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Journal of Psychology in Africa

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The prediction of turnover intention by means of

employee engagement and demographic variables in
a telecommunications organisation
a a a a
Mandu Sibiya , Johanna H. Buitendach , Herbert Kanengoni & Shaida Bobat
a
School of Applied Human Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
Published online: 11 Sep 2014.

To cite this article: Mandu Sibiya, Johanna H. Buitendach, Herbert Kanengoni & Shaida Bobat (2014) The prediction of
turnover intention by means of employee engagement and demographic variables in a telecommunications organisation,
Journal of Psychology in Africa, 24:2, 131-143

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 Journal of Psychology in Africa, 2014
Vol. 24, No. 2, 131–143, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2014.903078
© 2014 Africa Scholarship Development Enterprize

The prediction of turnover intention by means of employee engagement and demographic

variables in a telecommunications organisation
Mandu Sibiya, Johanna H. Buitendach,* Herbert Kanengoni and Shaida Bobata

School of Applied Human Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa; aCurrent address: Department of Industrial
Psychology, University of the Free State, QwaQwa Campus, Phuthaditjhaba, South Africa
*Corresponding author email: Buitendach@ukzn.ac.za

This study sought to determine the prediction of turnover intention by employee engagement and demographic variables
in a large South African information and communication technology (ICT) organisation. Cross-sectional survey data
was collected from the organisation. Using a sample of 2276 participants the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES)
was employed to measure employee engagement, while the Intention to Stay Questionnaire (ISQ) measured turnover
intentions. Employee engagement was significantly negatively related with turnover intentions. A factor analysis conducted
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on the UWES indicated that activation accounted for 10% of the variance in turnover intentions. Age and tenure had
statistically significant negative relationships with turnover intentions, whilst qualification and race had significant positive
relationships with turnover intentions. The results also confirmed the predictive model of employee engagement as well as
the impact of the demographic variables of race, age, tenure on turnover intentions. The study has practical implications
in relation to its ability to contribute to human resources activities in the form of differentiated remuneration and retention
strategies based on differences in age and tenure.

Keywords: activation, demographics, employee engagement, immersion, Intention to Stay Questionnaire (ISQ), South
Africa, telecommunications, turnover intention, Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES)

Although the concept of turnover intention has been widely
researched in both the twentieth and twenty-first centuries
(Kirschenbaum & Weisberg, 2002; Lo, 2013; Michaels &
Spector, 1982) the literature on employee engagement is
fairly new (Harter, Schmidt, & Hayes, 2002; Kahn, 1990;
Macey & Schneider, 2008). Saks (2008) has argued that
while academics are slowly beginning to engage practi-
tioners, the empirical research that has appeared on the
topic in refereed scientific sources reveals little consid-
eration for rigorously testing the theory underlying the
construct. Most of the empirical research on engage-
ment has appeared in the past decade and consists of
numerous empirical studies measuring engagement, as
well as developing and testing engagement models and
theory (Saks, 2008). Although the relationship between
employee engagement and turnover intentions has been
researched in recent years (Corporate Leadership Council,
2008; May, Gilson, & Harter, 2004), the prediction of
turnover intentions using employee engagement and
demographic variables has not been researched. Previous
research has focused either on the impact of demographic
variables on turnover alone (Wöcke & Heymann, 2012),
the effects of only one variable on turnover intention
(Finegold, Mohrman, & Spreitzer, 2002), or the prediction
of intention to quit by means of demographic variables
in combination with variables other than engagement
(Boshoff, van Wyk, Hoole, & Owen, 2002). Previous
studies (e.g. Lo, 2013) have shown that demographic
factors tend to contribute either positively or negatively
to turnover intentions. Studies on employee engagement
have largely focused on the outcomes of engagement such
as positive emotions (e.g. Bakker & Schaufeli, 2008) and
efficacy (e.g. Schaufeli & Salanova, 2007).
This study adopts Schaufeli and Bakker’s (2003) defini-
tion of engagement, which conceptualises engagement
as a positive, fulfilling work-related state of mind that is
characterised by vigour, dedication and absorption. The
consensus from the employee engagement literature is that
employers can benefit from an engaged workforce. Bakker
and Schaufeli (2008) further posited that employee engage-
ment is related to positive emotions and good health and
alleviates negative health issues such as depression, distress
and psychosomatic complaints. According to Boshoff et
al. (2002, p. 14) “intention to quit is the strength of an
individual’s view that he/she does not want to stay with
his/ her current employer. It is usually seen as a dependent
variable and used as an indication of the probability that
an employee will leave the organisation in the foreseeable
future.” According to Boshoff et al. (2002) intention to stay
or leave an organisation starts with the evaluation by the
individual of his/her current situation. The employee then
moves through several further stages until a firm intention
to quit is reached. Intention to quit is therefore seen as
a predictor of actual quitting, thus it is not surprising
that many researchers see turnover intention as the best
predictor of turnover (Sutherland & Jordaan, 2004). This
is due to the assumption that self-reported intentions or
plans are the best predictors of behaviour. In the study
conducted by Van Breukelen, Van der Vlist and Steensma
(2004), turnover intentions proved to be by far the best
predictor of turnover.
The importance of understanding turnover in the
telecommunications industry cannot be overemphasised
when the war for skilled and talented employees amongst
competing firms is considered. Although turnover has
generally declined in the last two years due to the
economic downturn and an overall weak labour market
(Dinger, Thatcher, Stepina, & Craig, 2012), the turnover of
information technology professionals and related profes-
sions has historically been high and has been a concern

The Journal of Psychology in Africa is co-published by NISC (Pty) Ltd and Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group
 132 Sibiya et al.
for the industry since the 1960s. The problem of employee
turnover in the telecommunications industry, as in many
other industries in South Africa, is exacerbated by a low
supply of skilled human resources. This lack is due to
increased emigration amongst knowledge workers, lower
standards of education and the impact of legislation and
regulations aimed at redressing historical racial and gender
practices (Wöcke & Heymann, 2012). There is a simulta-
neous undersupply of candidates meeting the require-
ments because of the education system and job reservation
policies under the apartheid government (Nzukuma &
Bussin, 2011). To add to the predicament, the South African
telecoms market faces challenges and opportunities in
equal measure similar to many other territories that have
been impacted by the changing demands from customers,
the huge advances in technology and the impact of the
global recession (Brereton, 2010). Given these challenges,
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the importance of predicting and controlling turnover
cannot be overemphasised. Despite the extensive body
of previous turnover research, this study moves beyond
the general directions that have been taken in the litera-
ture thus far. According to Babajide (2010) the existing
literature allows for the drawing of relatively few strong
generalisations. In addition, very little literature is available
on the interaction between these variables and the predic-
tive model of turnover intentions (Du Plooy & Roodt,
2010). Therefore, the aim of this study was to explore the
relationship between employee engagement and turnover
intention as well as the prediction of turnover intentions
by both employee engagement and demographic variables
(race, age, tenure and qualifications) in the hitherto under-
researched area of the telecommunications industry.
Hypotheses
In light of the major aim and literature highlighted, the
following hypotheses were formulated:
• Hypothesis 1: Employee engagement and turnover
intention are statistically significantly negatively
related.
• Hypothesis 2: Employee engagement is a statistically
significant predictor of turnover intention.
• Hypothesis 3: Age, tenure, race and qualifications are
statistically significant predictors of turnover intention.
Literature review
Work engagement
Work engagement is not a momentary and specific state,
but rather a more persistent and pervasive affective-
cognitive state that is not focused on any particular object,
event, individual or behaviour (Schaufeli, Martinez,
Pinto, Salanova, & Bakker, 2002). According to Bakker,
Schaufeli, Leiter and Taris (2008), engaged employees
work hard (vigour), are involved (dedication) and feel
happily engrossed (absorbed) in their work. Although
engaged workers may seem similar to workaholics they
are different in the sense that they lack the typical compul-
sive drive possessed by workaholics. Engagement thus
results in individuals becoming physically involved in
tasks, whether alone or with others; becoming cognitively
vigilant; and becoming emphatically connected with others
in the service of the work that they are doing in ways that
display their thoughts, emotions, creativity, beliefs, values
and personal connections to others (Kahn, 1990; Luthans
& Peterson, 2002). There are also times when workers
uncouple themselves from work roles and disengage
from their work or from certain aspects of their job,
consequently withdrawing or disconnecting from a given
area of performance (Britt, Dickinson, Greene–Shortridge,
& McKibben, 2007; Kahn, 1990). Disengagement
represents a wide-ranging and intensive reaction in terms
of an emotional, cognitive and behavioural rejection of the
job described as occupational disillusionment (Bosman,
Rothmann, & Buitendach, 2005). Disengaged employees
are essentially ‘checked out’ and sleep walk through their
work day, putting time and not energy into their work.
They are not just unhappy at work, they are also busy
acting out their unhappiness and in so doing undermine
what their engaged colleagues accomplish (Endres &
Mancheno-Smoak, 2008). Whereas engaged employees
work with passion, feel a profound connection to their
company, drive innovation and move the organisation
forward, employees who are disengaged have little or
no emotional attachment to their work role, do not think
much of what the organisation tries to achieve and rarely
find themselves engrossed in their work (SHL, 2007).
Symptoms of employees who do not engage in the organi-
sational context vary and can include lengthy episodes of
distraction, rapid task saturation, a slow tempo of activity,
poor decision making, too many days absent from work as
well as a lack of interest in work (Pech & Slade, 2006). In
such cases, the employee’s productive output is minimal.
Antecedents of employee engagement
According to Cormier (2010) and Lockwood (2007)
employee engagement does not occur in a vacuum but
instead organisations have to provide an enabling environ-
ment for employees to be engaged. The organisation must
work to develop and nurture engagement, which requires
a two-way relationship between employer and employee.
Employee engagement is therefore predicted by features
of the job the employee does as well as by features of the
organisation in which the employee works (SHL, 2007).
Job resources, social support from colleagues and supervi-
sors, performance feedback, good quality line management
and a harmonious work environment have been identi-
fied as some of the antecedents for employee engagement
(Bakker & Demerouti, 2008; Woodruffe, 2006). Schaufeli
and Bakker (2004) have argued that the more resources
are available, the more likely employees will feel engaged.
This is because job resources provide physical, psycholog-
ical, social or organisational aspects of the job that reduce
job demands and the associated physiological and psycho-
logical costs that are needed to achieve work goals and
stimulating personal growth, learning and development.
The literature on engagement also makes constant
reference to harmonious relations between supervisors and
subordinates as an antecedent to engagement (Schaufeli &
Bakker, 2004). Kahn (1990) and May et al. (2004) argued
that a supportive leadership style contributes to the level of
psychological safety experienced, which in turn promotes
personal engagement. According to Woodruffe (2006),
the fact that money is not necessarily the main factor in
 Journal of Psychology in Africa
people’s decision to take a job or remain with an employer
means that there is considerable scope for employers to
make conscious efforts to offer the non-financial motiva-
tions craved by employees. When people have challenging
work that offers variety and autonomy and when they
work under certain kinds of managers (e.g. managers who
make expectations clear, are fair and recognise superior
behaviour) they feel engaged and behave in adaptive and
constructive ways that produce results that were perhaps
better than expected (Macey & Schneider, 2008). Macey
and Schneider (2008) further added that corporate cultures
characterised by teamwork, pleasant working conditions,
the considerate treatment of employees, growth opportuni-
ties, skill enhancement and abundant training opportunities
can all contribute to employee engagement. The employee
engagement concept reflects change in the organisational
context and the mutual expectations of employees and
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employers in the ‘psychological contract’ mirror these
changing patterns of motivation. In this regard, it is evident
that most of the antecedents of employee engagement are
non-financial. It would therefore be in the best interest of
the organisation to cultivate a culture where the aforemen-
tioned antecedents of engagement can flourish.
Outcomes of employee engagement
Engagement triggers the simultaneous employment and
expression of individual’s in task behaviours that promote
connections to work and others. Engagement thus focuses
on how the psychological experiences of work and the
work contexts shape the process of people presenting
and absenting themselves from task performance (Kahn,
1990). Work engagement thus consists of an employee’s
intellectual connection with the company, which includes
factors such as his support of and belief in the organisa-
tion’s objectives, having a sense of belonging and pride
in working for the company, acting in ways that support
the success of the organisation, a willingness to stay with
the company despite other opportunities and frequently
going above and beyond normal expectations to help the
company succeed (Melcrum, 2005). Emotional engage-
ment allows employees to form meaningful connections
with others like co-workers and supervisors as well as
to experience empathy and concern for others’ feelings.
Being cognitively engaged refers to being acutely aware
of one’s mission and role in your work environment
(Erickson, 2005).
According to Schaufeli and Bakker (2003) employees
who score low on work engagement seem not to identify
with their work because of lack of meaning, inspiration
and challenges. On the contrary, employees who score high
on vigour usually have a lot of energy, zest and stamina
when working. Employees who score low on vigour
have less energy, zest and stamina as far as their work is
concerned. Those who score high on absorption feel that
they are usually happily engrossed in their work, they feel
immersed in their work and have difficulty detaching from
it because it carries them away (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2003).
In an environment of increasing global competition, where
organisations are running leaner and forced to do more with
less, tapping into discretionary effort offered by engaged
employees becomes even more imperative for success
133
in the marketplace. The link between high-involvement
work practices and positive beliefs and attitudes as associ-
ated with work engagement and generating behaviours
leading to enhanced performance is an important driver
for business success (Lockwood, 2007). The benefits
of work engagement also involve other organisational
outcomes like organisational citizenship behaviour, which
involves voluntary and informal behaviours that can help
co-workers and the organisation (Saks, 2008). For engaged
employees, time passes quickly, they identify with the task,
resist distractions, spread their enthusiasm to others and
care deeply about the result (Erickson, 2005). Based on
the aforementioned outcomes of employee engagement,
it is evident that a more engaged workforce not only has
a positive effect on retention, productivity and loyalty
and intent to remain with one’s organisation, it could also
increase customer satisfaction (Corporate Leadership
Council, 2008; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004).
Turnover intention/ intention to quit
According to Firth, Mellor, Moore and Loquet (2004) the
intention to quit is a strong predictor of actual quitting
behaviour. The notion that turnover intention is the best
predictor of actual turnover follows from research on
the immediate determinants of actual turnover behaviour
(Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). Therefore, turnover intentions
can be regarded as the last in a sequence of withdrawal
cognitions. This implies that turnover intention is an
indication that an employee is likely to leave his or her
current employer.
The causes of turnover intention
Despite extensive research in the area of turnover in the
South African context, it is still unclear exactly what
causes employees to stay or leave their employing organi-
sations (e.g. Heymann, 2010; Muteswa & Ortlepp, 2011;
Nzimande, 2012). Factors such as unemployment figures,
the number of available alternatives on the labour market,
perceived employment opportunities or perceived chances
in the labour market can be considered as determi-
nants of perceived behavioural control over the intention
to stay or leave the employing organisation (Allen &
Meyer, 1996). Aside from labour market conditions,
demographic variables such as age, tenure and education
affect intentions primarily in their capacity to sensitise
employees to specific labour market opportunities.
Lee and Rwigema (2005) found that models that
predict the leaving behaviour of shorter tenured, younger
and highly educated females are generally more effica-
cious in explaining the variability in turnover. From the
findings, it is likely that age, tenure and education could be
related to turnover intentions. Lee and Rwigema’s (2005)
study sample consisted of individuals who had left their
previous employer (leavers) and those intending to leave.
The study also included a second sample of individuals
who had not thought of leaving in the then foreseeable
future (stayers). Important demographic differences were
that leavers had lower organisational tenure and higher
education than stayers. These results suggest that tenure
and education are related to turnover (Lee & Rwigema,
2005). It is also important to note that several engagement
 134 Sibiya et al.
models suggest an empirical link between engagement
and turnover intent (Saks 2008). Furthermore, similar to
employee engagement, harmonious relations with one’s
supervisor as well as social support from a supervisor have
also been shown to play an important role in mitigating
intention to quit (Firth et al., 2004; Sturges & Guest, 2001).
Based on the aforementioned discussion, the factors that
influence turnover intentions can be classified into three
broad categories. These are demographic characteristics
such as race, age, education and tenure in the organisation;
organisational outcomes like employee engagement; and
labour market conditions.
The costs and benefits of turnover intention
An employer is said to have a high turnover relative to
its competitors if employees of that company have a
shorter average tenure than those of other companies in
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the same industry. Turnover results can have direct and
indirect tangible and intangible costs as well as a loss of
social capital, which impact organisational success (Dess
& Shaw, 2001). The direct costs of turnover include
recruitment and advertising costs, agency fees, applicant
expenses, relocation expenses, the time spent away
from one’s job for interviewing candidates as well as
corporate orientation costs for new incumbents (Firth et
al., 2004). The indirect costs of turnover include the loss
of knowledge, productivity impacts, customer service
impacts, the loss of momentum in the organisation, the
induction and training of new staff and lowered morale of
the remaining staff (McKay et al., 2007). The hidden costs
of turnover include increased human resources and payroll
administration, transition meetings and informal training,
missed deadlines, the loss of organisational knowledge,
clients’ impact and chain reaction turnover (Kotzé &
Roodt, 2005). In addition, findings from a study by Taplin
and Winterton (2007) showed that employees who stay in
high turnover firms sometimes do so because of a lack of
alternative employment and not because of commitment to
the organisation. However, replacing an employee, particu-
larly a marginally effective one, may also have positive
effects that could outweigh the cost.
According to Allen and Griffeth (1999), functional
turnover is characterised by a situation where high perfor-
mance employees remain with the organisation while
poor performance employees leave the organisation. In
contrast, dysfunctional turnover is characterised by high
performance employees leaving and poor performance
employees staying (Allen & Griffeth, 1999). The strength
and endurance of the assumption that turnover is a negative
consequence for organisations is understandable given that
researchers in organisational psychology have tended to
focus upon problems practitioners perceive as important
(Firth et al., 2004; Kotzé & Roodt, 2005). This finding
concurs with Lo’s (2013) meta-analytic conclusions that
suggest that despite how managers sometimes feel about it,
turnover, in and of itself, is neither good nor bad. Instead,
the goal should be to retain and motivate the best while
trimming poor performing employees. For knowledge
intensive activities such as high tech product develop-
ment and information and communications technology
turnover means losing people to competitors as well as
losing knowledge (Negadevara, Srinivasan, & Valk, 2008).
Retaining these talented employees is critical, regardless
of the prevailing economic climate. What is of concern
for most senior managers is the unexpected departure of
critical talent and the disruptive effects this departure has
on organisational processes such as current projects (Lo,
2013). Given the phenomenal growth of the South African
telecommunications industry, grey areas for research
still exist in understanding, predicting, controlling and/
or absorbing employee turnover (Lo, 2013). Therefore,
the ability to predict turnover intention, which may lead
to actual turnover, using employee engagement and
demographic variables is important in this context.
Turnover and demographic variables
Demographic variables are social categories for individ-
uals. Lo (2013) argued that these characteristics are distal
factors that influence turnover decisions. According to
Pfeffer (1983), the demographic composition of organi-
sations influences many behavioural patterns including
communication, promotions and turnover. These
demographic patterns include age, tenure, qualifica-
tions and race, which are all discussed below. The age
of employees has been shown to play an important part
in employee commitment (Kotzé & Roodt, 2005), the
psychological contract and the decision to leave (Van
Breukelen et al., 2004). Among all personal characteris-
tics, employee age is the most consistent in its relation-
ship to turnover (Lee & Rwigema, 2005). Many studies
of voluntary turnover have found that older, more
tenured employees are less likely to leave than younger
employees (Negadevara et al., 2008). Lee and Rwigema,
(2005) argued that this is because older workers would
probably find it more difficult to adapt to a new psycho-
logical contract as well as a new working environment.
Summarising the above research, age is a significant
variable that influences the decision to leave. Given the
challenge of an ageing organisation, it is important to
determine whether age predicts turnover intention.
Tenure refers to the length of time or years of service
one has been employed in the current organisation in a
specific job (Carmeli, 2003). Consistent with Babajide’s
(2010) findings, a meta-analysis by Lo (2013) revealed
that tenure has been investigated in ten studies and results
suggest that technologically oriented professionals who are
younger, single, highly educated and have less organisa-
tional tenure appear more willing to leave the organisation
to pursue external job opportunities. This is not surprising
given that Hulin (2002) also found that in any given cohort
of hires, two-thirds to three-quarters of the resignations
will occur by the end of the first three years of service. In
addition, of these more than half will occur by the end of
the first year alone.
In this study, qualification refers to the completion
of required schooling or the acquisition of a degree or a
diploma. Additionally, the words education and qualifica-
tion are used interchangeably. A recent review (Lo, 2013)
of 5 articles on education in relation to turnover found
education to be negatively related to job satisfaction and
career satisfaction, while previous studies have found it
to be positively related to turnover intentions (Igbaria
 Journal of Psychology in Africa
& Greenhaus, 1992). This means that highly educated
employees tend to be less satisfied with their jobs and
careers and are therefore more likely than less educated
employees to resign (e.g. Pattie, Benson, & Baruch, 2006).
Although the findings from the literature on the relation-
ship between education and turnover intentions vary there
is agreement that there is a relationship between education
and turnover intentions.
Race could play a rule in turnover intentions. South
Africa’s Employment Equity Act and affirmative action
have played an important role in the South African labour
market since the 1990s. This has led to previously disadvan-
taged individuals being sought out for employment thereby
increasing their mobility and turnover intentions through
influencing their psychological contracts in terms of loyalty.
Wöcke and Heyman (2012) found that race impacted the
pull factor (i.e. job alternatives in the market) for turnover,
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with employees from designated groups generally more
prone to leave due to pull factors as a result of the favour-
able labour market.
Theoretical framework
The theoretical framework underlying this study is based
on Deci and Ryan’s (1985) Self Determination Theory
(SDT). In its simplest sense, to be self-determining means
to experience a sense of choice in initiating and regulating
one’s own actions (Deci, Connell, & Ryan, 1989). The
starting point for SDT is organismic dialectic meta-theory
(Van den Broeck, Vansteenkiste, & de Witte, 2008).
Within this meta-theory, it is suggested that individuals are
growth-oriented organisms who actively interact with their
environment. The social context can support and nurture or
deny and frustrate individuals’ inherent growth tendency.
In the context of employee engagement, job resources,
social support from colleagues and supervisors and a
harmonious work environment could be regarded as the
social context that either supports and nurtures or denies
and frustrates employees’ tendency for self-determination
(Deci et al., 1989). Thus, according to SDT, employees
are likely to display optimal performance and well-being
in a context in which their inherent tendency for growth is
cherished and encouraged. Central to SDT is the interplay
between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan,
1985). Within SDT different types of extrinsic motivation
are distinguished ranging from controlling (i.e. external
regulation and introjection) to more autonomous (i.e.
identified and integration) types. Intrinsic motivation is
assumed to be the most autonomous type of motivation, as
individuals follow their personal interests when performing
intrinsically motivating activities (Deci & Ryan, 1985).
It is important to note that similar to employee engage-
ment, research suggests that holding a predominantly
autonomous job regulation yields positive effects in terms
of higher well-being and better performance and relates
negatively to turnover intentions (Millette & Gagné, 2008).
From the discussion, common factors emerged which
promote and impede both self-determination and employee
engagement. These factors, which include non-controlling
supervision, supportive supervisor feedback and adopting
a predominantly autonomous job regulation, could be
regarded as antecedents of both self-determination and
135
employee engagement. In light of the discussed litera-
ture, the general aim of this study was to explore the
relationship between employee engagement and turnover
intention. In addition, the study also aimed to determine
whether employee engagement, race, age, tenure and
qualifications predict turnover intention.
Method
Research design
The research was conducted using quantitative research
methods as the quantitative approach normally produces
objective results that in most cases are generalisable
(Durrheim & Painter, 2006). A survey was used to collect
the data via a company intranet link embedded in an e-mail
message. The rationale for using a survey is that in surveys
voluntary participation is encouraged and samples can be
used to discover the relative incidence, distribution and
interrelations of sociological and psychological variables
(Kerlinger & Lee, 2000). Surveys also aim to produce
generalisations about populations by collecting informa-
tion from samples.
Research subjects and sampling
Non-probability sampling was used because the selection
of elements was not determined by the statistical principle
of randomness. Instead, the sample consisted of partic-
ipants who volunteered to take part in the research
(Durrheim & Painter, 2006). The sampling approach was
therefore convenient because the sample was derived from
the population of employees who responded to the request
to participate in the survey. A census-based approach
(where everyone in the target population has an equal
chance of participating in the survey) was followed to
survey the heterogeneous target population. The popula-
tion consisted of all employees up to middle management
(N = 23 134) in the employ of the ICT Company over a
period of one month. The census-based approach yielded a
response rate of 9.8%. The data for this study came from a
sample of 2 267 employees (n = 2 267) at a very large ICT
service sector employer with establishments throughout
South Africa. The sample consisted of 836 females (37%)
and 1 431 males (63%). The highest percentage of partic-
ipants were in the age group 36–45 years old (21.5%),
followed by the 41 45 (19.1%) and 31–35 (19.14%)
years old age groups. Only 4.5% of the participants were
between 19 and 25 years of age. The racial demographics
of the group indicated that the majority of the participants
were White (44%), followed by Black (26%) with Indian/
Asian recording the lowest frequency constituting 13%.
The largest percentage of participants (34%) had standard
ten or equivalent, while 27% had a diploma and 12.7%
were degreed. The largest percentage of the participants
had been working for the organisation for between five
and ten years (26.3%), with the lowest proportion (7.2%)
having worked for the organisation for more than 31 years.
The demographic characteristics of the respondents are
presented in Table 1.
Measurements
The Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) was
developed based on the definition of employee engagement
 136 Sibiya et al.

Table 1. Participants’ demographic information

Variable Category Frequency (f) Percentage (%)
Race Groups Black 589 26%
White 1006 44%
Coloured 376 17%
Asian/ Indian 296 13%
Gender Female 836 37%
Male 1431 63%
Qualifications Secondary 145 6.3%
Standard ten equivalent 777 34%
National certificate diploma 444 20%
National diploma National Higher Diploma 610 27%
Bachelor’s Degree Equivalent 171 7.5%
Postgraduate degree 120 5.2%
Age Groups 19–25 102 4.50%
26–30 228 10.06%
31–35 434 19.14%
36–40 488 21.53%
41–45 441 19.45%
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46–50 340 15.00%

51+ 234 10.32%
Tenure 0 to 5 358 15.79%
6 to 10 596 26.29%
11 to 15 223 9.84%
16 to 20 338 14.91%
21 to 25 302 13.32%
26 to 30 287 12.66%
31+ 163 7.19%

as a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind that
is characterised by vigour, dedication and absorption
(Schaufeli & Bakker, 2003). In this study, vigour was
assessed by six items that refer to high levels of energy
and resilience, the willingness to invest effort, not being
easily fatigued and persistence in the face of difficulties
(Schaufeli & Bakker, 2003). Dedication was assessed by
five items that refer to deriving a sense of significance
from one’s work, feeling enthusiastic and proud about
one’s job, and feeling inspired and challenged by the job.
Lastly, absorption was measured by six items that refer
to being totally and happily immersed in one’s work and
having difficulties detaching oneself from work, so that
time passes quickly and one forgets everything else that
is around. The complete UWES was scored on a 7-point
Likert-type scale ranging from 0 (never) to 6 (always)
where the 0 and 6 represent extreme values on the scale
(Schaufeli & Bakker, 2003). Regarding the psychometric
qualities of the UWES, Cronbach alphas for the UWES of
0.78 for vigour, 0.89 for dedication and 0.78 for absorp-
tion were obtained in a study consisting of a sample of 2
396 members of the South African Police Service (Storm
& Rothmann, 2003). A study conducted by Schaufeli et
al. (2002) showed that the three engagement scales have
sufficient internal consistencies (α = 0.80 for vigour,
α = 0.91 for dedication and α = 0.75 for absorption). The
reliability coefficient for engagement as measured by the
UWES for the data collected in this study was calculated
at 0.95. The two factors derived from the factor analysis of
data in this research yielded reliability coefficients of 0.90
for both absorption and vigour.
The abridged version of Intention to Stay Questionnaire
(ISQ) was used. Although the questionnaire deals with
intention to stay, the theory and findings still hold valid
for turnover intention (Martin, 2007). Since research
regarding voluntary employee turnover has shown that
turnover intentions are the most immediate and accurate
predictor of actual turnover (van Breukelen et al., 2004)
the six items in this questionnaire tap into the likelihood
of staying with an organisation. Turnover intention rather
than actual turnover was used because of the interest in
the present employees rather than those who had left the
company. In addition, actual turnover is also influenced
by the economic climate and circumstances in the labour
market (Kotzé & Roodt, 2005; Michaels & Spector, 1982;
Sutherland & Jordaan, 2004; van Breukelen et al., 2004).
The responses to the statements were measured on a seven
point intensity response scale ranging from 1 (never) to 7
(always). An example questions is: “In the past six month,
how often have you considered leaving your job?” Jacobs
(2005) found a reliability of 0.90 and other results obtained
from the reliability analysis of the questionnaire yielded
a Cronbach alpha of 0.79 (Durrheim & Painter, 2006)
suggesting that the scale is reliable.
Research procedure
Permission was obtained from management to conduct
this study. Informed consent was sought from all partici-
pants before data collection and to ensure anonymity data
records were replaced with respondent numbers to prevent
identification of the participants. Respondents were made
aware that participation was voluntary and that the partici-
pants were free to withdraw from the study at any stage
and for any reason. A pilot study was conducted using 50
participants with the help of the organisation’s web-based
solution section, the survey link was sent via e-mail and
these respondents reported no problems completing the
survey. The purpose of the online method of data collec-
tion was to ensure the highest response rate possible at
the lowest cost possible. Following a census approach,
 Journal of Psychology in Africa 137

a universal resource locator (URL) address of the online
electronic survey was sent to the entire target population.
The collected information was captured via Structured
Query Language (SQL) in a database management system
commonly referred to as a SQL database. The web-based
link for the survey was destroyed at the close of business
on the last day of the survey in order to prevent any further
participation. To obtain the biographic and demographic
data needed, the unique salary reference number linked
to each record was used for each participant in the ICT
Company’s human resource database. The salary reference
numbers were replaced with respondent numbers to
prevent identification of participants.
Data analysis
All statistical calculations for the study were done using
IBM SPSS Statistics version 21. The data analysis
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2013). Regression analysis was used to assess hypoth-
esis 1 (whether employee engagement was a statistically
significant predictor of turnover intention) and hypothesis
3 (whether age, tenure, race and qualifications could statis-
tically predict turnover intention).
Results
The results of the factor analysis conducted on the
UWES revealed the presence of two components with
eigenvalues exceeding one, explaining 57.28% and 6.6%
of the variance respectively. The two components were
renamed immersion (factor 1) and activation (factor 2). It
was decided to include the two factors for further analysis
together with the original UWES scale. With regard
to the ISQ the factor analysis revealed the presence of
one component with an eigenvalue exceeding one. This
explained 50.5% of the variance. Based on this, it was

consisted of descriptive statistical analysis (mean,
maximum, standard deviation) and information about
the distribution of scores on continuous variables (i.e.
skewness or kurtosis). The skewness value provides an
indication of the symmetry of the distribution and the
kurtosis provides information about the ‘peakedness’ of
the distribution. Factor analysis was done to determine
the structure of the questionnaire. Specifically, confirma-
tory factor analysis (CFA) was employed to determine the
underlying structures of the measurements and to evaluate
the construct validity of the UWES and ISQ scales used in
this study (Kerlinger & Lee, 2000). Cronbach alpha coeffi-
cients were calculated to determine reliability. Inferential
statistics were used to draw conclusions by means of
correlations and regression analysis. Although there are a
number of different kinds of correlation coefficients, the
Pearson product moment correlation coefficient was used
to determine the relationship between employee engage-
ment and turnover intentions as stated in hypothesis 1.
Lastly, the study also made use of multiple regression
analysis. In this procedure each independent variable is
evaluated in terms of its predictive power, over and above
that offered by all other independent variables (Pallant,
decided to retain one component for further analysis.
An analysis of the reliability of the scales used in this
study showed that all the scales were above the threshold
suggested by Pallant (2013) with the ISQ yielding a
Cronbach alpha coefficient of 0.79 indicating that the
questionnaire is reliable. This result is consistent with the
results of previous studies (Jacobs, 2005; Martin, 2007)
which also indicated that the questionnaire was both reliable
and valid. Cronbach alpha coefficients of α = 0.913 and
α = 0.895 were obtained respectively. A Cronbach alpha
of 0.95 was obtained for employee engagement. Previous
reliability calculations by Stander and Rothmann (2010)
yielded a Cronbach alpha of 0.94. (Table 2)
Pearson product moment correlations were calculated
to test hypothesis one. As shown in Table 3 employee
engagement and turnover intentions are statistically
and practically (medium effect) negatively correlated
(r = -0.449; n = 2 267, p ≤ 0.01). The results of the correla-
tions between the other variables indicate that age, gender
and years of service have a statistically significant relation-
ship with employee engagement (p ≤ 0.01). However, in
terms of practical effect, most significant relationships
were generally close to zero and therefore meaningless.

Table 2. Descriptive statistics

Scale Min Max Mean SD Skewness Kurtosis α
UWES 0 102 67.61 20.98 −1.17 0.91 0.95
Immersion 0 60 45.94 11.96 −1.2 1.13 0.90
Activation 0 42 30.66 10.00 −1.1 0.57 0.90
Turnover Intentions 6 42 25.35 6.28 −0.1 −0.59 0.79
Min = Minimum; Max = Maximum; SD = Standard deviation; α = Cronbach alpha coefficients

Table 3. Pearson correlations

Scale 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1. UWES 1
2. Factor 1 0.962**++ 1
3. Factor 2 0.945**++ 0.820**++ 1
4. Turnover Intentions −0.449**+ −0.376**+ −0.491**+ 1
5. Race 0.040 0.063**++ 0.009 −0.049*+ 1
6. Age 0.183** 0.198** 0.148** −0.175** 0.037+ 1
7 Years of Service 0.107** 0.138** 0.059** −0.088**++ 0.078**++ 0.773**++ 1
8 Qualification −0.046*+ −0.059** −0.026 0.061** −0.119** −0.152** −0.154**
9. Gender −0.057**++ −0.053* −0.056** 0.010 −0.046*+ −0.234** −0.265** −0.037
**Statistical significance at p ≤ 0.01; *Statistical significance at p ≤ 0.05
++Practically significant (large effect < 0.50); +Practically significant (medium effect < 0.30)
 138 Sibiya et al.

Immersion and activation both had practical and statis-
tically significant relationships with turnover intentions
(medium effect); p ≤ 0.01). The calculated correlation
coefficients were −0.37 for immersion and −0.49 for activa-
tion. Race, age and years of service had statistically signifi-
cant relationships with absorption (p ≤ 0.01). Qualification
had a statistically significant relationship with absorption
(r = 0.05, n = 2 267, p ≤ 0.01). Absorption had a practical
(large effect) and statistically significant relationship with
vigour (r = 0.82, n = 2267, p ≤ 0.01). Age, gender and
years of service all had statistically significant relationships
with vigour (p ≤ 0.01).
The data was also subjected to a series of multiple
regressions to test hypotheses two and three. All the
independent variables were entered into the equation
simultaneously and each variable was evaluated in terms
of its predictive power, over and above that offered by all
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qualifications as independent variables and turnover
intentions. As shown in Table 5, race, gender, age, factor
1 (immersion) and factor 2 (activation) predicted turnover
intentions (F = 99.94, p < 0.001, R² = 0.261). The variables
explained 26.1% of the variance in turnover intentions.
In this study race contributed 0.2%, qualifications 0.1%,
tenure 0.1 %, age 0.86%, immersion 0.44% and activa-
tion 10.37%. It was found that activation held the highest
predictive value (β = −0.568). Total employee engagement
held the second highest predictive value (β = −0.426) and
age held the third highest predictive value (β = −0.150).
Discussion
The central purpose of this study was to determine the
relationship between employee engagement and turnover
intentions. A secondary aim involved assessing the
relative strength of employee engagement and a number

the other independent variables (Pallant, 2013). Table 4
shows the results of the regression analysis conducted with
turnover intentions as a dependent variable and employee
engagement, age, years of service, race and qualifications
as independent variables.
The results in Tables 4 show that only age and years
of service/tenure predicted turnover intentions. When the
variables were entered into the regression equation, the
model explained 22.8% of the variance in the dependent
variable (F = 25.272, p < 0.001, R² = 0.228). Furthermore,
Table 4 indicates that employee engagement (as measured
by the UWES) had the highest predictive value in relation
to turnover intentions (p ≤ 0.001), this was followed by age
and tenure at p < 0.001 and p < 0.01 respectively.
Table 5 shows the results of the regression analysis
conducted with the two factors derived from the factor
analysis of the UWES, age, years of service, race and
of demographic variables’ ability to predict the intention
to quit the employment of the respondents’ current organi-
sation. The Cronbach alpha coefficients for all measuring
instruments were acceptable since they were above the
0.70 threshold (Pallant, 2013); UWES (α ≥ 0.70, r = 0.95),
Immersion (α ≥ 0.70, r = 0.90, Activation (α ≥ 0.70,
r = 0.90 and ISQ (α ≥ 0.70, r = 0.79).
Factor analysis was also conducted on the data obtained
from the UWES and the ISQ and two factors emerged in
the UWES with factor one being renamed immersion
and factor two was renamed activation. However in a
similar study, Schaufeli and Bakker (2003) obtained the
original three-factor structure. The result of factor analysis
conducted on the ISQ yielded a single factor structure. A
single factor structure was therefore retained in the analysis.
Pearson product moment correlations were then calculated
to investigate the relationships between the study variables

Table 4. Multiple regression analyses with turnover intention as a dependent variable and employee engagement, race, age, years of
service and qualification as independent variables
Unstandardised coefficients Standardised coefficients
Model
B Std. Error Beta t Sig. F R R2
1 (Constant) 38.896 0.938 41.481 < 0.000 25.272 0.477 0.228
Race −0.196 0.124 −0.030 −1.588 0.112
Age −0.120 0.023 −0.157 −5.268 0.000***
Years of Service 0.054 0.019 0.084 2.854 0.004***
Qualification 0.132 0.090 0.028 1.477 0.140
Region 0.035 0.063 0.011 0.565 0.572
UWES −0.128 0.006 −0.426 −22.410 < 0.000***
***Statistically significant p < 0.001; **Statistical significance at p ≤ 0.01. *Statistical significance at p ≤ 0.05

Table 5. Multiple regression analyses with turnover intention as a dependent variable and immersion, activation, race, age, years of
service and qualification as independent variables
Unstandardised coefficients Standardised coefficients
Model
B Std. Error Beta t Sig. F R R2
99.937 0.511 0.261
1 (Constant) 38.246 1.034 36.992 < 0.000
Race −0.317 0.120 −0.048 −2.637 0.008**
Qualification 0.149 0.087 0.032 1.705 0.088
Gender −0.522 0.246 −0.040 −2.122 0.034*
Years of Service 0.026 0.018 0.041 1.412 0.158
Age −0.114 0.022 −0.150 −5.167 < 0.000***
Factor 1 – Immersion 0.062 0.017 0.118 3.654 < 0.000***
Factor 2 – Activation 0.356 0.020 −0.568 −17.791 < 0.000***
***Statistically significant p < 0.001; **Statistical significance at p ≤ 0.01. *Statistical significance at p ≤ 0.05
 Journal of Psychology in Africa
as well as the ability to predict turnover intentions using the
independent variables of employee engagement, age, race,
tenure and qualification.
Hypothesis one stated that employee engagement is
negatively related to turnover intentions. The results
indicate that employee engagement had a negative
relationship with turnover intentions. This meant that the
more engaged employees were, the lower their turnover
intentions. These results are a confirmation of previous
studies on the relationship between employee engagement
and turnover intentions (Corporate Leadership Council,
2008; May et al., 2004). This is an indication that if engage-
ment is experienced in the organisation, employees tend
to remain with the organisation, which results in a lower
turnover. Consistent with the above results, the results
of the two factors derived from the factor analysis of the
UWES were also negatively related to turnover intentions.
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The effect was however moderate. The implication of this
is that engaging employees through meaningful work,
challenging assignments and providing a harmonious
workplace can help reduce the organisation’s turnover and
recruitment costs as engaged employees are more likely
to have an attachment to their organisation (Schaufeli &
Bakker, 2004). The fact that employee engagement is not
only negatively related to turnover intention but is also
associated with positive organisational outcomes, including
productivity, job satisfaction, motivation, commit-
ment, customer satisfaction, return on assets, profits and
shareholder value, is an added advantage for the organisa-
tion (Bakker et al., 2008). In addition, engaged employees
have a sense of affective and energetic connection to their
work and see themselves as being able to cope with the
demands of their work (Kahn, 1990).
Hypotheses two and three dealt with the predic-
tion of turnover intentions by the independent variables.
Concerning hypothesis two, which was the prediction of
turnover intentions by employee engagement, employee
engagement predicted turnover intentions. In fact, employee
engagement had the second highest predictive value of all
the independent variables. Both employee engagement
factors predicted turnover intentions. Factor two, which
was renamed activation, had the highest predictive value of
all the independent variables. This suggests that those who
are activated are less likely to leave the organisation. This
suggests that in order to increase productivity, customer
satisfaction should be increased and turnover intention
reduced by providing challenging work assignments that
are mentally stimulating to employees.
With regard to hypothesis three, the assumptions were
that age, race, tenure and qualifications predict turnover
intentions. The analysis showed that only race and
age as well as the two factors of engagement predicted
turnover intentions when the two factors derived from
the factor analysis of the UWES were entered into the
model. However, when employee engagement and the
demographic variables were entered into the model the
picture was different. In this case, employee engagement,
age and years of service predicted turnover intentions. A
possible reason could lie in the split of employee engage-
ment into two factors in the one model, versus using
employee engagement as a whole in the other model.
139
According to Pallant (2013), whether or not a variable
makes a statistically significant contribution to the equation
depends on which variables are included in the equation
and how much overlap exists among the independent
variables. These results are consistent with those of Boshoff
et al. (2002), who also found that respondents’ ages contrib-
uted to the prediction of turnover intention. In fact, age was
found to have contributed the most variance to the predic-
tion of turnover intentions. The two other predictors in the
model used by Boshoff et al. (2002) were years of service
and hierarchical level of the respondents.
It is important to note that although race and age
predicted turnover intentions, as could be expected from
the individual correlations with turnover intentions,
they did not contribute significantly to the prediction of
turnover intentions. In fact, race accounted for only 0.2%
of the variance and age accounted for only 0.8% of the
variance. Concerning the amount of variance explained by
each independent variable in relation to the prediction of
turnover intentions, factor two (activation) accounted for
the largest amount of variance (10%) in turnover intentions.
This suggests that the more activated employees are, the
less likely they are to leave the organisation. The result is
not surprising given the fact that Boshoff et al. (2002) also
found that organisational outcomes were better predictors
of turnover intention than demographic variables. Although
the variance explained was limited, age made the second
highest contribution to the prediction of turnover intentions.
The role of age in this organisation is particularly signifi-
cant. At the time when the survey was conducted, the
organisation was investing large amounts in the training and
development of graduates with information and communi-
cation technology (ICT) skills through its full-time bursary
programme. These graduates were first time workforce
entrants with unrealistic expectations of the job and the
organisation. These unrealistic expectations coupled with
the scarcity of their skills and poaching by competitors
in the telecommunications industry could make them
vulnerable to turnover. With regard to race not contrib-
uting significantly, the reason may be the demographic
composition of sample used for this study in which 34%
were not graduates and were not highly qualified. Given the
legislative landscape in the South Africa, one would expect
a high correlation given that Black African graduates or
skilled Black employees are poached by other organisa-
tions and are therefore more likely to have high mobility
across organisations than their counterparts. Surprisingly,
qualifications did not contribute significantly to the predic-
tion of turnover intentions. This was inconsistent with prior
research findings (Cotton & Tuttle; 1986; Falkenburg &
Schyns, 2007).
Consistent with findings from the study conducted by
Boshoff et al. (2002), the prediction of intention to quit by
means of biographic variables did not share useful common
variance with turnover intentions. Findings from the
correlation analysis further indicated that age and years of
service each had a statistically significant negative relation-
ship with turnover intentions. This is consistent with results
from previous research studies by Boshoff et al. (2002),
Lee and Rwigema (2005) and Negadevara et al. (2008).
A possible reason for the outcome could be that younger,
 140 Sibiya et al.
lesser tenured employees are more likely to have the skills
required by the labour market making them more vulner-
able to turnover intentions. In addition, younger employees
join the world of work with unrealistic expectations. The
combination of these two factors exacerbates the likelihood
of higher turnover intentions.
Another possible reason for higher turnover intentions
of younger individuals is that employees engage in a process
of career exploration in their first few jobs and that older
employees, given their career life stage, may not be able
to move easily. Longer tenured workers might also feel
obligated to stay with their current employers for economic
reasons. For example these reasons might include the
loss of seniority, established relations with others inside
and outside the organisation, pension and post-retirement
benefits (Boshoff et al., 2002). This is particularly the case
with the organisation used in this research study, as longer
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tenured employees are most likely to only have worked
for this organisation. The organisation also offers excellent
post-retirement benefits such as subsidised medical aid and
a telephone. The challenge is to balance the conflicting
needs of dealing with an ageing workforce that consists
of employees with low qualification levels and skills that
have become obsolete while simultaneously keeping the
younger employees who have the required skills engaged
in order to decrease the likelihood of turnover intentions.
Since the organisation operates in the telecommunications
industry, the vast majority of employees are required to
have telecommunication skills. The work of this specific
group of employees ranges from specialising in information
communication technology, working in the organisation’s
laboratories, engineering, working in man-holes, climbing
masts, working on microwave towers, working on poles
with live electrical wires, to working in adverse weather and
conditions that pose a threat to both their safety and health.
For those whose work involves physical activity, the
dilemma faced by the organisation is that while the older
generation has the requisite skills many of them develop
chronic conditions that prevent them from performing their
duties. Having an ageing workforce therefore means having
employees who cannot perform the work for which they are
employed. The other disadvantage is that the older genera-
tion of workers invariably do not meet the minimum level
of qualifications required to be trained in the latest technol-
ogies. Age and years of service were positively related to
employee engagement implying that older, longer tenured
employees were more engaged, which has both advantages
and disadvantages. The advantage is that the older, longer
tenured and probably more experienced workers go the
extra mile, exercise more discretionary effort, and are likely
to keep customers satisfied and generate more revenue for
the organisation. The disadvantage is that the younger group
of employees, who are likely to have the skills required to
give the organisation a competitive edge, are more likely
to be looking for alternative employment. They are also
less likely to go the extra mile or using their discretionary
effort to support the organisation’s strategy of growing new
markets and retaining existing customers.
Qualification had a statistically significant relation-
ship with turnover intentions but the effect was small. The
relationship was positive which is consistent with results
obtained by Trevor (2001) who found that less educated
employees had a lower probability than highly educated
employees of quitting regardless of the state of labour
market conditions. This is worrying for the organisation as
it is more likely to result in the skills required by the organi-
sation to implement its strategy of defending its existing
market share and growing its customer base being lost to
competitors. Those with the required qualifications also
do not have the dedication required for more meaningful
customer impact, leading to higher profitability. Instead,
they are thinking of leaving and intend to leave. This is
particularly worrying because the demographic profile of
the participants in this survey also indicates that the largest
percentage of employees (34%) only have a standard ten or
equivalent qualification. Also of concern was the fact that
qualification was negatively related to employee engage-
ment. This was inconsistent with the results obtained by
Barkhuizen and Rothmann (2006) who found that the
higher qualified respondents in their study reported higher
engagement levels than respondents with lower qualifica-
tions. This might mean that the more qualified employees
are essentially ‘checked out’ (Endres & Mancheno-Smoak,
2008). These employees uncouple themselves from their
work roles and defend themselves physically, cognitively
or emotionally during role performances (Kahn, 1990).
Instead of being the epitome of engagement, they come
to work and put in just enough to stay out of trouble. Not
surprisingly, qualification also had significant negative
relationships with the two factors of employee engagement.
This meant that as the level of qualification increased,
employees felt less immersed in their work, more easily
detached themselves from work and experienced time as
dragging (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2003).
Lastly, race had a statistically significant relationship
with turnover intentions. The impact of racial differences
on turnover engagement was however not determined in
this study.
Conclusions
The following conclusions can be drawn with regards
to the relationship between employee engagement and
turnover intention as well as the prediction of turnover
intentions through employee engagement and the
demographic variables of age, race, tenure and qualifica-
tion. Hypothesis one, which stated that employee engage-
ment and turnover intention are negatively related, was
confirmed. Employee engagement and turnover intentions
had a statistically and practically negative relationship.
This suggests that engaged employees are likely to report
lower turnover intentions, therefore hypothesis one was
not rejected. The findings indicate that employee engage-
ment is a predictor of turnover intentions. In this regard
hypothesis two, which stated that employee engagement
predicts turnover intention, was not rejected as the results
confirmed the hypothetical assumption. Based on the
model used in the regression equation of the demographic
variables only race, tenure and age predicted turnover
intentions. This suggests that qualifications did not predict
turnover intentions therefore hypothesis three which stated
that age, tenure, race and qualifications predict turnover
intention was only partially confirmed.
 Journal of Psychology in Africa
In the study at hand turnover intention was defined as
the strength of an individual’s view that he/she does not
want to stay with his/ her current employer (Boshoff et al.,
2002). Research suggests that turnover intentions are the
best immediate predictor of actual turnover. Demographic
attributes are also powerful determinants of both percep-
tions of similarity and perceptions of person-environment
fit and could therefore have an impact on turnover as the
demographic composition of organisations influences many
behavioural patterns including communication, promotions
and turnover. This should be taken into cognisance by
organisations, especially in the South African context
where the composition of the workforce is significantly
characterised by diversity based on specific demographic
variables.
For the purpose of this study, employee engagement
was defined as a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of
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mind that is characterised by vigour, dedication and absorp-
tion. Vigour is characterised by high levels of energy and
mental resilience while working; dedication refers to being
strongly involved in one’s work and experiencing a sense of
significance, enthusiasm and challenge. Lastly, absorption
is characterised by being fully concentrated and happily
engrossed in one’s work, whereby time passes quickly and
one has difficulty detaching oneself from work (Schaufeli
& Bakker, 2003).
Implications for management
In order to increase the engagement levels of employees
and decrease the resultant turnover intentions, organi-
sations need to provide an atmosphere for employees to
feel energised about their work and challenging tasks. It is
recommended that management and organisations provide
employees with assignments that will allow them to invest
effort and persist in the face of difficulties. In order for
the organisation to control and predict turnover intentions,
it also needs to focus on what employees in the different
age groups are looking for in their jobs. There is a need
for a revision of the organisation’s current retention model
which should be tailored according to skills and qualifica-
tion levels.
Limitations and recommendations for future research
Although this study revealed significant relationships
between the variables of age, race, qualification, tenure,
employee engagement, vigour, absorption and turnover
intentions, it suffers from the limitation of not revealing
differences in the relationships based on aspects like race.
It would have been interesting to determine racial differ-
ences in the experiences of employee engagement and
turnover intentions. Future research should therefore focus
on the influence of race on the organisational outcomes
of employee engagement and turnover intention. Caution
needs to be exercised in the application of the results to
organisations both within and outside of the telecommu-
nications industry. Although the organisation operates in
the telecommunications industry, it is set apart from the
rest of the organisations in this industry because it is not
entirely privately owned. The organisation was once part
of a government department and organisational outcomes
like employee engagement and turnover intentions are
141
influenced by an organisational culture that might be
different in other organisation both inside and outside the
telecommunications industry.
The sampling method poses further limitations
for the application of these results to the organisation.
Non-probabilistic sampling tends to be biased because
the units selected may share some characteristics that set
them apart from the whole population, from which they
may differ significantly (Antonius, 2003). There is a likeli-
hood that the majority of employees who participated in
the survey were office bound employees who have the
luxury of quiet time. Most technical employees work on
the network and are mostly outside. Although they have
laptops, the company van by the roadside is not an ideal
place to complete a survey. The results of this study might
therefore not be representative. An additional limitation
relates to the fact that the results were obtained exclusively
by means of self-report questionnaires. This could lead to
subjective perceptions about the accuracy of responses. It
is also important to note that only 38% of the respondents’
first language was English. Many respondents indicated
that Afrikaans (37%) or one of the Black languages (24.6%)
was their first language. The language restraint of the
questionnaires must therefore be taken into consideration.
Although both employee engagement and the two factors
derived from the factor analysis of the UWES predicted
turnover intentions, the study did not include predictors
of employee engagement. Future researchers in the area
should try to shed light on why people stay as this was not
dealt with in the study at hand. As the relationship between
employee engagement and turnover intentions has already
been established, future research on the subject should
focus on the predictors of both employee engagement and
turnover intentions. With the changes in labour legisla-
tion, specifically the Employment Equity Act and Skills
Development Act, which seek to redress past labour related
injustice, more research on the difference in the experience
of employee engagement and turnover intentions based on
demographic variables is required.
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