SPE 101040
Remote Sensing, Fuzzy Logic and GIS in Petroleum Exploration
S.R. Taheri, Curtin U. of Technology Western Australia
Copyright 2006, Society of Petroleum Engineers
This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2006 SPE Asia Pacific Oil & Gas Conference
and Exhibition held in Adelaide, Australia, 11–13 September 2006.
This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE Program Committee following review of
information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper, as
presented, have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to
correction by the author(s). The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect any
position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or members. Papers presented at
SPE meetings are subject to publication review by Editorial Committees of the Society of
Petroleum Engineers. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper
for commercial purposes without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is
prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than
300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous
acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper was presented. Write Librarian, SPE, P.O.
Box 833836, Richardson, TX 75083-3836, U.S.A., fax 01-972-952-9435.
Abstract
Despite the known practical applications of remote sensing in
a wide range of industries and situations, it has not been used
extensively in petroleum exploration, which has relied mostly
on geological and / or geophysical surveys. With the advances
made in sensing equipment since the Advanced Spaceborne
Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER)
became operational, extraction of potential indicators such as:
surface emissivity, surface kinetic temperature, brightness
temperature and surface radiance needs to be re-evaluated in
the context of petroleum exploration. This research will
mainly investigate the application of remote sensing
techniques to existing petroleum reservoirs with the objective
of uncovering diagnostic patterns that could ultimately be used
for evaluating virgin territory. Although oil and gas reservoirs
are deep below the surface, they have some indicators, which
can be detected on the ground. Hazy patches on Landsat MSS
images were considered by Collins (1973) as a clue to explore
for oil due to their high correlation with existing oil and gas
fields, but since the phenomenon was never explained it fell
out of favor[1].This research will try to identify more of these
surface phenomena (e.g. surface temperature (TIR) derived
from satellite data, vegetation cover, alteration zones,
geochemical surface characteristics and any other available
surface data) and study their correlation with the presence of
oil and gas regardless of whether they can be explained or not.
By employing GIS and fuzzy logic a dynamic model will be
developed which can be applied to any new petroleum
exploration target using the variable input data from that
particular exploration target. The selected study area consists
of almost 50 existing petroleum oil fields onshore Iran.
Following fieldwork in the project area, various valuable
layers of information were collected. 20 ASTER scenes over
the study area have been received from NASA and data have
been retrieved from these satellite images. These data was
finally integrated with all the other available data layers to
produce the dynamic model. The study is highly significant
due to its capability of minimizing exploration costs when
remote sensing is combined with other current conventional
exploration techniques during the reconnaissance stage.
During the course of research quite a good correlation has
been observed so far between the analysis results and the
presence of oil as a positive indication of the applicability of
the proposed model for hydrocarbon exploration.
1. Intoduction
Special attention has been paid to thermal infrared (TIR)
ASTER data (8.125 –11.65 μm) over 54 existing oil fields in a
pilot area in Iran, in combination with geological,
geochemical, vegetation cover, alteration zones and local data
layers. Integration of these different data layers in a
geographic information systems (GIS) environment will reveal
important information provided that all factors of influence are
taken into consideration with their corresponding degrees of
influence (weight) in a fuzzy logic expert system. When it
comes to techniques for detecting changes (thermal change
detection in the context of this study), numerous procedures
are used from comparison of surface characteristics to the
stage of change vector analysis[2]. In the ultimate stage of all
of these techniques, change and no change will be grouped
into two sets of groups by means of a simple threshold binary
value of zero or one (0-1):
Change (x, y) =0 if (ƒ(V) ≤T),
Change (x, y) =1 if (ƒ(V) >T (1)
where x, y represent the location of interest on the ground and
the vector “V” represents the digital numbers of the satellite
images (V can also represent a multi-band data). T is the
threshold value produced by statistical or empirical means.
Many factors should be taken into consideration when
determining the threshold value. Two probability density
functions with respect to “V” will indicate whether change
(thermal) has or hasn’t taken place. Once the threshold
value(s) are set, the change in the categorical attributes of the
target areas can be evaluated. One of the constraints of this
introduced threshold value is its unreliability due to the few
reference data on which it is based. The other issue of concern
is the fact that the threshold value varies from region to region
and from condition to condition. Therefore probabilistic
expression of change/no change occurrence rather than a
binary response will dramatically decrease the uncertainty and
arbitrariness of threshold values. Furthermore, when these
2 SPE 101040
probabilistic expressions are complemented by fuzzy logic in
the post statistical analysis, the entire system will operate like
a big dynamic model in which every factor will influence the
shape, size, movement direction and fluctuation of this
dynamic model according to their corresponding membership
values. Crisp boundaries of binary sets will break into fuzzy
boundaries ranging from zero to one [0-1].
Figure 1- Pictorial definitions of crisp and fuzzy sets [3]
2. Study area’s layers of information
2.1 Location
The Zagros fold and thrust belt in Iran hosts quite a
number of hydrocarbon fields. Due to the fact that this fold
belt is well exposed, it is a good location for the current
research. The total area is approximately about 94000 km2
(470 km × 200 km) covering 54 oil fields (Figures 2 and 3).
Figure 2. Study area from space. Space photograph looking
south-east across the southern Zagros Mountains and the
Persian Gulf. Photograph courtesy of NASA.
Figure 3- The locations of oil fields of the study area
2.2 Vegetation Cover
Vegetation cover within the boundaries of oil field
influence zones was taken into consideration as an individual
layer of information which will complement the other layers
of information by its corresponding statistical weight. NDVI
(Normalized difference vegetation index) was used in
combination with field vegetation data. The vegetated areas
with a high NDVI values were mostly date palm plantations.
Within the areas influenced by oil fields, 18 different plant
species were observed and recorded for data integration.
Fuzzy membership values for each of these vegetation covers
have been defined following the statistical relational and
correlation matrixes.
2.3 Geology
The study area consists of an impressive gathering of giant
oilfields, such as Ahwaz, Aghajari, Bibihakimeh, Gachsaran,
Mansuri, Marun, Ramshir and Ramin, within a relatively small
area, only 94,000 sq km, mostly in Khuzestan Province (Fig.
3). These fields, which produce from the Early Miocene
ASMARI Limestone and the Cenomanian SARVAK
Limestone (Fig. 4), contained more than 350 billion bbl of
original oil in place and 250 Trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of
associated gas. The distribution of these huge accumulations
of oil and/or gas is explained by the superposition of two main
petroleum systems, i.e., a Paleozoic System and a Mid-
Cretaceous to Early Miocene System. These generally do not
interfere with each other, as they are separated by a thick and
widespread seal formed by the Dashtak Formation of Triassic
age. Other petroleum systems play a relatively minor role in
the Iranian gas and oil accumulations[4]
Although the geology of the Zagros folded and thrusted
belt is rather complex, this complexity will not affect the
overall outcome as much since the individual geological unit’s
thermal characteristics such as heat capacity and thermal
SPE 101040
inertia will affect their corresponding pixels in the final data
integration. The geological units will be assigned relative
membership weights in the fuzzy analysis based on their
corresponding thermal characteristics. Thermal inertia will
play a significant role during the fuzzy membership value
allocation (e.g. higher fuzzy membership values for geological
units of higher thermal inertia[5, 6]).The attribute table of
geological characteristics of the study area provided by the
Geological Survey of Iran contains all the needed geological
information (e.g. geological units, geological eras, rock types
and descriptions) to be included in the final fuzzy data
management of the units of the study area.
Figure 4- Generalized Stratigraphic column of Iranian Zagros
Belt [7]
2.4 Geochemistry
2.4.1 Alteration Zones
All the reported and mapped alteration zones were taken
into consideration as an individual layer during the stage of
data integration. Correlation matrixes analysis between the
alteration zones and the oil fields influence radiuses were also
a part of the Geochemistry layer data analisis. Based on the
results obtained from these statistical analyses, fuzzy
membership values were allocated to the corresponding
locations of each of the individual alteration zones.
2.4.2 Gamma ray and soil content in Thorium, Uranium and
Helium
Geochemical data in terms of gamma ray spectrometry and
Th, U and He content of the surface within the influence
radius of oil fields was used as another individual layer with
its corresponding fuzzy membership values. China-American
technology corporation’s scientific research revealed valuable
information about a very high correlation between the
presence of oil and gas and soil content of Helium and
Thorium [8]
3
2.5 Satellite Data
Satellite data used in the context of the current research are
ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and
Reflection Radiometer) data due to the availability of
multispectral thermal infrared (TIR) data in five TIR bands
that operate in the region of 8.125-11.65 μm. Before the
ASTER sensor became operational, multi-band observation in
the TIR region was considered impossible, since the signal to
noise ration (S/N) was not adequate. ASTER Terra spacecraft
is flying in a circular, near-polar orbit of 705km. The orbit is
sun-synchronous with equatorial crossing at local time of
10:30 a.m., returning to the same orbit every 16 days. The
instrument now acquires data with a swath of 60km. The TIR
region is covered by five bands, three bands for wavelengths
shorter (8.125-9.275μm) than the ozone-absorbing band
(9.6μm) and the other two bands for the longer wavelengths
(10.25-11.65 μm). The spectral resolution is 0.35 μm for
bands 10, 11 and 12 but 0.7μm for bands 13 and 14. ASTER is
very useful in deriving emissivity from satellite sensor data
due to the instrument’s multi-band thermal coverage as well as
its high radiometric resolution[9]. Twenty ASTER granules
(ASTER L1B- Registered radiance at sensor VO3) have been
received from NASA’s LP-DAAC centre. During the process
of data retrieval, factors such as cloud coverage, time of
acquisition, season of acquisition, moisture at the time of
acquisition, wind speed and sun angle have been carefully
taken into account to minimize the atmospheric correction
processing time. The errors induced by atmospheric
contribution will be especially large for hot surfaces with
humid atmospheres [10].
Land surface temperature (LST) plays a very crucial role
in many fields of study (geology, hydrology, vegetation
monitoring, global circulation models-GCM) either directly
(estimating long wave fluxes) or indirectly (estimating latent
and sensible heat fluxes)[10]. In the context of this study the
indirect role of LST has been taken into consideration.
Consequently, having access to reliable estimates of land
surface temperature is considered of key importance. As it is
practically impossible to obtain such information from ground
based measurements, the use of satellite measurements in the
thermal infrared (especially ASTER) appears to be very
attractive since they can give access to global and uniform
estimates of surface measurement provided that sensor and
measurement characteristics remain the same[10]. Since
ASTER (or any other satellite thermal infrared sensor)
measures radiance, this should be first converted into
brightness temperature and then into LST in which the effect
of surface emissivity would also be accounted for[10].
Brightness temperature is the apparent temperature of a
surface assuming a surface emissivity of 1.0, ignoring
atmospheric effects. It is the temperature that a blackbody
would be in order to produce the radiance measured by the
sensor[11]. The aggregated temperature of a pixel depends on
factors such as location, spread, surface type, time of day,
vegetation cover, humidity and surrounding manmade means
of so-called thermal noise. These different factors will
influence each other and finally appear as an anomaly or
background with a certain pixel integrated temperature value
4 SPE 101040
over the existing oil fields of the study area. Based on case
studies it is proven that ASTER based temperature
measurements correspond well with the actual field
measurements[12]
3. Methodology
3.1 Spatial Pre-Processing and Registration of Satellite
Data
20 ASTER granules were received from NASA each of
which covered an area of 60km ×60km square. During the
selection process, factors such as time of acquisition,
humidity, season of the year, air temperature at acquisition
time, and cloud cover were taken into consideration to
minimize the pre-processing time. An accurately digitized and
georeferenced geological map of the study area was used as a
master reference image in registration. Precise ground control
point (GCP) checks increased the geographical location
credibility during the coordinate transformation processes and
decreased the sigma (spatial transformation accuracy
indicator) to 0.095 following the field trip for data collection
purposes. The locations of GCPs in slave images (images to be
registered) were taken into close consideration with accuracy
of up to a tenth of pixel size (e.g.1.5 m in TIR images) to
make sure that the locations give the maximum image
correlation with the master image. The product level 2B09T
(Surface radiance-TIR) was used as the master image for
histogram matching in order to adjust the DN scale to thermal
radiance. Data for wind speed, humidity and the air
temperature at the time of ASTER image acquisition (all
around 7 am) were provided by the Iranian meteorological
organization (sample shown in appendix 1). None of the 20
images were affected by cloud coverage. Due to the fact that
the research focuses only over the thermal region of the
electromagnetic spectrum, factors such as sun elevation, earth-
sun distance and topographic and atmospheric effects will
influence the result of confidence levels and consequently
influence the signal-to-noise ratio. Thus, this study focused on
the change in relative partial pattern rather than the absolute
thermal radiance change throughout the study area (oilfield
and non-oilfield locations) for each spectral band. Practically
speaking, the sun elevation, earth-sun distance and
topographic and atmospheric effects were simply excluded by
histogram matching of digital numbers with respect to pixels
in oil field geographical locations.
3.2 Spatial Analysis
3.2.1 Influence Radius
Influence radiuses have been defined for each of the
reservoirs based on their corresponding geochemical,
geological, topographical, positional and voluminosity
properties. Each of these properties has been considered as a
separate layer of information. Integration of each of these
layers was performed in fuzzy logic on the basis of the
importance and dominance of each property. In cases where
the reservoirs have been too close to one another, they have a
mutual domain which has an unrealistic impact on the adjacent
reservoirs in terms of influence radius. This impact has also
been taken into consideration in the influence radius definition
calculations.
3.2.2 Digital Number Distribution model
Digital number values have been analyzed within and
outside of the context of the influence boundaries of the oil
fields, with each of the oil fields considered as an individual
statistical population and their corresponding DN value
distributions studied. Best distribution models have been fit to
the empirical results. Two major distributions have been fitted
to the results, the Gaussian (Normal) distribution and the
lognormal distribution (Depending on the oil fields). For
practical purposes, for some of the oil fields, t distribution or
Poisson distribution could also be fitted but it wouldn’t be in
line with the small sample theory[13]. To increase the
credibility of the Gaussian distribution recognition [14],
probability paper has been used which verified the results by
forming a straight line.
3.2.3 Radiance, Emissivity and Temperature
Planck’s law describes the relationship between the
temperature and radiance of a perfect emitter (black body).
Any surface will emit energy when it has a temperature more
than the absolute temperature depending on the surface
characteristics. This emitted energy is a function of
wavelength. Emissivity is an inherent property of surface and
is independent of irradiance. The ASTER team have
developed an algorithm to perform Temperature/Emissivity
separation with an accuracy of ±1.5 k for temperature
extraction and an accuracy of ± 0.015 for emissivity
measurements compared to field measurements [9]. The most
suitable method chosen for the purpose of this study is the
alpha residuals method developed by Kealy and Hook
1993[15]. The method employs Wien’s approximation of the
Planck function. At temperature T, the spectral radiance of a
black body can be calculated using the Planck function:
c1
j =
R bb
(2)
λ π [exp(c2 / λ j T ) − 1]
5
j
where R j
bb
is the blackbody radiance (wm-3), λ j is the
wavelength of channel j (m), T is the temperature of the
blackbody (°k), c1 is the first radiation constant (WM2) and
c2 is the second radiation constant (mk). Due to the fact that
the blackbody never exists in reality and is the ideal reference
body, all the measurements will be relatively evaluated when
they are compared with the blackbody’s ideal condition. The
spectral emissivity of a material is referred to as the ratio of
the radiance of the surface of that material over the
blackbody’s radiance and is defined as:
SPE 101040 5

Rj are equal to vector h from each other and h j is the class size
ε = (3)
R bb
j
which has been chosen to be the same as the spatial resolution
of ASTER TIR (15m). The variograms have all been
By employing the alpha residuals method based on Wien’s calculated by Variowin statistical and computing software.
approximating of Planck function, the modified function will The spherical variogram model is the best fit to the calculated
be expressed as: empirical results.
For each of the oil reservoirs for which the corresponding
c1 ASTER imagery is available (e.g. Ramin, Ahwaz, Shadegan,
R j = εi (4)
λ π [exp(c2 / λ jT )]
5
j
Ramshir, Agha Jari, Abteymour, Gachsaran and Mansuri), the
variograms have been produced. To assess TIR variations
within the influence radius of each oil reservoir, variograms
and the emissivity in channel j is then defined as: have been produced based on land surface temperature values
of sample points derived from remotely sensed data. These
sample points are evenly distributed within the influence
(α j + (1 / N )∑i =1 λi ln ε i
N
radius on four main directions with a class size of 15 meters
ε j = exp (5) (same as spatial resolution of TIR data). Relative approximate
λj coefficients have been applied to the retrieved LST values
where based on the thermal conductivity and thermal inertia of the
N surface that the sample points belong to. This will statistically
1
α j = λ j ln R j -
N
∑ λ ln R
i =1
i i +Kj (6) homogenize the LST values (5) to identical conditions and
situations when variograms are to be produced to reflect the
with K j being a constant [10]. Due to the fact that this directional thermal variations. The results partly verified the
hypothesis that surface thermal characteristics over the oil
approach is dependent on the number of used spectral reservoirs may fluctuate accordingly when we move away or
channels, it is essentially a multispectral method which towards the oil field in the specified four directions (Figures-5
couldn’t be extensively used before ASTER was operational. to 8). Two of the fields, namely Mansuri and Abteymour
Moreover since this method relies on homogenous pixels[10], (whose variograms do not follow this hypothesis), are to be
ASTER has an advantage over the other sensors in this regard. studied in more detail either to justify their behavior or modify
On the other hand since relative LST within and outside the oil their corresponding final fuzzy membership values.
field’s effective radiuses are measured, the atmospheric effects
in the 10.5 -12.5 μm region of the EM spectrum are negligible The results for Ramin and Ramshir fields are depicted in
(after the primary corrections have been applied in the pre- figures 5, 6, 7 and 8. The strong correlation between the range
processing stage). The next step in the process of LST value of variograms and the oil fields influence radius
retrieval would be to convert this surface radiance to strengthens the hypothesis that there might be a relationship
brightness temperature and consequently the final step would between the oil presence and these thermal trends. This
be to convert brightness temperature to surface hyothesis became stronger when ratioing and band
temperature[10]. There are different ways to go through these combinations in ASTER also correlated with the presense of
stages. There is a look up table for these conversions which hydrocarbons. As it is reflected in the variograms, LST values
has been used in this study [11]. will be independent once the influence radius of oil reservoirs
is crossed in the four selected directions (NS, EW, NE-SW,
3.2.4 TIR Variograms and NW-SE).

Mean LST in different directions with respect to distance

will be expressed by variograms. As the LST sample points do
not necessarily fall all in one line and their intervals are not
equal, the modified variogram formula will be defined as[16]:

∑ (h )[ f ( x ) − f ( x
j =1
j j j + h j )]2
λ ( h) = N
(7)
2∑ ( h j )
j =1

Figure 5- Directional Variograms for Ramin Reservoir in NS (left)

and EW (right) directions
where λ (h) is the variogram, N is the number of pairs whose
distance from one another is equal to vector h, f(x) and f (x +
h) are the LST values for points x and (x + h) whose distance
6 SPE 101040
Figure 6- Directional Variograms for Ramin Reservoir in NE-SW
(left), and NW-SE (right) directions
Figure 7- Directional Variograms for Ramshir Reservoir in NS left)
and EW (right) directions
Figure 8- Directional Variograms for Ramshir Reservoir in NE-SW
(left) and NW-SE (right) directions
3.2.5 Band Combinations and Ratioing
Ratios and band combinations play a very important role in
data retrieval procedures from remotely sensed images. Useful
combinations and ratios have been empirically set for special
purposes so as to distinguish between two undistinguishable
close properties of surface or to expose some of the hidden
surface characteristics of the bodies involved. In Landsat TM,
the RGB (Red, Green, Blue) 742 combination is quite a well
known band combination for geological purposes due to the
fact that quartz will reflect strongly in bands,7, 4 and 2 making
quartz bearing surfaces (silicates) appear white
(red+green+blue = white)[17] The popular ratios in Landsat
TM are: 5/7 (useful to delineate clays), 3/2 and 3/1 (useful for
Iron ore exploration), 4/3 (for vegetation cover) and many
other objective-oriented ratios such as (B1+B2) / (B3+B4) in
which B1, B2 and B3 are all different band ratios. In Landsat
TM, carbonates and phyllosilicates (e.g. Mica) and clays (eg.
Kaolinite) have high absorption in band 7. So in RGB=751,
the Red band will be absorbed and the remaining green and
blue combination (producing cyan color) will be the
carbonates indicator. In ASTER the ratioing and band
combinations are still being developed. Some of the popular
+3
ASTER combinations such as B1/B2 to distinguish Fe ,
B5 + B 7
( ) for Muscovite and Illite recognition,
B6
B 7 + B9 B 4 + B6
( )for Calcite and ( ) for Alunite and
B8 B5
Pyrophillite recognition, have been proved to be valid[18]. In
the current study various band combinations and ratios in TIR
region of the EM spectrum have been employed in order to try
to extract and uncover more of the thermal properties
variations over the existing oil fields in comparison to non-oil
bearing surfaces. In figures 9 and 10 empirical ratios have
been applied which correspond quite well with the influence
radius of oil accumulations. Hazy semi-cloud thermal features
stand out in the images that are associated with oil fields when
the ratio and band combination of Red=B15/B11,
Green=B14/B12 and Blue=B15/B13 are simeltinously applied.
Different band combinations and ratioings were employed in
the study. Band combinations and ratios remain unchanged for
each series of observations both within and out side of oil
fields. Thermal anomalies were obsereved with a mean
confidence level of 85.7% only in the areas within the defined
influence radius of oil fields. Sporadic negligible thermal
anomalies were also observed in some non-oil bearing spots
which need to be studied in more detail. In figures 9 to 12
thermal anomalies have been detected by applying fuzzy
membership values calculated based on the associated surface
properties. Whether the observed relationship can be
scientifically explained or not, in the context of this study
these phenomena are of great importance. Fuzzy membership
values have been assigned to the observed phenomena in the
overall integration procedures.
Figure 9- RGB Ratioing in TIR (Gachsaran field) after all
adjustments was applied and noises removed. Thermal anomalies
appear in light blue along the extension line of the oil field
(geological units of thermal spots are different)
SPE 101040
Figure 10- RGB Ratioing in TIR (Aghajari field) after all
adjustments was applied and noises removed. Thermal anomalies
(pink areas), correlates well with the distinction of the oil
accumulation (geological units of thermal spots are different)
Figure 11- RGB Ratioing in TIR (part of Ramin field) after all
adjustments were applied and noises removed. Thermal
anomalies appear in blue along the extension line of the oil field
(geological units of thermal spots are different)
Figure 11- RGB Ratioing in TIR (part of Ramshir field) after all
adjustments were applied and noises removed. Thermal
anomalies appear in light green along the extension line of the oil
field (geological units of thermal spots are different)
7
4. Conclusions
It was observed that by employing ASTER, thermal anomalies
over the existing oil reservoirs could be detected much easily
than by previous conventional methods. Existence of a
probable correlation between these detected thermal anomalies
and the presence of oil has been partially confirmed by results
of the studies so far. Thermal properties of surface was
considered as a single factor reflected in an individual data
layer among other data layers such as geology, geochemistry,
geobotany, and local data layers which mutually influence one
another. By employing fuzzy logic, complemented by GIS, a
dynamic model has been partially produced during the course
of current research allowing all the observed and measured
surface properties to have their corresponding influences over
the model. The directional variograms proved that the thermal
inertia and emissivity of oil bearing surfaces fluctuates
accordingely once the influence radius of oil field is crossed
which recommends high spatial correlation between the
presense of oil and thermal variations do exist. Innovative
ASTER band combinations and ratios also do verify the
correlation existence. Further research is needed to be
performed in orther to develope the dynamic model in more
detail to an extent which can be employed in variety of
geological conditions and situations.
References
1. N.Rencz, A., Remote Sensing for Earth Sciences. 3 ed, ed.
A. N.Rencz. 1999: New York ,Wiley c1999. 453.
2. Singh, A., "Digital Change Detection Techniques Using
Remotely-Sensed Data". International Journal of Remote
Sensing, 1989. 10: p. 989-1003.
3. Kaufmann., A., Gupta, M.M, Introduction to Fuzzy
Arithmetic; Theory and Applications. 1991, Newyork: Van
Nostrand Reinhold.
4. Bordenave, M.L., "Zagros Domain of Iran Holds
Exploration, EOR opportunities". Oil and Gas Journal,
Tulsa, 2000. 98(19): p. 36-39.
5. Carslaw, H.S., and Jaeger, J.C, Conduction of Heat in
Solids. 1959: Oxford, London. 510.
6. Lyon, R.J.P., Heat Measurements for Heat Capacity
Mapping; Ground Support for Airborne Thermal Studies
with Applications to the Search for Geothermal Sources.
1975, Stanford University: Stanford, California. p. 42.
7. E.Tucker, G., Predicting Sediment Flux from Fold and
Thrust Belts. 1996, Pennsylvania State University ,USA.
8. CTC, New Geochemical Method for Hydrocarbon
Exploration. 2004, China-American Technology
Corporation: Newyork. p. 1-4.
9. Gillespie, A.R., Rokugawa, S., Hook, S.J., Matsunaga, T.
and Kahle, A.B, "Temprature/Emissivity Seperation
Algorithm;Theoretical Basis Document". 1999.
2.4.(Prepared under NASA Contract NAS5-31372,): p. 5-8.
10. Yann H.Kerr, J.P.L., Francoise Nerry and Catherine Ottle,
Land Surface Temprature Retrieval Techniques and
Applications, in Thermal Remote Sensing in Land Surface
Processes, J.C.L. Dale A.Quattrochi, Editor. 2000, CRC
Press. p. 33-109.
8 SPE 101040

11. NASA, ASTER User Handbook. 2005: USA. p. 26.

12. Prasun K.Gangopadhyay, B.M.a.P.V.D., "ASTER-Derived
Emissivity and Coal-Fire Related Surface Temprature
Anomaly: A Case Study in Wuda, North China".
International Journal of Remote Sensing, 2005. 26(24): p.
5555-5571.
13. Fisher, R.A., Statistical Methods for Research Workers, ed.
14. 1970: Edinburgh, Oliver and Boyd.
14. Clark, I., Practical Geostatistics. 1987: Elsevier Applied
Science Publishers Ltd.
15. Kealy, P.S.a.S.J.H., "Separating Temperature and
Emissivity in Thermal Infrared Multispectral Scanner
Data; Implications for Recovering Land Surface
Tempratures". IEEE Trans, 1993. 31: p. 1155-64.
16. Kundson, H.P., Kim, Yong C., A Short Course on
Geostatistical Ore Reserve Estimation. 1978: The
University of Arizona.
17. ITC, E.O.T.o., Principles and Applications of GIS and
Remote Sensing. 2000.
18. Rowan, L., ASTER Band Ratios. 2003, United States
Geological Survey.
SPE 101040 9

Appendix

Table1- AVERAGE OF MEAN DAILY TEMPERATURE

AT 7 AM. FOR AHWAZ STATION (COVERING AHWAZ,
MARUN, RAMIN AND MANSURI OILFIELDS)

IRANIAN METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION ( IMO )

DATA PROCESSING CENTER

STATION AHWAZ(MOLASANY.UN)
LATITUDE 31 36 N
LONGITUDE 48 53 E
ELEVATION 50 MET. AVERAGE OF MEAN DAILY TEMPERATURE
AT 7 AM For 1998
Max
Date Jan. Feb. March. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Min
1 11.5 14.3 17.5 25.5 29.2 32.6 34.4 33 29.2 24.3 20.4 11.5 22.9
2 12.2 12.8 17.4 20.8 29.3 30.5 33.7 32.7 29.7 22.6 14.6 12.8 21.5
3 8.8 10.5 16.2 21.8 25 30.9 31 32.8 29.3 24.8 17 9.1 24
4 9.8 15.1 16.6 22.3 27.5 ****** 32.8 34.2 29.8 25.3 15.5 12.5 ******
5 10.2 12.2 ****** 21.2 26.9 31.4 32.6 31.1 28.5 23.6 18.4 11.4 ******
6 11.4 12.3 16 22.1 27.6 31.1 32.3 32.5 30.3 21.9 17.5 11.2 21.3
7 11.1 11.7 14.4 21 26.8 32.1 33.1 33.3 ****** ****** ****** 14.8 ******
8 ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******
9 12 14.5 17.8 23.2 27.9 30.5 34.4 32.1 ****** 24.9 14.7 15.2 ******
10 13 15.6 16.9 24.1 28.1 33.2 34.4 33.7 32.7 26 19.3 12.8 21.6
11 11 13.3 18.6 23.4 27 31.3 34.5 31.7 28.3 24.7 19 14.3 23.5
12 ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******
13 ****** ****** 14.2 23.7 29.6 31.4 32.5 ****** 30 24.7 15.5 10.8 ******
14 9.3 12.1 15.7 21.7 28.8 32.9 34.8 34.6 30.2 23.3 19.5 12.9 25.5
15 11.4 14.4 18.2 24.1 26.9 32.3 35.1 32.3 30.3 24.4 19.2 11.5 23.7
16 13.6 11.3 16 22.9 28.8 31.8 33.6 33.9 30.6 ****** ****** ****** ******
17 ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******
18 ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******
19 ****** ****** ****** 24.2 29 ****** ****** 34.3 30.5 ****** 18 13.5 ******
20 9.2 12 18 24.7 29.5 32.4 35.9 34.4 30.3 25.6 18.9 12.5 26.7
21 9.8 12.4 16.3 21.8 30.7 34 36.3 34.4 30.1 25.5 19.5 14.8 26.5
22 11.4 11.9 16.8 24 27.7 33.5 34.2 33.5 30.2 25.4 19.3 13.2 22.8
23 8.8 11.7 14.2 21.4 27.6 32.2 34 34.2 30.9 23.9 18.1 12.2 25.4
24 10.5 12.9 16.8 22.2 28 32.6 35.3 34.7 30.7 26.1 17.6 14.3 24.8
25 13.9 14.1 18 25.4 29.4 33.2 34.7 32.2 31 25.8 19.4 11.2 23.5
26 11.9 14.1 17.4 22.1 29.9 33.1 34.6 34 29.6 24.5 17.9 12.1 22.7
27 13.1 15.5 17.4 23.3 31.6 33.7 38.5 36.5 30.8 25 19.4 15.8 25.4
28 12.9 11.1 15.1 21.6 29.5 34.4 35.6 34.8 30.9 27.3 19 13.5 24.5
29 10.8 13.7 17.2 24.1 30.4 35.9 36.4 36.9 32.3 25.7 20.6 16.5 26.1
30 13.4 14.9 16.8 24.6 31.4 36.5 36.5 38 31.7 21.7 15.2 ****** ******