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There exist many words that were borrowed by several languages. Such words
usually convey cOncepts which are significant in communication.
Many of them are of Latin and Greek origin. Most names of sciences are
international, e. g. philOsophy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine,
linguistics, lexicology. There are also numerous terms of art in this group: music,
theatre, drama, comedy, artist(Атист), primadonna.
It is quite natural that political words often arise in the international group of
borrowings: pOlitics, pOlicy, revolution, progress, democracy, communism, anti-
militarism.
Fruits and foodstuffs imported from exotic countries often transport their names too
and, being impOrted to many countries, become international: coffee, cocoa,
chocolate, banana, avocado, grapefruit.
At least some of the Russian words borrowed into English and many other
languages and thus international should also be mentioned: balalaika, bolshevik,
cosmonaut, , intelligentsia, Kremlin, rouble, sambo, soviet, sputnik, steppe, vodka.
International words are mainly borrowings. They are include most science names, art
terms, political terms, sports terms, fruits and products from exotic countries, words
relate to clothing, and some Russian words
There is a special group of words, which constitute a difficulty for the translator, the
so-called pseudo-international words. As distinct from genuine |ˈdʒenjʊɪn|
international words which have a more or less similar phonetic form and carry the
same meaning (electronics -электроника, cybernetics (сайбернетикс) -
кибернетика, algebra – алгебра. The pseudo-international words differ in meaning
from language to language either completely, e.g. commutator(камьютЕта)-
коллектор, complexion - цвет лица, or partially(паршели) elevator- 1) элеватор, 2)
лифт. magazine
They are known as the translator's "false friends". Although they are warned against
them, translators are often deceived by formal resemblance(ризембленс) into
making errors.The pseudo-international words like (economics, records, capability)
can be classified in two groups:
(Они известны как "ложные друзья переводчика". Хотя их и предостерегают от
них, переводчики часто обманываются формальным сходством и делают
ошибки.Псевдо-международные слова, такие как (экономика, записи,
возможности), можно разделить на две группы:)
a) there are words that are similar in form but completely different in meaning.
Here the risk of making a bad mistake is very great and the translator has to consult
dictionary. Lots of mistakes have been made in translating such English words as
decade, complexion, accurate, actual, aspirant, etc.
b) there are many pseudo-international words which are not fully interchangeable,
though(зоу) there are some common elements in their semantics.
Pseudo-international words are a special group of words that are difficult to translate.
These words are completely different in meaning. They are borrowings and they
have similar spelling, similar pronunciation, but they have different translation. They
are also known as false friends. They are divided into two groups: words that are
similar in form, but completely different in meaning, and words which are not fully
interchangeable, though there are some common elements in their semantics.
Translation loans are words or expressions formed from the elements existing in the
English language according to the patterns(пэтэнс) of the source language. They
are not taken into the vocabulary of another language more or less in the same
phonemic shape in which they have been functioning in their own language, but
undergo the process of translation. It is quite obvious that it is only compound words
(i. e. words of two or more stems(стэмз)) which can be subjected to such an
operation, each stem being translated separately:), wonder child (from Germ.
Wunderkind(вундакинг)), first dancer (from italian. prima-ballerina), the moment of
truth (from Spanish el momento de la verdad), collective farm (from Rus. колхоз),
five-year plan (from Rus. пятилетка).
Etymological Doublets.(даблетс)
A pair of words originating from the same etymological source, but differing in pho-
nemic shape and in meaning are called etymological doublets.
The words shirt and skirt etymologically descend(дисЕнт) from the same root. Shirt
is a native word, and skirt (as the initial sk suggests), is a Scandinavian borrowing.
Their phonemic shape is different, and yet there is a certain
resemblance(риэЕмбленс) which reflects their common origin. Their meanings are
also different but easily associated: they both denote(диноут) articles of clothing.
They may enter the vocabulary by different routes. Some of these pairs,
like shirt and skirt, consist of a native word and a borrowed word: shrew |ʃruː|, n.
(E.) — screw, n. (Sc.).
(Они могут входить в словарь разными путями. Некоторые из этих пар, как
рубашка и юбка, состоят из родного слова и заимствованного слова:
землеройка, n. (E.) — винт, n. (Sc.).
Others are represented by two borrowings from different languages which are
historically descended |dəˈsendəd| from the same root: senior(сИньер) (Lat.)
— sir(Fr.), canal(КэнЭл) (Lat.) — channel (Fr.), captain (Lat.) — chieftan (Fr.).
Hybrids (хаибридс)
Words that are made up of elements derived from two or more different
languages are called h y b r i b s . English contains thousands of hybrid words,
coming from Latin, French and Greek and those of native origin.
(Слова, которые состоят из элементов, полученных из двух или более
различных языков, называются гибридами. Английский язык содержит тысячи
гибридных слов, подавляющее большинство из которых представляют собой
различные комбинации морфем, происходящих из латинского, французского и
греческого языков и имеющих местное происхождение.)
Thus(зас), readable has an English root and a suffix that is derived from the Latin
-abilis and borrowed through French. Moreover, it is not an isolated case, but rather
an established pattern that could be represented as English stem+-able. Cf.
answerable, eatable, likable, usable. Its variant with the native negative prefix un- is
also worthy of note(ноут): un-+English stem+-able. The examples for this are:
unanswerable, unbearable, unsayable, unbelievable.
Hybrids are words that are made up of elements derived from two or more different
languages. When a borrowed word becomes firmly established in English this
creates the possibility of using it as a stem combined with a native affix.