Trends in Food Science & Technology 83 (2019) 86–98

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Trends in Food Science & Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tifs

Review

Trends of research on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in food: A 20-year T

perspective from 1997 to 2017
Yaqing Suna,b, Shimin Wua,b,c,∗, Guangyi Gonga,b
a
Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China
b
Bor S. Luh Food Safety Research Centre, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China
c
Key Laboratory of Urban Agriculture (South), Ministry of Agriculture, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Background: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are widely found in nature and accumulated, enriched, or
Vegetable oil produced in food through multiple paths, posing a great risk to human health. With more and more studies
Tea established on PAHs, it is essential to sort out the publications, analyze hotspots and indicate emerging trends as
Smoking well.
Oxygenated, Nitro-, Halogenated, and
Scope and approach: We investigated 1110 studies originating from the Web of Science Core Collection in the
alkylated PAHs
field of “Food Science Technology” from the year 1997–2017. These studies were analyzed using HistCite and
Degradation
Toxicity CiteSpace. This review included the trends and comparisons of literature outputs, "star" papers and hotspots,
Risk assessment describing the emerging trend of research on PAHs in food.
Key findings and conclusions: The results indicated that the number of studies on PAHs in foods has been growing
at an average annual rate of 13% from the initial 11 articles to 127 articles. The high yield of PAH-related
research in Europe may be attributed to concerns related to olive oil and smoked meats. Besides, hotspots also
included the formation of PAHs in food processing, the concentration of PAHs in edible oils and smoked pro-
ducts, and the GC-MS method for detecting PAHs. Based on articles we have analyzed, it is worth mentioning
that determination of PAHs and derivatives still needs improvement. Moreover, with collective efforts from all
researchers, we hope that more progress will be made in the limit standards and toxicological evaluation for PAH
derivatives, as well as methods for the green removal of PAHs in food.

1. Introduction pollution. As early as 1976, the United States Environmental Protection

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) refer to a large group of
persistent organic pollutants that contain two or more fused benzene
rings in their chemical structural. They are produced by the pyrolysis of
organic compounds or incomplete industrial combustion (Abbas et al.,
2018; Li, Chen, Zhang, Song, Mu, Sun, et al., 2018). According to their
relative molecular weight and the number of benzene rings, PAHs can
be divided into light PAHs (LPAHs, 2–4 rings) and heavy PAHs (HPAHs,
more than 4 rings). Most of the PAHs have been proved to have ter-
atogenicity, carcinogenicity and mutagenicity, posing a great threat to
human health (Kim, Jahan, Kabir, & Brown, 2013; Ramesh et al., 2004).
PAHs are a large family of over 10,000 compounds, of which more
than 100 are detected in the atmosphere (Wenzl, Simon, Anklam, &
Kleiner, 2006). Because of the harmful effects of PAHs on human
beings, scientists urgently need a standard to assess the degree of
Agency (US EPA) selected 16 PAHs to assess the health risks of drinking
water, named the “16 US EPA priority PAHs.” Since then, these 16
PAHs have been widely accepted and monitored all over the world and
serve as reference standards for PAH research in many fields, especially
in environmental and food studies. In 2002, to highlight the strongly
carcinogenic PAHs, the European Commission's Scientific Committee
on Food (SCF) reported 15 types of PAHs that should be heavily mon-
itored in food, of which eight were members of “16 US EPA priority
PAHs.” In 2005, the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Group on Food Additives
(JECFA) added a PAH to the EU standards. These 16 EU PAHs are
commonly referred to as the “15 + 1 EU priority PAHs,” distinguishing
from those of the US EPA. In 2008, the US EPA proposed a series of
priority control on hazardous pollutants, including 28 PAHs.
The research on PAHs first began in the field of environmental
studies and mainly analyzed the industrial sources of PAHs. Further

∗
Corresponding author. Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road,
Shanghai, 200240, China.
E-mail address: wushimin@sjtu.edu.cn (S. Wu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2018.11.015
Received 10 July 2018; Received in revised form 14 September 2018; Accepted 9 November 2018
Available online 13 November 2018
0924-2244/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. Sun et al.
studies indicated that PAHs can migrate from the environment to crops
and food, such as oils, fruits and vegetables, seafood, smoked food, and
bakery products (Hong et al., 2016; Silva, Torres, Almeida, & Sampaio,
2018; Wang et al., 2018). Food production processes, especially those
using high temperatures, such as baking, smoking, frying and roasting,
are more likely to generate and accumulate large amounts of PAHs
(Bertinetti, Ferreira, Monks, Sanches-Filho, & Elias, 2018; Rose et al.,
2015). As to PAH generation in high-temperature, pyrolysis and oxi-
dation of fat, protein and carbohydrates are induced and accelerated.
This is conducive to the formation of PAHs. In addition to being gen-
erated from environmental pollution and food processing, PAH con-
tamination in food can be caused by contact with contaminated
packaging materials. Notably, food has a great impact on the non-oc-
cupational exposure to PAHs. For non-smokers, more than 70% of PAH
exposure can be attributed to food (Phillips, 1999). To measure human
exposure to PAHs, some potential biomarkers such as 1-hydroxypyrene
in human urine have been monitored (Srogi, 2007). Therefore, research
on PAHs in food has received more and more attention, and the number
of papers on PAHs in food continues to rise.
Much of the literature on PAHs lacks the analysis of their research
difficulties and trends. How to effectively organize, summarize and
analyze these papers has become a difficult problem for researchers. As
a subject, bibliometrics is an effective method and an important tool for
assessing academic progress in a field (Gutiérrez-Salcedo, Martínez,
Moral-Munoz, Herrera-Viedma, & Cobo, 2017). This method studies
scientific publications stored or indexed in large databases as a measure
of academic quality and scientific impact through a network of bib-
liographies (co-words, co-citations or co-authors) and, to some extent,
predicts future developmental trends (Batagelj & Cerinsek, 2013;
Martínez, Cobo, Herrera, & Herrera-Viedma, 2014). Based on biblio-
metrics, scientific knowledge mapping has emerged, which enables the
mining, analysis and clustering of knowledge in specific fields with the
aid of visual tools. Through this emerging discipline, scientists can in-
tuitively analyze the development context in the field and build a
network of relationships among the publications (Osinska & Bala,
2015). Among the various tools, CiteSpace and HistCite are two com-
monly used software programs. CiteSpace is a multivariate, time-divi-
sion, and dynamic citation visual analysis software that focuses on
analyzing the potential knowledge contained in scientific literature and
gradually develops in the context of scientometric data and information
visualization. Through visualization, CiteSpace can present the struc-
ture, regularity, and distribution of scientific knowledge (Chen, 2006).
HistCite is another citation analysis tool. Through a powerful analysis
of document output (journals, institutions, countries, years), it can map
out the development context of a certain research field and lock im-
portant papers based on different standards (Garfield, 2009). These two
tools are widely used in bibliometrics and scientific knowledge maps.
Tho, Yeung, Wei, Chan, and So (2017) used visual structures to study
the application of remote labs in science education. Yang et al. (2013)
used HistCite to study the achievements and hotspots of research re-
lated to China's municipal solid waste. Zhao, Zhang, Wang, Wang, and
Ouyang (2017) used CiteSpace to make qualitative and quantitative
analyses of the progress on the molecular modeling of cyclodextrin.
In this study, we aim to analyze the research on PAHs in food from
both global and individual perspectives based on online databases and
with the use of scientific knowledge mapping software. This review
includes the trends and comparisons of literature outputs, “star” papers
and hot research topics, describing the emerging trend of research on
PAHs in food.
2. Literature sources and research methods
2.1. Literature sources
The data in this study originated from the Web of Science Core
Collection, laying the foundation for the software processing and
87
Trends in Food Science & Technology 83 (2019) 86–98
visualization work afterwards. Web of Science (WoS) is a science-based
indexing service originally developed by the Institute for Scientific
Information (ISI) based on online subscriptions and is currently oper-
ated by Clarivate Analytics. It provides multiple databases covering
interdisciplinary research, explores areas of expertise in many dis-
ciplines, and provides comprehensive citations (Chi & Glanzel, 2017).
The search terms for the data were set as “polycyclic aromatic hydro-
carbons” OR ″polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon” OR ″PAHs” OR ″PAH”,
which included several common expressions of PAHs. The search scope
was “topic”, including title, abstract, author keyword and keyword
plus. On this basis, the results were refined by year (1997–2017) and
the WoS subject classification (Food Science Technology).
To ensure the accuracy of the data, the titles and abstracts of the
resulting literature were screened to ensure that the results were re-
levant to the topic of the study and those that were incorrect or du-
plicates were excluded. Validated data were exported as “full record
and cited references” in the form of plain text. Finally, 1110 valid
publications were obtained as the data for this study, including 75 re-
view papers relevant to PAHs in food.
Among these reviews, 23 reviews focused on the detection methods
for PAHs in food. Fourteen reviews concerned the risk and safety as-
sessment of PAHs in food. The third hot topic belongs to the con-
centration of PAHs in different foods reviewed in 12 papers. In addition,
11 reviews on the formation and mechanism of PAHs in foods were
published. Ten reviews on the physiological toxicity and five reviews on
the biodegradation of PAHs were available in the WoS. Table 3 has
reflected the above concerns in the 75 reviews. Furthermore, this study
expanded other four hot topics, namely PAHs in olive oil, tea and fish,
and alkylated PAHs which were neglected in the previous reviews. They
were also fully discussed in this paper.
2.2. Analysis tools
Bibliometric indicators and scientific knowledge maps were used to
analyze the literature output and knowledge structure. In terms of lit-
erature output, major active years, countries, institutions, journals, and
important documents with different characteristics were obtained
through HistCite. In terms of knowledge structure, research hotspots
and co-citation analysis were obtained through CiteSpace.
3. Trends and comparison of literature outputs on PAHs in food
3.1. Trends of research outputs and citation
The span of research published during the last several years shows
the development speed and progress of research and reflects the con-
centration and exciting periods of research in relevant fields (Huffman,
Baldridge, Bloomfield, Colantonio, Prabhakaran, Ajay, et al., 2013). As
shown in Fig. 1, the number of papers published has been increasing
over time.
According to the overall development trend, the relevant research
progress can be divided into three stages. The first stage was from 1997
to 2004, with research work still in its infancy. A total of 129 papers
were issued in this period of seven years, accounting for 11.6% of the
total. The average annual publication was approximately 18 papers for
this knowledge base and experimental exploration period. The second
stage was from 2005 to 2010. There was a great increase in the number
of published papers, which more than doubled that from the previous
period. A total of 288 papers were issued in six years, accounting for
25.9% of the total papers, and an average of 48 papers were published
annually. The third stage was from 2011 to 2017, with the number of
the literature citations increasing exponentially. A total of 693 articles
were published in the past seven years, accounting for 62.5% of the
total and an average of 99 articles were published annually.
Between 1997 and 2017, the total number of citations was 16,667,
and each article was cited approximately 15 times. At the same time,
Y. Sun et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 83 (2019) 86–98

Fig. 1. Annual publication and citation number from 1997 to 2017 (January 22, 2018) at Web of Science.

Table 1 attracted much attention from Spanish scientists. In addition, smoked

Top eight countries, institutions and journals in terms of publication. food is a traditional Spanish cuisine, and all kinds of smoked foods are
Ranking Name Number Percentage% affected the most by PAH pollution (Domingo, 2017; Ledesma,
Rendueles, & Díaz, 2014). It is worth mentioning that European coun-
Countries tries accounted for half of the top eight countries conducting food PAH
1 China 196 17.66
research. This reflects their research interests or goals due to the PAH
2 Spain 140 12.61
3 USA 99 8.92
problem and more stringent standard limits. In comparison, the sixth
4 Italy 78 7.03 top country, Brazil, focuses on PAHs in rapeseed oil, sunflower oil, corn
5 Germany 59 5.32 oil, and cane sugar (Molle, Abballe, Gomes, Furlani, & Tfouni, 2017;
6 Brazil 46 4.14 Tfouni & Toledo, 2007). This indicates that the research hotspots of
7 Japan 43 3.87
PAHs in foods are closely related to local specialty foods and eating
8 France 41 3.69
8 Poland 41 3.69 habits.
8 South Korea 41 3.69 Second, the number of papers published by different research in-
Institutions stitutes was sorted. The Chinese Academy of Sciences ranked first with
1 Chinese Academy of Sciences (China) 27 2.43
27 publications. The University of Vigo in Spain was in second place
2 University of Vigo (Spain) 20 1.80
3 Dresden University of Technology (Germany) 19 1.71
with 20, while Dresden University of Technology in Germany and the
3 University of the Basque Country (Spain) 19 1.71 University of the Basque Country in Spain tied for third place with 19.
5 University of Udine (Italy) 16 1.44 This was basically the same order as that sorted by countries as dis-
6 Spanish National Research Council (Spain) 15 1.35 cussed previously.
7 Max Rubner-Institute (Germany) 13 1.17
Finally, the research outputs were then ranked by their source
7 Rovira i Virgili University (Spain) 13 1.17
Journals journals. According to the rankings, Analytical Methods ranked first and
1 Analytical Methods 174 15.68 was far ahead with 174 articles. Journal of Agricultural and Food
2 Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 126 11.35 Chemistry (126 articles) and Food and Chemical Toxicology (105 articles)
3 Food and Chemical Toxicology 105 9.46 had more than 100 papers. The number of papers published in these
4 Food Chemistry 86 7.75
5 Food Control 47 4.23
three journals exceeded 35% of the total. According to the main re-
6 Journal of AOAC International 37 3.33 search areas of the journals, the research on PAHs in food mostly fo-
7 Food Additives and Contaminants Part A 36 3.24 cuses on the testing techniques and methods of food samples from
8 Food Analytical Methods 30 2.70 different sources and has some implications for the chemical properties,
toxicity, risk assessment and degradation of PAHs in food. There are
still significant challenges to the analysis and pretreatment of PAHs.
research results and quality were also greatly improved, with the total
number of citations rapidly growing.
4. “Star” and valuable papers on PAHs in food

3.2. Comparison of research outputs between different countries, institutions
and journals
Table 1 shows the top eight countries, institutions and journals in
terms of publication in 1110 related articles.
First, at the national level, China with 196 papers, Spain with 140
and United States with 99 ranked first, second and third, respectively.
The number of papers published by Chinese researchers outnumbered
that by Spanish researchers by nearly 40% and that by US researchers
by 100%. Chinese researchers focus on environmental pollutants, in-
cluding the distribution of PAHs in foods. This may be attributed to the
Chinese government's attention to environmental pollution in recent
years. The extreme concern and enthusiasm about research on PAHs in
food in Spain is related to and affected by the local people's eating
habits and the level of PAH contamination. Among the articles, most
focused on olive oil and meat foods. Olive oil is native to Spain and is
representative of the Mediterranean diet. However, the presence of high
concentrations of PAHs in olive oil, especially in olive pomace oil, has
Through HistCite's powerful bibliometric analysis function, articles
with higher research values can stand out from different perspectives.
Table 2 shows the top three “star” papers under four different in-
dicators.
LCS refers to the number of citations of the paper within the col-
lection, representing the importance of the literature in the field of
research. An article with a high LCS value is likely to be groundbreaking
in the field and cited by many scholars. The paper from Kazerouni,
Sinha, Hsu, Greenberg, and Rothman (2001) ranked first because more
than 200 different foods were reported. This large size of samples
served as an extensive PAH concentration reference for other studies.
The paper from Stołyhwo and Sikorski (2005) ranked second mainly
because of its wonderful review, which summarized the production,
sources and changes of PAHs in smoked fish and common detection
techniques. In addition, the authors proposed a food safety limit stan-
dard based on benzo[a]pyrene, which is a carcinogenic marker, setting
a good example. The research from Chen and Lin (1997) ranked third.
The authors used gas chromatography and ion-trap detection (GC-ITD)

88
Y. Sun et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 83 (2019) 86–98

Table 2
Top three “star” papers under four different indicators.
Ranking Paper Value

a
LCS
1 Analysis of 200 food items for benzo[a]pyrene and estimation of its intake in an epidemiologic study. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 2001, 39(5), 423–436. 77
2 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in smoked fish - a critical review. Food Chemistry, 2005, 91(2), 303–311. 53
3 Formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons during processing of duck meat. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 1997, 45(4), 1394–1403. 44
LCS/tb
1 Concentrations and dietary exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from grilled and smoked foods. Food Control, 2011, 22(12), 2028–2035. 5.14
2 Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in grilled meat. Food Control, 2010, 21(5), 606–610. 5.00
3 Profiling, distribution and levels of carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in traditional smoked plant and animal foods. Food Control, 2016, 59, 5.00
581–590.
LCRc
1 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons' formation and occurrence in processed food. Food Chemistry, 2016, 199, 768–781. 51
2 Contamination of meat products during smoking by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: Processes and prevention. Food Control, 2016, 60, 64–87. 41
3 Review of the quantification techniques for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in food products. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 2017, 38
57(15), 3297–3312.
LCS(e/b)d
1 PAHs content in sunflower, soybean and virgin olive oils: Evaluation in commercial samples and during refining process. Food Chemistry, 2007, 104(1), 16.00
106–112.
2 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in coffee brew samples: Analytical method by GC-MS, profile, levels and sources. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 2009, 14.00
47(4), 819–826.
3 Analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in vegetable oils combining gel permeation chromatography with solid-phase extraction clean-up. Food Additives 12.00
and Contaminants, 2007, 24(7), 758–767.

a
LCS: Local Citation Score.
b
LCS/t: Local Citation Score per year.
c
LCR: Local Cited References.
d
LCS e/b: Ratio of local citations in the end to local citations at the beginning of the period.

to evaluate the effect of different processing methods on the con-
centration of PAHs in duck meat. The results showed that the con-
centration of PAHs was highest in charcoal-fired ducks and decreased
gradually in smoked, roasted, steamed, and liquid smoke-flavored
ducks. This early research on smoked foods provided valuable refer-
ences for further in-depth studies on PAH contamination from smoke.
This means that LCS is closely relevant to the quantity, range, and re-
view quality of the literature and that widely consumed foods tend to be
contaminated by PAHs.
LCS/t refers to the local citation score per year from initial pub-
lication to the end of the collection. The higher the value is, the higher
the annual citation of the article and the stronger its vitality. The top
paper reported the effect of different grilling conditions on the con-
centration of PAHs in different foods and evaluated the dietary intake
and carcinogenic risk in children/adolescents and adults, covering
several key points in the study of PAHs (Alomirah et al., 2011). The
second paper reported NaOH saponification extraction, diatomite and
SPE purification, and high-performance liquid chromatography-fluor-
escence detection for the analysis of PAHs in barbecued foods, forming
a complete detection method and obtaining the support and recognition
of researchers (Farhadian, Jinap, Abas, & Sakar, 2010). The third paper
presented several traditional Spanish smoked foods, including bread,
cheese, sausages and paprika. The concentration of PAHs in these foods
increased in turn, and low-molecular weight PAHs (fluorene and phe-
nanthrene) dominated, supporting the need for studies on more food
types (Fasano, Yebra-Pimentel, Martínez-Carballo, & Simal-Gándara,
2016). Interestingly and coincidentally, the top three papers all focused
on smoked or grilled meat, demonstrating the lasting vitality of this
theme, and was in line with the LCS results.
LCR refers to the number of records in the collection that are cited
by the paper. This number is an indication of the relevance between the
paper and the collection. The top three publications were all the latest
and most important review articles on PAHs in food, summarizing the
hotspots and frontiers of related research in recent years from one or
more aspects. Singh, Varshney, and Agarwal (2016) summarized the
mechanisms of and interventions for the production of PAHs in foods by
different processing methods. Ledesma, Rendueles, and Díaz (2016)
summarized the contamination process, standard limits, and preventive
measures for PAHs in smoked meat products. Bansal, Kumar, Kwon, and
Kim (2017) reviewed the extraction and detection of PAHs in foods and
compared the quantitative performance of different methods. These
results were also similar to those from previous analyses.
LCSe indicates the number of times the article was cited in the last
three years, and LCSb indicates the number of citations that were made
in the first three years of publication. A high ratio of LCS e/b shows that
there has been a relative increase in citations in recent years, and the
paper has received more attention than before. The number one team,
Teixeira, Casal, and Oliveira (2007), evaluated changes in the PAH
concentration in soybean, sunflower and olive oil samples during re-
fining, including neutralization, decolorization and deodorization. The
second group, Orecchio, Ciotti, and Culotta (2009), measured the
concentration of 28 PAHs in roasted coffee and concluded, based on the
ratio of the isomers, that most of the PAHs originated from the high-
temperature process. The third panel, Fromberg, Højgård, and Duedahl-
Olesen (2007), used gel permeation chromatography with solid-phase
extraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry to determine
PAH levels in edible oils. The detection limit of the method was below
0.3 μg/kg, and the recovery rate was 50–120%. The entire process was
semi-automated, which is receiving more attention recently. This sug-
gests that PAHs in edible oils, PAH analytical methods, and changes in
PAH concentration during food processing have recently become re-
search hotspots.
The above four sets of star papers are derived from different in-
dicators calculated by HistCite and reflect the focus of the researchers.
These papers have pioneering, long-lasting vitality, close relevance, or
recent attention in the PAH research. To sum up, PAHs in smoked and
grilled meat have been continuously developed over the past 20 years
and have long-lasting vitality. The detection methods and changes of
PAHs in the processing have not only been comprehensively reviewed,
but also become an area of recent concern.
5. Hot research topics on PAHs in food
Scientific literature is not an independent system but is rather in-
terrelated and constantly extending. The mutual citation of scientific
literature reflects the objective law of scientific development and em-
bodies the accumulation, continuity and inheritance of scientific
knowledge, as well as the interdisciplinary nature and infiltration of

89
Y. Sun et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 83 (2019) 86–98

Fig. 2. Co-citation analysis obtained by CiteSpace.

various subjects. In total, 648 nodes and 2089 connections were obtained, as shown
Co-citation analysis refers to the co-citation relationship between in Fig. 2. The central area of the network shows a rather dense red
two documents in the reference list of a third cited document, and the circle. This indicates a high level of burst references, which indicates a
process of mining the co-citation of documents in a spatial data set of significant increase in citations from other years. A total of 16 different
documents can be considered a co-citation analysis. Co-citation analysis hot clusters (#0 to #15) were obtained through cluster analysis. The
of documents became the highlight and the earliest use of CiteSpace detailed feature information is shown in Table 3. According to
when this tool was developed (Chen, 2006). In view of the co-citation Rousseeuw (1987), the Silhouette value in the table is a parameter for
network, the relationship between the clusters and their locations can evaluating the clustering effect. The closer it is to 1, the higher the
reveal the intellectual structure of a field and gives the reader a holistic network homogeneity. When the value is above 0.7, the clustering re-
view of the field. sult becomes highly reliable. In the following, a brief analysis of the
Fig. 2 shows the results of the citation analysis of 50 references with specific research groups was made, and the central or burst literature in
the most annual citations according to CiteSpace. In this network, each each cluster was presented in the order of its respective ID.
node represents a piece of literature, expressed in the form of “author's
name & publication year”. The “tree ring history” around the node Table 3
represents the citation history of the article: the overall size of the Cluster analysis and feature information.
annual rings represents the number of times each article is cited. The
Cluster ID Labela Size Silhouette
color of the annual rings represents the corresponding citation time
(blue for the earliest citations and red for the most recent citations). The #0 Olive oil 75 0.553
thickness of the annual ring is proportional to the number of citations in #1 Formation 58 0.764
the corresponding time zone. The connection between the nodes re- #2 Content 48 0.724
#3 Smoked meat food 41 0.826
presents a common reference, and the color of the line represents the
#4 Gas chromatography 40 0.793
first co-citation time (blue is the oldest and red is the nearest). The more #5 Alkylated derivative 39 0.831
connections a node has with other nodes, the more central the docu- #6 Various organic environmental pollutants 36 0.756
ment represented by that node is. On this basis, the nodes are clustered #7 Tea infusion 29 0.824
according to the results of the software calculation. Different nodes #8 Sample treatment 28 0.965
#9 Pelagic fish species 24 0.91
form different clusters according to their interconnectivity. Each cluster #10 Meat product 23 0.875
is a group of closely coupled documents, representing different research #11 Commercial liquid smoke flavoring 20 0.996
directions and backgrounds in the field. From the topics in this group of #12 Food contaminant 19 0.982
documents, representative keywords were extracted as the group's la- #13 Environmental analysis 12 0.99
#14 Salmo salar 12 0.945
bels through a log-likelihood ratio, expressed in the form of
#15 Toxicological issue 4 0.994
"# + cluster ID + keyword” in Fig. 2, according to a previous method
(Chen et al., 2009; Rorissa & Yuan, 2012). a
Label: Obtained by log-likelihood ratio.

90
Y. Sun et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 83 (2019) 86–98

Table 4
Maximum levels and regulations for PAHs in foods worldwide.
Product Benzo[a]pyrene (μg/ Sum of PAH4a (μg/kg)
kg)

European Unionb
Oils and fats (excluding cocoa butter and coconut oil) intended for direct human consumption or use as an ingredient in food 2.0 10.0
Cocoa beans and derived products 5.0 μg/kg fat 30.0 μg/kg fat
Coconut oil intended for direct human consumption or use as an ingredient in food 2.0 20.0
Smoked meat and smoked meat products 2.0 12.0
Muscle meat of smoked fish and smoked fishery products 2.0 12.0
Smoked sprats and canned smoked sprats (Sprattus sprattus); Smoked Baltic herring ≤ 14 cm length and canned smoked Baltic 5.0 30.0
herring ≤ 14 cm length (Clupea harengus membras); Katsuobushi (dried bonito, Katsuwonus pelamis); bivalve molluscs
(fresh, chilled or frozen); heat treated meat and heat-treated meat products sold to the final consumer
Bivalve molluscs (smoked) 6.0 35.0
Processed cereal-based foods and baby foods for infants and young children 1.0 1.0
Infant formulae and follow-on formulae, including infant milk and follow-on milk 1.0 1.0
Dietary foods for special medical purposes intended specifcally for infants 1.0 1.0
Cocoa fibre and products derived from cocoa fibre, intended for use as an ingredient in food 3.0 15.0
Banana chips 2.0 20.0
Food supplements containing botanicals and their preparations; Food supplements containing propolis, royal jelly, spirulina or 10.0 50.0
their preparations
Dried herbs 10.0 50.0
Dried spices with the exception of cardamon and smoked Capsicum spp. 10.0 50.0
Chinac
Grain (Brown rice, rice, wheat, wheat flour, corn, cornmeal) 5.0 –
Meat products (Smoked, roasted, grilled meat products) 5.0 –
Aquatic products (Smoked, roasted aquatic products) 5.0 –
Fats and oils 10.0 –
Canadad
Olive pomace oil 3.0 –
Brazile
Olive pomace oil 2.0 –

a
PAH4: Benz[a]anthracene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[a]pyrene, chrysene.
b
European Union: According to Commission Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 (December 19, 2006), (EU) No 835/2011 (August 19, 2011), (EU) No 1327/2014
(December 12, 2014), (EU) 2015/1125 (July 10, 2015) and (EU) 2015/1933 (October 27, 2015).
c
China: According to National Food Safety Standards GB 2762–2017 (March 17, 2017).
d
Canada: According to Health Canada's maximum levels for chemical contaminants in foods (January 25, 2018).
e
Brazil: According to National Health Surveillance Agency Resolution n° 281 (October 6, 2003).

Olive oil. Most PAHs are highly lipophilic. This leads to widespread
PAH presence in various vegetable oils. Among PAH-contaminated
edible oils, olive oil arouses great concern due to the high PAH level in
olive pomace oil. Controlling the concentration of PAHs in olive oil is a
prerequisite for its healthy value. Olive oil can be divided into different
grades according to their quality, from high-quality extra virgin olive
oil to low-quality olive pomace oil. Extra virgin olive oil is produced in
specific regions and extracted from olive fruits only by mechanical and
physical methods without any further high-temperature roasting and
refining. Normally, extra virgin olive oil contains very low amounts of
PAHs, which only originate from the tree. In comparison, olive pomace
oil is produced by drying the olive pomace through burning smoke and
hot air, followed by solvent extraction. These processes result in a high
PAH concentration in olive pomace oil. Therefore, olive oil fraud or
adulteration is commonly found in PAH investigations and includes the
incorporation of extra virgin olive oil with olive pomace oil. In the past
20 years, many publications have focused on PAH determination in
olive oil. Microwave heating instead of high-temperature drying was
recently reported to minimize the concentration of PAHs in olive po-
mace oil (Kiralan, Erdogdu, & Tekin, 2017). Nevertheless, refined olive
pomace oil containing PAH levels that are under the legal limitation or
similar to those in extra virgin olive oil should not be mislabeled.
PAH formation. As a group of persistent organic pollutants, PAHs are
mainly formed by the condensation and cyclization of smaller organic
compounds in industrial productions and human activities
(Arditsoglou, Petaloti, Terzi, Sofoniou, & Samara, 2004). PAHs pro-
duced in the environment can be introduced into the food chain
through the enrichment and uptake of plants and animals, including
from contaminated air, soil and water to organisms. In addition, PAHs
in food can also derive from packaging materials, industrial processing
and home cooking (such as baking, drying, roasting, grilling, frying,
barbecuing, and smoking). The production of PAHs during food pro-
cessing and cooking depends on processing temperature and time, the
fuel used, the distance from the heat source, and the compositions of
the material, such as lipid, proteins and pro-oxygens. In addition,
higher pH was reported to increase PAH concentration in fried chicken
(Wongmaneepratip & Vangnai, 2017). Furthermore, PAHs can form
during edible oil storage (Zhao, Gong, & Wu, 2018). It is worth noting
that there have been several mechanisms on the formation of PAHs in
fuel combustion. The most popular of these is the hydrogen-abstraction-
acetylene-addition (HACA) mechanism. It involves extracting H from
the PAH by another H atom to create a free radical site. This is followed
by C2H2 addition to the radical site and ring closure (Sinha & Raj,
2016). In a high temperature environment, resonantly stabilized radi-
cals such as propargyl, cyclopentadienyl and benzyl groups can form 2-
ring and 3-ring PAHs, and can further form PAHs of four or more rings
by aromatization of steroids (Gong et al., 2018). However, the forma-
tion mechanism of PAHs in food during processing and storage remains
unclear. The mainstream view is that the radicals generated by the
pyrolysis of organic matter at high temperatures can form stable
polynuclear aromatics by recombination and form PAHs through the
Diels-Alder reaction (Chen & Chen, 2001). PAHs may be formed by
Maillard reaction (Britt, Buchanan, Owens Jr., & Skeen, 2004) and li-
pids oxidation (Guillen & Goicoechea, 2008). In 2011, a research in-
dicated that cholesterol and androsterone are prone to produce a higher
proportion of PAHs at 300–500 °C (Christy, Lian, & Francis, 2011). In
2016, the formation mechanism of benz[a]anthracene and chrysene
was attributed to cyclopentadienyl, indenyl, and benz[f]indenyl radi-
cals (Oz & Yuzer, 2016). Recently, Min, Patra, and Shin (2018) used
electron spin resonance to study the role of lipid precursors in the

91
Y. Sun et al.
formation of PAHs in meat model systems. They indicated that the
formation of PAHs increased with increasing lipid precursor unsatura-
tion.
PAH content. The PAHs presently detected in foods are mostly in
concentrations of μg/kg (such as in edible oils) or ng/mL (such as in
beverages). These units are widely used in different food categories. So
far, edible oils, cereals, smoked foods, seafoods, teas, baked goods and
fried foods have been reported to contain relatively high concentrations
of PAHs. Most of these foods have been subjected to high temperatures,
exposure to open flames, or enrichment with PAHs at high levels in the
food chain or have a higher oil content that can easily absorb and
produce PAHs.
The PAH concentration in food has always been a hot topic. On one
hand, many countries are constantly lowering their limitation standards
for PAHs. Among them, the latest limitation standards of PAHs in
European Union, China, Canada and Brazil are summarized in Table 4
(Singh & Agarwal, 2018; Zelinkova & Wenzl, 2015). Except for Eur-
opean Union, other countries surveyed only restricted the concentration
of benzo[a]pyrene and focused on vegetable oils, grilled or smoked
foods and cereals. What's more, German food regulatory agencies have
recently lowered the maximum allowed concentration of benzo[a]
pyrene to 0.01 μg/L in drinking water. On the other hand, PAHs are
constantly detected in other foods in high concentrations due to in-
creased environmental PAH emission or contamination.
Smoked meat food; Commercial liquid smoke flavoring. Smoking is one
of the oldest methods used to preserve and season food, and its main
applications are meat, fish and cheese. However, the smoke generated
by the combustion of wood contains many carcinogenic substances,
such as PAHs, which can migrate to the smoked food (Akpambang
et al., 2009; Stołyhwo & Sikorski, 2005). Studies have shown that the
content of lignin in wood for combustion, the fat content in food, the
processing time and temperature are positively correlated with the
concentration of PAHs (Essumang, Dodoo, & Adjei, 2013; Ledesma
et al., 2014). Although the concentration of PAHs in smoked food is
high, these compounds are mainly distributed on the surface of the
foodstuffs, and the removal of food epidermis when consuming can
significantly reduce the intake of PAHs (Fasano et al., 2016). The use of
activated carbon to filter smog is also effective in reducing PAHs
(Essumang, Dodoo, & Adjei, 2014). To avoid the shortcomings of wood
smoking, commercial liquid smoke flavorings have gradually become
an additive to produce smoked products. They are steam condensates
produced by wood retorting and have the advantages of cleanliness,
convenience and continuous production. Numerous studies have shown
that PAHs in smoked food produced by liquid smoke flavorings are
significantly lower than those in food smoked by traditional wood
(Zachara, Galkowska, & Juszczak, 2017; Šimko, 2005). In addition,
highly carcinogenic benzo[a]pyrene was not detected in smoked food
produced by sugar instead of wood, which is also a good alternative
(Chen, Kao, Chen, Huang, & Chen, 2013). How to balance the unique
flavor and safety of smoked foods will continue to receive attention.
Gas chromatography (GC). Accurate quantitative analysis of PAHs in
food is a complicated and arduous task. GC combined with mass
spectrometry (MS) get great attention due to its higher resolution and
PAHs detection with low (naphthalene and acenaphthene) or no (ace-
naphthylene) fluorescence effects (Plaza-Bolaños, Frenich, & Vidal,
2010). In addition, the use of isotope-labeled internal standards
(deuterated PAHs) enables more accurate quantitative analysis and
structural elucidation (Li, Wu, Zeng, Wang, & Yu, 2016). For efficient
separation of multiple PAHs, GC-MS analysis typically requires longer
separation times (30–90 min) and columns (> 30 m). Based on the
traditional method, more novel devices have been applied in recent
years. In the field of chromatography, two-dimensional GC (GC × GC)
can significantly improve resolution, but the raw data and chromato-
grams are complex and require powerful software tools for analysis
(Drabova et al., 2013). In the field of mass spectrometry, tandem MS
(MS-MS) eliminates the signal interference of lipids and improves the
92
Trends in Food Science & Technology 83 (2019) 86–98
resolution of heavy PAHs (Bansal et al., 2017; Zhou, Jiang, Mao, Zhao,
& Lu, 2016). Single quadrupole analyzers with a single ion monitoring
mode are common, while ion trap and triple quadrupole are less often
used (Russo, Avino, & Notardonato, 2017; Varlet, Serot, Monteau, Le
Bizec, & Prost, 2007). Some high-resolution mass spectrometers (such
as time-of-flight) have a high degree of selectivity and very low de-
tection limits (Quesada-García et al., 2013). At the present, the detec-
tion limits of PAHs in food are at (sub-)ppb levels in most studies. In
other words, the development of GC-MS has played a positive role in
improving the analysis of PAHs.
GC-MS for PAH determination has been validated as standard
method in many countries (Purcaro, Barp, & Moret, 2016). It is worth
mentioning that HPLC coupled to a fluorescence detector (FLD) has
been widely used for PAHs determination in foods. This method was
also validated by Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC),
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), International Standardization
Organization (ISO) and US EPA (Purcaro, Moret, & Conte, 2013). To
combine both advantages of GC and LC, online hyphenated techniques
(LC-GC or LC-LC-GC) might be potential for reducing the amount of
solvent and detection time (Moret & Conte, 2000). More dedicated PAH
analytical columns and databases are expected to make the analysis
process more accurate and effective.
Alkylated derivatives. Alkylated PAHs, which were the mainly con-
cerned compounds in mineral oils, come from crude oil and the oil
production process and migrate from the environment to food. In the
oceans, alkylated PAHs in petroleum from drilling platforms and leaky
ships are enriched in marine organisms, such as fish and scallops. This
not only causes illnesses in the marine organisms but also humans who
ingest them through the food chain (Lin et al., 2015; Uno et al., 2017).
In addition, alkylated PAHs have also been found in smoked fish and
vegetable oils (Stołyhwo & Sikorski, 2005). Notably, studies have
shown that alkylated PAHs account for more than half of total PAHs in
vegetable oils (Guillén & Sopelana, 2004). However, due to the lack of
data regarding accumulation, tolerable daily intakes of alkylated PAHs
still remain to be established. As for the analysis of alkylated PAHs, LC
and GC followed by suitable pre-separation are the most common
methods. A method for accurately quantifying alkylated PAHs in pet-
roleum based on relative response factors and GC-MS has been reported
and is expected to be applied to foods (Yang, Zhang, Wang, Yang,
Hollebone, Landriault, et al., 2014). Moreover, comprehensive two-di-
mensional GC is demanding implement for alkylated PAHs analysis in
foods (Purcaro et al., 2016). More studies have shown the potential
risks of alkylated PAHs to human health and should be given more
attention by researchers (Baird, Bailey, & Vorhees, 2007; Kang, Lee, &
Kwon, 2016).
Various organic environmental pollutants; Environmental analysis. As
PAH is an organic environmental pollutant, the current research on
PAHs mainly focuses on the field of environment. In addition, many of
the methods used to detect PAHs in foods originate from environmental
analyses. Two excellent recent reviews on PAHs in the environment can
be found in the reference section (Cheruyiot, Lee, Mwangi, Wang, Lin,
Lin, et al., 2015; Kuppusamy et al., 2017).
Tea infusion. Tea is the most widely consumed beverage in the world
after water. It is also a natural drink that has nutritional values and
health benefits for the human body. However, due to environmental
factors (atmospheric deposition and soil uptake) and human factors
(fertilizers, processing and sewage irrigation), numerous contaminants,
including PAHs, remain in the tea leaves (Girelli, Apriceno, Tarola, &
Tortora, 2017). In particular, the large surface area of the tea leaves
enables the accumulation of PAHs from the atmosphere, and the use of
open flames for the smoke drying of tea leaves produces a high con-
centration of PAHs (Duedahl-Olesen, Navaratnam, Jewula, & Jensen,
2015; Lin, Zhu, He, & Tu, 2006). Studies have shown that the con-
centrations of benzo[a]anthracene and chrysene in smoked tea are
higher than in non-smoked tea (Pincemaille, Schummer, Heinen, &
Moris, 2014). Due to the low solubility of PAHs in water, tea infusion
Y. Sun et al.
can significantly reduce the uptake of PAHs. Only 3.03–7.69% of the
total PAHs contained in black tea is released into the tea infusion (Lin,
Tu, & Zhu, 2005). The mobilization rates for PAHs in green tea range
from 4.6 to 7.2%, and the concentration of PAHs in the first brewed tea
infusion is higher than that in the second (Gao, Chen, Liu, Hao, Ma,
Chai, et al., 2017). In addition, increasing the brewing time and
opening the lid during brewing can also reduce the concentration of
PAHs in the tea infusion (Lin et al., 2006). To control the concentration
of PAHs in tea, it is necessary to reduce the local pollution level in the
production areas and improve the traditional high-temperature pro-
cessing methods. High tea polyphenol levels in the tea leaves may re-
duce PAH concentration in tea products, according to our latest studies
on inhibitory effects of natural antioxidants on PAHs in edible oils
(Gong et al., 2018).
Sample treatment. A number of standards and review papers have
well described the efficient sample preparation methods. Normally, due
to the high lipophilicity of PAHs, lipids are first extracted from foods
and removed using suitable cleaning methods (Purcaro et al., 2013;
Zelinkova & Wenzl, 2015).
In most cases, PAHs exist in trace amounts in food. Due to the di-
versity and complexity of the ingredients in foods, food samples need
proper pretreatment methods, including extraction, concentration and
purification, to improve the selectivity and sensitivity of detection.
Soxhlet extraction (Hilber, Blum, Leifeld, Schmidt, & Bucheli, 2012),
ultrasonic extraction (Guatemala-Morales et al., 2016), microwave-as-
sisted extraction (Purcaro, Moret, & Conte, 2009) and accelerated sol-
vent extraction (Kacmaz, Zelinkova, & Wenzl, 2016) are commonly
used for solid foods during the extraction stage for PAH determination.
Compared to Soxhlet extraction, the latter two methods can reduce the
amount of the solvent used and the extraction time. This can improve
the efficiency and selectivity of extraction. Traditional liquid-liquid
extraction is usually used for liquid foods, but it is complicated, time-
consuming, and labor-intensive. In this method, the light PAHs are li-
able to escape when the solvent evaporates in the concentration stage.
To achieve the highest yield and minimal loss of target substances, a
quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS) extraction is
currently used in the detection of PAHs in cereals (Deng & Chan, 2017),
meat (Han, Sapozhnikova, & Lehotay, 2016), chocolate (Sadowska-
Rociek, Cieślik, & Sieja, 2015), and fish (Nácher-Mestre et al., 2014).
This procedure is based on acetonitrile extraction and the removal of
most of the disruptors by dispersive solid phase extraction. The purified
extract can be directly analyzed with high recovery and low detection
limits (Anastassiades, Lehotay, Štajnbaher, & Schenck, 2003).
Clean-up methods for PAH analysis include column chromato-
graphy (Janoszka, 2011), gel permeation chromatography (Rojo
Camargo & Toledo, 2003), solid phase extraction (Silva, Sampaio, &
Torres, 2017), and matrix solid phase dispersion extraction (Pensado,
Casais, Mejuto, & Cela, 2005). At present, simpler and more solvent-
friendly pretreatment methods are used, including solid-phase micro-
extraction (García-Falcón, Pérez-Lamela, & Simal-Gándara, 2004), stir
bar sorptive extraction (Lacroix et al., 2014), and dispersive liquid
phase microextraction (Mohammadi, Ghasemzadeh-Mohammadi,
Haratian, Khaksar, & Chaichi, 2013). In addition, a method named in-
pipe solid-phase microextraction is available for extraction and analysis
online (Sun, Feng, Bu, & Luo, 2015).
Pelagic fish species; Salmo salar. PAHs in the oceans mainly come
from the accidental leakage of oil tankers or the leakage of fuel from
vessels in navigation. In addition, some hydrophilic PAHs may also be
generated from dust particles and suspended particulate matter in the
atmosphere, rainwater runoff and discharge of rivers (Pelletier, Sargian,
Payet, & Demers, 2006). High concentrations of PAHs pose a significant
threat to fish survival. It has been pointed out that PAHs released from
the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the northern Gulf of Mexico in 2010
had a devastating effect on the pelagic fish in the area of the incident
and was strongly cardiotoxic (Incardona, Gardner, Linbo, Brown,
Esbaugh, Mager, et al., 2014). PAHs are also abundant and enriched in
93
Trends in Food Science & Technology 83 (2019) 86–98
fish and indirectly absorbed by the body. Studies of the pelagic fish
species in the Atlantic indicate that the concentration of PAHs in chub
mackerel is higher than that in horse mackerel and sardine, reaching
1.80–19.90 μg/kg wet weight (Ramalhosa et al., 2012). The con-
centration of PAHs in Salmo salar from Norway or the Irish Sea reached
141.21–303.56 μg/kg dry weight (Visciano, Perugini, Amorena, &
Ianieri, 2006). Due to the lipophilic character of most PAHs, the con-
centration of PAHs in fish is proportional to the fat content. Ad-
ditionally, the PAH level in fish is related to the seasons (Ramalhosa
et al., 2012). Moreover, the PAH concentration in processed fish foods
may be further aggravated on account of processing contamination,
such as grilling, smoking and repeated frying.
Meat product. In addition to the smoked meat products mentioned
above, non-smoked meat products have also been found to contain
appreciable levels of PAHs, including cured, preserved, grilled, fried
and fermented meat products. One of the most important causes of PAH
production during roasting is attributed to the smoke created by the
incomplete combustion of fat dripping on the charcoal (Lee et al., 2016;
Rey-Salgueiro, García-Falcón, Martínez-Carballo, & Simal-Gándara,
2008). PAHs can be significantly reduced in the barbecue by the proper
removal of fat from meat and avoidance of direct contact between
roasted smoke and food. Notably, the addition of onions and garlic in
the grilling process can also reduce PAH concentration in the finished
products (Janoszka, 2011). PAHs in fried meat products are closely
related to the type of frying oil and the concentration of PAHs in the
background. Previous research has indicated that prolonged frying and
repeated use of the same frying oil should be avoided (Hao, Li, & Yao,
2016; Li et al., 2016). Compared with the above processing methods,
boiling of meat results in lower PAH concentrations (Olatunji, Fatoki,
Opeolu, & Ximba, 2014). This means that mild or simply processed
meat products can not only protect their nutritional value but also re-
duce the production of harmful pollutants.
Food contaminant. The contaminants in food can be divided into two
categories. One is the environmental pollutants transferred from the
environment to the food chain. The other is the process pollutants
generated by chemical reactions in the process of food cooking, pro-
cessing and storage (Silano & Silano, 2017). Pollutants may naturally
exist in the environment and may be either generated due to human
activities or produced by fungi, plants, algae and other organisms
(Domingo, 2017). Process pollutants mainly include acrylamide,
chloropropanol, nitrosamines, heterocyclic amines, and PAHs. PAHs are
both environmental pollutants and process pollutants. In many studies,
PAHs are often detected simultaneously with other food contaminants.
For example, the concentrations of acrylamide and PAHs in cocoa beans
are affected by the temperature, relative air humidity and time of the
baking process (Żyżelewicz, Oracz, Krysiak, Budryn, & Nebesny, 2017).
The concentration of PAHs and heterocyclic aromatic amines in steaks
roasted with wire roasting is higher than that in steaks roasted with
stone (Oz & Yuzer, 2016). During processing, PAH concentrations are
also associated with other food contaminants. One study indicates that
there is a strong positive correlation between the total amount of polar
compounds and PAH concentration during the frying of edible oil (An,
Liu, & Liu, 2017). The mechanism of interaction or transformation
between PAHs and other food contaminants still needs further study.
Toxicological issue. Numerous studies have shown that PAHs have
mutagenicity, genotoxicity and strong carcinogenicity. In the Ames test
for bacterial mutagenicity, most PAHs, especially those heavy PAHs,
gave positive results (Tamakawa, 2008). Among the many side effects
of PAHs, carcinogenicity receives the most attention. PAHs can cause a
variety of cancers including digestive tract cancer, lung cancer and liver
cancer (Diggs, Huderson, Harris, Myers, Banks, Rekhadevi, et al., 2011;
Wang & Xue, 2015). There are four mechanisms for carcinogenesis of
PAHs, including the diol epoxide mechanism, the radical-cation me-
chanism, the quinone mechanism, and the benzylic oxidation me-
chanism (Ramesh et al., 2004). According to the SCF 2002 report,
benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) can be used as an indicator of total carcinogenic
Y. Sun et al.
PAHs (Li et al., 2016). The potential health effects of PAHs can be
quantitatively analyzed by using the toxicity equivalent factor (TEF)
calculated from the toxicity of BaP (Hu et al., 2007; Zachara et al.,
2017). According to the carcinogen list of the International Agency for
Research on Cancer (IARC), benzo[a]pyrene is classified as Category 1,
benz[a]anthracene and dibenz[a,h]anthracene are classified as Cate-
gory 2A carcinogens, and most other PAHs also potentially have car-
cinogenicity (Manoli et al., 2016). Based on many studies, EFSA re-
commended the sum of eight heavy PAHs (PAH8), or the sum of four
PAHs (PAH4), as an indicator of carcinogenicity in its 2008 report. In
2011, EFSA introduced a maximum standard for BaP and PAH4 in foods
(Moret, Purcaro, & Conte, 2010; Zhao et al., 2017). An analysis of the
risk assessment studies in various countries showed that PAHs in the
food are mainly derived from cereals, vegetables and oils. The EFSA
2008 report also pointed out that cereal products, vegetables and meat
are the main contributors to the dietary intake of BaP in European
consumers (Alexander, Benford, Cockburn, Cravedi, Dogliotti, Di
Domenico et al., 2008). The concentration of PAHs in baked and
smoked foods is relatively high, but their contribution to the total
amount is not high due to their low daily consumption (Yebra-Pimentel,
Fernandez-Gonzalez, Martinez-Carballo, & Simal-Gandara, 2015).
6. Emerging trends
Based on the analysis of the studies on PAHs during the past two
decades, three key issues demand prompt solution. First, the determi-
nation of PAHs still needs improvement. Previous efforts, including
those related to equipment and pretreatment, have made great progress
in PAH analysis both in PAH types and LOD. Recently, QuEChERS
consisting of dispersive solid phase extraction was reported to have
good recovery and precision (Petrarca & Godoy, 2018). Additionally,
the detection range and applicability were reported to be further ex-
tended compared to extraction conditions, such as solvents, buffer salts
and adsorbents, by using the QuEChERS method (Socas-Rodríguez,
González-Sálamo, Herrera-Herrera, Hernández-Borges, & Rodríguez-
Delgado, 2017).
Moreover, the development trends of future detection methods are
mainly reflected in the miniaturization of instruments and equipment,
the simplification of pretreatment processes, and the miniaturization of
test samples. Recently, the direct use of a programmed temperature
vaporizer and a quadrupole mass spectrometer without the need for
chromatography to detect PAHs in liquids was reported (Santos,
Sanchez, Pavon, & Cordero, 2018). In addition, the use of commercial
immunoassay methods and molded immunosensors also has prospects,
as reported in a latest review (Bansal et al., 2017). Nanotechnology is
also an efficient, convenient and fast emerging detection technology.
For example, polystyrene-coated magnetic nanoparticles (PSt/MNPs)
have been reported for the detection of pyrethroid pesticides in vege-
tables, fruits and vegetable oils with high precision and reproducibility
(Yu, Ang, Yang, Zheng, & Zhang, 2017; Yu, Li, Ng, Yang, & Wang, 2018;
Yu & Yang, 2017). g-C3N4/Fe3O4 nanocomposites have been reported
as new adsorbents for the detection of PAHs in water samples (Wang,
Cui, Yang, & Bi, 2015). A new core-shell nanostructure magnetic
covalent organic framework hybrid microsphere (Fe3O4@COF-(TpBD))
can adsorb 99.95% of PAHs in food within 12 min, and the limit of
quantification has reached 2.76–39.0 ng/L (Li, Wu, Hu, Fan, Li, Sun,
et al., 2018). The physicochemical properties of these nanomaterials
deserve further improvement to increase their matrix adaptability and
binding specificity.
Second, PAH derivatives, such as oxygenated, nitro-, and haloge-
nated PAHs, found in the atmosphere are also detected in foods
(Table 5). These derivatives are detected mainly by GC-MS. The con-
centrations of both oxygenated PAHs and halogenated PAHs are sig-
nificantly higher in meat products compared with plant-based foods. So
far, little data are available on the distribution of these compounds in
foods. Oxygenated and nitro-PAHs can be formed in the atmosphere
94
Trends in Food Science & Technology 83 (2019) 86–98
through photochemical reactions and reactions with hydroxyl radicals,
nitrate radicals and ozone. Likewise, oxygenated PAHs can also be
produced or transferred during food processing (Chen, Shen, Su, Shen,
Huang, Li, et al., 2014; Li et al., 2016). PAH derivatives are endocrine
disruptors and produce reactive oxygen species, and some have a higher
cytotoxicity than their parent PAHs (Walgraeve, Demeestere, Dewulf,
Zimmermann, & Van Langenhove, 2010). Halogenated PAHs, mainly
including chlorinated and brominated PAHs, originate from automobile
exhaust emissions, waste incineration and a large amount of electronic
waste. Their toxicity increases with the number of substituent groups
on the lower-molecular weight PAHs (three-ring and fluoranthene de-
rivatives) (Sun, Zeng, & Ni, 2013). For these PAH derivatives, more
research is needed to evaluate their bioaccumulation or biomagnifica-
tion through the food chain and their environmental transport. In ad-
dition, the details of potential hazards and human exposure to PAH
derivatives through various pathways remain unclear. The relevant
detection technology for PAH derivatives in food also needs to be es-
tablished. Moreover, the greater scope of application and the corre-
sponding maximum limit should also be reflected in the standards for
PAHs in foods.
Third, methods to reduce or remove PAHs in food need to be de-
veloped, considering their serious pollution and consequent human
health risks. Commonly used methods in the past include decoloration
and deodorization in oil refining, the use of lower temperatures and the
avoidance of direct contact with the flame during grilling, as well as
photodegradation under UV light. Recently, the addition or existence of
antioxidants in oils and marinades have been reported to reduce the
concentration of PAHs during storage, frying and grilling (Gong et al.,
2018). These studies indicated that the formation of PAHs might be
related to free radicals. However, the detailed mechanism needs further
study. Moreover, biodegradation methods for PAHs are gradually
emerging in view of sustainable solutions. Biodegradation, an efficient
and environmentally friendly cleaning technology, attempts to use
specific types of microbes (including bacteria, fungi, and microalgae) to
degrade PAHs into harmless products (Alegbeleye, Opeolu, & Jackson,
2017; Ghosal, Ghosh, Dutta, & Ahn, 2016). In soil, the main fungal
group that causes PAH degradation is white rot fungi. They contain a
range of enzymes including lignin peroxidase and manganese perox-
idase, which convert PAHs into a less harmful and simpler form. Many
algae species have the property of bioconverting contaminants into less
harmful species (Haritash & Kaushik, 2009). However, many micro-
organisms currently only have the ability to degrade a range of low
molecular weight PAHs such as naphthalene, anthracene and phenan-
threne. Their ability to degrade PAHs for five or more fused benzene
rings like BaP is rather limited (Juhasz & Naidu, 2000). Research on
bioaugmentation and bacterial-fungal co-cultures needs to be further
deepened to enhance the ability to degrade PAHs. It is worth noting
that biodegraded products of PAHs should also be isolated, identified
and submitted for safety evaluation.
7. Conclusion
In total, 1110 research papers on PAHs in food published in the past
20 years were analyzed. Their citation and cited data were used for
bibliometrics and scientific knowledge mapping studies. A rising trend
can be clearly seen based on the overall output. The co-citation analysis
obtained by CiteSpace obtained 16 hot research fields, mainly on the
distribution, formation mechanism, pretreatment and detection tech-
niques, toxicological analysis and derivatives of PAHs in foods. In this
study, to meet the requirements of data analysis, the literature source
covers the WoS Core Collection. To obtain more comprehensive and
useful comments, other well-known databases, such as Scopus,
SciFinder, and PubMed, may be combined with a large number of high-
value documents in different languages other than English.
Furthermore, upgrading the calculation methods in cluster analysis and
using a powerful software might lead to a more comprehensive review
 Y. Sun et al.

Table 5
Distribution and analysis of PAH derivatives in foods.
Type of PAHs Sample Sample pretreatment technique Detection technique Concentration (μg/kg) References

a b c
Oxygenated PAHs (5 kinds) Youtiao (a popular Chinese fried LLE + SPE GC-MS 3.46–6.10 Gong et al. (2018)
bread)
Oxygenated PAHs (5 kinds) Soybean oil and rapeseed oil LLE + SPE GC-MS 0.93–6.56 Zhao et al. (2018)
Oxygenated PAHs (4 kinds) Smoked meat Microwave-accelerated reaction system + column chromatography GC-MS 9.26–20.50 Chen et al. (2014)
Oxygenated PAHs (15 kinds)i Fish ASEd + SPE GC-MS 28.00–1534.00 Bandowe et al. (2014)
Nitrated PAHs (2 kinds) Rice QuEChERSe HPLC-FLDf 0.86–4.19 Deng and Chan (2017)
Nitrated PAHs (12 kinds)j Smoked meat Microwave-accelerated reaction system + column chromatography GC-MS 4.29–7.32 Chen et al. (2014)
Nitrated PAHs (3 kinds) Meat product LLE + SPE UPLC-FLDg 2.00–249.30 Deng, Wong, Wang, Leung, and Chan
(2015)
Halogenated PAHs (5 Br-PAHs and 3 Cl- Rice LLE + column chromatography GC-MS 0.63–9.90(Br-PAHs) Ding, Ni, and Zeng (2012)
PAHs) 0.38–2.25(Cl-PAHs)
Halogenated PAHs (6 Br-PAHsk and 3 Cl- Pork LLE + column chromatography GC-MS 1.77–30.70 Ding, Ni, and Zeng (2013)
PAHs)
Halogenated PAHs (6 Br-PAHs and 5 Cl- Vegetables QuEChERS GC-MS/MS 0.36–0.87 Wang et al. (2018)
PAHsl)
h
Halogenated PAHs (6 Br-PAHs and 3 Cl- Seafood Soxhlet extraction + GPC + column chromatography GC-MS 0.79–6.73 Ni and Guo (2013)

95
PAHs)

a
LLE: Liquid-liquid extraction.
b
SPE: Solid phase extraction.
c
GC-MS: Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.
d
ASE: Accelerated solvent extraction.
e
QuEChERS: Quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, safe.
f
HPLC-FLD: High-performance liquid chromatography-fluorescence detection.
g
UPLC: Ultra performance liquid chromatography.
h
GPC: Gel permeation chromatography.
i
Oxygenated PAHs (15 kinds): 1-indanone (1-INDA), 1,4-naphthoquinone (1,4-NQ), 1-naphthaldehyde (1-NLD), 2-biphenylcarboxaldehyde (2-BPCD), 9-fluorenone (9-FLO), 1,2-acenaphthenequinone (1,2-ACQ), 9,10-
anthraquinone (9,10-ANQ), 1,8-naphthalic anhydride (1,8-NAA), 4H-cyclopenta[d, e, f]phenanthrenone (4-CYPHENON), 2-methyl-9,10-anthraquinone (2-M-9,10-ANQ), benzo[a]fluorenone (B(a)FLONE), 7H-benzo[d,e]
anthracene-7-one (B(de)ANTHONE), benzo[a]anthracene-7,12-dione (B(a)ANTDIONE), naphthene-5,12-dione (5,12-NAA) and 6H-benzo[c, d]pyren-6-one (B(cd)PYRONE).
j
Nitrated PAHs (12 kinds): 1-nitronaphthalene (1N-NAP), 2-nitronaphthalene (2N-NAP), 5-nitroacenaohthene (5N-ACE), 2-nitrofluorene (2N-FLO), 9-nitroanthracene (9N-ANT), 9-nitro-phenanthrene (9N-PHE), 3-
nitro-phenanthrene (3N-PHE), 3-nitrofluoranthene (3N-FLA), 1-nitropyrene (1N-PYR), 7-nitrobenzo[a]anthracene (7N-BaA), 6-nitrochrysene (6N-CHR), 6-nitrobenzo[a]pyrene (6NeBaP).
k
Br-PAHs (6 kinds): 2-Bromofluorene (2-BrFle), 9-Bromophenanthrene (9-BrPhe), 9-Bromoanthracene (9-BrAnt), 9,10-Dibromoanthracene (9,10-Br2Ant), 1-Bromopyrene (1-BrPyr), 7-Bromobenz(a)anthracene (7-
BrBaA).
l
Cl-PAHs (5 kinds): 9-Chlorofluorene (9-ClFle), 9-Chlorophenanthrene (9-ClPhe), 2-Chloroanthracene (2-ClAnt), 9-Chloroanthracene (9-ClAnt), 9,10-Dichloroanthracene (9,10-Cl2Ant).
Trends in Food Science & Technology 83 (2019) 86–98
Y. Sun et al.
report of the research on PAHs in food.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Nos. 31671958 and 31471668), and the Agri-X
Fund of Shanghai Jiao Tong University (No. Agri-X2015007).
References
Abbas, I., Badran, G., Verdin, A., Ledoux, F., Roumie, M., Courcot, D., et al. (2018).
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon derivatives in airborne particulate matter: Sources,
analysis and toxicity. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 16(2), 439–475.
Akpambang, V. O. E., Purcaro, G., Lajide, L., Amoo, I. A., Conte, L. S., & Moret, S. (2009).
Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in commonly consumed
Nigerian smoked/grilled fish and meat. Food Additives & Contaminants Part A
Chemistry, Analysis, Control, Exposure and Risk Assessment, 26(7), 1096–1103.
Alegbeleye, O. O., Opeolu, B. O., & Jackson, V. A. (2017). Polycyclic aromatic hydro-
carbons: A critical review of environmental occurrence and bioremediation.
Environmental Management, 60(4), 758–783.
Alexander, J., Benford, D., Cockburn, A., Cravedi, J., Dogliotti, E., Di Domenico, A., et al.
(2008). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in food: Scientific opinion of the panel on
contaminants in the food chain. The EFSA Journal, 724, 1–114.
Alomirah, H., Al-Zenki, S., Al-Hooti, S., Zaghloul, S., Sawaya, W., Ahmed, N., et al.
(2011). Concentrations and dietary exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs) from grilled and smoked foods. Food Control, 22(12), 2028–2035.
Anastassiades, M., Lehotay, S. J., Štajnbaher, D., & Schenck, F. J. (2003). Fast and easy
multiresidue method employing acetonitrile extraction/partitioning and "dispersive
solid-phase extraction" for the determination of pesticide residues in produce. Journal
of AOAC International, 86(2), 412–431.
An, K. J., Liu, Y. L., & Liu, H. L. (2017). Relationship between total polar components and
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in fried edible oil. Food Additives & Contaminants
Part A Chemistry, Analysis, Control, Exposure and Risk Assessment, 34(9), 1596–1605.
Arditsoglou, A., Petaloti, C., Terzi, E., Sofoniou, M., & Samara, C. (2004). Size distribution
of trace elements and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in fly ashes generated in
Greek lignite-fired power plants. The Science of the Total Environment, 323(1–3),
153–167.
Baird, S. J. S., Bailey, E. A., & Vorhees, D. J. (2007). Evaluating human risk from exposure
to alkylated PAHs in an aquatic system. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, 13(2),
322–338.
Bandowe, B. A. M., Bigalke, M., Boamah, L., Nyarko, E., Saalia, F. K., & Wilcke, W.
(2014). Polycyclic aromatic compounds (PAHs and oxygenated PAHs) and trace
metals in fish species from Ghana (West Africa): Bioaccumulation and health risk
assessment. Environment International, 65, 135–146.
Bansal, V., Kumar, P., Kwon, E. E., & Kim, K. H. (2017). Review of the quantification
techniques for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in food products. Critical
Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 57(15), 3297–3312.
Batagelj, V., & Cerinsek, M. (2013). On bibliographic networks. Scientometrics, 96(3),
845–864.
Bertinetti, I. A., Ferreira, C. D., Monks, J. L. F., Sanches-Filho, P. J., & Elias, M. C. (2018).
Accumulation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in rice subjected to drying
with different fuels plus temperature, industrial processes and cooking. Journal of
Food Composition and Analysis, 66, 109–115.
Britt, P. F., Buchanan, A. C., Owens, C. V., Jr., & Skeen, J. T. (2004). Does glucose enhance
the formation of nitrogen containing polycyclic aromatic compounds and polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons in the pyrolysis of proline? Fuel, 83(11–12), 1417–1432.
Chen, C. M. (2006). CiteSpace II: Detecting and visualizing emerging trends and transient
patterns in scientific literature. Journal of the American Society for Information Science
and Technology, 57(3), 359–377.
Chen, B. H., & Chen, Y. C. (2001). Formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the
smoke from heated model lipids and food lipids. Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry, 49(11), 5238–5243.
Chen, C., Chen, Y., Horowitz, M., Hou, H., Liu, Z., & Pellegrino, D. (2009). Towards an
explanatory and computational theory of scientific discovery. Journal of Informetrics,
3(3), 191–209.
Chen, S., Kao, T. H., Chen, C. J., Huang, C. W., & Chen, B. H. (2013). Reduction of
carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in meat by sugar-smoking and dietary
exposure assessment in Taiwan. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 61(31),
7645–7653.
Chen, B. H., & Lin, Y. S. (1997). Formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons during
processing of duck meat. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 45(4),
1394–1403.
Chen, Y. C., Shen, G. F., Su, S., Shen, H. Z., Huang, Y., Li, T. C., et al. (2014).
Contamination and distribution of parent, nitrated, and oxygenated polycyclic aro-
matic hydrocarbons in smoked meat. Environmental Science and Pollution Research,
21(19), 11521–11530.
Cheruyiot, N. K., Lee, W. J., Mwangi, J. K., Wang, L. C., Lin, N. H., Lin, Y. C., et al. (2015).
An overview: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon emissions from the stationary and
mobile sources and in the ambient air. Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 15(7),
2730–2762.
Chi, P. S., & Glanzel, W. (2017). An empirical investigation of the associations among
usage, scientific collaboration and citation impact. Scientometrics, 112(1), 403–412.
Christy, A. A., Lian, M. I., & Francis, G. W. (2011). Pyrolytic formation of polyaromatic
96
Trends in Food Science & Technology 83 (2019) 86–98
hydrocarbons from steroid hormones. Food Chemistry, 124(4), 1466–1472.
Deng, K., & Chan, W. (2017). Development of a QuEChERS-based method for determi-
nation of carcinogenic 2-nitrofluorene and 1-nitropyrene in rice grains and vege-
tables: A comparative study with benzo[a]pyrene. Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry, 65(9), 1992–1999.
Deng, K. L., Wong, T. Y., Wang, Y. N., Leung, E. M. K., & Chan, W. (2015). Combination of
precolumn nitro-reduction and ultraperformance liquid chromatography with fluor-
escence detection for the sensitive quantification of 1-nitronaphthalene, 2-nitro-
fluorene, and 1-nitropyrene in meat products. Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry, 63(12), 3161–3167.
Diggs, D. L., Huderson, A. C., Harris, K. L., Myers, J. N., Banks, L. D., Rekhadevi, P. V.,
et al. (2011). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and digestive tract cancers: A per-
spective. Journal of Environmental Science and Health Part C Environmental
Carcinogenesis & Ecotoxicology Reviews, 29(4), 324–357.
Ding, C., Ni, H. G., & Zeng, H. (2012). Parent and halogenated polycyclic aromatic hy-
drocarbons in rice and implications for human health in China. Environmental
Pollution, 168, 80–86.
Ding, C., Ni, H. G., & Zeng, H. (2013). Human exposure to parent and halogenated
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons via food consumption in Shenzhen, China. The
Science of the Total Environment, 443, 857–863.
Domingo, J. L. (2017). Concentrations of environmental organic contaminants in meat
and meat products and human dietary exposure: A review. Food and Chemical
Toxicology, 107(Pt A), 20–26.
Drabova, L., Tomaniova, M., Kalachova, K., Kocourek, V., Hajslova, J., & Pulkrabova, J.
(2013). Application of solid phase extraction and two-dimensional gas chromato-
graphy coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrometry for fast analysis of polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons in vegetable oils. Food Control, 33(2), 489–497.
Duedahl-Olesen, L., Navaratnam, M. A., Jewula, J., & Jensen, A. H. (2015). PAH in some
brands of tea and coffee. Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds, 35(1), 74–90.
Essumang, D. K., Dodoo, D. K., & Adjei, J. K. (2013). Effect of smoke generation sources
and smoke curing duration on the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) in
different suites of fish. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 58, 86–94.
Essumang, D. K., Dodoo, D. K., & Adjei, J. K. (2014). Effective reduction of PAH con-
tamination in smoke cured fish products using charcoal filters in a modified tradi-
tional kiln. Food Control, 35(1), 85–93.
Farhadian, A., Jinap, S., Abas, F., & Sakar, Z. I. (2010). Determination of polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons in grilled meat. Food Control, 21(5), 606–610.
Fasano, E., Yebra-Pimentel, I., Martínez-Carballo, E., & Simal-Gándara, J. (2016).
Profiling, distribution and levels of carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in
traditional smoked plant and animal foods. Food Control, 59, 581–590.
Fromberg, A., Højgård, A., & Duedahl-Olesen, L. (2007). Analysis of polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons in vegetable oils combining gel permeation chromatography with
solid-phase extraction clean-up. Food Additives & Contaminants, 24(7), 758–767.
Gao, G., Chen, H., Liu, P., Hao, Z., Ma, G., Chai, Y., et al. (2017). Residue pattern of
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons during green tea manufacturing and their transfer
rates during tea brewing. Food Additives & Contaminants Part A Chemistry, Analysis,
Control, Exposure and Risk Assessment, 34(6), 990–999.
García-Falcón, M. S., Pérez-Lamela, M., & Simal-Gándara, J. (2004). Comparison of
strategies for extraction of high molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
from drinking waters. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 52(23), 6897–6903.
Garfield, E. (2009). From the science of science to Scientometrics visualizing the history
of science with HistCite software. Journal of Informetrics, 3(3), 173–179.
Ghosal, D., Ghosh, S., Dutta, T. K., & Ahn, Y. (2016). Current state of knowledge in mi-
crobial degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs): A review. Frontiers
in Microbiology, 7(AUG), 1369.
Girelli, A. M., Apriceno, A., Tarola, A. M., & Tortora, F. (2017). Determination of poly-
cyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in tea infusions samples by high performance liquid
chromatography with fluorimetric detection. Journal of Food Quality, 1–7 2017.
Gong, M., Wang, Y., Fan, Y., Zhu, W., Zhang, H., & Su, Y. (2018). Polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbon formation during the gasification of sewage sludge in sub- and super-
critical water: Effect of reaction parameters and reaction pathways. Waste
Management, 72, 287–295.
Gong, G. Y., Zhao, X., & Wu, S. M. (2018). Effect of natural antioxidants on inhibition of
parent and oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Chinese fried bread
youtiao. Food Control, 87, 117–125.
Guatemala-Morales, G. M., Beltrán-Medina, E. A., Murillo-Tovar, M. A., Ruiz-Palomino,
P., Corona-González, R. I., & Arriola-Guevara, E. (2016). Validation of analytical
conditions for determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in roasted coffee
by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Food Chemistry, 197(Pt A), 747–753.
Guillen, M. D., & Goicoechea, E. (2008). Formation of oxygenated α,β-unsaturated al-
dehydes and other toxic compounds in sunflower oil oxidation at room temperature
in closed receptacles. Food Chemistry, 111(1), 157–164.
Guillén, M. D., & Sopelana, P. (2004). Load of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in edible
vegetable oils: Importance of alkylated derivatives. Journal of Food Protection, 67(9),
1904–1913.
Gutiérrez-Salcedo, M., Martínez, M.Á., Moral-Munoz, J. A., Herrera-Viedma, E., & Cobo,
M. J. (2017). Some bibliometric procedures for analyzing and evaluating research
fields. Applied Intelligence, 48(5), 1275–1287.
Han, L., Sapozhnikova, Y., & Lehotay, S. J. (2016). Method validation for 243 pesticides
and environmental contaminants in meats and poultry by tandem mass spectrometry
coupled to low-pressure gas chromatography and ultrahigh-performance liquid
chromatography. Food Control, 66, 270–282.
Hao, X., Li, J., & Yao, Z. (2016). Changes in PAHs levels in edible oils during deep-frying
process. Food Control, 66, 233–240.
Haritash, A. K., & Kaushik, C. P. (2009). Biodegradation aspects of polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs): A review. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 169(1–3), 1–15.
Y. Sun et al.
Hilber, I., Blum, F., Leifeld, J., Schmidt, H. P., & Bucheli, T. D. (2012). Quantitative
determination of PAHs in biochar: A prerequisite to ensure its quality and safe ap-
plication. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 60(12), 3042–3050.
Hong, W. J., Jia, H., Li, Y. F., Sun, Y., Liu, X., & Wang, L. (2016). Polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs) and alkylated PAHs in the coastal seawater, surface sediment
and oyster from Dalian, Northeast China. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 128,
11–20.
Hu, Y., Bai, Z., Zhang, L., Wang, X., Zhang, L., Yu, Q., et al. (2007). Health risk assessment
for traffic policemen exposed to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Tianjin,
China. The Science of the Total Environment, 382(2–3), 240–250.
Huffman, M. D., Baldridge, A., Bloomfield, G. S., Colantonio, L. D., Prabhakaran, P., Ajay,
V. S., et al. (2013). Global cardiovascular research output, citations, and collabora-
tions: A time-trend, bibliometric analysis (1999-2008). PloS One, 8(12), e83440.
Incardona, J. P., Gardner, L. D., Linbo, T. L., Brown, T. L., Esbaugh, A. J., Mager, E. M.,
et al. (2014). Deepwater horizon crude oil impacts the developing hearts of large
predatory pelagic fish. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America, 111(15), E1510–E1518.
Janoszka, B. (2011). HPLC-fluorescence analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs) in pork meat and its gravy fried without additives and in the presence of
onion and garlic. Food Chemistry, 126(3), 1344–1353.
Juhasz, A. L., & Naidu, R. (2000). Bioremediation of high molecular weight polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons: A review of the microbial degradation of benzo[a]pyrene.
International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation, 45(1–2), 57–88.
Kacmaz, S., Zelinkova, Z., & Wenzl, T. (2016). Rapid and sensitive method for the de-
termination of four EU marker polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in cereal-based
foods using isotope-dilution GC/MS. Food Additives & Contaminants Part A Chemistry,
Analysis, Control, Exposure and Risk Assessment, 33(4), 631–638.
Kang, H. J., Lee, S. Y., & Kwon, J. H. (2016). Physico-chemical properties and toxicity of
alkylated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 312,
200–207.
Kazerouni, N., Sinha, R., Hsu, C. H., Greenberg, A., & Rothman, N. (2001). Analysis of 200
food items for benzo[a]pyrene and estimation of its intake in an epidemiologic study.
Food and Chemical Toxicology, 39(5), 423–436.
Kim, K. H., Jahan, S. A., Kabir, E., & Brown, R. J. C. (2013). A review of airborne poly-
cyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their human health effects. Environment
International, 60, 71–80.
Kiralan, S. S., Erdogdu, F., & Tekin, A. (2017). Reducing polycyclic aromatic hydro-
carbons (PAHs) formation in olive pomace oil using microwave pre-heating of olive
pomace. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology, 119(1), 1–7.
Kuppusamy, S., Thavamani, P., Venkateswarlu, K., Lee, Y. B., Naidu, R., & Megharaj, M.
(2017). Remediation approaches for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) con-
taminated soils: Technological constraints, emerging trends and future directions.
Chemosphere, 168, 944–968.
Lacroix, C., Le Cuff, N., Receveur, J., Moraga, D., Auffret, M., & Guyomarch, J. (2014).
Development of an innovative and "green" stir bar sorptive extraction-thermal des-
orption-gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method for quantification of
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in marine biota. Journal of Chromatography A,
1349, 1–10.
Ledesma, E., Rendueles, M., & Díaz, M. (2014). Benzo(a)pyrene penetration on a smoked
meat product during smoking time. Food Additives & Contaminants Part A Chemistry,
Analysis, Control, Exposure and Risk Assessment, 31(10), 1688–1698.
Ledesma, E., Rendueles, M., & Díaz, M. (2016). Contamination of meat products during
smoking by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: Processes and prevention. Food
Control, 60, 64–87.
Lee, J. G., Kim, S. Y., Moon, J. S., Kim, S. H., Kang, D. H., & Yoon, H. J. (2016). Effects of
grilling procedures on levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in grilled meats.
Food Chemistry, 199, 632–638.
Li, S., Chen, Y., Zhang, J., Song, K., Mu, G., Sun, C., et al. (2018). The relationship of
chromophoric dissolved organic matter parallel factor analysis fluorescence and
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in natural surface waters. Environmental Science
and Pollution Research, 25(2), 1428–1438.
Lin, H., Morandi, G. D., Brown, R. S., Snieckus, V., Rantanen, T., Jørgensen, K. B., et al.
(2015). Quantitative structure-activity relationships for chronic toxicity of alkyl-
chrysenes and alkyl-benz[a]anthracenes to Japanese medaka embryos (Oryzias la-
tipes). Aquatic Toxicology, 159, 109–118.
Lin, D., Tu, Y., & Zhu, L. (2005). Concentrations and health risk of polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons in tea. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 43(1), 41–48.
Lin, D., Zhu, L., He, W., & Tu, Y. (2006). Tea plant uptake and translocation of polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons from water and around air. Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry, 54(10), 3658–3662.
Lin, D., Zhu, L., & Luo, L. (2006). Factors affecting transfer of polycyclic aromatic hy-
drocarbons from made tea to tea infusion. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry,
54(12), 4350–4354.
Li, N., Wu, D., Hu, N., Fan, G., Li, X., Sun, J., et al. (2018). Effective enrichment and
detection of trace polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in food samples based on mag-
netic covalent organic framework hybrid microspheres. Journal of Agricultural and
Food Chemistry, 66(13), 3572–3580.
Li, G., Wu, S., Zeng, J., Wang, L., & Yu, W. (2016). Effect of frying and aluminium on the
levels and migration of parent and oxygenated PAHs in a popular Chinese fried bread
youtiao. Food Chemistry, 209, 123–130.
Manoli, E., Kouras, A., Karagkiozidou, O., Argyropoulos, G., Voutsa, D., & Samara, C.
(2016). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) at traffic and urban background
sites of northern Greece: Source apportionment of ambient PAH levels and PAH-in-
duced lung cancer risk. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 23(4),
3556–3568.
Martínez, M. A., Cobo, M. J., Herrera, M., & Herrera-Viedma, E. (2014). Analyzing the
97
Trends in Food Science & Technology 83 (2019) 86–98
scientific evolution of social work using science mapping. Research on Social Work
Practice, 25(2), 257–277.
Min, S., Patra, J. K., & Shin, H. S. (2018). Factors influencing inhibition of eight polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons in heated meat model system. Food Chemistry, 239,
993–1000.
Mohammadi, A., Ghasemzadeh-Mohammadi, V., Haratian, P., Khaksar, R., & Chaichi, M.
(2013). Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in smoked fish samples
by a new microextraction technique and method optimisation using response surface
methodology. Food Chemistry, 141(3), 2459–2465.
Molle, D. R. D., Abballe, C., Gomes, F. M. L., Furlani, R. P. Z., & Tfouni, S. A. V. (2017).
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in canola, sunflower and corn oils and estimated
daily intake. Food Control, 81, 96–100.
Moret, S., & Conte, L. S. (2000). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in edible fats and oils:
Occurrence and analytical methods. Journal of Chromatography A, 882(1–2),
245–253.
Moret, S., Purcaro, G., & Conte, L. S. (2010). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
levels in propolis and propolis-based dietary supplements from the Italian market.
Food Chemistry, 122(1), 333–338.
Nácher-Mestre, J., Serrano, R., Portolés, T., Berntssen, M. H. G., Pérez-Sánchez, J., &
Hernández, F. (2014). Screening of pesticides and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
in feeds and fish tissues by gas chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass
spectrometry using atmospheric pressure chemical ionization. Journal of Agricultural
and Food Chemistry, 62(10), 2165–2174.
Ni, H. G., & Guo, J. Y. (2013). Parent and halogenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
in seafood from south China and implications for human exposure. Journal of
Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 61(8), 2013–2018.
Olatunji, O. S., Fatoki, O. S., Opeolu, B. O., & Ximba, B. J. (2014). Determination of
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons [PAHs] in processed meat products using gas
chromatography - flame ionization detector. Food Chemistry, 156, 296–300.
Orecchio, S., Ciotti, V. P., & Culotta, L. (2009). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
in coffee brew samples: Analytical method by GC-MS, profile, levels and sources. Food
and Chemical Toxicology, 47(4), 819–826.
Osinska, V., & Bala, P. (2015). Study of dynamics of structured knowledge: Qualitative
analysis of different mapping approaches. Journal of Information Science, 41(2),
197–208.
Oz, F., & Yuzer, M. O. (2016). The effects of cooking on wire and stone barbecue at
different cooking levels on the formation of heterocyclic aromatic amines and poly-
cyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in beef steak. Food Chemistry, 203, 59–66.
Pelletier, É., Sargian, P., Payet, J., & Demers, S. (2006). Ecotoxicological effects of
combined UVB and organic contaminants in coastal waters: A review. Photochemistry
and Photobiology, 82(4), 981–993.
Pensado, L., Casais, M. C., Mejuto, M. C., & Cela, R. (2005). Application of matrix solid-
phase dispersion in the analysis of priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in fish
samples. Journal of Chromatography A, 1077(2), 103–109.
Petrarca, M. H., & Godoy, H. T. (2018). Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry de-
termination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in baby food using QuEChERS
combined with low-density solvent dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction. Food
Chemistry, 257, 44–52.
Phillips, D. H. (1999). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the diet. Mutation Research:
Genetic Toxicology and Environmental Mutagenesis, 443(1–2), 139–147.
Pincemaille, J., Schummer, C., Heinen, E., & Moris, G. (2014). Determination of poly-
cyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in smoked and non-smoked black teas and tea infu-
sions. Food Chemistry, 145, 807–813.
Plaza-Bolaños, P., Frenich, A. G., & Vidal, J. L. M. (2010). Polycyclic aromatic hydro-
carbons in food and beverages. Analytical methods and trends. Journal of
Chromatography A, 1217(41), 6303–6326.
Purcaro, G., Barp, L., & Moret, S. (2016). Determination of hydrocarbon contamination in
foods. A review. Analytical Methods, 8(29), 5755–5772.
Purcaro, G., Moret, S., & Conte, L. S. (2009). Optimisation of microwave assisted ex-
traction (MAE) for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) determination in smoked
meat. Meat Science, 81(1), 275–280.
Purcaro, G., Moret, S., & Conte, L. S. (2013). Overview on polycyclic aromatic hydro-
carbons: Occurrence, legislation and innovative determination in foods. Talanta, 105,
292–305.
Quesada-García, A., Valdehita, A., Torrent, F., Villarroel, M., Hernando, M. D., & Navas, J.
M. (2013). Use of fish farms to assess river contamination: Combining biomarker
responses, active biomonitoring, and chemical analysis. Aquatic Toxicology, 140–141,
439–448.
Ramalhosa, M. J., Paíga, P., Morais, S., Ramos, S., Delerue-Matos, C., & Oliveira, M. B. P.
P. (2012). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon levels in three pelagic fish species from
Atlantic Ocean: Inter-specific and inter-season comparisons and assessment of po-
tential public health risks. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 50(2), 162–167.
Ramesh, A., Walker, S. A., Hood, D. B., Guillén, M. D., Schneider, K., & Weyand, E. H.
(2004). Bioavailability and risk assessment of orally ingested polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons. International Journal of Toxicology, 23(5), 301–333.
Rey-Salgueiro, L., García-Falcón, M. S., Martínez-Carballo, E., & Simal-Gándara, J.
(2008). Effects of toasting procedures on the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydro-
carbons in toasted bread. Food Chemistry, 108(2), 607–615.
Rojo Camargo, M. C., & Toledo, M. C. F. (2003). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in
Brazilian vegetables and fruits. Food Control, 14(1), 49–53.
Rorissa, A., & Yuan, X. (2012). Visualizing and mapping the intellectual structure of in-
formation retrieval. Information Processing & Management, 48(1), 120–135.
Rose, M., Holland, J., Dowding, A., Petch, S. R., White, S., Fernandes, A., et al. (2015).
Investigation into the formation of PAHs in foods prepared in the home to determine
the effects of frying, grilling, barbecuing, toasting and roasting. Food and Chemical
Toxicology, 78, 1–9.
Y. Sun et al.
Rousseeuw, P. J. (1987). Silhouettes: A graphical aid to the interpretation and validation
of cluster analysis. Journal of Computational and Applied Mathematics, 20(C), 53–65.
Russo, M. V., Avino, P., & Notardonato, I. (2017). PAH residues in honey by ultrasound-
vortex-assisted liquid-liquid micro-extraction followed by GC-FID/IT-MS. Food
Analytical Methods, 10(7), 2132–2142.
Sadowska-Rociek, A., Cieślik, E., & Sieja, K. (2015). Determination of polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons in chocolate using the combination of quick easy cheap effective
rugged safe method and dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction. Journal of Food and
Nutrition Research, 54(4), 289–297.
Santos, P. M., Sanchez, M. D., Pavon, J. L. P., & Cordero, B. M. (2018). Quantitative and
qualitative analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urine samples using a
non-separative method based on mass spectrometry. Talanta, 181, 373–379.
Silano, M., & Silano, V. (2017). Food and feed chemical contaminants in the European
Union: Regulatory, scientific, and technical issues concerning chemical contaminants
occurrence, risk assessment, and risk management in the European Union. Critical
Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 57(10), 2162–2217.
Silva, S. A. D., Sampaio, G. R., & Torres, E. A. F. D. S. (2017). Optimization and validation
of a method using UHPLC-fluorescence for the analysis of polycyclic aromatic hy-
drocarbons in cold-pressed vegetable oils. Food Chemistry, 221, 809–814.
Silva, S. A. D., Torres, E., Almeida, A. P., & Sampaio, G. R. (2018). Polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons content and fatty acids profile in coconut, safflower, evening primrose
and linseed oils. Food Chemistry, 245, 798–805.
Šimko, P. (2005). Factors affecting elimination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from
smoked meat foods and liquid smoke flavorings. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research,
49(7), 637–647.
Singh, L., & Agarwal, T. (2018). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in diet: Concern for
public health. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 79, 160–170.
Singh, L., Varshney, J. G., & Agarwal, T. (2016). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons' for-
mation and occurrence in processed food. Food Chemistry, 199, 768–781.
Sinha, S., & Raj, A. (2016). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) formation from
benzyl radicals: A reaction kinetics study. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, 18(11),
8120–8131.
Socas-Rodríguez, B., González-Sálamo, J., Herrera-Herrera, A. V., Hernández-Borges, J., &
Rodríguez-Delgado, M.Á. (2017). Recent advances and developments in the
QuEChERS method. Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry, 76, 319–374.
Srogi, K. (2007). Monitoring of environmental exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydro-
carbons: A review. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 5(4), 169–195.
Stołyhwo, A., & Sikorski, Z. E. (2005). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in smoked fish -
a critical review. Food Chemistry, 91(2), 303–311.
Sun, M., Feng, J., Bu, Y., & Luo, C. (2015). Highly sensitive copper fiber-in-tube solid-
phase microextraction foronline selective analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydro-
carbons coupledwith high performance liquid chromatography. Journal of
Chromatography A, 1408, 41–48.
Sun, J. L., Zeng, H., & Ni, H. G. (2013). Halogenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in
the environment. Chemosphere, 90(6), 1751–1759.
Tamakawa, K. (2008). Chapter 17 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Comprehensive
Analytical Chemistry, 51, 599–651.
Teixeira, V. H., Casal, S., & Oliveira, M. B. P. P. (2007). PAHs content in sunflower,
soybean and virgin olive oils: Evaluation in commercial samples and during refining
process. Food Chemistry, 104(1), 106–112.
Tfouni, S. A. V., & Toledo, M. C. F. (2007). Determination of polycyclic aromatic hy-
drocarbons in cane sugar. Food Control, 18(8), 948–952.
Tho, S. W., Yeung, Y. Y., Wei, R., Chan, K. W., & So, W. W. M. (2017). A systematic review
of remote laboratory work in science education with the support of visualizing its
structure through the HistCite and CiteSpace software. International Journal of Science
and Mathematics Education, 15(7), 1217–1236.
Uno, S., Kokushi, E., Añasco, N. C., Iwai, T., Ito, K., & Koyama, J. (2017). Oil spill off the
coast of Guimaras Island, Philippines: Distributions and changes of polycyclic aro-
matic hydrocarbons in shellfish. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 124(2), 962–973.
Varlet, V., Serot, T., Monteau, F., Le Bizec, B., & Prost, C. (2007). Determination of PAH
profiles by GC-MS/MS in salmon processed by four cold-smoking techniques. Food
98
Trends in Food Science & Technology 83 (2019) 86–98
Additives & Contaminants, 24(7), 744–757.
Visciano, P., Perugini, M., Amorena, M., & Ianieri, A. (2006). Polycyclic aromatic hy-
drocarbons in fresh and cold-smoked Atlantic salmon fillets. Journal of Food
Protection, 69(5), 1134–1138.
Walgraeve, C., Demeestere, K., Dewulf, J., Zimmermann, R., & Van Langenhove, H.
(2010). Oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in atmospheric particulate
matter: Molecular characterization and occurrence. Atmospheric Environment, 44(15),
1831–1846.
Wang, M., Cui, S., Yang, X., & Bi, W. (2015). Synthesis of g-C3N4/Fe3O4 nanocomposites
and application as a new sorbent for solid phase extraction of polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons in water samples. Talanta, 132, 922–928.
Wang, L., Li, C., Jiao, B., Li, Q., Su, H., Wang, J., et al. (2018). Halogenated and parent
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in vegetables: Levels, dietary intakes, and health
risk assessments. The Science of the Total Environment, 616–617, 288–295.
Wang, Q., & Xue, Y. (2015). Characterization of solid tumors induced by polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons in mice. Medical science monitor basic research, 21, 81–85.
Wenzl, T., Simon, R., Anklam, E., & Kleiner, J. (2006). Analytical methods for polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in food and the environment needed for new food
legislation in the European Union. TrAC - Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 25(7),
716–725.
Wongmaneepratip, W., & Vangnai, K. (2017). Effects of oil types and pH on carcinogenic
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in grilled chicken. Food Control, 79,
119–125.
Yang, L., Chen, Z. L., Liu, T., Wan, R., Wang, J., & Xie, W. G. (2013). Research output
analysis of municipal solid waste: A case study of China. Scientometrics, 96(2),
641–650.
Yang, C., Zhang, G., Wang, Z. D., Yang, Z. Y., Hollebone, B., Landriault, M., et al. (2014).
Development of a methodology for accurate quantitation of alkylated polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons in petroleum and oil contaminated environmental samples.
Analytical Methods, 6(19), 7760–7771.
Yebra-Pimentel, I., Fernandez-Gonzalez, R., Martinez-Carballo, E., & Simal-Gandara, J.
(2015). A critical review about the health risk assessment of PAHs and their meta-
bolites in foods. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 55(10), 1383–1405.
Yu, X., Ang, H. C., Yang, H. S., Zheng, C., & Zhang, Y. Q. (2017). Low temperature cleanup
combined with magnetic nanoparticle extraction to determine pyrethroids residue in
vegetables oils. Food Control, 74, 112–120.
Yu, X., Li, Y. X., Ng, M., Yang, H. S., & Wang, S. F. (2018). Comparative study of pyre-
throids residue in fruit peels and fleshes using polystyrene-coated magnetic nano-
particles based clean-up techniques. Food Control, 85, 300–307.
Yu, X., & Yang, H. (2017). Pyrethroid residue determination in organic and conventional
vegetables using liquid-solid extraction coupled with magnetic solid phase extraction
based on polystyrene-coated magnetic nanoparticles. Food Chemistry, 217, 303–310.
Zachara, A., Galkowska, D., & Juszczak, L. (2017). Contamination of smoked meat and
fish products from Polish market with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Food
Control, 80, 45–51.
Zelinkova, Z., & Wenzl, T. (2015). The occurrence of 16 EPA PAHs in food - a review.
Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds, 35(2–4), 248–284.
Zhao, X., Gong, G., & Wu, S. (2018). Effect of storage time and temperature on parent and
oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in crude and refined vegetable oils.
Food Chemistry, 239, 781–788.
Zhao, X., Wu, S. M., Gong, G. Y., Li, G., & Zhuang, L. (2017). TBHQ and peanut skin
inhibit accumulation of PAHs and oxygenated PAHs in peanuts during frying. Food
Control, 75, 99–107.
Zhao, Q., Zhang, W., Wang, R., Wang, Y., & Ouyang, D. (2017). Research advances in
molecular modeling in cyclodextrins. Current Pharmaceutical Design, 23(3), 522–531.
Zhou, R. Z., Jiang, J., Mao, T., Zhao, Y. S., & Lu, Y. (2016). Multiresidue analysis of
environmental pollutants in edible vegetable oils by gas chromatography-tandem
mass spectrometry. Food Chemistry, 207, 43–50.
Żyżelewicz, D., Oracz, J., Krysiak, W., Budryn, G., & Nebesny, E. (2017). Effects of various
roasting conditions on acrylamide, acrolein, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
content in cocoa bean and the derived chocolates. Drying Technology, 35(3), 363–374.