be used in the continuous when it means 'accept as a starting point':
I'm assuming that you have time to do a lot of research.
assume power/control of a country or organization can also be the continuous:
The new government is assuming power at once.

3.expect can be used in the continuous when it means “await‘:

I'm expecting a letter. She's expecting a baby in May.

THE PAST INDEFINITE (SIMPLE) TENSE

I. The formation of the Past Indefinite.

The Past Indefinite is formed by adding -ed or -d to the stem (regular verbs),
or by changing the root vowel, or in some other ways (irregular verbs).

Verbs ending in -e add -d only:

Infinitive: to love Simple past: loved


The same form is used for all persons:

I worked you worked he worked etc.

2. The interrogative and the negative forms are formed by means of the Present Indefinite of
the auxiliary verb to do and the Infinitive of the notional verb without the particle to.

Affirmative Interrogative Negative

I worked (wrote) Did I work? (write) I did not work (write)


15
He worked (wrote) Did he work? (write) He did not work (write)
She worked (wrote) Did she work? (write) She did not work (write)
We worked (wrote) Did we work? (write) We did not work (write)
You worked (wrote) Did you work? (write) You did not work (write)
They worked (wrote) Did they work? (write) They did not work (write)

3. The contracted negative forms are:

I didn`t work
She didn`t work

4. The negative-interrogative forms are:

Did you not work?


Didn`t you work?

Irregular verbs: form

These vary considerably in their simple past form:


Infinitive: to eat, to leave, to see, to speak
Simple past: ate, left, saw, spoke
The simple past form of each irregular verb must therefore be learnt, but once this is done there
is no other difficulty, as irregular verbs (like regular verbs) have no inflexions in the past tense.

A list of irregular verbs will be found on page 49


II. SPELLING NOTES

The rules about doubling the final consonant when adding ing (see p.6) apply also when adding -
ed:
admit, admitted
stop, stopped
travel, travelled
Verbs ending in -у following a consonant change the -у into -i before adding -ed:
carry, carried
try, tried
but -у following a vowel does not change:
obey, obeyed.

III. The use of the Past Indefinite.

1. The Past Indefinite denotes a single action performed within a period of time which is
already over. The action is cut off from the present. The time of the action may be
indicated by adverbials of past time, such as yesterday,
the day before yesterday,
a week ago,
last year,
16
in 1971, etc.

The sun came out a moment ago.


Miss Helstone stayed the whole evening.
Ellean breakfasted two hours ago, and then went out walking with the dog.

The Past Indefinite can correspond to the Russian past perfective and past imperfective
(совершенный и несовершенный вид).

Не smoked a cigarette and left the room (выкурил). He smoked in


silence for a few minutes (курил).
The translation depends on the context and the lexical char acter of the verb.

The time of the action may be implied in the situation through the mention of the place of
the action or other attending circumstances.

I ate turnips in Germany.


Did you belong to any society at the University?
But sometimes the mention of the time or place of the action appears unnecessary because
reference is made to a particular action which is definite in the mind of the speaker and
the hearer.

Sorry! I didn’t mean to hurt you.


I slept very badly.

Note: The Simple Past, never the Present Perfect, is used in questions beginning
with when, because when implies a certain moment in the past. The answer can be
either in the Past Indefinite or in the Present Perfect, depending on the situation:

— When did you see him?


— I saw him two days ago.
Or: I have just seen him. (just now)
When did you actually arrive?

The Past Indefinite is also used in special questions beginning with where and how
when they refer to the past events. The Present Perfect is not common here because
the attention in such sentences is drawn to the circumstances of the action rather than
to the occurrence itself, which means that the speaker has a definite action in mind.
Where did your uncle receive his guests?" "Right here."
How did he get in?" I asked, and Evans said, "Oh, he has a key."
Where is my hat? Where did I leave my hat?"

Yet the Past Indefinite may also be found in present time context with such adverbial
modifiers of time as this morning,
tonight,
today,etc.
17
if the period is over or reference is made to a particular past point of time within that
period

Did you see the letter in the “Times” this morning?(It is no longer morning)
2. In narrations to express a succession of action of past actions.

He threw down his spade and entered the house.

3. To express recurrent actions. It is generally supported by the use of adverbial modifiers


of frequency such as often,
never
now and again,
sometimes
always, etc.

You often mentioned her in your letters.


But sometimes he found his work difficult.
4. To express the immediate past. We can sometimes use the simple past without a time
reference to describe something that happened a very short time ago:

Jimmy punched me in the stomach.


Did the telephone ring?
Who left the door open?

5. To express polite inquiries, etc. The simple past does not always refer to past time. It can
also be used for polite inquries (particularly asking for favours), often with verbs like hope,
think or wonder. Compare:

I wonder if you could give me a lift.


I wondered if you could give me a lift.

6. To express permanent actions which indicate continuous, uninterrupted processes in the


past, giving a general characteristic of the person or thing denoted by the subject.

She lived alone in London, and saw no one except me.

I knew they loved each other, but they always quarrelled.


He made an entry in his diary every night.

Note. In English there are special means of expressing a recurrent or perma nent action in the
past. They are used to + infinitive and would + infinitive. Used (pronounced [ju:st]) to +
infinitive has only one form — that of the past tense which occurs in present-time- and past-
time contexts. It generally serves to express recurrent actions which may be either point actions
or actions of some duration.

"She used to give me chocolate," murmured Imogen.


18
I used to meet him sometimes when he was working on the Chronicle here.
I liked reading in the garden. I used to take out a deck-chair, sit under one of the
apple-trees and read.

Sometimes used to + infinitive with a durative verb serves to express an action giving a
permanent characteristic of the subject of the sentence in the past. In this case it implies
contrast between the past and the present — what was typical of the past is no longer true at
present. This meaning is naturally found in present-time contexts.

I used to be as sentimental as anyone a few years ago," said Ann.


You wouldn't have the same comforts in the country, dear, I know.
I used to live there as a girl. I don't exactly hear as I used to.

The negative and interrogative forms of used to + infinitive are very seldom found and
there is fluctuation in the way they are built up.

Lena didn't use to like the clock, did she?


"I'm not mean." "You usedn't to be. But you have been lately, haven't you?"
Cedric, what's come over you? You used not to talk like that. "And what did
they use to give you on Sundays?" he was asking as I came in. "Who do writers
write for now?"
"Who did they use to write for? People, of course." Used you to climb the old
apple-tree in the garden?

It is necessary to point out that occasionally used to + infinitive is found where normally
the Past Perfect would be used.
He ordered dinner, and sat down in the very corner, at the very table perhaps,
at which he and young Jolyon used to sit twenty-five years ago.

Would + infinitive is more restricted in its application than used to + infinitive. It is found
only in past-time contexts and serves to express only recurrent ac tions. On the whole, would +
infinitive is typical of literary style.
She would often wake up screaming in the night.
She seemed able to do nothing for an infinite time without feeling bored.

Sometimes I would go out and sit with her for a little on the grass. He was usually active
and interested, but sometimes he would have fits of depression.

7. To express an action going on at a given past moment. Gener ally this meaning is
rendered by the Past Continuous . But we resort to the Past Indefinite in the following
cases:
19
a) The use of the Past Indefinite becomes obligatory with stative verbs.
She sipped her coffee and pulled a face. She thought it tasted horrible.
She was ill at ease, and he felt sorry for her. He wanted all her troubles
for himself at that moment.

b) The Past Indefinite may be used instead of the Past Continuous with certain durative verbs.
They are to sit, to stand, to lie, to hang, to shine, to gleam, to talk, to speak, to wear, to carry, to
walk and some others. In such cases the action as such is only named, and it is often the
circumstances under which it takes place that are really important.

Barbara and Basil sat in the garden after lunch. The smoke from Basil's
cigar hung on the humid air.

The lights in the house were out, but a rising moon gleamed against one
window in the room where little Mary slept.

We went to the bus stop. The full moon shone down on the lightless blind-
faced street.

His hair was newly cut, he wore a stiff white collar, a bowler hat, a thin gold
watch-chain and other marks of respectability, and he carried a new umbrella.

He talked with acute intensity.

Her face was heavy: she spoke with deep emotion.

He walked between us, listening attentively to our conversation.

Note. Note that when we speak of inanimate things the Past Indefinite is the norm with
the verbs mentioned above.

On the table lay three rows of cards face upwards.

Outside, beyond the colonnade, the ground froze hard and the trees
stood out white against the leaden sky.

8. To express a future action viewed from the past. This use is found in reported speech and
is structurally dependent. It occurs in clauses of time, condition and concession;the
Future-in-the-Past or modal verbs are usually used in the principal clause in this case.

He knew that she was determined to marry him, and would, if she thought

it useful, lie and cheat and steal until she brought it off.
9. The Past Indefinite may have a special form which is used for emphasis. This
emphatic form is built analytically,by means of the Past Indefinite of the auxiliary
verb to do followed by the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle to.The
auxiliary is heavily stressed in this case.
20
I did insist on it.
He did participated in this conference.

THE PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE

I. The formation of the Past Continuous Tense

1. The Past Continuous is formed by means of the Past Indefinite of the auxiliary verb
to be and Participle I of the notional verb.

2. In the interrogative from the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

3. In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the auxiliary verb.

Affirmative Interrogative Negative


I was reading Was I reading? I was not reading
He was reading Was he reading? He was not reading
She was reading Was she reading? She was not reading
We were reading Were we reading? We were not reading
You were reading Were you reading? You were not reading
They were reading Were they reading? They were not reading

4. The contracted negative forms are:

She wasn’t reading


We weren’t reading

5. The negative- interrogative forms are:

Was I not reading?


Wasn’t I reading?
Was she not reading?
Wasn’t she reading?
Were you not reading?
Weren’t you reading?

II. The use of the Past Continuous.


The Past Continuous is characterized by the same features as the Present Continuous but unlike
the Present Continuous it is associated with a certain moment in the past.
1. It serves to express an action which is going on at a given moment in the past.
At 10 it was still raining.
When I called him up ,he was still having breakfast.
The fire began at midnight when everybody was sleeping.
A given past moment indicated in these sentences by stating the precise time or with the help
of another action which is normally a point action expressed in the Past Indefinite.
21
Sometimes no indication of a given past moment is necessary.That means that the action begins
before that definite past moment, is in progress at that moment and will continue for some
time after it. The most typical feature of this use of the Past Continuous is that the precise time
limits of the action are not known, its beginning and its end are not specified.

Though there was no apparent sense in his words, they all knew that he was
referring to June. She looked unbelievingly at him. Surely he was joking.

2. The Past Continuous is used to express an action going on at a given period of time in the
past.

In this case the precise limits of the action are not known either. The indication of the past period
of time is generally deduced from the context but it may be also indicated in the sentence in
various ways which have no special form.

Wakefield was in New York when news of the illness of Nicholas reached him. He was

acting in a play that had had a success in London.

Andrew had no idea whether he was doing well or badly in his exams.

He remembered that Helen had met her first husband when she was working in a New
York publishing house.

As a rule, this use of Past Continuous does not imply that the action is in process uninterruptedly
all that period of time. Moreover, it usually means that the action does not fill up the whole period,
the main implication being that it is generally the most characteristic feature of the doer of the
action during that period of time. This idea is derived from the descriptive character of the
Continuous form.

Note. As has been said, the Past Indefinite is preferred to the Past Continuous when
attention is focused on the manner in which the action is performed, i.e. when there is an
adverbial modifier of manner or comparison in the sentence.However, the Past Continuous is
occasionally found, too.

She was speaking with difficulty, as though she had to think hard about each word.

Yet he was speaking with absolute nakedness.

3. Owing to its dynamic character, the Past Continuous may be used to express actions
generally characterizing the person denoted by the subject, i.e. bringing out the person's
typical traits. Often such adverbial modifiers as always, constantly, perpetually, for ever, etc. are
found in this case in the sentence.
22
"Archer's tray," Adeline said, indicating it with a bandaged thumb. She was always
suffering from a cut or a burn.
He was always experimenting. He wasn't really a doctor, he was a bacteriologist.

She was noisy and constantly trying to attract attention by any means.

This application also has descriptive force, the characteristic given to the subject of the sentence is
emotionally coloured.

4. The Past Continuous is also found to indicate a future action viewed from the past. It is
an action which is supposed to take place in the near future due to a previous arrangement. The time
of the action need not always be mentioned as it is easily understood from the situation.

Why didn't you tell me you were starting?


He did not know how he could send word that he was not coming.
But I knew that Uncle Nicholas was leaving me money. You said you were
going, Frank, 1 think. At the end of the week she wired that she was returning.

Note. Notice the following sentence which is a stereotype. It is emotionally coloured,


expressing irritation: I thought you were never coming.

5. The Past Continuous may serve to denote unreality (referring to the present or future or
simultaneous with another action). This use is structurally dependent as it is found in
certain types of subordinate clauses, mainly in clauses of condition and concession, in object
clauses after the verb to wish, in clauses of comparison and in object clauses after the expression it
is time.
If I were describing the chap in one of my unsaleable stories I should write of him as
being five-foot-nine. Even if he were not being offensive, he would have tempted me to
say something hard.
" I wish you were coming with us, Mrs Whiteoak," said Swift.
They were eating their ice-cream with concentration, as though they were making
an experiment in the college laboratory.
***
It should be borne in mind that there are the same restrictions to the use of the Past
Continuous as to the application of the Present Continuous in so far as the lexical character of
verbs is concerned.
Like the Present Continuous, the Past Continuous may be found with verbs which normally
do not admit of the Continuous form. It occurs either because the verb has changed its meaning or
for reasons of emotional colouring.
23
He gazed at the picture. It surprised him. He had always liked it, but it seemed that now
he was seeing it for the first time.

I was seeing George regularly now. He took me as an equal. I had a horrid feeling
that she was seeing right through me and knowing all about me.

The butler had replied that Lord Percy was confined to bed and was seeing nobody.

The next morning, as 1 was going out of the college, I met the Master in the court.
"1 was wanting to catch you, Eliot," he said. They followed the path across a
stubble field where small birds were finding their evening meal.

He felt he was being the little ray of sunshine about the home and making a good
impression. Nothing that I could say would convince him that I was not being
intentionally humourous.
With some verbs the Past Continuous or the Past Indefinite may be used without any marked
change of meaning as these verbs in themselves imply continuity or duration. This, in the first
place, refers to the verbs to feel, to wear and to look.

Cf. His thoughts were interrupted by Ted Newton, the dentist, who stopped at the table

for a quick straight drink. Ted was wearing a racoon coat.


A few minutes later he came from the direction of the stables. He wore riding breeches.

It is important for practical purposes to consider the following sentence patterns in which
we find the Past Indefinite and/or the Past Continuous used in different combinations with each
other.
1) There is a sentence pattern which is a complex sentence with a clause of time introduced
by the conjunction as. Within that pattern there may be three different kinds of time relation
between the actions of the principal and the subordinate clauses.
a) The actions of the two clauses may be fully simultaneous. In this case the Past Indefinite
is commonly found in both clauses.
I watched him as he drank his tea.
Renny and Piers talked little as they drove home.
Christian listened with a kind of hypnotized boredom as
Norman continued to hold forth. She was sitting half-in, half-out of the shadow,
and she seldom looked at my father as she spoke.
24
Occasionally the Past Continuous is found in the principal clause whereas the Past Indefinite
is still used in the clause of time. It usually happens when the verb in the principal clause is
terminative and the Past Indefinite would indicate a completed action.

As we walked along the country footpath, 1 was myself sorting out my official thoughts
collecting what I could safely say to Drawbell.
And as 1 poured her out a glass of sherry, she was saying: "I always imagined you
darker than Martin."

b) The actions of the principal and the subordinate clauses may be partially simultaneous, when
the action of the subordinate clause serves as a background for the action of the principal clause
which is usually a shorter accomplished action. In this case we normally find the Past Continuous
in the subordinate clause and the Past Indefinite in the principal clause.

As he and Renny were passing the closed door of a bedroom Renny said, "In there is
my Uncle Nicholas. You'll meet him later."
But as I was playing with the baby she remarked, all of a sudden: "Lewis, you'd
rather be alone, wouldn't you?" One evening just as I was leaving the office, Martin
rang me up.

Occasionally the Past Indefinite is found in both clauses.

As we talked I realized that to Irene it seemed as strange, as exciting, as different a


slice of existence, as Martin had found hers.

c) The actions of the two clauses may form a succession. In this case, naturally, only the Past

Indefinite is found.

As she turned the corner and advanced toward the court a man standing near the
gates moved in her direction.

As the sun disappeared, a fresh breeze stirred the new curtains at the window.

I saw his eyes flash. As they met mine, I knew in my heart that his resolve was
formed.

As I turned back into the room a gust of wind crashed the door shut behind me.

2) There is a sentence pattern which is a complex sentence with a clause of time introduced by
the conjunction while. Here we find two different kinds of time relation between the actions of the
two clauses.
25
a) The actions may be fully simultaneous. In this case either the Past Continuous or the Past
Indefinite is used in the subordinate clause and the Past Indefinite is normally found in the
principal clause.

Roma said nothing but looked from one face to the other while they discussed
plans.
While this chilly interchange was being carried on, the minds of both were fixed on the
woman whom Chase had lately married. She sat, still as a statue, while he played the
piano.

b) The actions may be partially simultaneous. In this case the action of the subordinate clause
serves as a background for the action of the principal clause which is a shorter accomplished
action. So the Past Indefinite is always used in the principal clause while in the subordinate clause
either the Past Indefinite or the Past Continuous is found.

They gave each other appraising looks, while Christian regarded them both with
a detached interest.

While Christian was still regarding the broken glass in dismay Pheasant appeared in
her nightdress. "See what I've done," he exclaimed.

While I was reading, I heard a splash from the bath and I realized that Martin
must be there.

While he stood there wondering what sort of pictures to hang on the walls he heard a
step and Maurice stood in the doorway looking in at him.

THE FUTURE INDEFINITE (SIMPLE) TENSE

I. The formation of the Future Indefinite Tense

1. The Future Indefinite is formed by means of the auxiliary verbs shall/will


and the notional verb without the particle to.

Affirmative Interrogative Negative

I shall (will) work Shall I work? I shall not work


He will work Will he work? He will not work
She will work Will she work? She will not work
We shall work Shall we work? We shall not work
You will work Will you work? You will not work
They will work Will they work? They will not work

II. The conracted negative forms are:


26
I’ll work
He’ll work
They’ll work

The contracted negative forms are:


I shan’t work?
He won’t work

The negative-interrogative forms are:

Shall we not work? Will he not work?


Shan’t we work? Won’t he work?

III. The use of the Future Indefinite.

The Future Indefinite Tense is used:

1. to denote the speaker’s opinions, assumptions, speculations about the future (often with I
believe,expect, hope, think, assume, be afraid, know, wonder, suppose etc. or accompanied by
adverbs such as perhaps, possibly, probably,surely, but can be used without them).

I shall graduate next year.


He will be here any minute.
I think it will be a difficult game.
Perhaps he will find him at the hotel.

It can express a single point action that will be completed in the future or an action
occupying a whole period of time in the future.

It will ruin her.


I know I'm right, and one of these days you'll realize it.

I think I shall remain in love with you all my life.


I hope you'll live for many years.

It can also express some permanent future actions generally characterizing the person
denoted by the subject of the sentence.
I'm afraid he'll be a bit lonely, poor darling.
The old age pension will keep me in bread, tea and onions, and what more
does an old man want?

2. in statements of general meaning to denote something that will be always true, i. e. to


express the idea of the inevitability of an action.

Water will boil at 100 Centigrade.


No gentleman will remain seated with a lady standing.

The peculiarity of this tense is that its meaning contains some modelity, i. e. that of possibility,
necessity or volition. Thus any action in the future is an action which is possible, necessary or
desirable.
27
Note. The form “will+ Infinitive” may be used even in subordinate clauses of condition when the
meaning of modality (volition) prevails over that of time indication.

I’ll be with you in ten minutes if you will wait for me.
Going my way?” “Yes. If you will give me a lift.

3. to denote future habitual actions which we assume will take place.

Spring will come again.


Other pupils will sit at my desk.

4. in sentences containing clauses of condition, time and sometimes purpose

If I drop this glass it will break.


When it gets warmer the snow will start to melt.
I am putting this letter on top of the pile so that he’ll read it first.

NB! In if-clause or time clause we don’t use the future indefinite even when the meaning is
future

It will get warmer soon but when it gets warmer…

5. a succession of actions in the future

I shall wait in the next room and come back when she's gone. We'll
just talk about the weather and the crops for a few minutes and
then we'll have dinner.

6. decisions made at the moment of speaking

All right,I shall see you at 8.

7. in newspapers and newsbroadcasts,for formal announcements of future plans and for


weather forecasts

THE PRESIDENT WILL OPEN A NEW AIRPORT TODAY.


The fog will persist in all areas.

8. in requests
Will you do me a favour?

9. in firm intentions, promises

I shall love you for ever.

10. in threats
I won’t speak to you ever again.

11. in suggestions
Shall I go for a work?
28
Shall I start reading?

12. in asking for advice

What shall I say if he calls?

THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE


I. The formation of the Future Continuous.

The Future Continuous is formed by means of the Future Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to be
and Participle I of the notional verb.
1. In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.
In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.

Affirmative Interrogative Negative


I shall (will) be working Shall I be working ? I shall not be working
He will be working Will he be working ? He will not be working
She will be working Will she be working ? She will not be working
We shall be working Shall we be working ? We shall not be working
You will be working Will you be working ? You will not be working
They will be working Will they be working ? They will not be working

3. The contracted negative forms are:

I`ll be working
He`ll be working
They `ll be working

The contracted negative forms are:

I shan`t be working
He won`t be working

4. The negative-interrogative forms are:

Shall I not be working? Will he not be working?


Shan`t I be working? Won`t he be working?

II. The use of the Future Continuous.

1. The Future Continuous is used to denote an action which will be going on at a definite
moment in the future.
I wonder whether we shall ever arrive at a decision. I am sure the next time
you call we shall still be wavering.
This time tomorrow I’ll be skiing.
Good luck with the exam. We’ll be thinking of you.

The definite moment is indicated either by another future action expressed by a verb in the Present
Indefinite or by an adverbial phrase.
29

I shall already be working when you return.


At 12 o’clock I shall still be working.

The definite moment is often not expressed, but is understood from the situation.

I am sure you won’t be able to speak to him, he will be working.

2. The Future Continuous is very often used in modern English in the same meaning as the
Future Indefinite, i. e. to denote a future action.

But my dear Ann Veronica, you will be getting into debt.


Give my love to Lady Mont, shan’t be seeing her again.
If you don’t take care, he’ll be getting transferred to China and marrying a
purser’s daughter.

3. To talk about things which are already planned or decided

I shall be going to the shop later.Do you want me to get anything?

In this meaning it is similar to the Present Continuous

I am going to the shop later.

4. To ask about people’s plans, especially when we want something or want someone to do
something

-Will you be using your car this evening?


-No, you can take it.

THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

I. The formation of the Present Perfect Tense

The Present Perfect is built by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the Present Indefinite and
Participle II of the notional verb (with regular verbs the Participle is formed by adding the suffix –
ed, irregular verbs are used in the form of Participle II according to the list of irregular verbs).

In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the auxiliary verb.

Affirmative Interrogative Negative


I have worked Have I worked? I have not worked
You have worked Have you worked? You have not worked
He/She/It has worked Has he/she/it worked? He/She/It has not worked
We have worked Have we worked? We have not worked
They have worked Have they worked? They have not worked

II. The contracted affirmative forms are:


30

I’ve worked
He’s worked
You’ve worked

The contracted negative forms are:

I haven’t worked
He hasn’t worked
You haven’t worked

The negative-interrogative forms are:

Has she not worked?


Hasn’t she worked?

Have you not worked?


Haven’t you worked?

III. The use of the Present Perfect

1. In English we usually use the Present Perfect to talk about actions in the past when we are
not thinking or talking about the exact time that they took place. The time is not important.
However there may be results or effects now.

Have you met Peter?


(We are not interested in when you met him, only if you have or not.)

Vicky has already eaten her lunch.


(We are not interested in when.)

I’ve broken the window.


(It doesn’t matter when I broke the window. What matters is that now I’m in trouble!)

2. We can use the Present Perfect for longer actions which started in the past and are still
happening.

I have lived in Vienna for two years.


(I was in Vienna two years ago. I am still in Vienna now.)

I have worked for this company for over two years.

3. We use the present perfect to show that an action happened during a period of time up to
now.

I’ve only seen six tigers.


(In my life up to now.)

Have you been to Denmark?


(In your life up to now.)
This means that we can use the present perfect for actions where the time has not yet finished.
31

Thursday: I’ve seen two films this week.


(The week has not finished yet.)

4. We use the Present Perfect for an action that happened in the past and may happen again.
We can show that something will not happen again by using the past simple.

I have been to the Moscow State Circus.


(And may go again.)

Compare:
I went to the circus last year.
(Now it has left and I can’t go again.)

◆BEEN and GONE

He has gone to Spain. (He has left and is still there.)


He has been to Spain. (He has visited and come back.)
He has been in Spain for a week. (He left a week ago and is still there.)

5. We can use the Present Perfect with the following “time guides”: just, already, yet, always,
ever, never, often, lately, of late, recently, so far, up to now, repeatedly.

Hello, have you just arrived?


I have already started my new job.
We haven’t seen George recently.
They haven’t had any problems so far.

6. We use the Present Perfect after a superlative.

What a boring film! It’s the most boring film I’ve ever seen.

7. We use the Present Perfect with This is the first time…, It’s the first time….

Ron is driving a car. It’s his first time behind the wheel of a car. This is the first time
he has driven a car.
Is this the first time you’ve been in hospital?

8. We use the Present Perfect with for + length of time and since + a time in the past. We use
the Present Perfect to ask or say how long something has been happening up to now. We
use the Past Indefinite to say when something happened.

How long have you been here? - I have been here for two weeks.
I have been here since Monday.

We do not use for in expressions with all (all day / all morning / all week / all my life etc.)

I’ve lived here all my life.

◆In the clause introduced by since the Past Indefinite is used to indicate the starting point of
an action.
32

Your daughter has become a real beauty since I saw her last.

◆Note the structure How long is it since…?

-How long is it since you had a holiday?


-It’s two hours since I had a holiday. (I haven’t had a holiday for two years.)
It’s ages since Tom visited us. (He hasn’t visited us for ages.)

THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

I. The formation of the Present Perfect Continuous Tense

The Present Perfect Continuous is formed by means of the Present Perfect of the auxiliary verb to
be and Participle I of the notional verb. Participle I is formed by adding the suffix -ing to the stem
of the verb.

In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.

Affirmative Negative
I have been working I have not been working
You have been working You have not been working
He/she/it has been working He/she/it has not been working
We have been working We have not been working
They have been working They have not been working

Interrogative
Have I been working?
Have you been working?
Has he/she/it been working?
Have we been working?
Have they been working?

II. The contracted affirmative forms are:

I’ve been working


He’s been working
You’ve been working

The contracted negative forms are:

I haven’t been working


He hasn’t been working
You’ve been working
33
The negative-interrogative forms are:

Has he not been working?


Hasn’t he been working?

Have you not been working?


Haven’t you been working?

III.The use of the Present Perfect Continuous

1. We use the Present Perfect Continuous for action that started in the past and is still
happening. Usually if the action started a few minutes or hours ago, we use the Present
Perfect Continuous, and if it has been happening for longer, we can use either the simple or
continuous form.

I have been studying for three hours.


(I started studying three hours ago and I am still studying.)

They have been living in Paris for three years.


(They have lived in Paris for three years, and are still there.)

2. We use the Present Perfect Continuous when we talk about an action (quite a long action)
which began in the past and has recently stopped or just stopped.

You are out of breath. Have you been running?

That man over there is bright red. I think he’s been sunbathing.

3. We often use the Present Perfect Continuous with verbs like learn, lie (on the bed), live, rest,
sleep, sit, stand, stay, which describe states of being rather than actions.

Alex has been sleeping for hours.

4. We can also use the continuous form when we want to emphasize how long something has
been happening.

I’ve been learning Italian for six years and I still can’t speak it properly!

Sorry I’m late. Have you been waiting long?

Sometimes the action is a repeated action.

Tom has been driving for ten years.

How long have you been smoking?

The continuous or simple form can be used for actions repeated over a long period.

I’ve been collecting / I’ve collected stamps since I was a child.


34
5. We use the Present Perfect Continuous for actions that have just finished, often when we
can see the result.

The road is wet; it has been raining.

6. For actions that are temporary, unusual or continue for some time.

I have been staying with Aunt Olga this week as my mother is in Paris.
7. Remember that some verbs are not usually used in the continuous form. So instead of the
Present Perfect Continuous, they are usually used in the Present Perfect.

I’ve been sitting here in the park for an hour, and I’ve met two friends of mine.
(Not; I’ve been meeting.)

Tom and I have known each other since we were at school.

8. The Present Perfect Continuous is used with for, since and How long…? to say how long
something has been happening.

-How long have you been waiting for me?


-I’ve bee waiting for you since 8 o’clock / for two hours.

We use since when we say the beginning of the period (8 o’clock).


We use for when we say the period of time (two hours).

THE PAST PERFECT TENSE

I. The formation of the Past Perfect Tense.

The Past Perfect is formed by means of the Past Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to have and
Participle II of the notional verb.
In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.
In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the auxiliary verb.

Affirmative Interrogative Negative


I had worked Had I worked? I had not worked
You had worked Had you worked? You had not worked
He/she/it had worked Had he/she/it worked? He/she/it had worked
We had worked Had we worked? We had not worked
They had worked Had they worked? They had not worked
35

II. The contracted affirmative forms are:

I’d worked
We’d worked

The contracted negative forms are:

I hadn’t worked
We hadn’t worked

The negative-interrogative forms are:

Had he not worked?


Hadn’t he worked?
Had you not worked?
Hadn’t you worked?

III. The use of the Past Perfect

1. The Past Perfect expresses an action accomplished before a given past moment and viewed
back from that moment.

The porter said that our friend had just left the club.
The storm had died away but very far off the thunder was still muttering.

The past moment from which the accomplished action is viewed may be indicated:

a) By means of an adverbial expression: by four o’clock, by that time, by the end of the
week, etc.

By that time the children had already gone to school.


By the end of the week we had already done half of the work.
By six o’clock they had already gathered in the hall.

b) By another action expressed by a verb in the Past Indefinite.

When I came home, everybody had gone to the concert.


I knew that she had left for the South.

◆ Notice that the tense does not change depending on the positive or negative meaning of the
context:

We had gone far when we suddenly noticed that dark clouds were beginning to gather.
We had not gone far when we suddenly noticed that dark clouds were beginning to
gather.

◆ The definite moment need not necessarily be expressed in the same sentence as the action
expressed by the Past Perfect.
36

Everybody noticed how sad she was the whole evening. She had got an unpleasant
letter.

2. The Past Perfect is used with the conjunctions hardly…when,


merely…when,
barely…when,
scarcely…when,
no sooner…than.

He had hardly entered the room when he heard some noise.

For the sake of emphasis the word order is often inverted.

No sooner had the bell gone than the teacher entered the classroom.

3. The Past Perfect is frequently used with the adverbs just,


already,
yet.

Elsie, who had not yet assumed the white cap, was sweeping the stairs.

4. Sometimes the Past Perfect does not denote priority but only the completion of the action.

The Squire was purple with anger before his son had done speaking.

5. The Past Indefinite is sometimes used instead of the Past Perfect in clauses introduced
by before and after owing to the lexical meaning of these conjunctions.

After he left (had left) the house, he recollected that he hadn’t locked the door.
He stood motionless after she disappeared.

6. With verbs which have terminative meaning as to arrive, to enter, to look in, to open, etc. the
Past Indefinite is used when two actions closely follow each other. Verbs of motion and
sense perception such as to come, to arrive, to return, to see, to hear, in adverbial clauses of
time are generally used in the Past Indefinite and not in the Past Perfect. The actions are
practically simultaneous.

When he heard the first line of the poem, he recognized it at once.


When I entered the room, I noticed that somebody was sitting at the table.

When the completion of the action is emphasized the Past Perfect is used.

He knew the poem by heart when he had heard it several times.


I noticed that somebody was sitting at the table only when I had already entered
the room.

◆ Notice the use of the Past Perfect and the Past indefinite in the following examples:
37

a) he had closed the window and was sitting in his armchair reading a newspaper.
b) He closed the window, sat down in the armchair and began reading his newspaper.

a) The rain had stopped and the sun was shining brightly.
b) The rain stopped and the sun came out again.

a) He had turned on the light and was sitting at his desk writing letters.
b) He turned on the light, sat down at his desk and began writing letters.

7. The Past Perfect is used to denote the action which began before a definite moment in the
past, continued up to that moment and was still going on at that moment. The starting point
or the whole period of duration of the action is indicated. To indicate the starting point the
preposition since is used, to indicate the whole period of duration for is used.

a) with verbs not admitting of the Continuous form:

Examination convinced him that the deacon was dead – had been dead for some time.

b) in negative sentences:

Those two had not spoken to each other for three days and were in a state of rage.

c) with non-terminative verbs such as to work, to live, to study, to teach, to travel,


to last, etc.:

The ride had lasted about ten minutes, when the truck suddenly swerved to a halt.

THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

I. The formation of the Perfect Continuous Tense

The Past Perfect Continuous is formed by means of the Past Perfect of the auxiliary verb to be and
Participle I of the notional verb.
In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.
In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the auxiliary verb.

Affirmative Negative
I had been working I had not been working
You had been working You had not been working
He/she/it had been working He/she/it had not been working
We had been working We had not been working
They had been working They had not been working

Interrogative
Had I been working?
38
Had you been working?
Had he/she/it been working?
Had we been working?
Had they been working?

II. The contracted affirmative forms are:

I’d been working


We’d been working

The contracted negative forms are:

I hadn’t been working


We hadn’t been working

The negative-interrogative forms are:

Had he not been working?


Hadn’t he been working?
Had you not been working?
Hadn’t you been working?

III. The use of the Past Perfect Continuous

1. The Past Perfect Continuous denotes an action which began before a definite moment in the
past, continued up to that moment and was still going on at that moment. Either the starting
point of the action is indicated or the whole period of duration. The preposition for is used to
denote the whole period of duration. Since is used to indicate the starting point of the action.

We couldn’t go out because it had been raining since early morning.


We couldn’t go out because it had been raining for two hours.

◆ With verbs not admitting of the Continuous form the Past Perfect is the only tense
possible.
With certain non-terminative verbs both the Past Perfect and the Past Perfect Continuous
are used.

He said he had worked for twenty years.


(The fact is emphasized.)
He said he had been working for a long time without achieving final results.
(The process is emphasized.)

1. The past moment from which the action expressed by the Past Perfect Continuous is viewed
may be indicated:

a) by an adverbial expression introduced by the preposition by:

By that time she had been studying English for three years.
By the end of July they had been living at the seaside for a fortnight.
39
b) by a subordinate clause of time introduced by the conjunction when:

I had been working at my English for about two hours when my friend came.
When she began to study English, she had been taking French lessons for two years.

2. The Past Perfect Continuous may also be used to express an action begun before a given
past moment, coming very close to that past moment but no longer going on that past
moment, this is shown by the context.

She rose from the bench where she had been sitting for half an hour. The wind which
had been blowing harder than ever from the south-west all day, dropped at sunset, and
the moon climbed out of the ocean into a clear sky.

He had been smoking a cigarette, now he threw the end of it into the grate and rose
from the bed where he had been sitting.

◆ The Past Perfect Continuous should not be confused with the Past Continuous. The Past
Continuous is used to denote an action going on at a definite moment in the past, no previous
duration is expressed. The Past Perfect continuous is used when the previous duration of the
action is expressed.

And now it was raining, had been raining for days the miserable fall rains of Eastern
France.
The magnificent motor-car was waiting at the kerb. It had been waiting for two hours.

THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

I. The formation of thePerfect Continuous Tense

The Future Perfect is formed by means of the Future Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to have and
Participle II of the notional verb.

In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.
In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.

Affirmative Interrogative Negative


I shall have worked Shall I have worked? I shall not have worked
You will have worked Will you have worked? You will not have worked
He/she/it will have worked Will he/she/it have worked? He/she/it will have worked
We shall have worked Shall we have worked? We shall not have worked
They will have worked Will they have worked? They will not have worked
II. The contracted affirmative forms are:
40
I’ll have worked
We’ll have worked

The contracted negative forms are:

I shan’t have worked


He won’t have worked

The negative-interrogative forms are:

Will he not have worked?


Won’t he have worked?

Shall we not have worked?


Shan’t we have worked?

III. The use of the Future Perfect

1. The Future Perfect denotes an action completed before a definite moment in the future d
viewed back from that future moment.

By six o’clock I shall have finished my translation.


(That means that the action of finishing will take place before six o’clock.)
I shall be back by six, and I hope you will have had a good sleep by that time.

2. Like the Past Perfect, the Future Perfect may be purely temporal and may show that the
action already accomplished at the given future moment is connected in its results or
consequences with that future moment.

Tomorrow at three o’clock he will have received my letter.


(He will have the letter).
When you have finished this book, you will have learnt many new words and
expressions.
(You will know those words and expressions).
◆ The future moment from which the completed action is viewed may be indicated:

a) by means of an adverbial expression: by that time, by the first of June, by seven


o’clock, etc.:

By the end of the term we shall have learnt many new words and expressions.
By this time tomorrow they will have crossed the Channel.

b) By means of another action:


41
If you come at seven, I shall have done my work.
If you ring me up after seven o’clock, I shall have spoken to the secretary.

3. The Future Perfect can denote an action which will begin before a definite moment in the
future, will continue up to that moment and will be going on at that moment. This
meaning is shown by the context.

By the first of July we shall have been at the seaside for a fortnight.
We shall have known each other for five years by the end of this year.
Future perfect is used with verbs not admitting of the Continuous form, in negative sentences,
with non-terminative verbs such as to work, to live, to study, to teach etc.

I shall have been a teacher for 20 years by next May.


I shall have worked as a teacher for 20 years by next May.

THE FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

I. The formation of the Future Perfect Continuous Tense


The Future Perfect Continuous is formed by means of the Future Perfect of the auxiliary verb to be
and Participle I of the notional verb.
In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.
In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.

Affirmative Negative
I shall have been working I shall have not been working
You will have been working You will have not been working
He/she/it will have been working He/she/it will have not been working
We shall have been working We will have not been working
They will have been working They will have not been working

Interrogative
Shall I have been working?
Will you have been working?
Will he/she/it have been working?
Shall we have been working?
Will they have been working?

II. The contracted affirmative forms are:

I’ll have been working


We’ll have been working

The contracted negative forms are:

I shan’t have been working


42
He won’t have been working

The negative-interrogative forms are:

Will he not have been working?


Won’t he have been working?

Shall we not have been working?


Shan’t we have been working?

III.The use of the Future Perfect Continuous

1. The Future Perfect Continuous denotes an action begun before a definite


moment in the future and continued into that future moment;

I shall have been writing for two hours by the time you come back.
By the first of July he will have bee working at this office for six months.

THE FUTURE-IN-THE-PAST TENSE

The English language has a special form of the future, the Future-in-the-Past, to express a
future action viewed from a past moment (sequence of tenses). If the verb in the principal
clause is in one of the past tenses, a past tense (or Future-in-the-Past) must be used in the
subordinate clause. If the action expressed in the principal clause is posterior to that of the
principal clause the Future-in-the-Past is used.

THE FUTURE-INDEFINITE-IN-THE-PAST

I. The formation of the Future-Indefinite-in-the-Past

The Future-Indefinite-in-the-Past is formed by means of the auxiliary verbs should and would and
the infinitive without to of the notional verb.

Should is used for the first person singular and plural.


Would is used for the second and the third person singular and plural.

In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.
In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the auxiliary verb.

Affirmative Interrogative Negative


I should work Should I work? I should not work
You would work Would you work? You would not work
He/she/it would work Would he/she/it work? He/she/it would not work
We should work Should we work? We shouldn’t work
They would work Would they work? They shouldn’t work

II. The contracted affirmative forms are:


43
I’d work
He’d work

The contracted negative forms are:

I shouldn’t work
He wouldn’t work

The negative-interrogative forms are:

Should I work?
Shouldn’t I work/

Would he not work?


Wouldn’t he work?

III. The use of the Future-Indefinite-in-the-Past.

The Future-Indefinite-in-the-Past denotes an action which was future from the point of view of the
past.

I was sure he would agree with me.

THE FUTURE-CONTINUOUS-IN-THE-PAST

I. The formation of the Future-Continuous-in-the-Past

The Future-Continuous-in-the-Past is formed by means of the Future-Indefinite-in-the-Past of the


auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the notional verb.

In the interrogative form of the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.

Affirmative Interrogative Negative


I should be working Should I be working? I should not be working
You would be working Would you be working? He would not be working
He/she/it would be working Would he/she/it be working? He/she/it would not be
working
We should be working Should we be working? We should not be working
They would be working Would they be working? They would not be working

II. The contracted affirmative forms are:

I’d be working
He’d be working

The contracted negative forms are:

I shouldn’t be working
44
He wouldn’t be working

The negative-interrogative forms are:

Should I not be working?


Shouldn’t you be working?

Would he not be working?


Wouldn’t he be working?

THE USE OF THE FUTURE-CONTINUOUS-IN-THE-PAST

I. The formation of the Future-Continuous-in-the-Past

The Future-Continuous-in-the-Past denotes a concrete action going on at a definite moment


(occasionally covering a whole period of time in the future) when that future moment is viewed
from the past.

I told him not to come at six o’clock because I should be having my lesson at that
time.
I felt sure they would be discussing the same problem when I called.

THE FUTURE-PERFECT-IN-THE-PAST

I. The formation of the Future-Perfect-in-the-Past

The Future-Perfect-in-the-Past is formed by means of the Future-Indefinite-in-the-Past of the


auxiliary verb to have and Participle II of the notional verb.

In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.

Affirmative Interrogative Negative


I should have worked Should I have worked? I should not have worked
You would have worked Would you have worked? You would not have worked
He/she/it would have worked Would he/she/it He/she/it would not have
have worked? worked
We should have work Should we have worked? We shouldn’t have worked
They would have work Would they have worked? They shouldn’t have worked

II. The contracted affirmative forms are:

I’d have worked


He’d have worked

The contracted negative forms are:

I shouldn’t have worked


45
He wouldn’t have worked

The negative-interrogative forms are:

Should I have worked?


Shouldn’t I have worked?

Would he not have worked?


Wouldn’t he have worked?

III. The use of the Future-Perfect-in-the-Past

1. The Future-Perfect-in-the-Past is used to denote an action completed before a definite


moment which was future from the point of view of the past.

I wondered whether they would have reached the place by noon.


They assured me that they would have finished their work by six o’clock.

2. An action begun before a given future moment and continued into that future moment, in
both cases when the future moment is viewed from the past.

She wrote to me that by the first of July she would have been at the seaside for a
fortnight.

HE FUTURE-PERFECT-CONTINUOUS-IN-THE-PAST TENSE

I. The formation of the Future-Continuous-in-the-Past

The Future-Continuous-in-the-Past is formed by means of the Future-Perfect-in-the-Past of the


auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the notional verb.

In the interrogative form of the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.

Affirmative Interrogative Negative


I should have Should I have I should not have
been working been working? been working
You would have Would you have He would not have
been working been working? been working
He/she/it would have been Would he/she/it have He/she/it would not have been
working been working? working
We should have Should we have We should not have been
been working been working? working
They would have Would they have They would not have
been working been working? been working

II. The contracted affirmative forms are:

I’d have been working


46
He’d have been working

The contracted negative forms are:

I shouldn’t have been working


He wouldn’t have been working

The negative-interrogative forms are:

Should I not have been working?


Shouldn’t you have been working?

Would he not have been working?


Wouldn’t he have been working?

III. The use of the Future-Perfect-Continuous-in-the-Past

The Future-Perfect-Continuous-in-the-Past denotes an action lasting during a certain period of time


before a definite moment which was future from the point of view of the past.

I wondered how long they would have been packing by the time I returned.
47
LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS

The verbs in roman type are verbs which are not very common in modern English but may be found
in literature. When a verb has two possible forms and one is less usual than the other, the less usual
one will be printed in roman.
Compounds of irregular verbs form their past tenses and past participles in the same way as the
original verb:
come came come
overcome overcame overcome
set set set
upset upset upset

1. Present and Simple past Past participle


infinitive

2. abide abode abode

3. arise arose arisen


4. awake awoke/awaked awoken/awaked
5. be was been
6. bear bore borne/born*
7. beat beat beaten
8. become became become
9. befall befell befallen
10. beget begot begotten
11. begin began begun
12. behold beheld beheld
13. bend bent bent
14. bereave bereaved bereaved/bereft*
15. beseech besought besought
16. bet betted/bet betted/bet
17. bid (= command) bade bidden
18. bid (» offer) bid bid
19. bind bound bound
20. bite bit bitten

21. bleed bled bled


22. blow blew blown
23. break broke broken
24. breed bred bred
48
25. bring brought brought
26. broadcast broadcast broadcast
27. build built built
28. burn burned/burnt burned/burnt
29. burst burst burst
30. buy bought bought
31. сап could be able
32. cast cast cast
33. catch caught caught
34. chide chid chidden
35. choose chose chosen
36. cleave clove/cleft cloven/cleft*
37. cling clung clung
38. clothe clothed/clad clothed/clad
39. come came come
40. cost cost cost
41. creep crept crept
42. crow crowed/crew crowed
43. cut cut cut
44. dare dared/durst dared/dmst
45. deal /di:l/ dealt /delt/ dealt /delt/
46. dig dug dug
47. do did done
48. draw drew drawn
49. dream dreamed/dreamt dreamed/dreamt
50. /dri:m/ /dri:md, dremt/ /dri:md, dremt/
51. drink drank drunk
52. drive drove driven
53. dwell dwelled/dwelt dwelled/dwelt
54. eat ate eaten
55. fall fell fallen
56. feed fed fed
57. feel felt felt
58. fight fought fought
59. find found found
60. flee fled fled
61. fling flung flung
62. fly flew flown
63. forbear forbore forborne
64. forbid forbade forbidden
65. forget forgot forgotten
66. forgive forgave forgiven
67. forsake forsook forsaken
68. freeze froze frozen
69. get got got
70. gild gilded/gilt gilded/gilt
71. gird girded/girt girded/girt
72. give gave given
73. go went gone
74. grind ground ground
75. grow grew grown
76. hang hanged/hung hanged/hung*
49
77. have had had
78. hear /hiэ(г)/ heard /h3:d/ heard /h3:d/
79. hew hewed hewed/hewn
80. hide hid hidden
81. hit hit hit
82. hold held held
83. hurt hurt hurt
84. keep kept kept
85. kneel knelt knelt
86. knit** knit knit
87. know knew known
88. lay laid laid
89. lead led led
90. lean leaned/leant leaned/leant
91. /li:n/ /li:nd, lent/ /li:nd, lent/
92. leap leaped/leapt leaped/leapt
93. /li:p/ /li:pt, lept/ /li:pt, lept/
94. learn learned/learnt learned/learnt
95. leave left left
96. lend lent lent
97. let let let
98. lie lay lain
99. light lighted/lit lighted/lit
100. lose lost lost
101. make made made
102. may might meant
103. mean /mi:n/ meant /ment/ ment
104. meet met met
105. mow mowed mowed/mown
106. must had to
107. ought ---------- ---------
108. pay paid paid
109. put put put
110. read /ri:d/ read /red/ read /red/
111. rend rent rent
112. rid rid rid
113. ride rode ridden
114. ring rang rung
115. rise rose risen
116. run ran run
117. saw sawed sawed/sawn
118. say /sei/ said /sed/ said /sed/
119. see saw seen
120. seek sought sought
121. sell sold sold
122. send sent sent
123. set set set
124. sew sewed sewed/sewn
125. shake shook shaken
126. shall should
127. shear sheared/shore sheared/shorn
128. shed shed shed
50
129. shine shone shone
130. shoe shoed/shod shoed shod
131. shoot shot shot
132. show showed showed/shown
133. shrink shrank shrunk
134. shut shut shut
135. sing sang sung
136. sink sank sunk
137. sit sat sat
138. slay slew slain
139. sleep slept slept
140. slide slid slid
141. sling slung slung
142. slink slunk slunk
143. slit slit slit
144. smell smelled/smelt smelled/smelt
145. smite smote smitten
146. sow sowed sowed/sown
147. speak spoke spoken
148. speed speeded/sped speeded/sped
149. spell spelled/spelt spelled/spelt
150. spend spent spent
151. spill spilled/spilt spilled/spilt
152. spin spun spun
153. spit spat spat
154. split split split
155. spread spread spread
156. spring sprang sprung
157. stand stood stood
158. steal stole stolen
159. stick stuck stuck
160. sting stung stung
161. stink stank/stunk stunk
162. strew strewed strewed/strewn
163. stride strode stridden
164. strike struck struck
165. string strung strung
166. strive strove striven
167. swear swore sworn
168. sweep swept swept
169. swell swelled swelled/swollen
170. swim swam swum
171. swing swung swung
172. take took taken
173. teach taught taught
174. tear tore torn
175. tell told told
176. think thought thought
177. thrive thrived/throve thrived/thriven
178. throw threw thrown
179. thrust thrust thrust
180. tread trod trodden/trod
51
181. understand understood understood
182. undertake undertook undertaken
183. wake waked/woke waked/woken
184. wear wore worn
185. weave wove woven
186. weep wept wept
187. wet wetted/wet wetted/wet
188. will would ----------
189. win won won
190. wind wound wound
191. wring wrung wrung
192. write wrote written

APPENDIX

I. SOME SPELLING RULES

I. Doubling the final consonant.


Rule 1. A final single consonant letter is doubled before a suffix beginning with a vowel (-able,
-ing, -er, -est, etc.) if
a) the last syllable of the word is stressed, and
b) the final consonant is preceded by a short vowel represented by a single letter,
e.g. red-redder, redden, reddish; begin-beginning; thin-thinned, thinner. But: repeat-repeated,
repeating; develop-developed, developing.
52

Note 1. The words handicap, kidnap, outfit, worship are exceptions:


handicapped-handicapping; kidnapped-kidnapping; outfitted-outfltting-ouifitter; worshipped-
worshipping-worshipper.

Note 2. Final r is doubled if preceded by a letter representing a stressed vowel, no matter if it is


long or short (but not a diphthong): e.g. occur-occurred
refer-referred But: differ-differed
appear-appeared

Note 3. Final l is doubled if it is preceded by a short vowel (stressed or


unstressed). It is not doubled if preceded by a long vowel or a diphthong: e.g. travel-travelling
expel-expelled But: reveal-revealed

Rule 2.
A final single consonant is not doubled if
a) preceded by an unstressed vowel: e.g. open-opened, opening
limit-limited-limiting;
b) preceded by a vowel sound represented by two letters: e.g. look-looked-looking
turn-turned-turning;
c) the suffix begins with a consonant: e.g. hot-hotly (but: hottest)
forget-forgetful (but: unforgettable).

II. Mute Final e.


Rule 1.
Final mute e is usually dropped before a suffix beginning with a vowel letter; otherwise it would
make two consecutive vowels: guide-guidance; amuse-amusing; fame-famous; refuse-refusal.
But: age-ageing.

Note 1. e is retained to show pronunciation in such words as: courage-corageous; advantage-


advantageous; service-serviceable.

Note 2. e is also kept after o: toe-toeing; shoe-shoeing; canoe-canoeing; tiptoe-tiptoeing.

Note 3. Verbs ending in -ie change the ie into у before -ing to avoid a double i: die-dying; tie-tying;
lie-lying.

Note 4. Double e (ее) is retained before all suffixes except those beginning with e (• ed, -er, -est):
agree-agreeable; see-seeing.
Note 5. Rule 1 is not strictly observed in the case of monosyllabic words when they are likely to be
misread: likeable; seatable or likable, seatable.

Rule 2.
Mute e is retained before a suffix beginning with a consonant (to keep the pronunciation): safe-
safety; nine-nineteen; whole-wholesome; care-careful. Exceptions to the rule: due-duly; true-truly;
whole-wholly; argue-argument; nine-ninth.

III. Final -y and Its Modifications.


Rule 1. Words ending in -y preceded by a consonant change -y into -;' before all endings except
-ing: dry-dries; forty-fortieth; cry-cried; carry-carriage; clumsy-clumsier; pity-pitiful; happy
happily; merry-merriment. But: drying, crying, frying, applying.
53
Note 1. Words ending in -y preceded by a consonant drop the -y before suffixes beginning with -4:
-ic, -ical, -ism, -ist:
economy-economic, economical;
history-historic, historical;
geology-deological, geologist

Note 2. Final -y is retained:


a) in personal names: Mary-Marys, Gatsby-the Gatsbys;
b) in some words before the suffixes -hood, -ish, -1st, -like, -thing: babyhood, copyist,
ladyship, ladylike, anything, everything;
c) in some monosyllabic words before -er, -est, -ly, -ness: shy-shyer, shyest, shyness; sly-slyer,
slyest, slyly, slyness; dry-dryly, dryness (both forms are possible in dryer-drier, flyer-flier).

Note 3. Final -y changes to -e before -ous: piteous, beauteous, plenteous, duteous.

Rule 2. Final -y preceded by a vowel letter is retained before all suffixes: day-days, play-playful,
pay-pays, payment; enjoy-enjoyable.
Exceptions: gay-gaily, gaiety; day-daily.

Вам также может понравиться