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LESSON 1
What is NAVIGATION?
• Science of determining the position of a ship, aircraft or guarded missile.
• Means of directing a course for guiding the craft expeditiously from one point to
another.
• Science of determining the position of a ship, aircraft or guarded missile.
• Means of directing a course for guiding the craft expeditiously from one point to
another.
NAUTICAL CHART
Nautical chart is a standardized drawing representing part of the navigable waters
of the Earth.
CARTOGRAPHERS
Makers of maps and charts who use math to work out chart projection
techniques.
POLES
The north and south poles are
located at the ends of the axis on
which Earth rotates.
MERIDIANS OF LONGITUDE
Longitude are lines drawn on the surface of a globe running through the poles.
These lines converge at the poles.
Measurement of position east or west from the prime meridian
GREAT CIRCLE
Any circle formed by the intersection of a plane passing through the Earth’s center,
with the Earth’s surface.
EQUATOR
Equator is a great circle of the Earth that is equidistant from the North Pole and
South Pole
It cuts every meridian in half.
Meridians is also a great circle because it divides the globe into two halves.
PARALLELS OF LATITUDE
Measurement of position north or south of the equator.
The distance of arc north (N) or south (S) of the equator, measured along a
meridian.
REMEMBER!
It is necessary to convert the round surface of the globe to one that is flat and two-
dimensional (having only length and width) – to a flat piece of paper on which a chart
is drawn.
CHART PROJECTION - Flat surface representative of the Earth.
MERCATOR PROJECTION
Earth is projected onto a cylinder-shaped piece of paper wrapped around the
globe at the equator.
Commonly used for navigational charts
Developed by a Dutch cartographer, GERADUS MERCATOR, in the 1500s
Most useful projection for navigation
CONFORMAL PROJECTION
A projection on which any rhumb line is shown as a straight line.
Used chiefly in navigation, though the scale varies with latitude and aerial size
and the shape of large areas are greatly distorted.
RHUMB LINE
A curve on the surface of a sphere that cuts all meridians at the same angle.
The path taken by a vessel or aircraft that maintains a constant compass
direction.
SCALE OF CHARTS
Used to measure distance
Relationship between actual and chart distance.
Printed near the legend as a ratio, such as 1:7,500,000.
Small scales are used to depict large areas on a chart and large scales are used
to depict small areas.
REMEMBER
The larger the scale, the smaller the area shown on a given chart or map.
The large-scale charts show areas in great detail.
Features appearing on a large scale chart may not show up at all on a small-
scale chart of the same area.
TYPES OF CHARTS
Nautical
Sailing
Harbor
NAUTICAL CHARTS
Nautical charts have information for safe navigation, such as:
Symbols, figures, and abbreviations
Depth of water
Type of bottom
Navigational aids
HARBOR CHARTS
Harbor charts are large-scale charts that show harbors and their approaches in
detail.
COASTAL CHARTS
Coastal charts are intermediate-scale charts used to navigate a vessel whose
position may be determined by landmarks and lights, buoys or soundings offshore.
NAVIGATIONAL SYSTEMS
LESSON 2
Distance Measurement on Navigational Charts
Distance on a chart is measured along
the meridian, using a tool called
dividers.
Nautical Mile is one minute of arc
measured along the equator, or any
other great circle.
Distances are not measured on parallels
of latitude because one minute equals
one nautical mile only along the equator
Speed Measurement
KNOT- unit of measurement in
navigation.
1 Knot = 1 nautical miles/hour
1 Knot = 1.15 statute miles/hr.
Origin of KNOT
The term knot dates from the
17th century, when sailors
measured the speed of their ship
by using a device called a
"common log." This device was a
coil of rope with uniformly
spaced knots, attached to a piece
of wood shaped like a slice of pie.
The piece of wood was lowered
from the back of the ship and
allowed to float behind it. The
line was allowed to pay out freely
from the coil as the piece of wood
fell behind the ship for a specific
amount of time. When the specified time had passed, the line was pulled in
and the number of knots on the rope between the ship and the wood were
counted. The speed of the ship was said to be the number of knots counted
(Bowditch, 1984).
Speed Measurement
• Speed over Ground (SOG) = true speed- Direct output of many electronic
navigation systems (GPS, Loran)
Impeller Log
Small propeller mounted in the water
that passes by the ship hull.
The rotation rate of the propeller is
proportional to the speed of the ship.
PITOMETER LOG
Pitometer log is similar to that of
the pitot tube on an aircraft.
The part of the pitometer protruding from the ship is
sometimes called a pitsword or rodmeter.
The dynamic pressure of the seawater is a function of
the depth of the water and the speed of the vessel.
Types of COMPASS
MAGNETIC Compass
GYROCOMPASS
MAGNETIC COMPASS
Magnetic compass gives direction relative to
magnetic north
It contains magnetized pointer that shows the
direction of the magnetic north and bearings from it.
GYROCOMPASS
VARIATION ANGLE
Refers to the difference between magnetic
and true north in degrees.
The difference between true and magnetic
north varies by location and over time.
In most populated parts of the world, it
currently ranges from 30 degrees west
(south-eastern tip of Africa) to 26 degrees
east (southern tip of New Zealand).
On the west coast of the United States, the
compass direction lies between 10 and 16
degrees east of true north. In locations on
the east coast, the magnetic declination is about 10–12 degrees west.
Converting Direction
To convert from magnetic to true, just
add or subtract the variation at your
location to the magnetic bearing.
REMEMBER
Westerly variations are subtracted and
easterly variations are added.
2. If your ship was heading 270° true in a region where the variation was 10° East,
what is the magnetic heading?
Magnetic heading = 270°- 10°
Magnetic heading = 260°
BEARING
The direction of an object from an observer, measured clockwise in one of three
standard ways:
1. TRUE bearing
2. MAGNETIC bearing
3. RELATIVE bearing
TRUE BEARING
Bearing using true north as the
reference
MAGNETIC BEARING
The direction of an object measured
clockwise from magnetic north.
RELATIVE BEARING
The direction of an object measured
clockwise from the ship’s head (bow).
Examples:
030°M means 30°right of magnetic north
030°R means 30°off the starboard bow.
c. This energy normally travels through space in a straight line, and will vary only
slightly because of atmospheric and weather conditions. By using special radar
antennas this energy can be focused into a desired direction. Thus the direction (in
azimuth and elevation) of the reflecting objects can also be determined.
DETERMINATION OF DISTANCE
• RADAR signals are narrow high frequency pulses. The intervals between
these pulses are considerably larger than the pulses themselves and it is during
these intervals that the reflected pulses are received. The time lapse between
the pulse transmission and return of its echo represents the distance of the
reflecting object, because the speed of the radio wave is constant.
Range(Distance)= (ʊ x time lapse)/2
Where: ʊ = 186,000 statute miles/sec
= 162,000 nautical miles/sec
= 300,000 kilometers/sec
Bearing Determination
The bearing (true or relative) of the target
may be determined in which the directional
antenna is pointing when the target was picked
up is known. The bearing of a target is
expressed in angular degrees. May be measured
either from true north (true bearing) or with
respect t the heading of a vessel or aircraft
containing the radar (relative bearing).
Altitude Determination
Altitude can be determine using
trigonometric function:
If the range and the bearing of the target are
known, elevation or altitude can be determined.
Altitude = Slant range X sin θ
where: θ = angle of elevation
DOPPLER EFFECT
What is Doppler Effect?
It is the change in frequency of a wave for an observer moving relative to its source.
The observer observes an upward shift in frequency when the wave source is
approaching. And a downward shift in frequency when the wave source is retreating.
Doppler Effect applies to all waves including:
Sound waves
Light waves
Water waves
PULSE RADAR
This system operates on the principle of radiating a pulse of RF energy through
space which strikes an object and is reflected back, and then pick up by the receiver of
the same system. Choice of pulse repetition frequency decides the range and
resolution of the radar.
Pulse Transmission
Pulse Width (PW) - Length or duration of a given pulse
Pulse Repetition Time (PRT=1/PRF)
• PRT is time from beginning of one pulse to the beginning of the next
• PRF is frequency at which consecutive pulses are transmitted.
PW can determine the radar’s minimum or maximum detection range; Need long
pulses to have sufficient power to reach targets that have long ranges PRF can
determine the radar’s maximum detection range.
Transmitter
Synchronizer
RF ATR
Antenna
Duplexer
Power (Switching Unit)
Supply
Echo TR
Receiver
Display Video
SYNCHRONIZER
• Determines timing and coordinates action among other circuits.
• Regulates the rate at which pulses are sent (sets PRF) and resets timing clock.
• Consists of sine-wave oscillator, over-driven amplifier, differentiator and clipper.
DUPLEXER
When only one antenna system is used for both
TX and RX, a switching arrangement must be used
to connect the transmitter to the antenna when RF
pulse is to be transmitted and to connect the
antenna to the receiver during the interval between
pulses or when receiving the echo.
Such a switch is also called TR switch. This
switch is not a simple SPDT switch, but it is an
electronic switch made up of coaxial line or
waveguide section and a special spark-gap tube
called TR. The tube prevents the power generated by the TX from damaging the
sensitive RX tube.
WAVE GUIDES
• Used as a medium for high energy shielding.
• Uses a Magnetic Field to keep the energy centered in the wave
guide.
• Filled with an inert gas to prevent arcing due to high voltages
within the waveguide.
B – SCAN
It provides a 2-D representation in which horizontal
axis represents measurement of azimuth (bearing)
and the vertical axis represents the measurement of
the range.
E – SCAN
Essentially a B-scope displaying range vs. elevation, rather
than range vs. azimuth. The name simply indicating "elevation".
E-scopes are typically used with height finding radars, which are
similar to airborne radars but turned to scan vertically instead of
horizontally.
Transmitter
Antenna
CW RF
Oscillator OUT
Antenna
Indicator
• Transmit/Receive Antennas- Since must operate simultaneously, must be
located separately so receiving antenna doesn’t pick up transmitted signal.
• Oscillator or Power Amplifier - Sends out signal to transmit antenna. Also
sends sample signal to Mixer. (used as a reference)
• Mixer -
a. A weak sample of the transmitted RF energy is combined with the received
echo signal.
b. The two signal will differ because of the Doppler shift.
c. The output of the mixer is a function of the difference in frequencies.
Signal Reception
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
• Measured in dB
• Ability to recognize target in random noise.
• Noise is always present.
• At some range, noise is greater that target’s return.
• Noise sets the absolute lower limit of the unit’s sensitivity.
• Threshold level used to remove excess noise.
Receiver Bandwidth
• Is the frequency range the receiver can process.
• Receiver must process many frequencies
• Pulse are generated by summation of sine waves of various frequencies.
• Frequency shifts occur from Doppler Effects.
• Reducing the bandwidth
• Increases the signal-to-noise ratio(good)
• Distorts the transmitted pulse(bad)
Receiver Sensitivity
• Smallest return signal that is discernible against the noise background.
• Milliwatts range.
• An important factor in determining the unit’s maximum range.
PULSE SHAPE
• Determines range accuracy and minimum and maximum range.
• Ideally we want a pulse with vertical leading and trailing edges.
• Very clear signal – easily discerned when listening for the echo.
PULSE WIDTH
• Determines the range resolution.
• Determines the minimum detection range.
• Can also determine the maximum range of radar.
• The narrower the pulse, the better the range resolution
PULSE COMPRESSION
• Increases frequency of the wave within the pulse.
• Allows for good range resolution while packing enough power to provide a large
maximum range.
PULSE POWER
• High peak power is desirable to achieve maximum ranges.
• Low power means smaller and more compact radar units and less power
required to operate.
Other Factors Affecting Performance
• Scan Rate and Beam Width
• Narrow beam require slower antenna rotation rate.
• Pulse Repetition Frequency
• Determines radars maximum range(tactical factor).
• Carrier Frequency
• Determines antenna size, beam directivity and target size.
• Radar Cross Section (What the radar can see(reflect))
• Function of target size, shape, material, angle and carrier frequency.