Proceedings of The IASS Symposium 2010, Shanghai PDF

Proceedings
International Symposium of
the International Association for
Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS)
Shanghai, 2010
Shanghai, China
November 8-12, 2010
Spatial Structures –
Temporary and Permanent
Editors: Qilin ZHANG, Lianping YANG, Yuyin HU
China Architecture & Building Press

Ⅰ
Ⅱ
Ⅲ
Ⅳ
2
15
16
42
43
57
74
96
108
116
131
132
132
133
145
155
169
178
183
184
193
202
211
223
235
244
245
256
268
281
291
291
292
304
320
326
339
348
361
373
384
396
397
409
421
431
441
452
463
475
486
496
507
519
530
538
548
549
554
560
572
583
596
608
619
627
639
640
649
661
673
684
692
700
711
721
733
744
745
The New Structuralism …………… 757
771
783
796
815
827
839
853
867
877
888
889
895
907
916
924
925
937
947
954
962
973
973
974
983
995
1006
1014
1026
1037
1045
1056
1069
1070
1086
1096
1103
1110
1121
1132
1139
1150
1162
1171
1181
1189
1210
1222
1235
1249
1257
1265
1266
1277
1285
1293
1299
1308
1319
1328
1340
1346
1358
1370
1378
1387
1398
1409
1417
1425
1426
1434
1445
1458
1464
1472
1485
1497
1505
1517
1518
1530
1539
1551
1562
1570
1582
1593
1605
1614
1626
1632
1633
1646
1656
1664
1674
1684
1686
1698
1710
1717
1727
1737
1747
1755
1756
1766
1779
1787
1799
1801
1814
1825
1835
1841
1853
1860
1868
1882
1890
1903
1904
1915
1924
1935
1947
1957
1967
1979
1991
1999
2011
2022
2023
2032
2042
2055
2063
2075
2086
2094
2103
2123
2132
2143
2150
2160
2172
2178
2188
2189
2197
2210
2219
2229
2240
2249
2257
2271
2279
2287
2298
2305
2306
2318
2330
2342
2352
2361
2372
2386
2396
2405
2416
2425
2439
2450
2460
2461
2475
2492
2498
2511
2523
2532
2545
2555
2563
2575
2586
2595
2601
2602
2610
2623
2632
2633
2641
2650
2662
2678
2687
2696
2697
2709
2719
2726
2739
2740
2746
2761
2773
2785
2796
2805
2817
2829
2838
2846
2859
2871
2877
2889
2901
2909
2915
2925
2937
2950
2958
2971
2980
2991
3004
3014
3021
3034
3042
3057
3071
3072
3083
3089
3099
3111
3120
3128
3133
3144
3145
3155
3163
3185
3194
3200
3213
1 Plenary Lectures
1
1.1 IASS Honorary Membership Awardee 2010
2
Proceedings of the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2010, Shanghai
Spatial Structures – Permanent and Temporary
November 8-12 2010, Shanghai, China
Membrane Structures -Environment and Technology
Kazuo ISHII 1*
1*
Professor Emeritus at Yokohama National University
Nakatehara 1-19-31-601, Kohoku-ku, Yokohama, Japan
ishii.k@gamma.ocn.ne.jp
Abstract
The forms and structural systems of membrane structures are strongly
influenced by regional, environmental conditions and load conditions. Architecture
takes on life only when it has adapted to a country's climate and tradition.And from
structural point of view, ensuring structural safety of membrane structures are
summarized through damages by heavy snow falls and typhoons occurred in Japan.
Keywords: Membrane, Environment, Structural-safety, Heat-insulation
1 Introduction
Membrane structures are not applicable to all architecture. When membrane structures
are well designed and well constructed by making the most of the advantages of their
material characteristics in accordance with their application, though within certain
limitations of scope, excellent performance can be achieved.
Basic forms of “membrane structure” proposed in the past by Professor Frei Otto at the
University of Stuttgart in Germany have gained prominence worldwide; membrane
structures have been developed with these forms as a basis. Thus, social demands for
bright spaces, light weight and large structures have increased, inevitably resulting in
the construction of large membrane structures, in order to utilize their light weight and
bright and open spatial characteristics.
However, architecture is greatly influenced by the culture, climate and environment of
each country.
Otto テント 2
Fig. 1-1: Berber Tent, Fig.1-2: Dance Pavillion, Fig. 1-3: Entrance,
Morocco Ref.1 Cologne, Germany 1957 Ref.2
Cologne, Germany 1957Ref.3
In order for the excellent performance of membrane structures to be recognized and for
them to be accepted by society, their applications should concur with each country‟s
ideas regarding climate and environment.
3
In the past, membrane structures were called “tents”, and were imagined as simple and
temporary constructions. Therefore, in general, membrane structures are still widely
regarded as inexpensive structures. However, upon a comparison of membrane
structures as permanent structures with other more traditional permanent structures, the
popular image of membrane structures, with qualities such as ease of construction and
impermanence, weakens the expectations of safety and durability of these structures.
This promotes the understanding that they are of low quality and have low construction
accuracy, and as a result, membrane structures are far from being imagined as spaces of
high quality.
However, the translucency and lightness of membrane structures will provide a new
type of space in this country; membrane structures are not merely inexpensive structures
for permanent buildings, but can be high-end designer spaces with luxurious
appointments.
Meanwhile, worldwide, large-span large-space structures are incorporating lightweight
structure systems, and hence, cable membrane structures will inevitably become
representative of lightweight structures.
Currently, all regions worldwide are exerting influence on one another, and design and
structures are being standardized, indicating a direction of unification. A new idea from
one country rapidly propagates to other countries, and similar designs are being directly
utilized regardless of differences in region, climate or culture.
The re-evaluation of lightweight structures in terms of the climate and environment of
Japan is considered to be necessary.
2 Membrane structures and regional environment

The forms and structural systems of membrane structures are strongly influenced by
regional environmental conditions and load conditions. European designs are not likely
to be directly applicable to Asian regions characterized by heavy rains, strong sunlight,
high temperature and high humidity.
Architecture takes on life only when it has adapted to a country's climate and tradition.
The international proliferation of membrane structures has meant that technologies from
different countries have been mixed together willy-nilly, and that technologies from
countries with greater experience in membrane structures have been introduced into
other regions without consideration of distinctive regional characteristics.
Technologies that have been facilely introduced will need to be reexamined
architecturally and structurally from a regional standpoint, and new forms of membrane
structures will need to be considered for tropical and subtropical zones and conditions
such as heavy rains and high temperatures.
Acceptance of membrane structures, when based primarily on economic factors, can
lead to inferior quality and imprecise construction. That may threaten the safety and
durability of a structure and result in a space of low quality.
The translucency and lightness of weight of membrane surfaces can provide these
verdant countries in Asia with new kinds of spaces. However, membrane structures are
by no means inexpensive, In a sense, they are costly expressions of wealth and a form
4
of luxury. New membrane structure technology needs to be understood so that there is

no mistake made in introducing it into a country.
If membrane structures are to become an accepted structural alternative in the creation
of new spaces, they must be adapted to each country by taking into consideration
distinctive regional characteristics.
The countries of Asia have many talented architects and engineers. When they begin to
focus on membrane structures, new membrane structures that are rooted in the region
will no doubt emerge.
Under such circumstances, many design competitions for membrane structures have
been held in Japan since the latter half of the 1980s. Many architects have participated
in these competitions; membrane structure design is vigorously pursued and superior
membrane structures have been proposed (Fig.2-1~2.3) by architects world wide.
frames
Fig. 2-1: Izumo Dome Ref.4
Fig. 2-2:Akita DomeRef.5 Fig. 2-3:Komatsu DomeRef.6
Membrane structures that are supported by rigid frames have become popular in Japan.
This is because of the recognition that Japan is located in a monsoon zone, and because
of snow loads in heavy-snow regions, as well as the dynamic problems associated with
suspension structures in typhoon conditions, all of which support the idea of using rigid
framed structures.
Rigid framed structures provide reliability. Various forms of rigid framed structures
have been proposed in Japan, in order to overcome the problems posed by typhoon and
snow falls by using structures with established safety methods.
Meanwhile, worldwide, large-span large-space struc-
tures are incorporating lightweight structure systems,
and hence, cable membrane structures will inevitably
become representative of lightweight structures.
But in Japan, typhoons exceed a design wind velocity of
60m/s (216 km/hr.) and on the Sea of Japan side, the
design snow load reaches 4.415kN/m2(450kg/m2) or Fig. 2-4:Suspension mem-
more. Such conditions are making frame structures the brane structure
main stream of membrane structure design and suspen- Hakuryuu GymnasiumRef.7
sion structures are limited to small size structures.
Currently, all regions worldwide are exerting influence on one another, and design and
structures are being standardized, indicating a direction of unification. A new idea from
one country rapidly propagates to other countries, and similar designs are being directly
utilized regardless of differences in region, climate or culture.
In Japan, the re-evaluation of lightweight structures in terms of the climate and
environment is considered to be necessary.
5
3 Heat insulation and interior brightness of membrane structures

Conflicting demands for heat insulation and translucency of membrane materials has
been directed toward designers of fabric membrane structures. Compared with
traditional buildings, the heat insulation of membrane roofing is inferior. To compensate
for this, membrane material is used in double layers or three layers, but translucency
falls conversely in direct relation. Since interior brightness is one of the most important
elements of membrane structures, any measures that sacrifice translucency are usually
avoided. Presently, translucency through double layers of membrane is approximately
6%.
In order to secure higher translucency, even through double layers, development of a
highly translucent membrane, especially for the under-layer, is needed.
* * * * * *
(Ocean Dome)
During the construction of the Ocean Dome, the design
target of translucency rate of this double layered
membrane roof had initially been set at 10%. When
translucency of a liner fabric is raised, its strength drops.
After searching for a point of good light admission and
good strength, the light-admission rate of this double
layered roof was finally set at 7%. Fig. 3-1:Ocean DomeRef.8
(Open dome: without external walls)

Openness and ventilation were
enhanced by not building walls along
the columns. To provide the sort of
comfort offered by the cool shade of a
tree through a simple design for a bright,
open ecological space that utilizes
natural energy; i.e. a dome in a Fig.3-3:
symbolic relationship to the natural Fig.3-2:Seibu DomeRef.9 Seibu DomeRef.10
environment.
(Shading method)
Membrane shades cover the membrane roofs.
White hyper shaped membranes over the framed
membrane roof provides filtered sunlight, shading to the
hotel and shopping square, and double layer membranes
provides cooling to internal spaces. Wind
passes through the space between two membrane roofs.
Fig.3-4: Two roofed ystemRef.11
(New membrane materials for environmental problems)
New membrane materials are developed as follows, they are featured as taking into
consideration of environmental problems.
6
▪ Translucent thermal insulation materials such as mineral fiberous insulating material

or non-woven polyester insulation material.
▪ Coating paints reflecting heat rays.
Coating paint which reflects the heat rays of the sun light and transmits the
remainder is now developing.
We are now approaching a new solution of membrane structures for Green Architecture
at the Membrane structures Association of Japan.
4 Structural safety of membrane structures

For conventional structures, their safety level has been increased through experience
with various types of damage, failure and fire in the past, and key points for ensuring
their safety have been practically clarified. However, because membrane structures
have only a short history comparing with other traditional structures, experience with
their damages and failures is insufficient. They are still at a stage in which key points
for safety are being clarified through the accumulation of individual damaged cases.
4.1 Cases of actual damages/failures of membrane structures

We have heavy snow falls in the northern parts of Japan and big typhoons in southern
parts of Japan almost every year. In some places, more than design snow loads and
wind velocities occurred.
These snowfalls and typhoons did great damages and failures of large scale membrane
structures, and even small scale membrane structures were damaged by these snowfalls
and typhoons.
But, fortunately, no casualties were done to men so far and most damages to membrane
surfaces did not lead to the collapse of the entire structure.
4.1.1 Cases of heavy snow fall : Ponding problems

(Case 1: Sliding snow from the roof top to the skirt part of the dome)
Sliding snow accumulated in the skirt part of the dome
and the growth of the accumulated snow occurred.
Accumulated snow was compressed further by
repeated sliding snows from the upper part of the roof.
The density or specific gravity of accumulated snow
became more than 0.6.
This accumulated snow in a local part of the roof grew
up by deflection of membranes and further sliding Fig. 4-1: Accumulated sliding
snow from the top of the roof. snow at the corner of the dome
This is called “Ponding” phenomenon.
This state continued for a several hours. And several hours later, the membrane was
torn along supported steel frames. The cause of the damage of membrane material was
thought as “Creep rupture” of the fabric material. When long hours loading to a
material in tensile direction, its material breaks under comparatively low loading. This
is called “Creep rupture phenomenon”.
7
(Case 2 )
The same failure or damage occurred at another large
scale membrane structure. The shape of the skirt part of
this dome was subject to/easy to stay and to accumulate
of sliding snow from the upper part of the roof. So that
snow melting heater was set at this part. But,
unfortunately, the heater breakdown occurred in the
equipment at that time. Fig.4-2: Skirt part of the dome
This accumulated snow at the skirt part of the roof grew up by deflection of membranes
and further sliding snow from the top of the roof. This drifted ponding state continued
for several hours. And several hours later, the membrane was torn along supported steel
frames and about 10tons of snow dropped on the floor. This was not a collapse of
structure, but damaged one panel of the structure.
(Case 3)
The same ponding phenomenon occurred on the top of a dome. As the top of this dome
is two leveled roof, the lower part of the roof was comparatively flat and accumulated
up to twice of the normal snow accumulation for a large scale dome by wind. The
drifted snow on the top of this dome for one month, sometimes frozen and sometimes
melted. And the density of drifted snow was from 0.9 (lower part of drifted snow) to
0.5 (upper part of drifted snow).
Long term loading of accumulated drift snow caused the damage of the fabric.
Wind Drifted snow

10m
10m
Fig. 4-3: The ripped roof at the top Fig.4-4:Two leveled roof at the top of dome
From these three cases, we judged and concluded the cause of damages as “creep
rupture” of the membrane materials including joining parts of the membranes and
clamping parts between the membrane and steel frames.
4.1.2 Cases of Typhoon

One of the major problems for membrane structures in Japan is how to ensure their
safety in typhoon conditions. To date, several typhoon-related damages have occurred
to large membrane structures.
Membrane structures are designed to be safe under the maximum instantaneous wind
velocity of a typhoon, which exceeds 60 m/s in Japan. All of these are sports facilities,
but since no events were being held during the typhoons, no harm and no death
occurred to people.
Actual Damages of membrane structures by typhoons are classified into the followings,
・Increased internal pressure by brown wind into the dome which was caused by
failures of doors, windows, external walls.
8
・Falling glass chips.

・Deterioration of membrane materials: abrasion, aging.
(Case 1: Internal pressure)

When a door or window breaks due to strong wind, the indoor internal pressure
increases, which affects the roof surface. A membrane material used for the roof is
generally subjected to wind load in the upward direction; therefore, increase in the
internal pressure increases this wind load. There were several damaged cases
considered as the cause of increase of internal pressure.
The wind-velocity pressure q for wind velocity V at the broken wall/door is generally
given as follows;
q = V 2/16 kgf/m2 (=V 2/1.63 Pa)×0.8 0.8: flow rate coefficient
But when a door or window suddenly breaks due to strong wind, the internal pressure is
said to fluctuates about 1.4～1.5 times of the pressure difference between outdoor and
indoor depending on the broken area, room area, shape etc. and also resonance problem.
In its present state of researches, this problem remains unresolved.
(Case 2: Falling objects/debris on membrane surface)

The fabric sustained damage when debris was hurled through it caused a rip. The rip
then propagated out causing considerable damage.
A membrane surface is easily damaged by falling objects with sharp edges. Falling
glass chips can directly penetrate a membrane surface and cause damages. The
membrane flutters significantly in the strong wind, which will easily propagate tears
caused by such damage. Cases of damages caused by such incidents have been reported
in Japan. Usually, rips propagate along the warp direction of the fabric, because the fill
direction is weak in strength.
Fig.4-5: Propagated rips Fig. 4-6 :A glass chip penetrates membrane

(Case 3: Deterioration of membrane materials due to aging)
Deterioration of the properties of the membrane material due to exposure, referred to as
„aging‟, varies with the type and quantity of coating material used, with the
characteristics of coating material, including colour, with quantity of coating material
applied and with the characteristics of the base fabric.
Many small scale membrane structures have suffered serious damage from typhoons.
Usually, their fabric materials are PVC coated polyester base fabrics.
9
Although it is called PVC Coated, some of coating materials have poor PVC purity,
because of variety of plasticizers, additions of bulk filler, etc. As a result, durability of
PVC coated fabrics is greatly different each others.
When lowering of strength is below their allowable strength, membranes can not resist
design loads. Such cases caused damages/failures of membrane structures. Therefore,
even though it is called PVC Coated Polyester, without using material which has proven
quality or has passed performance test, it will become dangerous to use.
(Case 4: Deterioration of membrane materials due to abrasion)

This case, a panel of membrane was damaged by
a typhoon.
The maximum instantaneous wind velocity
observed at the top of the dome was 50m/s at that
time. The structure was twelve years old at that
time when damaged. The membrane material is
PTFE coated glass fiber fabric. Fig. 4-7: Valley cable and membrane
Each membrane panel is held down by a valley cable which was coated with fluorine
resin. During the typhoon, the wind caused a large deflection in a membrane roof panel
which was stiffened with a valley steel cable. Repeated movements and was rubbed
between the cable and the membrane fabric.
It caused a rip. The rip then propagated out causing considerable damage.
Investigation showed the failure of the membrane material was judged as deterioration
in tensile strength by abrasion of the coated material of PTFE.
Tensile test pieces were cut from the damaged panel of
the dome and were tested. The tensile strength was
about 1/2 of the initial strength.
Abraded parts of the dome were not able to find by
periodic inspection of the roof, because abraded parts of
the membrane are just contacted with the valley cable,
and the valley cable concealed abraded parts of
Fig. 4-8: Abraded surface
membranes.
Fabric for reinforcement
Membrane materials may be abraded by coming
into contact with other structural parts. In
particular, membrane material of PTFE coated
Coated cable
glass fiber fabrics are easy to abrade comparing
to PVC coated materials.
Membrane roof
In general, PVC coated fabric materials have
high resistance to abrasion than PTFE coated Fig. 4-9: Reinforcement/Protection
materials. This is clear up by experiments. of membranes
In Japan, the notification or a kind of structural standard law prescribes that the
reinforcement/protection of parts where membrane materials in contact with other rigid
members has been revised based on this damaged case, to protect the membrane
materials from damage, friction, abrasion, etc. shown in Figure 4-9.
10
4.2 Problems of membrane fabric materials considered the cause of failures

1) Creep rupture
Fabrics will fracture at a low load than the initial strength load under a constant
continuous loading. This is a phenomenon known as “Creep rupture”.
This problem was taken up and discussed for each membrane materials.
(Type A : PTFE coated glass fiber fabric)
Experiment 1. Long time loading :Creep rupture test
Uni-axial long term tensile test
Test piece width : 3 cm. Test temperature: 25 ~ 35℃ (September)
Test machine : Creep tester by the lever
Testing
state
Fig. 4-11: Winding type clamps
(upper and lower clamps)
Fig. 4-10: Creep tester by the lever type
The winding-type clamping part is used,

which can prevent breakage of a test piece at
the clamping part.
Loading ratio
When the loading ratio (Continuous

load/Initial breaking load) is less than 35%,
creep rupture did not occur in 3 months, but
the loading ratio is 40%, the specimen
fractured in 3~5 hours, and when the loading
ratio is 50%, the specimen breaks in 30
minutes though the scatter in the data for test
methods and testing machines is considered. Loading hours
Fig.4-12:Creep rupture curve

of PTFE coated glass
PTFE coated glass fiber
fabric
This phenomenon is the common nature to all the materials, but is noticeable in PTFE
coated glass fiber fabric membrane materials.
At present, biaxial tensile creep rupture tests are continued and also creep rupture tests
of clamping parts of the fabrics are continued.
11
2) Weather resistance
At present, PVC coated polyester fabric is a reliable product as a general fabric material.
There are a lot of products worldwide but some of them are in not good performance,
depending on the thickness of PVC coating material and its purity which are a big
influence on durability.
The following figures are outdoor exposure test results of coated fabrics.
Strength retention rate %

Fig. 4-13: Strength retention rate of
Typical PTFE coated glass fiber fabrics
Thickness 0.8mm
Weight 1300g/m2
Used years
Strength retention rate %
Thickness 0.66mm
Weight 795g/m2
Used years
Fig.4-14:Strength retention rate of Typical PVC coated polyester fabric
3) Abrasion
Parts of the membrane material may be abraded by
coming into contact with other membrane parts. In
particular, membrane material “PTFE coated glass
fiber fabric” is frequently used for a long time; in
addition, since the coating resin is usually fabricated
by dipped coating, its thickness tends to be non-
uniform.
In contrast, membrane material PVC coated polyester Fig. 4-15: Abraded PTFE coated
fabrics and PVC coated glass fiber fabrics are usually glass fiber fabric by Taber-type
fabricated by a film lamination or rolled coating abrasion tester.
process, and therefore the thickness of the 摩耗試験写真を載せる残存強度 %
coating resin is uniform, ensuring a thickness of at least 100 μm. With respect to
membrane material whose coating layer is made of PVC, we applied test conditions
stricter than those described in the current standard test method, and confirmed that
problematic abrasion did not occur.
12
5 Conclusion
The forms and structural systems of membrane structures are strongly influenced by
regional/environmental conditions and load conditions. .
Architecture takes on life only when it has adapted to a country's climate and tradition
* * * * * *
In the cases of conventional structures such as reinforced concrete structures and steel
frame structures, ensuring their safety has been achieved through the efforts of every
individual involved with the project, including architects. Through the experience
gained from previous damages, or by detecting risk factors before damage/collapse,
improvements have been made to conventional structures and they have become safer
and thus more socially acceptable.
* * * * * *
Certainly there is a belief that damages involving membrane structures are not very
severe, and architects also seem to have the preconceived notion that with membrane
structures, there would be no such damage as their complete structural collapse, or one
involving the loss of life of occupants, such as in the crash of an airplane.
Whether or not this laissez-faire approach to the safety of membrane structures can be
supported has not yet been verified.
* * * * * *
Guidelines for the design, construction and maintenance of membrane structures to
endow them with a safety level similar to those of other structures are now being
discussed, but are not yet sufficient.
* * * * * *
To date, no damage of membrane structures due to fire has occurred in Japan, This is
due to the enforcement of various regulations, including the limitation of the size of the
site for a membrane structure, limitations in term of their functions, and limitations on
the materials used, as well as the attention given by architects to the fire prevention
measures applicable to membrane structures.
13
References
[1] Torvald Faegre “TENTS Architecture of the Nomads”, Anchor Press/Doubleday
Books, New York, 1979
[2] Dance Pavilion, Federal Garden Exhibition, Germany:Architect Frei Otto,
Structural Eng. H.Spandow
[3] Entrance Arch, Federal Garden Exhibition, Germany:Architect Frei Otto, Structural
Eng. Leonhardt+Andra
[4] Konohana Dome, Miyazaki, Japan:Architect Daiken Sekkei, 2004.
[5] Odate Jukai Dome Park, Odate, Japan :Architects & Struc. Eng. Toyo Ito &
Associates, Takenaka Corp.1997.
[6] Izumo Dome, Izumo, Japan:Architect Kajima Design, Struc. Eng. Kajima Design
+M.Saitoh, 1992.
[7] Akita Skydome, Akita, Japan :Architects & Eng. Kajima Design, 1990.
[8] Ocean Dome, Indoor Water Park, Miyazaki, Japan:Architects & Eng. Kobe
Shipyard & Machinery Works, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd. 1993.
[9] [10] Seibu Dome, Saitama, Japan : Architects & Eng., Kajima Design, 1999.
[11] Sheraton Hotel, Yulara Tourist Resort,Australia. Architects:Cox Richardson
Architects and Planners, Eng. Ove Arup & Partners, 1984.
[12] Report of Quality Management Committee (Chair. K.Ishii), “Damages and Failures
of Membrane Structures by typhoons and heavy snow falls in 2004 and 2005 -
Causes and Safety measures - Membrane Structures Association of Japan, Mar.
2006.
14
1.2 Torroja Medal Awardee 2010
15
Personal experiences in Structural Architecture: from form

finding to free form design
Massimo MAJOWIECKI 1*
1*
Professor of IUAV University, Venice, Italy
Contact address: Via Tizzano 46/2, Casalecchio di Reno, C.A.P. 40033, Bologna, Italy
Email: massimo.majowiecki@majowiecki.com
Abstract
The empirical method in structural form finding has achieved world-wide
efficiency and recognition as massive building tradition has continued to expand in
history. Through direct involvement of lithoid materials, working under unilateral state
of stress, designers driven by “static intuitions” have largely succeeded in giving shape
to complex constructions, stabilized by gravity acting on the structural dead load mass
(Fig. 1a).Ever since the second industrial revolution, with the help of materials able to
carry tensile stresses, still the form of the structures have nevertheless been conceived
and found observing the laws of statics, as a guarantee of an aesthetic result achieved.
For membrane and cable structures, where the morphology must satisfy equilibrium
conditions under an initial state of stress, finding the form of the structure is a “must”
and, hence, a form finding procedure is required to identify the initial geometry.
Nowadays, architects and engineers alike are immerged in a new challenge: the Free
Form Design (FFD); a new fashion with the prevalence of aesthetics over static
rationality where the role played by the structures is merely to support the architectural
design Fig.1-b). Many novel projects attempt to extend the “state of the art” but,
according to personal experiences, new structural morphologies adopted in actual
conceptual design methodology generate uncertainties in reliability assessment [1][2].
a b
Fig. 1: a)A Gothic Architecture (1517); b) The Bilbao effect
Keywords: structural architecture, wide span structures, reliability, experimental

analysis, monitoring
16
1 Introduction
I have a debt to settle with IASS. As a student, in 1969, during the IASS Congress held
in Madrid, I was truly impressed by spatial structures’ design and the research that led
to them. Lightweight structures strongly influenced my personal academic
investigations and design activities. As a matter of fact, form finding and non linear
behavior of cables, membranes and pneumatic structures were the subjects I focused on,
at first, as an engineer and then as an assistant professor in College (University of
Bologna). An interactive graphic software was developed on main frames in the early
70’s, that was then extended to mini and personal computers, as a natural consequence
of those early studies [3][4][5][6].
Fig. 2: 1973 IBM 2250 - 2010 PC Windows XP
Fig. 3: Form Finding for cable and membrane structures
17
For this particular orientation I have already been honored with the Pioneer Award by
the Space Structures Research Centre, UK, during the 5th International Conference on
Space Structures, held in 2002. However, I feel indeed truly privileged as I gratefully
and proudly receive the Torroja Medal from IASS and celebrate forty years of devoted
career with such a wide circle of outstanding colleagues.
If it's my pleasant task to salute all those making this outstanding achievement possible,
then it's again my pleasure to underline just how very important the research is by
providing the Congress with a paper illustrating some personal research activities in
theoretical and experimental structural analysis, followed by the subsequent conceptual
synthesis in structural- architecture design of space structures.
2 The IASS tradition: morphology and structural analysis

Of course, the information technology revolution has influenced structural engineering
as well. During the 50s and the 60s the design methodology of the structural engineer
has been remarkably influenced by two major developments: the harmonization of the
various theories of structural mechanics and the introduction of electronic processors
accompanied by symbolic and matrix languages and finite element methods.
My generation bridged the era between approximated methods of analysis and the
advent of FEM automatic analysis but, from the point of view of the conceptual design
we get an inheritance from Eiffel, Gaudì,Torroja, Nervi, Maillart and others (Fig. 4); all
using a common “structural language” as stated by Musmeci :“Through its form, the
structure immediately reveals the flow of internal forces that cross it, which is not
enclosed and hidden within the volume of an abstractly conceived morphology, prone to
esthetic and static prejudice, in which most part of matter and space is superfluous”.
3
2
1 4 5
Fig. 4: The IASS Tradition (1-S.Musmeci, 2-E. Torroja, 3-R. Morandi, 4-P.L. Nervi, 5-R.
Maillart)
Now we live in the era of «language metamorphosis», as it was called by E. Benvenuto

in his recent “history of building science”, in which symbolic language and
mathematical formalism have gone beyond the mechanics of structures putting it at the
service of automatic calculus. Therefore the “mentality” on which scientific empiricism
was based has changed radically.
18
J.T. Oden and K.J. Bathe see in this change the beginning of a new era of
«computational empiricism». One of their interesting articles reads as follows:
«The engineers’ community of 40 years ago was aware that the use of classical analytic
methods offered limited tools for the study of mechanical behaviour and, as a
consequence, the engineer had to enrich his analysis with a great deal of judgement and
intuition achieved after many years of expertise. Empiricism played a crucial role in
design: despite some general theories that were available, the methods to apply them
were still under development and using approximate schemes and resorting to
indications derived from numerous tests and confirmations was inevitable.
Today the common belief is that automatic calculus has put an end to this semi-
empirical age of engineering: by now sophisticated mathematical models can be built on
some of the most complicated physical phenomena and if the processor is sufficiently
powerful, reliable numerical results can be obtained based on the response of the
examined system».
The advantages brought by electronic processors may, on the other hand, create an
uncontrollable exaltation of the automatic calculus and give the false impression that
man can be outshined by machines and the logic by the automation [7][8].
The advantage offered by informatics and automation has been very important in the
field of structural design in general and particularly significant in the case of special
structural systems. It was possible to examine more rigorous theoretical models
avoiding, on the one hand, excessive simplifications that deprive the theoretical model,
like a schematic reduction of the reality, of all significance and, on the other hand, that
exhausting calculations lead to the loss of facts with a true influence, thus discouraging
designers from trying out different structural solutions.
Under such apparently favorable circumstances, many documented structural failures
have been detected in which mistakes regarding the inadequate evaluation of structural
behavior were caused by unreliable man/machine interaction and the illusion that
computers, those powerful instruments of analysis, could replace conceptual design and
the expert synthetic criticism of results.
Documented FEM modeling errors are illustrated in the First International Conference
on computational Structures Technology [9] .
3 Some experiences in Theoretical & Experimental analysis of Spatial

Structures
Due to the lack of space(see references for more information), with the intention to
transmit some experiences that today may be part of the knowledge base, only some
design and analysis illustrations of structural systems, where the author was directly
involved, will be included in the present paper.
Considering the statistical results of the -in service- observed behaviour, the unusual
typologies, the new materials and, specially, the “scale effect” of long span structures,
several special design aspects arise. Uncertainties, in reliability assessment, principally
due loading experimental identification and analytical modeling simulation of structural
response, have been identified:
- the non linear geometric and material behavior under internal volume restraint fluid
interaction and follower loading [10];
19
Fig. 5: Dynamic analysis in T domain Fig. 6: Wind Velocity Simulation [18]
The wind induced response of the cable-membrane original supported stadium roof was
analysed by a non linear model and a field of multi correlated artificial generated wind
loading time histories [11] .Wind tunnel tests have been carried out at the BLWT Lab.
of UWO on a model of 1:200.
- the snow distribution and accumulations on large covering areas in function of

statistically correlated wind direction and intensity [12];
During the design of a new cable stayed steel roof for the Montreal Olympic Stadium (),
a special analysis was made considering three roof geometries varying the sag of the
roof from 10 m, 11.5 m and 13 m, in order to find a minimization of snow accumulation
by wind interaction.
Fig. 7: Montreal Olympic Stadium. A Fig. 8: Comparative analysis of snow loading

cable stayed roof solution distribution in function of roof shape (10-13m)
The experimental investigation was carried out by RWDI [13] to provide design snow
according to FAE (Finite Area Element) method, representing up to day a state of the
art on the matter.
- the parametric sensibility of the structural system depending on the type and degree
of static indeterminacy and hybrid collaboration between hardening and softening
behaviour of substructures.
20
The unusual suspended roof of the Montreal Stadium has been analyzed being sensitive
to the tolerances in length of the cable stayed system.
a b
33
31
29
1.00E+00 27
1.00E-01 25
23
1.00E-02
Failure Probability
21
1.00E-03
19
1.00E-04 17
1.00E-05 15
13
1.00E-06
11
1.00E-07
9
1.00E-08
7
0.00E+00 1.00E-04 2.00E-04 3.00E-04 4.00E-04 5.00E-04 6.00E-04 7.00E-04
Cable Deformation Standard Deviation c 5
d -0.30000 -0.20000 -0.10000 0.00000 0.10000 0.20000 0.30000 0.40000
Fig. 9: Montreal stadium: a) external view; b) Numerical model of new roof; c) Failure
probability in function of cable deformation standard deviation; d) Most probable  in
each cable at failure for load comb. 7
- the wind pressure distribution on large areas considering theoretical and

experimental correlated power spectral densities or time histories[14];
a b
Fig. 10: The new center of the region Lombardia (a) and the new Town hall in Bologna
(b)
21
Results and specifications:

1. pressure coefficients (maxima, minima and average) for every 10° of incoming
direction;
2. peak pressures and global forces are given as a “final” design value;
3. time histories of the local pressures for every 10°of incoming flow direction; the
maximum, minimum and average values of the wind pressure have then been
evaluated, as well as the root mean square of its fluctuating part;
4. Aerodynamic pressure measurements;
5. Measurement of global forces by dynamometric balance;
6. Evaluation of pressures and flow within the double skin façade.
And some problems detected during global forces measurements:

1. the fluctuating part was completely different ;
2. the balance results seem to be “fuzzy”;
3. as it is shown by the correlation loci between the force Fx (in the global structure
reference system) and the corresponding base moment Mz.
Fig. 11: Insufficient correlation between the force Fx and the corresponding base
moment Mz.
Fig. 12: Karaiskakis Stadium (Athens) wind tunnel tests - Maximum and minimum
values of net pressure coefficients (wind direction: 0°)
22
- auto and cross-spectra of the fluctuating pressure (averaged on every single panel) .
Fig. 13: Aeroelastic model for Rome Fig. 14: Aeroelastic model for the
Olympic Stadium Stadium of the Alpes-Panel’s pressure
The aerodynamic behaviour shows a clear shedding phenomenon [ 15 ] [ 16 ]. The

external border of the structure, constituted of the trussed compression ring with
triangular section and tubular elements and by the roofing of the upper part of the stands,
disturbs the incoming horizontal flow in such a way so that vortex shedding is built up.
This causes the roofing structure to be subjected to a set of vortices with a characteristic
frequency. This is confirmed by the resulting Power Spectra Density Function of the
fluctuating pressures, which shows a peak at about 0.15 Hz even if the values rapidly
decrease with increasing distance (Fig. 15).
Fig. 15: Target (1), simulated (2) and Fig. 16: Time History of the displacement
Kaimal's (3) normalized spectra of wind (leeward side at tension ring, run #2)
velocity
- rigid and aeroelastic response of large structures under the action of cross-correlated
random wind action considering static, quasi-static and resonant contributions;
23
Fig. 17: Relative contribution of Fig. 18: Taps location

Azimuthal Direction to the exceedance
probability of various return period wind
speeds for Thermi, Thessaloniki, Greece
Fig. 19: Views of pressure model Fig. 20: POD - Proper Orthogonal
decomposition of pressure mode shapes
- the local and global structural static and dynamic stability;
Fig. 21: Experimental deck model (Adige River Bridge- 330m central span)
The aeroelastic behaviour was investigated by both a direct and an inverse method [17].
The direct method consists in measuring the wind induced forces on the deck under an
24
externally imposed 1-DOF motion. This allows defining and changing a-priori the
(mean) angle of attack; it also allows a large reproducibility of the tests. On the other
hand, the inverse method consist in measuring the forces on the deck during a free
motion. This procedure allows to investigate the vortex shedding mechanism and flutter
derivatives.
b
a
c d
Fig. 22: Dynamic identification of a suspended footbridge under crowd anthropic
loading: a) eigenvector of the asymmetrical first torsional mode, POD experimental
data; b) asymmetrical first torsional mode, numerical model; c) spectral density and d)
time history of the asymmetrical first torsional mode f=1,06 Hz, =0,93%.
- reliability and safety factors of new hi-tech composite materials;

- the necessity to avoid and short-circuit progressive collapse of the structural system
due to local secondary structural element and detail accidental failure;
Fig. 23: La Plata Stadium validation analysis. Wind in X direction: (a) load
configuration; (b) null cable stresses; (c) stress diagrams and (d) displacements along
X- direction, Y-direction and Z-direction [23].
25
A fluid-interaction non linear analysis in time domain, made for the checking of La
Plata stadium design [9] under simulated progressive collapse, shows a better agreement
between theoretical model and experimental values.
- the compatibility of internal and external restrains and detail design, with the
modelling hypothesis and real structural system response;
Special attention was dedicated to the analysis of main suspending joint of the new
(under construction) Juventus Stadium in Torino. A dedicated 3D FEM mathematical
model was implemented to analyze the stress distribution and peak concentrations.
Fig. 24: New Juventus Stadium roof and solid view drawing of main suspension joint
Fig. 25: Graphic representation of stresses
- In the case of movable structures, the knowledge base concerns mainly the moving
cranes and the related conceptual design process have to consider existing
observations, tests and specifications regarding the behaviour of similar structural
systems. In order to fill the gap, the IASS working group n°16 prepared a state of
the art report on retractable roof structures [24] including recommendations for
structural design based on observations of malfunction and failure
4 Some experiences in Structural conceptual design and realizations

From the synergy between research and design, synthetically expressed by David I.
Blockley as:“To do you must know, and to know you must do”, some designs of
structural architecture in the field of spatial structures are shown . They are collected
according the typologies of the IASS tradition.
26
Space structures
 single layer grids
 double and multi layer grids
 single and double curvature space frames
Some typical gridworks [18]
4
3
5
6
Tab. 1: 1)Hangar of Pratica di Mare; 2)-3)-4)High – Speed Train Statin Rome (under
construction); 5)Ravenna Pala D’Andrè space shell; 6)Typical Pavillion of the new
Roma Fair (80m. span).
27
Cable structures
 cable stayed roofs
 suspended roofs
 cable trusses
 single and multilayer nets
Typologies of cable structures [19]

1
2 3
4
5
6 7
8 9
Tab. 2: 1)Athens Sport Hall; 2)Olympic Stadium Rome; 3)Stadium of the Alpes Torino;
4)Braga Stadium Portugal; 5)New Juventus Stadium Torino[20]; 6)Genova: bridge
over the Polcevera river; 7)Market of Genova; 8)Footbridge over A-13 Highway [21];
9)Footbridge over Reno River Bologna.
28
Membrane structures
Typologies of membrane structures [22]
4 5
7
6
Tab. 3: 1) Olympiakos Stadium F.C.; 2)Highway pay toll entrance; 3)Panathinaikos
Stadium; 4)Stadium of the Alpes Torino; 5) Milano Fair [23]; 6)Inox steel membrane
covering 1.8 Km long footbridge at Roma Fair[24]; 7) Membrane in Lisboa Harbor.
29
Hybrid structures
 tensegrity systems
 beam-cable systems [25]
2 3
4 5
6
9
8
Tab. 4: 1)Pavillion 16-18 of Bologna Fair; 2)-3)Pavillion 19-20 of Bologna fair; 4)-
5)-6)Cable string beam and details; 7)-8)Market of Rimini; 9) Pavillion 14-15 Cable
supported space structure 100m span of Bologna Fair.
30
Convertible roofs [26]

 overlapping sliding system
 pivoted system
folding system
1 2
4
3
5 6
7 8
Tab. 5: 1)-2)Retractable roof over a Swimming pool (Bologna); 3)-4)Ohita Stadium
(Nikken Sekkei-Kajima Corp.); 5)-6) Marco Polo Stadium (Venice); 7)-8)Stadium of
Messina
31
4 Actual trends in Structural Architecture: the Free Form Design

As written in the Divina Comedia:
“Halfway through the journey we are living

I found myself deep in a darkened forest,
For I had lost all trace of the straight path.”
(Dante Alighieri, The Divine Comedy, Inferno, Canto I)
At this time, more than half way through my journey, I find myself in a “Wave
Fashion” Comedy, with no accountable guides. I truly doubt that FFD, in architecture,
shows the way to ascend into Heaven. Auxiliary IT (Informatics Technology) resources
seem to overcome human reason, as “modern tendencies” diverge from the straight path
[27] with:
1. the prevalence of aesthetics over static rationality;
2. stringent search for structural efficiency to solve a more complex issue than reality,
in order to achieve an original solution;
3. the categorical rhetoric of structural actions that translate into design languages;
4. the structure as a sculpture;
5. mechanistic impressionism;
6. the metaphorical transposition, into architecture, of Nature and other foreign
elements;
7. the rhythmic and monotonous repetition of an architectural motif;
8. the emphatic representation of a typical element’s detail, to identify the overall scale;
Fig. 26: IT(Informatics Technology) resources for FFD
Phenomenological uncertainty may be considered to arise whenever the form of

construction or the design technique generates uncertainty about any aspect of the
possible behaviour of the structure under construction, service and extreme conditions.
Those uncertainties are introduced in designs which attempt to extend the “state of the
art”, including new concepts and technologies. In actual realizations, phenomenological
design uncertainties play a very important role; today we see free formal expressiveness
originating architectural objects such as leaning towers, sculptured bridges, free-form
enclosures and the like, whose shape sometimes has no connection whatsoever with
structural principles.
32
Fig. 27: Some actual examples of Free-Form-Design
According to the technical and scientific philosophy taken from Eiffel. Torroja, Nervi
and others, who designed by looking first and foremost at the construction, quite sure
that observing the laws of static engineering would be seen, per se, as a guarantee of
aesthetic results achieved, they are no more than structural forgeries.
On the contrary, many of these new architectural objects marvelled us and are
appreciated in the name of the very definition of the word architecture, as an intellectual
and technical exercise directed at adapting our physical environment to the needs of
social life. It cannot be denied that some works achieve the level of architectural and
sculptural art and the role played by structures is merely to support architectural design.
Under those circumstances Torroja anticipated, with an Ethic sentence, how to behave
under the FFD which constitutes a new challenge for Architects and Engineers alike:
“If being creative simply stands for emerging driven by no sensible arguments, if
creativity fails to happen as a direct result of reliable and accurate principles applied to
new issues, then original ideas, torn between misrepresentation and inconsistent
33
mannerism, move from genius to vanity, converting art into expediency. Innovation
alone shall never take an instrumental role in promoting the artist; the skills of the artist
should deserve respect and praise first and, eventually, focus the public interest on their
innovatory potential” (Torroja, razon y ser de los tipos estructurales, cap.XVII).
At this point we have to say that from a statistical viewpoint, human errors in the fields
of design and construction tend to increase remarkably when innovation is
discontinuous and sudden and when it does not take place gradually with the aid of
scientific knowledge [28][29]. The free structural morphology that stems from the
current FFD trends represent, at the same time, challenge and anxiety in building
science and technique, which are traditionally anchored to conventional typologies and
geometries (frames, arches, shells, etc.). This entails a radical change in the civil
structural engineer’s forma mentis and methodology, especially with regard to the
interpretative control of the structural response in terms of state of stress and
deformation under the action of permanent and live loads, obtained through
sophisticated analysis carried out according to the finite elements method.
Therefore, the FFD needs from structural engineering some new contributions as
follows:
 As shown in Fig. 28, the use of conventional steel profiles, conceived to be

connected mainly at 90°, are no more appropriate when the structural geometry is
also involved into the FFD. A first International Colloquium of FFD, addressed to a
new technologic contribute to facilitate production and construction process, was
held at TU Delft in 2006 .
Fig. 28: External view and part of structures of the Walt Disney Concert Hall. Who is
the column, who is the beam?
 An interesting contribute to generate structural composite steel plated elements able

to follow a free form is shown in Fig. 29.
34
Fig. 29: Wetkamp Delta rib- system Fig. 30: The new Pecking Olympic
stadium
a b
Fig. 31: a) Variety of Delta Rib-shapes; b) Italian Pavillion for Shangai Expo 2010
(2ndPrice)
 ULS verification of free form member steel sections.
When using the plated box sections as in the under construction High Speed Train
Station in Florence (originally designed by Foster and Arup, with final design for
construction by STM), a special method of ULS verification of the steel members
and sections named Reduced stress method is illustrated in [30] .
The method:
1) allows to take in account of direct stresses x, shear stresses , stresses z acting
parallel to cross-section plane;
2) allows to define the acceptability of cross-section stresses distribution from the
combined point of view of resistance and instability by means of the
acceptability of stresses distribution of single cross-section plates;
3) allows to adopt as reference the stresses distribution derived from gross cross-
section without iterative procedure and without additional eccentricity eN;
4) is the generalization of the previous effective cross-sections method.
35
Fig. 32: Verification of the steel members of the roof of the new railway station of
Florence
 Structural optimization methods to increase reliability in FFD. An optimization

method based on genetic algorithm is presented in[31][32] Fig. 33.
Topology optimization: initial solution
Topology optimization. Final result
Combined optimization. Final result
Fig. 33: Optimization method based on genetic algorithm
 Advanced methods of analysis for unconventional sensitive structural systems with

uncertainties including construction tolerances.
This section presents a reliability analysis of the roof of the Stadium of Braga under
random wind loads [33][34]. The following results are obtained: a) the sensibility of the
failure probability of the roof to the spatial random distribution of wind loads, b) the
wind direction that drive the structure to fail with most probability (considering all wind
direction with a uniform distribution), c) the points of the roof that will fail with most
probability, and d) the spatial distribution of wind loads that drive the structure to fail
with most probability.
36
Fig. 34: The new suspended cable roof of Braga

Stadium (Portugal)
x y  Beta0 
Fig. 35: β-Safety Index
distribution, evidencing SLU
sensibility on black region
(β=3.798) [25]
 The time dependent effect of coactive indirect actions as pre-stressing, short and
long term creeping and temperature effects; furthermore, when rheological
uncertainties (as creep differential column shortening in high rise buildings or
construction time history incremental state of deformation and stress, etc.) involve
modelling uncertainties, it would be necessary to have adequate and systematic
feedback on the response of the design by monitoring the subsequent performance
of such structures so that the long term sufficiency of the design can be evaluated.
Project: Arch. R. Piano

Fig. 36: the numerical model of the San Paolo Tower in Torino, this model takes into
account the creep of the concrete structures during incremental construction.
37
Some actual, under construction, FFD designs elaborated under the structural
consultancy of the author, are shown in the following figures:
Free form structures

 Reticular spatial structures
 Shaped and welded profiles
2
1
3 4
5 6
8
7
Tab. 6: 1)-2) Vela over the Unipol Tower plazalin Bologna; 3)-4) Covering of Louvre
Visconti square ( Arch. Bellini and Ricciotti); 5)-6)“Cometa” Milano PortelloFair
(Arch. Bellini); 7)-8)“The Cloud”New Congress Centrei EUR in Rome (Arch. Fuksas).
38
CONCLUSION
FFD is a challenge for architects and engineers alike but, after the first’s impressive
realizations, the ethic and aesthetic repercussions of FFD’s appeal on the social context
must be carefully considered, to avoid the inclination to view innovation, of any kind, as
positive merely because it is innovative, irrespective of its real merits or its contribution
to knowledge.
From the structural point of view, in order to guarantee the required reliability level,
special expertise is needed in the design and construction of free structural
morphologies involved in FFD. Considering that modern design & construction
activities are part of a complex, holistic, trans-multi and inter-disciplinary process that
must achieve a required reliability level a Value Analysis is also highly recommended,
even in the preliminary design phase, in order to find the most suitable and compatible
solution in accordance with the expected function worth , focusing from the “know-
how” to the “know-why”, in designing and constructing the “what” or – better - the
“what for”.
39
References
[1] Majowiecki M. (2006). Architecture & Structures: “ Ethics in Free Form Design,
New Shell and Spatial Structures” - IASS 2006 Symposium. 16-19 October,
Beijing, China, (invited lecture).
[2] Majowiecki M. (2006). Architecture & Structures: “ Ethics in Free Form Design,
New Shell and Spatial Structures” - IASS 2006 Symposium. 16-19 October,
Beijing, China, (invited lecture).
[3] “Conferenza sulle tensostrutture” C.T.A. (Collegio Tecnico dell'Acciaio), Bologna
1971. Mr. Majowiecki’s paper was published in the review INARCOS, no. 313,
January 1972.
[4] “International Congress on Space Structures” W-COSE 76- Montreal, Mr.
Majowieski’s paper was titled “Geometrical configuration of pneumatic and tent
structures obtained with interactive computer aided design”.
[5] International Congress on Pneumatic Structures CIB-ICITE- I.A.S.S., CNR,
Venice 1977, Mr. Majowiecki submitted a paper titled “Interactive computer aided
design in the field of pneumatic structures”.
[6] Conference on “Structures pneumatiques de grande portée”, University of Liege,
March 22, 1979, invited by the "Centre National des Recherches en Constructions
Civiles" of Belgium.
[7] Working Commission V: “Using computers in the design of structures” – IABSE
proceedings.
[8] M. Majowiecki, R. Trevisan: “A graphic interactive software for structural
modelling analysis and design", Space Structures 4, Thomas Telford, London, 1993.
[9] First International Conference on Computational Structures Technology, Heriot-
Watt University, Edinburgh, U.K., August, 1991.
[10] Lazzari M., Majowiecki M., Saetta A., Vitaliani R., “Dynamic Behavior of a
Tensegrity System Subjected to Follower Wind Loading”, Journal of Computers
and Structures, 2003, 81 (22-23), 2199-2217.
[11] M. Lazzari, M. Majowiecki, A. Saetta, R. Vitaliani: “F.E. Analysis of Montreal
Stadium Roof Under Variable Loading Conditions”, IABSE Symposium “Towards
a better built environment – innovation, sustainability, information technology”,
Melbourne, Australia,2002.
[12] M. Majowiecki: Snow and wind experimental analysis in the design of long span
sub-horizontal structures, J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodynamics, 1998.
[13] RWDI - Roof snow loading study-roof re-design Olympic Stadium Montreal,
Quebec. Report 93-187F-15, 1993.
[14] M. Majowiecki: Observations on theoretical and experimental investigations on
lightweight wide span coverings, International Association for Wind Engineering,
ANIV, 1990.
[15] B.J. Vickery, M. Majowiecki: Wind induced response of a cable supported stadium
roof, Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 1992, pp. 1447-
1458.
[16] B.J. Vickery: Wind loads on the Olympic Stadium - Orthogonal decomposition and
dynamic (resonant) effects, BLWT-SS28A, 1993.
40
[17] M. Majowiecki, N. Cosentino, C. Costa, “Wind Effects and Cables Damping at the
Adige Cable Stay Bridge”, Proc. of IASS Symposium 2007, Venice December 3-6.
2007.
[18] H. Engel, Tragsysteme, Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1967.
[19] M. Majowiecki, Tensostrutture: progetto e verifica, CREA edition, 1985.
[20] M.Majowiecki , F.Ossola, S. Pinardi, “ The new Juventus Stadium in Turin”,
proceedings IABSE September 2010, Venice, Italy.
[21] M. Majowiecki, A footbridge over the A-13 motorway”, Costruzioni metalliche,
n°2, 2008.
[22] C. Roland, F. Otto: Structures, Longman Group Limited, London, 1970.
[23] G.Kologiannis, C. Gantes, A. Athanasiadis, M. Majowiecki , F. Zoulas, H. Schmidt,
“ Structural Design of the New Football Stadium of Panathinaikos F.C. in
Votanikos, Greece , proceedings IABSE September 2010, Venice, Italy.
[24] M. Majowiecki, A new stainless steel membrane roof for the Roma Fair”,
Costruzioni metalliche, n°4, 2007.
[25] M. Saitoh, Conceptual Design of Hybrid Structures, IASS working group n°6, 1993.
[26] K. Ishii, Structural Design of Retractable Roof Structures, IASS working group
n°16, WIT Press, 2000.
[27] N.G. de Moisset, D. Moisset de Espanes: Diseňar con la estructura, INGRESO,
Cordoba (R.A.), 2002.
[28] K. L. Carper: “Construction Pathology in the United States”, Lessons from
structural failures, Structural Engineering International. 1/96 and “Lessons
architects can learn from failures”, Structural Failures and Reliability of Civil
Structures, Venezia, 6-7 December 2001.
[29] R.E. Melchers: Structural reliability, Elley Horwood ltd. 1987.
[30] M. Majowiecki, S. Pinardi, “Reduced stress method for Class 4 steel section “,
[31] M.Majowiecki , M. Petrucci “Structural optimization and free form design"
[32] A. Samartin: “Application of optimization techniques to structural design,
Lightweight structures in civil engineering, Warsaw, Poland, September, 1995.
[33] N. Cosentino, M. Majowiecki, M. Marini, “Dynamic characterization of the New
Braga Stadium large span suspension roof” presented at Experimental Vibration
Analysis for Civil Engineering Structures - EVACES 2005, Bordeaux, October
2005.
[34] M. Majowiecki, N. Cosentino, “Dynamic Aspects of the New Braga Stadium Large
Span Roof”, Proc. of IASS Symposium 2007, Venice December 3-6. 2007.
41
1.3 Invited Speakers
42
The Transforming Relationship between Architecture and

Structure-The structure performance in pavilion buildings of
2010 Shanghai World Expo
Di SHEN 1*
1*
Shanghai Xian Dai Architectural Design (Group) Co., Ltd,
258 Shimen Er Road, Shanghai, China, 200041.
di_shen@xd-ad.com.cn
In the field of architectural design, architecture and structure are like twin
brothers, relying and supporting each other with inseparable relations. In this couple of
twins, the architecture seems to accustom to playing as the leading role, while the
structure modestly plays as a supporting role. The construction process and
accomplishment of the pavilions of 2010 Shanghai World Expo indicate that some
transformation has happened to the relationship between them, and structure has no
longer been defined as the supporting role of the architecture. The structural design and
the structure itself have been demonstrated vividly in some pavilion buildings, showing
the beauty of force and the rational spirit in the structure. In some respects, the structure
has been the leading factor of architecture, deciding the quality and result of the entire
architecture. Though this situation is not common, it still reflects the transformation of
the relationship between them in the background of Expo. Certainly, the transformation
itself is not a simple change of reciprocal relationship. From buildings of this Expo, we
can still discover that ideas from architects in the concept have not been weakened, and
contents of architectural creation have not been changed either. On the contrary, the
transformation of this relationship adds new methods and thoughts to the architectural
design, infusing the rational spirit into architectural creation. Thus, this is a positive
architectural phenomenon, which promotes the progress of architectural design.
Now, we need analyze this kind of transformation from the characteristics of Expo
buildings.
1. Characteristics of Expo Buildings

As an architectural classification born in the background of a great social event, Expo
buildings have greater specificity. Besides the basic natures of ordinary buildings, Expo
buildings also have the exhibit-based nature which symbolizes the characteristics of the
nation and the people; the experimental nature of showing new ideas, new technologies
and new materials; the temporary nature of short duration which means most pavilions
need to be removed by participants after the Expo. These three natures not only
constitute the characteristics of Expo buildings, but also generate different contents and
meanings in requirements for structure from those of ordinary buildings.
43
1.1. Structural Meanings in the Symbolic Expression of Expo buildings
Buildings of 2010 Shanghai World Expo include four main architectural classifications:
Permanent main buildings, temporary pavilion buildings, supporting buildings for
public and supporting service buildings, composing a huge architectural complex.
Restricted by the functions and building natures, the first three classifications have been
the priority among priorities of the architectural design.
In the design of these buildings, the most outstanding feature is their symbolism. The
nation and the people, or the culture and the tradition, no matter what the architectural
appearance express or reflect, it has become the media of sending their symbolic natures.
Expo buildings, thus, have got rid off the conceptual restriction of ordinary buildings,
making their meanings in formation and appearance surpass building functions, and
become the valuable benchmark of ―architecture primary‖. Thus, buildings have
naturally been the largest and most visible ―exhibits‖ in World Expo. It also explains
why buildings attract so many architects, structural engineers of all the passed Expos in
history, and particularly, in 2010 Shanghai World Expo. This focus has even surpassed
those on exhibits in pavilions.
We can imagine that when the symbolic nature of the building appearance become the
design content which the architect is supposed to consider in priority, the structure
closed to it will naturally be an essential support. Facially, with the symbolic expression,
the architect can create architectural formation freely and exaggerately as the sculpture
or the installation art. But, in the practical design process, whether the structure is
feasible or not will be the key to achieve the architectural image. In addition, the
structural function in expressing the symbolic nature of the architecture is to make not
only the architectural conception possible, but also the structure one of the important
contents of this expression. Telling the story about the culture, the tradition, or the
people and the nation that included in the symbolic nature with structural language has
also become one part of structural functions. It happens in not only some permanent
buildings with large scales such as the Expo Center, Expo Cultural Center, China
Pavilion and Theme Center, but also some temporary pavilions with smaller scales. The
structural design is not just restricted in ―putting up‖ the building, but also has become
important facts of the expression of architectural symbolic natures. (Fig. 1.1.1, 1.1.2)
44
Fig. 1.1.1 The Chinese element expressed by the truss in China Pavilion
Fig. 1.1.2 The skeleton of Korean characters made by the structure in Korea Pavilion
1.2. Structural Functions of the Experimental Characteristic in Expo

buildings
The Expo is the international stage for humans to show new ideas, new science and
technology achievements and new inventions. Considering the building, it is also an
unparalleled opportunity to show new technologies and materials for architectures. In
this Expo, besides the building technology of ecology and energy efficiency, the brand-
new structural technology is also applied to different extents in many fields, such as:
―One Boulevard and Four Pavilions‖, protection of outstanding historic buildings,
renovation and reuse of existing buildings, pavilions with unique formations. The wide
application of new structural technology and material dissolves challenges of structural
design resulted by some special technology conditions, such as long span, heavy load,
ultra-scale, and complex free-form architectural system, and promotes the innovation of
the structural design in calculating simulation, earthquake resistance and joint
construction. Thus, during the application of new technologies in this Expo, the
45
structure occupies an important share. In the scientific research of construction in this

Expo, the structure and ecology has become two main contents.
In the technical exploration of building material conservation, the structure also plays a
positive role. The application of some brand-new building materials such as new and
light structural system, membrane, and engineering plastics performs a key function in
saving building materials, and provides new working spaces for the structural creation
design. Even in the process of innovative application of some renewable traditional
materials experienced new workmanship, such as wood, vine willow, wheat straw and
bamboo, the structural design overcomes the restriction of some objective conditions,
such as lacks of codes and standards, and promotes the exploratory application of these
materials in pavilion buildings and structures. (Fig. 1.2.1-1.2.3)
Fig.1.2.1 The main structure of Norway Pavilion Fig. 1.2.2 The wood structure
is the laminated wood frame structure of Sweden Pavilion
with the star section
Fig. 1.2.3 The bamboo is used as the structural material in India Pavilion
1.3. The Structural Breakthrough of Expo buildings in Temporary

Conditions
As we all know, most Expo buildings are temporary buildings, and according to the
regulations of Bureau of International Expositions (BIE), they need to be removed by
participants after the Expo.With the conception of sustainable development, designers
of temporary pavilions are all exploring every way to solve the issue of reuse of Expo
46
pavilions. Considering the degree in realization and the project cost, the structure is
considered in priority. From structural type, system, construction, and the component
standardization, designers tried to accomplish the renovation and reuse of the structure.
The meaning of Expo pavilions' structural design is not weakened due to their
temporalities in building natures. Many pavilions take it as an opportunity to be
innovative breakthrough point of structural design. The emergence of new structural
formations and construction methods indicates the break of ―short life span‖ of
temporary pavilions, through which the structural design reflects its value in
architecture more clearly. The UAE Pavilion is a typical case; the joint design of its
latticed shell roof applies the bolt connection that is removable, which ensures the
possibility of rebuilding in another location after the Expo. (Fig. 1.3.1)
Fig. 1.3.1 The prefabricated latticed shell roof of the UAE Pavilion
2. The Relationship between Expo buildings and Structures

The three characteristics in Expo buildings not only make architects change their past
design principles and methods, but also make the theme expression of the building and
the symbolic nature of the formation as the start point and the goal of design. To a
certain extent, they have transformed the relationship between the structure and the
architecture, and the transformation is demonstrated in the following aspects:
2.1. Interactions between Architectural Creation and Structural Design
In ordinary conditions, the conception creation of the architect is often made in an

enclosed environment of self-conception and self-imagination. The structural design in
conceptual phase is only a supporting work: the structural engineer often lays out
column grids after the architectural conception ascertained. The working achievements
of structural engineers are also demonstrated by means of text description. In brief, the
structure is a supporting work following the architecture. Sometimes, due to the
technological rationality, the structure restricts some exaggerated design in architecture,
and plays the role of restricting architectural creation.
47
In 2010 Shanghai World Expo, from the permanent main buildings such as ―One
Boulevard and Four Pavilions‖ to 45 self-built pavilion and 16 enterprise pavilions,
analyzing from the combination degree of their architectural formations and structural
forms, we can find that these buildings are achievements designed by architects and
structural engineers together. They have collaborated with each other very well in the
designing and creating phase, thus, with the participation of the structural engineers, it
makes the original conceptions of the architects enriched and deepened, makes the
perceptual architectural creation reflect the glory of reason, and gives more structural
meanings and higher implementation in the creative ideas. Some pavilions with
complex formations that apply topology geometry and parametric design reflect this
point sufficiently. Taking Austria Pavilion as an example, architects apply the design
method of topology geometry, fitting a ―music box‖ by integrating the walls, the roof
and the floor of the building into a whole according to music rhythm, making the
architectural formation be full of dynamic and variation (Fig. 2.1.1- Fig. 2.1.2). In the
conceptual design documentations of Austria Pavilion, we find out very detailed
structural design conceptions. Structural engineers apply the method of combining the
truss and holey castellated beam tightly to deal with the changeable and irregular
formation of the building. The 3-D modelling method is applied not only to directly
demonstrate the layout of complex horizontal and vertical components in structure, but
also design the section of special components based on calculation. Even the structural
construction procedure is also conceptually considered in design. Thus, we can imagine
that in the interact process of conceptual design, architects and structural engineers
sublimate the abstract conceptions into a perfect architectural appearance, and the
meanings of architectural creation and design become more profound.
Fig. 2.1.1 The architectural conceptual Fig. 2.1.2 The structural conceptual
model of Austria Pavilion model of Austria Pavilion
2.2. The Self-performance of the Structure in Pavilion Buildings
In pavilion buildings of 2010 Shanghai World Expo, the structure is not restricted in its
own role negatively or follows the ideas of architects in technology passively. The
structure makes use of this good communication platform actively to express itself with
endeavour. From the view of architects, the characteristics of structural design in this
Expo can be concluded into the following three aspects:
(1) With complete types in structural system and material, the Expo has become an
exhibition that shows structural systems and types all-round. According to material,
48
there is ordinary reinforced concrete structure, steel structure, bamboo & wood structure
and membrane structure, etc; according to structural system, there are frame, truss,
latticed frame and single-layer latticed shell, etc. Expo becomes a grand exhibition of
structural system. In addition, this structural exhibition explores to break through the
tradition of ordinary structural formations, and realizes innovation in brand new
structural types, making the architectural experimental nature in Expo more relevant.
(2) Practice and application of new structural technologies. The application of new
structural technologies and materials is highly emphasized in this Expo. The anti-
buckling energy consumption support structure in Expo Center improves the earthquake
resistance performance and saves lots of structural steel. The hybrid tensioning roof
system in Theme Pavilion creatively integrates the rigid branch structural system and
flexible cable system to solve the problem in long span structures, and make the roof
structure itself a spatial highlight. The consistent tensioning membrane structure with
extremely large-scale and non-linear single layer latticed shell structure in Expo
Boulevard, as new technical methods and workmanship, create a new world record in
design, process, construction and installation,.(Fig. 2.2.1-Fig. 2.2.4)
Fig. 2.2.1 The practical application of Fig. 2.2.2 The hybrid tensile roof
the anti-buckling energy consumption system in Theme Pavilion
support technology in Expo Center
Fig. 2.2.3 The tensile cable of Expo Fig. 2.2.4 The Sun Valley with free-
Boulevard form shell structure of Expo
Boulevard
49
As temporary buildings, self-built pavilions do not fall behind in the application of new
technologies: many pavilions become the exhibiting locations of new structural
technologies. Taking the UAE Pavilion as an example, when constructing the
marvellous ―sand hill‖, structural engineers never forget the meanings of the Expo as a
special occasion to the structure itself. The reflection of the architectural appearance
with the structural beauty and brand new joint technologies makes the UAE Pavilion an
elaborate architectural work among all self-built pavilions in this Expo. In its single-
layer latticed shell structure, the method of topology geometry is applied to reflect the
2m×2m×2m plan grid onto the ―sand hill‖ shape architectural hyperbolic surface,
creating a structural latticed shell which is fit to its flexibility and beauty. The design of
the member joint of the latticed shell applies the semi-rigid bolted connection which is
the patented technology. It complies with the design requirement that the roof structure
can be removed, and well satisfies the need that the angle of the joint member bar can
be adjusted. (Fig. 2.2.5-Fig. 2.2.8)
Fig. 2.2.5 The beautiful “Sand Hill” Fig. 2.2.6 The latticed shell roof with
appearance of the UAE Pavilion free –form surface of the UAE Pavilion
Fig. 2.2.7 The model of the semi- Fig. 2.2.7 The photo of the semi-rigid
rigid bolted joint of the UAE bolted joint of the UAE Pavilion
Pavilion
(3) Self breakthrough of common structural formations. Speaking of the structural

system, most pavilions apply relatively common structural systems in this Expo.
However, in the atmosphere of emphasizing innovation and pursuing personality in
Expo, these common structural systems also demonstrate different design thoughts, thus,
expressing some totally extraordinary design methods and thoughts through common
50
style. Taking Italy Pavilion as an example, architects cut a rectangular solid into 14
spatial modules. It is beyond expectation that through 14 small frame bodies that are
supported by inclined columns on the basis of ordinary steel frames, and in terms of
spatial modules, structural engineers improve the occasion to an interesting structural
formation that coincide with the architectural space. An ordinary structural system
makes people feel fresh with the creative design of structural engineers. (Fig. 2.2.9-Fig.
2.2.11)
Fig. 2.2.9 Bird view of Italy Pavilion Fig. 2.2.10 The main frame of
Italy Pavilion
Fig. 2.2.11 The structural system of Italy Pavilion that is composed of 14 small frames
Thus, 2010 Shanghai World Expo is not only a carnival for varieties of architectural
styles, but also a grand stage for the structure. When appreciating the originality of the
architecture, people also highly praise the beauty that the structure presents in the
meanwhile. There's no doubt that the structure will be one of highlights in buildings of
this Expo.
3. New Requirements of the structure by Post-Expo Architects

The effect of this Expo in the field of architectural design will be emerged along with
the expansion of the Expo effect gradually. This kind of effect will not just reflect upon
technology and material, apparently, it will also be more meaningful in ideological level
such as ideas and thoughts. The experience indicates that this kind of effect will not
only come from inside of architectural design, but also from people in other fields, such
51
as developers, the clients, even the leadership. They will raise new requirements to the
architecture and architects by all means, and further delivered to the structural engineers.
We can foresee that main contents of these requirements will no longer be simple
breakthrough in building height and span, but in the following aspects:
3.1. New Challenges Brought by Ultra-large Scale Architectural

Appearance
Along with this Expo, people have new thoughts of architectural ideas. As the
conception of green building has been approved, people will have profound impression
of architectural symbolism. However, architectural symbolic natures will result in more
buildings with exaggerated appearances and unique formation. The ―exaggeration‖
mentioned here refers to pursuing the visual shock of the architectural appearance, and
greatly beyond the reasonable edge in technology. Thus, architectural conceptions that
challenge the ultimate limit of structural design and the performance of materials will
emerge. Certainly, the structure will raise its position through these challenges.
In addition, we can see that the structural design in future may be in the same way with
the architectural design that not only architects need to design different conceptions and
formations for each project, but the structural engineers also need to make characteristic
structural scheme in such as different system formations for different projects. It is
possible that the design scheme will not simply apply the existing structural system, and
the variation of structural design will not be only demonstrated in some simple
quantities such as the size of column grid and building height. The structural conception
will be tailored to every house. They might be the combination of different structural
systems or the dissimilation of common systems. The structural design will no longer be
restricted to reasonable application of common structural systems, but will likely be
more innovative and profound. In this Expo, some pavilions like the U.K. Pavilion
expresses this point of view. (Fig.3.1.1-Fig. 3.1.2)
Fig. 3.1.1 The floor of the U.K. Fig. 3.1.2 The square box on the
Pavilion that is defined as the dense upper end of the U.K. Pavilion is
points supported box structure is the dual-layer plywood structure, and the
formation of dual-direction steel truss grid plate is set between the interior
and exterior panels
52
3.2. New Opportunities Brought by Parametric Architectural Design
In this Expo, although pavilions using parametric method for design are not quite a few,
except for Austria Pavilion and the UAE Pavilion, there are some other pavilions that
partly apply parametric design to raise the interests of the building, such as Denmark,
Finland and Singapore Pavilion. Thus, the demonstration effect is extraordinary because
the vivid and full of variation architectural appearances of these pavilions are exhibited
through Expo--an international transmitting platform. In additional, characteristics of
parametric building such as full of variation, non-duplication also caters to the aesthetic
tendency of the current society, such as the pursuit of novelty and the emphasis of
personality. The standardized, duplicatable restrictions of modernism and traditional
architecture make it impossible to catch up with these pioneering architectural spirits.
Thus, parametric design will likely become a new trend of architecture. (Fig. 3.2.1-Fig.
3.2.2)
Fig. 3.2.1 The steel structure of Denmark Fig. 3.2.2 The spatial frame
Pavilion that is like logarithmic spiral and structural system of Finland
twisting, the structure system consists of Pavilion that is composed of 21
tube support, overlapping shearing truss trusses of variable cross-section
and C type frame steel lattice column with different
hyperbolic shapes
For structural design, a complex and free hyperbolic architectural formation that totally
gets rid off simple geometry shapes, such as square, round and triangle, surrounded by
parametric buildings with irregular hyperbolic surface, can not be expressed by analytic
geometry without lining up column grids and will be a huge challenge from idea to
technology. In order to accomplish this kind of architectural conception, active supports
of the structure in ordinary meanings are apparently insufficient. Because of such
architectural conception, architects often have no idea of demonstrating a clear
architectural appearance with two dimensional plans, and there are no ways for the
structure to layout column grids. It is impossible to construct a coincident structure
directly based upon current structural systems. In addition, in the conceptual creation
phase, what the architect raised may only be a simple sketch, and it needs the structural
engineers be as one of the conceptual design members to enrich the original but
unstrained conception and idea of the architects by rational methods and mathematic
thoughts.
53
Thus, the structure needs to surpass its past role in history, becomes the participant of
the architectural conception design with new postures. The architecture and structure
will be integrated as a body unprecedentedly, making the creation of architectural
conceptions the process of the coordination, and the disciplinary boundary of
architecture and structure might be mixed up from then on.
3.3. New Tasks for Structural Design Brought by Compound Building

Envelope
The wide application of compound building envelope in this Expo enlightens the
architect a lot. In southern, the methods of building energy efficiency are mainly heat
insulation and shading. It will largely improve the comprehensive thermal performance
of the exterior walls of the building, and will extremely enrich the expressing way of
architectural design. The architectural appearance will be more free of variation and full
of expression due to it. The separation of building exterior skin and the interior structure
makes the building façade and appearance not totally be restricted by the formation of
building interior spaces. Thus, it can be said that the building façade has been
―liberated‖ from the restriction of interior spaces. Germany Pavilion is the most typical
case. With the building skin composed of steel frames and PVC membranes covered
outside, architects get rid of the restriction of building interior spaces, outlining a
―balanced‖ architectural appearance composed of unstable masses, which looks like a
sculpture. Thus, we can foresee that this method will certainly be widely welcomed by
architects and applied to their own project designs. (Fig. 3.3.1-Fig. 3.3.4)
Fig. 3.3.1 The architectural Fig. 3.3.2 The compound exterior

appearance of Germany pavilion wall system of Germany Pavilion
consists of steel frames and PVC
membrane.
54
Fig. 3.3.3 The grid exterior wall of France Fig. 3.3.4 The horizontal support
Pavilion of the exterior wall of France
Pavilion
However, the wide application of this method may bring new tasks to structural design.
When the distance between building envelope and the interior structure exceeds certain
size and height, it will certainly generate great effects to the structure itself as well as
the main structure interior. It will also increase the structural complexity. Thus, with the
development and application of the compound building envelope, series of new tasks in
structural design may be raised.
In a word, with the success and growing influence of the pavilion buildings in this Expo,
it may gradually change the working relationship and pattern between architects and
structural engineers, and may effect the structural design in future.
References
[1] XU Feng, Parametric——Interview of Patrick Schumacher. World Architecture,

2009, 8
[2] REN Jun, View of Science on Contemporary Architecture, Architectural Journal,
2009, 11
[3] LU Dan and others, Research on Form Finding of the Free Hyperbolic Surface of
the Solar Valley of Expo Boulevard. Joural of Building Structure
[4] BAO Lianjin and others, Structural Design of Expo Center, Joural of Building
Structure, 2010, 5
[5] ZENG Qun, ZHOU Zijing, Design of the Theme Pavilion of Expo 2010 Shanghai
China, Time Architecture, 2009,4
[6] HE Jingtang and others, An Oriental Crown Design of China Pavilion in the 2010
Expo Shanghai, China, Time Architecture, 2009,4
[7] DU Peng, Harmonious Metropolis—Germany Pavilion of 2010 Shanghai World
Expo, Time Architecture, 2010,3
55
[8] WANG Bo, Back to Sense—Approaching France Pavilion of 2010 Shanghai

World Expo, Time Architecture, 2010,3
[9] TAN Ben, Founding of the Fairy Tale—Structure Documentation of Denmark
Pavilion of 2010 Shanghai World Expo, Time Architecture, 2010, 3
56
Structural Conceptual Design of the Theme Pavilion and the

Cultural Center and Some National Pavilions of World
Expo.2010
Jiemin DING1*, Honglei WU 2
1*
Architecture Design & Research Institute of Tongji University (Group) Co. Ltd
Shanghai, China
djm@tjadri.com
2
Architecture Design & Research Institute of Tongji University (Group) Co. Ltd
Abstract
Firstly, overall layout and pavilions distribution of Shanghai World Expo.2010
have been introduced briefly. And this paper mainly presents a structural design case on
the Theme Pavilion and Cultural Center of World Expo.2010. At last, further
introductions about Spanish Pavilion, British Pavilion, Holland Pavilion, French
Pavilion and Danish Pavilion are preformed, and the applications of new conception,
technique and material in these buildings are presented.
Keywords: Theme Pavilion, Cultural Center, truss string structure, Spanish Pavilion,
British Pavilion, Holland Pavilion, French Pavilion, Danish Pavilion
1 Introduction
The World Expo.2010 Shanghai will be held from May 1 to Oct.31, 2010, lasting for
184 days. The site of the World Expo 2010 is located at the area between Nanpu Bridge
and Lupu Bridge, and is arranged along both banks of Huangpu River in the urban area
of Shanghai. The Expo Park planned area is 5.3sq.Km, of which Pudong section covers
an area of 3.9sq.Km, Puxi section 1.4sq.Km.
There are five functional zones marked A,B,C,D and E respectively(figure 1). Zone A
will host China Pavilion and national pavilions for Asian countries except Southeast
Asian ones. Zone B will host national pavilions of Southeast Asian and Oceanian
countries, Pavilions for International Organizations, Theme Pavilions, Expo Centre and
Performance Centre. Zone C will host European, American and African national
pavilion clusters. Zone D is one of the original places of modern Chinese national
industry and the site of the Jiangnan Shipyard. Some of the old industrial buildings will
be kept and renovated into corporate pavilions. The docklands and slipway to the east of
the corporate pavilions will be reserved and made into space for outdoor public
exhibition and cultural exchange. Zone E will host stand-alone corporate pavilions,
Urban Civilization Pavilion, Urban Exploration Pavilion and the Urban Best Practices
Area.
57
Zone D
Zone E
Zone C
Zone A
Zone B
Fig. 1: Master plan
During Expo Shanghai, ‗Expo Axis, Four Pavilions‘ will be the core parts, including
China pavilion, Theme pavilion, World Expo Center and Cultural Center(figure 2).
After Expo Shanghai, the ‗Expo Axis, Four Pavilions‘ will be the permanent building
complex used in exhibition, conference, performance and landscapes.
Cultural Center
Expo Center
China Pavilion
Theme Pavilion
Expo Axis
Fig.2: ‘Expo Axis, Four Pavilions’ Master plan
2 The Theme Pavilion
2.1 Project introduction

The theme pavilion of World Expo.2010 (hereinafter referred to as theme pavilion) is
designed to show the theme of World Expo.2010 in Shanghai - ‗Better City, Better Life‘
(figure 3). The theme pavilion is in a cube format with a plane dimension of
217.8m×288m and 26.3m high. Its total area is 120000m2 with a 80000m2 above ground
and 40000m2 underground. According to architectural design, the theme pavilion
includes west exhibition hall of one storey, middle hall and east exhibition hall of two
storeys, and cornices in the north and south sides (figure 4). What‘s worth mentioning,
the west exhibition hall which has a column-free space covering 126m×180m, will be
58
built as one of the largest exhibition halls in China. The west to east elevation and north
to south elevation are shown in figure 5.
Fig.3: Perspective view of Theme Pavilion Fig.4: Layout of Theme Pavilion
Fig.5a): West to east elevation of Theme Pavilion
Fig.5b): North to south elevation of Theme Pavilion
Roof geometry of the theme pavilion is composed of six folded plate elements in the
west-east direction, which form a wave shape. Each folded plate element is 288m long,
36m wide and 3m high. Under the folded plate element, there are structural elements.
Above the folded plate elements, solar panels are arranged in a diamond-shaped pattern
(figure 6).
59
Solar panels
Fig.6: Roof shape of Theme Pavilion
2.2 Roof structural system and planning

The choice of structural system for the roof was mainly based on the following
considerations:
1) Architectural and structural morphology which should be in accordance with each
other and unified;
2) Structural morphology which should be regular and elegant;
3) The roof structure should be transparent to avoid oppression within the interior
space.
Due to interior clear height requirements, the structural depth of the 126m-span roof of
the western exhibition hall had to be limited to within 11.5m, thus restricting the span-
depth ratio to less than 1:11. Hence it was a critical engineering issue to choose an
appropriate roof structural system.
Considering the three main factors governing the choice of roof system, three feasible
but alternative structural options were compared during a scheme design stage. These
were a one-way truss string structure, a two-way truss string structure and mega-frame
structure(figure 7). The mega-frame scheme had the best structural efficiency, but the
cross braces of the mega-frame latticed columns greatly detracted from the architectural
function of ancillary rooms to an unacceptable degree. Moreover, the mega-frame
would have generated a huge base thrust, so challenging the design of the column bases
and increasing the budget of the foundation structure. The two-way truss string structure
had the worst structural performance: as the structural height of the roof was limited to
11.5m, the depth to span ratio of two-way truss strings in the north-south direction
(180m span) could only be 1:15.6, a ratio which could not adequately resist the dead
loads and would have increased the self weight loading. Furthermore, the configuration
required for the two-way cable joints and the work for the cable pretension stage would
have been very complex. One-way truss string structures did not suffer the same
limitations and so were finally adopted for use in the roof.
60
a) One-way TSS b) Two-way TSS c) Mega-frame

Fig.7: Three feasible roof structure systems
The west exhibition hall roof is carried by nine truss string structures (TSS), each sitting
on two columns with a span of 126m center-to-center (figure 8). Each TSS includes two
components: one is that of rigid elements aligned on the top of TSS. These have a
standard spatial truss form set out as equilateral triangles each with a height and width
of 3m. The second component is an underslung cable-strut system set out below the
rigid truss. Before use, the cable is prestressed. As compared with many other large-
span hybrid string structures, the roof structure of the Theme Pavilion has special
characteristics as follows. Firstly, the rigid elements of conventional TSS‘s are arranged
as a reverse triangular truss, e.g. as on the roof of Guangzhou International Conference
and Exhibition center. However, in the roof design of Theme Pavilion, the rigid element
is set out as an equilateral triangular truss. Using this arrangement, one line of roof
purlins can be supported by the top chord of the triangular truss, whilst the other (lower)
line can be supported by the bottom chord. Thus with this structural solution, it is easy
to form the required architectural folded plate shape. Secondly, the cable-strut system
incorporates special V-shaped struts. As compared with conventional multi-strut
systems of TSS, V-shaped struts laid out in the middle span of the TSS can be arranged
to optimize the internal force distribution and decrease bending and compressive stress
intensities within the rigid elements. At the same time, the shaped struts create a new
architectural vision.
a) Perspective of roof structure
61
b) Profile of roof structure c) 1-1 Cross section

Fig.8: Roof structure
The supporting spans of the middle hall and east exhibition halls are 54m, 45m and 45m
respectively from west to east. For reasons of homogeneity, structural efficiency and
continuous configuration, the roof architectural form of spatial trusses with rigid
elements as used for the west exhibition hall was continued through to the middle and
east exhibition halls so collectively forming a four-span continuous girder with an
overall length of 270m (figure 8b). In the north-south direction, five plane trusses have
been arranged at the ends of the four-span continuous girders to restrict horizontal and
torsional deformations at the ends of the continuous girders and to ensure out of plane
stability for the roof structure as a whole.
2.3 Column bracings system of steel frame

Because of the architectural design, the pavilion steel frame structure is required to
support a staggered floor arrangement, consequently, the mass and stiffness of the west
and east exhibition halls are obviously non symmetrical. This results in an inevitable
overall torsional deformation of the frame under horizontal earthquake action.
Furthermore, as the structure is designed with no expansion joints, and as the structural
lengths of west-east direction and north-south direction are 288m and 217m respectively,
temperature action is critical in this super-long structure. Both these effects are
influenced by the bracing system provided for global lateral stability.
To solve the problems, the design of column frame brace system of the Theme Pavilion
was configured taking account of the following three points:
1) Firstly, the column bracing system should preferentially be configured to improve
the structural torsional stiffness (i.e. rather than the lateral resistance). But additional
stiffness itself attracts additional seismic force, so the column braces should not be
made too strong.
2) The column bracing system should obviously avoid exacerbating temperature action.
3) The arrangement of column braces should be consistent with the architectural layout
to avoid impacting on the architectural function.
Three styles of column braces schemes, which are total steel column braces scheme,
total energy dissipation column braces scheme and mixed column braces scheme(figure
9), have been compared. The researches show that under horizontal earthquake action,
total energy dissipation column braces scheme is difficult to satisfy the request of
Chinese code of seismic design of buildings, and the budget of total energy dissipation
62
column braces scheme is high. The total steel column braces scheme is favourable to
seismic design, but in temperature action, the internal force of frame is high, which
results in relative big cross sections of frame members. The mixed column braces
scheme that has advantages of the above two column braces schemes shows a great
structural performance and is used in the final scheme.
S: Steel column brace E: Energy dissipation column brace

Fig.9: Outline of mixed column braces scheme
3 The Cultural Center

As one of the five permanent pavilions of 2010 Shanghai Expo, Expo Culture Center
looks like an UFO floating in air (figure 10a), with total building area about 140,000m2.
The typical radial profile of overall structure is shown in figure 10b, in which the inner
columns of the roof structure stand on the root of overhanging trusses while the outers
are supported on the end. The acting area and leisure area are covered by the whole roof.
In acting area, the long circle shape roof consists of four lines(8.4m of the shorter and
33.6m of the longer) and four 1/4 arcs(with radius of 51.05m), of which the shorter and
longer span are 110.5m and 135.7m separately with the max vector height 8.9m.
Correspondingly, roof of leisure area encompass it with longest span 23m.
Fig. 10a: Perspective of Culture Center Fig. 10b: Profile of structure
3.2 Roof structural system and planning

The plan shape, vector height, load, and surrounding support structures should be
mainly considered in selection of roof structures. In consideration of comparative lower
vector height and larger suspending point load, comparison has been made among space
63
grid structure, Cable-stayed skeleton structure and space truss structure in scheme
design phase of roof structure.
3.2.1 Space grid structure
Pyramid grid structure is adopted as a simple space structural style, shown in figure 11.
Standard pyramid grids are employed mid-span area along two axis, meanwhile rib-loop
pyramids are utilized in the four 1/4 round area. As to avoid the generation of excessive
dense grid near the center, designers resort to the method reducing number of grids
outside-in. the max height in mid-span is 6 meters in this height-varying lattice with the
minimal height 3m along the perimeter. The upper chords of the lattice are supported by
several columns which arranged along their own normal directions. Bolt balls are
applied in joint connections and a few joints with larger internal force would adopt
welding balls.
Fig.11: Space grid structure

3.2.2 Cable-stayed skeleton structure
The skeleton part of cable-stayed skeleton structure consists of 36 main truss with
height of 2 to 3 meters shown in figure 12. The section of chord is Φ400×12, while the
web is Φ180×7. Endless ropes are arranged in the light of oval shape with long axis
120m and short axis 100m. 3m long compression members are 2m lower than the height
of the top on columns. Two 20Mpa prestressed Φ200 tie rods (460 level) are employed
as the endless rope, while only one need for the stay cable. In addition, for the reason to
ensure the structure stability, circle trusses, circle purlins and crossing braces are set up
with roof structure. Crossing braces are set up in some lower chord areas to improve the
situation that the lower chords are under compression near the connection of main truss
and the compression members. As there are a few cable-rod-stayed systems around the
supports which must be lower than the height of the nearby columns, visual lines and
usages in higher stands would be affected.
64
Fig.12: Cable-stayed skeleton structure

3.2.3 Space truss structure
Space truss structure is made up with orthogonal primary trusses, radial trusses and belt
trusses (figure 13). Primary trusses and radial trusses are supported on 36 inclined frame
columns. Orthogonal primary trusses are arranged at the central line parts(33.6m
×110.5m and 8.4m ×135.7m), with mid-span height 6m and support height 2.5m, and
that the rest, 1/4 round parts with 51m radius at the ends are covered with radial trusses.
In order to support radial trusses, correspond the truss deformation and enforce the roof
stiffness, circle shape strengthen trusses are set up at the large loading area in the center
of truss, 1/4 span and the supports (HTR1~HTR5). Horizontal braces, which could
reduce the outerplanar calculated length of upper chord members, are also placed in
order to prevent the compression rod from outerplanar buckling, so the torsional rigidity
and integrity of roof structure would be improved. On the other hand, additional lower
chord horizontal braces fixed in the internode near the supports could avoid outerplanar
buckling when the lower chords are under compression, which takes place in special
load case.
Fig.13: Space truss structure

After comparison, space grid structure takes comparative advantages in structure
integrity and steel volumes, while the cable-stayed skeleton structure is better in the
65
field of steel volume and reduction of horizontal thrust. In comparison with the above
two structure systems, space truss structure is best in the aspects of architecture
appearance, internal space, vertical stiffness, suspending load adaptability and
construction plan adaptability. Primary-secondary truss structure is also considered, but
with consideration that the centralization of support reactions of the primary truss
(vertical force and horizontal thrust) would make adverse effects on the lower inclined
frame structure and the longer load transfer path result in worse integrity and
redundancy, space truss structure is selected for the roof steel structure.
4 Spanish Pavilion
With 7081m2 of site area, 7624m2 of total floor area, 4628m2 of building coverage area,
the Spanish Pavilion will be 20m high with 3 levels above ground. It will be consisted
with Exhibition halls, restaurants, auditorium with stage, offices, supporting functions
and a sunken square in central connecting building internal and external. The Spanish
Pavilion‘s facade uses double structure system. The outer layer is decoration. The
architect team tries to use the universal language of the material to build a bridge
between east and west. The wicker, a material both traditional in Spain and China is
used in the building facade to make the construction like a basket, shown as figure 14.
Fig.14: Perspective of Spanish Pavilion
4.2 Structural system and planning

Considering of the complicated building facade, the key to the success of this project
are the reasonable arrangement the facade members and the sound design of the facade
wall. The paper compares three facade structure member layout schemes, say
orthogonal member layout scheme, oblique crossing member layout scheme and
honeycomb member layout scheme.
The first scheme is orthogonal member layout scheme, shown in figure 15. Orthogonal
grid is the most common member layout style. Using the traditional horizontal beam
and vertical column system, the load could be transferred to the base by this force
transfer path. Due to the reasonable arrangement and clear force transfer path, the
orthogonal grid has been widely used in the construction. According to the requirement
of architectural modeling and positioning, the vertical member‘s axis of the Spanish
Pavilion coincides with vertical line on the building facade formed by the building axes.
66
The distance between two vertical members vary along with the torsion of the facade
morphology and is within 2 or 3 meters. Every horizontal member in the same layer is
in the same level. The distance between every two horizontal planes is 1.2m. The facade
members on inner and outer layer of the structure are connected by horizontal bars.
Fig.15: Orthogonal member system scheme
The second scheme is oblique crossing member layout scheme, shown in figure 16.
Oblique crossing member system is a novel structural system. It has no traditional
beams and columns, but the structural facade is composed of diagonal grids. The
diagonal grids here could be treated as not only a column but also a beam. The
theoretical result about diagonal grid system is few. However, in construction, this
system is used mainly in tall building tube structure, but little in multilayer steel
structures. In this scheme, the members is formed from the point intersected by starting
height horizontal plane and the vertical axes of the architecture to another point
intersected by next height horizontal plane and next vertical axes of the architecture.
Then the diagonal grid will be formed by repeating this process. The length of the
horizontal projection of every diagonal member is the distance between the adjacent
architecture axes. The vertical projection is 1.2m which is the distance between adjacent
horizontal planes. The facade members on the inner and outer layers of the structure are
connected by horizontal connecting bar at the intersection point of diagonal grids.
Fig.16: Oblique crossing member system scheme
The third scheme is honeycomb member layout scheme, shown in figure 17.
Honeycomb structure is a common shape in natural. Because of its bionic morphology,
it is popular amongst by many architects and civil engineers. Due to the lack of theory
basis and practical experiences, it is rarely used practice in construction. The modeling
of this scheme combines the former two modeling method. Firstly vertical member and
diagonal member alternately appear in different horizontal layer, and then in the layer
with only vertical member, the number of the member is removed in equal interval to
form the honeycomb member system layout scheme is formed.
67
Fig.17: Honeycomb member system scheme
The oblique crossing scheme and honeycomb scheme has novel and beautiful
appearance. But the structure is not visible because the building facade will be covered
by the decorative material. Secondly, the structure facade should have enough vertical
stiffness and avoid the stress concentration on the torsion position of the facade.
Because the Spanish Pavilion mainly bears the gravity load, the orthogonal member
system is the most suitable scheme. Finally, the nodes of orthogonal scheme can be
convenient standardized, easily manufactured and installed. Based on the above points,
orthogonal member layout scheme is finally employed. Besides its good for the Spanish
Pavilion architectural appearing, it can satisfy the structure performance and easily be
constructed as well.
5 British Pavilion
The concept of British Pavilion comes from the idea of ‗Gift‘, looking like a paper-
wrapped gift unfolding slowly on the base (figure 18a). The site of pavilion has an area
of 6000m2. Before the visitors entering the main exhibition hall, they will pass the
pedestrian paths which are under the ‗packing paper‘. The waved packing paper will not
only serve as rest places for visitors, but also form rich exhibition space (figure 18b).
Fig.18a): Architectural concept of British Pavilion
68
Packing paper Main exhibition hall
Fig.18b): Perspective of British Pavilion
5.2 Structural characters and key issues

According to architectural arrangement of British Pavilion, there are mainly two
structural parts: exhibition hall and ‗packing paper‘ folded plate. The exhibition hall is
designed like dandelion to give people the feeling of floating in wind. So the supports of
exhibition have to be hidden in acrylic pipes, which is a great challenge to structural
engineer. The structural system of exhibition hall is box-type timber structure which is
supported by 8 sloping steel tube columns and steel bridge. The timber structure
consists of 2-layer plywood, and parapet grilles are put into the 2-layer plywood. The
floor of timber structure is made of two-way steel truss and steel plate. The combination
of timber structure and steel truss minimize the self-weight of the exhibition hall, which
decreases the section of tube columns greatly. Beside the sloping columns, a steel
bridge, which connects pedestrian path with exhibition hall, is used to provide the
horizontal stiffness of the whole exhibition hall. Most of the horizontal forces are
transferred to concrete wall by the steel bridge(figure 19a). The structural model is
shown in figure 19b.
Bridge & Concrete wall
Timber structure
Steel tube columns
Fig.19a): Structural components Fig.19b): Structural model
The ‗packing paper‘ structural system is folded concrete plate and the podium is flat-
slab construction. The maximum suspending length of fold concrete plate at the
northwest and southeast corners is 14.2m, using prestressed folded plate.
69
6 Holland Pavilion
The Holland Pavilion World EXPO 2010 Shanghai ‗Happy Street‘ is composed of
pedestrian bridge sloping up and downwards, exhibition building on it and 1~3 storey
units on ground (figure 20). Its projection is the rectangular plot of 80m×50m. The
building area is about 3192m2, without any basement. The pedestrian bridge of 5m wide,
ramps up, from level 0m to its highest level op approx 13 m. The total length of the road
is approx 372m. It is a steel bridge with max span of 25m and average span of 18m.
Fig.20: Perspective of Holland Pavilion

The pedestrian bridge, ramps up, from ground-level in the southeast to its highest level
of approx 13.3 m, then to its exit in the north. Its projection seems to be double lapped
‗8‘ (figure 21). The curved bridges join together at the level of 6.64. The complex
bridge is composed of the box profiles as bridge beams and steel pipes as columns. The
exhibition building on both sides are mainly light steel structures and would be hoisted
whole form ground to bridge. Because of the complex shape of the bridge and huge
overturning moment caused by cantilever beams, mega box beam of 2400x1000(mm)
was chosen as the bridge beam. And the Φ1200 steel pipes are used as column, which
should be rigidly connected to both bridge beams and pile caps. So the whole structure
is strong enough to bear the vertical, horizontal and earthquake loads, and also satisfy
the comfort requirement.
70
Fig.21: Structural model of Danish Pavilion
7 French Pavilion
The French Pavilion, whose theme is ―reshape the urban community through science
and technology‖, will form a ‗French-style‘ garden stretching vertically along façade of
inner court yard and extending to roof(figure 22). The architectural design includes
three key issues: garden, water and technical innovation. The pavilion is surrounded by
water and has fiber concrete net floating on mirror-like water surface, giving an image
of peace and quietness. The France pavilion covers an area of 6000m2.
Fig.22: Perspective of French Pavilion

Combining with the architectural form and function, structural system of French
Pavilion is made of spatial steel frame and building envelope net structure (figure 23).
The steel net adopts the shell body made of rigid connection of rectangular pipe. The
maintaining net is stable in plane, which is supported by V-shaped bracing on the
foundation. The net is braced by the frame structure using strut and tie members, which
ensure the net structure out-plane stability.
71
To increase the lateral stiffness of the structure, horizontal truss is located along the
horizontal direction at the middle of every story. The arrangement of the horizontal truss
combines net structure with the frame structure to resist the horizontal load.
a) Main steel frame b) Net structure c) Whole structure.

Fig.23: Structural component of French hall
8 Danish Pavilion
The Danish Pavilion for the Shanghai Expo 2010 in China has a net built up area of
3000m2 (figure 24). The pavilion is primarily an exhibition building portraying life in
Denmark. It will be located within the exposition site and as the main exhibition will
encompass general office areas, a kitchen, and conferencing area. The exhibition space
has been designed to be a continuous flowing display area, where pedestrians will move
from internal to external and back to internal spaces as they move around the looped
building. In the central core of the pavilion a large display pond will showcase Danish
art work.
Fig.24: Perspective of Danish Pavilion

The looped building is built on a continuous spiral rising to a total height of
approximately 11meters where pedestrians and cyclists will transit (figure 25). The roof
of the pavilion will be used by visitors. The geometry of the Pavilion is a modified
logarithmic spiral on plan, and is rectangular in section of around 10m wide by 4.5m
high for the typical section. Each 90°section of the spiral is divided into 8, with a steel
frame at each division. This results in a frame spacing of around 5m.
72
The first stage of the geometry has its starting point at the core, after which the
rectangular tube section moves along the ground through a quarter—circle. The second
stage launches into a cantilever which rises to 7.5m above the ground, completes the
remaining 270°and connects again to the core, directly above the starting section. In the
third stage, the tube continues around the spiral, angling downwards inside the plan of
the original curve, turning through 360°and meeting the starting point on the ground.
Fig.25: Structural model of Danish Pavilion
9 Conclusion
The Overall layout and core parts ‗Expo Axis, Four Pavilions‘ of Expo Shanghai have
been introduced briefly. Architectural and structural designs of the Theme Pavilion are
present in detail, and some key issues in design have been discussed. In the process of
searching better solutions, new type of long-span truss string structure and mixed type
of column braces have been gradually formed.
National pavilions, which carry these rich contents, are a beautiful scenic route of Expo
Shanghai. Further introductions about Spanish Pavilion, British Pavilion, Holland
pavilion, French Pavilion and Danish Pavilion are preformed, and the applications of
new conception, technique and material in these buildings are presented. The contents
of structural analysis and design can present a valuable reference for similar structures.
References
[1] DING Jiemin and WU Honglei. Structural analysis and design of Theme Pavilion
of the World Expo 2010. Journal of Building Structures 2010; vol31, No.5:70~78.
[2] ZHOU Jianlong and BAO Lianjin. Structural design on steel roof of the World
Expo Cultural Center. Journal of Building Structures 2010; vol31, No.5:103~109.
[3] DING Jiemin and ZHAO Xin. Structural design and analysis on Spanish Pavilion
of the World Expo 2010. Journal of Building Structures 2010; vol31,
No.5:124~131.
[4] Mao Decan and LI Weixing. Structural design points and experiment research on
British Pavilion of the World Expo 2010. Journal of Building Structures 2010;
vol31, No.5:132~141.
[5] Design Standard for Temporary Buildings and Constructions of the World EXPO
(Structural Chapter)
73
Optimization and determination of aluminium alloy structure

of Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden Greenhouses
Yaming Li , Xiaofeng Zhou, Lianglan Zhang, Jiayi Hu,Fei Qi, Shuizhong Jia
Shanghai Institute of Architecture Design & Research (CO., LTD.) 200041
Liym @siadr.com.cn
Abstract
Shanghai is one of the world’s modern metropolises with high reputation and
status.In Sheshan National Forest Park in Songjiang District about 20 km west of Down
town Shanghai, the new Chenshan Botanical Garden should come to life for the EXPO
2010, which is supposed to be a leading example in terms of plant conservation and
scientific research development as well as one of the city’s landmarks. Overall three
free-formed greenhouses with different dimensions but with similar organic topology
are the most important landscape in the botanical garden in Shanghai. These spectacular
structures will be a main attraction which asks for a state-of-the-art optimisation in all
kinds of ways and a careful adaptation of highly sophisticated techniques with respect
to local skills. By reason of the biggest length of 205 m and the biggest height of up to
21 m the tropic greenhouse A seems to be the most challenging one from the structural
point of view. Therefore, our paper has proofed the overall feasibility by focusing on
greenhouse A. That study consists of following steps:
--Form finding
--Meshing
--Structural analysis
--Principle details, etc
To emphasize the lightness of the unique greenhouses the dimensions of the bars should
obviously be as small as possible, but it has to resist high wind and earthquake loads as
well. All bar lengths obviously differ from each other but this can easily be handled by
standard steel companies. For the nodes we will develop a system which satisfies both
the demands of a free-formed structure and the skills of local Alum companies as well.
Keywords: Form finding; Mesh; Optimization; Alum structure; free-formed structure
1 Project Facts
Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden is located in the north side of Songjiang New
Town of Songjiang District, Shanghai and is in the southwest of Sheshan Mountain.
Horizontally, this project starts from the Central River of Sheshan Town in the east and
ends at Qianxin Highway in the west; vertically, it starts from Huachen Highway in the
south and ends at the intersection of Shenzhuan Highway (which is in the west of
Chenshan Lagoon) and Shetiankun Highway. The site area is 202 hectares, and the
covered area of all kinds of constructions is about 80,000 m2. The aim of this project is
to furthermore strengthen the comprehensive competitiveness of Shanghai as a modern
metropolis, improve the quality of urban ecology environment, promote the level of
urban greenery and strengthen the protection for biodiversity so that the needs of civil
74
scientific education and leisure tour will be satisfied ， and it will utilize the green to
deduce the theme of 2010 World Expo Shanghai, China, that is: Better City, Better Life.
The general conception in the design of Chenshan Botanical Garden is to deconstruct
the seal character of “Garden” , whose exterior frame means “the green ring”,
representing the boundary of the botanical garden, and it limits the interior and exterior
space of the botanical garden, forming a protective ring for the inner space; and three
radicals in the character frame represent three important contents in this botanical
garden respectively: Chenshan Mountain, the water system and plant, which means
mountain, water and tree are integrated, demonstrating the garden building feature of
Chinese garden tradition and reflecting the harmony between the human and the nature,
as well as, the landscape feature of riverside town in the south of the Yangtze River in
Chenshan Botanical Garden (Fig.1).
In the Fourth Phase project of Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden, the greenhouse
construction is the main construction on the green ring. Three heterotypical glass
greenhouses made of aluminium alloy structure have been a grand highlight in Shanghai
Chenshan Botanical Garden by means of their features of lightness and transparency,
and they will attract lots of visitors’ eyes. The glass greenhouse is made of aluminium
alloy glass structure, and the theory of bionic is applied to make the form natural and
fluent ， the glittering and translucent construction is integrated with the green ring as
whole, and is corresponded with Chenshan Mountain as a background, combining an
appealing picture. The ecological greenhouse construction consists of three different
huge atmosphere covers, one outdoor lobby area with canopy, one office area and one
underground equipment area. Its total covered area is 21,165 m2. The exhibiting site is
divided into three exhibiting halls, and eight different plant exhibiting areas are included
respectively, the covered area is 12,875 m2. The height of the ecological greenhouse
construction is 23m, 21m and 18m respectively, and the unfolded area is about
10,000m2, 78,000m2 and 4,800m2. The greenhouse complex has a unique construction
form and a curve dome with large span, and the single layer spatial mesh structure,
which is advanced in the world, is applied in its structure. Its roof is covered by a piece
of triangle interlayer hollow tempering glass, and is light as well as transparent. The
greenhouse breaks the traditional intensive planting way for indoor plants, in stead; it
stresses the seasonal layout of gardening flowers and plants in large space. Renewable
resources are utilized in these three greenhouses, and the intelligent environment
controlling system which zones independently is also applied, forming eight climate
types interiorly so that exotic flowers and rare herbs from all over the world could be
planted (Fig. 2).
75
Fig.1: site plan
Fig. 1: site plan
Fig. 2: bird view

2 Form Selection
Considering the environmental condition of high temperature and humidity, as well as,
the functional requirement of light transmission, and on the request of the client, in
order to choose a structure system that can be better adapted to the greenhouse of
Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden, the design team has calculated and analysed the
76
model of aluminium alloy and steel respectively. Through reviewing the structure
deformation, the natural vibration characteristic, the end reaction and the overall
stability, the team has respectively designed the structure system that meets the
structural safety characteristic. Finally, through the consideration of such facts as the
material consumption, the manufacture, the installation and the maintenance, the design
team made a comprehensive economic index analysis (Table 1~2) for the form finding
of the greenhouse, and chose the aluminium alloy structure system in the end.
Table 1: Index analysis for project cost
Major item Sub-item Aluminium alloy structure Steel structure

The total material consumption is low, but the The total steel consumption is relatively
unit price is relatively high; high, but the unit price is relatively low;
Main structure
The amount of section types is large, but the The amount of section types is not large, and
section area is limited; the section area is not limited;
The glass roof assistant structure and the main The aluminium material must be utilized as
Material Curtain structure are integrated ， which means the the bearing structure of the glass roof, and
Purchase structure aluminium material for assistant use may be the transition construction to the steel
saved; structure is complicated（cell reaction）;
The dead load is low, the end reaction is small, The end reaction is large and the basic cost
Basic cost
and the basic cost is low; high;
The anti-corrosion performance is positive, and
Coating cost The coating cost is high;
the coating cost may be saved;
Non-standard section, the steel board is
Component
Extruded into shape directly, with high accuracy; welded after being cut, and the workload is
Manufacture blanking
relatively huge;
in factory
Component The workload for welding is huge, and the
No workload for welding
welding quality controlling cost is relatively high;
On-ground There is no need to assemble into units on The bed-jig is needed for assembling into
assembling ground, and it can be installed in bulk in the air; units on ground before hoisting;
The dead load is high, and the temporary
Temporary The dead load is low, and the cost of temporary
bearing load is high, so the ground needs to
Spot bearing system bearing system is low;
be reinforced;
construction The crane tonnage is relatively large, the
The crane tonnage is relatively small, the
machine-shift cost is relatively high, the
machine-shift cost is relatively low, the location
Installation workload for spot welding is relatively huge,
accuracy is high, and the installation speed is
and the quality controlling cost is relatively
fast;
high;
Maintenance The maintenance is not required; The maintenance is a must;
77
Table 2: Comparison of structure plans
Structure
Merits Demerits
system
1. Both the intensity and rigidity of steel 1. The steel material is corrodible, and this project is a
material are high; greenhouse with humidity and heat, in which
2. The unit price of steel material is components are put for long time, and there are restrict
relatively low, and the process cost is requirements of anti-corrosion. After being treated with
low as well; conventional anti-corrosion workmanship, the anti-
3. The connection of structural nodes is corrosion age limit is relatively short, and the
simple; maintenance cost is relatively high;
Steel
2. The condition for spot anti-corrosion maintaining
structure
construction is complicated, and the protection for plants
that have been existed before construction is difficult;
3. The steel structure component and the glass panel must
be transferred by means of aluminium material, which
results in the less transparency in architectural effect;
4. The structure dead load is relatively high, and the basic
treatment cost is relatively high;
1. The aluminium alloy material is 1. The structural rigidity is less high than that of the steel
corrosion resisting, the anti-corrosion structure, and the deformation is much more obvious;
treatment and maintenance routine are 2. The construction of structural nodes is relatively
not needed, and the maintenance cost is complicated, and the construction requirements are
relatively low; the surface of this high.
structure is smooth and clear, the finish
coating is not needed, and the overall
impression of the structure is fine;
2. The weight of the aluminium alloy
material is only 1/3 of that of the steel
material, the component dead load is
low, so the end reaction is relatively
small, the basic treatment cost is
relatively low;
Aluminium 3. The processing accuracy of the
alloy aluminium alloy component is high, the
structure installation is simple, there is no
perforation or welding for spot
construction, and there also no
deformation due to processing or
remaining stress;
4. The coefficient of thermal expansion of
the aluminium alloy material is the
same to that of the glass, and the
collaborating working performance is
relatively fine;
5. The component and glass depression bar
may be designed integrally, the overall
air-tightness and water resistance are
relatively fine, the architectural effect is
transparent;
3 Difficulties in the Design of Structure

� These three greenhouse constructions have new and unique models as well as fluent
curved surfaces, but there is no way to obtain the coordinate of any point by means
of analyzing formulas, which brings difficulties for structural model building;
� Curved surfaces of the greenhouse are un-analyzing ones, because of which, when
the three dimensional mesh is utilized, the deflection of the local coordinate system
of the component must be considered in the circumstance that the component is not
centrosymmetry;
78
� Due to the complicated configuration of the greenhouse, the distribution of wind

loads on its surface and the vibration factor are both hard to be determined;
� The structural type selection, component distribution and nodes form of the
greenhouse must consider of the using features of the green house in the future,
comprehensively considering of the requirements of such facts as aesthetics, anti-
corrosion, safety, economic and the simplicity of installation;
� Due to the requirement of bank up landform, the support of the greenhouse
structure changes along with the height of the bank of earth, which not only brings
difficulties for support location, but the bank of earth in large areas will bring
negative affects for base design;
� These three greenhouses are all single layer mesh structures, and the installation of
components must comply with the pattern of the curved surface, and the spot
installation is hard, however, the affect of the structural overall stability resulted
from the installation error must be considered;
� The coefficient of thermal expansion of the aluminium alloy material is relatively
large, and the change of temperature has huge affects to structural performance, due
to which, the structural rigidity must be designed appropriately, in the meanwhile,
the support pattern must be optimized to satisfy with the requirement of structural
safety when the temperature is changing;
� The single layer aluminium alloy structural system has high requirement of overall
stability, and its overall stability coefficient must be ascertained through the
nonlinear load-displacement;
� Due to the characteristics of the aluminium alloy material, the nodes shall satisfy
with the design requirement of aesthetics and machinery connection so that such
series of requirements as safety, manufacturing accuracy, and the simplicity of spot
installation may be ensured.
4 Structural Design
4.1 Basic Design

The green ring in the botanical garden in general is one of the features in the design of
Chenshan Botanical Garden, and it is a circular earth slope ups and downs generated by
post-earth filling. The highest absolute elevation of the green ring next to the
surroundings of the greenhouse reaches 9.00m, take the natural terrace elevation which
is 4.00m as a benchmark, the earth covered height will be 5.00m. Equally, the highest
absolute elevation of the high fill inside the greenhouse reaches 9.00m as well.
According to the field prospecting result, the field natural terrace elevation is about
3.00m, which means the highest earth covered height will approximately be 6m. The
ups and downs earth fill in the green ring and the field make changes in the amount of
levels and heights of constructions among them when people are observing from
different views. Earth fill of such height and amount in the green ring is not common in
the design of average on-ground architectures; it will generate severe negative affects to
the main construction of the permanent constructions in the field. The construction,
backfill material of the green ring, and the construction order between the main
79
constructions will all generate huge affects to the structural design plan of the main
construction.
The basic length of the greenhouse complex is extremely long, the basic longest length
of the single greenhouse is far longer than the ruled length in current codes, and it is a
kind of steel reinforced concrete structure of extremely long length and large area,
however, the shrinkage of the concrete and the change of the environmental temperature
will generate a certain tensile stress, when this tensile stress exceeds the tensile strength
of the concrete, some cracks will be generated. In order to control the generation and
development of the crack of extremely long concrete structures, the prestress technology
needs to be applied so as to reduce or offset the tensile stress generated by concrete
shrinkage and environmental temperature change. In addition, the base of the
greenhouse needs to resist the horizontal force generated in the upper structure, so
couples of prestress tensile bar are planned to design in the structural plan to resist the
effect of the horizontal force, combining with the requirement of culverts of equipment
discipline. Due to the greenhouse is a single latticed shell structure, and it is very
sensitive to heterogeneous subsidence, the basic design is required to not only consider
the effect of the high fill, but also satisfy with the controlling requirements of overall
subsidence.
Fig. 3: The Basic Plan
80
In order to satisfy with the requirements of subsidence and displacement, the following
measures should be mainly taken in basic design:
� Setting the earth-retaining wall structure beyond the main base to separate the
exterior fill from the main structure;
� EPS light filling material is planned to apply in the high fill plan in the interior area
of the greenhouse, and about only 2m of covering earth is left above EPS;
� In order to control the construction subsidence and negative settlement effects, as
well as the relatively huge horizontal force transmitted to the base trtaining wall
through resisting the latticed shell structure, the cast-in-place pile is planned to
utilize in the main construction of the greenhouse. The pile of the greenhouse main
project utilizes the Φ800mm cast-in place pile， the supporting course penetrates
into ⑨ 1 and ⑤ 3 layer, the pile length is about 16-46m, the designed vertical
bearing capacity for the resist compression of single pile is 1,800-4,000KN, and the
designed value of the horizontal bearing capacity of single pile is 150KN；
� The underground equipement ducts and equipment workshops underneath the
greenhouse are complicated and confused, and, it is advised to consider Thoroughly
in the design of enclosure protection so as to ensure that the construction will not
affect the surrounding soil, and it is not allowed to regard the horizontal
displacement generated in the constructed structural pile foundation as a goal, and
the construction process shall be supervised Strictly. When the displacement
happens to be too large, related construction measures must be taken to prove the
accomplishment of goals mentioned above. After the underground construction is
compeleted, the yellow sand will be required for backfill so as to ensure the density
and liabilty of the earth fill.
4.2 Structural Form Finding

4.2.1 Characteristics of glass structure and design requirements of the greenhouses
Architecutres utlize glass as the covering material have characteristics as follows:

� The transparency of the glass depends on the opposite ray of light going through
any side of the glass. If there are more rays of light at the views’ side than those at
the opposite side of the glass, the reflection effect will happen on the glass. On the
other hand, if there are adequate ray of light on the opposite of the glass, the glass
will be transparent;
� The structural distribution that is covered by the glass must take the
transparency of the glass into consideration thoroughly, looking from the inside, a
series of points and lines (nodes and components) that ascertain the spatial curved
face may be seen, the bearing structure of the glass construction determines and
dominates views seen from the inside (Fig. 4), and the glass itself looks like
unexisted, because it can only be recognized through its reflection of light. Looking
from the outside, the smooth and constant reflection of light make the glass panel
materialization (Fig. 5)
The funtion requirements of the greenhouse construction:
� Natural ventilation: Above 0-4m in the air, a window is installed at the top of the
greenhouse, a rough air window is installed at the 12m position in the middle, and
81
the opening angle of the window is 70°, the opening area satisfy with the needs of
the growth of plants (Fig. 6);
� Illumination requirements: For safety, the laminated glass is utilized based upon
the requirements of the codes for certain, but, in order to ensure the illumination
elements, the glass is required to be as thin as possible, and there is only one layer
allowed for PVB film. Due to the relationship between the glass design and the
mesh dimension, in other words, there are rigorous requirements of the mesh
dimension;
� Aesthetics requirements: Both the height difference and the span variation of the
greenhouse curved surface are intense, and the span in the middle is large. In order
to ensure the smooth of the curved surface in the end section, the mesh dimension
shall be as small as possible, however, the smaller the mesh is, the denser the mesh
in the middle will be, and the transparency will also be worse. In order to satisfy
with the aesthetics requirements of the architectural appearance, the homogeneity of
the overall mesh must be ensured (Fig. 7);
Fig. 4: Interior view Fig. 5: Exterior view
82
Fig. 6: Design of natural ventilation
Fig. 7: Mesh division of Greenhouse A
83
4.2.2 Form Finding
Fig. 8: Steps for form optimization Fig. 9: Pre and Post comparison of form optimization
Yellow：Shell after form optimization
Blue：Shell before form optimization
In order to develop the shell rigidity sufficiently, the “form optimization” is taken, it
uses the form finding way similar to the one used on cable net structure to “find” a kind
of curved surface so that the structural stress will be as optimized as possible when the
architectural requirements are satisfied (Fig. 8). The goals for form optimization are as
followed:
� To improve the modelling of the structure so that the natural curved surface which
is relatively aesthetic and easier to build will be obtained;
� To magnify the “arching effect” and improve the vertical rigidity within the span
plan;
� To make the structure bear as much Axial force as possible instead of bending so
that the material potentials may be developped sufficiently, thus, the section area
will be lessen and the project cost of the joint will be reduced;
From the pre and post comparison of form optimization, we can see that both side areas
of the curved surface have moved toward inside, and the top area has moved toward
outside. This situation is simliar to the deformation of the membrane structure under the
effect of dead load (Fig. 9).
4.3 Research of Wind load

This project is a typical wind-sensitive structure, and the wind load has tremendous
effects to the design of structure, the specific facts are demonstrated as follows, which
will result in huge affects to the selection of the structural wind load parameters:
� The green house construction is located in the “green ring” generated by the earth
bank, and both the height and width of the “green ring” change constantly;
� The whole greenhouse complex consists of three greenhouses and parts of the
concrete construction located in the service area in the middle;
� The configurations of three greenhouses are complicated, and they have relatively
huge mutual impacts;
� The aliminium alloy is utilized as the structural material of the greenhouse, and
there exists a “coupling” phenomenon between the structural system and the wind
field;
84
Considering of the landform characterisitc of the project location and the restricted
conditions of the experiment, the design team has coordinated with the Bridge
Construction Department of Tong Ji University, and finished some special research
projects (Fig. 10).
Stimulation of the wind load on the structural surface of numerical wind tunnel
Fig. 10: Route of the structural wind resistant research
4.3.1 Wind environmental numerical simulation of the landform surrounding the

site
For the botanical garden surrounded by the “green ring”, in the natural situation, its
surrounding wind environment must be affected by the landform. First, because of the
hindering effect of the landform, relatively huge changes will be resulted in between
the wind profiles in the rear of the landform and inflow, and the value will demonstrate
the difference in the height modification coefficient of the wind pressure; Second,
some relativley huge flow vortexes will be generated after the wind flowing the
landform, due to which, the fluctuating characteristic of the natural wind will change,
and the value will demonstrate the related change in the structural wind vibration
coefficient. In this part, the numerical tunnel technology is utilzed to virtually generate
the landform surrounding the site through digital technology, and obtain the flow field
distribution in the overall landform area through combing with the numerical tunnel
solving technology to evaluate the wind environment surrounding the site so that we
can obtain the related parameters of the wind load calculation that we concern.
85
Fig. 11: Simulation of wind environment
4.3.2 Numerical wind tunnel simulation of wind load parameters
In this part, the numerical tunnel technology is utilzed to accomplish the numerical
simulation of the three dimensional complicated flow field of the botanical garden
greenhouse structure through the three dimensional model building for the botanical
garden greenhouse site, so that the structural type coefficients under different wind
deviation angles can be obtained accuratly to serve for the structural design
calculation.The following are the main contents (Fig. 12):
� Based upon the method of CFD, and combining with the calculation software, we
can numerically calculate the block type coefficient on the surface of the site, and
the calculating wind deviation angle is 0º~360º, the interval is 30º, and there are 12
wind deviation angles in total;
� Providing the surface pressure coefficient of the site under all wind deviation angles
and the diagram of the flow field;
Fig. 12: Type coefficient of wind load
4.3.3 Pressure test experiment research of rigid models
In this part, the physical wind tunnel technology is utilized to make wind tunnel
experiment for the rigid models in this project (Fig. 13), and the average pressure and
86
fluctuating pressure on the model Surface are tested. The experiment result may be used
in the design of overall structure and enclosure protection structure. The following are
the main research contents:
� According to the location and the landform characteristics of the botanic garden, a
flow field is simulated in the edge layer of Class B atomsphere by the scale ratio of
1/120, and the average pressure and simultaneous fluctuating pressure on the
surface of the rigid model will be tested by means of electric pressure scanning
valve, and the angle of direction wind is within the range of 360°by the interval of
15°;
� Treating the data based upon the wind pressure data tested by the experiment, and
the wind load for structrual design and enclosure protection structural design will
be provided;
Fig. 13: Physical wind tunnel experiment

4.3.4 Overall structural wind vibration response research
In this part, the fluctuating wind pressure time-history on the structural surface obtained
in the experiment is used to numerically simulate the structural random response in the
effect of fluctuating wind load by means of large scale finite element softwares. And the
key parameter in the calculation of structural wind load---wind fluctuating coefficient,
by means of statistical analysis (Fig. 14).
Individual B
Individual A
Individual C
Fig. 14: Curve of the overall wind fluctuating coefficient time-history in a certain angle of direction wind
87
Table 3: List of each individual wind fluctuating coefficient
Angle of direction wind A－Ecological garden B－Land of desert C－Tropical garden
0 2.07 1.87 1.53
15 2.01 1.96 1.59
30 1.97 2.27 1.68
45 1.6 1.91 1.85
60 1.8 1.56 2.57
75 1.89 1.65 2.17
90 2.38 1.72 1.66
105 1.72 1.66 1.9
120 2 1.54 1.72
135 1.65 1.62 1.52
150 1.6 1.56 1.52
165 2.17 2.01 1.98
180 2.18 1.79 1.42
195 2.06 2.28 1.46
210 1.8 2.4 1.65
225 1.59 1.84 1.95
240 1.62 1.72 2.58
255 1.56 1.94 2.12
270 1.34 1.84 1.52
285 1.37 2.3 1.38
300 1.66 2.34 1.7
315 1.81 1.85 1.62
330 1.64 2 1.81
345 1.54 1.46 1.53
88
4.4 Overall stability analysis

Besides the strength and deformation need to be controlled in the design, the stability of
aluminium alloy structure has always been the controlling fact that determines its
bearing capability. In the specification of Clause 4.3.3 of Technical specification for
latticed shells (JGJ 61—2003 J258—2003), the overall process analysis of the ball
latticed shell may be taken as the full span homogeneous load, and the semi-span live
load distribution should be taken into consideration additionally for cylndrical surface
latticed shell and oval paraboloid latticed shell. When processing the overall process
analysis of latticed shell, the effect of the installation error of the original curved surface
shape; and the structural lowest order buckling mode may be used as the initial failure
distribution mode, and its maximum calculating value may be taken as L/300 of the
latticed shell span. In Clause 4.3.4 of this techical specification, there is a regulation that
the load value at the first critical point obtained from the overall process analysis of
latticed shell based upon Clause 4.3.2 and 4.3.3 in this specification may be regarded as
the ultimate bearing force of this latticed shell. Being divided by the coefficient K, this
ultimate bearing force will be the allowed bearing force (the standard value) ascertained
according to the latticed shell stability. And the the coefficient K may be valued as 5.
Stability is a kind of capability that the structure keeps its original balance form in the
effect of a certain load, and the overall stability of the structure is relatede to the load
conditions performing above it, different ways of load distribution may correspond with
different structural stable form, and there are also different stable coefficients or critical
loads existing in the structure.Sometimes, special load distributions may result in the
rapid damages of the stucture due to the lose of balance. For example, the flat arching
structure is likely to be dissymmetry or asymmetric unstable. In 2001, couples of
collapsing phenomena happened to the metal arching roof in the snowstorm in the
northeast region of China, some of these phenomena were resulted from the local snow
piling which resulted in exceesively large snow load on the semi-span, and the
unstability happened locally, which further resulted in the unstability of the overall
structure. Making a comperhensive survey of the experience lessons of many unstable
damages existed, we can find that there are some fixed characteristics in spatial
strucutral unstability: It demonstrates as a sudden and fragile damage, and there is no
obvious deformation and threatens before the damage; The structural unstable damage
always performs as integrity, large scale of damage and huge hazard. According to the
load patterns (scale, distribution, combination) that may be beared in the process of the
greenhouse structrual construciton and daily use, these patterns are used as the basic
loads for stability analysis, and through the overall process of tracing the development
of structural load-displacement, the ultimatre bearing force may be obtained and
satisfied with relative requirements of the code, the specific design contents are as
followed:
� Linear buckling analysis: Considering of five loading patterns:D+L 、 D+L(S) 、
D+L(N)、D+W(S)、D+W(N);
� Nonlinear buckling analysis: Model 1——Not considering of the analysis of the
initial defect. But considering of the analysis of geometry nonlinear, and the
material linear elasticity; Model 2——Considering of the analysis of the initial
failure of L/300, geometry nonlinear, and the material linear elasticity; Model 3—
89
—Considering of the analysis of the initial failure of L/300, geometry nonlinear,

and the material elasto-plasticity;
Through the specific analysis of each situation of the stability of three greenhouse
individuals, the following conclusions may be obtained:
� This structure has fine stability, among the five load patterns analysed, no matter
what the characterisitc value buckling is, not considering of the nonlinear buckling
of the initial failure, Or considering of the buckling of the initial failure, its
buckling load coefficient are all larger than 5.0, which Satisfies with the related
regualtions of latticed shell code (Fig. 15, 16);
� The failure has little affect to the overall stability of the structure, from which we
can find that the structural redundancy of the structural system divided by three
dimensions mesh is relatively high, and the self-adaption and balance form are kept
well;
� There is no obvious yield terrace in the aluminium alloy material, in addition, the
elastic modulus is relatively small, so it has little affect to the overall stability of the
structure when the component accessing into the plasticity after yielding, from the
calculating result of the double nonlinear, we can find that the load critical point is
much smaller than that of not considering of the material elasto-plasticity. Thus, it
is more appropriate to consider of double nonlinear for the alminium alloy structure;
� Through the analysis of nonlinear, we can find that it is proper in taking the value
of the rigidity of the elastic support. In the effect of the critical load, the overall
structure become unstable, but the slippage of the support is still within the safe
range;
14
load factor
12
10
8
6
4
2 Uz(m)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Fig. 15: Unstable mode of Fig. 16: Load-displacement curve of

Greenhouse individual A Greenhouse individual A
4.5 Anti-seismic performance analysis

The force bearing and deformation performance of the structure in frequently
occurred earthquake respectively uses the response spectrum method and the linear
elastic time-history analysis method for calculation, from which, when processing the
response spectrum analysis, the first 200 vibration modes (Ritz vector method) are taken
for calculation, however, the direct integration method is used in time-history analysis
（Newmark，γ=0.5，β=0.25 ）, the peak value of the acceleration is 35Gal, and the
seismic wave data uses three Shanghai Waves, SHW1 、 SHW3 、 SHW4 （ The
calculating time of these three waves are 30s, 40s, 40s）. When processing the response
90
spectrum calculation, the first 200 vibration modes, and the obtained mode participation
mass coefficient is: X direction—99.20%, Y direction—92.35%, Z direction—96.18%.
When using the response spectrum method to calculate, the seismic affecting coefficient
curve uses the one regulated in Clause 5.1.5 of Shanghai Municiple Engineering
Construction Code Code for seismic design of buildings (DGJ08-9-2003 J10284-
2003).And the nonlinear elasto-plasticity time-history analysis is used to make an
extensive analysis of the structural performance in large structural earthquake.
Through the anti-seismic performance analysis above, the following conclusions
may be obtained:
� The indoor and outdoor height of earth banking are the same, the continuous wall
with the bearing structure of the aluminium alloy latticed shell has a relatively large
rigidity, which satisfies with the requirement of the embedding of the base, so it is
appropriate not consider of the lower part of the concrete continuous wall in the
calculation model;
� Like most latticed shell structures, the vibration mode of this latticed shell is very
dense, due to which, when processing the response spectrum analysis, more
vibration modes should be taken to satisfy with the requirements of the
participation mass coefficient;
� In the effect of frequently occurred earthquake, the structural nodes displacement
and member bar stresses were small, and they were in the elastic state, which
satisfied with the requirement of “no damage in small earthquake” in the code;
� In the effect of rare earthquake, the structural nodes displacement and member bar
stress reached a large value, and few of the member bars accessed into the plastic
state;
� Generally speaking, this structure has fine anti-seismic performance, due to the
irregular of the architectural apperance, expect for some inhomogeneous force
bearing situations happened in individual A and B which resulted in some plastic
hinges in this part, most of the rest member bars have small stresses;
� The greenhouse structure has fine anti-seismic performance, in the effect of
frequently occurred earthquake, the structure is basically in the elastic state, but in
rare earthquake, few member bars accessed into the plastic state, which resulted in
severe deformation in structure, but the deformation in structure would not result in
obvious mutations, that is, the structure would not be collaspe or buckling. In
addition, in the effect of SHW3 wave, the structural response was the maximum,
and in the effect of SHW1 wave, the structural response was the minimum;
� Through the elasto-plasticity time-history analysis, the anti-seismic performance of
the structure is extensively verified, that is, in the effect of rare earthquake, except
local member bars would access into the plastic state, most of the member bars
were still in the elastic state, and the reason is that the change of the structural
apperance was huge, and the distribution of force bearing was inhomogeneous,
which resulted in the large stresses of local member bars;
91
4.6 Support Design

4.6.1 The principle of support design
The greenhouse construction is of complicated form, long length, large thermal

expansion coefficient of the aluminium alloy, and it is very sensitive to the temperature,
in the meanwhile, the temperature joint is not set due to the requirements of
architecutral design. So, using the fixed support will result in the extremely large
temperature stress which affects the safety of the structure, thus, the structural safety in
the structure temperature is a must in the design process. The expansion deformation of
the aluminium alloy structure mainly come from the change of the surrounding
enviromnental temperature, and to a large extent, the expansion deformation of the
spatial mesh depends on the bearing way of structure, especially the lateral restraint
orientation and dierction at the support. Besides the expansion deformation resulted
from the temperature, the support must transmit the horizontal force generated by the
effect of wind load or earthquake between the spatial mesh and its bearing structure. In
order to resist the lateral load, the lateral in the lowest limit is essential. The direction
of these restraints depends on the layout and rigidity of the bearing structure, and this
bearing structure also must be designed to resist these lateral forces. In conclusion, the
principle of support design can be ascertained: “Sufficient initial rigidity ensures the
structural stability in normal load, in extreme load, the slippage of the support is used to
release the temperature stress, and the support rigidity is controllable in the process of
slippage.”
4.6.2 Support design parameter analysis
Based upon the principle of support design mentioned above, the parameter design of
the support is as followed:
� Support location ： The hinged shoe shall be set both in the primary-secondary
arch and the falling ground of the oblique mesh, the hinged shoe shall be set in the
primary arch and the falling ground of the secondary arch in the middle, the hinged shoe
shall be set in the primary arch and the falling ground of every other secondary arch,
and the hinged shoe shall be set in the falling ground of every primary arch;
� Support releasing way ： Tangential direction releasing, tangential direction and
partial normal direction releasing, X direction releasing (X is the integral cooridantes
axis）；
� Support spring rigidity ： k ＝ 10kN/mm, k ＝ 5kN/mm, k ＝ 1kN/mm, k ＝
0.2kN/mm；
Through comparing with such index as structural overall deformation, support reaction,
component stress in different support design parameters, the final conculsion is as
followed:
� The plan of releasing the X diection restrain is relatively fine, because to a large
extent, the support releasing reduces the temperature stress of the member bar, which
basically makes the deformation of the member bar in the effect of temperature the
same to the expected displacement pattern. That is why the plan of X diection releasing
92
is used as the final plan, and its support location is setting the hinged shoe in the falling
ground of every primary-secondary arch;
� Selecting 0.2kN/mm as the spring rigidity bases upon the requirement of resisting
the horizontal load of the structure, if the spring rigidity is too large, the local restrain to
the latticed shell structure will be too strong that may increase the temperature stress,
and will bring difficulities in constructing the support (e.g.: the selection of material);
� Based upon the temperature deformation regulation, four arch frames in the middle
shall be fixed, and the rest are all slipping support;
4.6.3 Support construction design
The design of support construction has experienced a optimization process, the

Initial design of support was the friction slipping support (Fig. 17), and the slippage was
accomplished through PTFE。The support construction is simple, but problems are
emerged after the research:
� The greenhouse construction is of complicated form, and the variation of height
and span is severe, the distribution of each support reaction is extremely
inhomogeneous, however, the minimum material friction coefficient (sliding
friction) of PTFEonly reaches 0.04, due to the existence of this friction coefficient,
parts of supports are unable to slip, which results in the damage to some regional
member bars or supports;
� The wind load has tremendous affects to the structural design, in different angles of
direction wind, the variation of the vertical reaction and horizontal thrust of the
support is severe, which results in the severe variation of the support friction
generated by these two forces mentioned above, and the support slippage will not
be controlled, thus, the safety may not be assessed;
In this point of view, the introdution of the conception of rolling friction will have
the friction reduce to 0.005~0.01 by means of reasonable construction, and the
combined spring will be used to offer the elastic restoring force (Fig. 18, and this device
has been applied for the patent), and different spring rigidities as well as the maximum
travel distance will be designed based upon the maximum slippage of each greenhouse
individual. For the support finite element analysis, please see Fig. 19:
Fig. 17: PTFE friction sliding support Fig. 18: Spring rolling sliding support
93
Fig. 19: Support stress and distribution of deformation
５ Spot Construction
5.1 Construction Duration

� December, 2006~October, 2008, Complete the design
� September, 2009~December, 2010, Complete the installation of the greenhouse
structure（From September, 17th, 2009, the first aluminium alloy component began to
install, to January, 5th, 2010, all aluminium alloy components that are more than 20,000
have been completed in three greenhouses, and there are 800,000 bolts, and 60% of the
glass and opening windows have completed within only 3.5 months）.
5.2 Pictures for construction spot
Fig. 20: Pictures for spot construction in different stages
94
Referencess
Reference
[1] Structural wind-resistant research report for Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden
(I)---The numerical wind tunnel simulation of wind load parameters, Tong Ji
University
(II)---Pressure test experiment research for rigid models, Tong Ji University
(II)---Overall structural wind vibration response research, Tong Ji University
95
Shape of Super-Pressure Balloons

Xiaowei DENG and Sergio PELLEGRINO
Graduate Aerospace Laboratories
California Institute of Technology
1200 E. California Blvd, Pasadena CA 91125
sergiop@caltech.edu
Abstract
Super-pressure balloons form a closed envelope that keeps constant the volume
of the internal gas: these giant structures are designed for strength and lightness. The
concept chosen by the NASA super-pressure balloon is a symmetric pumpkin shape
formed by a thin plastic film inside a cage of stiff and strong meridional tendons, but
two kinds of symmetry-breaking shape changes have been observed. The first one is
bifurcation buckling at a critical value of the internal pressure. The second kind is
incomplete deployment due to the presence of a symmetry-breaking load condition
during inflation.
Keywords: membrane structures, lighter-than-air, buckling, structural concepts
1 Introduction
Super-pressure balloons are giant pressure vessels that float in the stratosphere. They
form a closed envelope that keeps constant the volume of the lighter-than-air gas inside
the balloon and so the balloon's altitude remains constant day and night. These balloons
are designed for strength and lightness: the most efficient structural concept is a
pumpkin shape formed by a thin plastic film inside a cage of stiff and strong meridional
tendons. The film bulges out between the tendons forming a series of identical lobes and
the resulting high transverse curvature of the lobes makes the maximum stress in the
film much smaller than in a balloon with a smooth surface.
Pumpkin balloons were first considered in 1919 by G.I. Taylor [1], see Figure 1. The
first large scale balloon was constructed in 1984 by Julian Nott and had 64 lobes. When
it was first inflated it took the shape shown in Figure 2(a). Removal of two lobes
diminished but did not eliminate the asymmetry, Figure 2(b), and the removal of two
more lobes finally led to a symmetrical shape. This 60 lobe balloon was used by Nott
for his attempt to circumnavigate the globe [2], Figure 3.
The Balloon Program Office (BPO) at NASA is currently developing a super-pressure

balloon to support global scientific observations above 90% of the earth's atmosphere.
These balloons are intended to carry payloads of several tonnes for periods approaching
100 days. NASA has chosen a pumpkin design made of state of the art materials but
complex structural instabilities have affected the initial stages of this development,
96
leading to small-scale model studies [3] and computer simulations using different
approaches [4, 5].
Figure 1: Pumpkin balloon model made from Ref. [1].
Figure 2: Inflated shapes of Endeavour balloon with (a) 64 and (b) 62 lobes (courtesy
of J. Nott).
97
Figure 3: Endeavour balloon in flight; the shadows near the top suggest the presence of
a small amplitude buckling mode.
The NASA balloons are made from flat gores of Linear Low Density Polyethylene
(LLDPE) film reinforced by meridional PBO tendons (this fiber has double the stiffness
of high-modulus Kevlar). A schematic representation of the construction scheme is
presented in Figure 4.
Figure 4: Schematic layout of NASA super-pressure balloon and gore cutting pattern.
There are two different explanations for the symmetry-breaking shape changes that
were observed in Nott's balloon and then in the NASA balloons. The first explanation is
classical bifurcation buckling: at a critical value of the internal pressure the symmetric
shape becomes unstable (although the balloon is fully in tension) and hence the balloon
98
adopts a regular up-down-up... shape with a lower symmetry. The second type of shape
changes requires the presence of a symmetry-breaking load condition, such as a
pressure gradient, during inflation. The actual magnitude of the pressure is less
important.
This paper gives a brief review of the buckling situation in the next section and then
focuses on the second situation in the remaining sections. Specifically, Section 3
describes the clefted shapes that have been observed then Section 4 introduces a
computer simulation technique to produce these shapes and Section 5 presents the
results of the simulations. Section 6 concludes the paper.
2 Critical Buckling Pressure

Calladine [6] analyzed the stability of a lobed balloon whose lobe cross-sections
subtend a constant angle (CA). He found that there are two key balloon parameters, the
number of lobes, n, and the lobe angle, (in radians). Balloons for which
n  2.5  47
have the property that their volume can be increased by deforming the balloon shape
according to a certain inextensional buckling mode, hence they are unstable. From this
discovery Calladine explained the behaviour of the Endeavor balloon and Nott's
successful design changes.
Later Lennon and Pellegrino [7] considered balloons with a constant lobe radius (CR)
and, again for inextensional deformation modes, found that the volume enclosed by
balloon decreases for small amplitude deformations but increases for sufficiently large
deformations. Hence the balloon is unstable for large perturbations.
Both of these studies had assumed a particular type of buckling mode and neglected the
elastic deformation of the membrane and tendons, hence buckling would be a geometric
property of the balloon. In other words, buckling would occur at zero pressure.
Pagitz and Pellegrino [8] set up an elastic buckling computation that fully exploited the
symmetry of lobed balloons. Thus they were able to compute the buckling pressure of a
large number of balloons with different parameters and lobe designs. Figure 5 shows
that for all lobe designs the critical buckling pressure decreases when the number of
lobes increases if the lobe angle at the equator is kept constant. However, the rate at
which the pressure decreases is much faster for CA than for CR balloons.
99
Figure 5. Variation of critical buckling pressure wth number of lobes for constant-angle
(CA), constant-radius (CR) and optimized (OP) balloons with 118 deg lobe angle at the
equator. The buckling mode shapes are shown on the right.
3 Incomplete Deployment
Incomplete deployment was observed during flight tests of several NASA balloons.
Typically, a single residual cleft remained when the balloon had been fully inflated and
pressurized. This feature consists of a single non-meridional cleft spanning from top to
bottom of the balloon and involving several lobes; it has been called "S-cleft" and can
be seen in Fig. 6. Whereas meridional clefting is a regular feature of balloons that are
incompletely inflated and is seen during launch and ascent, see Fig. 7(a), non-
meridional clefting is rather counterintuitive.
Figure 6: View of clefted balloon from gondola mounted camera

(courtesy of NASA BPO).
100
Figure 7: Indoor test carried out by NASA BPO. (a) Partially inflated balloon showing
several meridional clefts; (b) fully-inflated balloon with S-cleft .
It was also observed that deployment is path-dependent. For example, a 4 m diameter

balloon with 48 lobes that was tested in our laboratory remained clefted when it was
filled with helium but had fully deployed into its nominal symmetric shape when
previously it had been inflated with air.
4 Clefting Simulations
A number of attempts have been made to reproduce computationally the S-clefts seen in
the experiments. Xu and Pellegrino [9] carried out a post-buckling analysis with the
implicit finite-element software ABAQUS/Standard. Baginski and Brakke [10]
computed the eigenvalues of the stiffness matrix of a fully inflated balloon subject to
modified boundary conditions at the top apex. They considered several balloons that
had been tested experimentally and found a correlation between the number of negative
eigenvalues and the presence or not of an S-cleft in the deployed balloon.
Here we consider an alternative approach that we have developed [11]. This approach
aims to capture the final stages in the deployment of a super-pressure balloon to
determine the deployed shape using the explicit finite-element software
ABAQUS/Explicit.
The starting point is the symmetrically inflated configuration, in equilibrium under a

uniform pressure. Then a partial deflation simulation is carried out by considering a
hydrostatic pressure distribution with a gradually decreasing pressure p0 at the bottom
of the balloon:
p  p0   gz
where  is the difference in density between the gas outside and inside the balloon, g
is the gravity acceleration and z a vertical coordinate measured from the bottom of the
balloon.
101
p0 is decreased until a large number of meridional clefts have formed, typically when
p0 is negative and a few pascals in magnitude. Finally, an inflation simulation is
carried out at a loading rate sufficiently slow that the response of the structure is quasi-
static and so inertia effects are negligible.
4.1 Simulation Details
Using ABAQUS/Explicit for this problem has a number of advantages. The main
advantage is that no stiffness matrix is formed and hence ill-conditioning in heavily
wrinkled or even slack membranes does not stop the solution. However, unlike the
dynamic relaxation codes that have been devised specifically for form-finding and
analysis of membrane structures [12] ABAQUS/Explicit is a tool for fast dynamic
events. Hence we need a number of tricks to carry out the quickest possible quasi-static
simulations while ensuring that inertia effects remain small. The most useful tricks are
the following:
• Linear bulk viscosity: defined by a linear viscosity coefficient for each analysis
step. The bulk viscosity dampens the oscillations of the balloon by dissipating
energy and so enhances the stability of its shapes, but requires smaller time
increments.
• Smooth step: the pressure variation is defined as a fifth-order polynomial with
zero first and second derivatives with respect to time, at the beginning and end
of each step. This choice decreases any dynamic effects due to abrupt
accelerations.
• Mass scaling: increasing the material density increases the stable time
increment, but excessive scaling will also increase inertia effects.
A key consideration is the amount of time needed for the whole simulation, which
crucially depends on the number of time steps required. ABAQUS/Explicit uses a
central difference scheme, which is only conditionally stable. The time step has to
satisfy the stability limit:
tstable 
2
max  1   max
2
  max 
where max = highest frequency and max = fraction of critical damping of highest
eigenmode.
A conservative estimate of the stable time increment is automatically calculated from
tstable 
Lmin
Cd
 1   max
2
  max 
where Lmin = shortest element length and Cd = dilatational wave speed, calculated from
102
E 1   
Cd 
 1   1  2 
where  = Poisson’s ratio, E = Young’s modulus and  = density.
4.2 Membrane Wrinkling
The balloon membrane is assumed to be elastic and isotropic. The wrinkling model
proposed by Miller and Hedgepeth [13] has been implemented by means of a user-
defined material subroutine (VUMAT). This involves a wrinkling criterion that
combines stress and strain conditions, generally accepted to be the most accurate
description.
Here are the key equations that define this constitutive model (2 is the lowest principal
stress and 1, 2 are the two principal strains):
2 > 0: the membrane is taut and the material stiffness is defined as
1  0 
E  
Dt  2 
 1 0 
1 
 0 0 1    / 2 
2 ≤ 0 and 1 > 0: the membrane is wrinkled and the material stiffness is defined as
 2 1  P  0 Q
E   y  xy
Dw   0 2 1  P  Q  where P  x and Q 
4 1   2 1   2
 Q Q 1 
1 ≤ 0 and 2 < 0: the membrane is slack and the material stiffness is defined as Ds = 0
4.3 Convergence at Constant Pressure
The large inertia of the balloon prevents it from changing shape globally in the short
simulation time. To facilitate this process we release all constraints at the bottom of
balloon and apply a vertical reaction instead. We then restart the simulation: the balloon
adjusts its shape but also starts to move up as a rigid body due to a small imbalance
between buoyancy and reaction. As the balloon floats up the pressure distribution
changes as the pressure is defined in a fixed reference frame. To reduce this effect we
alternate analyses with active and inactive bottom constraints; each time we apply the
correct pressure at the current altitude and re-start the simulation.
Occasionally the simulation is restarted with all stresses reset to zero; this induces an
increase in the initial velocity of all nodes and speeds up the convergence towards the
final equilibrium configuration.
103
Figure 8: Hoops of high stress in incompletely converged configuration.
Figure 9: Alternate analyses with active and inactive constraint at the bottom.
4.4 Element Distortion
During the deflation simulation heavily wrinkled regions form in the balloon,
particularly when p0 <0, and this causes the membrane elements collapse in the hoop
direction. The reduction of one edge length of an element has the effect of greatly
decreasing the integration time step: effectively the simulation grinds to a halt.
Figure 10: Collapse of element side length due to wrinkling.
The first corrective action that is used is a simple remeshing by element subdivision
(edge bisection) but when this fails we temporarily kill all largely distorted elements.
We restore these elements during inflation, when their aspect ratio becomes large
enough.
104
5 Simulation Results
Figure 11 shows key results from the deflation-inflation simulation of a flat facet
balloon with 200 lobes and a diameter of 27 m. A flat facet balloon has an unstressed
cutting pattern that spans across the tendons without providing any additional width.
This design achieves an almost smooth surface, with only a small lobe bulge due to
pressure-induced straining of the balloon film. This balloon is expected to deploy fully
and it can be seen in Fig. 11 that indeed it deploys into its symmetric shape.
Figure 11: Deflation-inflation simulation of flat facet balloon. Hoop stress contours
shown, values in MPa.
Figure 12 shows the results of an analogous study of a highly lobed balloon with the
same diameter and number of lobes, but each lobe subtends an angle of 98 deg at the
equator. This time the balloon does not deploy fully but instead it forms a non-
meridional clefted shape that is stable under high pressure. Note the regions of increased
hoop stress in the final, clefted configuration.
However, the final clefted shape obtained in the previous simulation bears only a partial
resemblance to the experimentally observed cleft. The problem is that, despite all of the
tricks described in Section 4, the inflation simulation is still very slow. We have
recently developed an alternative technique that is considerably faster, which we hope
to publish shortly.
105
Figure 12: Deflation-inflation simulation of highly lobed balloon. Hoop stress contours
shown, values in MPa.
6 Conclusion
It has been shown that lobed super-pressure balloons will adopt non-symmetric shapes
when the internal pressure is higher than a critical value, which depends on the number
of lobes, the angle subtended by the lobes, and the lobe cutting pattern. Also, for some
balloon designs there is the possibility of never reaching the fully-deployed
configuration when a strong symmetry-breaking load condition (such as a pressure
gradient) is applied during inflation.
All of the evidence so far indicates that incomplete deployment is not a problem for
balloons with sufficiently flat lobes but, short of the detailed simulations presented in
this paper, no simple design criterion to guarantee full deployment has yet been found.
Finding such a criterion is still an open area of research.
Acknowledgements
This research has been supported by the NASA Balloon Program Office. We thank the
NASA Super-Pressure Balloon Team for comments and advice.
References
[1] Taylor, G.I. On the shapes of parachutes. From: Batchelor, G.K. (ed) The Scientific
Papers of G.I. Taylor, Cambridge University Press, 1963.
[2] Nott, J. Design considerations and practical results with long duration systems for
manned world flights. Advances in Space Research 2004; 33: 1667-1673.
106
[3] Schur, W.W. Experimental investigation of undesired stable equilibria in pumpkin

shape super-pressure balloon designs. Advances in Space Research 2004; 33: 1682-
1687.
[4] Wakefield, D. Numerical modeling of pumpkin balloon instability. AIAA 5th
Aviation, Technology, Integration and Operations Conference, 26-28 September
2005, Arlington, VA, AIAA-2005-7445.
[5] Baginski, F.E., Brakke, K.A., and Schur, W.W. Cleft formation in pumpkin
balloons. Advances in Space Research 2006; 37: 2007-2081.
[6] Calladine, C.R. Stability of the Endeavour balloon. In: Elishakoff, I., Arbocz, J.,
Babcock, C.D., and Libai, A., (eds.) Buckling of Structures, Elsevier Science
Publishers, 133-149, 1988.
[7] Lennon, B.A., and Pellegrino S. Stability of lobed inflatable structures, 41st
AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC SDM Conference, Seattle, AIAA 2000-1728.
[8] Pagitz, M. and Pellegrino, S. Buckling pressure of "pumpkin" balloons.
International Journal of Solids and Structures 2007; 44: 6963-6986.
[9] Xu, Y. A computational study of lobed balloons, PhD dissertation, University of
Cambridge, 2007.
[10] Baginski, F. and Brakke, K. Exploring the Stability Landscape of Constant-Stress
Pumpkin Balloon Designs. Journal of Aircraft 2010; 47(3 (May–June): 849-857.
[11] Deng, X. and Pellegrino, S. Finite element simulations of clefting in lobed super-
pressure balloons. AIAA Balloon Systems Conference, 4-7 May 2009, Seattle, WA,
AIAA-2009-2816.
[12] Lewis, W. J. Tension structures: form and behaviour. London, Thomas Telford
Publishing, 2003.
[13] Miller, R. K. and Hedgepeth, J. M. An Algorithm for Finite Element Analysis of
Partly Wrinkled Membranes. AIAA Journal 1982; 20(12): 1761-1763.
107
Overview on EXPO 2012 Yeosu in Korea

Seung-Deog KIM
Professor, Dept. of Architectural Eng., Semyung University
117 Semyung-Ro, Jecheon, Chungbuk 390-711, Korea
E-mail : sabinus@semyung.ac.kr
Abstract
Themed under the title “The Living Ocean and Coast,” Expo 2012 Yeosu Korea
will be a venue to discuss and seek ways to live harmoniously with the ocean and coast,
not only in the present, but also for future prosperity. Yeosu Expo will convey an urgent
message to the international community in order to raise awareness on the significance
of the ocean and coasts as foundations for human life and to help realize the sustainable
development of marine environment. By exploring three sub-themes, which are coastal
development and preservation, new resource technology and creative maritime activities,
the Expo 2012 will help promote the host city of Yeosu as an international hub of the
ocean industry and tourism.In this manuscript, the most recent information on the Expo
2012 Yeosu Korea will be set forth. Expo 2012 Yeosu Korea, themed under the title
“The Living Ocean and Coast,” will be held for 3 months from May 12 to August 12,
2012 in Yeosu, Korea.
Keywords: Expo, Yeosu, Pavilion, Green growth, Blue economy
1. Introduction
The origin of World Expos can be traced back to the middle of the 19th century when
the industrial revolution was in full swing and there was a general optimism regarding
the power of science and technology. These advances seemed to guarantee the
unstoppable progress of humankind in terms of material well-being and its power to
change the world by exploiting nature to the benefit of humans. Indeed, the tradition of
World Expos originated as an expression of mankind’s optimism about the future and
confidence in our capacity to make the future come true. It was only natural, therefore,
that the Expo tradition was initiated by the United Kingdom, the number one industrial
power in the world in the 19th century that was pre-eminent in science and technology,
and which had the most advanced and sophisticated financial and political system. The
1851 Crystal Palace Expo in London was the symbolized the British Empire at its peak
in terms of power and self-confidence, and it was certainly a celebration of its many
wondrous achievements. To put it another way, national pride and mankind’s optimism
lay behind the origins of the World Expo tradition.
108
Fig. 1: The Great Exhibition of 1851, London, U.K.
This tradition is still valid to some extent today. Countries vie for the right to host
Expos partly to make themselves and their achievements better known to the world. The
2010 Shanghai Expo is planned as a celebration of the advent of China as a world
power in the follow-up to the 2008 Beijing Olympics, for example. However, the
outright optimism that used to infuse the atmosphere of World Expos in the early days
has now been replaced by a realism regarding our future and an awareness that progress
has come at a price, in particular in terms of environmental degradation, which is
leading to an enhanced consciousness concerning the sustainability of our habitat – the
Earth.
The BIE(Bureau International des Expositions) has already granted the right to organize
three Expos over the next five years: 2010 Shanghai with the theme “Better City, Better
Life,” 2012 Yeosu Korea with the theme “Living Ocean and Coasts,” and 2015 Milan
with the theme “Feeding the Planet, Energy for Life.” The themes are different, but
what is common among these Expos is the awareness that there is a need to tackle
universal issues faced by us all concerning our common future.
Urbanization has been a major social trend over recent decades and seems set to
continue, bringing with it many rapid changes in our life style. We are already familiar
with the problems caused by concentrated settlements of populations in one area in
terms of pollution, water shortage, sanitation and other social and economic problems.
As more and more people live in an artificially created environment, our natural
environment is likely to suffer more. It will take ingenious ideas to proceed with
urbanization in an environmentally friendly way. The Shanghai Expo is intended to
focus on issues arising from the mass concentrations of people and to present a vision
for accommodating them.
The world population is projected to grow to 9 billion by 2050, but statistics show that
food production is not growing fast enough to meet demands. Scientists also argue that
the net effect of climate change on the production of food will be negative. Changes in
our diet in favor of meat, vegetables, fruits and dairy products among people of
emerging market countries makes the task of feeding the planet even more difficult. The
109
Milan Expo 2015 will be an event focusing on the theme of food security for
humankind.
Environmental problems are the underlying current themes dealt with by the
forthcoming Expos. Realism, especially concerning the environment of our planet, is
indeed replacing the downright optimism that used to motivate earlier Expos. We have
become much more conscious of our common future as our power to change nature has
increased beyond anything our forbearers could have imagined. However, nature is no
longer something we can exploit indefinitely. Its capacity to accommodate human
ambitions and whims shows signs of reaching its limit. We need only mention the
recently concluded Copenhagen Climate Change Conference in December 2009 to
demonstrate that climate change and the challenges it poses are now the concern of
everyone inhabiting this planet. In line with this trend, Expo 2012 Yeosu Korea is
intended to be an event devoted to topic of those ecosystems that comprise 70% of the
surface of the Earth – the seas and coasts.
2. Concept of Yeosu Expo
Fig. 2: Concept plan of Expo 2012 Yeosu Korea
It is organizers’ intention that the Yeosu Expo 2012 will become an Expo on green
growth based around sea environments. The Yeosu Expo will introduce technology,
scientific knowledge and experience regarding the conservation of marine ecosystems
and will showcase model case policies from all over the world that promote the
protection of marine environments. It will also present policy cases that involve
mitigation and adaptation aimed at dealing with climate changes and the ensuing
environmental challenges coming from the sea.
110
As it happens, the year 2012 will be quite a “green” year with environment issues
coming to the fore of other agendas at international venues. The Kyoto protocol will
come to an end that year, and hopefully the international community will celebrate in
2012 by forging a new agreement that will bind all countries across the world to their
respective commitments on curtailing carbon dioxide emissions. As far as Korea is
concerned, it has announced its intention to host the 18th world conference on climate
change in 2012 and will involve itself intensely in moving forward the environmental
agenda of the international community. Moreover, the third World Summit on
Sustainable Development is likely to take place in that year. In these circumstances, it
would be quite meaningful for Korea to host an Expo devoted to the ocean and coasts
and green growth based on maritime environments in 2012.
If described in color, the Yeosu Expo is not only green but also blue. “Green” because it
is aimed at preserving marine ecosystems and the environment. It is “Blue” as well
because the presentation of the vision of a human future based on the sea and its
resources is another important intention of the organizers of Expo 2012 Yeosu Korea.
There is as yet no consensus on the notion regarding “the Blue Economy.” The
international symposium recently organized by the Organizing Committee for the Expo
2012 Yeosu Korea was quite useful in discussing the concept. Participants of the
symposium from abroad and home agreed tentatively that it is a new economy aimed at
identifying growth engines for the future related to the seas and its resources. The
Yeosu Expo will indeed showcase green technologies and scientific knowledge for
utilizing marine resources in an environmentally friendly way. A “mobile port,” a large
barge designed to transport cargoes from ships anchored off shore to the port, a floating
fast ship utilizing the “wing in ground” effect, robots equipped with sensors to perform
various functions for marine research, and advanced aquaculture techniques are just a
few items to be introduced as concepts and technologies for building the blue economy.
The Yeosu Expo will be attended by representatives from more than 100 countries,
international organizations, NGOs and related businesses. Small island countries will
play an important role at the event. Their participation and presentation of urgent
challenges they have to deal with not only for their economic development but also for
their very survival is expected to galvanize the international community to realize once
again the dangers faced by our marine ecosystems and the necessity for green growth.
Although focused on the serious and important issues facing us all, the Expo 2012
Yeosu Korea is also intended to be an event that is attractive and enjoyable for visitors.
In this sense, it is meaningful that the Expo is taking place in the city of Yeosu. Located
in the center of the long southern coastline of Korea, it is one of the most scenic places
in Korea. At the heart of an environment with thousands of islands and islets dotting
picturesque and serene seas in the vicinity, Yeosu gives the impression that it is sitting
among lakes. The name of Yeosu, literally speaking, stands for “beautiful water” in
Korean.
Given its natural beauty, it is no coincidence that Yeosu is the key city in the Korean
government’s plan to develop “The South Coast Ecological Tourism Belt,” as part of its
strategy to develop eco-friendly clean industries in the region. The natural beauty of
Yeosu was recognized internationally by its accession to the “Most Beautiful Bays in
the World Club” in November 2009. As a small city with a population of 300,000 and
111
with its scenic and relatively well preserved surroundings, Yeosu is ideally poised to
showcase the harmonious coexistence of nature and people, and is expected to set an
example to other regions. Other historic and beautiful spots in and around Yeosu will
further enhance the enjoyment of the Yeosu Expo for visitors.
For 93 days from May 12 to August 12, 2012, the Expo 2012 Yeosu Korea will become
an international festival devoted to the sea and coasts, bringing home the importance of
their preservation, and suggesting feasible ways to promote their sustainable use in
order to increase our well-being. Promotion of cooperation among nations to achieve
harmonious coexistence with marine ecosystems is another ambition of the Expo 2012
Yeosu Korea. In line with the best traditions of the most recent World Expos, the Expo
2012 Yeosu Korea will become not only an international festival for showcasing the
latest technologies and ideas that will improve the well-being of humankind but also an
occasion through which we may redouble our concerted efforts to deal with one of the
most important universal issues of our time, the preservation and sustainable
development of our common home.
3. International Pavilions
Fig. 3: International pavilions
The International Pavilions, an exhibition space for nations that will participate in Expo
2012 Yeosu Korea, will be designed to resemble the scenery of Korea’s island chains,
famous for their spectacular scenery.
The Organizing Committee for Expo 2012 Yeosu Korea announced the winning design
for the International Pavilions, the largest exhibition hall at the Expo. HAEAHN
Architecture Inc. with a design titled “The 3rd Nature: Metaphorical Archipelago,” was
selected as the winner. The winning design, "The 3rd Nature: Metaphorical
Archipelago," is reminiscent of a small islet in Dadohae (archipelago) as seen over the
foggy tranquil waves of the ocean. The design will be turned into reality through the use
of cutting-edge building technology and materials. In keeping with the overarching
theme of the Expo, "The Living Ocean and Coast," the design uses solar energy and a
natural ventilation system, and follows Bernoulli"s principle for its wave-shaped roof.
The design is also eco-friendly in that it can be disassembled and reassembled as needed.
A total of eight works were presented during the design contest. Participation was
limited to architectural design engineering teams. Second place went to DA Group
Engineering and DMP, who jointly presented a design titled “Territorial Sea.” Third
112
place went to A&U Design Group, who presented a design called “Beyond the
Archipelago: Celebrating Diversity and Symbiosis.”
4. One Ocean
Fig. 4: Thematic pavilion
An Austrian architecture firm Soma-Architects has been selected as the winner of the
International Competition for the Thematic Pavilion of the Expo 2012 Yeosu Korea.
The design, “ONE OCEAN,” will be the first building in Korea to be constructed on the
sea. The winning design, “ONE OCEAN” conceptualizes the ocean as a continuous
body of water divided into principal areas, with each exhibition area as an open fluid
space. The design captures the theme of the Expo through its organic shape, resembling
ocean life seen from the land, and mussels clustered on the coastal rocks when seen
from the sea.
A total of 136 teams from 31 countries have submitted their proposals for the design
contest, including 5 international and domestic teams of worldwide renowned architects.
Among the participants were 20 Korean teams, and 116 international teams including
24 from the United States and 13 from Japan. Participation was limited to architectural
design engineering teams to ensure the high quality of the competition.
Second place went to Lee Sang-Lim of Space Group who presented a design titled
“OCEAN ARCH: The Divertissement of Islands.” Third place was awarded to
Manfredi Nicoletti of Italy who presented a design called “The Great Blue Whale.”
113
Fourth places went to 3 different designs: “Water For The Soul” by Thomas Pucher of
Austria, “Amphibious Aquacultural Seascape Unit” by Nicholas Boyarsky of England,
and “Ocean Imagination” by Jang Yoon-Gyu of Unsangdong Architects Cooperation.
The Thematic Pavilion, one of the main exhibition facilities of Expo 2012 Yeosu Korea,
expresses the theme, “The Living Ocean and Coast,” and will be built off the shore of
the Expo site, on a floor area of 6,000 m2. In building the Thematic Pavilion, the
Organizing Committee for Expo 2012 Yeosu Korea hopes to attract visitors during the
Expo, and leave a lasting landmark symbolizing the Expo and Yeosu.
5. Aquarium
Fig. 5: Aquarium
The largest aquarium in Korea will exhibit rare marine biodiversity, including
endangered species from across the globe. Yeosu Sea World, led by Hanwha E&C, will
be both the construction company and operator of the aquarium to be completed in
February 2012.
With the total cost of the project reaching 79 billion KRW, the Aquarium, composed of
the Aqua Museum, Coastal Life, and Marine Life, will be the largest of its kind,
boasting an area of 16,400 m2 and water tanks that can hold a total of 6,030 tons of
water. In particular, studies on the development of species preservation and farming
technologies will be conducted at the National Fisheries Research & Development
Institute, and a number of the world’s endangered species, namely the Beluga whale,
Baikal seal, and Sea Dragon will be on display.
This will be the first time these species are exhibited in Korea. The Aquarium is
expected to become a popular tourist attraction on the Southern Coast during the Expo
and thereafter.
6. Conclusions
Expo 2012 Yeosu Korea, themed under the title “The Living Ocean and Coast,” will
be held for 3 months from May 12 to August 12, 2012 in Yeosu, Korea. The Expo is
114
taking place in the city of Yeosu which is located in the center of the long southern
coastline of Korea. It is one of the most scenic places in Korea. At the heart of
thousands of islands and islets dotting picturesque and serene seas in the vicinity, Yeosu
gives the impression that it is sitting among lakes. The name of Yeosu, literally
speaking, stands for “beautiful water” in Korean.
The Yeosu Expo is not only green but also blue if described in terms of color. “Green”
because it is aimed at preserving marine ecosystems and the environment. It is “Blue”
as well because the presentation of a vision of humanity’s future based on the sea and
its resources is another important intention of the organizers of Expo 2012 Yeosu Korea.
In this manuscript, I have given a brief sketch of the Expo 2012 Yoesu Korea by
arranging materials offered from the Expo organizing committee and very much
appreciate the kind support of the Expo organizers.
References
[1] Il-Soo Kim. Green growth, blue economy and Expo 2012 Yeosu Korea.
International Exposition Yeosu Korea 2012, 2010. 2.
[2] Expo News. Lively view of archipelago captured in architectural design.
International Exposition Yeosu Korea 2012, 2009. 8.
[3] Expo News. ONE OCEAN, a winning design of international design competition
for thematic pavilion of Expo 2012 Yeosu Korea. International Exposition Yeosu
Korea 2012, 2009. 10.
[4] Expo News. Groundbreaking for Korea’s largest aquarium in Yeosu. International
Exposition Yeosu Korea 2012, 2010. 3.
115
Concrete shell roofs in Asia

R. SUNDARAM
Chairman & Managing Director, Sundaram Architects Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore, India.
President, Structural Engineers World Congress Inc. [SEWC Inc.] Worldwide.
No. 19 Kumarakrupa Road, Bangalore – 560 001, India.
E-mail: edp@sundaramarchitects.com
Abstract
Environmental issues are drawing worldwide attention. Manufacture of cement
results in emission of carbon dioxide gas into atmosphere and that is most polluting.
Therefore we must use less of cement. Concrete thin shell roofs require minimum
concrete and steel when compared to other concrete structural systems. Consequently
minimum of cement is used and so in this way concrete shells are environmental
friendly. The shells have other features like they can span large areas efficiently and
they are aesthetically pleasing. Of course cost of form work has to be controlled by
intelligent reuse of form work. Moldability of concrete to any shape has resulted in
immense variety of structural forms which are extremely aesthetically pleasing.
Concrete shell roofs are of different kinds and for many uses. Cylindrical, hyperbolic
paraboloid and folded plates have been used. The roofs cover convention centres, food
courts, industrial buildings, sports halls, wedding reception halls, multipurpose halls and
the like. Shells built as early as in 1963 are behaving extremely well. This presentation
includes photographs and drawings of the shells built in India from 1963 until the
present.
Many outstanding concrete shell structures have been designed and built in different
parts of the world. Of late, there is a great demand for large span buildings due to
various functional requirements like sports stadia, convention centres, theatres,
exhibition halls etc. An analytical and rational approach is needed to select an
appropriate span keeping the future needs into consideration.
Concrete shell roofs are one of the best alternatives to cover large spans.
The analysis and design of large span concrete roofs is indeed a challenging and
interesting job compared to conventional roofs. In addition to a careful consideration of
all critical load combination on the structure, analysis of the structural behaviour, during
different stages of construction and final design are all essential steps for the successful
realization of concrete shell structures.
As far as choice of the material is concerned, in recent times, the material is not just
limited to structural steel. In this context, it is worth mentioning that concrete is a very
versatile construction material which can take any desired shape and form for the
structure. With the growing need for large span concrete roofs, precast, prestressed
concrete structures can be adopted in order to minimise the dead weight of the structure
and also to reduce the material consumption and shorten the construction time.
Large span concrete shell roofs are an ideal solution and is a result of a unique synthesis
between architecture and structural engineering.
116
The unique combination of concrete and steel can be used in innumerable number
situations resulting in awesome structures and it is a source of inspiration for many
designers who have created innovative shapes and forms spanning large areas in
different parts of the world. Such structures are immensely pleasing to the eye while
satisfying functional requirements.
Concrete shell roofs are of different kinds and for many uses. Cylindrical, hyperbolic
paraboloid and folded plates have been used.
No structural form perhaps does greater justice to the special attributes of concrete than
thin shell construction. They derive strength through form rather than through mass.
The transition from pure sculpture to utilitarian architecture includes a great spectrum of
variations.
Thin shells are probably the best morphological structures to express this range through
their inherent plasticity of form which lends them to diverse expressions. Thin shells
come in an immense variety of structural forms.
Figure 1: Different geometrical patterns.
The paper presents details of several concrete shell roofs designed and built by the
author’s office. The details contain important features like construction methods and
design issues
Introduction
Concrete shells are aesthetically pleasing, structurally efficient, construction-wise
challenging, and are optimized structures. Shells derive their structural action through
their form and are unique in their behaviour and many other ways. Hence, shells are
used in multi-various situations as coverings of convention centres, exhibition places,
industrial buildings, etc. They look light and beautiful.
In any structure, designers always aim at achieving economy by minimizing costs
within the constraints of functional and aesthetic requirements. Thus, for providing a
roof over a large area - a requirement of most clients - conventional structures will be
uneconomical and aesthetically unpleasing. Hence, new forms were attempted that resist
the loads more efficiently than when the structure is designed in a conventional form.
This has resulted in the design and construction of innumerable outstanding large span
structures including concrete shell roofs in the world.
117
Efficiency of a long span structure depends upon the various parameters such as
location, utility, structural economy and innovative design. There is a need for unique
synthesis between architecture and structural systems to produce exciting and
outstanding structures.
With the availability of user friendly finite element software along with high speed
personal computers, it is now possible even for a small design office to perform 3D-
Analysis of any type of structure. Also, with the availability of heavy duty cranes,
derricks and with the analysis of structure at every stage of erection, it is now possible
to go in comfortably for long span structures commensurate with the requirements of
the industry using concrete.
The industries for both process and general purposes have taken advantage of the
availability of long span structures so that they can have a large column free space
which gives them immense flexibility for planning their machinery layout and services.
Precast construction
Precast concrete technology can be efficiently employed for construction of concrete
shells.
The completion time of the shell is reduced by organizing parallel activities in the site
like concreting of columns, fabrication of the mould and casting of the precast units in
the workshop etc. In some cases shells are built by a combination of cast-in place and
precast construction methods. A set of ribs is constructed and precast concrete
provisional formwork is placed and supported by the ribs. Finally concrete is cast in
place and the formwork embedded in the shell thickness.
The full paper gives a number of examples of different types of concrete shells adopted
for different functions.
With the minimum use of materials like cement and steel and with efficient design and
construction of formwork, concrete shell roofs have a bright future especially where
labour is not expensive.
Examples:
A. Gol-Gumbaz at Bijapur, India - [ Masonry Dome ]
This is a structure where no cement or concrete is used.

To keep up the tradition of excelling the previous dynasty and previous Rulers King
Adil Shah constructed large hemispherical dome.
External dia of 43.29m and internal dia 38.0m with thickness varying from 3.0m at
springling level to 2.75m at crown. This well balanced harmonious structure is a
masterpiece constructed in Islamic architectural style. The total covered area
uninterrupted by any kind of supports is 1680.0 Sq.m. and hence it is the largest space
covered by single dome in thee world. Top dome rests on the crowns of the arches
conveying no outward thrust to them. Geometrical intersections gives concave
spherical triangles called pendentives. Its whispering gallery is a remarkable feature
118
and a single loud clap is echoed over ten times distinctly because of its large span.
While referring to the history of India our mind definitely rests on this monumental
dome structure and admires its geometrical proportioning.
Fig.2 Gol-Gumbaz Tomb of Mohammed Fig. 3 Ibrahim Rauza [Ibrahim Adil Shal
Adil Shah 1627-56] 1580-1627]
B. Auditorium for Osmania University in Hyderabad.
This is a sinusoidal concrete shell spanning 25 metre 3” or 75mm thick. Built in 1961.
Even now it is being actively used.
Fig.4 View of the Auditorium Fig. 5 Inside view of the Auditorium
C. North light shells for a Laboratory in Bangalore.
This structure was built in 1962. 3”thick concrete shells – span is 25m and chord width
is 8m.
Fig.6 View of the North light shells Fig.7 Inside view of the structure
D. BMS College of Engineering, Bangalore.
119
This structure was built in 1975. Folded plate roof. Thickness 3” – 75mm. Span 20m.
Fig.8 View of the Structure [Canteen/Dining] Fig.9 Another view of the structure
E. Jayanagar Shopping Complex, Bangalore.
This shopping complex was built in 1971-73. Consists of cylindrical shell roofs,
hyperbolic paraboloid shell roof, foldeded plate roof.
Special mention to be made on hyper shell. This covers a vegetable market. Designed
to bring natural light and ventilation. This is square and spans 24m x 24m.
The folded plate structure has 25m span and is 75mm thick.
The complex will now be demolished and a new complex will be built. Existing and
proposed views are as follows:
Fig. 10 Existing structure Fig. 11 Existing structure with cylindrical shell roof
Fig. 12 Proposed structure
120
F. Rajajinagar Shopping Complex.
This consists of cylindrical shell with varying chord width. Built in 1972-73.
Fig. 13 View pf the cylindrical shell
G. City Market
In response to the surrounding urban environment and site conditions, we have tried to
create a special form that brings to it a sense of balance and rhythm. The highlight of the
whole complex is the roofing system. The roofing structure consists of 21 Hyperbolic
paraboloid shells of 15m x 15m grids with 75mm shell thickness. The height at the
centre is 5.5m and at the edges 3.5m to the top of shell. The cluster of shells is
aesthetically very pleasing to the eye and provides excellent light and ventilation. The
large column free space created by thin unique roofing system is ideal for exhibitions,
show rooms etc.
Fig. 14 View of the hyperbolic paraboloid shells
H. Multistoreyed building using folded plate in each floor in Chennai.
Thickness is 50mm. A/C ducts are avoided. Built in 1984.
121
Fig. 15 View of the structure under construction Fig. 16 View of the structure under construction
I. Factory building in Mysore.
50mm thick – 15m span. Precast folded plate kept inclined to get north light in to the
industry. [ Built in the year 1979-80 ]
Fig. 17 View of the structure under construction Fig. 18 View of the structure under construction
J. Hyper shell to cover pump room at MICO-BOSCH in Bangalore.

Built in the year 1966.
Fig. 19 View of the shell inside Fig. 20 View of the shell outside
K. Food Court in Saharanpur, near Delhi [ Built in the year 1997-98 ].
The canteen building has three identical shells arranged as shown in Picture. The
geometry of each of the shells has been obtained by cutting a parabolic cylindrical shell
of width 15.3m, height 10m and span 27.675m along four vertical planes inclined to the
axis of the shell. Thus parabolic shapes were obtained on the sides. Minimum width of
the shell is 3.5m. The shells are supported on four columns at 6m and 27.675m.
Stiffening arch is provided between the columns in the front. Two edge beams are also
provided.
122
Fig. 21 Model view Fig. 22 After completion
Fig. 23 Top View of the shell Fig. 24 Front view of the shell
Fig. 25 View of the shell inside

L. Multipurpose Hall in Saharanpur, near Delhi.
Fig. 26 View with precast wall panels
M. Karnataka Soaps & Detergents Ltd., factory in Bangalore.
Steel Space Structures:
The combination of hypar shell made out of steel frame work and covered with precast
concrete slabs was made use of in this factory building in Bangalore. The span is 15m x
15m and such 35 Nos. hypar shells are used. Each shell is divided into square grid of
1.5m x 1.5m and diagonals are run on every alternate grid. The edges of the shells are
supported on steel trusses which is turn are supported on RCC columns. The covering
123
slabs are precast in size, 2m long x 0.4m wide and 40mm thick and it was covered with
25mm thick screed concrete with 2 layers of mesh. The shells are placed with all zero
elevations parallel to one of the diagonals and "h" elevations are parallel to other
diagonal of the building resulting in the availability of natural light from all four
directions. Glass was used on north and eastern side and aluminium louvers were used
on south and western side. The resulting hierarchy of solids and voids takes away the
stereotypical look of an industrial building and lends to it a special character of its own.
Fig. 27 Top view of the hyper shells Fig. 28 Front view
N. Karnataka Breweries & Distilleries Ltd., Bangalore.
Pre-cast concrete folded plates
A production hanger [ 20 x 20m grid ] has pre-cast concrete roofing system consisting
of folded plates [ 3.3m x 20m x 40mm thick ] supported on pre-stressed Y-girders
[gutters]. All pre-cast elements were of M-40 grade and steam cured. Pre-cast folded
plates were cast using tilting type of moulds. The weld mesh was used in recognition of
the fact that the thickness of the folded plate is only 40mm. The correlation between
design deflection and actual deflection was established by conducting a number of load
tests both on folded plates and on "Y"-Girders. The idea behind this roofing system was
to create an extremely workable and well-lit natural environment for the workers yet
maintaining the architectural value and harmony of the building.
Fig. 29 Pre-cast concrete folded plates Fig. 30 Inside view of folded plates
O. Modern Indoor Stadium, Bangalore:
The Indoor Stadium of 4000 members capacity is located in the close vicinity of the
rich green Cubbon Park in Bangalore.
124
The Stadium has an elliptical dome consisting of 120 folded plates [ precast ] of varying
cross-section [ average 2m ] with the plate thickness of 40mm and series of inter-
connected ribs. The lower end of the dome is supported on the elliptical ring beam at
8m level which in-turn is supported on 24 equally spaced arch columns. The top of the
dome is supported on elliptical ring of 16m x 8m at 29m lvl. A small elliptical
paraboloid insitu dome of 4m height and having a series of interconnected stiffeners is
resting on the top ring. The folded plate spans about 40m between the two rings. The
seating galleries are precast while the other cubicles are insitu.
The magnificent appearance and geometric purity of this design makes the building
stand out in this mediocre setting without being intrusive. Although, it's huge bulk and
unusual design ensure that it is the centre of attention this new stadium blends
exceedingly well with its surroundings. The stadium covering a 90m x 120m column
free space is considered to be one of the most innovative structures in India.
Fig. 31 View with pre-cast concrete folded plates Fig. 32 Inside view
Fig. 33 FIP Award Fig. 34 IABSE Magazine Cover Page May 1998
P. Inverted Umbrella – for MICO-BOSCH Canteen in Bangalore.
This consists of cluster of shells of shape of hyperbolic paraboloid in the form of

inverted umbrella. Size of each shell is 6.0m x 6.0 and diameter of the column is
350mm. The thickness of the shell is 50mm and edge beam of size 150mm x 150mm is
provided at the edge of the shell. The spring level is 4.0m and depth of shell itself is
1.6m. The indirect lighting from the shell provides average illumination level of 120
lux and looks pleasing aesthetically. The gap of 1.0m between adjoining shells is
covered with aluminium sheet on top and hit and miss ventilator arrangement on sides
provides natural light and ventilation.
125
Fig. 35 Inverted umbrella shell outside view Fig. 36 Inverted umbrella shell inside view
Q. Meditation Hall, Sringeri, South India.
A column free space of 30m x 30m has been planned to seat about 1000 people. A 3m
wide corridor around adds to the beauty of this grand structure. The most interesting
feature of this structure is the roof, which has been designed, in stepped form with a
combination of solids and voids. The solids are covered with pre-cast concrete slabs and
the voids with glass to let in light & air.
Fig. 37 Outside view of Meditation Hall Fig. 38 Inside view of the meditation hall
R. Food Court, Infosys campus in Hyderabad.
Food Court:
The rectangular shaped site measure 270m x 450m. A number of Buildings in the
campus have been built. One of the most interesting buildings in the campus is the Food
Court it is planned with a dining capacity of 800. This is a unique column free space
shell structure of 46m diameter. The shell structure is divided into 16 units. The entire
roof sits on a series of columns, which are 5m high. The building is designed with
flexibility to convert it into an auditorium with a seating capacity of about 1000-1200
people.
This food court itself sits on a podium of approximately 4m above ground level. In this
podium, services like kitchen, Gymnasium, aerobics, general store room, health club,
bank ATM Kiosks and Medical Center etc are provided.
126
Fig. 39 View of the paraboloidal shell Fig. 40 Another view of parabolidal shell
RCC Groined vault roof over food court at Infosys Campus, Bangalore.
Infosys Technologies Ltd. [ Infosys ] is located about 25/30 K.M. south of Bangalore on
the National Highway. Their new Technology Park houses seven Software blocks,
Education and Research Centre and two Food Courts. The Food Court has a unique
Groined Vault roof accommodating 250 persons under each shell. There are three such
shells of 20m x 20m. The height of the shell at the central portion is 7.5m and at the
entry 10 to 12.5m on the four sides. Each shell is separated by 10m open space, which
also can be used for dining on occasions.
Fig. 41 RCC Groined vault roof after construction Fig. 42 RCC Groined vault roof under construction
S. KMC Convention Centre, Mangalore.
Geometry of Shell: KMC Auditorium at Mangalore has two multipurpose halls of

octagonal shape in plan, The size of each side is 21m c/c and of 14.262 m c/c
respectively. The two halls have a doubly curved circular conical shell roof. Any section
cut horizontally is circular in plan; the roof surface is obtained when all concentric
circles will move on another doubly curved radial beams. The shell emerges from a stiff
tie beam over the columns on the periphery. The total height of the shell is 12.42m &
12.27m. The diameters of the shells are 54.876m & 37.284m. Generally the thickness of
the shell is 75mm. The radial ribs are supported over columns at the bottom periphery
and the central ring beam with skylight dome at top. There are transverse concentric
circular ring beams. The geometry is maintained by these radial beams and transverse
circular beams under the action of forces.
127
Fig. 43 Doubly curved circular conical shell roof Fig. 44 An internal view of the Convention
Centre
Fig. 45 View after construction
T. Indoor Multipurpose Hall for an University in the city of Fategrah near

Chandigarh in India: An Institution in Northern part of India is developing a
campus for “World University” in an area of 80 Acres.
Fig. 46 - Master Plan - Organic Form

Master Plan - Organic Form
It was required to design a building, which should be the focus of the University. This
building should be a multi-purpose hall and also to house facilities for a multi-religious
building dealing with subjects like Hinduism, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, Islam
etc.
It was also desired to have a unique roof covering this multi-purpose hall, preferably
one of its kind.
Author’s office have done different types of roof structures for various activities.
Examples are given elsewhere in this paper.
After studying alternatives, it was decided to go ahead with a hyperbolic paraboloid
shell roof.
128
Fig. 47 Multi –purpose hall
The shell is supported at 2 points near the end and the clear span is 60 metres.
Aesthetics is very important and therefore the shape is very pleasing especially since
this is the focus for the Campus.
A three storeyed building is located under the shell roof near the periphery, which
houses schools for various religions.
Fig. 48 Section
The height of the shell at the center is 34 mtrs. and there are 12 shells in plan.
U. Stadium roof in Puttaparthi.
Fig. 49 Image of the stadium
129
V. Proposed Food Court in Manipal for an Institute of Management.
Diameter 36 mtr and height 13 mtrs.
Fig. 50 Image [view] of Food Court Fig. 51 Another [view ] of food court.
W. Proposed Auditorium in Manipal for an Institute of Management
Fig. 52 Model image of the shell structure [in situ shell]
The structure is a rectangular groin vault of 56 x 36m. Height at centre is 10m and
height at edges is 20m emerges from ground. Capacity of the auditorium is 500.
CONCLUSION
The development of design for shell and spatial structures is an art by itself and it
depends on many factors like, type of roof, construction methodology, function,
aesthetics etc. Recent availability of advanced computer softwares even for a small
design office, facilitates usage of complex forms and shapes. Concrete shell roofs are
efficient considering the factors like, minimum use of cement and steel, aesthetically
pleasing, functionally satisfactory. Both cast in situ and precast are possible. Besides
concrete shell roofs are environmental friendly. Concrete shell roofs have a bright
future.
130
2 Working Group Organized Sessions
131
2.1 WG 5 Concrete Shell Roofs in Asia
2.1.1 Design
132
Structural design of free-curved RC shells

Mutsuro SASAKI
Prof. Dr., Hosei University, Tokyo, Japan
E-mail: msasaki@hosei.ac.jp
Abstract
In the international field of contemporary structural design, the theme has now become
the creation of new three-dimensional architectural structures that possess free, complex,
mutable, fluid and organic characteristics, thus expanding the architectural field.
However, in order to achieve these in a truly rational way, traditional empirically-based
structural design methods must be replaced with mathematically-based shape design
methods that unify mechanics and aesthetics. I am currently experimenting with the
application of structural optimization methods to the creation of new architectural
structures. One example of their practical application of Sensitivity Analysis is in free-
curved RC shells. The surface shape is determined as an optimization problem, to obtain
a shell form close to the architect’s vision with minimal strain energy. [1][2]
It is common knowledge that the number of RC shell construction has decreased rapidly
since 1960s and now their examples are hardly found. From my viewpoint, the most
interesting RC shell in contemporary meaning is an entirely new type one which is
designed by most advanced engineering method. In this decade since 2000 under such
circumstances, I have proposed my own structural design method as mentioned above
for free-curved RC shells and I have realised five application examples.
In this paper, I explain the structural design and construction of free-curved RC shells
with concrete descriptions of five examples, i.e. Kitagata Community Centre, The
Island City Central Park Gringrin, Kakamigahara Crematorium, ROLEX Learning
Centre and Teshima Art Museum.
Keywords: Free form architecture, Reinforced concrete shell, Shape design,

Optimization method, Strain energy, Sensitivity Analysis
Isozaki,, 2002-2005
1 Kitagata Community Centre with Arata Isozaki
1.0 First Application of Sensitivity Analysis to Structural design

One existing technique for defining the shape of free-curved surfaces is the physical
model experimental method used in the work of Antoni Gaudí, Heinz Isler and Frei Otto.
Another is to create theoretically rational free curved surface by numerical analysis
I have been carrying out research on this topic at the univer sity from the year 2000 on.
I will now introduce a kind of optimization method called Sensitivity Analysis, which is
a method of shape analysis for the generation of free-curved shells. Form-resistant shell
structures are ideally in a state of minimal stress and deformation. In other words, it
could be said that minimal strain energy in the structure is the mechanically optimal
133
condition. To put it the other way round,

mechanically optimal shell structures are obtained
by seeking the curved surface shape that generates
minimum strain energy in the structure. The
fundamental equation is given by differentiating the
reference variable, strain energy by design
parameter Z. For example, when a particular node is
slightly altered, the effects on the strain energy of
the entire structure C can be examined. The
differential coefficient expressing the degree of
change is, mechanically speaking, the Sensitivity
Coefficient, and by seeking the Sensitivity
Coefficient of all such nodes and checking the
gradient of change in the strain energy, this can be
optimized by revising the value of Z in the direction
that will reduce the strain energy. The criteria for
Figure1 Gaudi’s suspended model judging when convergence has occurred are a state
in which there is no visible change in the strain
energy after an evolutionary step.
It took many days of trial and error, but here it was all done in a very short time by a
computer following a programmed algorithm. Incidentally, the problem is that we do
not know where the non-linear solution will converge in relation to the initially
established shape. It is necessary to establish an initial shape that is close to the desired
shape, following which a relatively high-powered computer will get to something close
to the desired shape in 10 or 15 minutes. Evaluating how much a transformation at a
node influences to the strain energy’s transition in the whole structure.
Figure2 Theory of Sensitivity Analysis
134
By spring 2002 our research in my

laboratory had managed to get to the
stage of becoming a theoretical design
method, and I urgently wanted to try
using this shape analysis method on a
real structure. This was the first instance
of actual utilization, in Arata Isozaki’s
Kitagata Community Centre. The initial
conditions of the building in terms of
height and volume, together with its
functional requirements —decided by the
Figure3 Kitagata Community Centre
architect, not by me— were established
as the design parameters.
Then, using the shape analysis method explained above, the design variables were
modified by a computer with a rigorous mechanical basis while we went on looking for
an interesting shape. To determine the best shape, we altered the various design
parameters several times. The designer was able to select the most interesting shape
from among these. In this way, the roof became a 15 cm reinforced concrete shell with
an amorphous shape like a piece of fabric. In any case, with this Kitagata Community
Centre as the first trial, we began to feel that this shape analysis method was adequate
for use as a design tool.
Figure4 Evolution process of Kitagata Community Centre
Ito,, 2003-2005
2 The Island City Central Park Gringrin, with Toyo Ito
2.1 Building Information

This is a core facility for the park in a
reclaimed island. As an architect, Toyo
Ito also wanted to employ free-curved
surfaces using shape analysis; shown
here is a free-curved surface shell
designed in 2003 using another approach.
The Island City Central Park in Gringrin,
Fukuoka, comprises three continuous
free-curved reinforced concrete shells
with an overall length of 190 m, a
Figure5 The Island City Central Park Gringrin maximum width of 50 m, and a thickness
135
of 40 cm. An undulating helix in which the outer surface and the inner surface are
reversed in two places, this is an extremely complex structural shape with an overall
topological continuity between outside and inside. In this case, Toyo Ito had strong
preferences for the shapes, so first we had a physical model of the desired shape
produced, and then made slight modifications to this in the areas that were significantly
at variance with the principles of shell structures. Taking this as the initial shape, we
subjected it to the shape analysis operation I mentioned before.
2.2 Optimization and Analysis

2.2
The entire roof was examined by means of shape
analysis based on the structural optimization
method with the following assumptions:
- Constrain condition: pin supports where the roof’s surface
touches the ground
- Material: 40 cm thick concrete
- Dominant load: 15kN/m2, equally distributed vertical load
on the roof
This shows the sequence of the roof’s vertical
deformation by the above-mentioned load
condition from the step of the initial shape to the
step of the final shape. As the shape evolves,
overall deformation is dramatically reduced.
The structural safety of the final shape obtained
Figure6 Evolution process [deformation]
by the shape analysis was examined through the
ordinary structural analysis method, FEM analysis with commercially available
software such as NASTRAN.
2.3 Reinforcement arrangement

2.3
The arrangement of reinforcement is defined according to the result of the analysis. The
main reinforcement for the roof (see top left picture) uses steel rods with a diameter of
16 mm on account of rational working process at construction site. The interval of the
steel rod is 150 mm and partly 75 mm. Though the direction of the arrangement follows
the axis of a common coordinate, some rods are arranged in the direction of the
radiation and circumference against the curved surface where the geometry of curved
surface is complicated.
Figure7 Arrangement of top reinforcement [Roof slab]
136
There are tie beams (colored in red in figure 5, above) properly arranged in the
substructure so as to deal with the thrust transmitted from the upper structure.
These tie beams are essential for the structure to realize the upper shell structure and
therefore they are extremely important. PC strands with a diameter of 21.8 mm (8 rods,
maximum) are arranged in the tie beam and introduce pre-stress. Since the thrust
generates tensile stress in the reinforced concrete slab (t=400mm) on the ground level as
well, steel rods (19 mm to 25 mm) are arranged in the middle of the section.
Figure8 Arrangement of tie beam
2.4 Construction
2.4
In general, a smooth free curved surface is
easy to make at the scale of model, using
the 3D data obtained by the shape analysis,
but realizing it on site is extremely difficult.
In the case of reinforced concrete
construction, the biggest problem is how to
manufacture the complex formwork for a
real building. Here we started by
submitting the 3D data for the desired
shape to a formwork fabricator, just as in a
model-making process. The fabricator
dealt perfectly with the difficult problem
by making full use of the 3D CAD/CAM
technique and produced a reinforced
concrete shell with a smooth free curved
surface in a sufficiently rational
economical way by combining ordinary
plywood formwork and special formwork.
At Fukuoka we used a combination of
ordinary plywood formwork and steel
mesh that functions as formwork, and
Figure9 Construction of Gringrin managed to achieve smooth free-curved
137
reinforced concrete shells. The plywood framework was cut into 1 x 2 m (partly 1 x 4 m
or 1 x 1 m) pieces and transported to the site.
The panels were joined very precisely to make a smooth curve. About 2000 m3 of
concrete was cast by 400 workers. The operation was very difficult because there were
no flat slabs and the reinforcing bars were very closely crowded.
Ito,, 2004-2006
3 Kakamigahara Crematorium with Toyo Ito

Crematorium in Kakamigahara is another
free-curved surface shell produced in
collaboration with Toyo Ito.
The one-storied building (partially two
stories) is composed by the bearing wall
reinforced concrete (RC) main structure
and the roof of a thin continuous free
curved surface shell like a piece of fabric
made by RC structure covering over the
mass of the building. The thickness of
Figure10 Kakamigahara Crematorium
walls ranges from 200 to 400 mm for
bearing walls and from 120 to 200 mm for other walls. These bearing walls, RC
columns standing on the walls and some steel posts (Ø 216.3 x 12) randomly arranged
along the periphery support the vertical load from big roof while the bearing walls with
stand horizontal loads such as seismic load and wind load. The big roof is composed by
a free curved surface shell covering an arbitrary shape (80 m long, 60 m wide and 200
mm thick.) Its geometry is investigated and defied as
the optimum structural shape that minimizes the strain
energy and deformation through the operation of
modifying the initial shape the architect imaged by
means of shape analysis based on Sensitivity Analysis
Method.

The analysis produced an extremely light (both visually
and physically) and rational roof. The shape analysis
based on the Structural Optimization Method.
Triangulated shell-elements following the one-meter
grid compose the model for this analysis.
Constrain condition: Columns as roller supports withstanding only
vertical load along the periphery. Walls and other columns as pin
supports withstanding horizontal loads.
Dominant load: 6.0 KN/m2, equally distributed vertical load on the
roof.
This is the sequence of the roof’s vertical deformation
by the above-mentioned load condition from the step of Figure11 Evolution process
138
the initial shape to the step of the final shape.

It illustrates that the shape-evolution process dramatically reduces the amount of
deformation.
The structural safety of the final shape obtained by the shape analysis was examined
through the ordinary structural analysis method, FEM analysis with commercially
available software such as NASTRAN. These figures show the result of the analysis.

The arrangement of reinforcement is defined according to the results of the analysis. A
deformed steel rod with small diameter (13 mm) was used for the roof’s reinforcement
so as to be easily arranged along its undulating curved surface with various curvatures.
Figure12 Arrangement of Reinforcement [Roof slab and column]
3.4 Construction
This shell had a thickness of 20 cm, and
had no soil or plants on top. The shape
had to have a much smoother finish than
the Fukuoka project. The fabricator thus
made special frameworks using CAD/
CAM, and to support the plywood
formwork large wooden beams were
placed at intervals of 1 metre, with
smaller beams every 25 cm. In addition,
special formwork was used at the more
curving points. The result was an
Figure13 Construction [Crematorium] extremely smooth surface.
139
4 ROLEX Learning Centre, with SANAA, 2004-2010

This is a learning centre located at the
EPFL campus (Ecole Polytechnique
Fédérale de Lausanne) which includes
diverse programs such as library,
multipurpose hall, café, restaurant etc.
The building is designed as a big one-
room space and it is put almost in the
centre of the site for easy access from the
surrounding facilities. All programs are
installed in this one-room space. It is a
166.5m x 121.5m space which is
undulating gently and this makes it a
kind of topological space. This
Figure14 ROLEX Learning Centre undulation creates a big open space
under the building inviting people to walk under and approach the entrance hall located
at the centre of the building.
The floor of this big one-room is composed of large and small RC shells (maximum
span is 92m and 60m respectively) and, there are steel columns and girders on the RC
shells to form a free-curved roof.

In the above-mentioned 3 projects, when applying Sensitivity analysis, the free-curved
RC shell is expressed with triangle or square mesh division (normal method generally
used in stress analysis by Finite Element Method).
In this project, the RC shells have some holes and there were some requests for the
inclination of shells, as it is used for floor. This strict demand for shape means the
necessity of controlling the form in more free and more precise way.
Considering these situations, from this project forth, revised optimization method based
on NURBS is put to practical use. This method captures the curved shape in the form of
Non-Uniform Rational B-Splines (NURBS), which can reduce the level of unknown
quantities whilst preserving a shape with a high level of freedom. Taking the strain
energy across the whole of the shell surface under self-weight as an objective function
and the co-ordinates of the NURBS control nodes as design variables, the surface shape
is determined as an optimization problem, solved by the Steepest Descent method to
obtain a shell form close to the architect’s vision with minimal strain energy. [3]
140
Figure15 Revised Sensitivity Analysis by NURBS

In schematic design phase, both large and small RC shells were 600mm thickness
hollow slab with steel cube inside and a deformed steel rod with normal diameter (19
mm) was used.
In execution design, due to construction cost and so on, RC hollow slab with steel inside
was converted to normal solid slab with more thickness (800mm) and, in total, 2800tons
of rods (maximum diameter is 51mm) were used for reinforcement.
4.4 Construction
The frameworks were set upon moulds
(called “casting-tables”). 1,400 distinct
2.5-by-2.5 meter wood casting-table
supported by false-work were installed
and each one had a unique and precise
curved geometry in order to follow the
geometry of the shells.
The casting of the concrete takes 2 days

using 20 pump trucks delivering 567
batches of concrete (4,086m3).
Figure16 Construction [ROLEX Learning Centre]
141
Museum,, with Ryue Nishizawa

5 Teshima Art Museum Nishizawa,, 2008-2010

The main building of the Teshima Art
Project, under construction (designed by
Architect Ryue Nishizawa) in Teshima,
Kagawa Prefecture, is a single-storey art
gallery with an irregular elliptical
footprint spanning 60.2m in the long
direction and 42.7m in the short direction,
covered by a reinforced concrete (RC)
Figure17 Teshima Art Museum [Under construction] shell roof in the form of a 3-dimensional
freeform curved surface. The roof has two openings, and the interior of the shell is a
single, semi-covered exhibition hall. The RC shell roof has a maximum span 41.2m, a
maximum rise 5.12m, and thickness of 250mm, The circumference where the shell roof
meets ground surrounded by continuous footing of RC width 900mm - 1800mm, and
height 500mm. Thrust from the roof structure is supported by foundation beams of
partially pre-stressed concrete (width 1400mm, height 500mm) arranged as tie beams in
the circumferential direction at a 6m pitch, as well as RC foundation beams (width
900mm, height 500mm) and slabs on grade (thickness 250mm) of the ground floor.

Taking a shell thickness of 250mm and a maximum rise up to 5.12m, the shape of the
roof shell derived from computational morphogenesis is shown here. Fig. 18 shows the
change between the initial and final shapes.
Figure18 Evolution process [Deformation]
142

The arrangement of reinforcement is defined
according to the result of the analysis. The main
reinforcement for the roof uses steel rods with a
diameter of 16 mm on account of rational
working process at construction site.
The interval of the steel rod is 150 mm and 75
mm and the area of 75mm interval is an
alternateness mixture of 13mm and 16mm
diameter rods.
Along the rim of openings, there are RC beams
of same height with shell thickness.
5.4 Construction
In the execution, controlling precision of the
shell shape etc. was believed to be problematic
using conventional moulded slab methods. For
this reason, an earth fill concrete-laying method
was instead used, in which the shell shape was Figure19 Arrangement of Reinforcement
filled-in with earth and coated with mortar to
produce a mould for a 3-dimensional freeform curved surface. This paper discusses
these three key stages of planning, design and execution in detail.
Figure21 Construction [earth-filled mould method]
Figure20 Construction [Reinforcement] Figure22 Construction [Soil removal]
143
6 Conclusion
In this manuscript, the methods of creating mechanically-rational shape are
demonstrated in a tangible way, which the methods play an important role at creating
organic and formative RC free-curved shell at initial phase of structural design and they
are based on Sensitivity analysis which utilizes computational technology. And the
following affairs of 5-RC free-curved shell are described as application examples of the
methods; building information, optimization analysis, reinforcement arrangement, and
construction issues.
Fundamentally, structural design means a holistic design combining universal structural
technology and creative architectural expression. The former manages safety and
economic rationality and the latter is closely correlated with artistry.
Viewed from this holistic aspect, it goes without saying that, to materialize these free-
curved shells, various deliberation and ingenuity of practical problems are essential at
execution design and construction phase, as normal modern RC shells also have
required for them.
Beyond the scope of this manuscript, in addition to vertical load, seismic load becomes
a major issue at safety examination of RC shell, especially in earthquake country like
Japan. This means more advanced evaluation technique of structure performance is
required, for instance deliberation of buckling stability for vertical and seismic load
combination. To actualize more attractive RC free-curved shell in the future, more
holistic structure design methods are expected, which includes shape design method,
evaluation technique of structure performance, construction method, and so on.
Referencess
Reference
[1] M. Sasaki, Flux Structure, TOTO Press, Tokyo, 2005.

[2] M. Sasaki, Morphogenesis of Flux Structure, AA Publications, London, 2007.
[3] T. Kimura, H. Ohmori, H. Hamada, Computational Morphogenesis of Free Form
Shells Considering both Designer’s Preference and Structural Rationality,
Proceedings of IASS2007, Venice, CD-ROM Abstract : pp.199-200, 2007
Photo credit
Ltd: Figure5
Nagano Consultant Co., Ltd
Ltd: Figure9
Takenaka Corporation Co., Ltd
Architect: Figure10
Toyo Ito & Associates, Architect
SANAA: Figure14 Figure16
SANAA
Yano: Figure20
Masanori Yano
144
Evaluation of Nonlinear Behavior of Reinforced Concrete

Free-Curved Shells Proposed in Recent Years
Atsushi MUTOH 1*, Daisuke MAEDA 1 and Mutsuro SASAKI 2
1*
Department of Architecture, Meijo University
Shiogamaguchi 1-chome, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya 468-8502, JAPAN
amutoh@meijo-u.ac.jp
2
Hosei University
Abstract
In recent years, some free-curved surfaces have been used as actual reinforced
concrete (RC) shell roofs by employing numerical form-finding processes using
sensitivity analyses [1]. At present, almost all types of form finding is carried out by
linear/static assumption; therefore, it is important to evaluate the structural performance
including the dynamic effects with combined nonlinear behavior. In this paper, the
structural performances of some free-curved surfaces are evaluated. In addition, in the
earthquake resistant design of concrete shell, it is shown about the items which should
be examined in near future.
Keywords: reinforced concrete shell, freeform shell, load carrying capacity, dynamic
strength
1 Introduction
Since the 1950s, concrete shells have mostly been fabricated in plain geometrical forms
such as circular and hyperbolic forms. However, in recent years, some free-curved
surfaces obtained by employing numerical form-finding processes using sensitivity
analyses have been proposed. These include two types of free-curved surfaces. One is of
the conventional inversion suspended type, and the other is of the minimized strain
energy type [1]. Both these types are obtained using numerical form-finding processes
under the assumption of linear elasticity. In this study, the static and dynamic nonlinear
structural characteristics of these free-curved surfaces are evaluated [2].
2 Structural performance of freeform concrete shells

2.1 Analysis model
In this study, some RC shells having two or more forms and simple rectangular
boundaries have been examined. Models that minimize the strain energy in the free
vibration modes of a flat plate as a starting point have been evaluated as examples [1].
The first and third modes are considered. The specifications of the simulation models
are shown in Fig. 1 and listed in Table 1. As shown in the figure, the models have a
simple shape: they have an area of 50 m2, thickness of 10 cm, rise of 7.45/8.1m, and
pinned support edges. In this study, the second mode type, which is a form-finding type
145
and is disadvantageous from the viewpoint of the load carrying capacity, has not been
considered.
D (h=7.45m) (h=7.45m) (h=8.10m)
D D
1 P1 2 P2 P3
3
16 10 50.00
50.00 ｍ
8
12 ｍ
(a)6 revered catenary(Hang) (b) first mode type (c) third mode type
load (kN/m2)
load (kN/m2)
10.0m
8
4 overall; D10@200 single mesh
first mode type (load 10.0m
over whole
surface) X; D13@200 single, Y; D13@100 single
4 first2 mode (overthird mode type (whole surface)
one side)
reversed catenarythird mode type; (one
overall
(whole surface) side) single mesh
D10@200
reversed catenary*initial yield of re-bars
(one side) X; D13@100 single, Y; D13@200 single
0
0 D10@100-400 single mesh
0 -20 -40 0 -60-100 -80 -200 -300
vertikal disp. (mm) D13@100 single mesh
vertical disp. (mm)
(a), (b) (c)

Fig. 1: Geometry and reinforcement
Table 1: Evaluated mechanical properties

mortar reinforcing bars
Young's modulus 21000 N/mm 2 Young's modulus 210000 N/mm 2
Poisson's ratio 0.167 Poisson's ratio 0.3
compressive strength 30 N/mm 2 yielding point 295 N/mm 2
tensile strength 2.2 N/mm 2
2.1 Analysis results
The following simulation uses a numerical analysis technique that has been proposed
and verified by the author. This technique involves a geometrically and materially
nonlinear analysis using a shell element [3, 4] (Appendix A3).
2.1.1 Static properties
The estimated load-displacement relationships are shown in Fig. 2. The result shows
that the first-mode-type shell has large ultimate strength as compared to a reversed
catenary shell.
(a) reversed catenary(P1), 1st mode type(P2) (b) third mode type(P3)
Fig. 2: Load-displacement relationships
146
An examination of a reversed catenary and a first-mode-type shell shows that in the case
where only half of the shell surface is loaded, the load carrying capacity tends to
decrease notably, as compared with the case where the whole surface has been loaded.
The third-mode-type shell shows that the tendency for reduction in strength by the
deviation is small. In addition, for the third-mode-type shell, even after bending
deformation has increased and yielding of reinforcing bars has occurred with the
increase in load, the result shows a high deformation capability. The deformation mode
at the peak load is shown in Fig. 3 (slash shows the domain of rebar yielding).
fully loading half side loading fully loading half side loading
(a) reversed catenary (b) first mode type
; rebar yielding
; half side loading

fully loading half side loading
(c) third mode type
Fig. 3: Deformation mode at peak load
2.1.2 Dynamic properties

2.1.2
The estimated displacement response to the step load subjected to the collapse level and
the M-N interaction are shown in Fig. 4 (The envelope curve in M-N interaction denotes
a failure surface for a RC column). The third-mode-type shell shows the result where a
rapid collapse is not generated as compared with the reversed catenary and the first-
mode-type shells. The ultimate strength of each is listed in Table 2 and shown in Fig. 5.
The ratio of the dynamic strength over the static strength is listed in Table 3. The
dynamic strength of reversed catenary and the first-mode-type shell falls to
approximately 80–85% of the static strength, and shows that the result does not fall to a
third-mode-type shell. This tendency is common for the case of loading of a whole and
a half surface.
Table 2: Estimated ultimate strength
ultimate load(static) ultimate load(dynamic)

A: full B: half C: full D: half
model B/A D/C
kN/m2 kN/m2 kN/m2 kN/m2
10.00 8.53 8.83 7.35
hang 0.853 0.833
(1.00) (1.00) (1.00) (1.00)
1st 15.30 14.32 13.04 11.57
mode
0.936 0.887
(1.53) (1.68) (1.48) (1.57)
3rd 5.59 8.73 5.59 8.83
mode
1.561 1.579
(0.56) (1.02) (0.63) (1.20)
147
0 0 level
just 0before collaple
just before collaple level
due to collaple
duelevel load just
to collaple before
level load collaple level
unstable unstable due to collaple level load
vertical disp. (mm)
-50 -200
unstable
N(kN) vertical disp. (mm) -50
N(kN)vertical disp. (mm)

-400
-100
3500 3500 Proceedings
3500 of the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2010, Shanghai
-100 -600 criterion (RC column) Structures – Permanent and Temporary
-150 criterion (RC criterion
column) (RC column) Spatial
3000 3000 M-N (point D1)M-N (point D2) M-N (point D3)
3000
unstable
-800 unstable unstable November 8-12 2010, Shanghai, China
2500
-200 2500 2500
-150
2000 -1000
2000
2000
N(kN)
-250
0
1500 0.5 1500
-200 1 1.5-1200
1500 2
0
TIME(sec) 0.5 0 1 1 1.5
2 3 24 5 6 7
1000 1000 TIME(sec)
1000 TIME(sec)
500 500 500
0 0 0
0 10 200 10
30 20 0 50
40 30 10 40 20 50 30 40 50
M(kNm) M(kNm) M(kNm)
reversed catenary 1st mode type 3rd mode type
Fig. 4: Time history of displacement and M-N interaction
18.00
16.00 全載
□ whole
Table 3: Static and dynamic strength
14.00 ■ one
半載 side
12.00 C/A D/B
10.00 model
(kN/m2) (kN/m2)
耐力（kN/m 2）
8.00
strength
6.00
4.00
hang 0.88 0.86
2.00
1st
0.00
静的動的
static dynamic 静的動的
static dynamic 静的動的
static dynamic 0.85 0.81
hang 1st　mode 3rd　mode
mode
□ 10.00
全載 8.83 15.30 13.04 5.59 5.59 3rd
■
半載 8.53 7.35 14.32 11.57 8.73 8.83 1.00 1.01
mode
Fig. 5: Estimated ultimate strength
A1 A2
A3
T1=0.28s T1=0.22s T1=0.62s

reversed catenary first mode type third mode type
Fig. 6: First eigen mode shape
2.1.3 Earthquake resistance

2.1.3
Calculated vertical responses due to JMA-Kobe wave are shown in Fig. 7. The
response displacements of the third-mode-type shell were large as compared with the
response of the reversed catenary and the first-mode-type shells, as a result of which
progress of cracks and rebar yielding is shown.
148
Proceedings
1000 of the International
600
Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2010, Shanghai
1500
800 NS+UD Spatial
NS+UDStructures – Permanent
NS
NS+UD
and Temporary
Acceleraition(cm/s2)
400
November1000
Acceleration(cm/s2)
Acceleration(cm/s2)
600 8-12 2010, Shanghai, China
400
200 500
200
0 0 0
-200
120 -200 -500
-4002 0.8 0
115 reversed catenary
ratio to perfect shell
-600
1.5 NS+UD
0.6 NS+UD
1st mode type -400 -1000
-1
110 -800
3rd mode type
Displacement(cm)
1
Displacement(cm)
0.4
Displacement(cm)
strength (%)
105 -1000 -600 -2

-1500
0.50 2 4 60.2 0 8 210 4 6 08 210 4 6 8 10
100 Time(s) Time(s) -3 Time(s)
0 0
95 -4
-0.5 -0.2
90 -5
-1 -0.4 NS
85 NS+UD
-1.5 -0.6 -6
80
-5 -4 -3 -2 -2 0-1 20 14 2-0.8
6 03 8 42 10 54 6 -7 8 10
imperfection amplitude (×t) 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time(s) Time(s)
Time(s)
reversed catenary first mode type third mode type
Fig. 7: Time history of vertical response
2.1.4 Effects of imperfections

2.1.4
The influence that an initial geometric imperfection has on the ultimate strength is
evaluated. ω, ζ and t denote the nth free vibration mode of a flat plate, magnification,
and thickness, respectively.
n
w I ( x, y ) = ∑ξ i ⋅ t ⋅ w i ( x, y ) (1)
i =1
The ultimate strength of the third-mode-type shell shows a stop at approximately 5% of

the fall, even when it had an imperfection of large amplitude (Fig. 8).
Fig. 8: Imperfection sensitivity of ultimate strength
3 Future items to be evaluated

In Japan, it has been apprehended that an earthquake related disaster of the scale of the
Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake of 1995 could occur again in any region. It is required to
draft guidelines of an earthquake resistant design, which include the latest expertise
available. Besides the behavior of a structure during an earthquake, the guidelines must
also, evaluate its quality over a long period of time and changes in temperature.
149
November
a; results for "perfect" 8-12 2010,
geometry (large disp., Shanghai, China
elasto-plastic)
b; imperfect geometry for design
14 c; contains 1-year shrinkage/creep for "b"
d; contains reduction of Young's modulus by design guideline for "b"
e; construction started from cancelling deformation of "c"
When the shell is shallow, an example which carried out the trial estimation of the load
load facter (× self weight)
12
carrying
10 capacity at the time of assuming the shrinkage and creep of concrete which
may become remarkable at shallow RC arch/shell is shown in Fig. 9(40-m span, 4-m
8
rise, 0.25-m thickness, 0.8% pt) .
6
0 a
0 50 100 150 200 250
disp (mm)
b
b
e c
d
Fig. 9: Load-displacement relationships under various conditions
In this sample calculation, the CEB-FIP 1990 model has been used in the simulation of
the shrinkage/creep of concrete and the IASS proposal is adopted to calculate the
equivalent Young’s modulus.
The shrinkage and creep effect of concrete needs to be estimated when evaluating the
eigen frequency, which is one of the most fundamental values in the design of an
earthquake resistant structure, and the load carrying capacity. This is especially
important, for a shallow shell. This subject has many unsolved problems and should be
examined in future.
4 Conclusions
In this study, the structural characteristics of some fundamental free-curved surfaces are
evaluated. The verification of the damage level and the ultimate load of a shell that has
a free-curved surface has been attempted by combined static and dynamic combined
nonlinear analysis for RC members [2]. Specifically, some RC shells having two or
more forms and simple rectangular boundaries have been examined. For example, a
model that minimizes the strain energy in the free vibration mode as a starting point and
a model of the conventional inversion suspended type are examined while taking into
account the effects of imperfections.
The following information was acquired about the rectangular free-curved surface
model on the basis of the free vibration mode. (1) The first-mode-type freeform shell
has good ultimate strength. (2) The third-mode-type freeform shell exhibits a ductile
failure mode and insensitivity for load imperfection. In addition, in the earthquake
resistant design of concrete shell, it is shown about the item, which should be examined
from now on.
150
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research 20510164 and by the
joint research project “ARCSEC” of Meijo University.
Reference
Referencess
[1] Sasaki M.: Flux Structure. TOTO Publishing, 2005.

[2] Mutoh A., and Sasaki M., Evaluation on the structural property of free-curved RC
shells: J. Structural engineering, 2009; 55B
55B, 57–62.
[3] Mutoh A., Kato S. and Matsuoka O., A Study on the nonlinear response of RC
spherical shells under seismic loading, Proc. Int’l Symposium on Theory, Design
and Realization of Shell and Spatial Structures, Int'l Association for Shell and
Spatial Structures (IASS), 2001, pp.1–8 (published on CD-ROM), Printed Extended
Abstracts: pp.58–59.
[4] Mutoh A., Study on nonlinear vibration characteristics of reinforced concrete
spherical shells with fixed load, J. Struct. Constr. Eng., AIJ, 2001; 549
549:83–90.
[5] Mutoh A., Evaluation on the vibration characteristics of reinforced concrete spatial
structures, J. Struct. Constr. Eng., AIJ, 2005; 592
592:113–119.
[6] Ahmad S., Irons B.M. and Zienkiewicz O.C., Analysis of thick and thin shell
structures by curved finite elements, Int. J. Numerical Methods in Engineering,
1970; 2: 419–451.
[7] Kupfer H., Hilsdorf H.K. and Rush H., Behavior of concrete under biaxial stresses,
ACI Journal, 1969; Vol. 66, No. 8,: 656–666.
Appendix-1 : Verification of load carrying capacity of reversed catenary shell
The ultimate strength of a reversed catenary shell is experimentally checked by the specimen
manufactured by a highly precise mold using 3D-print system, and the result of verification by
numerical analysis is shown. Although the quality of a crack or destruction in this case has been
studied by only a one point concentrated loading, it has been possible to evaluate a result, which
agrees qualitatively.
600
10
50
30

50 500 50
6 00 (b) section
2.2φ
31.25
500
ｍｍ
(a) plan (c) reinforcement (d) simulation model and print system
Fig. A-1: Geometry of the specimen and the mold fabrication
151
125
125
500
125
12 12
12 12
125
10 10
10 10
8 8
load (kN)
8 8 125 125 125 125

load (kN)
load (kN)
load (kN)
6 6
6 65 0 0 Spatial Structures – Permanent and Temporary
4 4
4 4 November 8-12 2010, Shanghai, China
2
experiment
experiment
2 numerical analysis
2 2 experiment
experiment numerical analysis
0 numerical
numerical
0 analysis
0 0 analysis
0 -0.0004 -0.0005
-0.0002 0.0005
0.0002 0.001
0.0004 0.0015
0
-0.0002 0
-0.0002 0.0002
0 0.0002 0.0006 strain
0.0004 strain
0.0004 0.0006
strain strain
A
B C D
rubber
specimen E
(a) specimen overview (b) loading system

(c) strain gauge
Fig. A-2: Specimen and loading system
top bottom top bottom

(b) experiment (a) simulation with measured geometry
Fig. A-3: Crack patterns at peak load
X-dir. Y-dir. X-dir. Y-dir.

(a) point A (b) point D
(a) point A (b) point A
Fig. A-4: Load-strain relationships
Appendix-2 : Verification of vibration characteristics and earthquake response [5]
The evaluation of vibration characteristics by measurements and the evaluation of earthquake

performance by simulations for the existing RC arena were tried (Fig. A-5). From the results
obtained, the identification of the eigenmode becomes possible by vibration measurement and
FE analysis, and the response level of the shell is quantitatively predictable from the earthquake
response analysis. This arena has a RC shell roof, which combines 6 hyperbolic paraboloidal
curved surfaces with the plan of the distorted quadrilateral. The thickness of the shell is
maintained constant at 7 cm with a single reinforcement. The peripheral parts of the roof are
stiffened by edge beams.
K
outside_wall
roof catwalk
beam P
9.0(m)
catwalk ring
14.1(m)
column
gallery
inside_wall
GL
57.35(m)
Fig. A-5: Outline of the object and estimated first mode
152
Typical waves as a result of manpower excitation are shown in Fig.A-6(a) with the values at
K/P points. This figure proves the aspect in which the oscillatory waveforms of at points K and
P become opposite in phase in both measurements. This fact agrees with the property of the
mode shape by the prior eigenvalue analysis, and it seemed to be possible to identify the 1st
mode. By the eigenvalue analysis, calculated natural period corresponding to the first mode is
0.33 s from that by the vibration measurement. It seems that the restraint by non-structural
members for the roof not being expressed in the FE model is the cause for this, and it is a future
problem.
In this study, the damping factor was estimated using free vibration wave data from the time in
which the manpower excitation ended. The estimated damping factor by the average of damping
ratio of vibration amplitudes and the estimated value by the least squares method on the
difference in 1-d.o.f. system oscillation agreed very much, and it was estimated at
approximately 2.0%(2.03%). In Fig. A-6(b), a measured wave is shown in comparison with the
damped 1-d.o.f. system response.
5000 1.5
4000
1
Vel(μ /sec)
3000
2000
0.5
1000
Dis
0 0
-1000
-0.5
-2000
-3000
-1
-4000 K(ud)
P(ud)
-5000 -1.5
259 259.5 260 260.5 261 261.5 262 262.5 263 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Time(sec) t/T
(a) identifying of first mode shape (b) identifying of damping factor
Fig. A-6: Outline of the object and estimated first mode
Appendix-3 : Outline of the analysis method [3,4]
A response analysis method considering geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis based
on the FEM is used; the governing equation of motion at time station n+1 is given as
Ṁẋ n+1 + p n+1 = f n+1 (A1)
where M, p, f and x denote the mass matrix, internal resisting forces, external force vector, and
nodal displacement, respectively. This problem is dependent on the hysteresis due to concrete
cracking/crushing and rebar yielding. The tangential stiffness matrix, the mass matrix and
internal resisting force are described as (A2). Here, Rayleigh-type damping is used as shown in
this equation.
K n +1 = ∂ p n +1 ∂ x n +1 , C n +1 = ∂ p n +1 ∂ ẋ n +1
(A2)
p n +1 = C n +1 ẋ n +1 + K n +1 x n +1 = (α 0 M + β 0 K n +1 ) ẋ n +1 + K n +1 x n +1
The external force vector will be shown as follows by assuming multi-directional seismic load
and general external force.
⎡1 0 0⎤ ⎧̇ġ xn +1 ⎫
⎢0 1 0⎥⎥ ⎪ ⎪
f n +1 = −M ξ ̇ġ n +1 + b n +1 ，ξ = ⎢ ， ̇ġ n +1 = ⎨̇ġ ny+1 ⎬ (A3)
⎢0 0 1⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎪̇ġ z ⎪
⎣ ⋮ ⎦ ⎩ n +1 ⎭
153
In this study, the elements considered are the 8-node Serendipity degenerate shell elements[6] of
the popular isoparametric family as shown in Fig.3. In the computation, the element is
subdivided into equivalent concrete and steel layers across the thickness. A Total Lagrangian
approach is employed to describe large deformation problems. In the analysis method, strain
and stress were respectively made to be Green-Lagrange strain and 2nd Piola-Kirchhoff stress.
The strain-displacement and stress-strain relations are given by
ε = {∂u / ∂x, ∂v / ∂y, ∂u / ∂y + ∂v / ∂x,

ｈ/2 +1
η ζ ｎ
中央面
ζ
i Δζi σi
ζi
ｈ Z i (A4)
ξ
2 T
2 ⎧⎪ 1 ⎛ ∂w ⎞ 2 1 ⎛ ∂w ⎞ ∂w ∂w ⎫⎪
T
∂u / ∂z + ∂w / ∂x , ∂v / ∂z + ∂w / ∂y}
σ = {+σ , σ ⎜, τ , τ⎟ ,, τ ⎜} = ⎟ , ．
1 T
-ｈ/2
la yer
-1
⎨ x y
⎜
xy
⎟
xz yz ,(A5)
0,0⎬
Fig. A-7: Element geometry ⎪⎩ 2 ⎝ ∂x ⎠ 2 ∂
⎝ ⎠ y ∂ x ∂ y ⎪⎭
While to considering concrete cracking (open/close), crushing and rebar yielding, the
incremental theory of plasticity was adopted for the analysis. The uniaxial stress-strain relations
of a concrete and a steel bar are shown in Fig.A-8. The assumed biaxial strength envelope for
plain concrete is modeled based on Kupfer's results [7] as shown in Fig.A-9. In the numerical
simulation, the tension-stiffening of concrete is treated as shown in Fig.4 and a constant value of
0.25 has been used as the shear retention factor of cracked concrete. In this study, elastic
unloading and re-loading are assumed in the cyclic loading in order to ensure stability in the
numerical calculation.
σ2
σc σ c
σs σ
A
fc ｆ c σ1
σy E s’ B
1
2 E1 cE c
0.5fc 2 Es
0.2f0.2
c ｆc E c
Ec ε
εs
εt εt fcr αｆt
ε u’ ε εu c εc
εuu’ε σy S
ｆt αfcr
(concrete) (steel) σy σ1 =σ2
Fig. A-8: Stress-strain relation Fig. A-9: Yield surface of concrete
In the computation, the yield functions of concrete are modeled in Eqs.(A6) and (A7).
(biaxial compressive stress state)
{ [( ) (
f (σ ) = 1.355 σ 2x + σ 2y − σ 2x σ 2y + 3 τ 2xy + τ 2xz + τ 2yz )] (A6)
+ 0.355f (σ + σ )} = f
12
c x y c
(compression-tension stress state)

(f c − f cr )(σ m − J 2 sin φ 3 )+ f c f cr
f (σ ) = J 2 cos φ − (A7)
f c + f cr f c + f cr
1 1 2 1 ⎧⎪ 3 3 J 3 ⎫⎪
σm = (σ x + σ y + σ z ) , J2 = ( )
σ x + σ 2y − σ x σ y + τ 2xy , φ= sin −1 ⎨ − ⎬
3 3 3 ⎪⎩ 2 (J 2 )3 2 ⎪⎭
J3 = −
1
27
(2σ x − σ y )(2σ y − σ x )(σ x + σ y ) + 13 (σ x + σ y )τ 2xy
154
Design of the RC hyperbolic paraboloid composite twisted shell of
SCUT stadium at Guangzhou Higher Education Mega Center
FANG Xiaodan1*, ZENG Xianwu2

1*
Architecture Design and Research Institute, Guangdong Guangzhou 510641
f5101@126.com
2
Architecture Design and Research Institute, Guangdong Guangzhou 510641
Abstract
The RC hyperbolic paraboloid composite twisted shell is employed in the roof of SCUT
stadium at Guangzhou Higher Education Mega Center. For the shell, the long planar projection axis
reaches 100m while the short one reaches 70m. The total projection area of the roof is about
6,568m2. The composite shell consists of four twisted shells, of which the left and right sides are
symmetrical to each other but up and bottom sides are not in symmetry (Fig. 1). The shell is
supported by the surrounding edge members and two orthogonal space frames, as a result a
self-equilibrium system is formed. The section size of edge beams is 500mm×1200mm, and that of
the frames changes from 600mm × 1200mm at the top to 600mm × 1800mm at the bottom. The
thickness of the shell is 130mm, while within the distance of 3.6m to the shell edges, the thickness
gradually changes from 130mm to 200mm at the edges. The concrete strength grade of the shell is
C45. This paper not only introduces the structure analysis results for the composite twisted shell but
also some solutions to the key technical difficulties during design, therefore, it can be a reference
design for similar structures.
Keywords: Composite twisted shell; Hyperbolic paraboloid roof; Prestressed; Construction process;
ANSYS
1. Introduction
SCUT stadium is located at Guangzhou Higher Education Mega Center. For the part of the stadium
grandstand, a usual two-floor (three-floor in local) RC frame structure is employed. For the roof, it
is an unbowed RC composite twisted shell. The composite shell consists of four small twisted shells,
of which the left and right sides are symmetrical to each other but up and bottom sides are not in
symmetry (Fig. 1). The horizontal projection of each shell is a parallelogram, the shells are
supported by the surrounding edge beams and central space frames. The section size of edge beams
is 500mm×1200mm, and that of the frames changes from 600mm×1200mm at the top to 600mm
×1800mm at the bottom. The thickness of the shell is 130mm, while within the distance of 3.6m to
the shell edges, the thickness gradually changes from 130mm to 200mm at the edges. The major
axis of the roof horizontal projection is about 100m while the minor one is 70m, and the projection
area is about 6568m2. For the larger shell, the horizontal projection area is about 1630m2, and its
four corner-point elevation is 28.662m, 10.538m, 18.8m and 11.692m, respectively. Meanwhile, for
the smaller shell, horizontal projection area is about 1280m2, and the four corner-point elevation is
28.662m, 10.538m, 16.908m and 12.439m, respectively. The concrete strength grade of the shell is
155
C45. Some horizontal prestressed tie-rods are set between the grounded points of two orthogonal
frames, so that a structural self-balance system formed. In the foundation design of the project,
prestressed tubular piles are mainly used. In order to avoid the subway tunnel, the drive
cast-place-pile foundation is employed in local.
Fig. 1 Long-ranged view of SCUT stadium
Fig. 2 Close-ranged view of SCUT stadium
2. Structural Design
2.1 Loads
2.1.1 Wind loads
Based on the “Load Code for the Design of Building Structures” (GB5009-2001), the basic wind
pressure for 100 yrs return period is 0.6kN/m2 and ground roughness level is B. Because of the
unique style of the roof, no given shape factor fits for this structure. Therefore, a whole model wind
tunnel test for this structure was carried out at the Wind Tunnel Laboratory of Shantou University.
The geometrical scale of the plexiglass model is 1:150. The test focuses on 24 sets of structural
responses under windward pressure (the orientation of the wind in each set rotates clockwise in 15
° to the previous one). The test involves the average wind pressure on the roof, critical wind
pressure and total static aerodynamic force. The wind loads have taken account the influence of
dynamic character in structure. According to the analysis based on the wind load design parameters
provided by the wind tunnel test report, the wind loads is not the controlled load for this structure.
2.1.2 Earthquake action

Based on the “Standard for Classification of Seismic Protection of Building”, the seismic
fortification level of the project is Class C. For the project location, the intensity of the seismic
156
fortification is 7, design seismic group is Group 1, basic acceleration of ground motion is 0.1g and
site category is type II. The seismic measure classification of the RC frame is Class 2. For the
unique style and large span of the roof, the analysis of the project includes not only the horizontal
earthquake action but also the vertical one.
2.1.3 Temperature shrinkage influence and loads

Due to the huge RC roof in the project, the shrinkage, creep and temperature influence on concrete
is remarkable. During the analysis, the seasonal temperature difference and after-shrinkage
equivalent of concrete is -50℃, relaxation factor is 0.4, and difference between indoor and outdoor
temperature is 25 ℃ . Besides the gravity load of the shell, the superimposed dead load (including
roof surface and indoor hanging loads) is 1.5kN/m2 and the live load for the non-accessible roof is
0.5kN/m2.
2.2 Global structural analysis model

For the part of grandstand, softwares SATWE and PMSAP of PKPM are used in the analysis.
Meanwhile, for the roof, software ANSYS8.1 is used. The analysis of the roof includes the
calculation under the vertical load, earthquake action and temperature influence; structural overall
stability analysis and construction process simulation. During the analysis, the internal forces and
deformation of the roof thin-shell structure (including the boundary members used to support the
shell) are the main analytical items. Besides that, the design for the grandstand frame structure is
also checked in this analysis. The FEA model is shown in Fig.3. Shell181 element is used for
modeling of the shell and the element size is divided into 1m. In the shell, some prestressed cables
modeled using Link8 elements are set in it. By applying the temperature load, the cables are
subjected to prestressing force. The grandstand frame structure is modeled using Beam4 element,
while the boundary members like edge beams and frames are modeled by Beam189 element. The
influence of the variable cross-section and eccentric connections are well considered in the analysis.
The construction process is considered in the analysis under vertical loads, i.e., the prestressing
forces are applied on the shell by the cables before conducting the analysis under other loads. By
doing this, the consistency between the FEA model and actual construction process can be ensured.
The modal analysis method with using CQC(complete quadratic combination) method in the mode
combination is used in the analysis under horizontal earthquake action. In addition, the vertical
earthquake action is also considered in the analysis and the vertical seismic influence coefficient is
0.05. The Block Lanczos method (considering the prestress of the shell) is used to determine the
overall stability of the structure.
1
ELEMENTS
APR 28 2006
11:27:08
Z
Y
X
Fig. 3 FEA model of the structure
157
2.2.1 Modal analysis
Based on the subspace interaction method, the first 50 modals of the structure are obtained. Because
of the large stiffness of the substructure, the first 20 modals are mainly the vertical vibration of the
roof. The first 10 modals of the structure are shown in Table 1 and the first vibration modal is
shown in Fig. 4.
Table 1 Main modals of the structure
Modal 1 2 3 4 5
Frequency/Hz 1.305 1.501 1.973 2.024 2.165
Modal 6 7 8 9 10
Frequency/Hz 2.238 2.362 2.414 2.555 2.716
1
NODAL SOLUTION
STEP=1
SUB =1
FREQ=1.305
USUM (AVG)
RSYS=0 MX
DMX =.037866
SMX =.037866
Z
Y
X
MN
0 .008415 .016829 .025244 .033658

.004207 .012622 .021037 .029451 .037866
Fig. 4 First vibration modal of the structure
2.2.2 Structural stability analysis

For the hyperbolic paraboloid thin-shell with negative Gauss curvature, there is no overall stability
problem of the shell. But around the comparatively flat saddle part, there may be local instability
problem. According to the results of the structural stability analysis under vertical loads and
prestressing forces of shell, the first several modal of the structure is all about the local buckling of
the shell and frames. Furthermore, the level of prestressing forces has a large influence on the local
buckling of shell. Therefore, it is inappropriate to blindly increase the prestressing force level of the
shell. Based on the analysis, the lateral buckling safe coefficient of the short span frame is about 6.9
(Fig. 5), but considering the lateral supports at the grounded points of two frames, its safe
coefficient is actually higher. The local buckling modal of the shell without prestressing forces is
shown in Fig. 6, and its lowest safe coefficient is 11.5. By applying the prestressing forces of
2.3Mpa, the lowest safe coefficient is just 4.6 (Fig.7). If considering the 30% loss of prestress, the
local buckling safe coefficient of the shell is 5.7. The stability problem of concrete thin-shell
structure is complex, which is affected by factors like the shell type, boundary conditions, initial
imperfection, initial stress state, nonlinear properties of material and so on. As a result, for the
twisted shell without overall stability problem, using the Block Lanczos method to increase the safe
coefficient is a simple and practical way to avoid the local stability of structure.
158
1
NODAL SOLUTION
STEP=1
SUB =1
FREQ=6.911
USUM (AVG)
RSYS=0
DMX =1
SMX =1 MN
Z
X
Y
MX
0 .222222 .444445 .666667 .88889

.111111 .333334 .555556 .777779 1
Fig. 5 Lateral buckling modal of the frame

1
NODAL SOLUTION
STEP=1
SUB =10
FREQ=11.587
UZ (AVG)
RSYS=0
DMX =1.135
SMN =-.594335
SMX =1
MX
MN
Z
Y
X
-.594335 -.240039 .114258 .468555 .822852

-.417187 -.06289 .291407 .645703 1
Fig. 6 Local buckling modal of the shell (without prestress)

1
NODAL SOLUTION
STEP=1
SUB =1
FREQ=4.601
UZ (AVG)
RSYS=0
DMX =1.135
SMN =-.953196 MX
SMX =1
MN
Z
Y
X
-.953196 -.519152 -.085109 .348935 .782978

-.736174 -.302131 .131913 .565956 1
Fig. 7 Local buckling modal of the shell (with prestress)
2.2.3 Shell stress distribution

The roof consists of four hyperbolic paraboloid twisted shells. For the boundary members of each
shell, the stiffness and loaded responses are quite different. The frames are large span with large
vertical deformation (deformation of about 42mm), so they belong to elastic boundary members.
However, the edge beams are small span with small vertical deformation (deformation of about
1mm), so they belong to rigid boundary members. Therefore, the shell stress distribution of the
structure is different from the usual hyperbolic paraboloid twisted shell with rigid boundary
members. The maximum, minimum and envelope principal stress of the shell middle plane under
vertical loads (without prestress) are shown in Figs 8~10 respectively. Based on Fig. 10, the tensile
stresses of the shell mainly occur in the corner parts of the rigid boundary members, and the
maximum principal tensile stress is about 2.1Mpa; the compression stress mainly occur near the
elastic boundary members (frames), which are caused by the frames and shell near the frame
159
compression flanges, the maximum principal compression stress is about 4.9Mpa.
1
NODAL SOLUTION
MAY 21 2010
STEP=1
13:24:25
SUB =1
TIME=1
S1 (AVG)MX
MIDDLE
DMX =.049285
SMN =-.148535
SMX =2079
Y
Z X
MN
-.148535 461.971 924.091 1386 1848

230.911 693.031 1155 1617 2079
Fig. 8 Maximum principal stress of the shell middle plane under vertical loads (S1)
1
NODAL SOLUTION
MAY 21 2010
STEP=1
SUB =1 13:24:36
MN
TIME=1
S3 (AVG)
MIDDLE MX
DMX =.049285
SMN =-4944
SMX =-235.341
Y
Z X
-4944 -3898 -2852 -1805 -758.576

-4421 -3375 -2328 -1282 -235.341
Fig. 9 Minimum principal stress of the shell middle plane under vertical loads (S3)
1
AVG ELEMENT SOLUTION
STEP=1 MAY 21 2010
SUB =1 13:28:09
MN
TIME=1
S3 MX
(AVG)
MIDDLE
DMX =.049285
SMN =-4944
SMX =2079
Y
Z X
-4944 -3383 -1823 -261.829 1299

-4164 -2603 -1042 518.565 2079
Fig. 10 Principal stress envelope of the shell middle plane under vertical loads
2.2.4 Influence of wind loads and earthquake action on shell

Wind loads applied on the roof are mainly suction forces, which are in the opposite direction of the
roof gravity. Except for the corner area, the wind pressure is not large. Based on the analysis, for the
large lateral stiffness of grandstand frame structure, wind loads are not the critical load for the
structure. The analysis results under earthquake action are mainly shown as follows. According to
Figs 11 and 12, under horizontal earthquake in X and Y directions, the maximum principal stress of
the shell middle plane is 0.38Mpa and 0.58Mpa respectively, the distribution zone is small and
mainly within the corner parts or near the boundary members. Therefore, the influence of horizontal
earthquake is small. Compared with the stress under vertical loads, the difference of the one under
vertical earthquake is within 5%, which can be neglected.
160
1
NODAL SOLUTION
STEP=9999
S1 (AVG)
MIDDLE
DMX =.006756
SMN =61.671
SMX =383.057
Y
Z X
MN
MX
61.671 133.09 204.509 275.928 347.347

97.38 168.799 240.219 311.638 383.057
Fig. 11 Maximum principal stress of the shell middle plane under X-earthquake
1
NODAL SOLUTION
STEP=9999
S1 (AVG)
MIDDLE
MX
DMX =.006902
SMN =69.817
SMX =576.468
Y
Z X
MN
69.817 182.406 294.995 407.584 520.173

126.112 238.701 351.29 463.879 576.468
Fig. 12 Maximum principal stress of the shell middle plane under Y-earthquake
1
NODAL SOLUTION
STEP=9999 MAY 21 2010
S1 (AVG) 18:08:02
MIDDLE MX
DMX =.001412
SMN =32.636
SMX =165.198
Y
Z X
MN
32.636 62.094 91.553 121.011 150.469

47.365 76.823 106.282 135.74 165.198
Fig. 13 Maximum principal stress of the shell middle plane under vertical earthquake
2.2.5 Shell deformation control

The shell deformation under vertical loads are given in Fig. 14. The maximum vertical deformation
is about 47mm, which is much larger than that of the usual thin-shell structure with rigid boundary
members. This is because the frames which support the shell are elastic boundary members.
According to Fig.15, the maximum bending vertical deformation of the frame under vertical loads
reaches 42mm, therefore, the shell deformation is mainly formed by the deformation of a rigid body.
However, the frame deformation is mainly formed by the deflection under gravity load. Therefore,
controlling the supporting member deformations of the shell is the key point in the roof deformation
control. Based on the “Specification for Design of Reinforced Concrete Shell Structure”, the
deflection of the boundary members should not be larger than 1/1000 of the span, which is applied
161
to the situation of using simplified method for calculating the thin-shell with rigid boundary
members. Since the influence of the boundary member deformation on the stress of shell has
considered in the FEA, the deflection control can be slackened.
1
NODAL SOLUTION
STEP=1 MAY 22 2010
21:04:33
SUB =1
TIME=1
UZ (AVG) MX
RSYS=0
DMX =.049285
SMN =-.046915
SMX =.533E-03
MN
Y
Z X
-.046915 -.036371 -.025827 -.015283 -.004739

-.041643 -.031099 -.020555 -.010011 .533E-03
Fig. 14 Vertical deformation of the shell under vertical loads
1
NODAL SOLUTION
MAY 22 2010
STEP=1
SUB =1 21:01:07
TIME=1
UZ (AVG)
RSYS=0
DMX =.043637
SMN =-.04169
SMX =.583E-04 MN
MX
Z
Y
X
-.04169 -.032413 -.023135 -.013858 -.00458

-.037051 -.027774 -.018497 -.009219 .583E-04
Fig. 15 Vertical deformation of the frames under vertical loads
3. Key Points of the Designing

3.1 Shell stress control
The hyperbolic paraboloid twisted shell is the thin-shell with negative Gauss curvature, which is
characterized by the existence of tensile stress. Because of the poor tensile strength of concrete, the
tensile stress should be controlled to avoid the cracks and ensure the durability of the structure.
Based on Fig.19, the maximum axial force per unit length of the shell under vertical loads is about
270kN/m. By applying unbonded prestress Φ s15.2@600 (considering 30% loss of prestress)
along the straight generatrix in the middle plane of shell, the compression provided by the
prestressed cable is 213kN/m, so that most of the shell tensile stress can be neutralized. According
to Fig. 18, the maximum bending moment per unit length of the shell is about 9.4kN.m/m, while the
shell thickness is 130mm with setting of two-layer-two-way Ф 10@150 reinforcements, Mk ＝
20.8kN.m/m, i.e., the safe coefficient reaches 2.2. The bending moment and tensile stress within the
distance of 3.6m to the shell edges are comparatively large, the maximum bending moment is
36.8N.m/m (Fig. 17), therefore, the reinforcements here up to Ф10@75 and the thickness gradually
changes to 200mm, Mk ＝68.4kN.m/m, so the safe coefficient is 1.8. The above safe coefficient is
larger than the code requirement. The distribution of shell unbonded tendons is shown in Fig. 16.
162
1
ELEMENTS
APR 28 2006
11:32:32
Z
Y
X
Fig. 16 Distribution of shell unbonded tendons

1
STEP=1
SUB =1
TIME=1
M3 (AVG) MX
MIDDLE
DMX =.049285
SMN =-13.973
SMX =36.849
Y
Z X
MN
-13.973 -2.679 8.615 19.908 31.202

-8.326 2.968 14.262 25.555 36.849
Fig. 17 Bending moment of the shell edges under vertical loads

1
STEP=1 MX
SUB =1
TIME=1
M3 (AVG)
MIDDLE
DMX =.049285
SMN =-9.397
SMX =5.911
MN
Y
Z X
-9.397 -5.996 -2.594 .808211 4.21

-7.697 -4.295 -.89274 2.509 5.911
Fig. 18 Bending moment within the shell under vertical loads
163
1
STEP=1
SUB =1 MN
TIME=1
N3 (AVG) MX
MIDDLE
DMX =.049285
SMN =-642.745
SMX =270.316
Y
Z X
-642.745 -439.843 -236.94 -34.038 168.865

-541.294 -338.392 -135.489 67.413 270.316
Fig. 19 Axial force per unit length of the shell under vertical loads
3.2 Shrinkage stress control of the shell concrete

For the large size of shell (horizontal projection size reaching 99.8m×70m) and poor maintenance
conditions, the concrete shrinkage will be inevitably occur during the construction process. In order
to reduce the existence of secondary internal forces and prestress loss, two construction joints which
also used as the post-cast strips are set in midspan of the space frames (the crosswise part as shown
in Fig.16). These two parts of structure will be casted after finishing the prestressed construction,
therefore, the influence of frames on the shell shrinkage can be reduced.
3.3 Internal forces of frames

As the elastic boundary members, frames play an important role in the bearing properties of the
whole structure. The axial force, bending and torsion moments of the frames under vertical loads
are shown in Figs 20~22. It can be seen that the frames are typical torsion-shear-bending members,
of which the top part in tension while bottom in compression, so that the axial compression
stress-to-strength ratio should be controlled. In addition, there is large stress concentration near the
intersections of boundary members, so that the stirrups of the boundary members should be added at
the corner parts.
1
LINE STRESS
STEP=1 MAY 22 2010
SUB =1 21:17:34
TIME=1
FXI FXJ
MIN =-8819
ELEM=135
MAX =1692
ELEM=1752
Y
Z X
-8819 -6483 -4148 -1812 523.984

-7651 -5315 -2980 -643.899 1692
Fig. 20 Axial force of the frames under vertical loads
164
1
LINE STRESS
STEP=1 MAY 22 2010
21:18:57
SUB =1
TIME=1
MYI MYJ
MIN =-1040
ELEM=1104
MAX =3184
ELEM=819
Y
Z X
-1040 -101.188 837.35 1776 2714

-570.456 368.081 1307 2245 3184
Fig. 21 Vertical bending moment of the frames under vertical loads
1
LINE STRESS
STEP=1
SUB =1
TIME=1
MXI MXJ
MIN =-427.759
ELEM=1564
MAX =432.355
ELEM=1213
Y
Z X
-427.759 -236.622 -45.486 145.651 336.787

-332.19 -141.054 50.082 241.219 432.355
Fig. 22 Torsion moment of the frames under vertical loads
3.4 Balance of the horizontal thrusting force

The roof shell is comparatively flat, the angle between the ground and long span frame which
supports the shell is only 22.37 。 , the angles between the end frames and ground are 27.35 。 and
32.68 。 respectively, and the horizontal thrusting force at the grounded point is about 11000kN. As
the internal forces of the shell and frames are sensitive to the support displacement, so that the
balance of the horizontal thrusting force at grounded point and control of the support displacement
become the key ways to ensure the shell safety. Some horizontal tie-rods are set between the
grounded points of frames, so that a structural self-balance system formed. Considering the long
distance between supports (distances of 149.33m and 108.95m respectively), bonded prestress is
applied to the horizontal tie-rods so as to effectively control the support horizontal displacement.
The section size of the prestressed tie-rods is 1400mm × 1000mm with four bundles of low
relaxation high strength prestressed reinforcements 15 Φ s15.2. The tie-rod section and prestressed
reinforcement arrangement are shown in Fig. 23.
165
5 16 4 16
Adjustable
Adjustable
4 16
5 16
Adjustable
Fig. 23 Prestressed reinforcement arrangement of the tie-rods
3.5 Non-symmetric problem of the shell

Owing to the non-symmetric arrangement of the building plane, the left and right sides of the four
roof shells are symmetrical to each other but up and bottom are not in symmetry. The horizontal
displacement at the shell top caused by the vertical loads further exacerbates the deflections of the
big slant columns and shell, so that the difference of member internal force is large. In order to
decrease the influence, some structural slabs are set utilizing the baffle plates of skylights to link the
nearby shells, so as to increase the lateral stiffness of frames. In addition, by setting two shear walls
in local (Fig. 24), the horizontal displacement at the shell top and deflection of the shell reduce
effectively.
1
ELEMENTS
TYPE NUM
Fig. 24 Grounded shear walls
3.6 Control of the bedplate concrete temperature and shrinkage crack

For the bedplate, the total length is 133m, width 72m and area of about 8500m2. Both the length and
166
width are larger than the maximum distance proposed in code for structural expansion joint.
However, in order to ensure the structural integrity, avoid the complexity of the structural analysis
and construction measures, the design without structural expansion joint is employed. The
following measures are mainly used to reduce the influence of temperature and shrinkage.
1) Increase the reinforcement ratio of the plate. In addition, half of the top reinforcements should
be set continuously in the plate and Grade III steel which is good at controlling cracks should
be employed. The principle of plate reinforcement setting is “small diameter, small space”.
Besides that, for the local place with stress concentration, the plate reinforcement should be
added.
2) Strictly control the mix proportion of concrete. The water-cement ratio should be about 0.45
and fine aggregate should be medium sand. To ensure the concrete slump, some water reducing
admixture can be used if necessary.
3) To ensure that the concrete hardening is conducted in the full wet conditions, both the vibration
during the concrete pouring process and curing work after the concrete final set should be taken
care of.
3.7 Construction process

Different from usual structures, it is important to design the construction order and stripping order
of this project, furthermore, the order should be considered in the structural analysis. The main
construction order of this project is given as follows.
1) Pile foundation construction, pouring concrete of bedplate, pile caps and prestressed tie-rods.
2) After the concrete strength of bedplate and prestressed tie-rods reaching 90% of the design
strength, the prestress should be applied in several steps on the tie-rods.
3) The roof construction should be divided into several steps. The roof windward members and
connection slabs between frames are the post-cast members.
4) The concrete pouring of four twisted shells and boundary members should be conducted
respectively. After the concrete strength reaching 90% of the design strength, the side formwork
of the boundary members should be removed and the prestress should be applied on the shells.
5) Three weeks after the completion of shell prestress construction, the roof windward members
should be casted.
6) Grandstand construction, pouring concrete of the connection slabs between frames.
4. Conclusions
The prestressed RC hyperbolic paraboloid composite twisted shell is employed in the roof of this
project. For the shell, the span is large, the structure is novel and beautiful, the bearing properties is
good, the using structural materials is less than usual (the conversion concrete thickness per square
meter of the 99.8m×70m large-span roof is only 200mm) and the project cost is comparatively low.
Compared with the steel structure, there is no need to conduct the treatments of fireproof and antirust,
the waterproof of the roof is good, the maintenance work is simple, the cost is low, therefore, it is a
good low-carbon (with less steel and cement) structure type for large-span structure. Based on the
analysis of the project, some suggestions for structural design are given as follows:
1) The boundary members play an important role in the control of shell stress, therefore, attention
should be paid on the design of boundary members
2) Since the unconventional support conditions of the shell, the construction process should be
considered by the overall structural analysis. In the analysis with software ANSYS, the
167
construction process can be simulated by defining element live and dead.
3) Because of the large tensile stress in the shell, the prestress should be applied on the shell so as
to ensure the structural durability. The prestress which is only used to balance most of the
tensile stress in the shell should not larger than necessary.
4) Though there is no overall stability problem of the hyperbolic paraboloid twisted shell, the
structural analysis should still includes the local stability and overall stability with
unconventional support conditions. In addition, the prestress influence should be considered in
the structural stability analysis. When the Eigenvalue Method is used in elastic stability analysis,
the local buckling safe coefficient of the shell should not less than 4. 20~30% loss of the
prestress should be considered.
5) The influence of winds and earthquake action on the shell is small, therefore, it can be
neglected in the design.
6) The deformation control of thin-shell should based on particular case. For the thin-shell with
elastic boundary members, if the influence of the boundary member deformation on the shell
stress has been considered in the FEA, the deflection control of boundary members can be
slackened. The recommended control level can only stricter than the one in the serviceability
limit state which is given by the “Code for Reinforced Concrete Design” (GB50010).
7) Since the horizontal thrusting force at the shell grounded point is large, the horizontal
displacement control is very important to the shell safety. Therefore, some horizontal tie-rods
should be set to form a structural self-balance system. In addition, the prestress should be used
to control the horizontal displacement of the supports.
8) The influence of temperature and concrete shrinkage on the shell is obvious. Besides
considering the influence in analysis, the reasonable construction process and measures can be
used to reduce the influence.
References
[1] Wind Tunnel Laboratory of Shantou University. Wind tunnel test report of SCUT stadium [R].
2005.6.
[2] Specification for Design of Reinforced Concrete Shell Structure (JGJ/T22-98)
168
Introduction of the new revision of Chinese code -

Specification for design of reinforced concrete shell structures
Tao SONG
China Academy of Building Research
No.30 Bei San Huan Dong Lu, Beijing 100013, China
songtao@cabrtech.com
Abstract
The Chinese code - Specification for Design of Reinforced Concrete Shell
Structures, was firstly promulgated in 1965 and revised in 1998. It has been revised
again recently to suit the new practical need. The specification was revised to
correspond with the philosophy of the new revision of national code “Unified Standard
for Reliability Design of Engineering Structures” and other relevant codes. Some
classical analytical formulas and corresponding coefficients are included in the new
revision as while as newly developed analysis technique based on computer.
Keywords: Chinese code, Reinforced concrete shell, Buckling, Design
1 Introduction
The Chinese code - Specification for design of reinforced concrete shell structures[1]
was firstly promulgated in 1965 and revised in 1998. It has been revised again recently
to suit the new practical need. The specification was revised to correspond with the
philosophy of the new revision of national codes - Unified standard for reliability design
of engineering structures (GB 50153-2008) [2], Code for design of concrete structures
(GB 50010) and other relevant codes. Some classical analytical formulas and
corresponding coefficients are included in the new revision as while as newly developed
analysis technique based on computer.
The new revision mainly included: (1) selection of shell types; (2) fundamental
provisions for design of concrete shells, including the limit state verification, load and
load combinations, seismic design, etc.; (3) provisions for shell analysis, including
analytical method, semi-analytical method and numerical method; (4) analytical method
of shells of revolution, double curvature shallow shells and membrane shells; (5)
construction detail requirements for concrete shells.
2 Analysis methods
The analytical method can be applied to the calculation of the shell structures if the
classical solution can be obtained, especially for the shells with regular geometry and
regular load and boundary conditions. However, semi-analytical method and numerical
method are recommended for the analysis of general shells subjected to various loads
and boundary conditions.
169
2.1 Numerical method

Due to the fact that only a few solutions of various shells can be obtained by analytical
method, the application of pure analytical method is limited to a very few practical
projects. The modern shell analysis is almost always based on numerical method.
The specification recommended two numerical methods: the finite difference method
and the finite element method (FEM). The FEM is well suited to creation computer
programs and can solve almost all types of shell problems. The elements could be flat or
curved, triangular, rectangular or quadrilateral. The shell elements adopted in modern
programs are capable of handling large deformation, geometric imperfection, creep,
non-linear material properties.
The element size in analysis should satisfy the accuracy requirement of the practise.
Generally, the edge length of the element should not be larger than 1/20 of the shell
length or diameter, and not larger than 2m. The mesh should be refined to smaller one
in the area of stress concentration.
It is emphasized that the FEM results will be accepted for practise only after validation
by structural concept or other evaluation procedure. The directly usage of FEM results
without validation may possibly cause serious mistake.
2.2 Semi-analytical method

The so-called semi-analytical method discretize the target area by a series of mesh lines,
the original partial differential equations (PDEs) are then transformed to ordinary
differential equations (ODEs) along the lines, values between the lines could be
expressed by interpolation. The ODEs can be solved by ODE solver, which is a
mathematic tool being capable of solving linear or non-linear ODEs of boundary-value
problems.
The finite element method of lines (FEMOL) was developed by Prof. Si Yuan[3]. It is a
newly-developed semi-discrete method being effective for shell analysis. In this method,
the PDEs defined on arbitrary domains are semi-discretized, by finite element
techniques via variational principles, into a system of ODEs defined on discrete mesh
lines. The ODEs can be solved directly by using a state-of-the-art ODE solver. Owing
to the efficient capability built into the modern ODE solvers, highly reliable and
accurate solutions of the ODE system can be obtained numerically.
The new revision of the specification recommends semi-analytical method as the
optional method of shell analysis.
2.3 Analytical method

For some shells with regular geometry and boundary conditions, the classical analytical
methods can derive the formulas of shell stressed and deformations. The formulas can
disclose the inherent relation inside the shells, and can indicate the direct concept of the
shell behaviour.
Hereinafter, some of the analytical approaches specified in the Chinese code will be
introduced for the analysis of shells of revolution, double curvature shallow shells and
membrane shells.
170
2.3.1 Shells of revolution
For shells of revolution, the analytical solution can be obtained as the summation of
results of membrane theory and results of edge effects.
When the characteristic length at outer edge, C a , is less than 1/3 of the meridian arc
length from the central axis to the edge, s1 , i.e. Ca < 1 3 s1 (Fig. 1), the resultants forces
can be determined as following:
ro
so
s1
vφn vt uho
s2
vt
Ψφ
nθ
φo
r2o
nφ mφ v
w
θ sa
qx r dθ
uha
qy ra
qn r2a
r2
φa
r1 dφ
φ
Fig. 1: Shells of revolution

 2   2 
nφ = nφm − ctgϕ  m% φaη2 + n%aη4 sin ϕa  + ctgϕ  m% φoη 2 − n%oη 4 sin ϕo  (1)
 Ca   Co 
2r  m%  2r  m% 
nθ = nθm − 2a  − φa η 4 + n%aη1 sin ϕa  + 2o  φo η 4 + n%oη 1 sin ϕo  (2)
Ca  Ca  Co  Co 
mφ = m% φaη3 − Ca n%aη2 sin ϕa + m% φoη 3 + Co n%oη 2 sin ϕo (3)
2 2
vφn = m% φaη2 + n%aη4 sin ϕa − m% φoη 2 + n%oη 4 sin ϕo (4)
Ca Co
Ca = 0.76 tr2 a , C o = 0.76 tr2o (5)
Where C a and Co are the characteristic length at outer and inner edges, respectively.
nφm and nθm are the in-plane resultant forces due to membrane theory, in meridian and
latitude direction, respectively.
m% φa , n~a , m% φo , n~o are the edge effects of moment and in-plane forces at outer and inner
edges. Approaches of how to calculate them under different boundary conditions (edge
beams or supporting members) are described in appendix of the specification.
The coefficients ηi and η i are the function of Ca and Co .
For spherical shallow shells without opening and subjected to uniform load qn in normal
direction, when the characteristic length C is less than 1/3 of the meridian arc length
from the central axis to the edge, i.e. C < 1 3 s1 , the resultant forces and displacement
can be obtained, for example:
171
2轾 q r C 2γ
nϕ = 犏 γ - C2bei γ - n s
C1ber ⅱ (6)
犏
γ C2 4
臌
2   1   1  q r C2 
nq = 2  − C1  beiγ + ber ′γ  − C2  berγ − bei′γ  − n s  (7)
C   γ   γ  4 
1  1   1 
mϕ = −  C1  berγ − bei′γ  − C 2  beiγ + ber ′γ  (8)
rs   γ   γ 
12 轾
w= 犏C1beiγ + C2berγ + C6 (9)
Ect 2 犏
臌
2 6 轾
Ψ= 犏C1beiⅱ γ + C2ber γ (10)
Ect 2C 犏
臌
Where γ = 2 r C . The integration constants Ci (i = 1- 6) can be determined through
the boundary conditions at outer ring.
For spherical shallow shells with opening at top centre, formulas can be obtained
which are similar to Eq. (6) - Eq. (10) but with additional items considering the effects
at inner edge.
For the shells of revolution with uniformly distributed orthogonal ribs, the formulas for
shell without rib can also be followed, however the characteristic length should be
taken as the equivalent one considering the equivalent shell thickness:
tϕ I
C = 0.76 tϕ I r2a (11)
tθA
Where tϕ I is the equivalent thickness in meridian direction according to the moment of
inertia, t θA is the equivalent thickness in latitude direction according to the section
area.
2.3.2 Double curvature shallow shells
For double curvature shallow shells with rectangular bottom plane subjected to uniform
vertical load, qz , the membrane forces can be obtained:
q
n1m = − z ξ1 (12)
κ1
q
n2m = − z ξ 2 (13)
κ2
qz
νm = ξV (14)
κ1κ 2
Where κ1 , κ 2 are the principle curvatures, ξ1 ,ξ 2 ,ξV are coefficients related to the
position and the ratio of the two edge rises. Tables for value of ξ1 ,ξ 2 ,ξV are available
in the specification’s appendix.
172
The internal forces can be obtained by adding items of edge effect to the membrane
results. When the ratios of edge-length to characteristic length in both x, y direction are
not less than 9, i.e. a C1 ³ 9 and b C2 ³ 9 , the shell can be divided into 4 rectangular
corner zones and 4 middle zones (Fig. 2). The rectangular corner zones have the edge-
length of 3C1 and 3C2 , the rest of the shell is divided into 4 middle zones by two
diagonals.
III D B III 3C2 y’
II x’
b/2
I I x
o x
b
x’
II y’
b/2
III A C III
3C2
3C1 3C1 a
y
a
y
Fig. 2: Zones of double curvature shallow shell

The resultant forces and bending moments in corner zones III can be obtained:
q
n1 = n1m + z e −η cosη (15)
κ1
q
n2 = n2 m + z e −ξ cos ξ (16)
κ2
νt =ν m (17)
qz C12 −ξ
m1 =
e sin ξ (18)
2
qC2
m2 = z 2 e−η sin η (19)
2
Where ξ = x ' C1 , η = y ' C2 , x ' and y ' are the distance to the nearest edge in x and y
direction, respectively.
The resultant forces and bending moments in middle zones can be obtained from Eq.(15)
– Eq.(19) except that, in middle zone I, n1 should be taken as the membrane force
(Eq.(12)); in middle zone II, n2 should be taken as the membrane force (Eq.(13)).
For shells with uniformly distributed orthogonal ribs, the formulas for shell without rib
can also be followed, however the characteristic length should be taken as the
equivalent one considering the equivalent shell thickness:
t1I t1I t t2 I
C1 = 0.76 , C2 = 0.76 2 I (20)
κ2 t2 A κ1 t1A
Where t1I and t2 I are the equivalent thickness in x, y direction according to the moment
of inertia, t1A 、 t2 A are the equivalent thickness in x, y direction according to the
section area, respectively.
173
2.3.3 Membrane shallow shells
The form-finding of so-called membrane shallow shells should make the two principle
stresses be nearly equal to each other.
For membrane shallow shell with rectangular bottom plane subjected to uniform vertical
load qz (Fig. 3), the expression of the middle surface and the rise at top can be obtained:
16a 2 qz
z= z (x, y ) (21)
p 2 nL
16a 2 qz
f = z (0, 0) (22)
p 2 nL
Where nL is the compressive force per unit length, ζ (x, y ) can be found in the
correlative coefficient tables.
b
b
a a
Fig. 3: Membrane shell with rectangular bottom plane
For membrane shallow shell with circular bottom plane subjected to uniform vertical
load qz , the expression of the middle surface and the rise at top can be obtained:
(ra - r 2 )
qz 2
z= (23)
4nL
qz ra2
f = (24)
4nL
The membrane shallow shells should be adopted for shells of small span. The edge
length of membrane shallow shell should not be large than 8m, the ratio of longer to
shorter length should not be larger than 2.0.
2.3.4 Cylindrical shells and hyperbolic paraboloidal shells
For cylindrical shells and hyperbolic paraboloidal shells, there are many study works on
their analysis. Literatures can be referred to find the analytical solution for long or short
cylindrical shells and hyperbolic paraboloidal shallow shells.
The former version of this Chinese specification contained two long appendixes giving
very complicated calculation formulas and data tables for cylindrical shells and
hyperbolic paraboloidal shells under different load cases.
In the new revision, the numerical method using computer program is recommended for
the analysis of cylindrical shells and hyperbolic paraboloidal shells. In some sense the
classic analytical method is no longer practical at the era of computer program.
174
3 Buckling analysis
The buckling problem of concrete shells has grown in importance especially for larger
span and comparatively thinner thickness. The specification’s role on buckling problem
is to provide to designer the practical approach of buckling analysis.
3.1 Empirical formulas

The linear critical load of perfect shell may be obtained by classical theory of stability.
For example, the critical external pressure of spherical shell can be obtained[4]:
2 骣t ÷2
qcr = Ec çç ÷ (25)
çr ÷
3(1- m ) 桫
2
This formula tells the relation between the critical load and the Young’s modulus,
thickness and radius of curvature. For the benefit of practical application, we can add a
factor into the right hand of Eq.(25) to take the various effects into account, including
the geometric imperfection, large deformation, creep, material inelasticity and layout of
reinforcement, also containing the safety factor.
For shells of revolution under uniform load, the specification adopts the following
empirical formula for the verification of buckling:
2
骣t ÷
qn ≤ 0.06 Ec çç ÷ (26)
r÷
ç桫
For shells of revolution with ribs, using the following formula:
2
骣tI ÷ tA
ç
qn £ 0.06 Ec ç ÷ (27)
ç桫r÷÷ tI
Where,
1 3 4
tI =
4
( tθI + 2t 3 + tφI3 ) , tA =
3
1 2 1
(28)
+ +
tθA t tφA
For double curvature shallow shells under uniform load, the specification adopts the
following formula for buckling verification:
qn ≤ 0.06 Ecκ1κ 2t 2 (29)
For double curvature shallow shells with ribs, using the following formula:
κκ 2
qn ≤ 0.06 Ec 1 2 t K (30)
tK tA
Where,
4
1 tA =
4
3
(
t K = 3 t1I + 2t + t 2 I ,
3 3
) 1 2 1
+ + (31)
t1 A t t2 A
For cylindrical long shells, the allowable stress can be estimated by:
175
Ec t
s £ 0.075 (32)
r
For cylindrical short shells, the allowable load can be estimated by:
2
骣t 1
qn £ 0.225Ec çç ÷÷ (33)
r÷
ç桫 l
- 1
tr
For cylindrical shells with uniformly distributed ribs in both two directions, the
formulas for buckling verification:
Ec A1
s £ 0.075 (34)
rl1
A1 12 I1 1
qn £ 0.225 Ec (35)
l1r 2 A1 4 A1 l
- 1
4
12 I1r 2
3.2 Numerical approach

There are only a few number of shells that can take the empirical formulas for buckling
analysis. For general shells the numerical approach should be adopted.
The modern shell analysis including buckling analysis is based on the computer
program, mostly based on the finite element method. The numerical method can give
both the bifurcation and nonlinear solution of the general shells with various load and
boundary conditions.
The specification asks to carry out the buckling analysis for general shells by numerical
method. The linear critical load of shell can be obtained through eigen-value analysis.
For a deeper understanding of shell buckling, further analysis should be carried out with
consideration of post-buckling behaviour of shell, geometric nonlinearities, geometric
imperfection, material inelasticity, creep and shrinkage of concrete, cracking, the layout
and amount of reinforcement.
In the current version of this Chinese specification, there are no criteria of the buckling
load, or in other word, no safety factor that can be directly used. However, some
literatures can be referred to evaluate the buckling strength of shells [5] [6].
4 Construction details
The provisions for construction details include requirements for the reinforcement, the
shell thickness, the connections, details of local area strengthening and so on.
The concrete shell should be reinforced with membrane bar, bending moment bar,
additional bar near edges and holes opening, as while as the bar for thermal stress and
concrete shrinkage. The minimum ratio of membrane reinforcement shall be not less
than 0.2% in one direction and not less than 0.6% in total 2 directions. The maximum
176
ratio of membrane reinforcement shall be not larger than 0.6 f ck f yk when

f ck £ 28 N mm 2 , and not larger than 16.8 f yk when f ck > 28 N mm 2 .
The space between membrane reinforced bars should be not larger than 5 times the shell
thickness and not larger than 300mm.
The thickness of concrete shell should take into account the reinforcement, the thickness
of concrete cover to bar, the formworks under construction, the fire protection, etc., and
should be not less than 50mm.
At the edge of the shell plate, the thickness should be smoothly increased to 2-3 times
the original one and additional bending moment bar should be set. The range of
increasing thickness should be not less than 5 times the original thickness.
For pre-fabricated shell panels, the connection between them should be reinforced or
pre-stressed and cast in non-shrinking concrete with concrete strength not less than that
of the pre-fabricated panels.
Along the edge of holes opening, ribs should be designed as the edge beams to
strengthen the shell plates.
When shell is subjected to concentrated load, there should be extra reinforcement at the
load action position.
5 Conclusion
The Chinese specification for design of reinforced concrete shell structures has been
revised to provide an appropriate instruction for the design of concrete shells in this
country. Provisions for shell analysis including analytical method, semi-analytical
method and numerical method are involved. Analytical formulas of shells of revolution,
double curvature shallow shells and membrane shells are introduced. Provisions for
construction detail of concrete shells are prescribed.
References
[1] Chinese code, Specification for Design of Reinforced Concrete Shell Structures
(JGJ T 22-98, Draft), 2010.
[2] Chinese code, Unified Standard for Reliability Design of Engineering Structures
(GB 50153-2008), 2008.
[3] Si YUAN. The Finite Element Method of Lines – Theory and Applications.
Science Press, Beijing & New York, 1993.
[4] S. Timoshenko. Theory of Elastic Stability. McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc.,
New York & London, 1936
[5] E. P. Popov and S. J. Medwadowski. Concrete Shell Buckling. ACI SP-67. Detroit,
1981.
[6] L. Kollar and E. Dulacska. Buckling of Shell for Engineers. Akademiai Kiado,
Budapest, 1984.
177
Japan::
Some considerations on reinforced concrete shells in Japan
The heart of design and theoretical study of continuum of
Prof. Y. Tsuboi
Katsuo NAKATA
Dr. Eng. and Director, K. Nakata & Associates
5-39-16-901 Higashi-Ikebukuro, Toshima-Ku, Tokyo 170-0013, Japan
katsuonakata@nifty.com
Abstract
Prof.Y Tsuboi left an indelible mark on the development of space structures in Japan.
Regarding reinforced concrete shell, he designed various kinds of shells using full use
of the latest technology in mechanics. Almost of the structures designed by him are
already taken down. Two building still in use and philosophy of design are introduced.
Keywords: RC shell , hyperbolic paraboloidal shell , spherical shell ,

analytical solution , Wlasov equation , mechanical rationality
1 Preface
Professor Y. Tsuboi was born in 1907 and passed away at the end of 1990. During his
83 years life, he has left so many contributions, not only in educational fields but also in
realization of actual space structures by steel and concrete. Especially regarding
reinforced concrete thin plate and curved surfaces, he offered many papers showing
how to get theoretical solution of various shape of shells. Also he showed how to apply
these theories and analyzed results to actual building designs.
When over viewing his 60 years activity, we can find that his research and construction
works moved from concrete structure to steel ones. Around the 1960s, structural
systems for large spaces moved from concrete shells to steel 3D grid trusses. Since that
time, almost no concrete shells of geometrical shapes were constructed in Japan until
now. And almost of all the concrete shells designed by Prof. Tsuboi have already been
taken down except two buildings, a chapel and an observatory roof.
It is supposed that Prof.Tsuboi started his study works on elastic mechanics after he
graduated Tokyo University on 1932 when he was 25 year old. For this period, in
Europe, some papers and books on thin elastic shell were published and such books
were his good reference, especially “Statik und Dynamik der Shalen” by W.Flugge.
His first publishing was translation of this book as a consultant on 1954 and in next year,
his first book on theory of elastic plates. While next 20 years after this publishing, he
wrote 3 books on elastic analysis of plane stress, plates and shallow shells of
geometrical shapes, rotational and translational shells. Sometimes, he told me that “ the
design and calculation of shells are applications of theories.”
178
His design technique to clarifying the behaviour of shells

was based on the classical theory, which was the newest
theory at that time, given as differential equations form and
when it is impossible to analyze it theoretically;
experimental tools were introduced to redeem the results. I
think it is the most legitimate and smart way when
designing and understanding the character of structures.
This “classical method” is still effective to understand the
behaviour of structures. Even by adopting numerical
calculation method such as Finite Element Method, no
general information regarding to it cannot be obtained
except analyzed model itself. From this view points, to
learn classical theory is very important and useful.
Fig. 1: Prof .Y. Tsuboi
2 Beginning of RC shell in Japan

It is not easy to define the beginning of shell research in Japan. But, gathering the
materials related to shell structures, the purpose of the research at that time was mainly
on warlike munitions for the Second World War. In this period, Prof. Tsuboi presented
paper on the estimation of modulus of elasticity in shear in order to adopt plywood for
airplane. It was very simple but full of idea on shell theory. When supposing a
rectangular plates of free edge (2a)×(2b) and supported on its three corners and a
concentrated force acting on, the deflection surface will be given as z=cxy, the
hyperbolic palaboloidal function. By measuring the deflection w0 at corner acting force
P0, the shear modulus will be given as
G = 3P0×(2a)×(2b)/w0×h３ h : thickness of plate
By using this formulation, shear modulus of material will be obtained easily by simple
test with high accuracy. It proved that the theoretical analysis is also important to get
actual data for designing.
The first project he designed was funnel-shaped concrete shell with 20m in diameter
for Hiroshima Jidou Toshokan (kid’s library) at Hiroshima City. This building was
designed by Kenzo Tange, the architect, and completed at 1954. The building was
analyzed as the combination of conical shell and torus by analyzing the membrane
equilibrium equations and the results was confirmed by model test.
As same time as the above library project, he designed a RC shallow spherical shell of
50m in diameter for multi-purpose hall in Matsuyama, Ehime Prefecture. The main
purpose to adopt concrete shell was to save the building cost. The labour cost was much
cheaper than that of material especially steel at that times. The design period was half of
a year. By his report of Tokyo University, the span of the shell was longest an that times
through the world. The construction was completed on 1953. For this facilities, the
same style and size funnel-shaped shell was also constructed. But the reason to adopt
179
the same design is not reported clearly. The building was taken down on 1967 for a new
art museum.
After this project, on 1957, a sports hall at Sizuoka was completed using hyperbolic
paraboloidal shell given as z=cxy of its plan as 50m square and on 1961, a reverse
cylindrical shell for club house of Totsuka country Club was realized in collaboration
with Prof. Kenzo Tange. Those buildings are already demolished and are not exist now.
Fig. 2: Hiroshima Jidou Toshokan
3 Shells in existence
Among the buildings designed by Prof. Tsuboi, only two RC shells are still in use.
In 1964, Tsuboi and Tange designed a beautiful concrete cathedral in the middle of
Tokyo composed by 8 hyperbolic paraboloidal shells. In this year, the famous sports
complex for Tokyo Olympic was constructed using semi-rigid hanging roof system
developed by Prof. M Kawaguchi. Those two buildings are still keeping their original
performance and working actively.
Another one is a small hyper single shell for the roof of observation deck at
Yumiharidake, Sasebo, Nagasaki-Pref. designed and calculated by him.
For both of these two buildings in existence, a hyperbolic paraboloidal shell of twisting
type z=cxy were adopted. Nevertheless, we cannot approve that the twisting type shell
have comparatively good durability with another shape ones. One reason possible is
they completed comparatively new for other shells and it has not passed over 50 years.
The building technique for construction was improved remarkably in 1060s.
3.1 On Ehime Prefectural Hall

This project was the Tsebin’s first trial for big span concrete spherical shell. When the
project were carried out, theoretical solutions on spherical shells with special conditions
were presented by W. Flugge in “Statik und Dynamik der Schalen”, but general solution
of bending theory were not given Nevertheless, limiting only for shallow shells,
fundamental differential equations with deflection surface w(x,y) and stress function
φ(x,y) were given as Wlasov Equation. In order to apply this theory to shallow spherical
180
shells, Tsuboi introduced these fundamental equations with r and θ by changing the
Cartesian coordinate to polar coordinate.
For actual design, he calculated these two equations for various boundary conditions
adding them a model test of 1/20 scale in order to confirm the results of calculation.
Design Data are as follows/
diameter of roof D=49.350m floor area A=1,913m2 rise h=6.510m
radius of curvature r=50.000m thickness of shell t top=12cm t bottom=78cm
Fig. 3: Ehime Prefectural Hall
3.2 On Tokyo Roman Catholic Cathedral

The most remarkable point of this building is that the RC shells are not used for
covering big spaces but as curved wall to seismic and wind loads. In this case, these
shells are standing almost vertically and the weight itself is carried as in-plane normal
stresses. The structure is consist of four different HP shells and each shells are
connected each other by connecting beams at the boundary. Each shell is different in
edge length and twisting ratio. For calculation of shells, finite difference method was
introduced.
Fig. 4: Tokyo Roman Catholic Cathedral
181
3.3 On Yumiharidake Observatory Deck Roof

This is the latest RC shell designed by Prof. Tsuboi. The shell is just a little deformed in
edge length from square and supported by three corners. The rest corner is free and
spread to the sky. Calculation was carried out using finite difference method.
Fig. 5: Yumiharidake Observatory Deck Roof
4 Closing comments
Prof.Y.Tsuboi left us many stimulating remarks. The most impressive saying for me is
that “Structural beauty is near the mechanical rationality”. Many people say structural
rationality is most important when designing the skeleton of architecture. But, he said
that the perfect geometrical shape such as circle and square are easy to clear its
mechanical characters and give us stable but not dynamic impressions. To introduce
some deformation so far as keeping the original advantage given by curvature may be
necessary to realize an attractive architecture.
He always introduced this technical skill to his project. In case of Ehime Prefectural
Hall, the shape of plan is not circle but egg-shape and the boundary level is just a little
inclined. The plan of church is not square and adopted different shaped shells. For the
roof of observatory deck, deformed HP shell with different edge length to get dynamic
impression.
Now, we got a strong tool of numerical calculation. By utilizing this tool, even the
behaviour of free-shape structures could be analyzed. But, from this calculation, it is
difficult to learn the basic characters of shell structures. To understand the classical
theories of shells are useful and indispensable ability still now.
182
2.1.2 Research
183
A study of the dynamic morphological resistance performance

of an RC shell structure by Félix Candela
Ikuo TATEMICHI 1*, Naoto YAMANOUCHI 2, Yuta HIRATSUKA3
1*
Professor, Dr. Eng., Meisei University
2-1-1 Hodokubo, Hino, Tokyo, 191-8506, JAPAN
E-Mail: tatemichi@ar.meisei-u.ac.jp
2
Toyo Construction Co.,Ltd.
3
Undergraduate Student, Meisei University
Abstract
Félix Candela made his name with the construction of a number of hyperbolic
paraboloid structures from reinforced concrete in Mexico. When the Mexico City
Earthquake occurred in 1985, all of Candela's buildings are reputed to have survived
undamaged. The explanation usually given for this is the extraordinary lightness of
Candela's structures.
In this study, taking Candela's Restaurant Los Manantiales in Xochimilco as our
focus, the vibration properties of such structures are analysed. Also, the behaviour of
the structure had it been built in Japan is investigated. From this investigation, some
important safety concerns arising from the short period of vibration typical of Japanese
earthquakes are pointed out.
Keywords: Candela, HP shell, earthquakes, dynamic behaviour, morphological

resistance, finite element method
1 Introduction
Félix Candela (1910-1997) was a globally renowned structural engineer. He produced a
number of exceptional architectural spaces utilising reinforced concrete hyperbolic
paraboloid (HP) shells, mostly in Mexico.
On September 19, 1985, a magnitude 8.1 earthquake occurred in Mexico, causing major
damage in Mexico City, some 400km from the epicentre. The soft ground in Mexico
City was thought to be a major factor. However, Candela's structures all survived the
quake intact, and it is assumed that their light weight was a major reason. Candela's RC
shells are only 4cm thick, and their lightness certainly exemplifies the advantages of HP
shell construction. However, the advantages of HP shells against seismic loads in which
bending rather than axial stress is dominant have yet to be sufficiently explored. This
study will focus on the dynamic morphological resistance performance of an HP shell.
The Los Manantiales restaurant in Xochimilco (photo 1 and 2), Candela’s finest work,
has been chosen as our subject, and a dynamic analysis will be carried out using the
finite element method (FEM).
184
photo 1: Los Manantiales restaurant photo 2: Inside view
This structure has been analysed using FEM before1)2). However, these analyses have
focused on stress conditions in the shell due to weight, and do not address its dynamic
behaviour.
2 Basic understanding of the natural vibration characteristics of the

HP shell
Before beginning the examination of Los Manantiales, the authors wanted to understand
the inherent vibration properties of the HP shell.
An HP (hyperbolic paraboloid) shell of the type shown in Figure 1 can be expressed
generally using Eq. (1), and a variety of different HP shell shapes can be obtained by
altering the variables a and b (where a>0, b>0).
z
y
Fig. 1: A hyperbolic paraboloid

2 2
x y
− =z (1)
a b
As an example, a finite element model was created with a variable parameter b/a, and
constant values for the span (3m), depth (3m) and central height (1.5m). This model is
shown in figure 2. The shell thickness was considered to be a constant 4cm, with
185
boundary conditions defined by pin support at each of the nodal points at the bottom of
the shell. The specific gravity was defined as 2.4tonf/m3, and the Young's modulus as
2.4×310 kN/cm².
In figure 2, we see that case 1 is simply a parabolic vault, and as the parameter b/a
increases, the familiar saddle shape of an HP shell emerges. The surface area in case 6,
and thus the weight of a shell with this shape, is 16% greater than in case 1.
z
y
1.5m
3m
x
3m
Case1；b/a=0 Case2；b/a=0.1 Case3；b/a=0.2
Case4；b/a=0.3 Case5；b/a=0.4 Case6；b/a=0.5
Fig. 2: Basic model of HP surface
Eigenvalue analysis was performed on these models using the finite element analysis
program "MIDAS/Gen". In figure 3, the primary eigenmodes and the corresponding
natural periods are given for cases 1 - 3. Figure 4 shows the relationship between the
natural period and the parameter b/a.
Mode Case 1 :b/a=0 Case 2 :b/a=0.1 Case 3:b/a=0.2
y-direction
primary
mode
0.120 0.074 0.042
z-direction
primary
mode 0.043 0.034 0.022
Fig. 3: Principal eigenmodes and natural periods (s)
From figure 4, we can see that as the parameter b/a increases, the natural period
becomes shorter, despite the increase in the total weight of the roof. In other words, the
rigidity of the roof increases because of the shape of the shell.
The y-direction primary mode is the translational mode, and we would expect this to be
the dominant vibration mode in an earthquake, but the stiffness of the structure makes
its significance compared to the z-direction primary mode quite pronounced. In the y-
direction primary mode, as b/a increases, the central part of the saddle is consolidated
186
and the translational vibration of the whole shell is suppressed. Conversely, this mode
becomes more dominant towards the edge of the shell.
In both modes, the natural period changes only slightly as b/a increases beyond 0.4.
0.15
Y-Primary
Natural period (s)
Z-Primary
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
b/a
Fig. 4: Relationship between natural period and parameter b/a.
3 Vibration Characteristics of the Xochimilco shell
3.1 Structural Overview

The Los Manantiales restaurant is a famous sight in Xochimilco, 23 km from Mexico
City. The building was completed in 1957 and it is still operating as a restaurant,
attracting visitors from all over the world.
It is composed of four intersecting shells, each of a symmetric saddle shape, as shown in
Figure 5. Thus, there are eight support points positioned opposite one another, and the
distance between these opposing points is the span, approximately 30m. The distance
from the centre to the farthest reach of the roof is about 21m. The RC shell is 4cm thick,
but 60-120cm-wide v-shaped sections running from the support points up to the centre
of the structure are reinforced to a thickness of 12cm. These sections are referred to as
the V-beams.
…V-beam (section reinforced to

thickness of 12cm) 4cm
12cm
5.83m
12.425m
30.0m 42.425m 60cm～120cm
(a) Plan view (b) Cross-section

Fig .5: Plan view and cross section of Los Manantiales Fig 6: V-beam cross-section
187
3.2 Analytical Model

The shell section of the structure was expressed as a mesh with 1,632 elements and
1,387 nodes. Figure 7 shows the analytical model. From the co-ordinates of the support
points and the highest points of the edge3), the HP shell can be approximated by
equation (2). The structure is considered to be pinned to 8 points on the ground for
support. As for weight, only the weight of the reinforced concrete itself is considered.
x2 y2
− =z (2)
110 5
Fig. 7: Analytical model
To test the reliability of the analytical model before the dynamic response analysis, a
static response analysis based on the weight of the shell was carried out, and the total
weight and reaction force compared to those from the earlier studies 1)2). As shown in
Table 1, this analysis is fairly consistent with the previous work, differing by no more
than 3%. The difference in weight is assumed to arise from the different treatment of the
V-beam sections in this analysis.
Table1: Comparison of analytical conditions, total weight and reaction force with those
from previous analyses ("-" means no data given)
Analysis by Analysis by
Garlock, Burger, This analysis
1) 2)
Billington Billington
Section V-beam section - 724.0 808.0
weight (kN) Saddle section - 1311.4 1284.5
Total weight (kN) 2031.2 2036.3 2092.2
Horizontal reaction force (kN) 160.8 159.8 168.6
Vertical reaction force (kN) 254.0 254.6 261.5
188
3.3 Eigenvalue Analysis

3.3.1 Effect of V-beams
First, in order to investigate how the 12cm concrete thickness along the V-beams
influences the natural vibration characteristics of the shell, two cases, one including this
reinforcement and one without it, were analysed. Table 2 shows the eigenvalue analysis
of these two cases. In case 2, the shell is considered to be 4cm thick throughout. In case
1, where the V-beam reinforcement is taken into account, the shell is some 35% heavier.
Table 2: Eigenvalue analysis cases

Thickness of V- Total
beam section(cm) weight (kN)
Case 1 12 2092.2
Case 2 4. 1553.7
Figure 8 shows the principle eigenmodes and natural periods. The primary mode is a
torsional vibration of the whole shell, and the secondary mode is a horizontal
translational motion. The 4th and 11th modes in case 1 are vertical modes. Comparing
the uniformly thick case 2 with the V-beam-reinforced case 1, we see that case 2
displays longer natural periods of vibration, confirming that the reinforcement increases
the rigidity of the structure. Particularly in the 2nd mode, which is expected to be the
most significant in an earthquake, the reinforced V-beams make a significant difference
to the natural period.
Case1 1st 2nd 4th 11th

Mode
Case2 1st 2nd 8th 16th
Natural Case1 1.67 0.63 0.56 0.36
Period (s) Case2 2.26 1.10 0.79 0.56
X
Eigenmode
(Case 1)
Z
Fig. 8: Principle eigenmodes and natural periods
3.3.2 Morphological effects in HP shell
Next, to verify the morphological resistance performance of the HP shell, eigenvalue

analysis was carried out for a parabolic vaulted intersecting shell of the same planar
shape (case 3). The highest point of the parabolic vault is set equal to the height of the
centre of the Los Manantiales building, at 5.84m. The V-beam section is assumed to be
reinforced at a thickness of 12cm. The total weight of the parabolic shell is 1.814kN,
189
87% of that found in case 1. Figure 9 shows the principle eigenmodes and natural
periods.
Compared to Figure 8, the torsional mode (1st) and vertical modes (4th, 11th) show a
shorter natural period in case 3, but the in translational mode (2nd) the HP shell (case 1)
shows a shorter period, confirming the structural morphological resistance performance
of the type of HP shell shown in section 2.
Mode 1st 2nd 4th 11th

Natural Period (s) 1.37 0.68 0.49 0.32
Y
Eigenmode
(Case 3)
Z
Fig 9: Principle eigenmodes and natural periods (s)
3.3 Seismic Response Analysis

The predominant period of vibration in the 1985 Mexico City earthquake was around 2
seconds. The model's response to this relatively long period of vibration was compared
to that of the El Centro earthquake (1940) and Kobe earthquake (1995), which were
characterised by shorter periods. Figure 9 shows the earthquake response spectrum of
those input motions (h=0.05).
1400
h=0.05 1940, El Centro
1200
1995,Kobe
Acceleration Response
Spectrum（cm/sec2 ）
1000 1985, Mexico

800
600
400
200
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
periods (s)
Fig 10: Acceleration Response Spectrum
Modal time history analysis was used, and damping considered as modal damping in all
modes with a damping ratio of 5%. Seismic motion with a maximum acceleration of
200gal was applied to the shell at the pin supports. These conditions were applied to the
analytical model from case 1.
190
Figure 10 shows the maximum response displacement shape resulting from a lateral (x
direction) input equivalent to that of the Kobe earthquake. This shows that the 2nd
mode of Figure 8 is the most significant in an earthquake.
The maximum response acceleration distribution is shown as an example in figure 12.
From the response analysis results, we see that the building is not as strongly affected
by the long-period vibration of the Mexico City earthquake as by the shorter-period
vibrations of the other quakes. Vertical response acceleration increases towards the
centre of the shell, while lateral acceleration is greatest towards the edges.
Direction of input motions Displacement enlargement factor=25
Fig. 11: Maximum response displacement shape (Kobe earthquake, 200gal)

Peak response acceleration (cm/sec2)
350 800
1985, Mexico
300 700 1940, El Centro
600 1995, Kobe
250
500
200
400
150
1985, Mexico 300
100 1940, El Centro 200
50 1995, Kobe
100
0 0
A O C A O C
Position Position
(a)X (horizontal) direction (A-O-C) (b)Z (vertical) direction (A-O-C)
400 B
Y
350
300 X
250 O
A C
200
150
100 1985, Mexico
1940, El Centro
50 D
1995, Kobe
0
B O D Direction of input motions
Position
(c)X (horizontal) direction (B-O-D)
Fig. 12: Peak acceleration distribution in response to lateral input motion
191
4 Conclusions
In this study, taking Candela's Restaurant Los Manantiales in Xochimilco as our focus,
the vibration properties of such structures are analysed.
The natural period of vibration of Los Manantiales was found to be shorter than
expected. For this reason, the building was able to cope with the long-period vibrations
of the Mexico City earthquake. This is largely due to the morphological resistance
performance of the HP shell. The V-beam reinforcement smoothly transmits stress
arising from the weight of the shell, but under seismic loads it also serves to greatly
improve rigidity. Conversely, though, caution is advised with respect to more common,
shorter-period earthquakes.
Also, the influence of ground type was not considered in this study, and awaits
investigation in the future. It would also be desirable to perform similar work on
Candela's other structures.
References
[1] Maria E. Moreyra Garlock and David P Billington, ”Félix Candela: Engineer,
Builder, Structural Artist”, Princeton University Art Museum Series,2008
[2] Noah Burger and David P Billington, ”Félix Candela, Elegance and Endurance: an
Examination of the Xochimilco Shell”, Journal of the International Association for
Shell and Spatial Structures: IASS, VOL. 47 (2006) No. 3 December n. 152
[3] Andrés Martín Francisco Ramón, Fadón Salazar Fernando, “Análisis Gráfico de
Obras Emblemáticas de Félix Candela” XVI Congreso Internacional de Ingeniería
Gráfica, June 2004
192
Effect of support condition on the mechanical behavior of

reinforced concrete shell-slab complex structure
Makoto TAKAYAMA1*, Kyoko YONE 2
1*
Kanazawa Institute of Technology
3-3-1-205, Togashi, Kanazawa, Ishikawa, Japan
takayamamkt@wit.ocn.ne.jp
2
Omuni Co., Ltd
Abstract
The mechanical characteristics of flat slab and shell structure are quite different
each other. While the load is mainly sustained by membrane stresses in shell structures,
it is resisted by bending moment in the slab. If shell is combined with slab as a structure,
the mechanical characteristics of such structure may show the considerable complexity.
The shell-slab complex structure has been constructed as a roof in snowy area in Japan.
So, authors have performed the experiments and analyses to investigate the effect of
loading mode on the mechanical behavior of the structure, and presented the results at
the IASS Symposium 2009 in Valencia [1]. The results of the investigation indicated
that the loading mode has not so affected the mechanical behavior of the structure,
compared with other factors such as the support condition. So authors have performed
further the experiments and analyses to investigate the effect of the support condition on
the mechanical behavior of the structure. The results of the experiments and analyses
indicate that the depth of supporting beam considerably affect the mechanical behavior,
especially the magnitude of the displacement and bending moment of the structure.
Keywords: Reinforced Concrete, Shell, Slab, Support Condition, Experiment, FEM

Analysis
1 Introduction
Flat slab and shell structures have been used as roof structure. The mechanical
characteristics of flat slab and shell structure, however, are quite different each other.
While the load is mainly sustained by membrane stresses in shell structures, it is resisted
by bending moment in the slab. If shell is combined with slab as a structure, the
mechanical characteristics of such structure may show the considerable complexity. The
shell-slab complex structure has been constructed as a roof in snowy area in Japan. So,
authors have performed the experiments and analyses to investigate the mechanical
behavior of the shell-slab complex structure, especially the effect of loading mode. And
the results of the investigation have been presented at the IASS Symposium 2009 in
Valencia [1]. The results of the investigation indicated that the loading mode has not so
affected the mechanical behavior of RC shell-slab complex structure, compared with
other factors such as the support condition. So authors have performed further the
experiments and analyses to investigate the effect of the support condition on the
193
mechanical behavior of RC shell-slab complex structure. In this paper, the results of the
experiments and analyses are presented.
2 Experimental program
Figure 1 and 2 give the shape, dimensions and the steel arrangement of the testing
model. The model has 96×96 cm square plan and 18cm rise. The thickness of shell and
slab was designed as 30mm. Double-layer of reinforcement steels were arranged in
longitudinal direction and hoop direction in the shell region. And in the slab region,
double-layers of steels were arranged in an orthogonal direction. The properties of steels
are presented in Table 1. The concrete of the model was made of normal Portland
cement and 2.5 mm maximum size aggregate. The properties of the concrete are given
in Table 2.
57.1
6
960
8
φ2 φ2@40
6 φ2
φ2
D6 φ2@50
57.1 8
960
φ2@40
2-φ2
φ2
960
φ2 2-D6
2-D6
φ2
D6
8
20
40
40 32 40 720
Figure 1: Shape, dimensions and steel arrangement of the testing model
Figure 2: Shape of the testing model
194
Table 1: Properties of reinforcement steel

Diameter Yield Tensile Young's
of Steel Strength Strength Modulus

Model
[mm] [N/mm] [N/mm2] [kN/mm2]
h-120 6.1 338.4 525.6 198.7
D6 h-90 5.9 470.4 545.0 214.7
h-60 5.9 470.4 545.0 214.7
h-120 2.0 685.3 703.2 200.3
φ2 h-90 2.0 685.3 703.2 200.3
h-60 2.0 685.3 703.2 200.3
Table 2: Properties of concrete

Compressive Tensile Poisson's Young's
Model Strength Strength Ratio Modulus
[N/mm2] [N/mm2] [kN/mm2]
h-120 35.36 3.07 0.22 21.28
h-90 38.59 3.49 0.20 22.70
h-60 36.03 3.29 0.20 23.18
The model has the supporting beams in surroundings of it. In this experiment, the depth
of the supporting beam was adopted as an experimental parameter. Three types of the
models with different depth of beam were tested under uniformly distributed load.
Figure 3 shows the sections and dimensions of the supporting beams of all testing
models. The names of the models, h-120, h-90, h-60, in relation with the depth of beam,
are also given in this figure.
φ2 φ2
φ2 φ2
φ2 φ2
φ2
60
D6
φ2
20
φ2
90
8
120
120
φ2 D6
D6 8
8
［h-120］［h-90］［h-60］

Figure 3: Sections of the supporting beams
Figure 4 shows a testing apparatus used in this experiment. The testing model was
supported at four corners on a rigid steel frame and pulled down by a tournament
system testing apparatus. The loads were applied at 64 points monotonically in an
incremental manner until the model reached the failure state.
195
Nut W asher
R ubber
T esting Model
Bolt
Detail of Loading Point

b eam
s lab
sh ell
Tournam ent
beam
Load Cell
Mortar
Oil Jack Grease
Teflon sheet
Rigid steel Frame
Detail of Support Condition
Figure 4: Testing apparatus
3 Results of experiment
Figure 5 gives the load-displacement curves at the top of the models. The stiffness and
load capacity of the model h-60 with smallest depth of beam is considerably low
compared with the other models with larger depth of beam. And the model h-120 with
largest depth of beam shows the highest stiffness and load capacity.
100
80
（ｋN）
60
荷重 (ｋN)
h-120
Load
40
h-90
20
h-60
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Displacement
変位（ｍｍ）(mm)
Figure 5: Load-displacement curves
196
Figure 6 shows the deflection modes of the diagonal section of all models. In every
model, the deflection is recognized scarcely in the shell region, and the almost
deflection was found mainly in the slab region of the models. The deflection modes of
all models are almost same and the effect of the support condition is not so clear in this
figure.
39
-800 -600 -400 -200 -1 0 200 400 600 3
800
-3
変位（ｍｍ）(mm)
-5
Displacement
-7
-9 39
球
上
ち
立
シ
形
り
が
分
部
ル
ェ
分3
水平スラブ部分
立ち上がり部分
-11 球形シェル部分
h-120(80kN)
-13
h-90(70kN)
-15
h-60(50kN)
Span (mm)
スパン（ｍｍ） 3
Figure 6: Deflection modes
Figure 7 gives the distributions of bending moment at the center section of all models.
In every model, a large bending moment occurred in the slab region, especially in the
border between the shell and slab. The bending moment in shell region, however, is
very small. The magnitude of maximum bending moment is considerably affected by
the depth of supporting beam, as shown in this figure. As the depth of beam decreases,
the maximum bending moment increases remarkably.
0.2
41 2
0
(ｋN・cm)
（ｋN・ｍｍ）
（ｋN・ｃｍ）
-800 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800

ーメント（ｋN・ｃｍ）
-0.2
h-120
Moment
ル
ェ
シ
形
球
分
部
り
が
上
ち
立
40
2
-0.4 h-90
曲げモーメント
41
曲げモ
球形シェル部分
-0.6
Bending
h-60
-0.8
2
スSpan (mm)
パン（ｍｍ）
Figure 7: Distributions of bending moment
197
Figure 8 shows the distributions of the principal stresses of upper and lower surfaces of
the model h-120. Figure 9 shows those of the model h-60. In upper surface, almost all
stresses are compression in the model h-120. In the model h-60, however, a little tensile
stresses are recognized in the upper surface. And the magnitude of the stresses of the
model h-60 with smallest depth of beam is also larger than that of the model h-120. In
the lower surface, the tensile stresses are recognized in the slab region in both models.
And in both models, the largest stress is found in the border between the shell and slab
in both surfaces.
Ⅲ Ⅲ
梁梁
スラブスラブ
-1.448
曲面
曲面 0.708
-1.387
-0.562
-0.409
-0.595
１２
Ⅱ Ⅳ Ⅳ
0.01 -0.08
0.045
0.168 -0.03
0.013 0.69
-0.668 -0.164
0.112
0.023 -0.189
-0.038
-1.288
-0.679
-0.023 -0.171
-1.143
-0.113 -0.0199
Ⅰ
Ⅰ
h-120 (upper)
h-120（表面） Ⅲ
h-120 (lower)
h-120（裏面） Ⅲ
Figure 8: Principal stress distribution of the model h-120 (N/mm2)

Ⅲ
h-90（裏面） Ⅲ
梁梁
スラブスラブ
曲面 -0.043 曲面
0.189 -0.545
0.844 2.641
-1.601
Ⅱ 0.043 -0.053 0.082

Ⅳ Ⅳ
-0.043
-0.015
0.045 -0.148 -0.056
0.019 -0.026 -0.001
-0.144 -0.216
0.184
0.982
-0.041 0.202 0.066 -0.103
0.216
-2.548 0.918 0.830
-1.173
-1.943
-0.481
0.288
-1.344 -2.003 1.541

-1.016 0.277 -0.161
0.697
Ⅰ
Ⅰ
h-60 (upper)
h-60（表面） h-60 (lower)
h-60（裏面）
Figure 9: Principal stress distribution of the model h-60 (N/mm2)
Figure 10 shows the crack patterns of lower surface of all models after failure.
Circumferential cracks on the border between the shell and slab and radial cracks from
the circumferential crack to the beam are remarkable in the lower surface of all models.
The clear double circumferential cracks are recognized in the models with smaller depth
of beam.
198
h-60 (lower)
h-90 (lower)
h-120 (lower)
Figure 10: Crack patterns of lower surface of all models
4 Numerical analysis
The models were analyzed by elasto-plastic finite element method considering
geometrical and material non-linear. The layered degenerated shell element was used to
simulate the response of the models. Each element, which is Heterosis Element with 9
nodes, consists of 8 concrete layers and 4 steel layers. Finite element mesh of the model
is shown in Figure 11. The analytical model has the same shape, dimensions and
properties of the materials as the experimental model. The loading condition and the
support condition are also same as those of the model in the experiment.
112.5 562.5 112.5

562.5 112.5 562.5
82.5
412.5
60
300
960
4800
Figure 11: Finite element mesh of the model
199
5 Results of analysis and comparison with experimental results

Figure12 gives the comparison of the load-displacement curves at the top of the model
between of the experimental models and the analytical models. Although a little
disagreement is recognized in the plastic area, the curves of the analytical models show
the good agreement with those of the experimental models.
100
h-120-An
90 h-120-Ex
80
70 h-90-Ex
60
（ｋN）
h-90-An
荷重 (ｋN)
50
40 h-60-Ex
Load
30 h-60-An
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Displacement
変位（ｍｍ） (mm)
Figure 12: Comparison of the load-displacement curves
Figure 13 gives the comparison of deflection modes of the diagonal section between of
the experimental models and the analytical models. In this figure, black lines show the
analytical results, and colored lines give the experimental results. All lines show almost
same mode, that is, large deflection occur mainly in the slab region, but little deflection
is recognized in the shell region.
39
-800 -600 -400 -200 -1 0 200 400 600 3800
-3
Displacement (mm)
-5
変位（ｍｍ）
-7
h-120-An
h-120-An 球
上
ち
立
シ
形
り
が
分
部
ル
ェ
3
-9 h-60-An
39 水平スラブ部分
-11
球形シェル部分
-13
h-120-Ex
h-120(80kN)
h-90-An
h-90-Ex
25 h-90(70kN)
30
-15
h-60-Ex
h-60(50kN)
3
Span (mm)
スパン（ｍｍ）
Figure 13: Comparison of the deflection modes
200
Figure 14 gives the comparison of the distribution of bending moment at the center
section. The modes of the bending moment in the analytical results show the good
agreement with those of the experimental results. A large bending moment occurs in the
slab region in all models. And in the border between the shell and slab, the largest
bending moment is recognized in all models. On the other hand, the bending moment in
shell region is very small in all models.
0.2
41 h-60-An h-60-Ex 2
(kN ・cm)
Moment（ｋN・cｍ）
0
-800 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800
h-90-An
-0.2
曲げモーメント
h-120-An h-90-Ex 立
球
ち
形
上
シ
分
部
り
が
ル
ェ
2
-0.4
41
Bending
球形シェル部分 -0.6
h-120-Ex
-0.8
2 スパン（ｍｍ）
Figure 14: Comparison of the bending moment
6 Conclusions
The mechanical behaviors of the reinforced concrete shell-slab complex structure have
been investigated experimentally and analytically.
The results of the experiments and analyses indicate that, in the shell-slab complex
structure, the deflection occurred mainly in the slab part, but not in the shell part. So,
the bending moment occurred scarcely in the shell part. In the slab part, however, large
bending moment occurred, especially in the border between the shell and slab.
The support condition, the depth of supporting beam, considerably affects the
mechanical behavior, especially the magnitude of the displacement and bending
moment of the structure. The smaller depth the supporting beam has, the larger
displacement and bending moment occur.
References
[1] Yone K and Takayama M. Effect of loading mode on the mechanical behavior of
reinforced concrete shell-slab complex structure. Proceedings of the IASS
Symposium 2009, Valencia, 2009.
201
Ultimate strength of R/C cylindrical shell with edge beams

Takashi HARA 1*
1*
Tokuyama College of Technology
Gakuendai, Shunan 745-8585, Japan
t-hara@tokuyama.ac.jp
Abstract
The numerical analysis of the R/C cylindrical shell with edge beams was
performed by using the nonlinear finite element method. The R/C cylindrical shell was
supported at four corners and was subjected to a uniformly distributed load. In
numerical analysis, the degenerate shell elements with layered approach were adopted.
Both shells and beams were modelled by these elements. The numerical parameter was
the stiffness of an edge beam in both vertical and horizontal directions. To represent the
nonlinear behaviour of R/C shell elements, combined material and geometric
nonlinearities were taken into account. From the numerical analyses, it was obtained
that the stiffness of the edge beams played an important role to show the deformation
characteristics and the ultimate strength of R/C shell structures.
Keywords: Ultimate strength, R/C shell, cylindrical shell, beam support
1 Introduction
Reinforced concrete (R/C) shell structures have been applied to the civil and industrial
structures due to their thin and elegant shapes. They also show a continuous
configuration and transfer an applied load to a supporting structure smoothly. In
addition, R/C cylindrical shells do not show a brittle failure but show a progressive
failure because these structures have high redundancy. However, when the cutting edges
of them are free without any stiffening method depending on the design and the
supporting purposes, the R/C structure could not resist against the external loading.
These cutting edges may play an important role to obtain the high ultimate strength of
an R/C shell. Therefore, to strengthen these edges or to connect edges between two shell
panels, edge beams are required. To obtain the sufficient strength of such shell
structures, an appropriate edge beams must be applied.
In this paper, the numerical analysis of the R/C cylindrical shell with edge beams was
supported at four corners and was subjected to a uniformly distributed load. To
represent the nonlinear behaviour of R/C shell elements, combined material and
geometric nonlinearities were taken into account. From the numerical analyses, it was
obtained that the stiffness of the edge beams played an important role to represent the
deformation characteristics and the ultimate strength of R/C shell structures.
Considering the effects of edge beams concerning these phenomena, the appropriate
size of the edge beam to represent the maximum ultimate strength of R/C cylindrical
shell was represented.
202
2 Numerical Procedures
2.1. Specimen
Figure 1 shows the R/C cylindrical panel supported by edge beams on meridional
direction. The specimen shows the cylindrical shape with 960mm x 960mm plan and
has 688.75mm radius and 10mm thickness considering the possibility of experimental
analyses. The size of the edge beams is the numerical parameter in this analysis. In both
the cylindrical shell and edge beams, φ0.75mm stainless wires are used as the
reinforcements and are placed in the middle of the shell or beam thickness in both
meridional and hoop direction. They are placed in equi-distance of 5mm. The specimen
is made by use of the steel mold to avoid the geometric imperfections. The micro
concrete with aggregate size 2.5mm will be used. The material properties are shown in
Tables 1 and 2 defined from the material tests.
Specimens are assumed to be pin-supported at the ends of meridional edges (see Figure
2). Also, both meridional and hoop directional edges are free without these ends.
R=688.75
0.75@5
950
950
10
x
x
y
z
z
950 190
Loading Point
Fig. 1: Geometric dimensions of R/C cylindrical shell (mm)
64 point loads
z
y
x
Support
Fig. 2: Loading and supporting of R/C cylindrical shell
203
Table 1: Material properties of concrete
Compressive Strength (MPa) 38.2
Tensile Strength(MPa) 3.8
Young’s Modulus(GPa) 23.6
Poisson’s Ratio 0.20
Table 2: Material properties of steel
Yield Stress(MPa) 235
Tensile Stress(MPa) 449
Young’s Modulus(GPa) 206
Tangential Modulus(GPa) 21
The height and the width of the edge beam are the numerical parameters and define the
rigidity of the supporting beam. The specimens are subjected to a uniformly distributed
lateral load. However, in numerical analysis, considering the comparison with the
experimental data, 64 point concentrate loads are applied (see Figure 1).
2.2. Numerical model

In numerical analyses, the finite element procedure is applied. Figure 3 shows the FE
mesh of this analysis. The full model is adopted. In the cylindrical portion of the model
is divided into 32 elements in meridional and hoop directions, respectively. Each
supporting beam is also divided into 2x32 elements. Both shell and beam elements are
divided into 8 concrete layers and 2 steel layers based on the layered approach (Hara [1,
2], Hinton et al. [3]).
Fig. 3: FE Mesh
204
Boundary conditions are pin supported at both ends of the edge beam on both
supporting meridian. The supporting beams are connected to cylindrical shell on both
meridional edges. Both hoop edges of cylindrical shell are free.
2.3. Finite element and numerical assumptions

In numerical analysis, the degenerate shell element is adopted and the geometric and
material nonlinearities’ are taken into account. 9 nodes Heterosis element is used and
2×2 reduced integration is performed to avoid the numerical problems.
The numerical simulation is performed under the displacement incremental scheme. The
yield condition of concrete is defined as the Dracker-Prager type, which is assumed that
concrete yields when the equivalent stress based on mean stress and second deviatoric
stress invariants reaches uniaxial compressive strength (Hinton et al. [3]). The crushing
condition is controlled by strains. The ultimate compressive strain of concrete is
assumed as 0.003 by Kupfer’s experiment (Kupfer et al. [4]). Also, after cracking of
concrete, the tension stiffening parameters accounting for the tensile strength of
concrete are introduced. The material nonlinearities’ of steel are assumed to be bilinear
stress-strain relation for the reinforcement.
3 Numerical Results
3.1 Cylindrical shell without edge beam

Figure 4 shows the load deflection behaviour of R/C shell without edge beam. R/C shell
is supported at only 4 corners in vertical hoop directions. The deflection shows the
vertical deflection at the centre of R/C cylindrical shell. The shell deformed downward
with increasing the load. Then, the diagonal cracks appeared at each corner of the shell
and the load carrying capacity decreased.
Figure 5 shows the deformation patterns of R/C cylindrical shell at the maximum
loading. Deformation pattern represents the failure mechanisms appropriately.
Load(kN)
4
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005

Displacement(cm)
Fig. 4: Load deflection relation of R/C cylindrical shell without edge beam
205
Fig. 5: Deformation of R/C cylindrical shell without edge beam
3.2 Cylindrical shell with edge beam on both meridional edges

To find the effectiveness of the edge beams, R/C cylindrical shell with edge beams on
meridional edges is investigated. The numerical parameter is the size of the beam. The
width of the beam changes from 2cm to 10cm and the thickness of it changes from 1cm
to 5cm for each beam width.
Figure 6 shows the load deflection curve for R/C cylindrical shell with meridional edge
beams. The thickness of the beam is 1cm. The deflections are measured at the centre of
shell surface. From the figure, the strength of R/C cylindrical shell grows with the width
of the edge beams. However, the load carrying capacity decreases after peak strength.
Load(kN)
7
3
2x1
2 4x1
6x1
1 8x1
10x1
0 0.01 0.02 0.03

Displacement(cm)
Fig. 6: Load deflection relation of R/C cylindrical shell
with meridional edge beams of 1cm thickness
Figure 7 shows the load deflection curve for R/C cylindrical shell with meridional edge
beams of 5cm thickness. From the figure, the strength of R/C cylindrical shell grows
206
with the width of the edge beam. However, in the case of thick beam, the load carrying
capacity does not decrease after peak strength when the beam width exceeds 6cm.
Load(kN)
15
10
5 2x5
4x5
6x5
8x5
10x5
0 0.01 0.02 0.03

Displacement(cm)
Fig. 7: Load deflection relation of R/C cylindrical shell
with meridional edges beam of 5cm thickness
Fig. 8: Deformation of R/C cylindrical shell

with meridional edge beams of size 8cmx1cm
Fig. 9: Deformation of R/C cylindrical shell

with meridional edge beams of size 8cmx5cm
207
Figures 8 and 9 show the deformation patterns of R/C cylindrical shell with meridional
edges. The size of edge beams is 8cm x 1cm and 8cm x 1cm, respectively. In the case of
thin edge beams, the deformations of the edge beams are larger than those of the thick
edge beams. Therefore, the ultimate strength of R/C shell with thin edge beams is
smaller than that with thick beams and the strength of R/C shell with thin edge beams
decreases suddenly. The stiffness of the edge beam is the important factor to stiffen R/C
cylindrical shell.
3.3 Summary of numerical results

3.3.1 Ultimate strength
Figure 10 shows the ultimate strength of R/C cylindrical shell with edge beams on both
meridional edges. Numerical parameter is the width of the edge beam. From the figure,
the thicker the beam thickness is the larger the ultimate strength. Also the wider the
beam width is the larger the ultimate strength is.
Ultimate Load(kN)
14
12
10
6
b=2cm
4 b=4cm
b=6cm
2 b=8cm
b=10cm
0
1 2 3 4 5
Beam thickness(cm)
Fig. 10: Ultimate strength of R/C cylindrical shell
with meridional edge beams of several size
3.3.2 Effectiveness of edge beam to R/C cylindrical shell strength
From previous subsection, the size of the stiffener, that is directly influence the stiffness
of R/C shell, plays the important role for its ultimate strength. However, to avoid the
growing of the total weight for the total structure is also important because of
maintaining the characteristics of the light properties of the shell structure. Figures 11
and 12 show the results considering the relation between the strength and the weight.
208
Puratio/P0ratio
3
2.5
1.5
b=2cm
1
b=4cm
b=6cm
0.5 b=8cm
b=10cm
0
1 2 3 4 5
Beam thickness(cm)
with meridional edge beams of several beam width
Puratio/P0ratio
3
2.5
1.5
1 t=1cm
t=2cm
t=3cm
0.5 t=4cm
t=5cm
0
2 4 6 8 10
Beam width(cm)

with meridional edge beams of several beam thickness
In these figures, Puratio shows the ratio of the ultimate strength to the total weight of
cylindrical shell including the R/C shell weight and the supporting beam weight. Also,
P0ratio is the ratio of the ultimate strength to the original weight of R/C cylindrical shell.
209
Figure 10 shows that the ultimate strength increases monotonically with increasing the
beam width and thickness. Therefore, the thickness over 3cm is effective for the
analyzed model. Also, for thick supporting beam, the growing beam width is not
effective. However, for thin beams, it is effective for edge supporting shell to improve
their ultimate strength.
4 Conclusions
In this paper, the numerical analysis of the R/C cylindrical shell with edge beams was
supported at four corners and was subjected to a uniformly distributed load. To
represent the nonlinear behaviour of R/C shell elements, combined material and
geometric nonlinearities were taken into account. From the numerical analyses,
following conclusions are obtained
1). The edge beam is effective to improve the ultimate strength of R/C shell having free
edges.
2). The thickness and the width of the edge beams influence the ultimate strength of
R/C cylindrical shell directly.
3). Considering the weight of the edge beams, the thickness over 3cm is effective for the
analyzed model.
4). For thick edge beam, the growing beam width is not effective. However, for thin
edge beams, it is effective for edge supporting shells to improve their ultimate
strength.
These phenomena should be confirmed by experimental tests and will be provided as
the design data considering the several supporting and loading conditions as well as
reinforcement conditions.
Acknowledgement
This research work was done under the supports of Grants-in-Aid for Scientific
Research, Japan Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (No.
22560580).
References
[1] Hara, T., Numerical and experimental evaluation of R/C shell. Proceedings of
International Conference on Advances in Structural Engineering and Mechanics,
2008, 133-144.
[2] Hara T. Application of computational technologies to R/C structural analysis. The
First International Conference on Computational Technologies in Concrete
Structures(CTCS’09) 2009; 1: 606-617
[3] Hinton, E. and Owen, D.J.R., Finite element software for plates and shells,
Prineridge Press, Swansea, UK. 1984
[4] Kupfer, H. and Hilsdorf, K.H., Behaviour of concrete under biaxial stress, ACI
Journal 1969; 66(8):656-666.
210
A study of precast and post-tensioned concrete shell system

Hyunghoon LEE1*, Ken’ichi KAWAGUCHI 2
1*
Group Manager, MIDAS IT Japan Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan
Akiba-mitakikan 8th fl., 4-5-5 Sotokanda, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 101-0021, Japan
E-mail : leehh@midasit.com
2
Professor, Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
Abstract
In this paper, a method of construction using precast members and the post-
tension method, which allows more variety of shapes comparing to the conventional
method, is proposed. The method allows reduction in construction effort using
commercial precast concrete panels and steel frames with no formwork (eco-friendly
and simple construction, simple details for post-tension).
Additionally, in order to grasp the structural stiffness, eigenvalue analysis is performed
on four shapes of the shell structure with proposed construction method to compare the
structural performances.
Keywords: Precast, Post-tension, concrete shell, eco-friendly construction method
1 Introduction
The application of precast method and prestress (post-tension) method can be found in
the structure such as a long span concrete girder, flat slab, concrete shell, etc..
The precast method is a construction method of manufacturing technology and the
prestress method is a construction method for the improvement of mechanics (structural
behaviour and/or material mechanics). Therefore, the precast method is not directly
related to the prestress method. However, using the two methods together can create a
more practical structure.
In the existing concrete shell structures, there are a few examples using the precast
method and the post-tension method together. They usually have geometrical regularity,
e.g. sphere shell, cylindrical shell or H.P. configurations.
It seems that there exists no consistent technique in either aspect of construction and
structural analysis for precast and post-tensioned concrete shells with more general
shapes.
However the scheme of post-tension can be applied to more various shapes than we
usually think. Furthermore several kinds of concrete panels are available in commercial
that can be arranged in the way to be adopted for concrete shell of various shapes by the
post-tension scheme.
211
2 The object of the research

The object of this research is to propose the construction method for precast and post-
tensioned shell structures which provide the following feature.
(1) Extension of the freedom of shape comparing to the conventional precast shells,
(2) eco-friendly and simple construction at the site and
(3) simple details.
In this paper, the following three topics are discussed.
(1) Concept of structural system,
(2) concept of construction method and
(3) evaluation of structural stiffness.
3 The concept of structural system

The proposed precast and post-tensioned system involves two concepts, one is for
geometry of shells and the other is for construction scheme. In this section the first
concept for the geometry of the shell is explained.
Shape 2
( barrel type with concave)
Shape 4
Shape 1
( conical type with concave;
( barrel type)
combination Shape 2 and 3)
Shape 3
( conical type)
Fig.1:The shape variation of proposed shell structural system
Fig.1 shows the concept of the proposed method that allows more shape variation.
Shape 1 in Fig.1 shows a conventional barrel type precast and post-tensioned shell.
Shape 2 has concave part, Shape 3 is conical and Shape 4 is a combination of Shape 2
and Shape 3. Shape 1 and 3 can be found in the existing structures. However the
212
combination of difference curvature with discontinuity also allows self-equilibrium

states for prestress, which is rarely recognized. Shape 2 and 4 are examples for such
cases.
The geometry of Shape 4 in Fig.1 is most complex and it well shows the feature of the
proposed method.
4 The concept of construction method

In this section the concept of the construction of the proposed method is described.
The construction sequences of proposed method are showed in Fig.2 and the basic idea
of proposed construction method is as follows.
In stage 1(in Fig.2(a)), a pair of channel bar is called a steel frame and steel frames are
set to the base plate fixed to the prepared foundation at designed angle of inclination.
In stage 2(in Fig.2(b)), post-tension members are set to the steel frames. The post-
tension member is made up of steel bar and turnbuckle.
In stage 3(in Fig.2(c)), PC panels are inserted into the steel frame. It is to maintain
balance of the structure to have to be careful in stage 3. In order to maintain balance of
the structure in the stage 3, the PC panels are inserted into steel frame by layer of the PC
panel.
In stage 4(in Fig.2(d)), post-tension force is introduced to post-tension member.
Fig.3 shows a picture of a model corresponds to the Shape 4 in Fig.1 with some
practical details.
(a) STAGE 1 : Assembly of Steel Frame (b) STAGE 2 : Assembly of PS Tendon
(c) STAGE 3 : Assembly of PC Panel (d) STAGE 4 : Introduction of Post-tension
Fig.2:Construction sequence of proposed method for the shell structure
213
(b) Partial expansion of the model
(a) A model corresponds to the Shape 4 in Fig.1 (c) PS tendon
(d) The detail of post-tensioning system
Fig.3:A model correspond to the Shape 4 in Fig.1 and detail of Post-tension system
The minimum post-tension force required in the structure system is explained with
Shape 3. A PC panel which is one of member in Shape 3 is shown in Fig.1.
In Fig.4(c), when plane shape is n-polygon, the ϕ is expressed in Eq.(1).
⎛π π ⎞
ϕ= ⎜ − ⎟ (1)
⎝2 n⎠
The equilibrium equation of moment for Ph and W in Fig.4(b) is expressed in Eq.(2)

and Ph shown in Fig.4(c) is in Eq.(3).
Ph × sin θ (l1 + l2 ) = W × ll cos θ (2)
π
Ph = 2 ⋅ Ps ⋅ sin (3)
n
The minimum post-tension force, Ps , which support self-weight is expressed in Eq.(4)
by substituting Eq.(3) into Eq.(2).
W 1 1 l1
Ps = ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (4)
2 π tan θ (l1 + l 2 )
sin
n
214
b
h (a + 2b ) l2
l2 l1 = × Ph
3 (a + b ) centroid l2
centroid centroid
h (2a + b )
l2 = ×
3 (a + b )
h W
l1 l1 l1
PC Panel
θ
a
(a) the centroid of a PC panel (b) self weight and minimum horizontal force against overturning
PC Panel Ph Ph PC Panel
Ps ϕ ϕ Ps
PS Tendon
(c) post-tension force introduced in PC panel and horizontal components of post-tension force
W : Self weight ,
Ph : Horizontal force against overturning,
Ps : Post-tendon force
Fig.4:Minimum post-tension force required in the structure system
5 The examination of structural stiffness through eigenvalue analysis

A series of parameter studies was conducted to evaluate the structural stiffness the shell
structures with proposed system. The parameters were the shape of structure, boundary
condition, and location of the post tension member of the shell structure.
Eigenvalue analyses with Lanczos method have been performed by
(http://midasuser.com/), which is software for analysis and design of building and
general structure developed by MIDAS IT Co. Ltd( http://en.midasit.com/midasit/).
The stiffness of the structure is evaluated by calculating eigenvalue( ω 2 ), ω (radian/sec)
is the natural angular freguency and here we consider ω 2 almost equivalent to the
eigenvalue of the stiffness matrix. The data of elements used in the numerical analysis
by are showed in Table 1.The shapes of shell structure used in this
study are showed in Table 2.
215
Table 1:Data of elements for numerical analysis
Member Element Feature of element Reference

Channel section(JIS 75×40×5/7)
Steel frame 3D Beam Prismatic element
A pair of channel connected rigid link
Discrete Kirchhoff-Mindlin Thickness : 60mm,
Precast panel 3D Plate
element Material : concrete
Uniaxail Tension-Compression Solid round section
PS Tendon Truss
3D Line element Diameter : 22mm
Discrete Kirchhoff-Mindlin Thickness : 20mm, Material : steel
Joint Plate 3D Plate
element Connected to steel frame by rigid link
Table 2:Application shapes of parameter study
6.1 Examination of structural stiffness according to PS Tendon location for Shape1

In order to examine the effects of PS tendon arrangements (inner/outer of the shell) to
the structural stiffness, eigenvalue analysis on Shape 1 were performed.
Table 3:Location of PS Tendon on Shape 1 (t:thickness of PC Panel )
216
Fig.5:The location of PS tendon
As shown in Table 3, PS tendon is

arranged along the inside or
outside of the structure. The
eigenvalue analysis is performed
changing the distance between the
center line of PC panel and PS
tendon of Shape 1 model. Shell is
connected to the ground through
pin supports at its foot.
The summary of the results of this
analysis are given in Fig.6.
(1) The difference of the ω 2 inner
and outer of PS tendon is small.
(2) The distance between PS
tendon and PC panel have slight influence, less than
Fig. 6:Results 10%, on the
of eigenvalue stiffness
analysis of the1
of shape
structure. (t:thickness of the shell)
The main mode shapes are shown in Table4. In this study, main mode means a mode
affecting shape change of PC panel.
Table 4:Main mode shape of eigenvalue analysis of shape 1 (t:thickness of the shell)
217
6.2 Examination of structural stiffness according to PS tendon location for all shape
For the four types of shell structure in Table 2, the parameter study is conducted by
changing the distance between PC panel to PS tendon(Table5) and the boundary
condition of support points(Table6). By calculating eigenvalue( ω 2 ), the stiffness of
structure is estimated.
Table 5:Location of outer PS tendon(t:thickness of PC Panel)
Table 6:Boundary condition of support points
218
6.2.1 Pin supported shell
Fig.7 shows the eigenvalue in accordance with the location of PS tendon on the four
types of shell structures. It is observed that the eigenvalue shows slight change
according to the location of PS tendon, but the location of PS tendon is not significant
factor for the stiffness of structure.
Fig.7:Results of eigenvalue analysis (Pin supported shell, t:thickness of the shell)

In Fig.8, the eigenvalues according to the shape of structure are compared, where the
relative eigenvalue are plotted by setting Shape1 is as the unit. The stiffness of Shape 4
shows only half ω 2 of Shape 1. It can be seen that the shape of structure affects much
the stiffness of the shells. The main mode shapes are shown in Table 7.
Fig.8:Relative eigenvalue(Pin supported shell, ω 2 of Shape1=1)
219
Table 7:Main mode shape of eigenvalue analysis(Pin supported shell)
6.2.2 Roller supported shell
Fig.9 shows the eigenvalue in accordance with the location of PS tendon on the four
types of shell structures. It is observed that the ω 2 shows slight change according to the
location of PS tendon, but again, the location of PS tendon is not significant factor for
the stiffness of structure.
Fig.9:Results of eigenvalue analysis(Roller supported shell, t:thickness of the shell)
220
The stiffness of structure in this case shows small value, 150 times smaller, compared to
the value of the case with all pinned support(Fig.7). It can be seen that the stiffness of
structure is significantly affected by boundary condition of support points. In Fig.10, the
eigenvalues according to the shape of structure are compared setting the ω 2 of Shape 1
as the unit. The stiffness of Shape 4 shows 78% of ω 2 of Shape 1. The main mode
shapes are shown in Table 8.
Fig.10:Relative eigenvalue(Roller supported shell, ω 2 of Shape1=1)
Table 8:Main mode shape of eigenvalue analysis(Roller supported shell)
221
7 Conclusion
In this study, a method of construction applying both the precast method and the post-
tension method is proposed and investigated.
The feature of the proposed method explained are as follow;
(1) Applicability to more general shaped shell structure comparing to the conventional
precast and post-tensioned shell structures,
(2) Realization of eco-friendly construction method by minimizing and simplifying
field work with precast member ; Steel frame and commercial precast panel which
cut is sizes at the factory,
(3) Simple details for post-tension ; Steel bar, turn buckle and joint plate and
(4) Self supporting system through the construction ; temporary supports are not
necessary.
In order to grasp the structural stiffness, eigenvalue analysis is performed on four
shapes of shell structure.
Based on the result of eigenvalue analysis, the following conclusions were obtained.
(1) The distance between external PS tendon and PC panel is not a major variation
factor of structural stiffness.
(2) The boundary condition of support points affects the stiffness of structure. The ω 2
of pin supported shell is 150times larger than the value of roller supported shell.
(3) The structural stiffness in accordance with shell shape is more affected by inverted
cone shape than cylinder shape.
Referencess
Reference
[1] Hyunghoon Lee and Ken’ichi Kawaguchi, A Study on Precast Prestress Shell
Structures with Irregular Shape, Proceedings of Sixth Asian Pacific Conference on
Shell and Spatial Structures, 2000,Vol.Ⅱ, 573-580
[2] Hyunghoon LEE and Ken’ichi KAWAGUCHI. An Application of Precast Prestress
Shell Structure System. Proceedings of the International Association for Shell and
Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2001, Nagoya, TP139.
[3] Mircea Mihailescu, etc., CIRCULAR WATER CLEANER TANKS MADE OF
PRECAST AND PRESTRESSED SHELL ELEMENTS, Proceeding of World
Congress Shell and Spatial Structures, 1979, Vol.4, 297-319.
[4] Fritz Leonhardt,(1964) Prestressed Concrete Design and Construction, Wilhelm &
Shon, Berlin.
[5] Edward G. Navy(1989) Prestressed Concrete A fundamental Approach, Prentice
Hall.
[6] Jürgen Joedlcke (1963), Shell Construction, Bijutsu Shuppan-sha.
[7] Hyungwoo LEE, etc., Analysis and Design on midas Gen, MIDAS IT Co. Ltd.
222
Ultimate strength evaluation of reinforced concrete

wide arch considering the effects of
concrete tensile strength and geometric imperfections
Shiro KATO1*, Ryo HARA2, Shoji NAKAZAWA2, Takashi HARA3, Atsushi MUTO4
1*
Toyohashi University of Technology
Toyohashi, Tempaku, Japan 441-8580
kato@tutrp.tut.ac.jp, kato-shiro@tg.commufa.jp
2
Toyohashi University of Technology, 3 Tokuyama College of Technology,
4
Meijyo University
Abstract
Through elasto-plastic buckling analysis of a reinforced concrete arch as a typical
example of reinforced concrete shells, this study reflects again an old and intrinsic
problem of imperfection sensitivity of ultimate strength of reinforced concrete arch
under gravity load. The effects of both material and geometrical nonlinearities to the
ultimate strength load, bearing capacity in other words, are included. Cracking/tensile
strength of concrete is considered for evaluation of the load ultimate strength, because
the tensile strength plays an important role in ultimate strength and also because the
deterioration of tensile strength is an important problem of aging concrete shells. The
present study reveals that the imperfection sensitivity is relatively large in the case of
the present shallow arch, followed by presentation of design information for strength
evaluation considering the effects of concrete cracking/tensile strength and geometric
imperfections.
Keywords: concrete arch, bearing strength, tensile strength of concrete, imperfection

sensitivity
1 Introduction
The IASS Recommendation for Reinforced Concrete Shells and Folded Plates [1] is an
important source in evaluating the ultimate strength. It considers most of the influencing
factors in the evaluation, however, the data referred seem rather old, and the
investigations by Andres M. and Harte R. [2], Medwadowski [3], Medwadowski S.J.,
Samartin A. [4], and Samartin A. and Abel J.F. [5] also suggest a consideration to
recent computer analysis software in evaluating the ultimate strength, and among many
factors, they consider the imperfection sensitivity and material properties of concrete to
be main factors in the evaluation. Accordingly the authors feel a necessity to reflect
again especially the effect of geometric imperfections considering cracking as well as
the deterioration of concrete tensile strength, partly because deterioration of concrete is
required in retrofitting aged concrete shells and partly because recent researches based
on materially nonlinearity are few with respect to the imperfection sensitivity.
223
2 Geometry of arch
2.1 Geometry of wide concrete arch for analysis
The geometry of the arch for analysis is shown in Fig.1. It is a kind of wide shallow
arch of 339.5cm rise as H and 3550cm length as L with pin supports at both ends. It is
25cm thick as t, 887.5cm wide as b. Two cases are studied with respect to the geometry
for section; one is a plate-like section and the other is a shell-like section. The steel
reinforcements are of 0.5% as pt to the concrete section at the both upper and lower
sides of shell surface, and they are of equal amount in two orthogonal directions. The
sectional area and second moment of inertia are shown in Table 1. The element and
mesh are shown in Fig.2, with several points to be used in this paper for explanation.
Plate-like Shell-like
LY=887.5cm
φ0Y=6.065°
Y
X LX=3550cm t=25cm t=25cm

H=393.5cm
φ0X=25°
R=4200cm
X
Fig. 1: Geometry of arch (cm)

D
F
Z B
H K
Y X
I
M G
J
L
C
E
A
Fig.2: Element and mesh for arch
224
Table 1: Properties of section

area of section Second moment of inertia
4 4
plate-like section 2.22x10 cm 1.16x106cm4
shell-like section 2.22x104cm4 3.27x106cm4
PⅠ0 PⅡ= PII0･sin(2πx/l0)
Fig.3: Gravity load and anti-symmetrical load
Table 2: Magnitude of geometric initial imperfection t=25cm

g0 gI gII gIII gIV gV
wio/t 0 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40
wio 0 1.25cm 2.50cm 5.00cm 7.50cm 10.0cm
wi=wi0･sin(2πx/l0)
Fig.4: Distribution of geometric initial imperfections
2.2 Loads
Two types of load are investigated: a gravity load and an anti-symmetrical load. The
anti-symmetrical load is assumed 10% of the gravity load, and is a sine function with a
wave length L for assuming load fluctuation. They are shown in Fig.3. The load is
proportionally increased or decreased in analysis as
{ P} = λ { PI } + { PII } (1)
where { PI } and { PII } represent the gravity load and the anti-symmetrical load, and λ is
a load factor. The magnitude of gravity load is represented as PI0=5.75kN/m2 (23kN/m3
2
x 0.25m), and the peak of the anti-symmetrical load is represented by PII0=0.575kN/m .
2.3 Geometric initial imperfections

The geometric initial imperfection is assumed as shown in Fig.4, where the distribution
is a sine function with a peak of wi0 and a wave length of span L, since the distribution
is same as its first buckling mode. The magnitude wi0 is varied using a symbol of gi in
Table 2 to see the imperfection sensitivity of the ultimate strength.
3 Material properties
3.1 Reinforcement and hysteresis rule
The steel reinforcements are assumed in the orthogonal directions at both of upper and
lower sides of shell surface, and the amount in each direction and at each side is pt=5%
225
Upper side 5cm
As=pt ×t×b
Lower side 5cm As=pt ×t×b
Fig.5 : reinforcement
Table 3: Cases of concrete tensile strength for analysis (N/mm2): EC=27.8x103N/mm2

case of constitutive equation C-0 C-1 C-2 C-3
fc( uni-axial compressive strength ) 35 33 30 30
ft ( uni-axial tensile strength ) 3.29 2.20 1.23 0.23
0.2 σ2/fc
Kupfer’s experiment
0
【 Compression – Compression 】
2
-0.2  σ1 σ  σ σ
 + 2  + 1 + 3.65 2 = 0
-0.4  C
f ' f 'C  f 'C f 'C
-0.6
【 Compression – Tension 】
σ2 σ
= 1.0 + 0.8 1
-0.8 f 't f 'C
-1 【 Tension – Tension 】
2
-1.2 σ 2 = f 'C = 0.64 × ( f 'C ) 3
-1.4 σ1/fc
-1.4 -1.2 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2
―●― Kupfer’s experiment ―□― C-0(ft=3.29N/mm2) ―○― C-2(ft=1.23N/mm2)
―△― C-1(ft=2.20N/mm2) ―×― C-3(ft=0.23N/mm2)
Fig.6: Yield condition of concrete depending on tensile strength
of concrete section. They are shown in Fig.5. The hysteresis rule is bi-linear with a yield
stress of 235N/mm2 as σy and Young’s modulus Es of 205x103N/mm2.
3.2 Concrete and constitutive equation

The constitutive law of concrete is represented by Ring Lattice Model proposed by Kato
S. el al [6]. The constitutive law simulates the concrete material using 36 straight bars,
and the structural properties of each bar are determined so that the hysteresis of these
bars can globally match the concrete element. The simulated yield conditions are shown
in Fig.6 and the uni-axial stress-strain relationship is given in Fig.7 for four different
226
-0.003 -0.0025 -0.002 -0.0015 -0.001 -0.0005 0 0.0005 0.001

ε 5
0
-5
C3 -10
-15
C0 C1 C2,C3
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40
σ[N/mm2]
Fig.7: Uni-axial stress-strain relationship of concrete

concrete tensile strength listed in Table 3. Since the constitutive law is a type of
physical model, and its uni-axial compressive strength is related to the tensile strength
of concrete, the uni-axial compressive strength tends to be a little smaller in case of
weak tensile strength than strong tensile strength. The Young’s modulus of concrete is
assumed 27.8x103N/mm2 as secant modulus EC at fc/3.
4 Effect of geometry of section to ultimate strength

4.1 Comparison of ultimate strength between two geometries for section
As expected in an arch with one-dimensional characteristics, the geometry of section
will give an effect to ultimate strength. The study compares the ultimate strength
between the plate-like and shell-like sections listed in Table 1. The adopted constitutive
equation is C-0 in the present two cases for different initial imperfections of 0.0cm and
5.0 cm for wio.
Figs. 8 and 9 show the relationships between the load factor λ and vertical
displacements δz excluding the imperfection components at the central, 1/4 and 3/4
points. The points are shown in Fig.2 as I, J and K. The ultimate strength as a load
factor λcr is 6.36 in case of plate-like section and 9.42 in case of shell-like section. From
comparison, we can see that the ultimate strength of plate-like section is much lower
than shell-like section, and also that the imperfection sensitivity of ultimate strength is
much larger in case of plate-like section than shell-like section. Due to 5.0cm initial
imperfection, the ultimate load factor in case of plate-like section is 2.82 corresponding
to 45% of 6.36, on one hand, in case of shell-like section, the ultimate load factor is
5.03 and is decreased to 52% of 9.42 for the perfect shell,.
The displacement patterns are shown in Figs.10 and 11, showing that both arches
bifurcate under vertical loads. Investigation of stresses in reinforcement reveals, later
shown in Figs.20 and 21, that no yielding of steel is caused before ultimate strength.
This means that ultimate strength is governed almost by the concrete element as
cracking and compression if restricted to the cases under uniform load and small initial
imperfections. If we adopt a safety factor 3.0 based on IASS Recommendation, design
of the present arch of plate-like section with an imperfection of 5cm would be
impossible.
227
λ 10.0 Jwi0=0.0cm λ
10.0
9.0 9.0
8.0 8.0 Jwi0=0.0cm Kwi0=0.0cm
Jwi0=0.0cm Kwi0=0.0cm
7.0 7.0
Iwi0=5.0cm Kwi0=5.0cm
6.0 6.0
5.0 Jwi0=0.0cm 5.0
Iwi0=5.0cm
4.0 Iwi0=5.0cm Kwi0=5.0cm 4.0
3.0 3.0
Iwi0=5.0cm I
2.0 J I K 2.0 J K
1.0 1.0
0.0 cm 0.0 cm
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
plate-like section (case of C-0 ) shell-like section ( case of C-0 )

Fig.8: Load-displacement curves Fig.9: load-displacement curve
1/3λcr=2.12, λcr=6.36, λend=6.36 1/3λcr=3.14, λcr=9.42, λend=7.93

δz(1/3λcr)＝1.11cm, δz(λcr)＝8.52cm, δz(λend)＝10.0cm δz(1/3λcr)＝1.14cm, δz(λcr)＝8.07cm, δz(λend)＝10.0cm
δz δz
.
Z Z
X X
Fig.10: Displacement distribution of Fig.11:Displacement distribution of
plate-like section shell-like section
4.2 Distributions of stresses

The distributions of axial force Nx along the line EIF in Fig.2 are shown in Figs. 12 and
13, while bending moment Mx in Figs.14 and 15. The three lines in those figures
correspond to load levels for λcr/3 and λcr , and the level of maximum vertical
displacement δz=10cm. Here λcr denotes a critical (maximum) load factor in each arch
with a different initial imperfection. The comparison of stresses between two arches
reveals that, as expected, the axial stresses Nx in case of plate-like section will be almost
constant and symmetric along EIF, on the other hand Nx in case of shell-like section it
tends to be a little asymmetric. The bending moments have characteristcs to become
largely asymmetric due to flatness of section and much amplified due to initial
imperfection, causing large vertical displacements for the same load factor. One of large
differences is the stress distribution along section perpendicular to the axis EIF, as
shown in Figs. 16 and 17.
The comparison clearly shows that the arch of plate-like section is more sensitive to
initial imperfections and much lower in ultimate strength than shell-like section, as most
of us may expect even without analysis. The fact that the reduction of ultimate strength
under gravity load is almost half even due to the imperfection of 0.2t implies that the
ultimate load reduction with the same amount of initial imperfection will be much larger
in presence of anti-symmetric loads.
228
0 17.75 35.5 0 17.75 35.5

0 m 0 m
-1000 -1000
-2000 -2000
-3000 1/3λcr λcr λend -3000 1/3λcr λcr λend

kN/m －◇－－□－－×－
kN/m －◇－－□－－×－
Fig.12: Nx along the line of EIF in case of Fig. 13: Nx along the line of EIF in case of
0 17.75 35.5 0 17.75 35.5

-200 m -200 m
-100 -100
0 0
100 100
200 1/3λcr
200
kN･m/m －◇－ λcr
－□－－×－λend kN･m/m －◇－ 1/3λcr －□－ λcr －×－ λend
Fig.14: Mx along the line of EIF in case of Fig.15: Mx along the line of EIF in case of
-5.0 0.0 5.0 -5.0 0.0 5.0

0 m 0 m
-1000 -1000
-2000 -2000
-3000 -3000
kN/m －◇－ 1/3λcr －□－ λcr －×－ λend kN/m －◇－ 1/3λcr －□－ λcr －×－ λend
(plate-like section) (shell-like section)

Fig.16: Nx within section normal to the Fig.17: Nx within section normal to the
line EIF at point J line EIF at point J
5 Ultimate Strength with different concrete tensile strength

Elasto-plastic buckling analysis of arches is performed to see if and how the concrete
tensile strength ft decreases the ultimate strength. The constitutive equation adopted in
the present analysis is listed in Table 3 as already described. The case of C-0 is
normally adopted based on FEM to see nonlinear behaviour, and on the other hand, the
case of C-3 corresponds to concrete with zero tensile strength, the case being adopted in
ordinary reinforcement decision. The effects of geometrical initial imperfections are
also included in the present
5.1 Effect of geometrical imperfections

The critical load factors, ultimate strength in other words, are investigated first based on
C-0 constitutive equation for normal concrete tensile strength depending on the
magnitude of geometrical imperfections. The results are shown in Figs. 18 and 19. The
229
vertical displacement δz at three points of J, I and K in Fig. 2 are illustrated to see how
anti-symmetrical displacements are caused.
Irrespective of plate-like or shell-like section, the critical load factors are much
decreased due to geometrical imperfections. In case of plate-like section, the vertical
displacement at a load critical load will be a little decreased depending on the increase
of imperfections, and on the other hand in case of shell-like section, the vertical
displacement tends to be increased at the critical load. In both cases of plate-like and
shell-like sections, the critical load factors are found around 5cm or 6cm at point J with
a peak imperfection. The value is only 20% of the shell thickness.
10.0 λ 10.0 λ
I J I K
9.0 J K 9.0
8.0 8.0 Jg0 Kg0
7.0 7.0 JgⅠ KgⅠ

6.0 6.0
Ig0 Jg0 Kg0 KgⅡ
5.0 IgI 5.0
JgⅠ JgⅡ
IgⅡ KgⅠ
4.0 4.0 KgⅢ
IgⅢI JgⅣ
3.0 gⅣ 3.0 KgⅣ
KgⅡ JgⅤ IgⅠ
2.0 JgⅡ 2.0
JgⅣ KgⅣ KgⅢ KgⅤ
1.0 J Ⅴ IgⅤ
KgⅤ
1.0
g
0.0 cm 0.0 cm
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Fig.18: load factor- displacement Fig. 19: Load factor-displacement
relation for plate-like section relation for shell-like section
( case of C-0 constitutive Eq.) ( case of C-0 constitutive Eq.)
Figs. 20 and 21 show the stress distributions in steel reinforcement placed at the lower
side of surface in the X direction in case of 5cm initial imperfection when arch reaches
its ultimate strength. From the distributions we may expect that, in both cases of plate-
like and shell-like sections, the ultimate strength is governed mainly by concrete
material since no part of steel experiences yielding.
54.3N/mm2 191.2N/mm2 tension

10.2N/mm2 tension tension
54.9N/mm2 compression 116.8N/mm2 compression
(ｗio=5cm, at the ultimate load factor of 2.82 (ｗio=5cm,at the ultimate load factor of 5.03
in case of C-0 constitutive equation） in case of C-0 constitutive equation）
Fig.20: Stress distribution in steel placed in Fig.21: Stress distribution in steel placed
the x direction (lower side of surface) in the x direction (lower side of surface)
230
5.2 Effect of concrete tensile strength

The effect of concrete tensile strength to ultimate strength is investigated using the C-2
constitutive equation listed in Table 2. The tensile strength of ft=1.23N/mm2 in case of
C-2 almost corresponds to an allowable shear fracture strength for long term loads
adopted in AIJ design code. The results are shown in Figs. 22 and 23 to be compared
with Figs.18 and 19 for C-0 constitutive equation. The vertical displacement δz at J, I
and K in Fig. 2 are illustrated to see how anti-symmetrical displacements are caused.
The critical load factors are also shown in Figs. 26 and 27. In case of no imperfection,
the ultimate load factor is decreased by a small fraction to 6.30 from 6.36 in case of
plate-like section, and to 8.25 from 9.42 in case of plate-like section. Under this
condition without initial imperfection, the arch is almost under uniform compression
with no bending moments, accordingly every section is under compression with no
effect due to concrete tensile strength.
However in case of initial imperfection ofｗio=5cm, bending moments in concrete arise
causing tensile strains, and the effect of concrete tensile strength appears as a large
reduction in ultimate strength. The ultimate load factor in case of C-2 for plate-like
section is lowered to 2.07 compared with 2.82 for C-0 constitutive equation, on the
other hand in case of shell-like section, 3.63 compared with 5.03 for C-0 constitutive
equation.
The assumption of the presence of geometrical initial imperfections and other random
fluctuations in material and geometrical properties of concrete arch seems natural in in-
situ construction, and such large concrete tensile strain may be enough to cause tensile
fracture of concrete due to bending moments, and reduction of section rigidity may
appear in arches. After a long duration, concrete will deteriorate in tensile strength, and
accordingly combined effects from deteriorated tensile strength and geometrical
imperfections may be expected to amplify much.
5.3 Combined effect of concrete tensile strength and imperfections

Combined effects due to concrete tensile strength and geometrical imperfections are
shown in Figs.24 and 25. Figs. 26 and 27 interpret the ultimate strength as imperfection
sensitivity of ultimate strength depending on the concrete tensile strength.
With respect to the effect due to concrete tensile strength, comparison of ultimate
strength between C-0 and C-3 reveals firstly that the difference has a tendency to be
larger with increase of initial imperfection in both cases of plate-like and shell-like
sections. Secondly, if geometric imperfection grows beyond 0.1 forｗio/t, the absolute
difference between C-0 and C-3 as the critical load factor will tend almost constant and
will be around 1.2 in case of plate-like section beyond 0.2 forｗio/t and 2.0 in case of
shell-like section also beyond 0.2 for ｗ io/t. The present difference of reduction of
ultimate strength reduction is clearly attributed to the effects of concrete tensile strength.
When we focus the ultimate strength for the imperfection 0.2 forｗio/t in case of C-3
constitutive equation with zero concrete tensile strength, the ultimate strength load
factors are 1.6 and 3.2 respectively for the plate-like and shell-like sections. The
strength of plate-like section is almost half of that of shell-like section. The decrease of
ultimate load may be attributed to the difference of effective depth for steel arrangement.
231
Accordingly, we may draw a result, as easily and already found, that a curved section
with a large effective depth will promise a large ultimate capacity for arch if same
amount of concrete material is used for construction.
10.0 λ J I K 10.0 λ
Ig0
9.0 9.0
8.0 8.0
Ig0 Jg0 Kg0
7.0 7.0 IgI KgⅠ
6.0 6.0 IgⅡ
5.0 Jg0 Kg0 JgⅠ
5.0
JgⅠ IgI IgⅢ
4.0 IgⅡ
KgⅠ 4.0 JgⅡ KgⅡ
IgⅣ
3.0 IgⅢ 3.0 JgⅢ KgⅢ
2.0 JgⅡ 2.0 JgⅣ
KgⅡ KgⅣ
1.0 1.0 JgⅤ IgⅤ
JgⅣJgⅢ IgⅣ KgⅢ KgⅤ
KgⅣ cm
0.0 JgⅤ IgⅤ KgⅤ 0.0 cm
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Fig.22: load factor- displacement Fig. 23: Load factor-displacement

relation for plate-like section relation for shell-like section
in case of C-2 constitutive Eq in case of C-2 constitutive Eq.
λⅠ0cr(wi0/t) 10.0
λⅠ0cr(wi0/t)
10.0
8.0 8.0
C3 C2 C1 C0
6.0 6.0
C3 C2 C1 C0
4.0 4.0
2.0 2.0
0.0 wi0/t 0.0 wi0/t

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Fig.24: load factor-imperfection Fig. 25: Load factor-imperfection

relation for plate-like section relation for shell-like section in
in case of C-0 to C-3 conditions case of C-0 to C-3 conditions
PI0cr(wi0/t)/PI0cr0 PI0cr(wi0/t)/PI0cr0
1.0 1.0
0.8 0.8 C3 C2 C1 C0
C3 C2 C1 C0
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 wi0/t 0.0 wi0/t

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Fig.26: Imperfection sensitivity for Fig. 27: Imperfection sensitivity for

plate-like section in case of shell-like section in case of
C-0 to C-3 constitutive equations C-0 to C-3 constitutive equations
232
If we are subjected to IASS recommendation for ultimate strength evaluation by

assuming no concrete tensile strength, the strength will be much smaller than the values
which are estimated by assuming some amount of concrete tensile strength. IASS
recommendation has also suggested a safety factor around 3 for normal loads like dead
load, and accordingly if based on the Recommendation, geometrical imperfection larger
than around 0.15 as ｗio/t will not be possible in design in case of plate-like section, and
geometrical imperfection larger than 0.20 as ｗio/t will not be possible in case of shell-
like section. IASS recommendation also asks us to consider the effect of creep
deformation. If we are allowed to assume a smaller concrete Young’s modulus as Ec/2,
where Ec is a secant modulus at fc/3, the ultimate strength load factor will be probably
half of the present results.
6 Effect of anti-symmetric load

The above discussion that the bending moments reduces the ultimate strength suggests
us that, if anti-symmetrical loads are applied, ultimate strength of arches under a gravity
load will be much more decreased due to both bending moments and geometric
imperfections. On how the anti-symmetrical component of loads make arches have a
smaller ultimate strength, Figs.28 and 29 illustrate the influence to the ultimate strength
load factors λcr. Here as already described in Eq.(1), the anti-symmetric component PII0
is 10% of the dead load PI0. The anti-symmetrical component accelerates growth of
bending moments causing cracks in concrete. Accordingly, the ultimate load factors are
much reduced than those in case of no anti-symmetrical loads.
The critical load interaction between PI0 and PII0 is given as critical load factors in
Fig.30 shows how weakly arches fail under asymmetric loads, where arches are under
0.2t initial imperfection and C-3 constitutive equation.
At locations with high seismicity, cautions would be required to avoid failure due to
excessive anti-symmetrical loads. For the imperfection of 0.2 as ｗio/t, the arch of shell-
like section, assumed in the present study, could endure an anti-symmetric load of 0.2
time dead load, if concrete tensile strength is almost zero. In such occasions, deeper
sections should be adopted.
λⅠ0cr(wi0/t) λⅠ0cr(wi0/t)
5.0 5.0
4.0 4.0 C0
C1
C3 C2
3.0 3.0
C2 C1 C0
2.0
C3
2.0
1.0 1.0
0.0 wi0/t 0.0 wi0/t

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Fig.28: load factor-imperfection Fig. 29: Load factor-imperfection
relation for plate-like section relation for shell-like section in
in case of C-0 to C-3 conditions case of C-0 to C-3 conditions
233
under anti-symmetrical load under anti-symmetrical load
λcrPII0 :PII0=5.75kN/m2 λcr

0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0 λcr
0 1 2 3 4 λcr PI0 :PI0=5.75kN/m2
Fig.30 : Critical load factor interaction for shell-type section; wio=0.2t and C-3
7 Conclusion
The present paper has discussed on how arches can endure vertical loads through a set
of geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis considering the effects of
geometrical imperfections, concrete tensile strength and anti-symmetrical load
components. From the results, following conclusions are drawn.
(1) Geometric imperfection, concrete tensile strength and anti-symmetrical load
component raise a large reduction in the ultimate strength.
(2) The main reason of the large reduction of ultimate strength is the bending moments,
causing a large tensile strain in concrete.
(3) If concrete tensile strength is assumed almost zero and imperfection of 0.20 as ｗio/t
(4) is applied, the ultimate strength will be decreased to about 30% of the ultimate
strength of the perfect arch with concrete tensile strength of 0.1fc .
This research concerns only with arches of one-way characteristics, and further studies
are strongly desired to extend the present analysis to shell structures.
References
[1] IASS. Recommendation for Reinforced Concrete Shells and Folded Plates, 1979
[2] Andres M., Harte R. Buckling of Concrete Shells, J. of IASS, 47:279-290.
[3] Medwadowski S.J. Buckling of concrete shells; An overview, I. of IASS 2004;
45:51-63.
[4] Medowadowski S.J., Samartin A. Design of reinforcement in concrete shells: A
unified approach, I. of IASS 2004; 45:41-50.
[5] Samartin A., Abel J.F. Computer analysis and design of concrete shell roofs, Proc.
of IASS 2009, Valencia
[6] Kato S., Ohya M., Hara T. Finite Element Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Shells
under Cyclic Loading, J. of IASS 2002; 43:23-40.
234
Study on Nonlinear Vibration Characteristics of Reinforced

Concrete Circular Arches by Vibration Tests and Simulations
Atsushi MUTOH1*, Makoto TAKAYAMA2, Kazuhiko MASHITA3 and Shiro KATO4
1*
Department of Architecture, Meijo University
Shiogamaguchi 1-chome, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya 468-8502, JAPAN
amutoh@meijo-u.ac.jp
2
Kanazawa Institute of Technology, 3 Tokai Univ., 4 Toyohashi Univ. of Tech.
Abstract
In this paper, the results of a dynamic destructive experiment of a reinforced
concrete (RC) arch and its numerical analysis for the purpose of evaluation of
earthquake resistance of an RC arch/shell of a large span and verification of the
numerical analysis technique are shown. In the test, an arch with a 20-m span was
considered, and a circular arch of a 1/10 scale was used as the specimen. In order to
reproduce the vibration destruction by using a seismic-wave input, an arch of
comparatively small strength predicted by a prior numeric simulation was designed. In
the experiment, input by a real seismic-wave record (JMA-Kobe), which gave time
compression based on a similarity rule, was used on two levels after checking the
natural frequency by a sweep test. The dynamic failure mode and the strength were
identified by the experimental results, and a qualitatively and quantitatively good
coincidence with a numerical simulation was obtained. In the test, although the
structural instability, which results in four hinges, was prevented for safety, in a
computational analysis, numerical instability was shown at the stage with three hinges.
It is considered that a prediction with sufficient accuracy is practically possible.
Keywords: reinforced concrete arch, ultimate strength, shaking table test, dynamic
nonlinear analysis
1 Introduction
To concrete arch and shell, experimental, analytical and numerical analysis examination
are tried about those deformation, damage, ultimate strength and failure mode by many
past researches. In Japan, to the shell of the form of a cylinder, a circular, a cone, a
hyperbolic, etc., the destructive experiment of a large number using scale reduction
models are conducted from the 1950s to the present, and those arrangement is currently
performed. In general, although these structures have a large load-carrying capacity,
buckling and the influence of imperfections are always pointed out simultaneously.
During their structural design, the existence of those indefinite elements serves as an
important examination item about strength prediction or a setup of a safety ratio. In
addition, in a country with frequent earthquakes, evaluation of the action to dynamic
load is an important subject.
235
In this research, the dynamic destructive experiment for an RC arch is conducted, and
the possibility of pursuing the phenomenon to a dynamic failure state is verified by
numerical analysis.
2 Experimental model and testing system
As regards the structural behavior of an RC arch, material nonlinear characteristics and
combined nonlinear characteristics by the existence of two or more equilibrium curves
which originate geometrically nonlinear, are expected depending on its shape. In this
research, a circular arch is subjected to examination. As shown in Fig. 1, the arch
examined, has a span of 2m, and a rise-span ratio of 0.25; its two ends are pinned to a
support, the section is set to a rectangle of 2.0×4.0 cm, and single reinforcement with
1.0%.
D=2.0(cm)
h=0.5(m)
L=2(m) b=8.0(cm)
Fig. 1: Experimental model of RC arch
2.1 Model set up by pre-test simulation
In the test, the 20m span circular arch was supposing and 1/10 scale was used as the
specimen. In order to reproduce the vibration destruction by using a seismic-wave input,
an arch of comparatively small strength predicted by a prior numeric simulation was
designed. In the experiment, the input by a real seismic-wave record (JMA-Kobe),
which gave the time compression based on a similarity rule, was used.
The Fourier spectrum of the time-compressed JMA-Kobe NS is shown in Fig. 2 along
with the change in the natural frequency of the model as a function of the weight
applied to it, and the result of the seismic response analysis of each model is
summarized in Table 1.
250
10kg
20kg
200
30kg
32kg
40kg
F ourier Spec tra (cm/s)
50kg
150 60kg
70kg
100
50
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Fr equency (Hz )
Fig. 2: Change in the natural frequency with weight
Table 1: Estimation of dynamic failure for each weight

additional mass (kg/point) 10kg 20kg 30kg 32kg 40kg 50 kg
n atu ral pe rio d (s) 0.1 3 0 .17 0.21 0.21 0.24 0.26
n atu ral fre qu e n c y (H z) 7.8 4 5 .83 4.85 4.71 4.24 3.81
1 - dir.(N S ) ― ― × × × ×
JM A -K obe
2-dir. (N S +U D ) ― ― × × × ×
×; u n stable du rin g c o m pu tatio n
236
A weight exceeding 30 kg caused the model to become unstable during time steps. It
was assumed that under the influence of rigidity reduction such as that caused by the
progress of cracks, the natural period of the specimen increased during a time response,
and a value somewhat shorter than that corresponding to the peak of the spectrum of
seismic waves was set up as the 1st natural period of the specimen. In the test, a 32-kg
weight was set up. The free-vibration modes of the arch specimen and the
corresponding frequencies are shown in Fig. 3.
(a) first mode(4.71Hz) (b)second mode (19.40Hz)
Fig. 3: Free-vibration modes of the arch specimen
The estimated deformation modes at the time of the maximum response are shown in
Fig. 6.
Rebar yield
Concrete crush
(a) one direction input(×15 times) (b) two direction input(×2 times)
Fig. 4: Estimated deformation modes at the peak response
In the pre-test simulation, after the maximum response, an acceleration of about 750-
cm/s2 (in the level direction) and 900 cm/s2 (in the vertical direction) was observed, a
result in which an arch collapses was brought. In addition, the influence of an up-down
input showed the result to which imperfection assume relates.
2.2 Testing system
The system image of the shaking table test of an RC arch, which receives two-direction
input, and an actual situation are shown in Fig. 5.
237
Fig. 5: System for vibration testing of RC arch
2.
2.22.1 Specimen
While manufacturing an examination object, in order to control the geometric

imperfections, a mold that continuously transferred the entire sheet was used (Fig. 6).
The portions of the pinned supports were manufactured by inserting a core stick in the
pipe embedded on the specimen, and the ends were reinforced by increasing the
thickness and installing a steel mesh. 4 5
55
100
200
200
60
45
D=34mm
500
700
t= 3mm
700
900
45
3000
100
90
90
1 00 3 00 50 0 60 0 5 00 30 0 10 0
400 1600 400
overall geometry and reinforcement end detail

mold with imperfection control
Fig. 6: Details of specimen and mold system
2.
2.22.2 Additional weight and initial imperfection
A total of eight additional weights (4kg/sheet) were fixed at two locations on the
specimen with the help of bolts. Before the experiment, the errors in the shape and
thickness were precisely measured. Installation of weights and the measurement result
of geometric imperfection are shown in Fig. 7.
B
A
max. t(A) 2.47cm

min. t (B) 1.79cm
average 2.13cm
(a) additional weight (b) recorded error (c) thickness error
Fig. 7: Additional weight and measured imperfection
2.
2.22.3 Material properties
Table2 summarized the results of material testing; these represent the average of the
values of obtained for three objects. In addition, the obtained mechanical properties are
used in the post test simulation presented below.
Table 2: Mechanical properties used in the simulation
mortar reinforcing bars
Young's modulus 19663N/mm2 Young's modulus204000N/mm2
Poisson's ratio 0.167 Poisson's ratio 0.3
compressive strength 34.55N/mm2 yielding point 563.73N/mm2
tensile strength 3.46N/mm2
238
3 Experimental results and post-test analysis

In the experiment, additional weights were installed first, the sweep examination was
performed thereafter, and seismic waves were continuously inputted with two levels of
acceleration, as shown in Fig. 8.
Loading
sweep
addition JMA-Kobe JMA-Kobe

t
of weight ×0.25 times ×1.00 times
Fig. 8: Shaking table test: sequence
3.1 Measurement
Accelerometers were installed on the shaking table, at the locations of the estimated
modal peaks, and at the apex, as shown in Fig. 9(a). At the two points of the modal
peaks, the strains on the outer and inner surfaces of the concrete and two reinforcing
bars were measured, as shown in a figure (b).
A 3-X, Z
A 1-X, Z A 2-X, Z
： apex
z ：1st mode peak
A 0-X, Z
x accelerations
EC 1-U EC 2-U ER1-S1. S2 ER2-S1. S2
z EC1-L EC2-L
x concrete rebars
strains
Fig. 9: Measurement points of accelerations and strains
3.2 Eigen frequencies
The eigen frequencies obtained by an eigen value analysis and a sweep test are listed in
Table 3.
Table 3: Eigen frequencies
post-test analysis
test pre-test
perfect imperfect
natural freq. (Hz) 3.22 4.71 4.57 4.85
1st
narutal period (s) 0.31 0.21 0.22 0.21
239
As a cause due to which the natural period determined from the sweep test exceeds the
20
15 computational
experiment result, the rigidity reduction caused by the generating of cracks due to the
analysis (infinitesimal deform.,elasto-plastic)
10 installation
analysis (large of weights and the method of conducting the sweep test can be considered.
deform.,elasto-plastic)
5
Acc (m/s 2)
0
20
3.3 Response time histories
-5
15
-10
10
-15
Before the shaking test, when the additional weights were installed, some small cracks
5
Acc (m/s 2)
-20
00
were observed
0.5
near1 the apex 1.5 and the support
2
ends. 2.5Cracks were
3
observed in the entire
-5 arch at the stage of 0.25-times TIME (s) JMA-Kobe wave input. Subsequently, generation of
-103 experiment instability was estimated in the case of 1.0-times JMA-Kobe input by the pre-
-15
structural
analysis (infinitesimal deform.,erasto-plastic)
2
-20 analysis
test (large deform.,elasto-plastic)
simulation; in 1the experiment, destruction occurred similarly. The response time
10 0.5 1.5 2 2.5 3
histories of the mode peak (A2) TIME (s) during 1.0-times JMA-Kobe input are shown in Figs.
Disp (cm)
0
3
-1
10 and 11 in comparison with the post-test simulation results. The displacement values
2
-2 in the displacement time history determined from the experiment are calculated by
1
numerical integration of the measured acceleration. In addition, as the input seismic
Disp (cm)
-3
00 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
-1
waves in the numerical analyses, TIME (s) the acceleration time history measured on the vibration
-2
table was used.
-3
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
TIME (s)
(a) X-direction
(b) Z-direction
Fig. 10: Acceleration time histories
(a) X-direction
240
(b) Z-direction
Fig. 11: Displacement time histories
In the experiment, it is hard to accurately judge the time when the destruction of the
arch occurred from the time history by an accelerometer. However, when analyzed from
the video recorded, the time was identified to be in the time zone (2.1 to 2.5 s) shown by
shading in Figs. 10 and 11. This result indicates good correspondence to be the
instability generation time estimated by the numerical analysis using the dynamic
combined nonlinear analysis technique for an RC shell [1-3].
3.4 Failure modes
As seen from the deformation at the time of destruction, shown in Fig. 12, a hinge has
occurred on the right-hand side of the specimen. In this test, one hinge is generated
which has small domain, and it has not resulted in the structural instability of the entire
arch. This is considered to depend, since falling of additional weights was prevented for
safety during the experiment.
Fig. 12: Dynamic failure in the test
The deformation mode at the time of a collapse generating assumed by the dynamic
analysis is shown in Fig. 13 and “point i” corresponds to the hinge generated in the
experiment.
ii
i
iii
□ ; additional mass
○ ; bending failure
Fig. 13: Dynamic failure in the test (enlarged 10 times)
241
1.5 4
The M-N interaction time histories to the failure estimated by the numerical analyses
3
1 are shown in Fig. 14. The thick solid lines in the figure show the failure envelope of the
RC column, which 2 has the same section as does the target arch. According to these
N (kN)
N (kN)
0.5 results, the criterion for the dynamic failure of this arch is affected by the influence of
1
geometric nonlinearity. Moreover, this criterion shows the possibility of expressing
0 failure simply by0 the M-N interaction of an RC column by taking a large deformation
M-N criterion (RC column)
into consideration.
point ⅰ
M-N criterion (RC column)
point ⅰ
-0.5 point ⅱ -1 point ⅱ
point ⅲ
-0.2 point ⅲ
-0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0-0.075
0.05 -0.05
0.1 -0.025
0.15 0.2 0 0.025 0.05 0.075
M (kN・m) M (kN・m)
(a) linear elastic trajectory (b) combined nonlinear trajectory
Fig. 14: Estimated M-N interaction
4 Conclusions
In this research, the dynamic destructive experiment for RC arch is conducted, and the
possibility of pursuit of the phenomenon to a dynamic failure state is verified by the
numerical analysis verification. From the obtained experimental results, the dynamic
failure mode and the strength of the arch were determined, and a qualitatively and
quantitatively good coincidence with the numerical simulation was obtained. It is
considered that failure prediction with sufficient accuracy is practically possible.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research 20510164 and by the
joint research project “ARCSEC” of Meijo University.
Referencess
Reference
[1] Mutoh A., Kato S. and Matsuoka O., A study on the nonlinear response of RC
spherical shells under seismic loading, Proc. Int’l Symposium on Theory, Design
and Realization of Shell and Spatial Structures, Int’l Association for Shell and
Spatial Structures (IASS), 2001, pp.1–8 (published on CD-ROM), Printed Extended
Abstracts: pp.58–59.
[2] Mutoh A., Study on nonlinear vibration characteristics of reinforced concrete
spherical shells with fixed load. J. Struct. Constr. Eng., AIJ, 2001; 549
549:83–90.
242
[3] Mutoh A., Evaluation of Nonlinear Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Free-Curved

Shells Proposed in Recent Years, Proc. Int'l Symposium on Spatial Structures -
Permanent and temporary, Int’l Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS),
2010, (published on CD-ROM).
243
2.2 WG 6 New Usage of Membranes
244
Uncoated Abaca Fabric: An Alternative Natural Material for

Temporary Tensile Structure
SALVADOR R. ALDECOA
ASP Membran / Ateneo de Naga University, Philippines
Email: sraldecoa@aspmembran.com
Abstract
This study focuses on the promising material which is abundant in the Bicol
Region, Philippines, the abaca fabric. For many years, the abaca fabric has been utilized
as a decorative material for export and domestic products. In the history of abaca
industry, such fabric was never considered as a prime construction material. Within the
framework of this study, the material strength of uncoated abaca fabric is tested for its
structural use, specifically for temporary tensile structure. Fabrication and construction
of a full-scale hypar form is tested and subjected to the full provisions of the National
Structural Code of the Philippines concerning temporary structures. This study
compares the membrane stresses generated by the ForTen 3000 software for tensile
structure with the physical test results of uncoated abaca fabric supplied by the
Philippine Textile Research Institute Testing Laboratory. The abaca fabric is also
subjected to the effect of weathering to determine the effective life span of uncoated and
untreated abaca fabric.
Keywords: membrane tensile structure; abaca fabric; FORTEN 3000; hypar; form
finding; cutting pattern
1. Introduction
In support of the growing global concern for environmental protection, it is imperative
that biodegradable, eco-friendly and natural raw materials be introduced in tensile
structures. This study is thus conducted in order to test the applicability and suitability
of the Philippine’s premier natural fiber called “abaca.” Abaca, (musa textiles nee), is
indigenous to the Philippines and its fiber is known worldwide as “Manila hemp.” The
fiber is obtained from the leaf sheaths of the abaca plant which is similar to the banana
plant in appearance.
The abaca fiber is an export-oriented commodity and is traditionally used as cordage
due to its durability, high strength, and resistance to salt-water decomposition. Its fiber
is considered as the strongest among natural fibers and is three times stronger than
cotton.
Based on the Department of Agriculture Fiber Industry Development Authority, the
Philippines produces about 70,000 metric tons of fibers from 136,000 hectares of abaca
plantation in various parts of the country, 24% of which are exported as raw materials to
the United States, United Kingdom, Japan, France, Germany, and South Korea, while
the rest are locally processed.
245
The areas of abaca production and processing in the Philippines are situated in three
major regions, namely, Bicol, Eastern Visayas and Mindanao.
Figure 1 shows clearly that the Bicol Region is the second top producer of abaca fiber
producing 20,243 metric tons per year.
Based on the data provided by the Fiber Industry Development Authority, an abundant
source of abaca fiber in the Bicol Region awaits the outcome of this study.
Figure 1 Abaca Production in the Philippines
Local production and usage of abaca fiber are mainly concentrated on the cottage
industry that makes abaca rope and twines, fiber crafts, fashion accessories, decorative
accessories, lamps and lighting, wall covering, draperies, table top accessories, creative
packaging, Christmas decor, furniture and fixtures, garments and textiles. With the help
of the Philippine Textile Research Institute (PTRI) of the Department of Science and
Technology (DOST), the old tradition of abaca fiber craft in the Philippines was
transformed into a vibrant and lucrative business in the export industry.
Traditionally, handwoven abaca fabric is best known for its tribal community identity.
This study focuses on one handwoven abaca fabric distinctively made within the Bicol
Region, the Pinukpok. Pinukpok is an exquisite silk made from abaca fiber which is
abundant in the Bicol Region. It is processed by literally beating the fiber using a huge
wooden mortar and pestle. Constant beating of the fiber brings out its sheen and
softness characteristic of silk fabrics.
1.1 Study Objectives
This study aims to test various handwoven abaca textiles as an alternative material for
temporary tensile structure. With the guidance of the Department of Science and
Technology (DOST) and the Philippine Textile Research Institute (PTRI), materials
from pre-selected handweaving cottage industries within the Bicol Region were utilized.
Detailed testing of the different mechanical and physical properties based on the Testing
procedures of PTRI and American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) / European
Standard – International Standard Organization (EN ISO) standard were implemented.
246
Primarily, this study seeks to promote the use of a biodegradable and ecofriendly abaca
textile as an alternative material for temporary tensile structures.
In addition, the following sub-objectives are also considered:
a. To test the validity and acceptability of pre-selected handwoven abaca fabric

using a weaving reed of 30 dpi.
b. To enhance the applicability of abaca fabric in constructing lightweight
structures.
1.2 Scope and Limitation

This study focuses on pre-selected handwoven pinukpok abaca fabric within the Bicol
Region.
The material testing was conducted in the laboratory of the Philippine Textile Research
Institute, specifically, the tensile strength, elongation and tearing strength per five-
centimeter strip of fabric.
Pinukpok abaca fabrics were joined together by mechanical sewing and all seams were
tested using a five-centimeter strip of fabric.
To test the validity of the uncoated handwoven abaca materials, a full-scale hypar
tensile structure was fabricated and tested using the applicable dead load, live load and
wind load as specified in the National Structural Code of the Philippines.
1.3 Reliability of Abaca Fiber

Based on the PTRI research publication, the Bicol Region produces three varieties of
abaca fabric, namely, Abuab, Itolaus 45 and Tinawagang Puti. The tensile strength of
the Abuab variety ranges from 31.90 kg-m/g to 35.70 kg-m/g while that of the Itolaus
45 variety ranges from 34.96 kg-m/g to 48.93 kg-m/g and the Tinawagang Puti variety
ranges from 33.06 kg-m/g to 36.60 kg-m/g.
As a rule of thumb, the following requirements were faithfully followed during the
selection process of the abaca fiber:
a. Hand-stripped abaca conforms to the S2 and S3 designation and has an
excellent fiber grading.
b. Machine-stripped abaca conforms to the S-S2 and S-S3 designation and has
an excellent fiber grading.
c. Fiber length is 4.49mm and 4.37mm for machine and hand-stripped fibers,
respectively.
d. Fiber diameter is 20.74 microns and 20.79 microns for machine and hand-
stripped fibers, respectively.
e. Moisture content is 8.40% and 8.64% for machine and hand stripped fibers,
respectively.
247
2. Literature Review
It With the development of an indigenous fiber into textile material and the creation of
the Philippine Tropical Fabric (PTF), the Philippine Textile Research Institute (PTRI)
pioneered the research and development of a natural fabric found in abaca, pineapple
and banana. The institute further standardized the quality of fabric produced in the
Philippines for commercial applicability.
The institute published the “Samay Bulletin,” a technical and semi-technical publication
of the Philippine Textile Research Institute. It contains articles pertaining to different
researches and activities related to textiles.
Furthermore, the institute published another related source book “Kalamata,” which
contains PTRI weave designs and features innovative handloom-woven products from
indigenous fibers.
2.1 The Abaca Plant

Abaca is a perennial plant which grows in the Bicol Region. It resembles the banana
plant but is smaller in size. A mature abaca plant consists of about 12 to 30 stalks
radiating from a central root system. Its group of stalks ranges from 6 to 15 feet high.
These stalks are made up of a central core which is encircled by overlapping leaf
sheaths, each bearing a frond of 3-6 feet long and about 12 inches wide (Villafuerte-
Abonal, 2006).
Abaca practically grows all over the country, but there are three main abaca-producing
regions (Fig. 1) namely Bicol, Eastern Visayas and Mindanao. From these regions exist
several varieties, but each region has its own three major commercial varieties such as
Tinawagang Puti (T. Puti), Abuab and Musa Tex 51 for Bicol; Linawaan, Inosa and
Laylay for the Visayas; and Tongongon, Maguino and Bongolanon for Mindanao. These
varieties are classified based on their morphological description and cultivar
classification. The fibers derived from each variety exhibit inherent characteristics
distinct from or similar to the other (Hagad, 2005).
2.2 Abaca Fiber Material Conversion Process

The material conversion process officially starts when the abaca plant reaches its
maturity period which ranges from 18 to 24 months after it has been planted. Harvesting
or simply cutting down the plants involves a tedious process that requires the separation
of the leaves and trunk of the abaca plant. During the harvesting, the abaca stalks are
cut close to the ground. After cutting the stalks, the entire leaf sheaths are separated
from the stalk and flattened using a tuxying knife to extract the fiber from within. Once
the fibers are recovered from the leaf sheaths, the hand stripping method is employed.
Hand-stripping of abaca fibers is a very strenuous task. The tuxy is inserted between a
block and the serrated stripping knife and pulled with force from the tip end of the tuxy.
During the process of hand-stripping, the weight of the fibers recovered varies from
1.5% to 2% of the freshly cut stalks. Then the stripped fibers are dried in an open area
to prevent molds and weevils from affecting the quality of the fibers.
248
2.3 State of the Art

Except for the study conducted by Hagad (2005), which establishes the properties of S2
grade fiber from 12 commercial abaca varieties found in the Philippines, the current
study is different from all the studies conducted by the Philippine Textile Research
Institute.
In order to bridge the gap between the present and past research works, the current work
is focused on the material properties of the pre-selected abaca fiber and investigated the
tensile strength of hand-woven uncoated abaca fabric following the EN ISO standard
for Uniaxial strip test. It also investigated the behavior of mechanically sewed seams
and determined the capacity of joined materials.
Furthermore, this study is a pioneering work which fuses the technology developed by
Frei Otto and the Institute of Lightweight Structures by using the abaca fabric (Fig. 2)
as a temporary tensile structure in lieu of the tested poly vinyl chloride coated polyester
fabric.
3. Research Design
This chapter is a description of the research methodology, testing instrument, loading
assumptions and the computational method used in this study.
3.1 Methodology
The testing of the uncoated abaca fabric was implemented at the Philippine Textile
Research Institute of the Department of Science and Technology. Abaca fabric samples
were submitted for testing of its mechanical properties. The representative samples
came from the same variety and quality of the fabric that was used in fabricating the
uncoated abaca temporary tensile structure.
3.2 EN ISO Standard for Testing Fabric Materials
a. The Tensile Strength test follows the EN ISO 13934-1:1999 Textiles-Tensile

Properties of Fabrics – Part 1: Determination of Maximum Force and
Elongation at Maximum Force Using the Strip Method. Zwick/Roell Tensile
Strength Tester Z005 (CRE) with 5 kN full scale load, a rate of extension of
20 mm/min, and a pretension force of 2.0 Newton were used in the
Philippine Textile Research Institute Laboratory to test the uncoated
handwoven abaca fabric. Four specimens with 50mm width and 200mm
gauge length were tested.
b. The determination of mass followed the ISO 3801-1977: Textiles – Woven
Fabrics – Determination of Mass per Unit Length and Mass per Unit Area.
Five specimens were tested using the J.A. King Pneumatic Sample Cutter
SASD-677 equipment.
c. The Tearing Strength test followed the ASTM D1424-07: Standard Test
Method for Tearing Strength of Fabrics by Falling-Pendulum Type
(Elmendorf Apparatus). Five specimens were tested using the Elmendorf
Tearing Strength Tester.
249
d. The yarn number, denier, ASTM D1059-01: Standard Test Method for Yarn
Number Based on Short-Length Specimens. The Zweigle Twist Tester D311
equipment was used to test the ten specimens.
3.3 Loading Assumptions
Basic loading assumptions were taken from the National Structural Code of the
Philippines (NSCP C101-01) and the ANSI/ASCE 7-95, Minimum Design Loads for
Building and Other Structures.
3.4 Form Finding and Analysis
With the advent of computer-aided design software, the researcher used the FORTEN
3000 (licensed copy) – A System for Tensile Structures Design and Manufacturing
software developed by Gerry D’ANZA and Baku Group DT.
Form finding is a computer process by which the physical form of a membrane structure
is generated. This involves a mathematical computation which uses one of the following:
a) the force density method, b) the non-linear finite element methods, and c) the
dynamic relaxation method.
Forten 3000 software algorithm employs the static geometrical nonlinear analysis using
a Newton-Raphson method for form-finding and analysis of membrane stresses.
Cutting Pattern is a module contained in the FORTEN 3000 software which produces
the final layout of tensile fabric for production purposes.
4. Analysis and Interpretation

The researcher would like to emphasize that this study does not in any way substitute
the tested and proven materials used in tensile structures, i.e., woven polyester textile
coated with poly vinyl chloride (PVC), woven glass textile coated with poly tetra fluor
ethylene (PTFE) and ethyl tetra fluor ethylene (ETFE). This study only tests the
applicability of uncoated abaca fabric in construction industry as sun shade. As a
guiding principle, the researcher follows the advise of his late mentor, Prof. Jose Ma.
De Castro, Professor Emeritus of the College of Engineering in the University of the
Philippines, in finding ways and means to address the growing problems encountered in
Civil Engineering practices and materials development in the local construction industry.
4.1 Mechanical Properties of the Abaca Fabric

In order to simplify the description of the two samples that were submitted for testing at
the Philippine Textile Research Institute, the following samples shall be known as:
SN 1332-08 - Sinamay Fabric with Design
SN 1333-08 - Sinamay Fabric without Design
250
These simplifications were necessitated to ease the evaluation of parameters and

methods in the preceding sections.
Based on the physical testing results obtained by the Philippine Textile Research
Institute, the following mechanical properties of the abaca fabric were found:
a. Breaking Force, N
Two samples under the label PTRI SN 1332-08 and PTRI SN 1333-08 were
submitted for testing procedures. The SN 1332-08 yielded a breaking force on
warp of 410 N and filling of 380 N, while the SN 1333-08 sample yielded a
breaking force on warp of 440 N and filling of 140 N, respectively.
b. Tensile Strength, N/m
Two samples under the same label were tested to determine the tensile strength
of the fabric by strip method. Sample SN 1332-08 yielded a warp strength of
12800 N/m and a filling strength of 10980 N/m, while sample SN 1333-08
yielded a warp strength of 15200 N/m, and a filling strength of 4600 N/m.
c. Average Elongation, %
Sample SN 1332-08 exhibited an elongation on the warp direction of 3.4%, and
3.2% on the filling direction while sample SN 1333-08 yielded an elongation of
3.2% on the warp direction, and 3.4% on the filling direction.
d. Mass Per Unit Area, g/m2

Sample SN 1332-08 yielded a mass of 92 g/m2, while sample SN 1333-08
yielded a mass of 60 g/m2.
e. Tearing Strength, N
Both samples SN 1332-08 and SN 1333-08 were untearable. SN 1332-08 tearing
occurred at the opposite direction for warp and filling, while SN 13308 failed
due to slippage.
f. Thickness, mm
Thickness of both materials were measured using SDL Digital Thickness Gauge.
Sample SN 1332-08 yielded a 0.84mm thickness, while SN 1333-08 yielded a
0.32mm thickness.
g. Yarn Number, denier
Sample SN 1332-08 yielded a 253.08 denier on the warp direction and 261.36
denier on the filling direction, while SN 1333-08 yielded a 351.72 denier on the
warp direction, and 177.12 denier on the filling direction.
4.2 Evaluation of Results

With respect to the loadings, the dead weight of the abaca membrane structure was
superimposed as vector loads at 92 g/m2, while the live loads were computed based on
the assumption of minimum live load on the tri-mesh as pressure loads of 59.12 kg/m2.
The wind loadings were taken from NSCP code for curve roof on a windward quarter
load of -20.08 kg/m2, a center half load of -18.25 kg/m2, and a leeward quarter load of -
11.16 kg/m2.
The displacement responses along Dx and Dy were measured at a maximum value of
22mm and 20mm, respectively. The displacement response along Dz (Fig. 6) indicates a
maximum value of 84mm on both sides of the hypar structure.
251
Figure 8 represents the membrane s11 stresses with values that ranges from 671.241
kg/m near the corner plate to a value of 56.234 kg/m in other areas. The membrane s22
stresses indicate a maximum value of 176.876 kg/m near the corner plate connection
and a minimum value of 22.109 kg/m in other areas. The reaction forces on the 4.0m
mast is 3522.27 kilograms while that of the 2.0m mast is 2015.84 kilograms. The
reaction forces on the two cable stays which hold the 4.0m mast are 1465.47 kilograms
and 1489.89 kilograms, respectively, while the reaction forces on the two cable stays
which hold the reaction forces on the other mast are 1366.75 kilograms and 1386.42
kilograms, respectively.
4.3 Cutting Patterns

To fully implement and construct the form which was generated by the software, a flat
cutting pattern was laid out first, using the FORTEN 3000 software which include both
a cutting pattern and production modules. Since the hypar is symmetrical in its
centerlines (x-axis and y-axis), patterning was implemented to take into consideration
the symmetry in order to ease the production and fabrication stages.
Figure 3 indicates the cutting pattern for the left and right half of the hypar. This cutting
pattern consists of nine patterns on each side with a width ranging from 0.08m to 0.65m
and a length ranging from 0.11m to 8.79m. Tabulated coordinates of the sides and
welding markers were indicated on the pattern. A stretch compensation corresponding
to the test results of 3.4% and 3.2% were adjusted along the weft and warp directions,
respectively.
4.4 Fabrication and Construction of Tensile Structure

After the patterning has been completed, a CAD drawing of the 18 patterns was
exported to JPEG files. Since the researcher was unable to find a cutting machine that
would have directly cut the patterns, a tedious process of converting all the 18 CAD
drawing files into JPEG files was implemented. This process was done so that the JPEG
files can be modified by Photoshop and printed on tarpaulin media using a commercial
plotter, which is readily available in the market. Figure 3 indicates the printed pattern
that was cut into 18 patterns. It presents the finished products which served as the
templates that were used to cut the abaca fabric pattern.
Joining the abaca patterns (Figure 4) through sewing was painstakingly implemented
using a conventional sewing machine.
The primary structures (Figure 5) were fabricated using G.I. pipes for mast, mild steel
plates for corner plates and anchor base plates. The cable, frame turnbuckle, shackle
straight “D,” and wire thimble are made of stainless steel materials. The connection of
stainless cable to the turnbuckle and shackle were implemented by using aluminum
ferrules and a half tonne hydraulic crimper instead of using a cable clip or swagging
machine.
Figure 8 shows the completed and erected final abaca tensile structure.
4.5 Life Span of Abaca Fabric
252
After completing the uncoated abaca temporary tensile structure, the researcher
implemented a fast track scheme to simulate the effect of weathering by sprinkling
water on the abaca fabric every morning. After two months, the uncoated natural abaca
fabric disintegrates as shown in Figure 9.
5. Conclusions and Recommendations

Based on the outcome of the fabrication and installation of the uncoated abaca tensile
structure (Figure 8) and the PTRI testing results, the following conclusions were
deduced:
a. With regard to the main objective of this study, it is evident that the stresses and
deformations exhibited in Figures 6 & 7 clearly show that it can withstand the
external loadings imposed on it. The membrane s11 stress levels of the abaca fabric
ranges from 671.241 kg/m to 56.234 kg/m, while the ultimate stress of abaca fabric
based on PTRI test results ranges from 1304.79 kg/m to 1119.27 kg/m. Using a
safety factor of 2.0 for temporary structures, the maximum permitted stress is 652.40
kg/m which is slightly lower than the membrane s11 stress level of 671.241 kg/m.
Therefore, the uncoated abaca fabric can be utilized as an alternative material for
temporary tensile structures.
b. With regard to the sub-objectives of this study, Figures 4 & 5 clearly show that the
pre-selected uncoated abaca fabric can be fabricated with ease and constructed as
temporary tensile structures.
c. A yarn number that is equal to or higher than 253 denier can be utilized as an
alternative material for temporary tensile structure.
d. With respect to the enhancement of the applicability of the abaca fabric in the field of
construction, Figure 8 clearly justifies the use of the material in the construction
industry.
e. With the successful construction of the first uncoated abaca temporary tensile
structure in the Philippines, the applicability of the abaca fabric in the construction
industry opens a new and promising horizon in the near future.
f. The uncoated abaca fabric’s lifespan was observed to be more or less two months
under extreme weathering condition.
Finally, it has to be noted that this study does not cover the designed wind speed
brought about by tropical typhoon that frequently enters the Philippine Area of
Responsibility.
References
[1] Abonal-Villafuerte L. ABACA Philippines. Singapore: Apples of Gold Publishing.

2006.
[2] Aldecoa S. Uncoated Abaca Fabric: An Alternative Material for Temporary Tensile
Structure. Unpublished Masteral Thesis, Anhalt University of Applied Sciences,
Dessau, Germany. 2009.
[3] Blum R and Bogner-Balz H. Materials for Textile Architecture. Dessau, Germany:
Institute fur Membran-und schalentechnologien e.V. 2007.
253
[4] Bubner E. Membrankonstruktionen verbindungstechniken. Essen, Germany:

Druckerei Wehlmann GmbH. 2005.
[5] De Leon M. Performance evaluation of Philippine tropical fabrics as DOST office
uniform. Philippine Textile Research Institute Samay Bulletin 7,1:1-10. 2007.
[6] Foster B and Mollaert M. European Design Guide for Tensile Surface Structures.
Brussel: Vrije Universiteit Brussel. 2004.
[7] Hagad SM. Properties of S2 grade fiber from twelve commercial abaca varieties.
Philippine Textile Research Institute Samay Bulletin 5, 1:6-15. 2005.
[8] Muhlbauer W and Hutter CP. Utilization of abaca fiber as industrial raw material.
European Nature Heritage Fund Publication, 1-6. 2002.
[9] Nerdinger W. Lightweight Construction Natural Design, Frei Otto Complete
Works. Basel, Switzerland: Birkhauser Publisher. 2005
[10] Otto F and Rasch B. Finding Forms. Munich, Germany: Axel Menges. 2006.
[11] Quiros I. Pretreatment and dyeing technology for abaca fibers. Philippine Textile
Research Institute Samay Bulletin 5,1:43-48. 2005.
[12] ________. Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. New York:
American Society of Civil Engineers. 1996.
QuickTime™ and a
decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
Figure 2 – Abaca Weaving Process Figure 3 – Cutting Patterns
254
Figure 4 – Sewing & Fabrication of Membrane Figure 5 – Installation of Abaca Hypar
Figure 6 Displacement along Dz Figure 7 S11 Membrane Stresses
Figure 8 Completed Structure Figure 9 Long Term Effect of Weathering
255
Structural potential of folded air-tubes

Masaya KAWABATA1*, Miwa MORI 2, Shingo MURAMOTO 3
1*
Associate Professor, Yokohama National University
79-5 Tokiwadai, Hodogaya, Yokohama JAPAN
mkwbt@ynu.ac.jp
2
Director, KEY-ARCHITECT
3
Engineer, JFE Engineering
Abstract
This paper describes the structural and morphological potential of folded air-
tube structures. Straight cylindrical air-tube is folded at the vertices of polyhedron and
each vertex is bound together keeping the passage of air in the cylinder in order to
inflate from one end to the other. Eulerian path configuration enables the whole
members from one cylinder without cut and weld. Pantograph mechanism is found in
cuboctahedron and the unfolding force is examined.
Keywords: Eulerian path configuration, Polyhedron, Pantograph, Inflate, Deflate, Wrinkle
1 Introduction
Table 1 describes the basic air-tube structural types and stress induced by the
vertical load and indicates their corresponding embodiments, A to L, shown in Figure 1.
Their members are broadly classified as cylindrical or toroidal, and the joint types as
binding, connecting, or combining. The pressurization modes are individual, partitioned,
or unitary, depending on the joint types.
Air-tubes using compressed air are extremely lightweight. If substantial
deformation is induced by an external force, however, they are susceptible to a loss of
membrane tension leading to the wrinkles in the air-tubes and, with further deformation,
to structural instability. Therefore, a basic design requirement is that the tensile stress
limit on the air-tube side under tension not be exceeded, while the tension on the side
under compression is maintained. Because air itself has no inherent limitation on shape
recovery, on the other hand, deformation and wrinkles may be permitted so long as they
pose no structural or functional problems. Many structural configurations are thus
possible, as shown in Figure 1, by simple combinations of members and joints. A key
consideration is the air-tube rigidity, which in its three component aspects may be
expressed as
Axial rigidity EA = 2πrEt

Flexural rigidity EI = πr 3 Et (1)
Shear rigidity GA = 2(πG + p )rt
where r is the air-tube radius, t its membrane thickness, E its Young’s modulus, and p
its internal pressure.
256
Air-tube membranes are generally only 1 mm or less in thickness, and the

internal pressure contributes only to shear rigidity; therefore slender air-tubes may
easily undergo considerable deformation. In many cases, even in arches, cylindrical
shells, or other systems with relatively high resistance to axial stress under small
displacements, bending stress often becomes the dominant factor. This is structurally
disadvantageous because bending stress is directly related to wrinkles on the
compression side, and it is, therefore, preferable to utilize an air-tube truss or hybrid
structure to provide an appropriate supplementary rigidity and thus avoid bending stress
predominance. Example B is such a truss-dome structure, but it is rather difficult to
fabricate a three-dimensional framework with unitized components at the joints from
membrane materials. Fabrication can be more efficiently implemented by folding and
mutually binding the air-tube cylinders, as shown in Examples K and L. With a
cylindrical hose conformation, as in a water hose or a fire hose, the length is inherently
unrestricted, which facilitates strengthening by fibre or fabric, and the use of high-
rigidity pre-manufactured elements. In this light, folded air-tubes hold promise as a
potential means of efficient fabrication of high-strength, high-rigidity three-dimensional
structures.
Table 1: Structural types and dominant stress of air-tube
Member Joint Structure Stress induced by the vertical load Example

Compression Tension Shear Bending
Beam-
column ○ ○ AI
Bind Truss ● ● B
Cylinder
Connect
Log ○ ● DK
Torus Arch ○ ○ E
Combine Air-mat
○ ○ ○ CFGH
Hybrid ● ○ JHL
A Air-tube Rafter [1]
257
[1]
B Air-tube Truss
C Nuclear Committee Mobile Pavilion

V. Randy, USA 1960 [1]
[1]
D Pan American Airline Pavilion
E Expo70 Osaka Fuji Pavilion

[2]
Y. Murata and M. Kawaguchi, Japan 1970
F Expo70 Osaka Mush Balloon

[2]
Taneo Oki and Shigeru Aoki, Japan 1970
258
G Expo85 Tsukuba Techno-cosmos,

[2]
Kohyama Atlier and SDG, Japan 1985
H International Sports Fair Tennis Plaza

[2]
Ogawa Tent and M. Saito, Japan 1985
I Pneumatic Hall 'Airtecture'

Festo KG, Germany, 1996 [3]
J Cross Air Arch

[4]
K. Nishikawa and M. Kawabata, Japan, 1999
K PRISMA, M. Mori, Germany, 2001
259
L Folded Air Tube

M. Kawabata and S. Muramoto, Japan, 2008
Figure 1: Examples of Air-tube Structures
2 Eulerian path configurations

A one-path writing frame configuration is appropriate for folded air-tubes. If we
consider a configuration as a collection of nodes and edges, a one-path writing
configuration in graph theory is equivalent to a semi-Eulerian graph in terms of their
connections. Such graphs are shown in Figure 2(b) and 2(c), which are configurations
which can be traversed by following each of the paths (the edges) exactly one time.
Figure 2(c) is in fact an Eulerian, or unicursal graph, as the starting point (the origin
node) is the same as the end node. As a necessary and sufficient condition for
classification as a semi-Eulerian graph, the number of nth-degree vertices in which n is
odd must be either zero or two. The degree of a vertex is defined as the number of edges
connected to it. If the number of odd-degree vertices in the figure is zero, then the figure
is an Eulerian graph; if the number is two, then it is a semi-Eulerian graph.
Transformation of a figure on a plane surface to a three-dimensional structure, such as
shown in Figure 3, can be obtained simply by moving the nodes. With folded air-tubes,
it is thus possible to form various frame structures corresponding to the various semi-
Eulerian graphs by appropriate selection of their folding points and thus the length of
their elements. Not only single-layer but also double-layer and other multilayer frames
can be formed. If we eliminate the Eulerian path condition, moreover, then a further
multiplicity of potential configurations emerges.
(a) non-Eulerian (b) semi-Eularian (c) Eulerian

Figure 2: Examples of Graph
260
Figure 3: Transformation of Nodes of a Graph
(a) Octahedron (b) Cuboctahedron
(e) Layered Cuboctahedron
(c) Variation from (d) Variation

Cuboctahedron from Cuboctahedron
Figure 4: Eulerian Polyhedron
(a Lamella Dome (b) Schwedler Dome
(e) Cylinder
(c) Variation from (d) Variety from

Lamella Dome Schwedler Dome
Figure 5: Eulerian Shells
261
Figure 4 shows polyhedrons transformed from Eulerian graphs: an octahedron

(a), a cuboctahedron (b), variations on the cuboctahedron formed by transforming the
top and bottom to polygons (c) and by adding tie bars on the sides (d), and a layered
cuboctahedron (e). Figure 5 shows single-layer lattice shells transformed from Eulerian
graphs: a Lamella dome (a) and a Schwedler dome (b), which are often used as the net
patterns in spherical domes, hoopless variations on the Lamella dome (c) and the
Schwedler dome (d), and a cylindrical lattice dome (e).
3 Inflatable air-tube structures

It is necessary to structurally stabilize three-dimensional structures and domes
composed of polygons other than triangles by the use of surface elements or other
restraints on angular movement. Conversely, it is possible to fabricate inflatable air-tube
structures by utilizing the degree of freedom for deformation of the appropriate regions.
Figure 6 demonstrates a cuboctahedron inflation process. Because of its pantograph
1 2
3 4
5 6
Figure 6: Expandable Air-tube Structure with Pantograph Mechanism
262
configuration, if the tubes are appropriately folded and secured, it rises in a stable
manner simply by addition of air pressure. If surface elements are installed when it has
reached the appropriate height, as shown in Step 6, then the overall structure will remain
stable. Its stable deflation is also possible, thus returning it to the folded state, simply by
reversing Steps 1 to 5. In this way, folded air-tubes enable the design and
implementation of inflatable structures such as this.
4 Unfolding force of pre-folded air-tube
To quantify the shape-recovery force, i.e., the thrust tending to restore the air-tube to its
original, unfolded state, which is exerted on the folded air-tube by its internal pressure,
we performed experiments as shown in Fig. 7, in which the thrust P was measured as
the internal pressure was raised in a hinged air-tube secured at both ends with distance
H between them. The parameters, as shown in Table 2, were the length L of each air-
tube arm and the rotation angle θ at the fold.
P Bending moment
around the Hinged Point
L θ
M = PL sin (2)
2
Material: Polyethylene
Diameter D=160mm
H Thickness t=0.1mm
Young's Modulus E=656MPa
θ Yield Stress σy=16MPa
2 Strength F=18～21MPa
Internal Pressure p=0～10kPa
P
Figure 7: Measurement of Thrust of Folded Air-tube
Table 2: Parameter of Test Specimens

θ
Case L
20° 30° 60° 90° 105° 120° 135° 150°
Case-1 185mm ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
Case-2 300mm ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
Case-3 400mm ○ ○ ○
Figure 8 shows the relation between the thrust and the internal pressure with an arm
length of 185 mm (Case 1), and Figure 9 shows the relation between the thrust and the
rotation angle at a thrust of 10 kPa for the different arm lengths (Cases 1-3). As shown,
the thrust was found to be approximately proportional to the internal pressure but also
dependent on the arm length, and the relation of trust to the rotation angle was found to
be nonlinear. At the folding point, portions of the air-bag membrane are in mutual
contact, and the shape-recovery force is presumably exerted in this region. We,
therefore, calculated the moment arising in the folded region, as shown conceptually in
263
100
θ=20°
80 θ=30°
θ=60°
θ=90°
Thrust P [N]
60 θ=120°
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Internal Pressure p [kPa]
Figure 8: Relationship between Thrust and Internal Pressure of Case-1
120
100
80
Thrust P [N]
60
40
Case-1
20 Case-2
Case-3
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Rotate Angle θ [degree]
Figure 9: Relationship between Thrust and Rotate Angle

Internal Pressure 10kPa
Figure 10. The area of mutual membrane contact was marked in outline on each test
specimen, and the moment M on the tube was calculated as the sum of the products of
this area ∆S and the distance a from its presumed center of rotation to the outer point at
the fold. The relation between this calculated moment at the hinged point and the angle
of rotation is shown in Figure 11, together with that of the experimentally obtained
moment values based on the measured force of reaction at the hinge. As shown, the
calculated and experimental values were in fairly close agreement, and the moment
tended to vary nonlinearly with the rotation angle. In summary, because the restorative
force of the hinged region is exerted in the mutually contacting membrane surfaces on
264
the compression side of the air-tube, it is linearly proportional to the internal pressure at
a given angle θ, but the variation in the shape-recovery force with changes in the
rotation angle θ is nonlinear because of corresponding changes in the area of mutual
contact in the hinge region and the distance from the center of rotation.
As shown in Figure 12(a), we also developed a rotational spring model for further
investigation into the rotational stiffness of the air-tube in the hinged region. In the
model, as shown in Figure 13, it was found that the rotational stiffness generally
decreases as the rotation angle is increased to approximately 90 ˚, remains at the same
minimum value until the rotation angle reaches approximately 130̊, and then increases
with further increases in the rotation angle, presumably as a result of an enlarged area of
mutual surface contact in the hinge region. Figure 12(b) is a schematic of a straight
(non-folded) air-tube with moments applied at both ends, which are separated by a
distance H = 600 mm. In this configuration, the rotational stiffness is calculated as
follows.
M 4 EI 4πr 3 Et
K'= = = = 706 Nm (3)
θ' H H
The stiffness of the rotational spring model of 4-10 Nm, as shown in Figure 13, is thus
on the order of just 0.6-1.4% of this calculated value of 706 Nm for the straight air-tube.
In the folded air-tube, its post-buckling folding represents a very large deformation and
its shape-recovery force is quite small in comparison with the flexural rigidity of the
straight air-tube.
∆S
Center
of
R t ti
a
a
M = ∑ ∆S × p × a (4)
S
Figure 10: Calculation of Moment around the Hinged Point
265
25
Experiment
Moment at Hinged Point M [Nm]
20 Calculation
15
10
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Figure 11: Relationship between Moment around Hinged Point and Rotational Angle
Internal Pressure 10kPa
P M
H δ
θ (assume δ<<H)
2
θ
M = PL sin = Kθ 2δ
2 θ'= =
MH
θ M H 4 EI
PL sin 4 EI
K = 2 (5) K'= (6)
P θ' H
(a) Hinged Element (b) Not Hinged Element

Figure 12: Modeling of Rotational Stiffness of Folded Air-tube
266
10
9
8
Rotational Stiffness ' [Nm]
7
6
5
Case-1
4
Case-2
3 Case-3
2
1
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Figure 13: Relationship between Rotational Stiffness, Stiffness Ratio and Rotational
Angle with internal Pressure 10kPa
5 Conclusions
In this study on the structural potential of folded air-tubes, the findings were essentially
as follows:
• Many structural shapes and configurations can be obtained by mutually binding
folded air-tubes, which themselves are formed by folding a cylindrical shape having
no substantial limitation in the lengthwise direction.
• Because of its traversable or unicursal nature, corresponding to semi-Eulerian or
Eulerian graphs, a single air-tube can be formed into an overall structure.
• It is possible to obtain three-dimensional inflatable structures and domes composed
of non-triangular polygons formed by folded air-tubes.
• The shape-recovery force of a folded air-tube is based on the internal pressure
acting on tube membrane surfaces in mutual contact in the folded region. It is
proportional to the internal pressure and dependent on the angle of the folded
portion.
References
[1] Tensile structures : design, structure, and calculation of buildings of cables, nets,
and membranes, Frei Otto, M.I.T. Press , 1967
[2] Membrane structures in Japan, Kazuo Ishii, SPS 1995
[3] Soft shells: design and technology of tensile architecture, Hans-Joachim Schock,
Birkhäuser, 1997
[4] Kawabata, M.; A Study on Effective Stiffness Evaluation of Dual-Wall Air-
Inflated Membrane Structures, Proceedings of IASS, C1.11~C1.20, 1999
267
A Novel Form Finding Method for Fabric Formwork for

Concrete Shells
Tom VAN MELE1*, Philippe BLOCK2
1*
Post-doctoral Researcher, Institute of Technology in Architecture, ETH Zurich
Wolfgang-Pauli-Strasse 15, HIL E 45.3
8093 Zurich, SWITZERLAND
tom.v.mele@gmail.com
2
Assistant Professor, Institute of Technology in Architecture, ETH Zurich
Abstract
This paper introduces a new form finding approach for the design of flexible
formwork, consisting of pre-stressed structural membranes, for the construction of thin,
anticlastic, concrete shells. The approach is based on the Force Density Method [1] and
an adaptation of the non-linear extension of Thrust Network Analysis (TNA) [2]. First,
the adaptation of the basic version of TNA to tension-only structures is discussed, and
fundamental assumptions formulated. Key aspects herein are the use of reciprocal
diagrams and the control of forces in indeterminate networks. Then, the strategy using
an overall optimization process, for finding the closest possible tension-only,
equilibrium surface to a given target surface under the appropriate loading (i.e. weight
of the concrete), is presented. Finally, the strategy is applied to a chosen target surface
and loads, and the equilibrium solutions for different starting points of the optimization
process are discussed.
Keywords: concrete shells, pre-stressed membrane formwork, form finding, force density method,
thrust network analysis
1 Introduction
1.1 Concrete Shells
Concrete shells are an efficient alternative for medium to large-span space enclosures.
When appropriately shaped, these structures carry loads through membrane action (i.e.
axial force-only) rather than bending, which allow them to be thin, light, and elegant.
There are two key aspects in the realization of thin concrete shells: 1) the determination
of an appropriate shape (through a form finding process), and 2) the actual construction.
Regardless of the form finding method used, concrete shells typically have been
constructed using rigid formwork, onto which wet concrete is poured. The variety of
shell shapes that can be constructed and especially the curvature that can be achieved is
limited by the shape flexibility of this formwork.
268
Felix Candela, for example, limited all his concrete shell designs to shapes derived from
a hyperbolic paraboloid (hypar), since these can be realized with a formwork consisting
of only straight elements, simplifying the formwork drastically and allowing reuse for
other applications [3] (see Fig. 1).
In any case, the construction of formwork is costly, time-consuming, and produces a
huge amount of building waste, which are some of the reasons why concrete shells are
no longer used as structural systems. Flexible formwork systems, however, using
tensioned membrane structures, seem to address many of the challenges of typical shell
construction and open new possibilities for shell design [4].
Figure 1: (left) Los Manantiales Restaurant at Xochimilco [4], and (right) Chapel
Lomas de Cuernavaca [4]. Although the shape of both shells is derived from a
hyperbolic paraboloid, allowing the formwork to be constructed using straight elements,
it is gigantic.
1.2 Flexible Formwork
Fabric formwork for reinforced concrete construction and architecture is an emerging

technology with the capacity to transform concrete architecture and reinforced concrete
structures [5]. Currently, such formwork systems are used, primarily, to create beams,
trusses, panels, simple, hanging vaults, slabs, and columns with expressive, natural
curvature (see Fig. 2).
Figure 2: (left) Fabric formwork for a beam with expressive, natural curvature [4].
(right) Simple vault cast on fabric formwork [4].
269
The work on vaults conducted at CAST, one of the leading labs in the development of
fabric formwork [5], focuses on pre-cast and cast-in-place vaults that are formed with
full-scale hanging fabric moulds using powerful industrial fabrics - essentially scaling-
up Isler’s model-making method into full-sized shell moulds (see Fig. 2).
In this paper we will discuss a different approach, using structural pre-stressed
formwork for the construction of thin, anticlastic, concrete shells; and introduce a new
computational form finding approach for designing such formwork systems.
Given the shape of an anticlastic shell design, the objective of the presented method is
to find the shape of the pre-stressed membrane surface that, under the weight of (wet)
concrete, has the exact shape of the final shell. This allows concrete to be sprayed onto
the membrane surface that then supports the (wet) concrete in the correct shape until it
has hardened, after which the shell can stand on its own and the membrane formwork
can be removed.
The approach is based on the Force Density Method [1] and an adaptation of the non-
linear extension of Thrust Network Analysis [2,6].
1.3 Force Density Method
For the form finding of tension structures, one of the main approaches is the force
density method (FDM) introduced by Linkwitz and Schek [1] for finding the
equilibrium shape of tension networks. By introducing force densities, which are
defined as the ratio of the axial force of a branch to its length, the equations expressing
the equilibrium of the networks could be linearised. Due to the development of sparse
matrix techniques, these linear equations could be solved efficiently.
Initial values for these force densities need to be chosen for the first-order form finding.
To comply with additional conditions imposed to refine the design, the final equilibrium
values of the force densities are then found in an iterative optimization process. So, the
relations between the choice of force densities and the three-dimensional equilibrium
solution are not straightforward. Furthermore, the method as discussed in [1], does not
provide an optimization strategy for finding the appropriate distribution of force
densities (and consequently of forces) to obtain a desired, specific three-dimensional
shape.
1.4 Thrust Network Analysis
Thrust Network Analysis (TNA) is a new methodology for generating vaulted

compression-only networks and surfaces, with a similar framework as the Force Density
Method [2,6]. Using reciprocal force diagrams [7], TNA provides a graphical and
intuitive method, adopting the same advantages as graphic statics but offering a viable
extension to fully three-dimensional problems. Reciprocal figures are introduced to
relate the geometry of the three-dimensional equilibrium networks to their internal
forces. They allow the linearization of the equilibrium constraints and the control of the
high level of indeterminacy of fully three-dimensional funicular networks.
270
In [3], a nonlinear extension of the basic TNA method is discussed that includes the
degrees of indeterminacy of a three-dimensional network with arbitrary topologies in an
overall optimization set-up. Such a set-up opens up possibilities for making structurally
informed design decisions in order to find the closest funicular network to an arbitrary
input surface.
The TNA method is geared towards the design of funicular, i.e. compression-only,
vaults and shells, but could of course also be used for the dual problem of tension-only
networks.
2 TNA for Tension Structures

Applying TNA to tension-only membrane structures, demands the introduction of some
assumptions:
• The structural action of the membrane is represented by a discrete network of
forces with discrete loads applied at the vertices;
• The force branches meet at nodes, which are in equilibrium with external forces
applied to the nodes;
• The branches must all have axial tension forces only;
• All loads need to be vertical; and
• The nodes are only allowed to move vertically during the form-finding process.
The assumption about vertical loads seems strong and very restricting. It is, however, a
reasonable assumption to make, considering that the membrane will only be used to
support the (wet) concrete in a specific shape until it has hardened and can stand on its
own, hence carrying only vertical gravity loads.
This section will explain how the underlying principles of the TNA framework can be
used to achieve the goals of this project. Key aspects are the use of reciprocal diagrams
and the control of the indeterminacy of networks with a higher valency than three, i.e.
more than three branches coming together per node of the network.
2.1 Reciprocal Diagrams
The use of discrete force networks in combination with reciprocal force diagrams
allows to determine and visualize possible distributions of internal forces in a visual and
intuitive manner.
Reciprocal diagrams are geometrically related such that corresponding branches are
parallel, and branches which come together in a node in one of the diagrams form a
closed polygon in the other, and vice versa (see Fig. 4b and 4c) [7]. In our structural
framework, the closed polygons of the reciprocal diagram represent the static
equilibrium of the nodes in the original diagram; and the lengths of the branches in the
reciprocal are proportional to the axial forces along the corresponding branches in the
original.
271
The grid in Figure 4b depicts the horizontal projection of a 3D network G at equilibrium

with loads applied to its nodes (Fig. 4a). In TNA, this projection is called the primal
grid, Γ.
The static equilibrium of Γ is represented by its closed reciprocal figure, the dual grid
Γ* (Fig. 4d). Note that all loads vanish in Γ, because they are perpendicular to the plane
of Γ. Therefore, Γ* represents and visualizes the equilibrium of all horizontal force
components in the system G. From [8], we know that from such grids a tension-only
solution is obtained if all (convex) faces in the dual grid are constructed by going
around each corresponding node of the primal grid in a counter-clockwise direction, as
illustrated in Figures 4b and 4c.
Figure 4: a (top): 3D network G at equilibrium with loads applied to its nodes; b

(bottom left): the primal grid Γ , which is the horizontal projection of G; c (bottom
right): the dual grid Γ*, which is the reciprocal of Γ and represents the equilibrium of
horizontal force components in the system.
The solving strategy presented in this paper is largely based on the direct link between
the force densities of FDM and the reciprocal diagrams of TNA. The force density of a
branch in the network is defined as the ratio between the (axial) force in that branch, s,
and its length, l. This ratio, and hence the value of the branch’s force density, is also
equal to the ratio between the horizontal component of the branch force, sH, which is the
272
length of the corresponding branch, measured in the dual grid, lH*, and the horizontal
component of the branch's length, lH, which is the length of the branch in the primal grid.
We thus have that
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠𝐻𝐻 𝑙𝑙𝐻𝐻*
𝑞𝑞 = = = (1)
𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝐻𝐻 𝑙𝑙𝐻𝐻
As in FDM, TNA uses branch-node matrices to describe the topology of both grids. For
detailed information on the construction of primal and dual grids and their respective
branch-node matrices, the reader is referred to [2].
2.2 Indeterminate Networks
For typical network topologies used for the form finding of tension structures, the
network G and its planar projection Γ have nodes with a valency of four (or higher),
which means that they are statically indeterminate and have several possible internal
force distributions. This means that different states of self-stress exist with different
distributions of internal forces and corresponding 3D geometry.
Figure 5: (bottom right): a different dual grid for the primal grid of Figure 4b,
representing a different distribution of internal forces and therefore a different 3D
solution in equilibrium with the loads (top left).
273
Figure 5c shows a different dual grid for the primal grid of Figure 4b, representing a
different distribution of internal forces and therefore a different 3D solution in
equilibrium with the applied loads (see Figure 5a). In this solution, more force is
attracted by the highlighted sets of branches, each forming a continuous line through the
network. In the 3D network, we can clearly see that this results in shallower curvature
along those lines.
In the TNA framework, the x- and y-coordinates of the nodes are kept constant during
the form finding process. Because of this constraint, the manipulations of the dual grid
cannot be random; only variations which respect the reciprocal rules (see section 2.1),
are allowed. In [3], a rule is introduced which allows to determine the total number of
degrees of freedom (DOF) k of the dual Γ*, by inspection of the primal grid Γ alone:
𝑘𝑘 = 2𝑓𝑓 − 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑐𝑐 − 2, (2)
with f the number of faces in the primal grid, m the number of branches, and c the
number of “closed loops”.
The number of DOFs k (with k < m) equals the number of independent dual branches,
i.e. the branches whose lengths can be chosen freely. The other branches are not
independent, meaning that their lengths cannot be chosen. This represents the
reciprocity constraint. Because of the link between the force densities and the reciprocal
diagram (Eq. 1), this understanding of the DOF of the distribution of the forces on the
primal grid, as represented in the dual grid, can be used to understand the DOF of the
distribution of the force densities of possible tension networks in equilibrium with the
applied loads.
For a quadrilateral grid, as used in Figures 4 and 5, it is clear that k equals the number of
continuous lines of branches in the primal grid. This means that per continuous set, the
force densities of the branches are dependent. Applying the rule given in Equation (2), k
indeed counts as 2x40-64+0-2 = 14 for the networks of Figures 4 and 5.
This insight and understanding provided by the TNA framework allows the
straightforward description of the relation between the (k x 1) vector of independent, or
free, force densities, b, and the (m x 1) vector of individual force densities of all
branches, q, represented by an (m x k) matrix F:
𝑞𝑞 = 𝐹𝐹. 𝑏𝑏 (3)
3 Approaching a Target Surface

From what was discussed in the previous section, it is clear that the force distribution in
a network can be controlled or “tweaked” to find a specific 3D geometry e.g. the shape
of the concrete shell that has to be built. For simple projects, it might be possible to do
this manually, but when a solution needs to be found approximating a target surface in
more sophisticated problems, this quickly becomes too tedious and an overall
optimization process needs to be employed to find the desired distribution. The main
274
challenge is that it is not straightforward to relate a change in the distribution of internal

forces, or force densities, to the improvement of the approximation of the target surface.
Next, this process will be described.
3.1 Problem Description
Given a target surface, represented by a 4-valent discrete network of branches and nodes,
and a set of vertical external loads applied at the nodes, the tension-only solution needs
to be found that is the best possible approximation of the target.
The target network is projected onto the plane to find the primal grid Γ, and from Γ
construct a possible dual Γ*. Equation (2) gives us the k DOFs of Γ*, the number of
independent parameters that control the equilibrium and geometry of the 3D solution G.
In section 2.2, it was shown that these are the continuous lines in the primal grid.
We then want to find the values for the independent parameters, the “free” force
densities b, that minimize the vertical distance between the nodes of G and those of the
target surface. This can be formulated as a least squares problem
min ‖𝒛𝒛 − 𝒛𝒛𝑻𝑻 ‖22 such that 𝒛𝒛 = 𝑫𝑫−1 (𝒑𝒑𝒛𝒛 − 𝑫𝑫𝒃𝒃 𝒛𝒛𝒃𝒃 ) (5)
𝑧𝑧
The constraints on the vertical position of the nodes immediately follow from the nodal
equilibrium of the network, with pz the applied vertical loads, zb the z-coordinates of the
boundary nodes, and D = CtQC and Db = CtQCb , as described in [1]. As described in [2],
it is sufficient to only consider the vertical equilibriums of the nodes, as their horizontal
equilibriums are guaranteed by the closed reciprocal force diagram.
Such a least squares problem can be solved efficiently using the Levenberg-Marquardt
Algorithm (LMA).
3.2 Solving Procedure
LMA is an iterative, hybrid, descent method that switches between the Steepest Descent
Method (SDM) and the Gauss-Newton Method (GNM), based on a so-called gain ratio
(see Eq. 9). For details on the method, the reader is referred to [8,9,10]. Here, we will
give a brief description. For a given objective function F(x), with
𝑚𝑚
𝑭𝑭(𝒙𝒙) = �𝑖𝑖=1(𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖 (𝑥𝑥))2 , (6)
and from a starting point x(0), the method produces a series of vectors x(1), x(2), … that
converges to x*, a local minimiser of F.
Essentially, each iteration step consists of (i) finding a descent direction h, and (ii)
finding a step length giving a good decrease in F-value. At each iteration, the step h is
found as the local minimiser of a linear model of the objective function, L, by solving
the following problem:
275
(𝑱𝑱(𝒙𝒙)𝑡𝑡 𝑱𝑱(𝒙𝒙) + 𝜇𝜇𝑰𝑰)𝒉𝒉 = −𝑱𝑱(𝒙𝒙)𝑡𝑡 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) with 𝜇𝜇 ≥ 0, (7)
with f(x) the value of the objective function at the previous iteration, J(x) the Jacobian
matrix of f(x), I an identity matrix, and µ a damping factor.
Note that Equation (7) is a damped version of the GNM approach for finding h. The
damping parameter μ influences both the direction and the size of the step in several
ways: (i) for all μ > 0, the coefficient matrix is positive definite, and this ensures that h
is a descent direction; (ii) for large values of μ, we get a short step in the SDM direction,
which is good if the current iterate is far from the solution; (iii) if μ is very small, the
step is approximately the GNM step, which is good when the current iterate is close to
the final solution. The initial μ-value is
(0)
𝜇𝜇 (0) = 𝜏𝜏. max�𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 � with 𝑨𝑨(0) = 𝑱𝑱(𝒙𝒙(0) )𝑡𝑡 𝑱𝑱(𝒙𝒙(0) ) (8)
𝑖𝑖
with τ chosen by the user (see further). During the iteration process, μ is updated based
on the gain ratio ρ, which is defined as the ratio between the actual gain in F and the
gain predicted by the linear model L.
𝑭𝑭(𝒙𝒙) − 𝑭𝑭(𝒙𝒙 + 𝒉𝒉)

𝜌𝜌 = (9)
𝑳𝑳(𝟎𝟎) − 𝑳𝑳(𝒉𝒉)
A large value of ρ indicates that the linear model is good approximation of the actual
cost function, and we can decrease μ so that the next LMA step is closer to the GNM
step. If ρ is small, then the linear model is a poor approximation, and we should increase
μ with the aim of getting closer to the SDM direction and reducing the step length. The
iterative procedure is stopped if one of the following criteria is met [10]:
• ‖𝑱𝑱(𝒙𝒙)𝑡𝑡 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙)‖∞ ≤ 𝜀𝜀1
• ‖𝒙𝒙new − 𝒙𝒙‖ ≤ 𝜀𝜀2 (‖𝒙𝒙‖ + 𝜀𝜀2 )
• 𝑘𝑘 ≥ 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
with ε1, ε2, and kmax chosen by the user.
3.3 Jacobian Matrix
The Jacobian matrix can be derived in a similar fashion as described in Schek [1]. The
additional conditions imposed on the system are function of the z-coordinates of the
nodes, which in turn are function of the force densities, q, and those are function of the
independent parameters, b. Therefore, the additional conditions can be re-formulated as
a function of the independent parameters b.
𝒇𝒇* (𝒃𝒃) = 𝒇𝒇(𝒛𝒛(𝒒𝒒(𝒃𝒃))) = 𝒛𝒛 − 𝒛𝒛T = 0 (10)
276
The Jacobian, J(b), relating a change in the independent parameters b to a change in the
value of the objective function, can then be found through the chain rule
∂𝒇𝒇* (𝒃𝒃) ∂𝒇𝒇(𝒛𝒛) ∂𝒛𝒛(𝒒𝒒) ∂𝒒𝒒(𝒃𝒃)

𝑱𝑱(𝒃𝒃) = = . . (11)
∂𝒃𝒃 ∂𝒛𝒛 ∂𝒒𝒒 ∂𝒃𝒃
𝜕𝜕𝒇𝒇(𝒛𝒛) 𝜕𝜕
= (𝒛𝒛 − 𝒛𝒛T ) = 1 (12)
𝜕𝜕𝒛𝒛 𝜕𝜕𝒛𝒛
𝜕𝜕𝒛𝒛(𝒒𝒒)
= −𝑫𝑫−1 . 𝑪𝑪t . 𝑾𝑾 (13)
𝜕𝜕𝒒𝒒
𝜕𝜕𝒒𝒒(𝒃𝒃) 𝜕𝜕
= (𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭) = 𝑭𝑭 (14)
𝜕𝜕𝒃𝒃 𝜕𝜕𝒃𝒃
∂𝒇𝒇* (𝒃𝒃)
𝑱𝑱(𝒃𝒃) = = −𝑫𝑫−1 ⋅ 𝑪𝑪𝑡𝑡 ⋅ 𝑾𝑾 ⋅ 𝑭𝑭 (15)
∂𝒃𝒃
3.4 Results
The solving procedure discussed above was implemented in MatLab [11] with τ = 10-06
and ε1 = ε2 = 10-09 for the user-chosen parameters, and with a maximum number of
iterations of 200. The anticlastic target surface, T, is derived from a hyperbolic
paraboloid (hypar) that was rotated over 45º and translated over a certain distance in the
x, y, and z directions, so that the high points of the surface are at (0,0,1.18) and
(1,1,0.46), and the low points at (0,1,0) and (1,0,0).
Figure 6 depicts the target surface T and different 3D tension-only networks at
equilibrium with the loads, for different chosen, initial values for the force densities.
The loads are distributed equally over the nodes. The spheres in the middle and left
column in Figure 6 represent the vertical difference between each node of the respective
equilibrium networks and the corresponding nodes of the target surface; blue spheres
depict nodes that lie under the target surface, and orange spheres nodes above it. Each
of the equilibrium networks provides a different starting position for the optimization
process. Based on the sum of squared z-differences, case 3 provides the best start, with
an initial F-value of 9.0196 x 10-04 as seen in Table 1.
A different solution, with different distributions of force densities and thus different
distributions of internal forces, is found for each starting position. This indicates that
there are several local minima for the cost function, and that additional conditions
should be imposed to find a specific local minimum or even a global minimum; for
example, conditions on the minimum and/or maximum values of the force densities.
277
Figure 6: (left and middle columns) Target surface, equilibrium network, and z-
differences between corresponding nodes, (left) after initial linear form finding, for
different chosen values of force densities in the hanging and arching direction (middle)
after the optimization process. (right) Distribution of force densities (top number) and
resulting branch forces (bottom number) after optimization process.
278
Table 1: Overview of the results of the optimization process for different starting points
(cases). The starting points are the results of linear form finding processes with different
chosen values for the force densities in the hanging (qH) and arching (qA) directions. k
is the number of iterations.
Before after
Case q k q
∑(z-zT)2 ∑(z-zT)2
qA qH qA qH
1 1 1 0.3099 49 Figure 6 (top right) 8.8899 x 10-04
2 1 2 0.0287 24 0.989 2.795 8.1782 x 10-18
3 1 3 9.0196 x 10-04 6 1.085 2.945 2.4230 x 10-18
4 1 4 0.0242 22 1.350 3.359 2.0845 x 10-16
4 Conclusions
This paper presented a strategy, using an overall optimization process, for finding the
closest possible tension-only, equilibrium surface to a given target surface under given
loading conditions (i.e. weight of the concrete).
The TNA approach, based on reciprocal diagrams, clarifies the conditions under which
the optimization process should be conducted. The LMA approach has been identified
as a good procedure for finding an optimized solution. Further refinement of the
optimization strategy is possible, as described in [11], for example for more irregular
shapes or loading conditions, where the starting position is far form the optimal solution.
The TNA-FDM-based form finding procedure furthermore opens possibilities for
integrating the procedure into the overall TNA methodology, ultimately leading to the
creation of an integrated framework for the simultaneous design of concrete shells and
their pre-stressed membrane formwork.
Further extensions of the procedure could lead to form finding approaches for pre-
stressed membrane structures in general, where designers have a more intuitive control
over the 3D equilibrium shape through the use of reciprocal diagrams.
Future work should be focussed on including additional constraints in the optimization
process, e.g. conditions that limit the branch forces to the strength of a specific
membrane material, and the building of prototypes.
References
[1] Schek HJ. The force density method for form finding and computation of general
networks. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering 1974; 3(1):
115-134.
[2] Block P. Thrust Network Analysis: Exploring Three-dimensional Equilibrium. PhD
Dissertation. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Cambridge, 2009.
279
[3] Moreyra Garlock M and Billington D. Felix Candela: Engineer, Builder, Structural
Artist. New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 2009.
[4] CAST: The Center for Architectural Structures and Technology.
www.umanitoba.ca/cast_building/research/fabric_formwork/
[5] Guldentops L, Mollaert M, Adriaenssens S, De Laet L and De Temmerman N. Fab-
ric Formwork for Concrete Shells. Proceedings of the IASS Symposium 2009; Do-
mingo A and Lazaro C (eds.) 1743-1754.
[6] Block P and Ochsendorf J. Thrust Network Analysis: A new methodology for three-
dimensional equilibrium. Journal of the International Association for Shell and
Spatial Structures 2007, 48(3): 167-173.
[7] Maxwell J. On reciprocal figures and diagrams of forces. Philosophical Magazine
and Journal Series 1864; 4(27): 250-261.
[8] Williams C. Defining and designing curved flexible tensile surface Structures. In J.
A. Gregory (Ed.), The mathematics of surfaces, 143-177, 1986.
[9] Levenberg K. A method for the solution of certain non-linear problems in least
squares. The Quarterly of Applied Mathematics 1944; 2: 164-168.
[10] Marquardt D. An algorithm for least-squares estimation of nonlinear parameters.
SIAM Journal on Applied Mathematics 1963; 11: 431-441.
[11] Madsen K, Nielsen H and Tingleff O. Methods for Nonlinear Least Squares Prob-
lems (2nd edn). Informatics and Mathematical Modelling Technical University of
Denmark, 2004.
[12] The Mathworks MATLAB®: The language of technical computing [Computer
software]. www.mathworks.com/products/matlab/.
280
Numerical feasibility study of fabric formwork and its

supporting system for a reinforced concrete saddle shell
Laurent GULDENTOPS1*, Marijke MOLLAERT 1.
1*
Department of Architectural Engineering, Vrije Universiteit Brussel
Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
Laurent.guldentops@vub.ac.be
1 Introduction
This paper presents a numerical design methodology and structural analyses of a textile
membrane and its supporting structure used as a formwork for a pre-determined
reinforced concrete saddle shell. The numerical models are partly based on earlier
physical tests carried out by the WTCB, VUB and Centexbel [1]. In these physical
experiments a technical textile in saddle shape is spanned between two circular arches
over a plan area of 2 m by 2 m. To obtain a well tensioned membrane skin, one of the
boundary arches was displaced horizontally outwards (see Figure 1). By pre-tensioning
the membrane in this manner, deformations and wrinkles in the textile due to the weight
of the concrete are minimised (see Figure 2). This analogue pre-tensioning technique is
simulated in the following numerical models.
Figure 1 Pre-tensioning a membrane Figure 2 The resulting fabric casted

skin by translating the boundary arches saddle shell
This paper features in a larger research project that investigates a methodology for the
potential of textile membranes as a new formwork method for the creation of complex
curved structural concrete surfaces (see Figure 3). In contrast with earlier physical
experiments, the shape of the concrete shell in this paper results from a foregoing
numerical form finding procedure and a structural finite element analysis. The form
finding procedure used the force density (FD) method [2] and draws analogies with
physical funicular hanging models [3]. The form found concrete shell spans an area of
10 m by 10 m and reaches a respectively maximum and minimum height of 5.38 m and
3.81 m. The form found shell has been structurally analyzed in a finite element model
under representative loading combinations conform the Eurocodes.
281
Figure 3 Methodology for the use of fabric formwork to cast thin concrete shells
The remainder of this paper explains the third step of the methodology: the numerical
studies of an integrated model of both textile membrane and supporting structure. The
supporting structure consists of two steel boundary arches and a set of cables to stabilize
and anchor the boundary arches to an external point on ground level. In this paper two
different analysis techniques are used: a geometrically non-linear analysis in the
software package Easy and Easy Beam (Technet) [4] and a non-linear finite element
(FE) analysis in Ansys. The first model of the membrane and its supporting structure is
build up in the software program Easy and Easy Beam (TechNet). This software
package is typically used for light weight structure design. This package uses the force
density (FD) method and modulates a textile membrane as a cable net without any shear
stiffness. The second model also integrates both membranes and arches and is made in
the FE software program Ansys. In contrast to the first model, the membrane in this FE
model modelled as membrane elements with shear stiffness. Both models are subjected
to pre-tension and the self weight of the concrete shell.
The first part of the paper focuses on the analyses of the membrane skins in both models
separately. The FD analysis defines the magnitude of the pre-tension that minimizes
membrane deformations under the self-weight of the concrete shell. This analysis also
provides the membrane geometry that corresponds with the final concrete shell. The
results of the membrane stresses and deformations in both models will be compared.
As the pre-tension and concrete loading are transferred to the secondary structure, these
elements of both integrated models are analyzed in the second part of the paper. The
dimensions of the different elements are structurally verified in both models and the
resulting internal forces are compared.
2 Structural analysis of the membrane

The membrane skins in both models, the cable net and the FE model are analyzed
separately. In the FD model, the membrane skin is modelled as a cable net structure. In
the FE model, the textile membrane is modelled as membrane elements with shear
stiffness.
2.1 Membrane – Cable net model
The software program Easy will consider the membrane as an orthogonal cable net of
linear links hinged to each other. In case of the membrane material, the stiffness of each
link in warp and weft direction will be determined by calculation of a linear E-modulus
using the stress and strain diagram from the material. The strain and strain depends on
282
the width of the meshes. The Poisson’s ratio and the stiffness in shear are not modelled
in this cable network model [5].
The cable net model of linear links has a mesh size of 0.40 m. For the membrane skin
the material properties of a PVC coated polyester fabric are considered [1]. The cable
net is modelled with a stiffness of 1200 kN/m in warp and weft direction. Figure 4
shows the geometry of the membrane skin in Easy. The membrane is completely fixed
to the vertical boundary arches in x-, y- and z-position. On the boundary cables on the
ground floor, the nodes are just fixed in the vertical z-direction.
Figure 4 Geometry of initial membrane skin in Easy model
To create pre-tension in the membrane skin, the boundary arches are horizontally
displaced outwards. The nodes on the vertical boundary arches are submitted to a
translation in the global x-direction. By doing so, the membrane skin is pre-tensioned in
order to minimize the deformations due to the load of the concrete shell and to avoid
wrinkles in the membrane. The deformations of the skin will be limited by the thickness
of the concrete shell (30 mm). In this study, different horizontal displacements of the
boundary arches are simulated to create sufficient pre-tension in the membrane. To
avoid wrinkles and to obtain deformations less than 30 mm, a minimum outwards
displacement of 50 mm of both vertical arches is needed.
The load due to the self weight of concrete is simulated by a surface load oriented in the
negative z-direction. The global area load is calculated by multiplying the density of
concrete (2400 kg/m3) by the thickness of the final concrete shell (30 mm).
0,03m.2400
kg
3
N kN
.9,81 = 0,71 2 (1)
m kg m
Figure 5 shows the load-carrying behaviour in the membrane skin in the loaded
configuration. It is obvious to determine that the global x-direction is the mean load
carrying direction. The forces in the cables are afterwards recalculated to membrane
stresses and Table 1 gives an overview of the maximum, minimum and average
membrane stresses in x- and y-direction. The average membrane stress in y-direction
amounts 59.2 % of the stresses in the global x-direction. Due to the self weight of
283
concrete the membrane stresses raise with only 11.3 % in comparison with the
membrane just under pre-tension.
The deformations in the tensioned membrane skin due to the load of concrete are
displayed in Figure 6. The maximum deformations are equal to 27.8 mm. They occur in
the centre and just above the horizontal boundary cables at ground floor.
Figure 5 Global force distribution in Figure 6 Deformations of the tensioned

membrane skin (Easy)[kN] membrane skin
Table 1 Maximum, minimum and average membrane stresses and deformations in the
membrane skin due to the applied load of concrete (Easy model)
Membrane stresses in X direction Maximum value: 14.2 kN/m
Minimum value: 4.90 kN/m
Average value: 9.62 kN/m
Membrane stresses in Y direction Maximum value: 6.62 kN/m
Deformations between loaded and pre-tensioned membrane skin Maximum value: 27.8 mm
Since the membrane has been modelled as a cable net, without shear stiffness, the
obtained numerical results are approximate. Therefore in the next paragraph, the
membrane skin in the FE model is discussed. Differences in the load-carrying behaviour
and deformation pattern are discussed in next paragraph.
2.1 Membrane – FE model
In this paragraph a FE model simulates the behaviour of the tensioned and loaded
membrane skin. The model consists of SHELL181 elements [6]. This type of element is
suitable for modelling and analyzing thin membrane structures. The elements are
characterised by membrane stiffness only. Because of this, the following material
parameters are defining the membrane elements: the Young modulus E1 and E2, Poisson
coefficient ν12, sliding modulus G12, density ρ and the thickness t. The numerical values
of these properties are shown in Table 2. In comparison with the Easy model, the
284
Poisson coefficient ν12 and the corresponding sliding modulus G12 are additional input
data for the membrane skin.
Table 2 Material properties of the textile elements

E1=E2 1200 kN/m
ν12 0.23
G12 12 GPa
ρ 1.25 kg/m2
t 0.6 mm
The DOF constraints in this model are equal to the Easy model. The nodes at the ground
level are restricted in translation in z-direction, the nodes on the vertical boundary
arches are completely fixed to them. To obtain a well tensioned membrane skin, the
vertical boundary arches are also translated with 50 mm in outwards direction. Figure 7
and Figure 8 display the membranes stresses respectively in x- and y-direction.
Figure 7 Membrane stresses in x- Figure 8 Membrane stresses in y-

direction in Ansys model [N/m] direction in Ansys model [N/m]
The maximum membrane stresses in x-direction occur in the center of the membrane.
Their value decreases towards the borders on ground level. In the y-direction the
maximum tension stresses occur at the sidestrokes near the vertical boundary arches.
Table 3 gives an overview of the maximum, minimum and average membrane stresses
in x- and y-direction. In this model the ratio of the average membrane stress in y-
direction amounts 79.6 % in comparison with the stresses in longitudinal direction.
Table 3 Maximum, minimum and average membrane stresses and deformations in the
membrane skin due to the applied load of concrete (Ansys model)
Membrane stresses in X direction Maximum value: 12.9 kN/m
Membrane stresses in Y direction Maximum value: 12.4 kN/m
Deformations between loaded and pre-tensioned membrane skin Maximum value: 29.9 mm
285
Figure 9 displays the displacements in the membrane skin due to the load of concrete.
The maximum displacements occur just above the sidestrokes near the horizontal cables
at the ground level and amount a value of 29.9 mm. Larger displacements also occur in
the center of the span.
Figure 9 Sum of displacement vectors after applying the concrete [m]
2.3 Comparison of the results between both models
The load carrying behaviour of the membrane skin in the FE model is slightly different
in comparison with the cable net model. In the middle of the membrane skin, the main
load carrying direction is the same (the global x-direction). But at the sidestrokes of the
membrane skin, near the vertical arches, the main load carrying direction in both models
is opposite. While in the Easy model the loads are still carried in the longitudinal
direction, the load carrying behaviour in the Ansys model is the transversal direction (y-
direction).
Considering the deformations, an analogue deformation pattern can be determined. The
maximum deformations are slightly higher in the FE model in comparison with the
cable net model.
3 Integrated model: membrane skin and primary structure

The pre-tension in the membrane and the load of concrete is transferred to the
boundaries. These boundaries are called the primary structure. Possible elements of
membrane supporting structures could be: fixed points, cables, poles, arches, etc. The
study of the primary structure focuses on the modelling of two supporting parabolic
arches positioned at the extremities of the saddle shell. These arches are made of pre-
bent solid steel sections that will be stabilized 5 cables each. Those cables are anchored
in a fixed point on ground level. In the next paragraphs both models will be analyzed to
simulate the load carrying behaviour of the primary structure while supporting the
loaded membrane skin.
286
3.1 Easy-Beam: Membrane skin and primary structure
The integrated model is built up in Easy-beam (extension of the Easy program). The
membrane skin in this model is identical to the cable net in the first model. The
supporting structure consists of beam elements (arches) and cables. The boundary
arches are constrained in all degrees of freedom at the nodes on ground level. The
beam-elements are made of steel and have the following parameters: E = 210 kN/mm2,
volume weight = 7850 kg/m3, Iv = 0.42 10-6, Iw = 1.71 10-6 m4, A = 32 10-4 m2. The
boundary cables have a section of 2.66 10-4 m2. Figure 10 shows the integrated model in
Easy Beam.
Figure 10 Easy-Beam model with membrane skin and primary structure
The pre-tension in the membrane and the load of concrete will be transferred to the
boundary arches and the exterior cables. Figure 11 and Figure 12 display the lines of
moment respectively around the local v- and w-axis of the beam elements. The
maximum value of bending moment about y axis is slightly higher than the one about
w-axis. The maximum value in v-direction is equal to 7.61 kNm (67.1 % of Mpl.Rd,y), the
highest value in w-direction is amounts 5.17 kNm (34.3 % of Mpl.Rd,z). The beam
elements in the arches experience a maximum shear force of 9.99 kN in v-direction and
one of 8.98 kN in w-direction. These values amount respectively only 1.53 % and 1.35
% of the resistance value Vpl,Rd. The highest axial compression forces in the arches are
equal to -44 kN, which is only a few percents of the resistance value Npl,Rd. The exterior
cables experience a maximum tensile force of 27 kN (which is 33 % of the minimal
breaking load Fu,d) [7].
Figure 11 Bending moment (v) in the Figure 12 Bending moment (w) in the
boundary arches after concreting boundary arches after concreting
287
In the next paragraph an analogue model will be discussed. It concerns a FE model in

Ansys of the integrated model. A comparison between both models will be discussed
afterwards.
3.2 Ansys: Membrane skin and primary structure
In this paragraph a FE model is built up in order to simulate the load carrying behaviour
of the supporting arches and cables after the membrane skin is well tensioned and
loaded. The membrane is identical (SHELL181 elements). The arches are modelled as
BEAM180 elements, the external cables as LINK180 elements. Both elements have
identical mechanical and geometrical properties as the Easy beam model. Figure 13
displays the FE model in Ansys.
Figure 13 FE model of the integrated textile formwork model
Figure 14 and Figure 15 display respectively the moment diagrams about v- and w-axis
of the beam elements. The beam elements in the arches experience a maximum bending
moment about v-axis of 6.73 kNm and one about w-axis of 13.6 kNm. These values
amount respectively 59.3 % and 90.2 % of the resistance value. The value of the
maximum occurring tension force in the external cables is equal to 30.1 kN (35 % of
Fu,d).
Figure 14 Bending moment (y) in the Figure 15 Bending moment (z) in the
boundary arches after concreting boundary arches after concreting
288
3.3 Comparison between Easy Beam model and Ansys model
In both models it is clear that due to the pre-tension and the concrete load of the
membrane skin on one hand and the influence of the exterior cables, the beam elements
are mainly under bending. The progress of the lines of moments is analogue in both
models (Figure 14 and Figure 15). The maximum values of the resulting internal forces
in the supporting structures are slightly different in both models, but certainly from the
same order of size (see Table 4).
Table 4 Internal forces in supporting structure due to pre-tension and the load of
concrete
EASY-Beam ANSYS
Max. N -44.3 kN -47.5 kN
Max. Vv 9.99 kN 9.32 kN
Arches Max. Vw 8.98 kN 9.74 kN/m
Max. Mv 7.61 kNm 6,73 kNm
Max. Mw 5.17 kNm 11,6 kNm
Cables Max. N 27.2 kN 30.1 kN
4 Discussions and conclusions

The use of fabric membranes as formwork material is relatively new. Physical
experiments and measurements are needed to verify the results of the numerical
analyses from above.
All the results of the Easy model are from the same order of magnitude in comparison
with the results in the FE model. The conclusion could be made that the results in the
cable net model are acceptable. This will also be made clear afterwards by physical
experiments.
5 References
[1] Cauberg N, Janssen D and Mollaert M. Textielbekistingen. NAV Dimension, 34-
36.
[2] Sheck H J. The force density method for form-finding and computations of general
networks. Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng 1974; 115-134.
[3] Isler H. Creating shell shapes. Proc., 4th Int Colloquium on Structural Morphology,
Delft, The Netherlands, 2000,108-115.
[4] TECHNET GMBH. Easy Training Manual, Light Weight Structure Design.
[5] STROBEL D and SINGER P. Computational modelling of lightweight structures,
Formfinding, Load analysis and cutting pattern generation, Stuttgard available on
http://www.technet-gmbh.de/fileadmin/Leichte_Flaechentragwerke/publikationen/
Computational_modeling.pdf
289
[6] ANSYS INC, Ansys 11.0 documentation

[7] ENV-1993-1-1: Eurocode 3: Calculations of Steel structures. 1992.
290
2.3 WG 8 Metal Structures
2.3.1 Anti-buckling Analysis
291
State-of-Art Views on Anti-buckling Analysis for Metal Space

Structures
Toshiyuki OGAWA1*, Tomohiko KUMAGAI 1 , Shiro KATO2, Masumi FUJIMOTO 3
1*
Tokyo Institute of Technology
O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8550, Japan
togawa@arch.titech.ac.jp
2
3
Osaka City University
Abstract
A simple review of the recent progresses in anti-buckling analysis and evaluation of
buckling loads of single-layer metal space structures or reticulated shells is presented.
The geometries concerned in this paper are spherical shells of circular plan, and elliptic
paraboloidal/hyperbolic paraboloidal shells of rectangular plan including both positive
and negative Gaussian curvature. The reticulated shells are supported at peripheries
under a static lateral load. The networks for arranging members are fundamentally
three-way type, and two-way type in some shells. The material is steel and discussions
are made for reticulated shells composed of members rigidly connected at nodes against
rotations.
The procedures for anti-buckling analysis to be reviewed here cover (i) the method
based on effective rigidities and (ii) FEM linear buckling analysis with use of pseudo
critical axial strength, column buckling strength in other words. The linear buckling
load evaluated as an equivalent continuum shell is called as classical buckling load,
being located as a starting point for the discussion.
Keywords: Single-layer, Reticulated shell, Column buckling, Generalized slenderness, Buckling load
1 Introduction
One of the limit states in design of single-layer space frames is buckling. This paper is
a brief review of the recent progress in anti-buckling analysis and instability criteria of
single-layer metal space structures.
Much effort has been devoted to a study of the anti-buckling analysis of the metal space
structures, and followed by excellent papers, surveys and publications. The early
serious studies concerning with reticulated dome instability are started by Wright [1]
and Lind [2]. Wright proposed the elastic properties of the homogeneous shell that is
analogous to the reticulated shell. The criteria for overall buckling of the reticulated
shell are assessed on the basis of classical linear theory of homogeneous shell. He also
presented the stability criteria concerning with the buckling of individual grid elements
resulting from the direct forces in the shell, and with the snap-through buckling caused
by local load concentration. Lind analysed the local instability of a regular triangulated
292
dome grid, and showed that the critical loads are evaluated in terms of a function using
a single geometric characteristic parameter of the dome, which corresponds to the
effective slenderness ratio for columns.
Gioncu [3] have surveyed researches as a state-of-the-art in the field of reticulated shell
buckling, especially for the single layer ones. Two main approaches have been adopted
in reviewing computational methods evaluating the stability. The first is a continuous
shell analogy similar to Wright [1] and Heki [4, 5]. The second is a kind of FEM
method relatively recently developed in the works of Ramm [6], Kato [7, 8], Suzuki,
Ogawa [9, 10] and others. Parallel to many researches, fundamentals have been
collected from literatures, resulting in books that provide a useful approach to the
design of shell structures against for buckling [11, 12, 13]. Also, a number of reports
and recommendations have been presented by IASS Working Groups [14, 15, 16].
The purpose of this report is to review the recent progresses in the evaluation of anti-
buckling analysis and buckling loads of single-layer metal space structures.
2 Single layer metal spatial structures
2.1 Geometry, network and boundary

Several forms for shallow space structures are shown in Fig. 1. The geometry of the
dome is a spherical surface, and the network is fundamentally three-way type. The
geometry of the elliptic paraboloidal (EP) and hyperbolic paraboloidal(HP) shell is
expressed by a quadratic equation in Cartesian coordinates of x, y and z as follows.
x2 y2 x2 y2
EP : z    (1-1) HP : z   (1-2)
2Rx2 2Ry2 2Rx2 2Ry2
where, the two radii of curvature, Rx and Ry, are defined to represent a shallow surface.
The networks of EP and HP shells are discussed for two networks of three-way and
two-way.
For the two-way system of EP shells, discussions are also given for the roofs which are
constructed as a type of translational shells, which are expressed geometrically by
moving an arch along the two same arches. The arch is a circular one with radii of Rx
and Ry. The surface is assumed shallow for roofs in this study, and then, it is an
approximation for an elliptic surface.
The boundary conditions treated are two types. One is a roller-boundary on a horizontal
plane and the other is a pin-boundary. For HP shells, the boundary condition is
restricted to a pin-boundary.
293
z z
y Rx z
y
y
x x
x hy
hx hy hx
h
L Lx Ly Lx L y Ry
Rx grid model Ry grid model
R
cross model cross model
(a) dome (b) elliptic paraboloid shell (c) hyperbolic paraboloid shell
Fig. 1: Geometry of shells
2.2 Buckling loads and their analytical definitions

Buckling loads are classified in principle into three kinds based on a buckling analysis.
Linear buckling load is defined as a critical load which is obtained as an eigenvalue
problem of equations. The linear buckling load is also called “classical” load. Elastic
buckling load is defined as a critical load based on elastic nonlinear analysis, obtained
as bifurcation or limit point. Elastic plastic buckling load is defined as an extremum in
equilibrium path, based on elastic plastic nonlinear analysis considering both of the
geometrical and material nonlinearities. The conceptual relationship between them is
shown in Fig.2.
3 Estimation of elastic buckling loads based on effective rigidities
3.1 Formulas ever proposed for elastic buckling loads of domes
Hangai [17] derived a classical buckling load of EP domes in which the bending
rigidities and the membrane rigidities are assumed to be independent.
KD  KD 
qcr  4 1  2   3.82  (2)
R2  R2 
where , K , D and R are respectively Poisson’s ratio, extensional rigidity, bending

rigidity and radius of curvature of the shell. In case of an isotropic shell, the rigidities
can be expressed as follows.
2
Et Et 3 2E t 
K , D  ; qcr    (3)
1  2 
12 1  2  3 1  2  R 
where E and t are Young’s modulus and thickness of the shell. The value of qcr is
called as classical buckling load. In case of the reticulated dome with an equilateral
294
triangle network of a side length l0, the dome can be replaced by an isotropic shell for
which effective thickness teq and effective Young’s modulus Eeq are approximated as
follows but with 1/3 as Poisson’s ratio.
EA I
teq  2 3rg , Eeq  ,r  (4)
3l0rg g A
Using Eq.(4), qcr can be transformed as follows.
EArg
qcr0  2 6 (5)
l0 R 2
Based on accumulated studies, several formulas Eqs.(6) to (8) have been proposed by
del-Pozo [18], M. Yamada [19] and Shen [12], respectively.
0.228 Et 2
qcr    0.202qcr0 (6)
1  
0.70
2 R2
 D  KD
qcr  2.67  1 r   0.711qcr0 (7)
 7D  R2
KD KD
qcr  2.17 2 : 1.05 2  0.275qcr0
R R
  (8)

Although no estimation for elastic plastic buckling load was presented, the semi-
quadratic Dunkerley’s interaction formula [11, 14] may give an estimation of the elastic
plastic buckling load.
3.2 Formulas for elastic buckling loads of EP shells
(a) Three-way grid [22~24] The elastic buckling load of elliptic paraboloidal shells
has been reviewed by Kollar and Dulacska [11]. The following expression is given for
pcr per area with a buckling coefficient ccr.
t2
pcr  ccr  E  (9)
Rx Ry
where E and t are respectively Young’s modulus and thickness of shell.
If the value of Eq. (9) is transformed to the buckling load per one node Pcr, the
295
following expression is obtained [22].
6
Pcr  Ccr    Es  As  ( 0av )3 , Ccr   ccr ,
3 (10)
2 1/ 2
0 av  ( x 0  y 0  )
3
12 2
 (11)
0 0av
A numerical trial to find a coefficient Ccr as an empirical equation based on a least

squared error method gives the following form.
es
Pcrlin es Ccr
lin
   Es  As  (0av )3 (12)
The equation for estimation takes a form as follows.

es
Ccrlin  (0.0707 x0  0.0321 y0  0.00236) 2  (1.10 x0  0.383 y0  0.0170)
(13)
 (3.31 x0  5.46 y0  0.982)
for a pin boundary[22], and

es
Ccrlin  (0.0663 x0  0.03251 y0  0.00067) 2  (0.84536 x0  0.48354 y0  0.07863)
(14)
 (3.7551 x0  2.48878 y0  0.16081)
for a simple boundary[23].
b) Two-way grid [25,32] In case of two-way, one of possible approximation for linear
buckling load as one node, crlin  P0 , is given as follows.
es
Pcrlin  es lin
Ccr  ES  AS 

l02   x20   y20  (15)
0 2
where esCcrlin  45 . This equation may be applied for non-uniform loads for  being less
than 1.0 with an attention that the buckling load es Pcrlin is approximately evaluated using
Ccr li4n 5 0 . 7 5
e s
c) Braced two-way grid [21,28] Based on continuum analogy, the linear buckling load
of braced or not-braced two-way grid shells is proposed.
296
qcr 
4  
2 D 1   Dxy  (16-1) m
qcr 
 2 EI

2 KG  K B
 (16-2)
R2 2

1 l02 Rl0 KG

K 1  
K xy
4 Estimation of elastic plastic buckling load and column buckling

strength
4.1 Linear buckling analysis
In the linear buckling analysis, the geometric stiffness matrix [G] is introduced to
express an eigenvalue problem.
{[ Kel ]  crlin[G]}{D}  {0} (17)
In the above analysis, each member should be divided into two elements for reserving
the preciseness of individual member buckling load. When a minimum eigenvalue crlin
is found, the linear buckling load is given as crlin{Pd 0 } . The minimum eigenvalue crlin is
defined as a critical load parameter. The corresponding eigenvector given by {Dcr}
shows a displacement field for linear buckling, where {Pd0} is a prescribed design load
and N 0(m) is an axial force for the m-th member.
The linear buckling axial strength of the specific member(m) is given as follows.
( m)  cr N0( m)
lin lin (18)
Ncr
Following the previous works [22,26], a generalized slenderness ratio (lin

m)
is introduced
for the most relevant member(m), termed as the specific member.
N y(m)
(m)
lin
 lin
(19)
N cr(m)
The left of Fig.3 shows the buckling strength curves in terms of a generalized
slenderness ratio (m), while the right the load displacement curves.
297
Fig. 2: Load-displacement curves [26] Fig .3: Buckling strength curve in terms of
generalized slenderness ratio for buckling [22,23]
(a) Domes and Elliptic paraboloidal shells The elastic plastic buckling load
crel  pl  Pd 0 is expressed by the pseudo critical axial force N crel (mpl) of the specific member
(m) as follows. The axial force is assumed to be linearly proportional to the applied
load even in nonlinear range.
Ncrel (mpl)  crel  pl  N0( m) (20)
el  pl
N cr(m)
crel  pl  Pd0   Pd0 (21)
N0(m)
In order to include the effect of initial imperfection, the following expression of a

generalized slenderness ratio e(m) is applied using the knock down factor 0.
N y (m)
e( m)  (22)
 0 N crlin( m)
where0=0.5 is used for the three way grid, and0=0.7 for the two-way grid.
A curve drawn in Fig.4 is a modified Dunkerley equation [11,14] as follows.

2
 N el  pl   Ncrel  pl 
e( m) 2
  cr      1 (23)
 Ny
   Ny 
Equation (24) is a similar type of Dunkerley equation for a little smaller elastic buckling
load.
2
 1.15  es Ncrel  pl   es Ncrel  pl 
e( m) 2
      1 (24)
 Ny
   Ny 
298
(b) Hyperbolic paraboloidal shells The elastic plastic buckling strength is also
expressed in a manner with the reduction factor 0 =1.0 as follows, since its
imperfection sensitivity is very small.
2
m )  N cr
(lin   Ncrel  pl 
2 el  pl
   1 (25)
 0  N y   Ny
 


In Eq. (25), the generalized slenderness ratio (lin

m)
defined by Eq. (19) is applied instead
of Eq. (22).
The elastic plastic buckling load Pcrel  pl is estimated as follows.
Pcrel  pl  crel  pl  Pd 0 (26)
crel  pl  Ncrel  pl / N0( m) (27)
(a) dome [26] (b) EP shell [24] (c) HP shell [29]
Fig. 4: Column strength in terms of generalized slenderness ratio [26, 24, 29]
5 Allowable buckling load using two safety factors

Dulacska and Kollar [20] discussed safety factors applied to reticulated shells. The
safety factor can be computed according to the theory of probabilities. They presented a
value of FSM =1.75 for plastic failure without buckling and a value of FSB =2.50 for
elastic buckling. Following the previous reports [11, 20], Eqs.(23) and (24) are replaced
into the following equations to define an allowable buckling column strength a Ncrel  pl .
a) Domes and EP shell
299
2
 F a N el  pl   F a N el  pl 
e(m) 2
  SB cr
 
SM cr
 1 (28)
 Ny   Ny 
2
 1.15F a N el  pl   F a N el  pl 
e(m)2   SB cr
 
SM cr
 1 (29)
 N y   N y 
(b) HP shell
2
m) 
(lin   
2 a el  pl a el  pl
Ncr Ncr
  FSB     FSM    1 (30)
 0  Ny   Ny 
  0  1.0 (31)
Several cases may be considered in applying the above equation as listed in Table 1. In
the case of FSB =1.00 and FSM =1.00, the results are given in Eqns. (23) to (24) for
ultimate limit level. The values of FSB = 2.50 and FSM = 1.75 are those by Kollar and
Dulacska, and the values of FSB = 2.17 and FSB = 1.5 are those from AIJ [30], both
corresponding to the serviceability limit level. The curves for Eqns. (28) and (29) are
given in Fig. 5 depending on the safety factors in Table 1.
Table 1: Factors of safety, FSB and FSM

Ultimate strength Kollar & Dulacska [20] AIJ [30]
FSB 1.00 2.50 2.17
FSM 1.00 1.75 1.50
Based on the allowable buckling column strength a

N crel  pl , the allowable buckling
load a Pcrel  pl is obtained in the same manner as Eqs. (26) to (27).
a
Pcrel  pl  a cr
el  pl
 Pd 0 (32)
a
crel  pl  a N crel  pl / N0(m) (33)
Then, the safety against buckling for serviceability limit level is accordingly checked
using the criteria as follows.
a
crel  pl  a N crel  pl / N0(m)  1.0 (34)
300
Fig. 5: Column buckling strength depending on FSB and FSM [24]
5 Concluding remarks
The present paper summarized an efficient scheme for estimating the buckling loads of
shallow reticulated dome, EP and HP shells with rigid connection. Both of the methods
using effective rigidities and a linear buckling analysis using discrete elements will be
efficient in estimating the elastic buckling loads as well as elastic plastic buckling loads.
The results obtained are as follows:
1. The estimation of elastic and elastic plastic buckling loads based on effective
rigidities is effective for reticulated shells, especially in case of homogeneous
member arrangement.
2. The procedure with a simultaneous use of linear buckling analysis and a column
strength curve in terms of generalized slenderness ratio is also effective for elastic
plastic buckling load estimation even in case of almost homogeneous member
arrangement or a little irregular arrangement.
It should be noted here that the above results are valid for roofs composed of members
rigidly connected at nodes against rotations with respect to lateral deflection. In case of
semi-rigid connection with moderate bending rigidity, the buckling loads should be
reduced according to the rigidity. Moreover, in case of low rigidity or almost pin-
connection, the concept of column strength will be reconsidered since buckling
behavior seems much different from rigid or almost rigid connections [26].
Acknowledgments
This review was also prepared as one of the tasks of IASS Working Group No.8 for the
structural design of reticulated shells following the previous report of reticulated domes
[26, 27]. It was also partially processed with preparation of a state-of-the art of
Buckling and Strength of Lattice Shells [31] recently published in Japanese from AIJ.
301
References
[1] Wright DT. Membrane Forces and Buckling in Reticulated Shells. Journal of the
Structural Division, ASCE 1965; 91(ST1): 173-201.
[2] Lind NT. Local Instability Analysis of Triangulated Dome Frameworks. The
Structural Engineer, 1969; 47(8): 317-324.
[3] Gioncu V. Buckling of Reticulated Shells: State-of-the-Art, Space Structures, 1995;
10(1): 1-46.
[4] Heki K. The Continuum Treatment of Discrete Systems and its Application to the
Analysis of Latticed Structures. Bulletin of IASS, 1985; XXXVI-3 (89): 17-24.
[5] Heki K. The Continuum Analogy of Latticed Structures from the View-Point of
Difference Equations. Membrane Structures and Space Frames, IASS Symp. ,
Osaka, 1986; (3): 65-72.
[6] Ramm E. Strategies for Tracing Nonlinear Response near Limit Point. Nonlinear
Finite Element Analysis in Structural Mechanics, Bochum, Springer Verlag, 1980.
[7] Kato S and Ishikawa K. On Elastic-Plastic Buckling of a Spherical Reticular Dome
of Single Layer on a Hexagonal Plan. Domes, Proc. of IASS Symp., Istambul, 1988;
515-526.
[8] Kato S, Takashima H and Shibata R. Effects of Geometrical Initial Imperfections,
Relaxation at Connectors and Additional Loads on Ultimate Strength of a Semi-
Rigidly Jointed Single-Layer Reticular Dome. Proc. of 3 rd Summer Coll. On Shell
and Spatial Structures, Taegu, Korea, 1990; 481-492.
[9] Suzuki T, Ogawa T and Ikarashi K. Elastic Buckling Analysis of Rigidly Jointed
Single Layer Reticulated Domes with Random Initial Imperfection. Int. J. Space
Structures, 1992; 7(4): 265-274.
[10] Suzuki T, Ogawa T and Ikarashi K. Elasto-Plastic Buckling Analysis of Rigidly
Jointed Single Layer Reticulated Domes with Random Initial Imperfection. Int. J.
Space Structures, 1992; 7(4): 363-368.
[11] Kollar L and Dulacska E. Buckling of Shells for Engineers. John Willey & Sons,
1984.
[12] Shen SZ and Chen X. Stability of Steel Reticulated Shells (in Chinese), The
Science Publisher, Beijing, China, 1999
[13] Samuelson LA and Eggwertz S. Shell Stability Handbook, Elsevier Applied
Science, 1992
[14] IASS WG.5. Recommendations for Reinforced Concrete Shells and Folded Plates.
IASS, Madrid, 1979, 66 pp.
[15] Medwadowski SJ. Buckling of Concrete Shells: An Overview, Journal of the IASS,
2004; 45(1): 51-63.
[16] IASS WG.8. Analysis, Design & Construction of Space Frames. Bulletin of IASS,
1984; XXV-1/2 (84/85)
[17] Architectural Inst. of Japan(AIJ). Stability Analysis of Single Layer Latticed
Domes. State-of-Art ( ed. Heki K. in Japanese), 1989; 24-69.
302
[18] del Pozo Frutos F. and del Pozo Vindel F. Elastic Buckling of Non-perfect
Spherical Shells of Constant Thickness. Proc. of IASS World congress, Madrid,
1979; 1: 173-197
[19] Yamada M, Uchiyama K, Yamada S and Ishikawa T. Theoretical and experimental
study on the buckling of rigidly jointed single layer latticed spherical shells under
external pressure. Proc. of IASS Symposium on Membrane Structures and Space
Frames, Osaka, Elsevier, 1986; 3: 113-120
[20] Dulacska E and Kollar L. Buckling Analysis of Reticulated Shells, Space
Structures, 2000; 15(3&4): 195-203.
[21] Kato S and Yamashita T. Evaluation of Elasto-plastic Buckling Strength of Two-
way Grid Shells using Continuum Analogy. Int. Journal of Space Structures, 2002;
17(4): 249-261.
[22] Kato S, Yamauchi Y and Ueki T. Buckling Load of Elliptic Paraboloidal Single
Layer Reticulated Roofs under Uniform Load, Int. Journal of Space Structures,
2005; 20(2): 91-106.
[23] Kato S, Yamauchi Y, Ueki T and Okuhira K. Buckling Load of Elliptic
Paraboloidal Single Layer Reticulated Roofs with Simple Supports under Uniform
Load, Int. Journal of Space Structures, 2005; 20(4): 211-224.
[24] Kato S, Ueki T and Nakazawa S. Estimation of Buckling Loads of Elliptic
Paraboloidal Single Layer Lattice Domes under Vertical Loads, Int. Journal of
Space Structures, 2006; 21(4): 173-182.
[25] Kato S, Yamashita S, Nakazawa S and Kim Y.B. and Fujibayashi A. Analysis
Based Estimation for Buckling Loads of Two-way Elliptic Paraboloidal Single
Layer Lattice Domes, Journal of Constr. Steel Research, 2007; 63(9): 1219-1227.
[26] Kato S, Fujimoto M and Ogawa T. Buckling Load of Steel Single-Layer
Reticulated Domes of Circular Plan. Journal of the IASS, 2005; 46(1): 41-63.
[27] Ogawa T, Kato S and Fujimoto M. Buckling Load of Elliptic and Hyperbolic
Paraboloidal Steel Single-Layer Reticulated Shells of Rectangular Plan. Journal of
the IASS, 2008; 49(1): 21-36.
[28] Yamashita T and Kato S. Appreciation of Elastic Buckling Characteristics of
Braced Single-layer Two-way Grid Shells Based on Continuum Analogy (in
Japanese). Journal of Structural Engineering, 2008.3; 54B: 331-336
[29] Kuruma S, Ogawa T and Kumagai T. Evaluation of buckling loads of saddle-
shaped HP lattice shells. Summaries of Technical Papers of Annual Meeting
Architectural Institute of Japan, 2009; B, Structures I: 729-730. (in Japanese)
[30] AIJ Design Standard for Steel Structures, 1973.
[31] AIJ Buckling and Strength of Lattice Shells (in Japanese), 2010
[32] Kato S and Yamashita T. Evaluation of Buckling Load of Two-way Single Layer
Grid Shells. Journal of the IASS, 2010; 51(2): 109-123.
303
Buckling load evaluation for single layer

cylindrical lattice shells
Seishi YAMADA1*, Shiro KATO2 and Yukihiro MATSUMOTO3
1*
Dept of Architecture and Civil Engrg,
Toyohashi University of Technology, Toyohashi 441-8580, JAPAN
yamada@ace.tut.ac.jp
2
Emeritus Professor, Toyohashi University of Technology
3
Assistant Professor, Toyohashi University of Technology
Abstract
The actual evaluation procedure for the buckling design load-carrying capacity
of metal lattice shell roofs has been reviewed referring to previously published papers
by various authors. Then concentrating on the single layer cylindrical lattice roof shells,
an alternative simple design formula included the buckling mode index has been
proposed considering the buckling load reduction due to imperfections on the basis of
the mixed continuum shell analogy and the so-called reduced stiffness theory. The
present evaluation method has been confirmed by the many nonlinear finite element
numerical experiments for various imperfection modes and amplitudes, different
support conditions and varied geometric parameters.
Keywords: Metal lattice shell, Buckling, Design formula, Cylindrical barrel vault, Roof
structure
1 Introduction
It is well-known that metal shells and shell-like lattice frame structures have buckling
behaviour which is very sensitive to initial geometric imperfections [1]. In exquisite
contrast to these imperfection-sensitive shell-like structures as shown in Fig.1, the
elastic buckling of columns and plates is not affected by any imperfection. In this paper,
a single layer cylindrical lattice roof with central angle φ , radius of curvature R and
longitudinal length in direction L, has first been modeled to be the analogical continuum
cylindrical shell having an equivalent shell thickness t as shown in Fig.1. This
continuum shell analogical theory can contribute to give the simple lower bound criteria
to initial imperfections based upon the reduced stiffness buckling theory through
reviewing the previous nonlinear finite element buckling analytical results. Second, an
alternative simple design formula included the buckling mode index has been proposed
considering the buckling load reduction due to imperfections on the basis of the mixed
continuum shell analogy and reduced stiffness theory. Finally, the present evaluation
method has been confirmed by many nonlinear finite element numerical experiments for
various imperfection modes and amplitudes, different support conditions and varied
geometric parameters.
304
Axial Load
P
-
+
+
L
-
x
Shell
Rφ y z p
Plate R
Perfect
Imperfect
t φ
Column
δ
0
0
Axial Deflection
Fig. 1: Buckling characteristics Fig. 2: An analogical continuum shell roof
2 Buckling and reduced stiffness analyses for cylindrical lattice shells

using the continuum theory
Let us consider a cylindrical lattice shell panel as shown in Fig.2, and then the lattice
shell can be approximately replaced by an orthotropic shell panel through the
application of the well-known continuum analogy. The initial stresses as membrane
fundamental solution under pressure loading p are approximately given as
E
n x = 0,
E
n y = − pR ,
E
n xy = 0 (1)
For infinitesimally small buckling displacements ( u d , v d , wd ), the associated buckling
strain components are
∂ 2wd ∂ 2w d ∂ 2wd
κdx = − 2
, κdy = − 2
, κdxy = − (2a)
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂u d ∂v d wd 1  ∂u d ∂v d 
εdx = , εdy = − , εdxy =  +  (2b)
∂x ∂y R 2  ∂y ∂x 
2 2
1  ∂wd  1  ∂wd  1 ∂wd ∂wd
εdd
x =   , εdd
y =   , εdd
xy = (2c)
2  ∂x  2  ∂y  2 ∂x ∂y
where ( κdx , κdy , κdxy ) are the corresponding bending strain components, ( εdx , εdy , εdxy ) the
corresponding linear membrane strain components, and ( εdd x , εy , ε xy ) the corresponding
dd dd
nonlinear membrane strain components.

Bending and membrane stress resultants are related to strains through the orthotropic
constitutive equations
305
m xd = D11κ xd + D12κyd , myd = D12κ xd + D 22κyd , d

m xy d
= 2D66κ xy
n xd = A11ε xd + A12ε yd , n yd = A12ε xd + A22ε yd , d
n xy d
= 2 A66ε xy (3)
n xdd = A11ε xdd + A12ε ydd , n ydd = A12ε xdd + A22ε ydd , dd
n xy = dd
2 A66ε xy
where D11, D12 , D22 , D66 , A11, A12 , A22 , A66 are bending and membrane stiffness coefficients,
and for an equilateral triangle unit the followings were obtained in reference [2],
D11 = D22 = (9+12d ) 3EI /(12l ), D12 = (3 − 12d ) 3EI /(12l ), D66 = (3+12d ) 3EI /(12l ),
(4)
A11 = A22 = 9 3EA /(12l ), A12 = A66 = 3 3EA /(12l )
where d = GJ / ( 4EI ) , t ( ≡ 2 3D 22 / A22 ) = 12I / A , l = the length of the lattice members,
GJ = torsion rigidity, E =Young’s modulus, I = the centroidal moment of inertia and A =
the cross sectional area.
The buckling condition using the variational principal [1] is given as
δ (U 2b + U 2m + V 2m ) = 0 (5)
where the first, second and third terms are respectively the quadratic components on the
bending strain energy, the membrane strain energy and the quadratic part of the
interactions between the idealised prebuckling state and the nonlinear membrane
stresses and strains associated with buckling mode. Considering Eq.(1), these energy
components are
1
U 2b =
2 ∫∫
(
m xd κdx + myd κyd + 2m xy
d d
κ xy dxdy ) (6)
1
U 2m
2
(
= ∫∫ n xd εdx + n yd εdy + 2n xy
d d
ε xy dxdy ) (7)
V 2m = ∫∫ n yE εdd
y dxdy (8)
The classical simple supported boundary condition SS3 is exactly satisfied by the
individual components of the form
m πx n πy m πx n πy m πx n πy
u d = umn cos sin , v d = vmn sin cos , wd = wmn sin sin (9)
L Rφ L Rφ L Rφ
Consequently the critical load spectrum resulting the solution of eigenvalue equations
takes the form
pC = p b + p m (10)
where
π {D11m + 2 ( D12 + 2D 66 ) m a n + D 22a n }
2 4 2 2 2 4 4
b
p = 2 2 2
(11)
RL a n
p m
=
Lm
2 4
{A 11
A22 − ( A12 )
2
}A 66
(12)
2 3
π R a n
2 2

4
{ 2
}
 A11 A66m + A11 A22 − ( A12 ) − 2 A12 A66 m 2a 2n 2 + A22 A66a 4n 4 

In these equations a = L / ( R φ ) is the aspect ratio, n the half-wave buckling number in

arch direction, and m the half-wave number in longitudinal direction: in this buckling
problem it is easy to understand from Eqs (11) and (12) that the minimum critical load
for m is obtained to be associated with m = 1. In Eq.(10), pb is the bending stiffness
306
component for buckling and is not insensitive to imperfections, however, it is well-

known that the membrane stiffness component pm of the second term is completely lost
due to existing moderately large imperfections as shown in Yamada and Croll [3]. Then
the bending component pb is called to be the reduced stiffness critical load p* .
Application of this reduced stiffness method to the pressure loaded cylindrical shell
buckling problem requires the concept of an idealised model as shown in Fig.3. The
actual prebuckling deflection of the geometrically perfect cylindrical shell panel may be
considered to comprise two parts: an idealised uniform radial deflection w F due to the
pressure loading; and, a loading imperfection resulting from the distortions at the edge
restraint.
wF
Actual
≡ wF
Idealised
＋ Load Imp. Effect
Fig. 3: Idealised model with uniform fundamental states
From large number of shell buckling experiments [4,5] it has been understood that small
changes in imperfections, combined with highly unstable forms of postbuckling
behaviour, were largely responsible for the immense scatter of buckling loads and at
times severe reductions form the linear buckling theory. Then if an analyst were to limit
the investigation of the shell-like lattice structure buckling, it is likely that a designer
would be left in a state of some confusion. It would for example, be difficult to
understand why the deflection mode undergoes such large change, and why at a certain
level of imperfection the system undergoes a seemingly discontinuous change in
qualitative behaviour. Even if a lot of nonlinear FEM analyses (the flow shown in
Fig.4(a)) were carried out varying the imperfection modes and levels, the results would
be of little direct benefit if another geometry or member arrangement was to be
considered. An alternative is to examine the relationship between the linear and
nonlinear analyses. Using the conventional linear buckling procedure shown in Fig.4(c),
the innovative reduced stiffness analysis shown in Fig.4(d) has been performed for
continuum shells and single layer lattice roofs by the previous studies [6-10].
In addition, in the case of not only shallow spherical shells [11] but also cylindrical roof
shells [12], partly as a consequence of the high levels of loading imperfection, resulting
from the effects of edge constraints, a shell under pressure loading has been shown to
frequently buckle into modes having a contribution not just from associated with
minimum critical load but also from the adjacent longer for roller support or shorter for
pinned support. Even though these modes may not correspond with integer value, the
development of buckling lobes (half-wave length in arch direction) has been shown to
allow an essentially non-integer form of buckling mode [3]. Extensive numerical
experiments have shown that upper bounds of the sensitivity are to geometric
imperfection provided by the linear critical load predicted from the idealised bifurcation
analytical load by Eq.(10). As lower bound to the imperfection sensitivity, the reduced
307
stiffness critical load is given to be p* = pb (Eq.(11)) for the pressurised cylindrical

shells).
308
(a) Nonlinear A. (b) Linear A. (c) Linear Buckling A. (d) R.S.A.
START START START START
Imp. Assumption Linear Stiffness Linear Stiffness Linear Stiffness

KL KL KL
set of Parameter solve a Linear read N F set K bL

of Increments Simultaneous Eq
set KG (N F ) PLC & uCL
set Stiffness uF
Σ ( uCL ) K bL uCL 2
T
Matrix KL +KG(N ) Eigenvalue Analysis
c. Axial Stress N F
PL* = PLC
Σ ( uCL ) K L uCL 2
T
C C
set Unbalanced P L & u L
Vector Ｒ
STOP
solve a Linear STOP STOP
Simultaneous Eq
u then c. N
NO
convergence
YES
STOP
Fig. 4: Various buckling analytical procedures using FEM
3 Nonlinear buckling analysis of cylindrical lattice frames using the

finite element method
Yamada [7,10] adopted a rigidly jointed single layer lattice frame roof shown in Fig.5.
In this section, the lattice roof has roller supports in which the joints on rigid boundary
beams can only move horizontal direction to the beams except for fixed four corner
joints. The network pattern has six spans in ridge direction and ten spans in arch
direction as shown in Fig.5. All members are straight and their joints are on the
cylindrical surface, in which R = 21m. The base angle of triangle unit θ is 60 deg
(1.047 rad), and the length of all the members is the same as 3.5 m. The rise of the roof
is 5.24 m, the span 27.77 m and the central angle φ 82.77 deg (1.445 rad). Each
constitutive lattice member is of steel tube with E=205N/mm2, a 165.2 mm outside
diameter and a 7.1mm thickness.
309
Fig. 5: A lattice vault roof
Figure 6 represents the relations between the pressure and deflection at sampling point
No.10 (superimposed in Fig.5). The lattice frame would be considered as a quasi-
isotropic shell and the nonlinear FEM results can be compared with results of the
nonlinear Ritz method using the analogically equivalent shell model. The good
agreements are obtained even these two analytical procedures are quite different: here,
the geometric imperfections illustrated in Fig.6(c) are chosen to be the same normalised
from as the linear bending solution. Examples of the total deflection modes and the
incremental displacement modes at the buckling points along the center arc are shown
in Fig.7.
Because of the very large bending distortions induced by the edge restraints, the
geometrically perfect model denoted by curve A displays a nonlinear behaviour which
is clearly a highly imperfect form of the underlying linear bifurcation model. The
deflection response can be observed to have a dramatically form depending on the
imperfection amplitude wS0 . A small change in wS0 at around -20cm (indicated by curve
E) can result in a violent change in the nature of the response as indicated by for
example curve F. As imperfections tend to either large positive or large negative values,
the buckling loads approach asymptotically what appears to be a characteristic lower
bound.
Figure 8 represents the effects of initial imperfection amplitude (normalised by the
equivalent shell thickness t =194 mm) on the buckling load and on the membrane
stiffness ratios at the buckling point. These incremental membrane strain energy ratios
associated with the loss of stiffness at the buckling points are shown to fall from around
0.4 on curve D to around 0.1 on B’ in proportion to the reduction of buckling load.
Accepting that the loss of stiffness in large deflection and the related imperfection
induced reduction in buckling load, are consequences of the loss of membrane energy it
is of considerable practical interest to study whether the lower bounds to imperfection
sensitivity can be explained by reference to a linear reduced stiffness lower bound
analysis.
310
wS0 p kN/m2
15
FRAME (FEM) C’ 10cm
SHELL (Ritz) B’ 5cm
A 0
p kN/m2
B － 5cm
10 C －10cm (b) Uniform pressure loading
D －15cm
E －20cm
p* F －25cm
G －30cm CL
H －35cm
5 I －40cm
θ＝60deg. wS0＞0
t＝21.72cm
FRAME (FEM)
0 δ SHELL (Ritz)
0 cm
(c) Imperfect mode at x=L/2
(a) Pressure-center deflection curves
Fig. 6: Nonlinear for different imperfections translated from Yamada[7]
Fig. 7: Variation of selected modes at the buckling points translated from Yamada [7]
E 1.0
D
F 0.8
C
p / pLC
0.6
A
p*( n = 3 ) / pLC B’
0.4
U2mD / U2b 0.2
U2mX/ U2b
0
ws / t
-2 -1 0
Equivalent Load Imp.
Fig. 8: Imperfection sensitivity of buckling pressure and incremental membrane strain

energies for behaviour of latticed roofs translated from Yamada [7]
311
4. Application of the reduced stiffness concept to the design evaluation

of overall buckling load
For design of light-weight cylindrical lattice roofs, it would be necessary to know
adequate resistance to buckling under vertical, self-weight and snow, loading. A large
number of studies in Japan [13-17] have shown that the nonlinear snap buckling
exhibited by even geometrically perfect cylindrical lattice roofs is very complicated. As
already mentioned in section 3, the good agreement between the critical load carrying
capacity by using the reduced stiffness method and the lower bound to imperfection-
sensitive, non-linear numerical experiments is obtained. It has been also suggested that
the reduced stiffness model can be applied to obtain the overall buckling load criteria at
the stage for checking the overall (global) instability of lattice roofs in structural design
flow shown in Fig.9. In the stage of the check of lattice member section in Fig.9, the
check target would be the individual member buckling type whose elastic buckling
loads are insensitive to any imperfection. (But the elastic-plastic interaction effect in the
member buckling reduces the critical load.) However, even for the elastic buckling, the
overall buckling loads of shell-like lattice frames are much affected by imperfections. In
the present design procedure, the overall buckling type includes any buckling mode type
having longer buckling half-wave length rather than the length of the lattice member.
(1) Set Design Loads
(2) Assume the Section of Members
(3) Linear Stress Analysis
NG
(4) Check the Lattice
Member Section
OK
NG (5) Check Overall Considering the Effects of Various

Instability Imperfections on the Overall Buckling
OK
NG (6) Check Seismicity,

etc.
OK
END
Fig. 9: An appropriate design procedure on lattice roof structures
312
The present evaluation procedure of overall buckling load carrying capacity

summarized as shown in Fig.10, needs first to set the intrinsic buckling mode which is
the most important factor in buckling design and is defined as the inverse number of a
buckling length (or lobe). The buckling length of lattice shell can be considered to be
the same as the Euler buckling length of a single column under compression. For
increasing the buckling load carrying capacity, the structural designer can adopt how to
increase the buckling mode index (how to decrease the buckling length) with slightly
varying the one of some geometrical dimension, instead of changing all the lattice
members to be a costly bigger size.
Fundamental Buckling Mode Index B0
modification Coefficient of Support Condition b
Equivalent Buckling Mode Index BD
pe obtained as Reduced Stiffness Load Factor p*
Member Buckling Load Factor pmem
pe < pmem Need NOT to Check Overall Instability

NO
YES
Elastic-Plastic Buckling Load Factor pu END
END
Fig. 10: Design evaluation procedure for the overall buckling load carrying
capacity of the lattice roof structures
4.1 Fundamental buckling mode index

The buckling half-wave number in longitudinal direction in pressurised cylindrical
lattice roofs can be easy known to be m = 1 from Eqs (11) and (12). For buckling half-
wave number in arch direction n, the fundamental buckling mode index B0 ≡ n0L/(Rφ) has
been adopted to be that of SS3 boundary condition plotted in Fig.11 originally analysed
obtained by Yamada [2]. The plotted curve may be approximately written as the
following regression equation,
B 0 = K 0 − K 1 × log10β + K 2 × (log10β)2 (13)
where β ≡ ( A11 / A22 ) − ( A12 / A22 ) 2 L2 / ( Rt ) is the geometric parameter. The coefficients K0,
K1 and K2 in Eq.(13) are
10
313
K0 = 1.029, K1 = 0.056, K2 = 0.444 for 1 ≤ β < 103

K0 =10.371, K1 = 6.131, K2 = 1.431 for 103 ≤ β < 105
B0
Fig.11: Effects of geometric parameter on buckling modes
4.2 Equivalent buckling mode index

The fundamental buckling mode index B0 has been from that of idealised prebuckling
uniform stress state model shown in Fig.3, however, the actual buckling mode is known
from the previous studies [3,10,17] to be slightly varied in dependence on the boundary
conditions. In this study, the modifier index b is adopted to be -0.8 for roller supports
and 0.3 for pinned supports referring to lots of results from the preliminary nonlinear
finite element analytical experiments considering various imperfection amplitudes [17].
Then the equivalent buckling mode index BD is defined using B0 and b as
 L 
BD = max  B 0 + b ,  (14)
 Rφ 
4.3 Computation of the reduced stiffness load p*

As before mentioned in section 2, the lower bound analysis for imperfection-sensitive
cylindrical roof shells gives the reduced stiffness critical load p* = pb (Eq.(11)) for the
normalised circumferential buckling mode index B=an as
p* =
π2 {D
11 + 2 ( D12 + 2D66 ) B 2 + D 22 B 4 } (15)
2 2
RL B
where D11 , D12 , D 22 and D66 are the bending stiffness components of Eq.(4) for the
continuum shell analogy.
11
314
Closed dots in Fig.12 show the nonlinear FEM buckling loads and the associated
incremental modes at buckling points computed using the inverse number of half-wave
length for the same lattice roofs having the aspect ratio a = 0.69 and the equivalent
shell thickness t =194 mm in section 3, however the open angle are varied to be 30
degrees ( φ = π / 6 ), 60 degrees ( φ = π / 3 ), and various imperfection amplitudes of
dimple type imperfection modes in reference [17]. The two boundary conditions, pinned
as well as roller supports, have been adopted. In the figure, the broken lines are p* from
Eq.(15) and the completely same in the case of pinned and roller support conditions.
The open dots represent the buckling loads by FEM based linear analysis which are
computed using the two procedures of upper bound pc and lower bound p*.
p kN/m2 p kN/m2
20 20
15 15
pc by FEM
10 10
p* by p*(B0)
pc by FEM p* by FEM
5 FEM 5
p*(BD)
p*(B0) p*(BD)
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
B=an B=an
(a) roller φ=π/6 (b) roller φ=π/3
2
p kN/m p kN/m2
20 20
15 15 p c by FEM
10 10 p* by
FEM
p c by FEM p*(B0)
p*(BD)
5 p* by 5
p*(B0) FEM
p*(BD)
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
B=an B=an
(c) pinned φ=π/6 (d) pinned φ=π/3
Fig. 12: Comparison between the present simplified evaluation and the nonlinear
finite element analytical results for imperfect latticed roofs by [18]
12
315
pN /p* pN /p*
2.0 2.0
1.5 1.5
1.0 1.0
Pinned (φ=π/3)
0.5 Pinned (φ=π/6)

0.5
Roller(φ=π/3)
Roller(φ=π/6)
0.0 0.0
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
w0/t w0/t
(a) Using p* by B=B0 (b) Using p* by B=BD
Fig. 13: Good evaluation of the present overall buckling load pe=p* obtained by
B=BD compared with nonlinear FEM models having imperfections
From Fig.12, the lower bound of the spectrum plots of the buckling loads about the each
remarkable mode at buckling point for imperfect lattice shells is showing to be limited
by the present reduced stiffness load spectra equation Eq.(15). More detail confirmation
is done in Fig.13; the horizontal axis is adopted to be the imperfection amplitude. In this
lattice roof model, since L=21m, the imperfection amplitude w0 = L/1000 =21 mm is
around w0/t=0.1. Included the relatively large imperfection, -1<w0/t<1, the present
evaluation Eq.(15) using B=BD is shown to give rational design evaluation as shown in
Fig.13(b). As the results, the elastic overall buckling load carrying capacity pe is defined
as p* given in Eq.(15) for B=BD in this paper.
Next, in the specific case for the cylindrical lattice roof having equilateral triangle unit
( θ =60deg.), the member buckling load associated with Euler buckling for a pinned end
column may be given by considering a pre-buckling uniform axial stress state [2] as
π2EI
pmem = 3 (16)
Rl 3
In the case, the elastic overall buckling load pe is written with the member buckling load
pmem as Eq.(17) from Eqs (15) and (16) and B=BD .
2
49 l 2  1 
p =
e
2  BD +  p
mem
(17)
52 L  BD 
If pe > pmem , the collapse of lattice roofs would be induced by the start of the member
buckling before the occurrence of the overall buckling; for the member instability, the
elastic-plastic interactive load-carrying capacity would be generally checked at the
stage(4) in Fig.9.
13
316
4.4 Evaluation of elastic-plastic buckling load carrying capacity for design

If pe < pmem, it would be at times needed to check on the reduction of the overall
buckling load due to the effects of the interaction between the elastic buckling and the
steel yielding. But one of the most difficult design aspects in shells and shell-like lattice
structures has been the prediction of an appropriate allowance for additional reductions
arising from interaction between elastic and plastic nonlinearities. The simplicity of the
reduced stiffness method makes it a particularly convenient basis for predict of plastic
collapse design estimates by Croll [18]. On the basis of the reduced stiffness buckling
model, any imperfection introduction into the lattice shell will, at a prescribed pressure
level, provide upper bounds of the incremental deformation compared with that
predicted for the exact lattice shell behaviour. This means that incremental stress
components found using the reduced stiffness model will, at this prescribed pressure
level, be upper bounds of those occurring in the exact behaviour. Consequently, the load
for yielding using reduced stiffness method has been proposed to be a lower bound of
the exact yield occurrence by Yamada and Croll [12].
The plastic squash load for equilateral triangle unit, associated with the idealised
compressed force of diagonal members ( −qRl 3 ) by assuming uniform membrane
stress state) would be obtained as
A
p sqh = 3 σY (18)
Rl
where A ≡ the cross sectional area of the member and σY ≡ the yielding stress.
The simplest design evaluation of elastic-plastic buckling loads may be to use the
following empirical formulation.
γ1 γ2 γ1 γ2
 pu   pu   λ2 pu   pu 
 e  +  sqh
p  = 1 or  sqh  +  sqh
p  = 1 (19)
p    p   
In the equation, p u is the elastic-plastic buckling load carrying capacity for design, λ =
(psqh/pe)1/2 the so-called generalised slenderness ratio. Dulacska [19] adopted
γ1 = γ 2 = 2 for the buckling of concrete shells and called the above empirical formula
“Dunkerley equation”. But Dunkerley [20] wrote the empirical equation for the
vibration frequency of shafts and did not discuss on buckling or on material yielding at
all. Similarly, Kato [13] recommended ( γ1 = 1 , γ 2 = 2 ) and called Eq.(19) “modified
Dunkerley equation” for the cylindrical lattice roof shells using not the load factor but
the stress of a selected representative lattice member. On the other hand, Kawamoto
and Yuhara [21] for complete steel cylindrical shells proposes to express the equation
for computing ( γ1 , γ 2 ) in terms of the geometric parameter of cylinders L / Rt and the
maximum imperfection amplitude w0/t.
5 Conclusions
Based upon the previous fruits using the parametric nonlinear buckling analysis for the
continuum shell analogical modelling and for the FEM modelling, the present paper
proposes an alternative procedure for the evaluation of the load carrying capacity of
14
317
single layer cylindrical lattice roof shells. The quality of the results is enhanced by the
comparison of the present estimates and some of the published numerical experiments.
The present design evaluation provides a simple, safe, and rational basis and would also
provide an understanding of greater significance for many other lattice shell buckling
problems.
References
[1] Yamada S: Buckling theory, Handbook of the Vibration and Buckling of Shells,
edited by the Japanese Society of Mechanical Engineers, Gihodo Publications,
Tokyo, 29-42, 2003. (in Japanese)
[2] Architectural Institute of Japan: Analysis and Design for Cylindrical Latticed Roof
Shells, edited by Seishi Yamada, 1995. (in Japanese)
[3] Yamada S and Croll JGA: Buckling behavior of pressure loaded cylindrical panels,
Journal of Engineering Mechanics 1989; 115:327-344.
[4] Singer J, Arbocz J and Weller T: Buckling Experiments, Vol.2, Wiley, 2002.
[5] Yamada S and Uchiyama M: Imperfection-sensitive buckling and postbuckling of
spherical shell caps, Buckling and Postbuckling Structures, edited by B.G.Falzon
and M.H.Aliabadi, Imperial College Press, London, 309-334, 2008.
[6] Croll JGA: Towards simple estimates of shell buckling loads, Der Stahlbau: Part I,
Heft 8, 1975.8; Part II, Heft 9, 1975.
[7] Yamada S: Relationship between non-linear numerical experiments and a linear
lower bound analysis using finite element method on the overall buckling of
reticular partial cylindrical space frames, Computer Applications in Civil and
Building Engineering, Kozo System Inc, 259-266, 1991.
[8] Yamada S: Buckling analysis, Handbook of Computational Mechanics, edited by
Yagawa and Miyazaki, Asakura Publication, Tokyo, 252-261, 2007. (in Japanese)
[9] Yamada S, Takeuchi A, Tada Y and Tsutsumi K：Imperfection-sensitive overall
buckling of single-layer lattice domes, Journal of Engineering Mechanics 2001.
127:382-386.
[10] Yamada S and Taguchi T: Snow load carrying capacity of single-layer latticed
cylindrical roof structures, Snow Engineering Recent Advances, Balkema
Publishers, 235-240, 1997.
[11] Yamada S, Uchiyama K and Yamada M: Experimental investigation of the
buckling of shallow spherical shells, International Journal of Non-Linear
Mechanics, Vol.18, No.1, 37-54, 1983.
[12] Yamada S and Croll JGA: Elasto-plastic buckling design for shallow cylindrical
shells under external pressure, Proceedings of IASS-ASCE International
Symposium, ASCE, 936-945, 1994.
[13] Kato S, Iida M and Yamashita T: Buckling loads of simply supported single layer
latticed roofs under uniform vertical loading, Journal of Structural Engineering
1995; 41B:247-257.(in Japanese)
15
318
[14] Murakami M, Heki K and Ohnishi H: Examples of numerical analytical solutions

for the elastic buckling of single layer latticed cylindrical shells having equilateral
triangle unites, Proceedings of Annual Meeting of the Architectural Institute of
Japan, 1259-1260, 1989.(in Japanese)
[15] Konakawa M: Overall buckling analysis of cylindrical latticed shell roofs having
arbitrary supports on straight beam edges in ridge direction, Journal of Structural
and Construction Engineering 1979; 283:76-86.(in Japanese)
[16] Suzuki T and Ogawa T: Buckling analysis of cylindrical truss roof shells, Journal
of Structural and Construction Engineering 1980; 288:29-37. (in Japanese)
[17] Yamada S, Kikuchi T and Matsumoto Y: Effects of localized single dimple
imperfections on the buckling of latticed cylindrical shells, Proceedings of 9th
Asian Pacific Conference on Shell and Spatial Structures, Nagoya, 2009.
[18] Croll JGA: Lower bound elasto-plastic buckling of cylinders, Proceedings of Instn
Civil Engrg, Part 2, Vo.71, 235-261, 1981.
[19] Dulacska E: Buckling of elastic-plastic shells, IASS Bulletin, Vol.68, 15-20, 1979.
[20] Dunkerley S: On the whirling and vibration of shafts, Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London, Ser. A 185, 279-360, 1894.
[21] Kawamoto Y and Yuhara T: Buckling of fabricated ring-stiffened steel cylinders
under axial compression, Proceedings of International Conference on Advances in
Marine Structures, Dunfermline, 262-280, 1986.
16
319
Research on the stability of suspen-dome with stacked arch

structure in Chiping Gymnasium
Zhi-Hua CHEN*1 Hong-Bo LIU2
*1
Professor, School of Civil Engineering, Tianjin University
Weijin Road No.92, Nankai District, Tianjin, 300072, China
zhchen@tju.edu.cn
2
PHD Candidate, School of Civil Engineering, Tianjin University
Weijin Road No.92, Nankai District, Tianjin, 300072, China
hb_liu2008@163.com
Abstract
A new structural system, suspen-dome with stacked arch structure, is accepted in
Chiping Gymnasium, and it consists of a suspen-dome and two spatial arches. For this
new system, the suspen-dome is very uneven loaded due to the existence of the two
arches, therefore, the stability behavior of this structure is different from general suspen-
dome structure. In this paper, the stability behavior of suspen-dome with stacked arch is
analyzed using general finite element software package ANSYS, and the main work of
the paper are as following: 1) the over view of Chiping Gymnasium is firstly introduced;
2) it is discussed that the effect of existence of the two arches on the stability. The
conclusion obtained in this paper will be an important reference for this project as well
as other later similar structural design.
Keywords: suspen-dome, arch, optimization, temperature load, structural property
1 Introduction
Tension structures are nowadays a hot topic of large span structures, including cable-
supported structures, membrane structures, cable net structures, cable dome, etc [1].
Due to high structural efficient and beautiful appearance, Cable-supported structures
were widely used in sport facilities, convention & exhibition center, airport building,
factory building in the world, especially in Japan and China. Cable-supported structures
are composed of the rigid primary structure, tension-only cables and compression-only
struts, such the cable-stayed column, the beam string structure, the bow string structure,
the suspen-dome structures, the cable-supported barrel vault structure, etc.
Many investigations have been performed for the cable-supported structures through
experimental research and numerical analysis [2-6]. Therefore, the fundamental
properties for these structures can be well understood. But in some projects, the cable-
supported structures are used with other structures due to the requirement of
architectural appearance, for example, the roof structure of Chiping gymnasium is
composed of a suspen-dome and two arches as shown in Fig. 1[7]. For this kind
structure, its mechanical behaviors are different from single suspen-dome structures
320
because of the existence of upper arches. Therefore, some investigations are carried out
in this paper to obtain its stability behavior.
Fig. 1 Overview of Chiping Gymnasium

2 Overview
Chiping culture and sports center gymnasium is a multi-purpose building and situated in
the country of Chiping, Shandong province, China. The roof of building is in the shape
of sphericity with diameter of 108m, and above the roof, two spatial arches with span of
190m are linked to roof using struts, as it shown in Fig. 1. The gymnasium can
accommodate up to 6,000 spectators, its area is about 25,575 sq.m.
Suspen-dome structure is chosen as the roof of the gymnasium because its span is very
large. The Lamella-Kiewitt composite single-layer lattice shell is used in the upper part
of suspen-dome structure as it shown in Fig. 2 (black lines denote Kiewitt and red lines
denote Lamella); seven rings of cable-strut are arranged under single-layer lattice shell
as it shown in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4. Two hoops of bearings are set in this structure, located
in intersection boundary between the keweit and lamella and the last loop of lamella
mesh type, respectively as shown in Fig. 4. The surface of roof consists of two types,
lightweight steel roofing and glass roofing as shown in Fig. 1.
The uniform outlook will help the reader to follow the proceedings. This can be
obtained most easily if authors use this template file to construct their papers. Authors
can create their contributions by simply replacing the contents of this file and saving it
as a Word document. Please remember that your submitted .doc files should not be
password protected or otherwise locked, because we may need to add page numbering
and make additional minor edits and format changes.
321
Fig. 2 Plan view of upper single-layer lattice shell
Fig. 3 Plan view of lower cable-strut system
Fig. 4 Sectional view of suspen-dome structure
Fig. 5 Axonometric view of structural system
3 Stability of suspen-dome with stacked arch structure

This section concentrates on the stability behavior of suspen-dome with stacked arch
structure in Chiping Gymnasium. Compared with other suspen-dome structures, the
roof structure of Chiping Gymnasium has some difference, such as including two hoops
bearings and two spatial arches. Here the influence of spatial arches on suspen-dome
structure is studied. In order to analyze it, two FEM models are created using ANSYS,
one is a FEM model including suspen-dome and arched (named as model A); the other
is a FEM model including only suspen-dome structures (named as model B)
BEAM188 ( a quadratic 3-D beam element) is used to simulate the members of single-
layer lattice shell for both model A and model B in ANSYS; and in the model A,
members of arches and members linking the arches and single-layer lattice shell are also
simulated with BEAM188. LINK8 element is used to simulate the members of struts
322
and radial tension bar of suspen-dome structure in both model A and model B. LINK10
element is used to simulate the hoop cables [8].
Considering the dead load (1.0 kN/m2) and live load (0.5 kN/m2), the nonlinear buckling
analysis is carried out. From Fig. 6 and Fig. 7, it is clear that model A and model B have
the same instability mode, and they are all instability in the outmost single-layer lattice
shell, that is the area between the two loops bearings. Due to the outmost steel dome
instability firstly, this structure is rational and safety.
Fig.6 Instability mode of model A
Fig. 7 Instability mode of model B

There are some difference is found between critical loads based on model A and model
B, which are 13.78kN/m2 and 13.63kN/m2 as shown in Fig. 8, respectively. But this
difference is small and is ignored. Therefore, it is can be concluded that the two spatial
arches have little influence on the stability of steel roof of Chiping Gymnasium.
323
Fig. 8 loads-displacement curve of both model A and model B
4. Conclusions
The stability behavior of suspen-dome with stacked arch structure of Chiping
Gymnasium is carried out, and the following conclusions are obtained:
1) The two spatial arches have little influence on the stability behavior of suspen-dome
with stacked arch structure of Chiping Gymnasium;
2) The suspen-dome with stacked arch structure of Chiping Gymnasium is instability in
the outmost single-layer lattice shell.
3) The critical load of suspen-dome with stacked arch structure of Chiping Gymnasium
is 13.78 kN/m2; and its stability factor is 13.78 kN/m2/1.5 kN/m2=9.2, so it is safety.
Acknowledgements
This work is sponsored by the committee of national science foundation of china (Grant
No: 50778122) and Program for New Century Excellent Talents in University of
Ministry of Education in China (Grant No: NCET-06-0228)
Reference
[1] Dong Shilin. Development and expectation of spatial structures in China. Journal
of building structures, 2010; 31
31:38-51. (in Chinese)
[2] Mamoru Kawaguchi; Masaru Abe; Tatsuo Hatato et al. A Structural system
“suspendome” system, Journal of the International Association for Shell and
Spatial Structures 1993 ; Istanbul, 523-530.
[3] Liu xuechun, zhang ailin, et al. Study on the influence of construction deviation
random distribution on the integral stability of suspen-dome. Journal of building
structures 2007; 28
[4] Zhihua Chen, Yang Li, Parameter analysis on stability of a suspendome[J].
International Journal of Space Structure 2005; 20
20: 115-124.
[5] Kitipornchai, Kang. W.J., Lam. H.F. et al. Facters affecting the design and
construction of lamella suspendome systemes. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research 2005; 6161:764-785.
[6] Wu Minger. Analytical method for the lateral buckling of the struts in beam string
324
structures. Engineering structures 2008; 30

30:2301-2310.
[7] Chen Zhihua, Yan Xiangyu, Liu Hongbo. Large-span hybrid structure of
suspendome with stacked arch in Chiping Gymnasium. Building Structures 2009;
39
[8] Chen Zhi-Hua, Liu Hong-Bo, Zhou Ting, et al. Parametric analysis of spatial steel
structures using APDL language. Beijing: China WaterPower Press, 2009.(in
chinese)
325
Numerical study on buckling behavior of single layer two-way

grid dome with tension member as diagonals
Masumi FUJIMOTO1*, Soichiro KUSHIMA2, Katsuhiko IMAI3, Shiro KATO4 and
Toshiyuki OGAWA5
1*
Osaka City University
Sugimoto, Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
fujimoto@arch.eng.osaka-cu.ac.jp
2
Takenaka Corporation
3
Forest Engineering & Economics Lab.
4
5
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to obtain the anti-buckling data on single layer two-way
grid dome with tension member as diagonals by the numerical calculation. The tension
member is used to stiffen the in-plane rigidity of two-way grid as diagonals. Circular
hollow tubes are used as two-way grid members and PC bars as tension members. The
numerical parameters of this study are installation of tension member, initial axial
forces of tension members, loading patterns, half open angle of dome and so on. As a
result, it is confirmed that the buckling load of two-way grid dome increases effectively
by the attachment of tension members and the introduction of the initial axial forces to
them. Then the comparison between the numerical results and continuum treatment
method is shown.
Keywords: Single layer two-way grid dome, Tension member, Buckling load, Initial
axial force, Numerical analysis
1 Introduction
Single layer lattice two-way grid dome is translucent and aesthetically pleasing;
however, the in-plane stiffness of a two-way grid is lower than that of a three-way grid.
The structural system of a two-way grid with diagonal tension members has been
proposed to increase the in-plane stiffness and maintain the structural form [1]. A few
studies have been performed on such structures with tension members as diagonals [2].
The authors have also already conducted numerical and experimental studies on two-
way grid shell with tension rod members as diagonals [3][4].
The purpose of this paper is to add some new considerations to the buckling design data
for stiffened two-way grid domes. We analyzed two-way grid domes using the discrete
treatment method. The main parameters of numerical analysis are installation of tension
members, initial axial force of tension members, structural unit number, loading pattern
and so on. The effects of tension members installation and initial axial force on buckling
load and buckling mode are discussed on the basis of by numerical results.
326
2 Outline of numerical analysis
2.1 Single layer two-way grid dome

The configuration of dome is a spherical dome as shown in Fig.1. To determine the
overall configuration of dome, the following parameters are used: standard member
length, l, half open angle subtended by the meridian arch, α, half open angle subtended
by a member in the meridian direction, β, structural unit number per half open angle of
the meridian arch, n. The dome form is generated by projecting two-way grid of square
plan into a spherical surface so that the half open angle of member in a meridian arch
becomes constant as shown in Fig. 2[5]. Dome peripheral nodes are fixed. Fig. 3 shows
the dome span.
Fig. 1: Overall configuration of single layer two-way grid dome
l
L
α
n=2 n=4 n=6
n=2 n=1 L=4,290 L=8,562 L=12,838
R
R =l /(2sinβ ) 2β 2β
β = α 2n
n=8
L=17,115
Fig. 2: Elevation of dome Fig. 3: Span of dome
The two-way grid dome is composed of circular hollow tubes and tension members as
constituent members. Tension members as diagonals are used to increase the in-plane
shear stiffness of the two-way grid and to introduce the initial axial force to the dome.
The initial axial force of tension members is varied from zero to 20 kN. The joint
327
system is KT truss system and node size is φ90/82. Member sectional properties are
shown in Table 1. Member and joints mechanical properties are shown in Table 2 and
Table 3, respectively. Table 4 shows parameters of numerical analysis.
Table 1: Member Sectional properties
φ(mm) t(mm) A(mm2) Zp(mm3) I (mm4)

Tube 34.06 2.19 2.19×102 2.23×103 2.80×104
Tension member 1(PC Bar1) 7.1 - 3.96×10 5.97×10 1.25×102
Tension member 2(PC Bar2) 5.0 - 1.98×10 2.11×10 3.12×10
Table 2: Member mechanical properties
E(N/mm2) σy(N/mm2) σb(N/mm2)

Tube 2.08×105 46.9×10 54.7×10
Tension member(PC Bar1, 2) 2.13×105 - 11.8×102
Table 3: Joint mechanical properties
1st Yield Moment 2nd Yield Moment Rotational Spring Coef.(kNmm/rad)

My1(kNmm) My2(kNmm) 1st k0 2nd k1 3rd k2
3.16 x102 5.76 x102 5.41 x10 4
9.08 x10 3
3.14 x103
Table 4: Parameters of numerical analysis
Two-way grids with and

Mesh pattern Radius of Curvature R=4,059～17,115(mm)
without tension members
Initial axial Force NI=0～20(kN) Loading Pattern γ=0~1, Asym.~Sym.
Half open angle of Area of Tension PC Bar1, 2
α=30º,45 º
meridian arch Members A=39.6(mm2),19.8(mm2)
Standard member
Structural units number n=2, 4, 6, 8 l=1,120(mm)
length
Span L=2,870～17,115(mm)
The applied load is a nodal gravity load simulating snow load. The loading patterns are
symmetrical uniform distribution and asymmetrical distributions denoted by a load
distribution coefficient, γ as shown in Fig. 4. The notation d-6-30 is used to represent
the dome model. “d”, “6”, and “30” refer to dome, structural unit number and half open
angle subtended arch respectively.
qsym
qasym
γ=qasym/qsym
γ=0 asymmetry 0<γ<1 asymmetry γ=1 symmetry
Fig. 4: Distribution of applied load
328
2.2 Outline of numerical analysis method

The outline of the numerical analysis method is as follows. The discrete treatment
method incorporates the geometrical and material nonlinearities [6]. The joint size is
included as a rigid zone in the analysis, and the joint rigidity is considered as rotational
spring. The relation of moment to rotational angle for the rotational spring is tri-linear.
Both ends of tension members and PC bars are pin jointed and have the stiffness in
tensile range including zero axial deformation. The calculation scheme for introducing
initial axial force to tension members and grid members is a load incremental method
and the calculation scheme of equilibrium paths under loading process is an arc length
method.
3 Results and considerations
3.1 Effect of installation and initial axial force of tension member on

buckling load
Table 5 shows the buckling load and its increase ratio due to the effect of tension
member. Fig. 5 shows the relation of the buckling load to the initial axial force of
tension members. The numerical results of this section are obtained in case of the
following dome parameters: The half open angle, α, is 30º, the applied load is
symmetrical load, γ=1.0, and tension members are PC bar1. The buckling load, Pcr,
denotes the applied load to the dome centre node. The initial axial force of tension
members are denoted by NI. Superscript OP indicates the value of the maximum
buckling load. Superscript T and Z indicate the buckling load without and with tension
member, respectively. In the following figures, ∇ denotes a pair of the initial axial
force and the maximum buckling load.
The buckling load of two-way grid dome increases with installation of tension member.
The increase ratio of buckling load ranges from 125 (%) to 177 (%). The buckling load
of dome with tension members increases still more with the introduction of initial axial
force to the tension members. The increase ratio of buckling load is graded up 181 (%)
to 859 (%). The tension member effect on the buckling load is proved more useful in the
case of the higher structural unit number, larger radius of curvature, and smaller half
open angle by member.
Table 5: Buckling load and increment ratio of buckling load by the effect of tension
member and initial axial force
Model d-2-30 d-4-30 d-6-30 d-8-30

Pcr (kN) Without Tension member
T
17.4 2.85 1.06 0.55
PcrZ (kN) Initial axial force : 0 30.6 3.55 1.54 0.98
PcrOP (kN) Maximum Buckling Load 31.5 13.1 7.77 4.76
NIOP(kN) Initial Axial Force at Maximum Buckling Load 8 9 9 8
PcrZ / PcrT (%) 176 125 145 177
PcrOP / PcrT (%) 181 460 733 859
(PcrOP－PcrZ ) / PcrT(%) 5 336 588 682
329
35 PcrOP
Pcr (kN) Maximum Buckling Load
30 (x,y)=( NIOP, PcrOP)
25 PcrZ
d-2-30
20 d-4-30
d-6-30
15 PcrT
d-8-30
10
0
-5 0 5 NIOP 10 15 N I (kN) 20
Without Tension Member
With Tension Member
Fig. 5: Relation of buckling load to tension member initial axial force
3.2 Example of tension member effect

Fig. 6 shows the relation of load to displacement at the centre node. In this figure, the
node displacement excludes the component caused by the process of initial axial force
introduction. Fig. 7 shows the relation of applied load to member strains of a typical
unit. These two figures show the results of d-6-30 under symmetrical loading. The
rigidity of dome increases with installation of the tension member. Moreover, the
rigidity of dome increases with the introduction of initial axial force to tension member.
In case of low initial axial force, the initial rigidity of dome with NI=3.0(kN) is larger
than that with NI=0. When the axial strain of tension member becomes zero as shown in
Fig. 7, the rigidity of dome decreases to about half the initial rigidity as indicated by the
circle in Fig. 6. Under symmetrical loading, the grid member of the dome increases in
compression component. When the initial axial force of tension member exceeds a
certain value, the tension member loses its tensile axial strain and works as a
compression member. Moreover, in the case of NI=3.0(kN), after loss of initial axial
force the axial strain of tension member in the circumferential direction reverses and
increases in tension.
Fig. 8 shows the axial force distribution at buckling corresponding to the introduced
magnitudes of initial axial forces of tension member. The maximum ratio of axial force
to Euler buckling load in case of a dome without tension member is 0.15. The maximum
ratio of the grid members is about 1.15 in case of the sufficient initial axial force
introduced to tension member. This shows that the introduction of sufficient initial axial
force to a tension member increases the grid member axial force and buckling load.
However, excessive initial axial force does not work effectively and the buckling load
decreases with the increase in compression force in a grid member.
330
Fig. 9 shows the buckling load and buckling mode of each model under symmetrical
loadings. In Fig. 9, notations g, m and p denote global buckling, member buckling and
local buckling, respectively. The buckling modes of a dome with tension members are
fundamentally classified as member buckling mode or compound mode between global
buckling and member buckling. In the case of a dome without tension, the buckling
mode is global buckling. Through the effect of tension member and initial axial forces,
the buckling mode changes from the global buckling to the member buckling and
compound buckling.
9 P cr (kN) With Tension Members，NI = 9kN

8
7 NI = 15kN
6 Effect of loss of NI = 3kN

5 initial axial force
4
3 NI= 0kN
Effect of Initial axial force
2 Without Tension Members
Attachment of Tension Member
1
D c (cm)
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Fig. 6: Relation of load to centre node displacement (d-6-30)
Tube209 158 27
159
40
160
53 66 79
38
92 105
165
118
166
131
167
2
39
4
15 7
1
37
16 8
46
46
0
5 40
36
61
46
46
7
73
14 144
46
85
34
42
49
46
6
97
9
9
109
37
46
33
45
1
9
43
8
1 157
7
121
25
7
45
32
175
46
174 3
7
13 3
173 176
13
8
5
177
45
172
44
46
31
171 67 80 93 178
5
14 5
54 106
3
1
170 41 119 179

28 38 132
16 9
5
180
4
39
6
3
37
47
41
47
7
2
15 145
62
6
47
47
36
8
74
86
47
47
35
42
50
0
1
98
8
110
38
2
47
33
47
2 158
0
2
0
9
122
26
47
47
43
32
31 187
9
134
0
4
186
14
44
46
188
6
48
4 184 185 189

146
6
183 55 68 81 94 107 190

2
191
PC509
182 42 120
181 29 133 192
38
7
16 39 146
6
41
8
5
37
48
48
9
4
36
7
63
48
48
75
51
9
35
87
1
48
48
3
0
99
3 159
5
33
42
111
39
48
49
32
1
2
123
49
43
48
27
31 7
2
1
135
15
44
48
49
5 198 199
200
147
197
7
196 201
3
195 56 69 82 95 108 202

194 43 121 203
193 30 134 204
17 38 40 147
9
7
0
8
4 160
37
49
1
49
6
49
36
50
34
64
8 0
2
41
5
35
50
76
88
52
49
100
6
50
42
32
112
40
4
49
0
4
3
2
2
43
31
124
49
28
3
50
4
8
44
136
49
16
50
6
148
8
211
4
208 209 210 212 213

207 214 215
205 206 57 70 83 96 109 216
31 44 122 135
18 148
5 161
9
35
8
34
37
38
3
50
36
51
51
40
51
7
4
6
41
32
53
65
50
51
42
101
5
77
89
113
41
50
3
51
50
43
31
6
7
9
29
5
1
1
51
125
5
17
9
3
50
51
44
137
7
7
149
9
5
220 221 222 223 224

218 219 225 226 227
217 84 228
32 45 58 71 97 110 123 136
6 19 149 162
35
9
34
1
9
0
33
7
31
8
6
7
39
51
52
36
52
37
52
40
52
41
42
8
52
52
4
52
43
102
42
54
66
51
52
51
2
45
90
114
126
30
52
78
138
18
8 0
0
150
4
6
8
6
229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240
7 20 33 46 59 72 85 98 111 124 137 150 163
9
42 43 45
0
1
41
9
0
151
52
139
8
31
115
127
54
53
6
33
53
53
9 1
103
34
53
35
40
7
7
36
39
53
53
53
37
53
53
53
5
91
19
31
9
43
55
67
1
79
3
3
7
1
9
P cr (kN)
241 242 243 245 246 250 251 252
8 244 247 248 249 164
21 34 47 125 138 151
60 73 86 99 112
45
1
152
44
54
55
42
32
140
1
2
3
8
41
0
128
54
33
55
0
4
54
20
5
34
116
8
55
8
7
104
6
0
35
54
54
54
36
40
6
32
39
54
2
54
38
54
44
92
4
56
68
80
6
4
0
253 264
9 254 255 263 165
22 256 257 258 261 262 152
35 259 260 139
48 61 74 100 113 126
87 45
3
15 3
4
55
32
44
56
3
9
14 1
3
42
55
33
56
1
21
1 29
1
6
1
55
34
56
36
117
38
0
9
7
55
56
41
33
9
3
105
8
35
56
40
45
55
9
55
39
5
55
57
93
1
7
69
81
7
265
3
276
8
10 266 275 166
23 267 268 274 153
36 269 270 271 272 273 140
49 127 45
15 4
62 114
5
75 88 101
10
56
32
44 4
57
6
14 2
5
56
57
33
2
22
2
PC365
13 0
35
56
34
57
43
3
34
37
11 8
4
9
56
41
38
106
57
0
8
56
6
40
46
57
0
57
39
0
57
277
58
94
2
8
288
70
82
6
4
11 278 287 167

24 279 286 154
37 280 281 282 284 285 141
283 45
15 5
7
50 128
11
57
58
32
63 76 102 115 5
14 3
8
89
44
23
3
57
33
58
34
9
13 1
3
57
5
58
43
35
35
0
7
11 9
5
37
4
41
1
58
38
58
289
47
30 0
10 7
9
58
40
58
58
58
39
59
12 168
95
1
9
3
71
83
290 299
5
25 291 298 155

292
15 6
38 294 297 142

9
293
0
12
295 296
58
32
45
51 129
60
1 44
0
33
9
64 116
4
6
24
77 90 103
59
59
44
34
13 2
6
1
4
43
36
59
36
59
8
2
1 20
30 1 37 312
42
6
3
59
59
48
38
10 8
13 0 169
4
59
40
59
2
39
59
60
96
59
302 4
72
311
8
84
26 303 310 156

39 304 309 143
52 305 306 307 308 130
65 78 91 104 117
7
6
5
NI=15.0KN
4 NI=9.0KN
NI=15.0KN 3 NI=3.0KN
NI=9.0KN NI=0.0KN
NI=3.0KN 2
NI=0.0KN 1 ε g (µ)
0
-1,500 -1,000 -500 - 500 1,000 1,500 2,000
Fig. 7: Relation of load to member axial strain (d-6-30)
331
Without With Tension Members

Tension members NI =0(kN) NI =3(kN) NI =9(kN) NI =15(kN)
CL CL CL CL
Axial CL
Force
CL CL CL CL CL
Pcr 1.06(kN) 1.54(kN) 4.87(kN) 7.77(kN) 6.52(kN)

Nmax 7.30(kN) 10.4(kN) 32.4(kN) 54.1(kN) 55.0(kN)
Nmax/Pe 0.15 0.22 0.68 1.14 1.16
(50kN)Compression, (50kN) Tension,
Nmax: Maximum axial force of grid member; Pe: Euler buckling load of grid member
Fig. 8: Axial force distribution at buckling load
With Tension Member

Model Without Tension member
N I =0(kN) N I = N IOP (kN)
d-2-
30
g m m
PcrT =17.4(kN) PcrZ =30.6 (kN) N IOP = 8.0(kN) PcrOP =31.5(kN)
d-4-
30
g g
m+p
PcrT =2.85 (kN) PcrZ =3.55 (kN) N IOP = 9.0(kN) PcrOP =13.1(kN)
d-6-
30
g g m+p
d-8-
30
g g m+g
Fig. 9: Relation of buckling load to buckling mode
332
3.3 Effect of loading pattern on buckling

Fig. 10 shows the relation of buckling load to axial force for each value of parameter, γ.
Fig. 11 shows the same relation in three dimensional view. When initial axial force
exceeds 5 (kN), the buckling load of dome decreases gradually corresponding to the
decrease in load distribution coefficient, γ. The effect of initial axial force of tension
member on the buckling load appears in asymmetrical loading as well as symmetrical
loading. The initial axial force at maximum buckling load varies slightly despite change
in γ.
9
Pcr (kN) γ=1.0(Sym.)
8 γ=0.95
7
6
5
4 γ=0.9
γ=0.8
3
γ=0.5
2 γ=0.0
1
0
0 5 10 15 N I (kN)20
Fig. 10: Effect of load distribution pattern on buckling load (d-6-30)
Pcr (kN)
NI (kN)
Fig. 11: Effect of load distribution pattern on buckling load in 3D view (d-6-30)
333
3.4 Effect of tension member area and half open angle on buckling load
Fig. 12 shows the effect of tension member area on the buckling load (d-6-30). The
maximum buckling load and initial axial force at maximum buckling load decrease in
correspondence to the ratio of tension member area to grid member. At maximum
buckling load, the initial axial force of PC bar 2 is half that of PC bar 1 but both initial
strains on PC bar are nearly equal.
9
Pcr (kN)
8 PC Bar1 A=0.396(cm2)
7
6
5
4
3 PC Bar2 A=0.198(cm2)
2
1
0
0 5 10 15 NI(kN) 20
Fig.12: Effect of tension member area on the buckling load (d-6-30)
Fig. 13 shows the effect of half open angle on the buckling load. Both curves depict the
same structural unit number. When half open angle, α, increases, the effect of tension
member on the buckling load decreases in correspondence to radius curvature of
meridian arch. The initial axial force at maximum buckling load changes slightly,
despite the difference of half open angle.
14
Pcr (kN)
12 d-6-45(α=45°)
10
262(%)
8
4 d-6-30(α=30°)
504(%)
2
0
0 5 10 15 NI(kN) 20
Fig.13: Effect of half open angle, α, on the buckling load
334
3.6 Comparison of simple analytical and numerical results

Fig. 14 shows the relation between buckling load and initial axial forces of d-6-30 under
symmetrical loading. In his figure, typical buckling modes are shown corresponding to
the initial axial force of tension member. Short dashed line, dashed line and dashed
dotted line denote local buckling load, global buckling load, and member buckling load,
respectively. The line levels in the load axis are determined by the continuum treatment
method [7], [8], [9]. These original methods are not applicable to the latticed shell that
includes tension members as a useful structural part. As shown in Fig. 7, the tension
member having the sufficient initial axial force is active in spite of shortening of
member length. These buckling loads as determined by continuum methods are
therefore used to calculate the buckling load in this study.
The buckling loads by the continuum method are expressed by the value of per unit
surface area in the following expressions.
1) Global buckling load: qcrlin [8]
4 2 ( D11 (1 + ν ) + D33 )
qcrlin = (1)
R2  2 1 
 + 
 K11 (1 + ν ) K 33 
In which,
Es As 2 E pc Apc 6 Es I s E pc Apc
K11 = K 22 = + , K 33 = + ,
l 2l l3 2l
E pc Apc EI Gs I ps
ν = , D11 = D22 = s s , D33 = ,
2 Es As + E pc Apc l l
K : Extensional rigidity (kN/cm), D : Bending rigidity(kN･cm)
I: Moment of inertia of tube (cm4), E: Elastic modulus
Ip: Polar moment of inertia of tube (cm4), A: Area(cm2)
R: Radius of curvature (cm), Subscript s: Tube, Subscript pc: Tension member
2) Local buckling load: qcrl [9]
qcrl =
1 l
(
・ 3 As Es + 2 2 Apc E pc
6 3 R
) (2)
3) Member buckling load: qcrm [9]
 Apc E pc  2π 2 Es I s
q crm =  1 + 2 ・ (3)
 As Es  Rl 3
Comparison of the result of continuum method and numerical results shows that, the
maximum buckling load of the numerical analysis method is 85 (%) of results of
continuum methods. When the member buckling appears in numerical analysis, the ratio
of numerical results to the analytical results by continuum method is from 85 (%) to 130
335
(%) including other models in this study. The difference between the numerical and
continuum methods in global buckling range, (i), is larger than that in other buckling
ranges as shown in Fig. 14. This shows that non active tension member may appear in
case of small initial axial forces.
10 Pcr (kN)
m
9 g
8 (iii) m+g
7
6
(ii) g+p
5 (iv) m+p
p
4
3
(i) g Global Buckling :g
2
Local Buckling :p
1
Member Buckling :m
0
0 5 10 15 NI(kN) 20
Fig.14: Comparison between continuum and discrete method (d-6-30)
4 Conclusions
This paper examines single layer two-way grid domes with tension members as
diagonals. The effects of tension members as diagonals on the buckling behaviour of the
dome are discussed on the basis of results using the numerical calculation method
considering both joint size and joint rigidity. More than 800 models were analyzed and
thoroughly studied. As a result, the effects of installation of tension member and the
introduction of initial axial force to tension member on the buckling behaviour of the
dome are shown. The main conclusions are as follows.
1) The buckling load of a single layer two-way grid dome increases from 1.3 to 3.3
times by the installation of tension members as diagonals in a two-way grid. Moreover,
the buckling load of the dome increases from 1.8 to 8.6 times by the installation of
tension members and the introduction of initial axial force to tension member.
2) The initial axial force at maximum buckling load is defined by the relation between
buckling load and the initial axial forces of tension members.
3) When the initial axial force is introduced to tension members of a single layer two-
way grid dome, the rapid increase in buckling load of the dome may occurs if buckling
mode changes from global buckling or nodal buckling to member buckling.
4) When a half open angle subtended by the meridian arch decreases and the radius of
curvature increases, the increase ratio of buckling load by the initial axial forces of
tension members becomes larger .
5) When the asymmetry of loading pattern becomes large, the buckling load and its
increase ratio decrease gradually.
336
6) The initial axial force of tension member PC bar2 at maximum buckling load
decreases to about one half of that of tension member PC bar1. At maximum buckling
load, the initial strain of tension member PC bar1 is about the same value as that of PC
bar2.
7) When the initial axial force of tension member are very small and loses the tensile
force of tension member, the properties of single layer two-way grids domes with
tension member are approximate to that without tension members. The buckling load of
domes without tension members are lower bound value of domes with tension member.
When the initial axial force for tension member is larger than a certain value and the
member buckling and compound buckling appears, knock down factor is about 0.6 to
0.85.
References
[1] Schlaich, J. and Schober, H.: Glass-covered Lightweight Spatial Structures, Proc.
IASS-ASCE Int. Symp. 1994, Atlanta, pp. 1-27, 1994.4.
[2] Saitoh, M. : Recent Development of Tension Structures -Aesthetics and
Technology of the Strings-, Current and Emerging Technologies of Shell and
Spatial Structures, Proc. of the IASS Colloquium, Madrid, 1999, pp. 105-116.
[3] Fujimoto, M., Imai, K., Kinoshita, R., and Kushima, S. : Buckling experiments of
single layer two-way grid dome prestressed by PC bar under gravity load, Proc. of
IASS 40th Anniversary Congress, Madrid, 1999, B2.1-B2.10.
[4] Fujimoto, M., Imai, K., Kushima, S., Kinoshita, R., and Morita, T.: Buckling
design method of single layer two-way grid shell with diagonal tension rod
members, -spherical dome and cylindrical roof-, Proc. of IASS symposium 2001,
Nagoya, Oct. 9-13, TPNo. 88, 2001.10.
[5] Nooshin, H., Disney, P. and Yamamoto, C. : Formian, Multi-Science Pub. 1993.
[6] Fujimoto, M., Imai, K. and Kinoshita, R. : Numerical simulation of the buckling
experiments of single layer grid dome prestressed by PC bar, Proceedings of the
Conference on Computational Engineering and Science, Vol. 3, No.3, 1998.5 :
793-796. (in Japanese)
[7] Heki, K., and Saka, T. : Stress analysis of lattice plates as anisotropic continuum
plates, Proc. of 1971 IASS Pacific Symposium Part II on Tension Structures and
Space Frames, AIJ, Tokyo, 1972 : 663-674
[8] Kato, S., and Yamashita, T. : Evaluation of elasto-plastic buckling strength of two-
way grid shells using continuum analogy. Int. J. of Space Structures 2002; 17: 249-
261
[9] Hangai, Y.: Estimation of buckling load of a single layer lattice dome, Stability
Analysis of single layer latticed domes. State-of-Art, (Ed. Heki, K. in Japanese),
1989 : 25-69
337
338
Calculation methods of stability of single-layer reticulated

domes considering the effect of initial bending of members
Feng Fan1*, Jiachuan Yan2, Zhenggang Cao2, Qingsheng Zhou2
1*
School of Civil Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology
Harbin 150090, China
fanf@hit.edu.cn
2
Abstract
Based on commercial finite element software ANSYS and self-compiled pre-processing
and post-processing programs and the multi-beam elements method used for simulate
the initial bending of members, typical cases of single-layer reticulated domes
considering and not considering the effect of initial bending of members are compared.
Using the random imperfection mode method, the load-displacement complete-process
analyses considering the effect of initial bending of members for more than 2500
Hexagonal domes and 800 Kiewitt single-layer reticulated domes have been carried out.
The critical loads of each shell are obtained. And the law of the influence of random
variable of bending angle and random variable of amplitude on the stability of
reticulated domes is mastered. The applicability of conformable imperfection mode
method and the characteristic imperfection mode method of analyzing the effect of
initial bending of members on the critical loads is demonstrated. The results show that
the multi-beam elements method could simulate the initial bending of members. When
the random imperfection mode method is used, it is found that the influence on the
stability of reticulated domes of random variable of bending angle is greater than that of
random variable of amplitude. If the maximum allowable bending is 1/1000 of the
length of the member, the critical load of shell decreased 6% and if the maximum
allowable bending is 2/1000 of the length of the member, the critical load of shell
decreased 10%. The conformable imperfection mode method and the characteristic
imperfection mode method can be used to calculate the minimum critical load of the
shell which considering the effect of initial bending of members.
Keywords: single-layer reticulated domes; initial bending of members; stability; ultimate load;
buckling mode
1 Introduction
The stability analysis is a principal problem in the design of reticulated shell structures,
especially for single-layer reticulated shell structures. Since 1960s, the research on the
stability of reticulated shell structures has been a hot issue which attracts domestic and
foreign scholars’ attention. Substantial progress has been made in the aspects of its
analysis theory and design method [1~7].
339
However, in the previous stability analysis of reticulated shell structures, the basic
assumption is that the shape of each member is straight. The process of production,
transportation and installation for members could deform the shape of them, and the
initial imperfection to members could develop inevitably in different shapes and degrees.
The initial imperfection could decrease the ultimate load of members subjected to the
pressure. So the complete-process analyses of the reticulated shell structures should take
the initial imperfection to members into consideration.
The researches on the frame structure and cable-arc structure with initial imperfection to
members have been carried out by related scholars. Gu and Chan [8, 9] deduced element
tangent stiffness matrix of imperfect beam element for the second-order analysis of
frame structure, and they compiled corresponding finite element programs. Li Guoqiang
[10]
proposed a nonlinear beam element taking initial imperfection to members and shear
deformations into account for the analyses of steel frame. Zhou Zhen [11] studied the
ultimate load of the cable-arc structure using nonlinear link element considering initial
member curvature.
However, currently the complete and systemic research methods are deficient for the
complete-process analyses of the reticulated shell structures with initial imperfection to
members. Especially the influences on the stability of the reticulated shell structures
with initial imperfection to members need profound understanding.
Using large and common finite element software ANSYS, this paper proposes the
multi-beams method to model the initial imperfection to members and corresponding
calculation method which could simulation the distribution of the initial imperfection to
members. Then taking the K8 single-layer reticulated domes as examples, the stability
of single-layer reticulated domes with initial imperfection to members is carried out.
2 Calculation method of single-layer reticulated domes with initial

imperfection to members
2.1 Mutli-beams method

This paper presents multi-beams method to model the initial imperfection to members,
replacing the curvature of the elements by multiple straight beam elements.
2.2 Random imperfection mode method

The shapes of initial imperfection of members are various. This paper assumes that the
shape of the initial imperfection of a member is a half sine curve, which is the ideal and
simplest shape. Meanwhile, the half sine curve is also the shape of the lowest-order
buckling mode of a straight member.
The reticulated shell structure is a kind of special lattice structure. The bending angles
and amplitudes of initial imperfection are unpredictable. It is assumed that the random
variable A, standing for bending angles, obeys uniform distribution in interval [0°, 359°],
denoted A~U [0°, 359°]. Meanwhile, most codes present the request of member flatness
for the delivery of structural steel and steel plates, and amplitudes of initial imperfection
to members are less than a stated value. So the assumption can be made that the random
variable δ0, representing bending amplitudes, obeys extreme I distribution. The
340
probability distribution function and the probability density distribution function of δ0

are:
F (δ 0 ) = 1 − exp  −e ( 0 ) 
v δ −q
(1)
(
f (δ 0 ) = v exp v ( δ 0 − q ) − e
v (δ 0 − q )
) (2)
This paper supposes that the value of maximum allowable bending amplitude δ0max is
l/1000 (l is the length of the member); the probability of exceeding this value is 2.5%,
and the probability of δ0=0 is 1%. From the formulas (1) and (2), v and q can be got as:
5.9  l  l
v= , q = 0.78  = (3)
( l 1000 )  1000  1280
Taking the Kiewitt single-layer reticulated dome as an example (span=40m, rise-span
ratio=1/5), when using the “random imperfection mode method”, the distribution of
initial imperfection amplitude is shown in Figure 1 for one time random calculation.
100
total 456 members
80
number of members
60
40
20
0
-0.0002 0.0000 0.0002 0.0004 0.0006 0.0008 0.0010 0.0012
δ0 / l
Fig.1 The distribution of initial imperfection amplitude
From figure 1, it is shown that the most frequent amplitude is l/1280.

The “random imperfection mode method” regards that initial imperfections of members
are random, taking uniform distribution random variable and extreme I distribution
random variable to simulate the angles and amplitudes of initial imperfection to
members. So if the structure has n members, the angles and amplitudes of initial
imperfection can be regarded as two n dimensions random variables, for (A1,A2,…, An)
and (δ01, δ02,…, δ0n). The sample points (A1,A2,…, An) and (δ01, δ02,…, δ0n) taken from
the sample space (A1,A2,…, An) and (δ01, δ02,…, δ0n) represent a imperfection mode of
structure.
The number imperfection mode of structure is infinite, so it is unnecessary to study the
ultimate loads for the structure with every imperfection mode. This paper takes the
samples of which the capacity is N to simulate imperfection modes for structures. It
means that N kinds of imperfection modes are used to carry out the complete-process
analyses, and then the statistical characteristics of the ultimate loads calculated from the
complete-process analyses will be taken to evaluate the ultimate loads of the structure
with imperfection.
341
The Hexagonal dome is taken as an example to explain the calculation process of

“random imperfection mode method”. Figure 2(a) is a complete hexagonal dome of 24
elements, and the geometric dimension and the material parameter of the structure are
shown in Figure 2(a). The supports are pinned and the load distribution form is
concentrated load on the middle node. Figure 2(b) is a hexagonal dome which the initial
bending of members is magnified 200 times.
F Iy=2.377cm4
25cm 25cm Iz=0.295cm4
2cm
J=0.918cm4
A=3.17cm2
43.3cm 43.3cm
E=3.03e5N/cm2
6.216cm G=1.096e5N/cm4
(a)complete structure (b) initial bending of members

Fig.2 Hexagonal dome
The finite element program ANSYS is used for the calculation. When taking the mutli-
beams method to analyze the complete-process of the structure, each member with
imperfection is divided into 3 equivalent straight members along the length direction of
the member. Every straight member is simulated by a beam189 element. The stress-
strain relationship model of the material is perfectly elastic-plastic model.
The random variable of bending angle could be regarded as a factor X which will has an
influence on the ultimate load, and the random variable of bending amplitude could be
considered as a factor Y which will also has influence on the ultimate load. The different
state of each factor is called level. The X1,X2,…,X20 totalled 20 level units are taken
from the factor X, and Y1, Y2,…, Y20 totalled 20 level units are taken from the factor Y. Xi
and Yi respectively represents a certain sample point (A1,A2,…, An) and (δ01, δ02,…, δ0n)
from the n dimensions random variable (A1,A2,…, An) and (δ01, δ02,…, δ0n).
Supposing the value of maximum allowable bending amplitude δ0max is l/1000 (l is the
length of the member), each collocation XiYj (i, j=1,2,…,20) from every level units of
factor X and Y are used to carry out a complete-process analysis, so the number of
complete-process analysis is 2500. The ultimate loads calculated are shown in Figure 3.
342
565
564
563
ultimate loads(N)
562
561
560
559
558
557 Y1~Y50
556
0 10 20 30 40 50
level unit Xi
Fig.3 Ultimate load of different Collocation
From the figure 3, it is shown that the values of the ultimate loads are random. The
maximum value is 564.45N, and the minimum is 557.78N. The mean value is 560.60 N,
and coefficient of variability is 0.2%. The ultimate load of the structure without initial
imperfection is 576.67 kN/m2.
Taking the factors X and Y to conduct an analysis of variance for two factors, the
analysis of variance table is shown in the table 1.
Table 1 Table of variance analysis
quadratic sum of
source of variance freedom variance value of F Fα
deviation
factor X
3425.7 49 69.912 494.84 1.54
between rows
factor Y
6.33 49 0.129 0.91 1.54
between classes
error e
339.22 2401 0.141 — —
intra class
summation 3771.2 2499 — — —
From the result of the analysis of variance, FX=494.84>F0.01(49,2401)= 1.54,
FY=0.91<F0.01(49,2401)= 1.54. FX is greater than FY, so it means that the influence of
random variable of bending angle is greater than random variable of bending amplitude.
2.2 Random imperfection mode method and characteristic imperfection

mode method
“Random imperfection mode method” can reflect the working performance of structure
relatively in truth. However, it needs to simulate the distribution of bending angles and
amplitudes of initial imperfection in multiple. The calculation workload of “random
imperfection mode method” is too many. Aiming at this problem, reference [1]
proposed an effect method of applying initial imperfection distribution, namely
“conformable imperfection mode method”. This method uses the minimum-order
buckling mode to simulate the distribution of initial imperfection. Reference [1] applied
343
the “conformable imperfection mode method” to calculate the minimum ultimate load
of reticulated shell structures with initial imperfection of nodes deviation.
The principle of the “conformable imperfection mode method” is that using the result of
the complete-process analysis of the complete structure to calculate the front-to-rear
buckling displacement difference. Then this displacement difference will be applied to
simulate the distribution of initial imperfection. So the “conformable imperfection mode
method” needs twice complete-process analyses to obtain the stability of reticulated
domes with initial imperfection to members. The calculation workload of “conformable
imperfection mode method” is many. Aiming at this characteristic, reference [15]
proposed “characteristic imperfection mode method”. The principle of the
“characteristic imperfection mode method” is that before the complete-process analysis,
based on the initial stiffness matrix of the structure, using the “subspace iteration
method” to get the minimum-order buckling mode. Then this buckling mode will be
applied to simulate the distribution of initial imperfection.
In order to contrast the difference of the ultimate loads obtained from the results of the
three calculation methods; this paper uses a Kiewitt dome to demonstrate the
applicability of “conformable imperfection mode method” and “characteristic
imperfection mode method”. In the calculation processes, the maximum allowable
bending amplitude δ0max is supposed as l/1000, 2l/1000.
The Kiewitt single-layer reticulated dome (span=40m, rise-span ratio=1/5) is taken as
an example to explain the calculation process of “random imperfection mode method”.
The reticulated dome is designed by convention: the sections of members are pipe
φ114×3 and φ140×6 (unit: mm); the larger sections are designed for rid members and
the latitude members and the smaller sections are designed for oblique members;
supports are fixed; the yield stress of material is 235N/mm2; the load distribution form
is uniformly distributed load.
Supposing the value of maximum allowable bending amplitude δ0max is l/1000 (l is the
length of the member), each collocation XiYj (i, j=1,2,…,20) from every level units of
factor X and Y are used to carry out a complete-process analysis, so the number of
complete-process analysis is 400. The ultimate loads calculated are shown in Figure 4.
6.45
ultimate loads(kN/m )
6.40
2
6.35
6.30
6.25
6.20
6.15
6.10
0 5 10 15 20
level unit Xi
Fig.4 Ultimate loads of different Collocation
344
From the figure 4, it is shown that the values of the ultimate loads are random. The
maximum value is 6.437kN/m2, and the minimum is 6.107 kN/m2. The mean value is
6.255 kN/m2, and coefficient of variability is 8.07%. The ultimate load of the structure
without initial imperfection is 6.498 kN/m2. So it is concluded that if the value of
maximum allowable bending amplitude δ0max is l/1000 (l is the length of the member),
the ultimate load decreases 6.05% on maximum.
For each case, the “random imperfection mode method” is used to conduct 400
complete-process analyses for single-layer reticulated domes with imperfection to
members, totally 800 complete-process analyses. The minimum, maximum and mean
values of ultimate loads calculated by the results of “random imperfection mode
method” are shown in the table 2. And the ultimate load for each case calculated by the
“conformable imperfection mode method” and “characteristic imperfection mode
method” are also shown in the table 2. The conformable imperfection distribution and
the characteristic imperfection distribution are shown in Figure 5.
Fig.5 Conformable imperfection distribution and characteristic imperfection

distribution
Table 2 Ultimate Load
maximum ultimate load(kN/m2)

allowable “random imperfection mode method” “conformable “characteristic
bending minimum maximum imperfection imperfection
amplitude mean value
value value mode method” mode method”
l/1000 6.1073 6.2546 6.4373 6.1742 6.4157
2l/1000 5.6785 6.0795 6.3275 6.0525 6.0913
From table 2, the ultimate load for each case calculated by the “conformable
imperfection mode method” and “characteristic imperfection mode method” is approach
to the mean value of ultimate loads calculated by the results of “random imperfection
mode method” for each case. It can be concluded that the “conformable imperfection
mode method” and “characteristic imperfection mode method” can be used to calculate
the ultimate load of single-layer reticulated domes with imperfection to members.
345
3 Conclusions
(1) Based on the multi-beam elements method, using the “random imperfection mode
method”, “conformable imperfection mode method” and the “characteristic
imperfection mode method”, the calculation processes of the stability of Kiewitt single-
layer reticulated dome with initial imperfection to members are discussed in detail.
(2) When using the “random imperfection mode method” to carry out the complete-
process of the domes, it can be concluded that the influence of random variable of
bending angle is greater than random variable of bending amplitude.
(3) The more the bending amplitude δ0 increases, the more ultimate load of the structure
decreases. If the maximum allowable bending is 1/1000 of the length of the member,
the ultimate load of shell decreased more than 5% on maximum and if the maximum
allowable bending is 2/1000 of the length of the member, the ultimate load of shell
decreased more than 10% on maximum.
References
[1] Shen Shi-zhao, Chen Xin. Stability of reticulated shells. Beijing: Science Press,
1999:7-10.
[2] Qian Ruo-jun, Wang Jian, Zeng Yin-zhi. An investigation on modeling for
instability analysis of reticulated shells. Journal of building structures 2003; 24
(6):10-15.
[3] Meek J L, Loganathan S, Geometric and material nonlinear behavior of structures
comprising circular and rectangular hollow sections, Progress in shell and spatial
structures,IASS,1989,11(4).
[4] Walter Wunderlich, Ursula Albertin. Buckling behavior of imperfect spherical
shells. International. Journal of Non-Linear Mechanics 2002; 37:589–604.
[5] Shiro Kato, Jong-Min Kim, Myung-Chae Cheong. A new proportioning method for
member sections of single layer reticulated domes subjected to uniform and non-
uniform loads. Engineering Structures 2003; 25:1265-1278.
[6] Kani I M, Heidari A. Automatic Two-Stage Calculation of Bifurcation Path of
Perfect Shallow Reticulated Domes. Journal of Structural Engineering 2007;
185(2):185-194.
[7] Cao Zheng-gang, Fan Feng, Shen Shi-zhao, Elasto-plastic stability of single-layer
reticulated domes. China civil engineering journal 2006; 39 (10):6-10.
[8] Chan S L, Gu J X. Exact Tangent Stiffness for Imperfect Beam-Column Members.
Journal of Structural Engineering 2000; 126 (9):1094-1102.
[9] Chan S L , Zhou Z H. Second 2order elastic analysis of frames using single
imperfect element per member. Journal of Structural Engineering 1995; 121
(6):939 2945.
[10] Li Guo-qiang, LIU Yu-shu, A nonlinear beam element considering initial
imperfection. Chinese Journal of Computational Mechanics 2005; 22 (1):6-7.
346
[11] Zhou zhen, Meng Shaoping, Wu Jing. Nonlinear link element considering member
initial curvature. Journal of southeast university (Natural science edition) 2007;
37(2):201-205.
[12] Chen Ji. Stability of Steel Structures Theory and Design. Beijing: Science Press,
2001:45.
[13] Chen W F, Atsuta T. Theory of Beam-Columns. Beijing: China Communications
Press, 1997:340-341.
[14] Wang Yan, Sui Si-lian, Wang Ai-qing. Mathematical statistics and engineering
data analysis of MATLAB. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press. 2006:101-103.
[15] Cao Zheng-gang. Elasto-plastic stability of reticulated shells. Harbin: Harbin
Institute of Technology, 2007:38-40.
347
Stability Analysis of the Flexible Ferris Wheel in Construction

Jie Bai1*, Yongfeng Luo1, Xiaonong Guo1, Baorong Jia2, Xiaoming Chen2, Zuyan Shen1
1*
Department of Building Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China
whitecarol@yahoo.cn
2
Shanghai Mechanized Construction Co., Ltd, Shanghai, 200072, China
Abstract
A large scale flexible Ferris wheel is a kind of vertically positioned spoke structures
characterized by light self-weight, large dimension and attractive appearance. It is now
constructed all over the world for sight-view and land marks. However, the process of
the vertical rotation construction is complicated, in which the rim of the wheel is
installed by separate members or segments, temporary supports are needed to be
installed and removed, and the pre-stress of spoke cables should be applied and adjusted
gradually in different construction stages. Therefore, a perfect numerical analysis and
the skilled assemble techniques are needed for safe construction of the wheel.
The construction methods of a flexible Ferris wheel include ground-assembling-then-
pulling-up method and vertical rotation method. The vertical rotation method is usually
recommended because of its limited construction land occupation and convenience of
installation. In vertical rotation construction process, rigid spokes are needed to function
as temporary supports for the installation of rim and spoke cables. The rigid spokes are
then removed after the rim is closed and the spoke cables are pre-tensioned. The flexible
Ferris wheel undergoes a transformation from a semi-rigid structure to a flexible
structure.
The pre-stresses of spoke cables are applied and adjusted step by step in each
construction stage. The quantity of the pre-stresses in each construction stage should be
obtained based on not only the wheel strength, but also the wheel stability. The stiffness
of the flexible Ferris wheel will change obviously during construction process.
A large proportion of the structure stiffness of the flexible Ferris wheel is provided by
the pre-stresses of the spoke cables. Meanwhile, the pre-stresses of the spoke cables also
act on wheel members as a load, which may cause local or overall buckling of the wheel.
Therefore, it’s necessary to analyze the stability of the wheel in the whole construction
process. Based on an actual large flexible Ferris wheel constructing in China, the overall
stability behaviour of the flexible wheel in different construction steps under different
pre-stresses are analyzed and compared in this paper, when the vertical rotation
construction method is adopted. By analyzing the buckling modes of the semi-rigid and
the flexible structure, the pre-stress loading behaviour and the stability characteristics of
the wheel in transformation process are obtained and better understood. The numerical
data and several suggestions are provided for the wheel construction control. It is also a
valuable reference for per-tension of the wheel.
Keywords: Flexible Ferris wheel, construction simulation, structure stability in

construction, structure transformation
348
1 Introduction
As a kind of large scale entertainment equipment, the first modern observation wheel
was built in Chicago Expo, 1893. Since then, the observation wheel is named after its
designer, the American engineer George Washington Ferris, as Ferris wheel[1]. To
challenge the ever increasing city horizontal line and break the limitation of structure
self-weight, the trend of Ferris wheel is to become higher, stronger and lighter.
Therefore, the structure system of Ferris wheel has evolved gradually from rigid wheel
(Fig.1), semi-rigid wheel (Fig.2) to flexible wheel (Fig.3), whose spoke system is
composed of rigid truss, combination of truss and cables, and cables respectively.
Because the structure system of flexible Ferris wheel cannot be achieved until the
closure of wheel rim and application of spoke cable pre-stress, the construction method
of flexible Ferris wheel is different from traditional assembling methods. Two
innovative construction methods have been employed till now, one is called ground-
assembling-then-pulling-up method, which has been successfully used by the British
Airway London Eye, and the other is vertical rotation method, which is adopted by
Singapore Flyer because of its limited land occupation. Despite its advantage of little
land occupation, the vertical rotation method is a dynamic rotation process, in which the
wheel structure experiences transformation from unclosed wheel to closed wheel, and
from a semi-rigid wheel to a flexible wheel. The strength and stability of the flexible
Ferris wheel in each construction stage should be analyzed to ensure safety and provide
suggestions for an efficient pre-stress scheme.
Fig. 1: Rigid wheel Fig. 2: Semi-rigid wheel Fig. 3: Flexible wheel
2 Vertical rotation method

The vertical rotation method of a flexible Ferris wheel is a method to install wheel by
assembling segments of wheel piece by piece in the vertical plan with temporary
support of rigid spokes in the way of rotation. The whole construction process can be
divided into two stages, the first stage is assembling of the rim, and the second stage is
the removal of temporary supports [2].
The assembling of rim goes as follows. After the support columns and spindle are lifted
into the designed level, the wheel itself is erected in a “pie slice” way [3]. Rim segments
are delivered to site and laid to level on a temporary stage. Temporary compression
struts (rigid spokes) are installed between the hub and the rim so that two struts and a
rim segment can form a triangle, enabling each segment of the rim to be stable itself.
Cables are also installed and a certain proportion of pre-stress is applied. Upon
349
completion of a segment, installed segments are rotated to clear the way for installing
the next segment and so on (Fig.4). The removal of temporary supports is a process
described below. Once the full wheel is in place, rigid spokes are removed one by one
symmetrically in a rotation process and cables are tensioned in different stages (Fig.5).
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Fig. 4: Rim assembling stages of the vertical rotation method

Fig. 5: Temporary support removal stages of the vertical rotation method
3 Structure system transformation

3.1 Transformation from unclosed wheel to closed wheel
In the rim assembling stages of the vertical rotation method, wheel rim is not closed
until the 8th step. As known, the torsional stiffness of unclosed wheel is much smaller
than that of closed wheel. Besides, the inner force of the wheel rim under a circle of
spoke cable pre-stresses is compression; hence the unclosed wheel tends to be closed
under spoke cable pre-stresses. Once rim is closed, the whole circle of rim works
together with spoke cables and rigid spokes as a self-balanced system.
350
3.1.1 Mechanical behaviour in transformation

In order to reveal the behaviour of wheel structure transformation from unclosed to
closed, the internal forces of rigid spokes in different construction stages are calculated
and compared. The numbering of rigid spokes is shown in Fig.6. Regardless of rim
rotation, rigid spoke in 6 o’clock direction is always marked as NO.1. Load
combination is 1.0D+1.0PS. The internal force change of rigid spokes is shown in
Fig.7~ Fig.8.
Fig. 6: Rigid spoke number Fig. 7: Axial force change of rigid spokes in rim assembling stages
According to Fig.7, the compressive force of each rigid spoke increases with the
increase of construction steps, and reaching the highest value at step 7, and then drops
precipitously at step 8 while the wheel is closed. It is well-known that the pre-stress of
spoke cables acts as out external compression on rim, and wheel structure has the
tendency to contract under the compression. From step 1 to step 7, pre-stress of spoke
cables are applied simultaneously with the installation of rim segments. Therefore,
compressive force of rigid spokes increases while the pre-stress is applied step by step.
However, when the wheel is closed and the first pre-stress application stage is
completed at step 8, the compressive axial force of rigid spokes decreases rather than
increases, meaning that the structure system undergoes a transformation and the
mechanical behaviour is much better than the unclosed wheel structure.
Fig.8: Shearing force change of rigid spokes in rim assembling stages
351
Since the unclosed wheel structure has the tendency to close under rim compression, the
rigid spokes will bear shear forces. According to Fig.8, the shearing force of each rigid
spoke increases with the construction process, reaching the highest value at step 7, and
then drops precipitously at step 8 while the wheel is closed. At step 8, the shear forces
of rigid spokes almost vanish and compressive axial forces increase because of the
wheel closed.
Based on analysis above, in the aspect of mechanical behaviour, the most unfavourable
construction stage is stage-7, in which forces in structure members are the largest. Once
the wheel is closed, the structure system transformation is complete. The whole circle of
rim works together with spoke cables and rigid spokes as a self-balanced system. The
mechanical behaviour of structure is improved.
3.1.2 Linear stable behaviour in transformation
Not only the inner forces, but also the linear stability behaviour of the structure changes
in the wheel transformation from unclosed to closed. To reveal the change of the
stability behaviour, the buckling modes and coefficients of unclosed and closed wheels
are calculated and compared. Relationship between the stability behaviour and spoke
cable pre-stresses is also discussed. The most unfavourable stage of step 7 is chosen to
represent unclosed wheel structure.
(1) Linear stability of unclosed structure under 1.0D+0.7PS
The buckling modes and coefficients of unclosed wheel under 1.0D+0.7PS are
shown in Fig.9, and described in Table 1.
Mode 1 (λcr1=7.259) Mode 2 (λcr2=9.460) Mode 3 (λcr3=9.643)

Fig.9: Buckling modes and coefficients of unclosed wheel (1.0D+0.7PS)
Table 1: Buckling modes and coefficients description of unclosed wheel (1.0D+0.7PS)

mode coefficient description
1 7.259 Torsional buckling of wheel
2 9.460 Lateral buckling of support column
352

(2) Linear stability of unclosed structure under 1.0D+1.0PS

The buckling modes and coefficients of unclosed wheel under 1.0D+1.0PS are
shown in Fig.10, and described in Table 2.

Fig.10: Buckling modes and coefficients of unclosed wheel (1.0D+1.0PS)
Table 2: Buckling modes and coefficients description of unclosed wheel (1.0D+1.0PS)

6 11.570 Local buckling of wheel
(3) Linear stability of closed structure under 1.0D+0.7PS

The buckling modes and coefficients of closed wheel under 1.0D+0.7PS are shown
in Fig.11, and described in Table 3.
353

Fig.11: Buckling modes and coefficients of closed wheel (1.0D+0.7PS)
Table 3: Buckling modes and coefficients description of closed wheel (1.0D+0.7PS)

(4) Linear stability of closed structure under 1.0D+1.0PS

The buckling modes and coefficients of closed wheel under 1.0D+1.0PS are shown
in Fig.12, and described in Table 4.

Fig.12: Buckling modes and coefficients of closed wheel (1.0D+1.0PS)
Table 4: Buckling modes and coefficients description of closed wheel (1.0D+1.0PS)

354

6 9.305 Lateral buckling of wheel
The following conclusions can be obtained according to the analysis above:

a. Buckling coefficients decrease with the increase of the spoke cable pre-stress,
indicating that pre-stress acts as load on the wheel rim.
b. The overall buckling mode of the unclosed wheel occurs earlier than that of the
closed wheel. Since the unclosed wheel tends to be closed under compression, and the
torsional stiffness of the unclosed wheel is much smaller than closed wheel, the first
buckling mode of the unclosed wheel is torsional buckling, while the first wheel overall
buckling mode of the closed wheel is lateral buckling.
c. If the pre-stress of spoke cables is not large enough, the first buckling mode of
the system will be lateral buckling of support columns. With the increase of pre-stress,
buckling of the wheel happens before buckling of support columns.
3 Structure system transformation
3.2 Transformation from semi-rigid wheel to flexible wheel
As mentioned above, the second construction stage is to remove the temporary rigid
spokes during rotation. The wheel structure will transfer from the semi-rigid wheel to
the flexible wheel (Fig.13).
Fig.13: Transformation from semi-rigid wheel to flexible wheel
3.2.1 Mechanical behaviour during transformation

In the rigid spoke removal stage, the spoke cable pre-stress is applied in different steps.
The internal forces of rigid spokes are not independent from pre-stress of spoke cables.
Apart from the influence of gravity, rim itself would contract under the compression of
spoke cable pre-stress, hence the axial force of rigid spokes would always be
compressive and the compressive force would increase with the increase of spoke cable
pre-stress. However, numerical results show that after considering the influence of
gravity, the internal force of rigid spoke No.1 (in 6 o’clock direction) transfers from
tension to compression with the increase of pre-stress (Fig.14 ). If the zero or smallest
inner force state of the rigid spoke is found, the removal steps can be determined. The
final removal steps are shown in Fig.14 and Table 5.
Table 5: Construction step description of Fig.14
Step Step Description
1-7 Rim assembling stage with 30% of pre-stress
355
8 semi-rigid wheel with 30% of pre-stress

Fig.14: Axial force transformation of rigid spoke No.1 with increase of cable pre-stress
According to Fig.14, when pre-stress reaches 67% in step 13, the axial force of rigid
spoke No.1 is close to zero, meaning that this rigid spoke is unloaded, which is a perfect
moment to remove this temporary support from the structure since the removal effect is
so little that it could be ignored. By removing this rigid spoke, the semi-rigid wheel
transfers partially into a flexible wheel.
Adjusting spoke cable pre-stress, so that the internal force of the rigid spoke in same
position is small enough to be safely removed, is “the pre-stress principle” in rigid
spoke removal stages. Guided by this principle, the step-by-step pre-stress scheme is
shown in Table 6, and the corresponding force of rigid spoke No.1 in each step is shown
in Fig.15.
Table 6: Pre-stress scheme in stage of removal rigid spokes
Construction step Pre-stress scale
1 67%
2 80%
3 90%
4 100%
5 100%
6 100%
7 100%
8 100%
356
Fig.15: Internal force change of rigid spoke No.1 in each step

In conclusion, the transformation from semi-rigid wheel to flexible wheel is not simply
conducted by removing rigid spokes, pre-stress application is also a critical factor to be
considered. By designing a reasonable pre-stress scheme, the structure transformation
can be easily and safely realized.
3.2.2 Linear stable behaviour in transformation
The stability behaviour of the structure will change in the transformation from semi-
rigid wheel to flexible wheel. To reveal the stability behaviour in transformation, the
buckling modes and coefficients of rigid wheel, semi-rigid wheel and flexible wheel are
calculated and compared.
(1) Linear stability of the rigid wheel under 1.0D
The buckling modes and coefficients of the rigid wheel under 1.0D are shown in
Fig.16, and described in Table 7.
357

Fig.16: Buckling modes and coefficients of rigid wheel (1.0D)
Table 7: Buckling modes and coefficients description of rigid wheel (1.0D)

(2) Linear stability of semi-rigid wheel under 1.0D+1.0PS

The buckling modes and coefficients of rigid wheel under 1.0D+1.0PS are shown in

Fig.17: Buckling modes and coefficients of semi-rigid wheel (1.0D+1.0PS)
Table 8: Buckling modes and coefficients description of semi-rigid wheel (1.0D+1.0PS)

358

(3) Linear stability of flexible wheel under 1.0D+1.0PS

The buckling modes and coefficients of rigid wheel under 1.0D+1.0 PS are shown in

Fig.18: Buckling modes and coefficients of flexible wheel (1.0D+1.0PS)
Table 9: Buckling modes and coefficients description of flexible wheel (1.0D+1.0PS)

The following conclusions can be obtained according to the analysis above:

a. For a rigid wheel, without compression of pre-stress, major buckling mode is
lateral buckling of support columns rather than buckling of the wheel;
b. For a semi-rigid wheel, with the stiffness of rigid spoke, the overall buckling of
wheel does not easily occur. Its major buckling mode is also lateral buckling of support
columns;
c. For a flexible wheel, the stiffness of the wheel is much smaller than rigid and
semi-rigid wheel, so its major buckling mode is lateral or torsional buckling of the
wheel rather than lateral buckling of support columns.
359
3 Conclusions
By analyzing the mechanical and stability behaviour of the flexible Ferris wheel in the
vertical rotation construction process. The following conclusions can be obtained.
(1) The process of the vertical rotation construction can be divided into two steps, the
first step is rim assembling stage, and the second is temporary spoke removal stage;
(2) In the rim assembling stage, the wheel experiences the structure system
transformation from unclosed to closed. The most unfavourable step for unclosed
wheel is step 7, when the internal forces of rigid spokes are the largest and the
buckling mode is wheel rotation. After rim is closed, the mechanical and stability
behaviour of the structure improve greatly. Internal forces of rigid spokes decrease
and the buckling coefficients increase;
(3) In the temporary spoke removal stage, structure transfers from semi-rigid wheel to
flexible wheel. In this process, the critical unloading point for rigid spoke No.1 can
be found by adjusting spoke cable pre-stress. Removing a temporary spoke at
critical point has the least influence on the structure. The pre-stress scheme can be
designed according to this principle;
(4) The major buckling mode of unclosed wheel is wheel rotation. For closed wheel,
major buckling mode of a rigid wheel is lateral buckling of support columns. For
semi-rigid closed wheel, with the stiffness of rigid spoke, the overall buckling of
wheel does not early occur. Its major buckling mode is also lateral buckling of
support columns. For a flexible wheel, the stiffness of wheel is much smaller than
rigid and semi-rigid wheel, so its major buckling mode is lateral or torsional
buckling of wheel rather than lateral buckling of support columns;
(5) Since the pre-stress acts as load on the rim of a flexible wheel, the buckling
coefficient of wheel decreases with the increase of spoke cable pre-stress. The
relationship between pre-stress and stability should be studied carefully.
References
[1] WANG Xiao-dun, SHI Yong-jiu, WANG Yuan-qing. Research on structure and
engineering application of Ferris wheel. JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURE AND
CIVIL ENGINEERING 2005; 22:30-35.
[2] YAN Shi-fen, XIA Liangfeng. World Tallest Ferris Wheel-Optimized Installation
Proposal for Steel Structure of Chaotian Wheel in Beijing. BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION 2008; 30: 333-336.
[3] Brendon McNiven, Pat Dallard. The Singapore Flyer and design of Giant
Observation Wheels. IstructE Asia-Pacific Forum on Structural Engineering:
Innovations in Structural Engineering, Singapore 2007.
360
Static Stability Analysis of Flexible Ferris Wheel Structures

Rui Jian1*, Xiaonong Guo1, Yongfeng Luo1, Baorong Jia2, Xiaoming Chen2, Zuyan
Shen1
1
Department of Building Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China
2
Shanghai Mechanized Construction Co., Ltd, Shanghai, 200072, China
*
Email: jianrui-109@163.com
Abstract: A Ferris wheel structure system is usually composed of a wheel structure and
a supporting structure. The wheel structure of the modern Ferris wheel is usually a
flexible Ferris wheel, which is composed of tensioned spoke cables and a rim structure.
But the static stability of the flexible Ferris wheel structure is not understood thoroughly
now. Few systematical research papers or reports about the subject can be found today.
The design criteria haven’t been brought up either.
Based on an actual flexible Ferris wheel building in China, the static stability of the
single flexible wheel structure and the whole structure system are studied deeply in this
paper. The influence of the spoke cable pre-stresses on the stability behavior is
investigated emphatically. The stability behavior of the single wheel structure is
compared with that of the whole structure. In linear buckling analysis, the influence of
the spoke cable pre-stresses on the buckling mode and linear buckling coefficients is
discussed. The relationship of buckling modes and buckling coefficients between the
single wheel structure and the whole structure is also studied. Then in the nonlinear
stability analysis, the initial imperfections and the material nonlinearity are considered,
and the influence of the spoke cable pre-stresses on the load-bearing capacity of the
corresponding structure is also discussed. Reliable numerical results and appropriate
suggestions are offered to the design and optimization of the wheel structure system. It
also provides a valuable reference for the design of similar structures.
Keywords: flexible Ferris wheel structure; spoke cable; wheel structure; whole
structure; static stability.
1 Introduction
1.1 Application of flexible Ferris wheel structures
Modern Ferris wheel structure is mainly composed of a wheel and a supporting frame.
The wheel, including hub, tensional spoke and compressive rim, can be seen as a self-
equilibrium structure system. The rim is mainly composed by spatial truss system, and
the tension spoke is usually composed by truss system, hybrid system that combines the
361
truss with cables and complete cable system. According to the composing ways of the
spoke system, the structure system of Ferris wheel can be classified into three types such
as rigid, semi-rigid and flexible. Among them, flexible system, the spoke of which is
primary composed by the tensioned spoke cables providing the structure stiffness, is
suitable for the large scale Ferris wheel structures with larger diameter and height owing
to the advantages including clear force-bearing, low steel consumption, excellent seismic
performance, simple and lightweight on condition that the capacity and stiffness of the
structure are ensured.
A rush on construction of the Ferris wheels has been lifted in many regions of the world
in recent decades due to the construction of Ferris wheels could provide great and
profound social and economic effects. The development tendency which is reflected in
the gradually increasing of the height and diameter could be seen from the existing large
scale Ferris wheel projects built in resent years. As a new type of structural system,
prominent advantages of flexible system are obviously although the application in the
Ferris wheel structure has appeared not long ago. Nowadays the flexible system
becomes the dominant structure system in the design and construction of many large
scale Ferris wheels. Some successful projects, such as "New London Eye" with the
height of 135m and the diameter of 122m (Fig.1), together with "Singapore Flyer” with
the height of 165m and the diameter of 150m (Fig.2) indicate that the flexible system is
appropriate in the large scale Ferris wheel structures.
Fig.1 New London Eye Fig.2 Singapore Flyer
1.2 Static stability problem of flexible Ferris wheel structures
The stability problem of many steel structures is mainly caused by compressive stress
induced by the applied loads. For the flexible Ferris wheel structures, on one hand, the
rim couldn’t maintain original balance status if the compressive stress induced by the
pre-stresses of the spoke cables and the applied load is too large, then the large
deformation of the rim may occur and give rise to the out-plane buckling of the wheel.
On the other hand, the bend-buckling of the supporting frame may appear if the
362
compressive stress induced by the applied load is too large. Which buckling mode is
dominant in the buckling of flexible Ferris wheel under the pre-tension of the spoke
cables and the applied load is an issue worth to be investigated deeply.
At present, few systematically research papers or reports about the static stability
properties of flexible Ferris wheel structures can be found at home and abroad due to the
novelty and speciality of the structure system, as well as the limit of the referential
engineering examples. The design criteria haven’t been brought up either. Based on an
actual flexible Ferris wheel being built in China, the linear and nonlinear buckling
properties of structure are analyzed in detail by taking the wheel structure and the overall
structure as objects. The influence of the cable pre-stresses on the buckling properties is
discussed. In the nonlinear buckling analysis, the influence of initial geometric
imperfection and the elastic-plastic effect of material on the nonlinear buckling properties
are taken into account thoroughly.
2 Finite element models and applied loads
2.1 Finite element models
The analyzed flexible Ferris wheel structure, the height of which is more than 200m,
will be one of the largest Ferris wheels in the world after construction. The wheel is
composed of a rim which is a kind of lattice steel-tube spatial truss with a triangular
cross-section, a hub, and forty-eight alternant spoke cables connecting them. The
supporting system is composed of the A-type frame and some stay-cables on both
supporting sides. The stay-cables could play a great role in keeping the lateral stability
of the whole structure. Two kinds of special mechanical equipments are installed on the
reticulated shell located on the ground. One is the drive and guide system which is used
for driving and guiding the wheel in operation condition (OPC).Another is the storm
fixing system which is used for fixing the wheel in static condition (STC) under
extreme storm conditions. Therefore the whole Ferris wheel has two different analysis
models according to the corresponding conditions. The finite element models of the
wheel and overall structure are presented in Fig.3 and Fig.4 respectively. The element
types used to simulate the members and special systems of the structure are summed up
in table 1.
363
Fig.3 FEM of Overall Structure Fig.4 FEM of Wheel Structure
Table 1: Summary of element types
Drive, guide A-Type

Spoke and stay
Member type and storm supporting Truss members
cables
fixing systems frame
Element type Link10 Combin14 Beam188 Beam188
2.2 Applied loads
Pre-tension of the spoke cables, dead load induced by the structure weight, live load
induced by the passenger weight, and wind load are taken into account in the stability
analysis. The detailed values of the applied loads are presented as follows.
1) Pre-tension of the spoke cables
On account of the safety coefficient requirement of the spoke cables under OPC, as well
as other influencing coefficients, the pre-tension of the spoke cables is determined as
3300kN by way of a series of optimization.
2) Dead load
There are 48 capsules in the Ferris wheel. Each capsule could accommodate 40 persons
at most. If the weight of one person is 0.75kN, the overall live load could be determined
as 1440kN.
3) Wind load
According to the requirement of load code for the design of building structures
(GB50009-2001), the normalized value of the wind load could be determined by the
following equation.
Wk = β z µs µz w0 (1)
The presentation of each variable in the equation is specified as follows.
364
β z-Wind fluttering coefficient at height of z; µs-Shape coefficient of wind load; µz -

Height variation coefficient of wind pressure; w 0 -Fundamental wind pressure.
Furthermore, as a typical amusement, the maximum wind velocity should be limited in
a certain value according to the requirement of amusement device safety code (GB
8408-2008). The ratio of the limit wind pressure to the fundamental wind pressure of
the location is 0.27. Therefore in the analysis of the overall structure under OPC, the
normalized value of the wind load could be determined by the following equation.
Wk = 0.27 β z µs µz w0 (2)
2.3 Load combinations in stability analysis
The load combinations in the stability analysis of the wheel and overall structure are
summed up in table 2 and table 3.
Table2 Load combinations of wheel structure
Condition LC Combination
1 1.0Ps
2 1.5Ps
STC
3 1.0DL+1.0WL（1.0Ps）
4 1.0DL+1.0WL（1.5Ps）
(Note: Ps signifies the spoke cable pre-tension. DL signifies the dead load. WL signifies
the wind load perpendicular to the wheel plane.)
Table3 Load combinations of overall structure
Condition LC Combination
1 1.0DL+LL+1.0WL（1.0Ps）
OPC
2 1.0DL+LL +1.0WL（1.5Ps）
3 1.0DL+1.0WL（1.0Ps）
STC
4 1.0DL+1.0WL（1.5Ps）
(Note: Ps, DL and WL signify the same as in Table2. LL signifies the live load.)
3 Linear stability analysis of the wheel and the overall structure
In this part, the stability behaviour of both wheel structure and overall structure is
investigated by way of linear stability analysis. The influence of pre-stress of spoke
cables on stability behaviour is taken as an important consideration in the analysis.
365
3.1 Linear stability analysis of the wheel structure
3.1.1 Buckling coefficients and basic modes under different load combinations
Linear buckling analysis method is used to analyze the stability behaviour of the wheel
structure under different load combinations. The basic linear buckling mode under each
load combination is presented accordingly in fig.5~fig.8. The corresponding linear
buckling coefficients are summed up in table 4.
Table 4: Buckling coefficients of wheel structure
LC 1 2 3 4
λcr1 5.056 3.371 5.029 3.364
Fig.5 Basic buckling mode (LC1) Fig.6 Basic buckling mode (LC2)
366
3.1.2 The influence of cable pre-tension on linear buckling behaviors
It can be seen from all of the basic buckling modes (Fig.5~Fig.8) that the basic linear
buckling mode of the wheel is out-of-plane torsion under certain boundary condition.
The basic buckling coefficient corresponding to LC1 is 5.056, and the coefficient
corresponding to LC3 is 5.029. The comparison results of both indicated that the cable
pre-stresses play a leading role in the linear buckling properties. Accordingly the dead
load and the wind load are less influential. Compared with basic buckling coefficient
corresponding to LC1, the basic buckling coefficient corresponding to LC2 reduces
obviously when the pre-stresses increase to a certain extent. Further, the reducing ratio
of the basic buckling coefficient complies with the increasing ratio of the pre-stresses.
The same rule of pre-stresses influence could also be indicated from the comparison
between the basic buckling coefficient corresponding to LC3 and that corresponding to
LC4.
3.2 Linear stability analysis of overall structure
Linear buckling analysis method is also used to analyze the stability behaviour of the
overall structure under different load combinations. The basic linear buckling mode
under each load combination is presented accordingly in fig.9~fig.12. The
corresponding linear buckling coefficients are summed up in table 5.
Table 5: Buckling coefficients of overall structure
LC 1 2 3 4
λcr1 6.725 4.490 5.461 3.353
367
It can be seen from all of the basic buckling modes (Fig.9~Fig.12) that the wheel
bucking mode plays a leading role in the bucking mode of overall structure. The
supporting system including A-type columns and stay-cables is stiff enough to resistant
bending. The difference of boundary conditions between under OPC and STC gives rise
to the different basic buckling mode of each. It can be concluded that the basic buckling
coefficient will reduce if the pre-stress increase to a certain extent from the comparison
of buckling coefficients corresponding to OPC and STC respectively.
3.3 Buckling behaviour comparison of wheel and overall structure
The comparison of the linear buckling behaviour including the buckling coefficients and
basic buckling modes are presented in table 6 and fig.13. It can be concluded from the
comparison that the basic buckling modes of the wheel and overall structure are similar,
and the difference of buckling coefficient of each is not extent. That the wheel bucking
mode plays a leading role in the bucking mode of overall structure could be further
demonstrated in the comparison.
Table 6: Buckling coefficients comparison
Structure(LC3) Wheel Overall

λcr1 5.029 5.461
368
a) Wheel structure b) Overall structure
Fig.13 Basic buckling mode comparison (LC3)
4 Nonlinear stability analysis of the wheel and the overall structure
The nonlinear effects should be taken into account availably in the static stability
analysis because of the remarkable nonlinear characteristic of the spoke cables.
Imperfections may play an important role in reducing the ultimate bearing capacity of
the structure. Furthermore, the material nonlinearity induced by the elastic-plastic
effects of the steel material may also reduce the ultimate bearing capacity. Therefore on
base of geometrical nonlinear analysis, the influence of initial geometric imperfection
and the elastic-plastic effect of material on the nonlinear buckling behaviour are taken
into account thoroughly in this section. Consistent mode imperfection method is used to
determine the initial geometrical imperfection of the wheel and overall structure. Ideal
elastic-plastic steel material model is considered in the material nonlinear analysis. The
variations of loads with displacement located on the top point of the rim could reflect
the nonlinear process of the wheel and overall structure effectively. In the nonlinear
analysis, considering the stiffness contribution to the wheel structure, the pre-stresses of
spoke cables take no account of being magnified in the process of nonlinear calculation.
4.1 Geometrical and material nonlinearity influences
For both wheel and overall structure under LC3, the nonlinear analysis results of perfect
structure, imperfect structure, and imperfect structure with ideal elastic-plastic steel
material model are presented in table 7 and fig.14.
369
Table 7: Stability coefficients of nonlinear analysis (LC3)
Nonlinear Analysis Imperfect Bi-nonlinear

Perfect structure
situation (LC3) structure analysis
Wheel structure 3.218 3.038 2.286
Overall structure 3.784 3.605 2.602
nlgeom nlmat perfect perfect nlgeom nlmat

3.5
4
3 3.5
2.5 3
Load Factor
2.5
Load Factor
2
2
1.5
1.5
1
1
0.5 0.5
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Uy_Top(m) Uy_Top(m)
a.) Wheel structure b.) Overall structure
Fig.14 Load - displacement curves (LC3)
In the curves of both wheel and overall structure, the difference between three curves
could reflect the influences of the initial geometrical imperfection and material
elastic-plastic effect on the ultimate bearing capacity to some extent.
For the reducing extent of stability coefficients, if the initial geometric imperfection is
considered, the reducing ratio of the wheel is about 5% and that of overall structure is
about 6%. If the material nonlinearity is considered, the reducing ratio of the wheel is
about 25% and that of overall structure is about 28%.
It can be concluded from the analysis results that the influence of the initial geometrical
imperfection on reducing the ultimate bearing capacity is not evident, the wheel and
overall structure are insensitive to the initial geometric imperfection. But the influence
of material elastic-plastic effect on reducing the ultimate bearing capacity is obvious.
Therefore it is necessary to consider the influence of material nonlinearity in the
stability analysis to ensure the safety of the structure.
4.2 The influence of cable pre-stresses on nonlinear buckling behaviour
In this part the influence of spoke cable pre-stresses on the ultimate bearing capacity is
taken into account. Some relative stability coefficients of wheel and overall structure are
summed up in table 8 and table 9. Relative curves of both under different cable
pr-stresses are presented in fig.15 and fig.16.
370
Table 8: Stability coefficients comparison under different cable pre-stresses (wheel)
Analysis Type Perfect structure Imperfect structure

LC 3(1.0Ps) 4(1.5Ps) 3(1.0Ps) 4(1.5Ps)
Stability coefficient 3.218 3.338 2.964 3.056
Table 9: Stability coefficients comparison (overall structure)
Analysis Type Perfect structure Imperfect structure

LC 3(1.0Ps) 4(1.5Ps) 3(1.0Ps) 4(1.5Ps)
Stability coefficient 4.918 5.163 3.605 3.750
lc3(1.0ps) lc4(1.5ps) lc3(1.0ps) lc4(1.5ps)

4 3.5
3.5 3
3
2.5
Load Factor
2.5
Load Factor
2
2
1.5
1.5
1
1
0.5
0.5
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Uy_Top(m) Uy_Top(m)
a) Perfect structure b) Imperfect structure
Fig.15 Load - displacement curves of wheel structure
lc1(1.0ps) lc2(1.5ps) lc3(1.0ps) lc4(1.5ps)
5.5 4
5 3.5
4.5
3
4
3.5 2.5
Load Factor
Load Factor
3
2
2.5
2 1.5
1.5 1
1
0.5
0.5
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Uy_Top(m) Uy_Top(m)
a) Perfect structure b) Imperfect structure
Fig.16 Load - displacement curves of overall structure
It can be seen from the curves that the stiffness degradation will lag behind if the
pr-stresses of spoke cables increase. The stiffness of the structure is improved by the
pr-stresses increasing from an overall perspective. The influence extent of the
371
pr-stresses could be reflected from table 8 and table 9. It is a fact that the pre-stresses of
spoke cables could provide stiffness to the wheel structure. If the pre-stresses increase to
some extent, the lateral stiffness of structure may increase accordingly. Therefore in
nonlinear analysis, the increasing pre-stresses may provide a benefit to the ultimate
bearing capacity. The influence of pre-stresses on nonlinear buckling analysis is entirely
different from that on linear buckling analysis owing to the different role of pre-stresses
in according analysis.
5 Conclusions and Acknowledgements
According to the static stability analysis including linear and nonlinear analysis of
flexible Ferris wheel, some conclusions could be obtained as follows.
1) The pre-stresses of spoke cables play a leading role in the linear buckling behaviour.
The wheel bucking mode plays a leading role in the bucking mode of overall structure.
The basic buckling coefficient of the structure will reduce if the pre-stresses increase to
a certain extent, and the reducing ratio of the basic buckling coefficient complies with
the increasing ratio of the pre-stresses of spoke cables.
2) In the nonlinear buckling analysis, the influence of the initial geometric
imperfections on the ultimate bearing capacity is not evident, so the structure is
insensitive to the initial geometric imperfections. The influence of material nonlinearity
is obvious. Therefore it is necessary to consider the influence of material nonlinear
effect in the stability analysis to ensure the safety of the structure.
3) In the nonlinear buckling analysis, the increasing pre-stresses may improve the lateral
stiffness of the structure and provide a benefit to the ultimate bearing capacity because
of the stiffness contributing role of the pre-stresses of spoke cables.
References
[1] WANG Xiao-dun, SHI Yong-jiu, WANG Yuan-qing. Research on structure and
engineering application of Ferris wheel. Journal of Architecture and Civil
Engineering 2005; 22:30-35.
[2] Amusement device safety code (GB 8408-2008).
[3] Load code for the design of building structures (GB50009-2001).
[4] Technical specification for latticed shells (JGJ61-2003).
[5] Rui Jian. Overall Finite Element Models and Mechanical Properties of Large Scale
Ferris wheel structures. Dissertation submitted to Tongji University in conformity
with the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy. Shanghai, Mar.2010.
372
Analysis of seismic responses for suspend-dome structures

Zi CAO1*, Suduo XUE1, Yuan FENG2, Xuesheng WANG1, Xun XIA2,Liwei WANG2
1*
Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100022, China
E-mail: czbeijing@vip.163.com
2
China Southwest Architectural Design and Research Institute,Chengdu,610081,
China
Abstract
The dynamic characteristics and seismic responses for the suspend-dome
structure are presented in this paper. A series of useful conclusions are obtained. By
means of the comparison of seismic responses of suspend-dome structures for different
analytical methods, different analytical methods, different earthquake excitations, it is
observed that the reasonable analytical model for this kind of structures must be taken
as the integral model. It is necessary to consider the relevance among vibration modes
and among earthquake excitations in various directions when analyzing the structures.
The analysis of suspend-dome structures subjected to three -component seismic
excitation could not be neglected.
Keywords: suspend-dome structure, dynamic characteristics, seismic response, upper

structure model, integral model, earthquake excitation
1 Theoretical analysis for suspend-dome structures

The suspend-dome structure, composed of single-layer latticed shell structure and cable-
strut tensile system, is a kind of new self-balance spatial structure. It is easy of
construction than it for a cable dome, and it has more stability and loading ability than a
single-layer latticed shell. The suspend-dome structure has been more and more used in
recent years.
Taking Changzhou gymnasium as an example, the seismic responses of suspend-dome
structures will be analyzed. The long span for Chang-Zhou gymnasium with elliptical
plan is 114m, round 6000 seats. The roof diagram of gymnasium is shown in Fig. 1.
(a) single-layer latticed shell (b) cable-strut tensile system

Fig. 1 The roof diagram of gymnasium
373
The seismic fortification intensity of this suspend-dome structure is 7 degree and site
category is Ⅲ. The damping ratio is taken as 0.02 and 0.035 for the upper structure
model with hinged supports ( Model 1 ) and for the integral model concluding the upper
structure and the supporting system( model 2 ), respectively.
The governing equation for seismic response analysis of multi-freedom structures can
be written as
{} {}
[M ] U&& + [C ] U& + [K ]{U } = −[M ][E ] U&&g { } (1)
where [M ] , [C ] and [K ] are mass, damping and stiffness matrixes of the structural
system, respectively; {U&&},{U& } and {U } are vectors of acceleration, velocity and
displacement, respectively; [E] is an index matrix of the inertia forces.
{ } {
U&& = X&& , Y&& , Z&&
g g g
T
g }
is the acceleration vector of ground motion.
According to the concept of pseudo excitation method, the power spectrum density
matrix for structural displacement is then obtained:
r
[SUU (ω )] = ∑ {U k (ω )}* {U k (ω )}T (2)
k =1
Equ.2 can be written as follows:
* T
[SUU (ω )] =  ∑ {φ j }H j (iω ){φ j }T [M ][E ]  q 

 ∑ {φ j }H j (iω ) {φ j }T [M ][E ]
q r
∑ λ {ψ } {ψ }
* T
k k k
 j =1  k =1  j =1 
* T
[ ]
= [Φ ][H ] [Φ ] [M ][E ] S U&& gU&& g [E ] [M ][Φ ][H ][Φ ]
T T
(3)
where [Φ ] is vibration mode matrix , [ H ] = diag [ H 1 H 2 L H q ] .
Based on the theory mentioned above, a series of calculation results are carried out from
analysis of the suspend-dome in this paper as follows:
1. Comparison of seismic responses by using different analytical methods, including
response spectrum method, time-history analysis method, and pseudo- excitation
random vibration analysis method, etc.
2. Comparison of seismic responses for the suspend-dome subjected to single, double
and three – dimensional seismic excitation.
3. Comparison of seismic responses for the suspend-dome by using different analytical
models such as the upper structure model (model 1) , for the integral model (model 2)
and model with elastic supports.
Comparison of seismic responses of suspend-dome structure under X、Y、Z different
directions of earthquake excitations are illustrated in Fig.3-4. Comparison of seismic
responses of the suspend-dome structure under one-dimensional earthquake excitation
and multi-dimensional excitation are illustrated in Fig.5-6. Corresponding order
numbers of ring bars between Fig3-6 and the practical structure are list in Table 1.
The expression X0.85YZ (case 1) means that the adjustment proportion of the
excitation amplitude in X、Y、Z directions is 1.00 : 0.85 : 0.65. The results given in
Fig.3-6 are all calculated by using pseudo excitation random vibration analysis method.
374
The lateral coordinate expresses the order of ring bars for the single-layer latticed shell.
The longitudinal coordinate expresses seismic internal forces of ring bars . The first ring
is the internal central ring.
The plus and minus signs of seismic internal forces are all neglected in this paper.
Table1 Corresponding order numbers of ring bars between Fig3-6 and the practical
structure
Order Fig.3-6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
of ring
bars the practical 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 14
structure
70
60
50
force (kN)
环杆轴力(kN)
* Earthquake excited in X-

X方向地震作用
40 direction
Y方向地震作用
o Earthquake excited in Y-
direction Z方向地震作用
30
· Earthquake excited in Z-
Axial
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
与短轴正交的环杆顺序号
Order of ring bars orthogonalized the short axis
Fig.3 Comparison of seismic responses of suspend-dome structure under different

directions of earthquake excitations(a)
35
*Earthquake
excited in X-
direction
30 oEarthquake excited in Y-
direction
force (kN)
25
环杆轴力(kN)
20
Axial
15
10
X方向地震作用
5 Y方向地震作用
Z方向地震作用
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Order of ring与斜轴正交的环杆顺序号
bars orthogonalized the diagonal axis
Fig.4 Comparison of seismic responses of the suspend-dome structure under different

directions of earthquake excitations (b)
375
80
70
60
force (kN)
环杆轴力(kN)
50
40
Axial
30 * One-dimensional excitation

o Case 1 of单维虚拟法最大值
Multi-dimensional
excitation 虚拟 X0.85YZ
20
· Case 2 of 虚拟
Multi-dimensional
Y0.85XZ
excitation
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Order of ring bars orthogonalized the
与短轴正交的环杆顺序号 short axis
Fig.5 Comparison of seismic responses of the suspend-dome structure under one-

dimensional earthquake action and multi-dimensional excitation (a)
40
* Earthquake excited in X-direction
o
X方向地震作用
Earthquake excited in Y-direction
35 方向地震作用
· Earthquake excited in YZ-direction
△ Earthquake excited in Zmulti-direction
方向地震作用
30
多维地震作用
force (kN)
环杆轴力(kN)
25
20
Axial
15
10
0
1
Fig.6 Comparison of2 seismic
3 4
responses 5
of the6 suspend-dome
7 8 9
structure10
under One-
Order of ring bars orthogonalized the long axis
与长轴正交的环杆顺序号
dimensional earthquake action and multi-dimensional excitation (b)
It is observed from a series of calculation results and Fig. 3-6 that:

1. The seismic responses of suspend-dome subjected to earthquake excitation in
different directions will be quite different (see Fig.3-4).
Under the earthquake excitation in X direction, the seismic responses of members near
the long axis of the suspend-dome are larger than them near the short axis. And Under
the earthquake excitation in Y direction, the seismic responses of members near the
short axis of the suspend-dome are larger than them near the long axis.
2. Comparing the seismic responses of the bars in the same ring for the suspend-dome
subjected to earthquake excitation in different directions, the seismic responses
subjected to earthquake excitation in Y direction are much larger than them subjected to
earthquake excitation in X direction.
376
3. Comparing the of one-dimensional and multi-dimensional earthquake excitation (see

Fig.5-6), the multi-dimensional seismic responses of a large part of members are larger
than single-dimensional seismic responses.
The seismic forces of some members for the suspend-dome subjected to earthquake
excitation are much more than them subjected to single-dimensional earthquake
excitation. In general, the three- dimensional seismic responses are 30%-60% more than
the single- dimensional seismic responses. So the analysis of suspend-dome subjected to
multi-component seismic excitation could not be neglected.
2 Regularity of seismic responses for the suspend-dome

In order to understand the regularity of seismic responses for the suspend-dome, there
are a lot of analysis results for the roof of this gymnasium by using different analytical
models and subjected to earthquake excitation in different directions. Herein only the
earthquake responses of the cable elements, ring bars and diagonal bars for the suspend-
dome are illustrated in Table 2-4 . In which the seismic fortification intensity is 7 degree,
the analytical model is considered as the integral model subjected to single dimensional
seismic excitation. Herein the time-history analysis method is used.
The static forces and seismic responses of ring cable elements are list in Table2 . Static
internal forces and seismic responses of ring members are list in Table3 . Static forces
and seismic responses of diagonal members list in Table4. The order of ring is the
practical order of the structure.
Ns is Static internal forces of members, NP is prestressing forces of members, NE is
seismic internal forces. ξ is the coefficient of seismic internal forces, it is the absolute
value of the ratio of seismic forces to static internal forces concluding prestressing
forces of members .
Table2 Static forces and seismic responses of ring cable elements (kN)
Orde Ring cable elements next to Ring cable elements next to
r of the short axis the long axis
rings Ns NE ξ Ns +NP NE ξ
+NP
1 144.64 10.58 0.073 87.99 0.51 O.006
2 228.82 9.38 0.041 158.80 4.27 0.023
3 430.47 18.74 0.044 351.09 2.51 0.007
4 661.52 15.55 0.024 573.19 0.87 0.002
5 816.94 22.74 0.028 721.69 2.40 0.003
6 1067.92 7.70 0.007 1046.97 1.66 0.002
377
Table3 Static internal forces and seismic responses of ring bars (kN)
Or Ring bars next to the short Ring bars next to the long axis
der of axis
circles Ns +NP NE ξ Ns +NP NE ξ
1 -213.28 34.82 0.163 -203.40 10.04 0.049
3 -342.84 43.89 0.128 -330.50 15.21 0.046
5 -361.52 47.51 0.131 -341.14 12.73 0.037
7 239.99 54.70 0.228 -214.36 2.66 0.012
9 -82.87 86.56 1.045 -113.16 3.01 0.027
11 -101.14 67.00 0.662 -143.13 2.56 0.018
13 283.92 53.88 0.190 239.88 5.30 0.022
Table4 Static forces and seismic responses of diagonal members (kN)

Order Diagonal members next to Diagonal members next to the
of the short axis long axis
circles ξ
1 -86.75 12.66 0.146 -95.80 16.69 0.174
3 -60.82 14.59 0.240 -56.36 30.72 0.545
5 -90.79 13.52 0.149 -77.78 25.82 0.332
7 -144.55 10.51 0.073 -122.71 26.09 0.213
9 -329.16 15.04 0.046 -272.56 30.41 0.112
11 -144.72 15.98 0.110 -82.79 33.15 0.400
13 -756.75 24.90 0.033 532.17 36.46 0.069
By means of a lot of analytical results of practical examples , the distribution regularity

of seismic internal forces for suspend-dome are revealed as follows (Table 2-4):
1. The seismic internal forces of cable elements for suspend-dome can be neglected
Comparing the seismic responses of the ring bars and cable elements (Table 2-3), it is
observed that the seismic internal forces of cable elements much smaller than them of
ring bars.
2. The seismic internal forces of ring bars are much larger than them of diagonal bars
From Table 3-4, the seismic internal forces of ring bars are all larger than them of
diagonal bars. The maximum coefficient of seismic internal forces of the ring bars is
1.045, and it of diagonal bars is 0.545.
3. Comparing the distribution regularity of the suspend-dome to it of the single-layer
latticed shell, the stresses of members for the suspend-dome are well-distributed. (see
Table 3)
378
This is because the suspend-dome structure is composed of single-layer latticed shell

and cable-strut tensile system, the stress distribution of the members for single-layer
latticed shell is improved by the cable-strut tensile system.
3 Interaction between the suspend-dome roofs and supporting systems

The suspend-dome roof is usually supported on the frame structure that has a lateral
flexibility. In order to find a reasonable analysis model for this kind of structures, a
comparison is made among different analytical models. A series of analysis results of
dynamic characteristics and seismic responses for the suspend-dome are obtained. As a
result, it is concluded that the interaction between latticed roof structures and supporting
systems has to be taken into account.
3.1 The comparison of dynamic characteristics for different analysis models
The comparison of free vibration periods of suspend-dome is illustrated in Table 5.

Table 5 Free vibration periods of suspend-dome（s）
Order of vibration 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
modes
The upper 0.441 0.389 0.374 0.353 0.344 0.343 0.331 0.320
structure model
A integral model 1.077 1.019 0.917 0.864 0.556 0.510 0.481 0.447
Order of vibration 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
mode
The upper 0.318 0.304 0.299 0.289 0.288 0.281 0.278 0.276
structure model
A integral model 0.440 0.406 0.396 0.388 0.380 0.362 0.360 0.359
It is observed from Table 5 that:

1. The dynamic characteristics for the suspend-dome by using different analytical
models are quite different
The fundamental free vibration period of the suspend -dome with an integral model is
2.44 times of it with the upper structure model (see Table 5). When comparing the
vibration period with the same vibration mode, the value of the fundamental free
vibration period by using a integral model is 1.26 times of it with the upper structure
model.
So it is necessary to consider the interaction between latticed roof structures and
supporting systems.
2. The value of the forth and fifth free vibration period for the integral model varies too
much
This is because only the supporting system vibrated by oneself at first, and from the
fifth free vibration period the roof structure will vibrate with the supporting system
simultaneously. So there is a sudden change for the free vibration period.
379
3. The values of free vibration periods of suspend-dome are quite intensive. So it is

necessary to consider the relevance of vibration modes to seismic responses for
structures.
3.2 Comparison of seismic responses for different analytical models
The seismic responses of ring bars for the suspend-dome by using different analytical
models and different seismic excitations are illustrated in Fig.7 and Table 6.
450
* Model 1固支模型地震内力
400 o Model 2
· 整体模型地震内力
Load case 1 for Model 1
350 o Load case 1 for Model 2
固支模型静＋预
环杆轴力绝对值(kN)
整体模型静＋预
300
force (kN)
250
200
Axial
150
100
50
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Order of ring bars
环杆顺序号
Fig.7 Comparison of static internal forces and seismic responses by using the upper
structure (Model 1) and the integral model(Model 2)
Table 6 Comparison of seismic responses for ring bars

Ratio of seismic internal forces Ratio of seismic internal forces
Order of (three / one-dimensional excitations) (Model 2/ Model 1)
Place of members
ring bars One-dimensional Three- dimensional
Model 1 Model 2
seismic excitations seismic excitations
Next to the long axis 1.49 1.44 0.96 0.92
1
Next to the short axis 1.14 1.52 0.73 0.97
3
5
7
9
Next to the long axis 1.47 1.16 -- --
11
13
380
It is obtained from Fig.7 and Table 6 that：

1. It may lead to unsafe results by using the upper structure model instead of the integral
model
Comparing with the static internal forces using the upper structure model and a integral
model (see Fig.7)，the results of static internal forces are quite different by using these
two models. The results of static internal forces of some bars for the upper structure
model are 30% smaller than them by using the integral model.
2. The results of seismic internal forces for suspend-dome are quite different by using
the upper structure model and the integral model
It is observed from Table 6, the seismic responses of a large part of ring bars by using
the integral model are larger than them by using the upper structure model. In which the
seismic internal forces of some bars by using the integral model are two times than them
by using the upper structure model.
4 Conclusions
4.1 Selection of reasonable analytical model for suspend-dome structures
1. The dynamic characteristics for the suspend-dome by using different analytical

models are quite different.
When comparing the free vibration period with the same vibration mode, the value of
the fundamental vibration period by using an integral model is 1.26 times as large as it
for the upper structure model.
2. It will lead to unsafe results by using the upper structure model to analyze the static
internal forces and seismic responses
The seismic internal forces of some bars by using the integral model are two times than
them by using the upper structure model.
3. According to the analyses and comparisons between different analytical models, it is
shown that the interaction between the roof structure and the supporting structure has to
be taken into account. It means that the reasonable analytical model for suspend-dome
structures must be the integral model.
4.2 The regularity of seismic internal forces for the suspend-dome
1. The seismic internal forces of cable elements for suspend-dome can be neglected.
Comparing the seismic responses of cable elements and their static internal forces, it is
observed that the seismic internal forces of cable elements much smaller than the static
internal forces.
381
2. The seismic internal forces of ring bars are all larger than them of diagonal bars. The
maximum coefficient of seismic internal forces of the ring bars is 1.045, and it of
diagonal bars is 0.545.
3. Comparing with the single-layer latticed shell structure , the stress of members for
the suspend-dome are well-distributed.
4. In general, the seismic responses of members near the short axis of the suspend-dome
with elliptic plan are larger than them near the long axis.
4.3 Selection of analytical method and earthquake excitation
1. The values of free vibration periods of suspend-dome are quite intensive. So it is

necessary to consider the relevance among vibration modes and among earthquake
excitations in various directions when analyzing this kind of structures.
2. The seismic responses of suspend-dome subjected to earthquake excitation in
different directions will be quite different, the earthquake excitations in different
directions must be all analyzed for the suspend-dome structure.
3. The methods mentioned above to analyze the multi- dimensional earthquake
responses of structures all can be used. In which, the pseudo excitation random
vibration analysis method is highly efficient and accurate compared with the
conventional CQC method.
4. The analysis of suspend-dome subjected to three - dimensional seismic excitation
could not be neglected.
The seismic forces of some members for the suspend-dome subjected to three-
dimensional seismic excitation are much more than them subjected to one-dimensional
seismic excitation.
Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support from the national science and
technology supported programme (2006BAJ13B01-03) and the science and technology
development programme of Beijing Municipal Education Commission
(KM200710005031). The grant from the Key Laboratory of Urban Security and
Disaster Engineering of Beijing University of Technology is also appreciated.
References
[1] Mingshan ZHANG，Shilin DONG, Zhihong ZHANG. Analysis of static forces and
stability for cable-supported lattice shells. Journal of Spatial Structures 2004; 10(2):8-
12. (in Chinese).
382
[2] Mamoru Kawaguchi, Masaru Abe, Ikuo Tatemichi. Design, test and realization of
suspend-dome system. Journal of IASS 1999; 40(131) :179-192.
[3] Zhihua CHEN, Liya QIN, Jianbo ZHAO. An experimental study on rigid suspend-
dome structures. Journal of Civil Engineering 2006; 39(9): 47-53(in Chinese).
383
Semi-Probabilistic Evaluation of Buckling Strength of

Two-Way Single Layer Lattice Dome
Shiro KATO *1, Shoji NAKAZAWA 2, Kazuhiro NOBE 2, Noriko YOSHIDA 2

1*
kato@tutrp.tut.ac.jp kato-shiro@tg.commufa.jp
2.
Abstract
Nowadays, many interesting single layer lattice domes are going to be built in many
areas all over the world. Since design of single layer domes require engineers to check
their safety against buckling, many design formulas have been proposed for anti-
buckling design. The geometries which are often applied are spherical, cylindrical,
translational and hyperbolic paraboloidal surfaces. When boundaries, geometries,
loading types, joint rigidities, boundary conditions as well as magnitude of geometric
imperfections are compatible with those of the design formulas, engineers can apply
them in design. Otherwise, engineers are asked to apply buckling load analysis
softwares to obtain their buckling loads considering many factors.
In design of new type single layer lattice shells, engineers need to perform not only
many nonlinear analysis for different loadings, geometric imperfections and boundary
conditions but also risk analysis against loss due to buckling. Fortunately, the present
development of analysis software is easily accessible. Under these circumstances, semi-
probability analysis of buckling is possible and also indispensable to evaluate the degree
of loss due to buckling under several conditions.
The present paper attempts a semi-probability analysis considering the probabilistic
distribution of initial geometric imperfections for different loads; dead load and non-
uniform snow loads. The distribution of buckling load is first analyzed depending on the
magnitude of imperfection, and the probability distribution of buckling load is then
evaluated assuming that the initial geometric imperfection is a random variable but less
than a value specified in design codes. Based on the evaluation of the probability of
buckling load, design formulas are evaluated from a view point of a safety factor.
Keywords: single layer lattice shell, buckling load, initial imperfection, probability
1 Fundamental concept for buckling load evaluation
1.1 Characteristics of elastic buckling of lattice shells

Fundamental forms are found for single layer lattice modes. Spherical, elliptic,
cylindrical, HP, translational forms and other similar ones have been applied hitherto as
single layer lattice shells. For these shells, two-way and three-way network are adopted
384
Photo.1: Roof of Seibu Dome Photo.2: Roof of great Court
Photo.3: Roof of Kumagaya Dome
for member arrangement. In some cases of two-way arrangement, diagonal stays are
implemented, within a shell surface within or out of surface, for stiffening lattice shells
of two-way. And these days, a free form has being recently adopted for single layer
lattice shells or a combination between several member arrangements.
One of structural problems in design of single layer lattice shells is evaluation of elastic
buckling and/or ultimate strength. The fundamental characteristics are described as
follows. Some of them are similar to thin continuum shells, since forms look similar.
(1.1.1) Since the lattice shells are constructed by fabricating linear members as a form
of shell, they resist external loads in membrane actions almost without bending in
members, once boundary condition is compatible with this membrane action.
Accordingly, members can be thin, and buckling like thin shells appears due to this
action.
In case of lattice shells of positive double curvature, elastic buckling loads under
pressures are high due to small bending strains, and in case of negative double curvature,
they resist pressures in tension in one direction and in compression in the other direction
385
leading a relatively high buckling strength. Cylindrical lattice roofs resist pressures
mainly in membrane action, however, and some amount of bending moments appear at
boundaries, leading also high buckling strength with some bending strains.
(1.1.2) In general, elastic buckling loads of single layer lattice shells decreases due to
initial imperfections similarly to thin continuum shells. Especially in case of positive
double curvature and cylindrical lattice shells with three-way member arrangement, the
buckling loads decreases larger compared with perfect ones. On the other hand, in cases
of HP with negative double curvature and two-way lattice shells, the buckling load is
not so deteriorated by the initial imperfections.
For consideration of buckling load reduction due to initial imperfections, ‘knockdown
factor’ has been applied as an important factor in structural design to evaluate how the
elastic buckling loads decrease due to initial imperfections. Accordingly, how and what
value the magnitude of the initial imperfections should be assumed in design is a
fundamental design point. In design, the magnitude of initial imperfections is assumed
based on the judgement of engineers considering conditions for construction and
fabrication. And the value of knockdown factor may be determined using the assumed
magnitude of the imperfections as well as based on some recommendations [2].
Otherwise, engineers are asked to determine the knockdown factor base on his/her own
concept.
(1.1.3) In general, buckling of columns in tall buildings is not influenced by geometric
imperfections except for the member crookedness, since in most cases the ends of
columns are fixed against movements by surrounding members, on the other hand, in
case of lattice shells, buckling occurs with movement of end nodes of the member.
Accordingly, its buckling length is changeable due to initial imperfections and load
conditions, however, lattice shells still resist pressures in membrane action. The
behavior is strongly associated with buckling load reduction, imperfection sensitivity in
other words of buckling loads.
(1.1.4) Buckling behavior is classified with respect to buckling displacement patterns
mainly into three cases: one is point buckling, dimple or local buckling in other words,
the second one is member buckling, and the third one is global shell buckling. They are
symbolically figured as in Fig.1. The point buckling is likely to occur in the loading
case of a point load or concentrated loads. This case will not appear so often in lattice
shells, since roofs are generally under almost uniform loads or smoothly varying loads.
However, if connections at nodes with a very weak bending resistance are applied a
relatively large load concentration, such a point buckling happens. Member buckling
appears if member slendernessλ0 is as large as 100 or larger than that, or if the member
half subtended angle θ0 is very large, or if several members within some places in a
lattice shell are supported under a condition that nodal displacements normal to the shell
surface is almost impossible. The third one appears in general in most of the cases with
shell-like characteristics.
Another different buckling pattern is node rotational buckling as shown in Fig.2, and it
is likely to happen if the bending rigidity around the normal direction to shell surface is
very weak with some amount of joint length. This case will be possible in lattice shells
with pin-like joints, where there is some distance for necked or thin connections
between node and member end as shown in Fig.2. However, when some measures are
386
taken in a way that the non-dimensional bending rigidity KBZ/(EI/ l 0 ) may be larger
than 2 or 3, this buckling will not happen [1].
point buckling Global buckling (shell-like buckling)
Member buckling with a large member slendernesss ratio
Fig.1: Buckling displacement pattern for lattice shells
rotated node buckling

viewed from above
θ
P P
KBZ z
Fig.2: node rotational buckling [3]
1.2 Consideration of factors to reduce elastic buckling load

The load carrying capacity, ultimate strength of lattice shell in other words, can be
characterized by imperfection sensitivity of elastic buckling load, due to geometric
imperfections.
Member arrangement, boundary conditions, connection compositions, position of nodes,
member size, and other mechanical properties such as Young’s modulus and yield
strength of structural materials influence buckling loads..
In the design of an individual lattice structure, (1) member arrangement can be assumed
fixed. (2) Boundary condition can be also assumed fixed except for the rigidity of
supporting structural components. If substructures supporting lattice shells are not so
stiff, the stiffness will fluctuate due to deviation of the rigidity of structural components,
(3) With respect to connection compositions, the fluctuation of shapes of connections
387
may be considered fixed, however, the rigidity of connection, for example the rotational
rigidity of connection, will fluctuate due to fabrication process. In case of semi-rigid
connections, rotational rigidity and extensional rigidity have been evaluated in some
cases by experiments and/or numerical analysis, since buckling loads are much
influenced. (4) Position of nodes are considered a main influencing factor as
imperfection sensitivity, as has been discussed so far, for example in IASS
Recommendation. (5) Member sizes can be considered almost constant except for some
erroneous fabrication process. However some small fluctuations exist truly for depth,
thickness and other dimensions of members. (6) Yong’s modulus Es of steel can be
considered almost constant except for welding effect, and (7) yield stresses σy will
fluctuate with some deviations.
1.3 Knockdown factors

(1.3.1) When fluctuations of many factors are considered in evaluating the elastic
buckling load reduction, we need to pay attention also to loading patterns. However,
the loading pattern is considered fixed in this study, not as fluctuation, and their effects
from loading patterns as dead load, snow loads and other loads are treated separately.
Among many factors, geometric initial imperfection has been the most important factor.
Accordingly, its effect should be quantitatively evaluated and applied to structural
design. The effects of rigidities of both connections and boundaries are also
fundamental, and the effect of connection rigidity has been studied.
(1.3.2) For evaluation of a knockdown factor, first, we define a perfect condition in
which node positions are completely same as the assumed ones in design, connection
rigidity is fully rigid, and the boundary condition is just the same as the assumed one.
Second, we assume a following equation for a knockdown factor in which the effects
due to boundary rigidity, connection rigidity, and initial imperfections can be separately
represented.
α = ξbr ⋅ ξ k ⋅ α 0 (1)
(1.3.3) The variable α0 represents the effect due to geometric initial imperfections in
case where the nodes are rigid connections and the boundary condition is just the same
as the one assumed in design, but some geometric imperfections exist at node positions.
Pcrel(br =∞ )(κ =∞ )
= α0 (2)
Pcrlin(br =∞ )(κ =∞ )
where Pcrlin(br =∞ )(κ =∞ ) represents a linear buckling load of a perfect lattice shell, in case of
no geometric imperfections, fully rigid connection and perfect boundary condition,
while Pcrel(br =∞ )(κ =∞ ) represents an elastic buckling load in the case of imperfect lattice
shell, fully rigid connections and completely same boundary condition, and accordingly
α0 represents the reduction of an ordinary knockdown factor. α0 varies depending on
the magnitude of geometric imperfections. Some typical examples are shown in IASS
Recommendations.
(1.3.4) In case of flexible connection, elastic buckling loads are reduced in general
compared with fully rigid connections, and the elastic buckling is assumed as follows in
case of semi-rigid connections and perfect boundary using a knockdown factor ξ k for
semi-rigidity.
388
Pcrel(br =∞ )(κ )
= ξk (3)
Pcrel( br =∞ )(κ =∞ )
where Pcrlin(br =∞ )(κ ) represents an elastic buckling load in the case of semi-rigid connection
and perfect boundary condition, and Pcrel(br =∞ )(κ =∞ ) represents an elastic buckling load in
the case of semi-rigid connections and completely same boundary condition, and
accordingly ξ k represents the reduction due to semi-rigid connection.
(1.3.5) In case of semi-rigid connection and imperfect boundary condition, buckling
loads are reduced in general, and the elastic buckling is assumed as follows in case of
semi-rigid connections and imperfect boundary using a nockdown factor for imperfect
boundary ξbr .
Pcrel(b )(κ )
= ξbr (4)
where Pcrlin(br )(κ ) represents an elastic buckling load in the case of semi-rigid connection
and imperfect boundary condition, accordingly ξbr represents the reduction due to
imperfect boundary.
(1.3.6) Elastic buckling load Pcrel(b )(κ ) in the case where all conditions are imperfect is
then expressed if based on the above assumptions.
Pcrel(br )(κ ) Pcrel(br =∞ )(κ ) Pcrel( br =∞ )(κ =∞ ) lin
Pcr (b )(κ ) = el
el
⋅ ⋅ ⋅ Pcr (br =∞ )(κ =∞ ) (5)
Pcr (br =∞ )(κ ) Pcrel(br =∞ )(κ =∞ ) Pcrlin( br =∞ )(κ =∞ )
Accordingly, the buckling load in case of all conditions being imperfect is calculated as
Pcrel(b )(κ ) = ξbr ⋅ ξ k ⋅ α 0 ⋅ Pcrlin( br =∞ )(κ =∞ )
= α ⋅ Pcrlin(br =∞ )(κ =∞ ) (6)
(1.3.7) Elastic buckling load translated into axial strength of a special member(m) is
defined here.When a design load is proportionally increased, a particular member
reaches its axial yield strength for the first time. The member can be identified to be the
first to have a largest stress ratio of N/Ny, where N is an axial force and Ny is its axial
yield strength. Here we assume that, under its reference design load P0, the axial force N
is defined as N(m). Accordingly the axial force, elastic axial buckling force N crlin( m ) ,
elastic axial buckling force in other words, corresponding to the elastic buckling load
Pcrel(b )(κ ) can be expressed as follows.
Pcrel(br )(κ )
N cr ( m ) =
el
⋅ N(m) (7)
P0
In lattice shells, whether rigid connections or semi-rigid connection are used, or whether
pin boundary or fixed boundary are applied, axial forces hardly change due to their
structural caharacteristics that external loads are carried mainly with axial forces
without small bending contribution. Accordingly, Eq.(6) can be approximated as
Plin
N crel ( m ) = α ⋅ N (linm ) , N crlin( m ) = cr (br =∞ )(κ =∞ ) ⋅ N ( m ) (8)
P0
where N (linm) is defined as an axial force corresponding to linear buckling load
Pcrlin(br =∞ )(κ =∞ ) .
389
1.4 Effect of material plasticity

(1.4.1) General evaluation of ultimate strength of lattice shell is in general based on
materially and geometrically nonlinear analysis, considering many factors of
fluctuations described above. We can approach nowadays many powerful analysis
software to perform such nonlinear analyses. Especially in case of free form lattice shell
or several lattice shells about which our accumulation of knowledge on buckling
behavior is scarce, a precise analysis will be required to obtain their buckling
characteristics as imperfection sensitivity.
(1.4.2) Evaluation of ultimate strength of lattice shell is approximately possible if based
on axial strength of specified member. Thin lattice shells composed of slender members
will buckle in an elastic range. However, in some cases of small member slenderness
ratio λ0 and small half subtended half angle θ0, they will reach their ultimate strength
after yielding of steel. To incorporate the effect of material strength, empirical
expression has been applied, for example, in IASS Recommendation. The present study
adopts this expression given as follows.
2
N cr 2  N cr   N cr 
= ; Λ e ( m) 2
  +   = 1 (9)
Ny Λe( m) + 4 + Λe(m)2
4
 Ny   Ny 
where a parameter Λ e ( m ) , a generalized slenderness in other words, is expressed by
Eq.(10) as well as Eq.(2) for α and Eq.(7) for N crlin( m ) .
Ny
Λ e( m) = (10)
α N crlin( m )
Accordingly, the ultimate load Pcr can be approximated as follows.
N
Pcr = cr ⋅ P0 (11)
N(m)
(1.4.3) Evaluation of ultimate strength of lattice shell, Pcr , can be derived if based on
plastic load as
2
Pcr 2 P   Pcr  P pl
= , λs ( m ) 2  cr  +  ; λ
 = 1 e ( s ) = (12)
P pl
λe ( s ) 4 + 4 + λe ( s ) 2  Py α Pcrlin(br )(κ )
   Py 
where the value of Ppl is defined as a load under which the special member reaches its
axial yield strength Ny, being evaluated as follows.
Ny
P pl = ⋅ P0 (13)
N(m)
2 Probabilistic analysis of ultimate strength using knockdown factor of

two-way lattice shells with stiffening diagonal bars
2.1 Geometry of two-way lattice shells

A simple example is presented to evaluate the probabilistic characteristics of buckling
loads of a two-way singly layer lattice shells under lateral loads. The surface is
translational as shown in Fig.3. The plan is a square with 60m x 60m as an arch length
390
and 30degrees for a half open angle in both directions. The network is divided into ten
equal segments, and is arrayed as a family of orthogonal networks. Accordingly, the
length of each member, l 0 , is 6,000mm. Each area AG of arches is equal in both
directions with a member slenderness ratio of λ0, and each diagonal brace is a tension
bar with a common area of ABR. The ratio ρST of AST to AG is assumed in this example as
0.10. The member slenderness ratio λ0 of arch is varied from 20 to 120. Young’s
modulus Es is assumed 205kN/mm2 and yield stress σy is 235N/mm2.
Y
F D G
Ly A B X
Z
Y
X E C H
Lx
Fig.3: Two-way lattice shells with bracing diagonals

2.2 Linear buckling load
The linear buckling load per one node, Pcrlin(br =∞ )(κ =∞ ) , is approximately obtained for pin-
ends as a boundary condition on all peripheries as follows,
16 1 2 ρST l0
Pcrlin(br =∞ )(κ =∞ ) = Es AGθ0 3 ⋅ ⋅ (1 + )⋅ ; λ0 = (14)
λ0θ0 1 + ν 1 + 2 ρST rg
The above equation reveals that important factors influencing buckling load are five as
Es, A, θ0, λ0, and ρST. Young’s modulus Es is a factor of steel itself, being very small
in fluctuation, and the sectional area A depends on industrial fabrication also with a
small fluctuation. ρST is the ration of ABR to A, and the fluctuation parameters cancel
each other except for standard deviations. λ0 concerns with member length and will
have some deviations as one of geometric factors, and its fluctuation will be much
smaller than θ0. Since θ0 is a geometric parameter concerns with nodal positions in the
lateral direction, its deviation is considered relatively large. Accordingly, the main
factor will be θ0, and the nodal position with some deviations of nodes in the lateral
direction is considered as a main factor influencing buckling loads.
Here we briefly consider the coefficient of variation for the following part by adopting
the main part of Eq.(14)
ρ ST
f 0 = Es AG ⋅θ02 (15)
λ0
using the following approximation for log-normal probability distribution.
σ ( f0 ) 1
ς f 0 = δ ( f0 ) = = δ ( Es ) 2 + δ ( AG ) 2 + 4δ (θ 0 ) 2 + δ (λ0 ) 2 + δ ( ρ BR ) 2 (16)
µ ( f0 ) 4
If we assume as
391
1
δ (θ 0 ) = 0.05 , δ ( Es) 2 + δ ( AG ) 2 + δ (λ0 ) 2 + δ ( ρ BR ) 2 = 0.05 ,
4
the coefficient of variation of f0 is evaluated as follows.
σ ( f0 ) 1
ς f 0 = δ ( f0 ) = = δ ( Es ) 2 + δ ( AG ) 2 + 4δ (θ 0 ) 2 + δ (λ0 ) 2 + δ ( ρ BR ) 2 =0.11
µ ( f0 ) 4
In this evaluation, the distribution of θ0 is uniform with an error limit of
∆θ0 / θ 0 = 0.05 ⋅ 2 3 .
Accordingly, the deviation of linear buckling load depends mainly on the deviation of
θ0, and a linear buckling load based on an ordinary FEM linear buckling load will have
a coefficient of deviation of around 0.1.
2.3 Elastic-plastic buckling load with geometrical initial imperfections

(2.3.1) As discussed above, main factor influencing the linear buckling load is the initial
imperfections associated with θ0. However, elastic and elastic-plastic buckling loads
will be subjected to different influences due to geometrically nonlinearity. Accordingly,
elastic buckling analysis as well as elastic-plastic buckling analysis is performed with
an assumption that the influencing factor is only a geometric imperfection. In the
present analysis, it is assumed that (1) the deviation of nodal positions should be less
than span/1000 according to JASS 6[1] being adopted for steel construction in Japan. In
the present case, the span is 60,000mm, and the maximum deviation is maxwio=60mm in
the lateral direction. In case of λ0=60, the diameter of circular section is 282mm, and
the ratio of 60mm to 282mm is 0.22. (2) The probability distribution of the imperfection
is assumed uniform over the range between 0.000 to 0.001 for wio/span.
(2.3.2) The value of knockdown factors, α0, for 0.001 as wio/span are shown in Table.1
in case of ρST=0.1. The values are obtained by FEM analysis, not by Eq.(14), and
indicate the reduction of elastic buckling load due to geometrical imperfections. The
case of λ0=20 corresponds to a very stocky member, while the case of λ0=120 to a very
slender one to be likely as member buckling. If the two extreme cases are discarded, the
values imply that the imperfection sensitivity as a knockdown factor will be around 0.6
to 0.7 for 0.001 as wio/span. The average is µ=0.67 adopting the bottom lines, and the
coefficient of variation is δ=0.13. If we adopt as a knockdown factor as µ ⋅ (1 − δ ) , it
becomes as 0.67 ⋅ (1 − 0.13) = 0.58 , being approximated as 0.60.
Table 1: Knockdown factor in case of uniform load Pcrel(imp )(br =∞ )(κ =∞ ) / Pcrlin(br =∞ )(κ =∞ )
λ0=20 λ0=40 λ0=60 λ0=90 λ0=120
wio/span wio/span wio/span wio/span wio/span
0 0.001 0 0.001 0 0.001 0 0.001 0 0.001
Uniform load 0.85 0.79 0.90 0.75 0.91 0.72 0.84 0.57 0.94 0.91
Non-uniform 0.67 0.60 0.83 0.66 0.82 0.61 0.89 0.82 1.00 0.96
Parallel .β=1/3
Non-uniform 0.55 0.51 0.64 0.62 0.68 0.60 0.74 0.66 0.91 0.86
Diagonal β=1/3
392
2.4 Elastic buckling load reduction due to rigidity at node connections

One of the important factors is the semi-rigidity of connections, and several
experimental works have been performed [1]. However, there are very few works to
evaluate the effect of semi-rigidity, on the other hand, we are now having an effective
software as analysis tools with which we can perform 3D analysis for joints. Based on
several analyses considering variation for nodes, we may obtain the semi-rigidity
stiffness as well as its coefficient of variation. From the data of connection rigidity, we
may evaluate the knockdown factor, based on elastic buckling analysis using several
different rigidities. In this evaluation, we need to include the effect due to variation of
rigidity.
ξk =
Pcrel(br =∞ )(κ =∞ )
2.5 Elastic buckling load reduction due to rigidity at boundary

Elastic buckling load is well known to depend on the boundary condition. Accordingly,
buckling analysis is usually performed for each boundary condition considering the
effect of its boundary as accurately as possible. For example, in a case that a lattice shell
of rectangular is supported with columns at peripheries, the horizontal rigidity at
supports play an important role against buckling. In such case we first evaluate the
horizontal rigidities at supports, and we can apply them to linear buckling loads. If there
are some fluctuations in the rigidities, buckling loads fluctuate also depending on the
rigidity. In such a case, we need to perform elastic buckling analysis in several cases of
different horizontal rigidities to obtain the knockdown factor as
Pcrel( b )(κ )
ξbr = el
Pcr (br =∞ )(κ )
Similarly to the semi-rigidity at connections, we need to include the effect of variation
of supporting rigidities. According to the above procedures, the knockdown factor α0
can be evaluated and be used for calculation of the generalized slenderness ratio Λe(m) .
2.6 Elastic-plastic buckling loads in terms of initial imperfections

The results are given, in Table 2, as elastic-plastic axial strength of the specific member
(m) using 205kN/mm2 for Es and 235N/mm2 for σy. In this analysis, an assumption is
made that connection is assumed completely rigid and the boundary condition has no
fluctuations, The imperfection sensitivity as elastic-plastic buckling load is given for
each member slenderness ratio λ0. And here the ultimate strength of lattice shell is
interpreted as the axial strength, N cr / N y , of the specific member (m).
Table 3 shows a set of results which are obtained under an assumption that the variable
range of initial imperfection wio is [0.0~0.001] X span with a uniform probability. The
average, standard deviation and the coefficient of variation are denoted as
µ., σ and δ. The term which is treated as random variable is limited to the initial
imperfections. The results show that the coefficient of variation, δ, is rather small
compared with that of Eq.(15), implying also that the imperfection sensitivity of elastic-
plastic buckling load is not so influenced and rather small compared with the elastic
393
buckling load in Table 1. This is because, for example in case of λ0=60 in Table 2, the
difference of 0.7981 for wio/span=0 and 0.7186 for wio/span=0 is only 0.0795, being
0.10 of 0.7981. Accordingly, most of the imperfection sensitivity seems due to
geometric nonlinearity which is given as α0 in Eq.(1).
Tables 4 and 5 show a comparison between the FEM analysis and two design formulas
used for axial strength in terms of generalized slenderness. The slenderness is based on
the investigation of the knockdown factors α0=0.6 and 0.70. Although other cases for
different α0 are discarded, both knockdown factors of 0.6 and 0.7 are considered no so
strange, leading to a relatively safe-side evaluation.
From a view point of application, we can adopt 0.60 for α0 to evaluate the generalized
slenderness in Eq.(2) , (10) and (12). Although data have not illustrated in detail in
cases of non-uniform loadings including anti-symmetric loading terms for snow
Table 2: Ncr/Ny under uniform lateral load

Member slenderness ratio λ0
20 40 60 75 90 120
0 1.135 0.9470 0.7981 0.6503 0.5743 0.4492
0.0001 1.129 0.94671 0.7366 0.6503 0.5740 0.4323
wio/span 0.0002 1.124 0.9458 0.7318 0.6501 0.5686 0.4271
0.0005 1.110 0.9217 0.7301 0.6499 0.5609 0.4269
0.001 1.088 0.8599 0.7186 0.5851 0.5353 0.4177
Table 3(a): FEM Results of Ncr/Ny Table 3(b): FEM Results of Ncr/Ny
under uniform lateral load under non-uniform parallel load of β=1/3
λ0 Simulation λ0 Simulation
µ σ δ µ σ δ
20 1.1101 0.013 0.0118 20 1.3018 0.0242 0.0186
40 0.9159 0.0265 0.0289 40 1.0029 0.0531 0.0529
60 0.7315 0.0124 0.0169 60 0.8394 0.0471 0.0561
75 0.6368 0.0183 0.0288 75 0.8052 0.0167 0.0208
90 0.5583 0.0108 0.0193 90 0.7414 0.0081 0.0109
120 0.4261 0.0055 0.0128 120 0.4601 0.0006 0.0014
Table 4: Ncr ( AIJ ) = µ(Ncr ) − N ×σ ( Ncr ); Ncr (Dun) = µ(Ncr ) − N ×σ (Ncr ) uniform lateral load
AIJ Eq. Dunckerley's Eq
α λ0 Λ e( m) Ncrel-pl/Ny n(normal Prob Ncrel-pl/Ny n(normal) Prob
dist)
20 0.55 0.86 19.48 7.51E-85 0.859 19.33 1.45E-83
40 0.79 0.73 7.06 7.85E-13 0.735 6.81 4.60E-12
60 0.98 0.61 9.57 5.32E-22 0.629 8.24 8.53E-17
0.60
75 1.10 0.54 5.48 2.04E-08 0.564 3.99 3.23E-05
90 1.21 0.47 8.37 2.68E-17 0.508 4.62 1.83E-06
120 1.54 0.26 29.22 4.27E-188 0.366 10.88 7.14E-28
394
Table.5: Ncr ( AIJ ) = µ(Ncr ) − N ×σ ( Ncr ); Ncr (Dun) = µ( Ncr ) − N ×σ (Ncr ) uniform lateral load
AIJ Eq. Dunckerley's Eq.
N(Normal
α λ0 Λ e( m) Ncrel-pl/Ny
)
Prob Ncrel-pl/Ny N(Normal) Prob
20 0.49 0.87 17.24 6.42E-67 0.89 17.13 4.43E-66
40 0.73 0.76 5.79 3.56E-09 0.77 5.60 1.05E-08
60 0.91 0.66 5.91 1.68E-09 0.67 4.96 3.49E-07
0.70
75 1.02 0.59 2.65 4.00E-03 0.61 1.58 5.65E-02
90 1.12 0.52 3.10 9.70E-04 0.55 0.38 3.49E-01
120 1.42 0.33 16.84 6.20E-64 0.410 2.85 2.14E-03
accumulation, the value of 0.6 for α0 seems compatible with the imperfection sensitivity
of two-way lattice shells with diagonal bracing bars.
2.7 Design implementation for buckling load estimation

In case of the present two-way steel lattice shells, the ultimate strength is evaluated
using Eqs.(11) or (12) under several consideration of probability of initial geometric
imperfections. When a safety factor is applied, the following equation will be efficient
using two factors of FSB and FSM.
N
Pcr = cr ⋅ P0 ,
N(m) (17)
N cr 2 F N  F N
2

= , Λ
e ( m)
2
 SB cr  +  SM cr  = 1
Ny FSB2 Λ e ( m ) 4 + 4 FSM
2
+ FSB Λ e ( m ) 2  Ny   Ny 
The values for FSB and FSM may be quoted from some recommendation. If Eq.(17) is
adopted, the safety factor depends on the generalized slenderness Λ e ( m ) .
FSB2 Λ e ( m ) 4 + 4 FSM
2
+ FSB Λ e ( m ) 2
FS (Λ e ( m ) ) = (18)
Λe(m)4 + 4 + Λe(m)2
3 Conclusions
An anti-buckling design method is proposed for a two-way lattice shell based on a
consideration of a semi-probability analysis of imperfection sensitivity.
References
[1] AIJ, Buckling and strength of Lattice Shells (in Japanese), 2010.6
[2] IASS WG.5, Recommendations for Reinforced Concrete Shells and Folded Plates,
IASS, Madrid, 1979
[3] Shiro KATO, Tetsuo YAMASHITA ;Evaluation of Buckling Load of Two-way
Single Layer Grid Shells, J of IASS 2010; 51:109-123.
395
2.3.2 Dynamic Analysis Methods
396
Review and new development of seismic isolation

technology for spatial structures
S.D. Xue1*, X.Y. Li 2, T. Takeuchi3 and S. Kato4
1*
Prof., College of Arch. and Civil Eng., Beijing University of Technology, Beijing
100124, China
sdxue@bjut.edu.cn
2
Ph.D, College of Arch. and Civil Eng., Beijing University of Technology, Beijing
100124, China
3
Prof., Dept. of Arch. and Build. Eng., Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo 152-8550,
Japan
4
Prof., Toyohashi University of Technology, Tempaku, Toyohashi 441-8580, Japan
Abstract
In order to promote the development of seismic isolation technology in spatial
structures, several types of currently used bearings for vibration reduction are reviewed
in this paper. To overcome the disadvantages of the in-use bearings, a new kind of
three-dimensional seismic isolation bearing is then introduced. The new bearing is
combined with friction sliding system in horizontal direction and helical springs or disc
springs in the vertical direction. Based on the conception model, two practical bearings
are designed. Experimental study on their dynamic characteristics is carried out on
shaking table. Meanwhile, theoretical model of the bearing is established. Finally, some
details related to dynamic analysis of seismic isolation for spatial structures are
discussed. It is shown that the proposed bearing shares excellent properties.
Keywords: Spatial structure, seismic isolation, bearing
1 Introduction
Seismic isolation is an effective means for mitigating earthquake disaster of structures.
In the past years, seismic isolation technique was mainly used in tall buildings and
bridges, but its application in spatial structure is rather limited. In recent years, seismic
isolation has been gradually studied and applied in spatial structures, in which bearing
isolation is one of the most popular ways. Rubber bearings and friction pendulum
systems (FPS) are the main measures used in spatial structures currently. Compared
with tall buildings, spatial structure has its own characteristics such as multi-
dimensional vibration. At present, seismic isolation in spatial structures is mainly
focused on horizontal direction. It is hard to find reasonable ways for three-dimensional
seismic isolation. The suitable bearing for spatial structures should possess excellent
properties, such as three-dimensional seismic isolation, enough loading capability in the
vertical direction, allowing reasonable rotating and being able to resist lifting force.
397
Two types of commonly used bearings for seismic isolation in spatial structures are
reviewed firstly. To overcome the disadvantages of the in use bearings, a new kind of 3-
dimensional seismic isolation bearing is then developed. Based on the conception model,
two types of practical bearings are designed, and experimental study on their dynamic
characteristics was carried out on shaking table as well. Meanwhile, theoretical model
of the bearing is established. Finally, seismic performance of a 120m span hangar
installed with the bearing is analyzed in detail. It is shown that the proposed bearing
shares very good properties.
2 Review of seismic isolation in spatial structures

For roof structures, it is well-known that the seismic responses of raised space frame,
lattice domes or shells amplify vertical vibrations even when subjected to a horizontal
earthquake excitation. This acceleration can be roughly modelled as a combination of
horizontal and vertical distributions [1]. They can be a factor of seismic damages, not
only structural, but non-structural elements as ceiling and suspended lightning equipments
(Figure 1). Introducing seismic control techniques as shown in Figure 2 are reported to be
effective to reduce such damages, in which isolated technology are presented as (b) and
(d). Now days, Rubber bearings and FPS are applied in spatial structures frequently.
Devices
(a) Damper-added roof (b) Seismically isolated roof
(c) Damper-added substructure (d) Entire base isolated
Figure1: Damages of non-structural Figure2: Structural types for response-

elements in Hanshin earthquake 1995 controlled roof structure
2.1 Rubber bearing system

In early stages, rubber bearing system was firstly introduced for seismic isolation
devices in spatial structures. The laminated rubber bearing possesses strong and stiff
properties for vertical and flexible deformation under shear stresses [2]. Recently,
laminated rubber bearing have been used for practical structures as shown in Figure 2(a)
such as Saitama Super Arena, Yamaguchi Kirara Dome(Figure 3)[3] and Hiraga Dome
398
(Figure 4) etc.. The reduction of the seismic responses and the thermal stresses are
expected.
Fig.3: Yamaguchi Kirara dome Fig.4: Isolation bearings in Hiraga

dome
In addition, the laminated rubber bearing is also combined with other control devices to
satisfy certain functions. Figure 5 shows the device in Kyoto Aqua Arena, which rubber
bearings installed along with friction bearings and U-type steel dampers in order to
maintain the sways within an allowable range. Suqian Gymnasium, presented in Figure
5, is another base isolated spatial structure which has been expressed in Figure 2(d). To
reduce the seismic response, the laminated rubber bearings and viscous dampers are set
between pile caps and superstructures. Its lattice shell roof is supported by spatial RC
frames.
Fig.5: Kyoto Aqua Arena
Fig.6: Suqian Gymnasium
A new kind of combined isolator, described in Figure7, which consists of one pot-type
friction bearing and four rubber bearings, was applied for releasing temperature force
399
and reducing seismic response in the Press Centre of the Shanghai International F1
Circuit[4].
Fig.7: Shanghai International F1 Circuit Building
When compared with multi-story buildings, the weight of the roof structure is light and
the space necessary for device deformation is insufficient. Therefore, the natural period
of the isolated spatial structures tends to be less than that of multi-story buildings.
However, some problem could occur in the application of laminated rubber bearings,
such as lack resisting lift capability, permanent deformation under strong ground
motions, rather low energy dissipation capacity, and so on. To improve the vibration
isolation performance, a type of SMA-RB, shown in Figure 8, is designed by combining
SMA with laminated rubber pad, as in Xue et al. [5]. Furthermore, the inherent strong
vertical stiffness caused the rubber bearing is unable to isolate the seismic response
excited by strong vertical ground motion.
Figure8: SMA-RB bearing
2.2 Friction sliding system
The FPS system is one of the most commonly used sliding systems. It consists of a
spherical stainless steel surface, whose geometry generates the self-centering action,
and a slider filled with Teflon. Among the most remarkable features of the device are:
the simplicity of the concept and repeatability of its cyclic behavior; the stability of
physical properties and durability; the separation between the restoring and dissipating
action; and the control of fundamental vibration period and deformation capacity by
simple geometric properties. The FPS has been implemented in some practical
structures, such as the terminal roof of the Istanbul Ataturk international Airport in
Figure 9 [6], the Seahawks Football Stadium in Seatlle, and others.
400
Figure 9: Istanbul Ataturk Airport Terminal Roof
Another common application for FPS is used to support the entire structure, and the
realized terminal of the San Francisco International Airport in Fig.10 is one of which [7].
Figure10: San Francisco International Airport Terminal
However, the in-use FPS is short of capability to

resist lifting force, which is unreasonable for
some spatial structures with uplift force in the
bearing. To overcome the shortage mentioned
above, an advanced FPS is designed as shown in
Fig.11 [8].
Apart from FPS, the purely friction sliding
systems are often incorporated with elastic
devices such as rubber pad, springs, and the others.
The former provides damping, and the latter
produces restoring forces. Several other realized Figure11: Developed FPS bearing
projects in recent years with isolation bearing in
China are listed in Table1 [9-21].
Table 1: List of several realized projects in China
Project Names Roof Structures Bearing

Reticulated shell combined with
Peking University Gymnasium Spherical bearing
spatial truss
Gymnasium of University of Science &
Space Frame Plate rubber bearing
Technology Beijng
Double-layer square pyramid
Tianjin Museum Hinged plank bearing
lattice shell
401
Beijing University of Aeronautics &

Space Frame Spherical bearing
Astronautics
Sliding bearing combined
Wukesong Indoor Stadium Intersected truss
with spring
Fujian Stadium Double-layer lattice shell Rubber bearing
Beam string incorporated with
Tongji University Natatorium Sliding bearing
arch truss
Guangzhou Gymnasium Spatial truss Spherical bearing
Nanchang Changbei International Airport
Space frame Rubber bearing
Terminal
Plate-Teflon rubber bearing
Ningbo International Convention &
Spatial truss and sliding spherical
Exhibition Center
bearing
Rubber Slip bearing and
Zhuzhou Mobile Exhibition Center Space frame
limited slip bearing
From the introduction of in-use bearings in spatial structures, it can be seen that most of
them just enable to control the seismic response excited by horizontal earthquake
excitations. For some spatial structures, the seismic response excited by horizontal and
vertical ground motion nearly in the same level, therefore the three-dimensional seismic
isolation is necessary. In addition, the bearing for spatial structures should possess
enough capability to resist being lifted. To solve the issue mentioned above, a new type
three-dimensional seismic isolation bearing is developed.
3 New developed three-dimensional seismic isolation bearing (3DSIB)
3.1 Conception model of the 3DSIB

To satisfy the seismic isolation in spatial structural, a new type of three-dimensional
seismic isolation bearing (3DSIB) is developed. The bearing shares excellent properties
including three-dimensional seismic isolation, enough loading capability in vertical
direction, allowing reasonable rotating and being able to resist lifting load. The 3DSIB
bearing mainly consists of two parts such as frictional sliding device in horizontal
direction and helical springs or disc springs in vertical direction. Fig.12 shows the
conception model of the bearing. The horizontal seismic isolation device is combined
Teflon-stainless sliding surface with Restoring springs
Sliding surface
restoring springs. The former is used to limit
the transfer of force across the isolation
Vertical springs
interface, and the restoring force is provided
by the steel helical springs. The vertical
seismic isolation of the bearing mainly
depends on getting reasonable stiffness by
springs or disc springs. Being springs
utilized in vertical direction, it ensures the Figure12: Conception model of the
3DSIB share some rotating capabilities. 3DSIB bearing
402
Suppose of stiffness of the bearing in horizontal and vertical direction is uncoupled, the
theoretical models of the 3DSIB can be established in horizontal and vertical
respectively.
3.2 Theoretical model of the 3DSIB
3.2.1 Vertical theoretical model
In vertical direction, the coefficient of isolation effectiveness (IE) is introduced firstly.

If the character frequency f of the input excitation is determined, the static
displacement ∆ st caused by vertical gravity loadings of the bearing can be written as
 
2
g  2ξ 2 1 2ξ2  
2
∆st = 2 2 (1−2ξ ) + + 2
−1+ (1− 2ξ ) +  (1)
4π f  (1− IE)2 (1− IE)2  (1− IE)2   0 < IE < 1
 
In which ξ is the damping ratio of the spring, for helical steel springs the ξ is 0.02.
Once the ∆ st being set out, the vertical stiffness of the bearing can be calculated by
kv = Wb / ∆ st (2)
where Wb is the gravity loads loading on the bearing, which should be carefully
analyzed according to its up structures.
When the k v is determined, it is possible to design the vertical helical springs or disc
springs. The designed springs share stiffness of k v , and its loading capabilities should
be checked as well.
3.2.2 Horzontal theoretical model
In horzontal direction, the sliding device is considered to be subjected to a compressive

force Wb and has a general motion in the plane perpendicular to the axis of compression.
The total forces caused by the frictional sliding and deformation of the restoring springs
may be described by the following equation.
Fh = Fh , f + Fh ,r (3)
where Fh , Fh , f and Fh,s represent the total horizontal force, frictional force and restoring
force of the bearing in horizontal direction, respectively.
Fh , f = µ sWb Z (4)
403
Fh,r = khU (5)
In equation (4) µ s is the coefficient of sliding friction at sliding velocity , and Z is a

hysteretic dimensionless quantity. The k h in equation (5) is the total restoring stiffness of
the springs, which should be analyzed according to the horizontal seismic isolation
target periods of the structure and the horizontal restoring capabilities of the bearing,
and U stands for the sliding displacement. The µ s can be expressed by a exponential
equation, and the relative parameters should be tested by experiments.
The hysteretic dimensionless quantity of Z is represented by
η −1 η
YZ& + γ U& Z Z + β U& Z − AU& = 0 (6)
In which U& stand for the velocity; β , γ , A and η are dimensionless constants, Y
represents yield displacement. For Teflon –stainless steel sliding system, the
viscoplasticity model is suitable, then A = 1 , β + γ = 1 and η = 2 .
3.3 Shaking table experiment

Based on the conception model, two practical 3DSIBs were designed and produced. The
bearings share the same type of horizontal isolation devices. In vertical direction, the
helical springs and the disc springs were used respectively. To investigate the
performance of the proposed 3DSIB, a series of tests were carried out on the shaking
table. The experimental set-up is shown on Fig.13.
0.15
Experiment
Theoretical 40
0.14
120kN
30 150kN
0.13 180kN
Frictional coefficient
20
Horizontal force (kN)
0.12 10
0
0.11
-10
0.10
-20
0.09 -30
-40
0 5 10 15 20 25 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Sliding velocity (cm/s) Displacement (mm)
Figure13: Experimental Figure14: Frictional coefficient Figure15: Horizontal

set-up hysteretic loops
Since frictional coefficient is a one of the most important parameters of the 3DSIB, the
relationship between experimental and theoretical is shown in Fig.14. Fig.15 and 16
presented the typical horizontal hysteretic loops of the two bearings and vertical
displacement-force curve. It can be seen from the figure that the bearings share
excellent energy dissipation capability in horizontal direction, and the relationship
between vertical displacement and force nearly linear for helical springs isolation
404
system, but there exists some hysteretic properties for disc springs device. Fig.17
provides comparison between the experimental and theoretical results for the bearings.
It indicates that there is a good agreement between the theoretical and experimental.
90
40 40
75
P=90kN Experimental
30 P=120kN 60
P=150kN 45
30
Theoretical
20 Vertical force (kN)
Vertical force (kN)
30
20
10
Horizontal force (kN)

15
0 10
0
-15
-10
-30 0
-20 -45
-60 -10
-30
-75
-40 -90 -20

-2 -1 0 1 2 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
Displacement(mm) Displacement (mm)

-30
-40
-45 -30 -15 0 15 30 45
(a) Disc spring (b) Helical spring
Displacement (mm)
Figure16: Vertical hysteretic loops Figure17: Comparison between

experimental and theoretical
In addition, some valuable rules were concluded from the recorders of the shaking table
test results. (1) The energy dissipation for the horizontal seismic isolation devices
increased with the vertical compression loaded on the bearing. (2) The amplitude of the
horizontal force change with increasing the intensity of the input earthquake excitation
insignificantly. (3) The variation of vertical stiffness in certain range nearly makes no
effects on the horizontal seismic isolation properties, and it verified that the hypothesis
of the uncoupled vertical and horizontal stiffness is reasonable. (4) The horizontal
displacement of the bearing linearly increased with the intensity enhancing of the input
earthquake excitation.
4 Application of the 3DSIB in spatial structure

The 3DSIB is applied to a maintenance hangar to investigate its control effectiveness
under three-dimensional seismic excitations (Fig.18). The structure of the hangar is built
with a 120m span space frame roof supported on RC columns, and two kinds of 3DSIB
are installed on the top of its columns. For structures installed with 3DSIBs, the
governing equation of the isolated structural system can be written by
[ M ]{U&&} + [C ]{U& } + [ K ]{U } = − [ M ]{U&&g } − [ H ]{Fh, f (t )} (7)
where [ M ] , [C ] and [ K ] are the mass, damping and stiffness matrices of the structure,
respectively, furthermore, the elastic stiffness of bearing from restoring springs and
vertical seismic isolation system is incorporated in the [ K ] ; {Fh, f (t )} is the frictional force
vector generated by Teflon-steel sliding surfaces; [ H ] is an indication matrix
representing the locations of the control force; and [U ] , [U& ] and [U&& ] represent
displacement, velocity and acceleration vector of joints in isolated spatial structures
respectively.
405
N H 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Section 21
E
A A
Structural plan
1 21
Section A
Figure 18: Model of the hangar with 3DSIBs
In present study, El-centro earthquake waves along X, Y and Z directions are selected
as inputs to the structure. The peak ground acceleration is scaled to 0.20g in the analysis.
Some of the results are illustrated in Fig.19 and 20. Fig.20 presents the axial force of up
chords of the main truss above the entrance. It is shown that the seismically isolated
structure has prolonged periods (Fig.19), and the peak axial forces of the main members
are reduced (Fig.20). Furthermore, the sliding displacements of the bearings have been
well controlled. The seismic response analysis of the isolated hangar shows that the
3DSIB provides superior performance. In addition, the study has revealed that the
seismic isolation effectiveness is mainly related to the frictional coefficient, the
horizontal stiffness and the vertical stiffness of the bearing.
1.5
0
With 3DSIB
With 3DSIBs
Uncontrolled
Uncontrolled
-300
1.2
Peak axial force (kN)
-600
Periods (s)
0.9
-900
-1200
0.6
-1500
0.3
-1800
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
0 5 10 15 20
Period NO. Member NO.
Figure19: Periods Figure20: Peak axial force
5 Conclusions
The advances on seismic isolation in spatial structures are simply reviewed. The
theoretical models of the new developed 3DSIB bearing were established as well. To
verify the models, two kinds of practical bearings were designed, and of which a series
of experiments on shaking table were carried out. It is shown that the proposed
theoretical models accurately predict the seismic isolation properties of the bearing
406
developed in the paper, and the 3DSIB bearing shares good performance for three-
dimensional seismic isolation. Furthermore, several valuable rules were found from the
experimental results. Finally, the seismic response of a 120m span hangar roof with
space frame applied with the bearing was carefully analyzed, and some details related to
seismic isolation performance effective to spatial structures are discussed as well. It is
shown that the proposed bearing shares very good properties for seismic isolation to
spatial structures.
Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support from the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (50778006) and the funding project for academic human resources
development in institutions of higher learning under the jurisdiction of Beijing
municipality. The grant from the Key Laboratory of Urban Security and Disaster
Engineering of Beijing University of Technology is also appreciated.
References
[1] T Takeuchi, O Toshiyuki, K Tomohiko. State-of-Arts Views on Response Control
Technologies on Metal Space Structures. Proceedings of IASS Symposium 2009,
Valencia , Spain.
[2] T Takeuchi, Xue SD, Kato S, et al. Recent development in passive control
technologies for mental spatial structures. Proceedings of IASS-APCS Symposium
2006, DR18, Beijing.
[3] Y Hitomi, K Osawa, M Nakagawa and M Saito. Structural Design of Yamaguchi
Dome, Proceedings of IASS 2001 (Nagoya), TP155.
[4] Shi WX, Sun HS, Li ZG, High-position isolation of Press Center at Shanghai
International Circuit. Journal of Tongji University(Natural Science) 2005; 12:
1576-1580.
[5] Xue SD, Zhuang P, and Li BS. “Seismic Isolation of Lattice Shells using a New
Type of SMA-Rubber Bearings”, Proceedings of IASS Symposium 2005, 353-358.
[6] Constantinou M, Whittaker A S. Seismic evaluation and retrofit of the Ataturk
international airport terminal building. Research Progress and Accomplishment.
2000-2001, MCEER Bulletin.
[7] Mokha A S, Lee P L, Wang X. Seismic isolation design of the new international
terminal at San Francisco international airport. Conference on Struct.Eng. In the
21st Century.1999,95-98.
[8] Xue SD , Zhao W and Li XY. Invention patent. FPS bearing with capacity of
resisting lift force in vertical direction.
[9] Ding JM, HE ZJ. Several key issues of structural analysis of pre-stressed steel truss
shells roof of Beijing University gymnasium. Journal of Building Structure 2006;
27:44-50.
[10] Chang Q, Liu FG and Ren BS. Structures design of steel-roofs in Beijing
University of Science and Technology. Steel Structure 2007; 22:46-48.
407
[11] Chen ZH, Wang XD. Space Steel Structure System of Tianjin Museum. The
Second Symposium Essays of the Modern Structure Engineering. Maanshan, 2002,
138-140.
[12] Guo SX, Jiang ZG and He WJ, GUO Q. Construction of the grids of Beijing
Aeronautical University Gym. Architecture Technology 2003; 34:360-361.
[13] Yan F , Qi WH and Gan M. Application of Sliding Supports with Spring
Resistances in Large-span Steel Truss Roof of the gymnasium of Wukesong
Culture and Sports Center. Building Structure 2006; 36:33-35.
[14] Zeng ZP. Structural analysis and design of the latticed shell for Fujian Gymnasium.
SPATIAL STRUCTURES 2007; 13:44-48.
[15] Yan Y. Design of Fujian Provincial Gymnasium Structure. Building Structure,
2002; 32:53-56
[16] Wu Q, Chao S. Construction Technology of Beam String Steel Roof in Tongji
University Swimming Gymnasium. CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY 2007;
36:22-24.
[17] Tang H, Zhou D and He ZC. Structural Design on Guangzhou Gymnasium Roof.
Building Structure 2003; 33:51-54.
[18] Lin DH, XU ZG. Application of Isolating Bearing in Long Span Spacing Structures.
JOURNAL OF GUANG ZHOU UNIVERSITY 2001; 15:74-77.
[19] Gao XN, CAI XR and Gong Z. Design and Construction of Surface-curved Space
Grid Structure of an Aviation Building. Building Structure 2000; l30:31-32.
[20] Fan Z, Wang CG and You TZ. Large-span Structural Design of Ningbo
International. Conference ＆ Exhibition Center. Progress in Steel Building
Structure 2005; 7:29-40.
[21] Fan Z, Wang CG and Dong J. Ningbo International Conference & Exhibition Center Ⅱ:
Structure Design of HSS Roof Trusses of the Halls. Building Structure 2003; 33:54-57.
408
State-of-Art Views on Seismic Response Evaluation Methods

for Metal Space Structures
Shoji Nakazawa1*, Shiro Kato1, Toru Takeuchi2, S D Xue3
1*
Tempaku-cho, Toyohashi, 441-8580, Japan
nakazawa@ace.tut.ac.jp
2
3
Beijing University of Technology
Abstract
The present paper is a brief and starting state-of-art view for earthquake
responses and equivalent static seismic loads for metal spatial structures, mainly
quoting investigations from IASS symposia and related journals. First, dynamic
response characteristics of metal spatial structures are briefly explained, and then
analytical methods for evaluating earthquake responses and equivalent seismic loads
proposed for metal spatial structures are reviewed.
Keywords: Metal Space Structures, Seismic Response Evaluation, Equivalent Static Seismic Load
1 Introduction
Metal spatial structures cover effectively large areas without columns inside, and they
have been applied to many kinds of structures for various purposes. Their geometries
range from flat plates to curved ones such as arches, cylinders, spheres and free forms in
some special cases. The response characteristics against earthquakes also vary
depending on their geometries, and accordingly, depending on which studies have been
performed [1, 2]. In general, not only cylindrical lattice roofs but also lattice domes are
subjected to large vertical accelerations even under horizontal earthquake motions [3].
And their response characteristics are known very different from those of tall buildings,
because such roofs have a large number of parallel vibration modes simultaneously
stimulating vertical components, and because roofs and substructures couple in
responses. Since the response characteristics of spatial structures differ from those of
ordinary tall buildings, it will include a little bit deviations to apply the ordinary seismic
loads. For this reason, efficient and practical methods for evaluation of responses and
seismic loads to metal spatial structures are required in the structural design.
The lessons [4, 5] from earthquake damages, such as Kobe Earthquake, tells us clearly a
fact that many spatial structures themselves could survive the Kobe Earthquake but
were damaged as found in many patterns: flake-off of concrete at shoes, rapture of
anchor bolts, rapture of braces and members around shoes due to tension just after
buckling, and falling down of ceilings and equipments attached on ceilings, leading to
loss of functions as buildings. And soon after this earthquake, applications of base
isolation system [6-12], hysteresis damper system [13-16], and viscous or viscous-
409
elastic damper system [17-19], have been intensively studied for the metal spatial
structures. Recently several damping devices have been introduced into the metal spatial
structures as reviewed in the references [20-23]. Accordingly, seismic response
evaluation methods for metal spatial structures with isolation and damper systems are
also required in the structural design.
In the present report, methods for evaluation of responses and seismic loads to metal
spatial structures are reviewed by referring to papers appearing mainly in IASS
Proceedings and IASS Journals. First, dynamic response characteristics of metal spatial
structures are briefly explained, then followed by review of analytical methods for
evaluating earthquake responses and equivalent seismic loads proposed for metal spatial
structures.
2. Dynamic Response Characteristics of Space Structure

The response characteristics to earthquakes vary depending on their geometries. Seismic
responses of not only cylindrical lattice roofs but also lattice domes are subjected, in
general, to large vertical accelerations even under horizontal earthquake motions. The
main reasons for their response characteristics are known as those that such roofs have a
large number of parallel vibration modes with vertical components to be stimulated
simultaneously due to horizontal ones, and that their amplitudes change drastically
dependent on dynamic coupling between roofs and substructures.
Comparing with tall buildings, the features of the dynamic behaviour of metal spatial
structures are clarified as follows.
(1) Many vibration modes with adjacent natural periods are excited in couples.
(2) Asymmetric vertical vibrations are raised even due to horizontal earthquake motions.
(3) Vertical vibrations are caused due to UD earthquake motions.
(4) Multiple inputs from foundations or input phase difference will appear for those
with flexible foundations.
The above characteristics different from ordinary tall buildings require engineers to
evaluate earthquake responses and seismic loads for structural design, since there are
few available design codes for this kind of seismic loads.
3. Analytical Methods for Evaluating Earthquake Responses

The Specification [24] provides a design procedure for metal spatial structures for not
only buckling but also earthquake resistant design. The seismic intensity is given as a
design peak acceleration but variable depending on regions. And procedures to evaluate
the elastic responses of displacements, forces in members, and other necessary
quantities are given mainly based on CQC method. In most of the design
recommendations or specifications, the fundamental forces are to be evaluated based on
a kind of acceleration spectrum. Usually, these recommendations assume that structures
behave elastically.
On the other hand, if the structures are to be designed based on elasto-plastic response
behavior, direct time history analyses are performed. In principle, in case of time history
analysis, such design spectrum depending on a seismic intensity may be interpreted as
410
simulated time histories for accelerations to be used for evaluating time histories of
forces and displacements. Accordingly, there will be more than two paths for practical
design as illustrated in Fig.1 [1].
Design intensities and design spectra
Elastic analysis Elasto-plastic analysis
Equivalent static SRSS, CQC and other Equivalent Direct time history
seismic forces similar methods linearization analysis
Equivalent static SRSS, CQC and other

seismic forces similar methods
Forces and other responses Forces, displacements, accelerations,

based on linear analysis and other responses
Proportioning for members composing a total structure

Figure.1 Design flow for member proportioning [1]
Nowadays many efficient analytical methods compiled as computer software can be

applied as often encountered in practice, and whichever static or dynamic, elastic or
plastic analysis is adopted for (1) modal analysis, (2) pushover analysis, and (3) time
history analysis, engineers are required to establish an accurate structural model for the
structure in issue to be capably analyzed with software, under a comprehensive
consideration of substructures, foundations, and damping devices if any special devices
for vibration control are introduced.
As for damping for structures approximations are often adopted usually, and Rayleigh
damping or stiffness proportional damping is applied. In general, a spatial structure is
divided into some parts. When materials of a superstructure differ from those for a
substructure, for example, the steel roof is supported by RC substructure, a combination
of Rayleigh damping or stiffness proportional damping is applied [25]. Since the
damping gives a quite a large effect to responses, such a more accurate approximation
has been applied in design calculation. Measurements [26] are still continued to find the
values of damping factors of metal spatial structures, and the database [2] of the
damping factors is being piled up gradually.
In case of artificial or added damping are well known to reduce the earthquake
responses, and not only hysteresis and viscous dampers are nowadays being adopted in
many projects [8, 9, 17]. In the time history response analysis, such a damping device
can be modelled considerably in detail. On the other hand, when using modal analysis,
the concept of equivalent stiffness and equivalent viscous damping is applied in
approximation for nonlinear responses [14, 30].
411
3.1 Modal analysis and CQC method

Modal response analysis is simple and cost-effective compared with time history
analysis, since it dose not require any long calculation on computers. As such
computations, SRSS (Square Root Sum of Squared) and CQC (Complete Quadratic
Combination Method) methods are often applied in practice. CQC is adopted in several
recommendations, for example, in the references [24, 28]. In case of a closeness of
frequencies existing between several modes, CQC has been applied, for example, in the
studies for lattice dome [29] supported by substructures. Even in the case that an
investigation for elasto-plastic behavior is required to include the effects of base
isolation, elasto-plastic dampers and viscous dampers, such SRSS and CQC have been
applied together with use of equivalent linearization of elasto-plastic behavior [14, 30].
In the study of single layer lattice domes supported by buckling restrained braces with a
ductile hysteresis [14], comparison was shown fine between the modal analysis based
on equivalent linearization and direct time history analysis. Based on these studies [31,
32], equivalent static seismic forces have been also proposed as practical and
approximate loads for static analysis.
3.2 Pushover analysis

Pushover analysis is sometimes applied as performance based design to tall buildings as
shown, for examples, in the reference [33]. In this scheme based on static nonlinear
analysis, an equivalent static seismic load is utilized in an elasto-plastic analysis to
confirm that the total structural capacity satisfies several given limit states, under an
assumption that equivalent stiffness and equivalent damping ratios can be accurately
evaluated depending on a stress-strain relationship in each structural member. With
respect to metal spatial structures, very few studies for performance based design are
found except for the references for lattice domes [34-36] where equivalent static seismic
forces are also proposed for domes supported by buckling restrained braces of stable bi-
linear hysteresis [35], while by braces of deteriorated hysteresis under buckling [36]. In
the study [37] for metal spatial structures covered with membrane roofs, globally
supported by a R/C substructure, an adaptive scheme for equivalent static seismic forces
has been proposed for a pushover analysis.
3.3 Direct time history analysis

In case that equivalent static seismic loads are not proposed in any recommendations or
a more detailed analysis is required in need of design purpose, a set of time history
analysis are performed to find earthquake responses using direct time history
accelerations, or in case of multi-input earthquakes [], velocities and displacements as
their inputs. In these occasions, whichever the analysis is elastic or elasto-plastic, a
structural model of the total structure is constructed considering mass and stiffness-
strength distributions.
412
(a) Analysis of Seismic Resistance Capacity and Collapse Accelerations

Recently, researches aiming to find the bearing capacity how spatial structures can
endure severe earthquake motions have been performed. In this case, the analysis
becomes time-consuming since material and geometrical nonlinearities are needed in
analyses. The studies [13, 38] analyzed domes, rigidly connected at nodes, of medium
size, and investigated the collapse mechanism of lattice domes and failure accelerations
under severe earthquake motions using detailed nonlinear analysis. The study [38]
considered a dome of 40 meters span with a direct support, reporting an important fact
that dynamic strength failure was not found in ordinary cases.
A study for double layer lattice domes [39, 40] was studied under vertical earthquake
motions, giving an estimating equation of collapse accelerations and revealing a high
resistant capacity against vertical earthquake motions. In reference [40], the input
maximum accelerations and input strain energies of double layer lattice domes at
collapse were numerically investigated, mentioning that the index of earthquake input
energies will be more effective than that of the maximum input acceleration for the
prediction of the collapse level under seismic loads, and that the earthquake input
energy for dynamic collapse may be predicted by using the pseudo velocity response
spectrum and information from the structural effective mass ratios.
(b) Numerical simulation of metal spatial structures with damping device

Recently, metal spatial structures with a damping device system such as buckling
restrained brace in their substructure or an intermediate base-isolation system have been
proposed for reducing the responses. Artificial and added dampings are well known
effective to reduce the earthquake responses, and not only hysteresis but also viscous
dampers are nowadays being adopted in many projects [6-23]. Since an earthquake
input to an upper roof structure from its substructure is reduced greatly with seismic
control devices, the roof structure remains in an elastic range. Accordingly, modal
analysis such as the CQC method may be adopted as a prediction method of the
maximum responses. However, seismic resistance capacity and collapse accelerations of
spatial structures with seismic control devices are usually evaluated based on time
history elasto-plastic dynamic analysis. In reference [13], a lattice dome of 100 meters
span supported by ductile braces was also investigated. The study reported a practical
suggestion that, if domes are designed resisting two time the self weight, the failure will
not be probable and that the failure accelerations will be beyond 500cm/s2 for domes if
an ordinary yield base shear coefficients of 0.2 to 0.4 for braces is adopted for its
substructure.
(c) Seismic Risk Analysis based on time history response analysis

Studied [41-44] on the damage evaluation of space structure were performed as an
extension of the study which analyzes the collapse acceleration and earthquake resistant
performance of space structure. In the reference [42], it discussed, with respect to a
single layer lattice dome, about the seismic fragility curve, representing a relation
between input seismic intensity and failure probability, based on time history elasto-
plasticity seismic response analysis. Moreover, in the references [43, 44], where a single
layer lattice dome is divided into structural members and non-structural members, a
413
seismic fragility curve is evaluated based on time history analysis, and it was analyzed
based on the seismic fragility curve how much the damage of upper dome structure is
reduced by the energy absorption of the substructure. In order to calculate the failure
probability of a structure including nonlinearity, an approach such as Monte Carlo
simulation was applied with a help of parallel computing system [43].
4. Equivalent Static Seismic Loads

When any recommendations give equivalent static seismic loads for design
corresponding to the geometries and structural properties, they can be applied. The
specifications [24, 28] give a procedure to evaluate the elastic stresses due to its design
earthquake. The procedures given in [24, 28], based on CQC method, evaluate elastic
stresses for members with a fine accuracy, however equivalent static seismic loads as
vectors, which can be applied to static analysis as loads, have not been provided yet. In
the followings several examples are reviewed for equivalent static seismic loads.
4.1 Equivalent static seismic loads based on time history analysis

In general, the fact that several modes are excited in spatial structure burdens
difficulties in estimating a statically equivalent seismic force based on a single
predominant mode. In an actual structural design [45, 46], the static seismic loads of a
complicated spatial structure have been determined based on the time history response
analysis in many cases. In other words, the statically equivalent seismic forces can be
decided by an assumption that the maximum seismic forces occur at the same time as
some important value in the domes becomes maximum. The important values might be
an axial force in a specific member, a specific reaction at some support, and
acceleration at some point, or others depending on its importance in the design. Single
layer reticular domes both for high rise and low rise were studied in the reference [3],
where static seismic loads for low rise single layer domes are calculated based on time
history analysis.
4.2 Equivalent static seismic loads based on modal analysis and pushover
analysis
(a) Modal analysis

Single layer reticular domes with 100m span supported by substructures were studied
[14] considering several parameters such as depth to span ratio (d/L), the response
characteristics of domes with five different span thickness ratios ( from Dome A to
dome E ) were analyzed by paying attention to the number of the exciting vibration
modes. A method to estimate the earthquake forces of dome structure with a
substructure based on equivalent linearization of nonlinear responses of substructures
was proposed together with an ordinary response spectrum analysis, but with a
restriction that the nonlinearity is caused only in braces due to elasto-plastic
deformation. In the dome A with small d/L, many modes contribute to the maximum
response of the dome. On the other hand, in case of dome E with large d/L, only two
414
dominant modes contribute greatly to the response of the dome, it is confirmed that the
distribution of maximum response acceleration can be estimated only with the two
dominant modes as follows.
(b) Two-mode based expression for equivalent static seismic loads

Considering a single layer lattice dome, 100meters span, supported by braces with
stable bi-linear hysteresis loops, a set of equivalent static seismic loads are proposed
using dominant two modes [35], however with a condition of total mass ratios being
larger than 0.9 for the dominant two modes, One is a load corresponding to the
dominant sway mode, while the other to the dominant anti-symmetric mode. The
scheme can be applied in both cases for elastic and elasto-plastic behavior since the
evaluating scheme is based on equivalent linearization method. However, its application
will be limited to domes with a ratio of member diameter-to-span being greater than
1/100. The method is expanded into double layer lattice domes [35], 100meters span,
considering the braces experiencing plasticity under severe earthquake motions, and is
proved efficient in cases where the total mass ratio for the dominant two modes are
lager than 90%. In the case of braces experiencing deteriorations under buckling, a
study [36] is presented, by replacing the deteriorated hysteresis into equivalent stable bi-
linear ones, to estimate a set of equivalent static seismic loads in vectors. The proposed
static seismic loads [35, 36] are compared with those obtained based on time history
nonlinear analysis, leading a result that the forces from the static seismic loads give
almost same and safe side values as those from direct time history analyses.
4.3 Equivalent static seismic loads determined based on integrated

judgments
Several structures were reported in the references [45, 46] and studied not only to grasp
the earthquake responses of metal spatial structures but also to evaluate their equivalent
static seismic loads, and the results are explained in detail in the books. Generally, in
their studies, first, a set of time history analysis were performed, and followed by
endeavours to find seismic load distributions over the surface of each structure as
explained in Section 4.1. Recently, the static seismic loads on typical shaped metal
spatial structure have been proposed based on the results of time history response
analysis or modal analysis.
(a) Arches and column supported arches

An elastic response study [47] of a simple arch supported at its both ends under
horizontal earthquakes presented the results for equivalent static seismic loads, as
interpreted as the horizontal and vertical distributions for loads, depending on various
open angles. The span is rather small around 15meters. The results may be applied for
design use. Also, an elastic response study of arch supported by columns at both ends
[48] provides a static seismic load, which is expressed in terms of several design
parameters, such as a natural period, rise to span ratio, and column height. The results
are expressed as a non-dimensional form. A gable type truss structure supported by
columns at both ends [49] was studied and the static seismic loads have been evaluated
415
in an almost same procedure as the study [48] using the natural period and total mass
ratio for dominant two modes.
(b) Cylindrical steel frame for membrane roofs supported by substructure

on a rectangular plan
The elasto-plastic behavior for cylindrical steel frame for membrane roofs supported
by a substructure on a rectangular plan was studied in the references [50, 37]. The study
[50] presents a numerical scheme for static seismic loads considering the interaction
between the super and substructures, followed by comparison with the results based on
CQC method. The study [37] has proposed a scheme to evaluate a set of equivalent
static seismic loads considering the elasto-plastic behavior of the substructure, and the
proposed seismic loads were applied to a pushover analysis for performance based
design, with a discussion on possibility of adaptive seismic loads changing dependent to
deformations of structures.
(c) Cylindrical lattice roofs supported by substructures

A single layer latticed cylindrical roofs [51] was studied under horizontal earthquake
motions to obtain the relationship between the strain energy and the various response
quantities through linear elastic response analysis, and a set of static seismic loads and a
numerical scheme for the calculation have been proposed with a comparison between
the static ones with time history analysis. For this kind of elastic structures, also studies
[32,52] explained the vibration mechanism of raised roof with substructures using
simple model, and performed with a practical result expressing an approximate design
formula of equivalent static seismic loads covering wide range for design use. They are
followed by an extension to a steel frame for a membrane roof with a substructure on a
rectangular plan [50].
(d) Single layer lattice dome supported by substructures

A medium size elastic dome with 60 meters span [31, 52], supported by a set of elastic
flexible columns, was studied considering several parameters such as a half open angle
ranging 20 to 40 degrees, depth/span ratio, and the rigidity of substructure. The study
pointed out a possibility that many modes are stimulated in case of relatively thin lattice
domes and an approximate but efficient estimation procedure of equivalent static
seismic loads are proposed for domes under limited conditions. Where depth/span ratio
is larger than 1/50 being considered relatively thick as a lattice dome, the maximum
acceleration distribution in the horizontal and vertical directions, AH and AV, have been
expressed by simple amplification factors, FH and FV in terms of the following
functions, using the coordinates in the roof.
 π x2 + y2  x π x2 + y2
AH ( x, y ) = Aeq 1 + ( FH − 1) cos  , AV ( x, y ) = Aeq FV sin
 L  x2 + y2 L
416
 3 ( 0 < RT ≤ 5 / 36)  3 CV θ ( 0 < RT ≤ 5 /16)

 
FH =  5 / 4 RT (5 / 36 < RT ≤ 5 / 4) , FV = ( )
5 / RT − 1 CV θ (5 /16 < RT ≤ 5)
 1 (5 / 4 < RT )  (5 < RT )
  0
in which the maximum acceleration of SDOF model obtained from response spectrum
is defined Aeq using θ as a half subtended angle of dome. The proposed method is
confirmed fine through comparison with the results of CQC method.
A high-rise dome of static seismic load [3, 53] was also studied. In the reference [53], a
half-subtended angle θ of the dome was varied from 30° to 90° for a dome with 60
meters span was investigated. For the case of high-rise dome, seismic static loads are
expressed with simple amplification factors as well as with conventional studies [52],
and their validities have been discussed by comparison with response spectrum analyses
with CQC method.
(e) Dome roof with seismic Isolation system

Previous studies [6-12] have confirmed that a seismic isolation system effectively
reduces both the horizontal and vertical acceleration responses due to horizontal
seismic ground motions, and that the system is effective under both horizontal and
vertical seismic ground motions. Although a time history response analysis has been
used in the actual design of the spatial structure with isolation system in many cases,
static seismic loads of a dome roof with substructure and seismic base isolation system
have been also studied. In the reference [54], the method to determine the seismic load
for the medium-span latticed domes with isolation system were proposed as well as the
conventional studies [52]. In the case that a substructure is light and stiff, the
amplification factors are estimated by a SDOF model regarding the substructure. In the
case that the substructure is much heavier than the roof, and that the natural period of
the substructure approaches that of the seismic isolation system, the maximum response
of the roof can be evaluated by combining the equations of amplification factors and a
predictive method for a mid-story seismic isolation system using DDOF model.
5. Conclusions
The present paper is a brief state-of-art for earthquake responses and equivalent static
seismic loads for metal spatial structures, quoting investigations mainly from IASS
symposia and related journals. First, dynamic response characteristics of metal spatial
structures have been briefly explained, and then analytical methods for evaluating
earthquake responses and equivalent seismic loads ever proposed for metal spatial
structures have been reviewed.
Acknowledgements
The present study was performed as a part of Sub WG for Dynamic Aspects of Metal
Spatial Structures, WG No.8, and the authors would like to express the sincere
appreciation to all of the colleagues assisting the present woks.
417
References
[1] Shiro Kato, Toru Takeuchi, Su Duo Xue, Shoji Nakazawa, Ikuo Tatemichi,Masumi
Fujimoto, Feng Fan, Toshiyuki Ogawa, Zhi-hua Chen, Tomohiko Kumagai : State-of-Art
Report on Seismic Response Estimation of Metal Spatial Structures under Earthquake
Motions, Proceedings of the IASS-APCS 2006, China, Beijing, DR10, 2006.
[2] S.D. XUE, Shiro Kato, Toru Takeuchi, Shoji Nakazawa, Toshiyuki Ogawa, P. Zhuang : A
Review on Methods of Seismic Response Analysis of Metal Spatial Structures,
Proceedings of the IASS-APCS 2006, China, Beijing, DR34, 2006.
[3] S. Kato, T. Ueki, and Y. Mukaiyama : Study of Dynamic Collapse of Single Layer
Reticular Domes Subjected to Earthquake Motions and Estimation of Statically Equivalent
Seismic Force, International Journal of Space Structures 1997; 12:191-203,
[4] S. Kato, K. Kawaguchi, T. Saka : Preliminary Report on Hanshin Earthquake, Proceedings
of the IASS 1995, Vol.2, 1059-1066, 1995
[5] K. Kawaguchi and Y. Suzuki : Damage Investigations of Public Halls in Nagaoka City
After Nigata-Chuetsu Earthquake 2004 in Japan, Proceedings of the IASS 2005, Vol.I,
421-428, 2005
[6] M. Uchikoshi, S. Kato, S. Nakazawa, T. Mukaiyama : How to Realize a Super Large Dome
under Severest Earthquake ? A Dome with Seismic Isolation System, IASS 2001, TP115
[7] M. Kawaguchi and I. Tatemichi : Seismic Isolation Systems and Their Application in Space
Structures, .217-228, 2000.
[8] Y. Hitomi, K. Osawa, S. Nakagawa, M Saitoh : Structural Design of Yamaguchi Dome,
Proceedings of the IASS 2001, TP155, 2001.
[9] K. Kaneda, M. Saitoh : Endeavors to Control the Vibration of Long Span Structures,
[10] K. Shingu, T. Niki : A Study on Base Isolated Shell, Proceedings of the IASS 2001,
Nagoya, TP117, 2001
[11] Z. Cao, S. D. Xue and Y. G. Zhang : Analytical Model and Vibration Control For Lattice
Shells, IASS 2004, TP037, 2004.
[12] S. D. Xue, P. Zhuang, B. S. Li : Seismic Isolation of Lattice Shells Using a New Type of
SMA-Rubber Bearings, IASS 2005, 353-358, 2005.
[13] S. Kato, S. Nakazawa, T. Minegishi and Y. Niho : Dynamic Collapse Mechanism of Single
Layer Reticular Domes with Braces Subjected to Severe Earthquakes Motions,
Proceedings of the IASS 2000, 319-326, 2000.
[14] S. Kato and S. Nakazawa : Seismic Design Method to Reduce the Responses of Single
Layer domes by Means of Yielding of Substructure under Severe Earthquake Motions,
[15] S. Kato, S. Nakazawa, F. Matsushita, T. Ohya, T. Okamoto : A New System of
Intermediate Isolation for Space Structures Against Earthquakes, Proceedings of the 5th
International Conference on Space Structures, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK, 1053-
1062, 2002.
[16] S Kato, Y B Kim and S Nakazawa : Simulation System of Cyclic Behavior of Steel
Hysteretic Devices and Study on Efficiency of the Devices Installed Into Space Structures
for Reducing Earthquake Responses, Proceedings of the IASS 2004, TP053, 2004
[17] T. Takeuchi, K. Kaneda, M. Iwata, A. Wada, M. Saitoh ; Vibration-Control Devices For
Tension Structures Using Visco-elastic or Viscous Material with Spring, Proceedings of
the IASS 2001, TP121, 2001.
[18] K. Kasai, S. Motoyui, Y. Ooki : Viscoelastic Damper Modeling and its Application to
Dynamic Analysis of Viscoelastically Dampered Space Frames, IASS 2001, TP119
10
418
[19] F. Fan, S. Z. Shen, G. A. R. Parke : Theoretical and Experimental Study of Vibration

Reduction in Braced Domes Using a Viscous Damper System, International Journal of
Space Structures 2004; 19:195-202,.
[20] G.C. Giuliani : Overview on the Dynamic Control of Structures, Proceedings of the IASS
2002, 561-567, 2002.
[21] G.C. Giuliani : Up To Date Dynamic Control of Structures, Proceedings of the IASS 2004,
IL06, 2004.
[22] Toru Takeuchi, S.D.Xue, Shiro Kato, Toshiyuki Ogawa, Masumi Fujimoto, Shoji
Nakazawa : Recent Developments in Passive Control Technologies for Metal Spatial
Structures, Proceedings of the IASS-APCS 2006, China, Beijing, DR18, 2006.
[23] Toru Takeuchi, Toshiyuki Ogawa, Tomohiko Kumagai : State-of-Arts Views on Response
Control Technologies on Metal Space Structures, Proceedings of the IASS 2009, Valencia,
Spain, 104-105, 2009.
[24] Technical specification for latticed shells JGJ 61-2003, published from China Architectural
Industry Publication.
[25] S. Kato, S. Nakazawa, M. Uchikoshi : How Does the Assumption of Damping Matrix
Influence on the Earthquake Response of Large Reticulated Domes with Seismic Isolation
System ?, Proceedings of the IASS 1999 Symposium, Madrid, Spain, E2.31-2.40, 1999
[26] I. Tatemichi : A Study on the Damping of Vibrations in Space Structures, Proceedings of
the IASS 2001, TP074, 2001
[27] Damping and Response Control of Shell and Spatial Structures, published by Architectural
Institute of Japan, 2008. ( in Japanese )
[28] Recommendations for Loads on Buildings, published from Architectural Institute of Japan,
2004
[29] T. Ogawa, T. Takeuchi, M. Nakagawa, T. Kumagai : Seismic response analysis of single
layer lattice domes, Proceedings of the IASS-APCS 2003, Taipei, Taiwan, 2003, 110-111.
[30] T. Kumagai, T. Takeuchi, T. Ogawa A. Nakama and E. Sato : Seismic Response
Evaluation of Latticed Domes with Elasto-Plastic Substructures Using Amplification
Factors, Proceedings of the IASS 2005, Vol.I, 383-390, 2005.
[31] T. Takeuchi, T. Ogawa, M. Nakagawa and T. Kumagai : Response Evaluation of Medium
Span Lattice Domes with Substructures using Response Spectrum Analysis, Proceedings
of the IASS 2004, TP076, 2004.
[32] T. Takeuchi, T. Ogawa, C. Yamagata and T. Kumagai : Seismic Response Evaluation of
Cylindrical Lattice Shell Roofs with Substructures Using Amplification Factor,
Proceedings of the IASS 2005, Vol.I, 391-398, 2005.
[33] M. Midorikawa : Performace-Based Seismic Design Provisions for Buildings in Japan,
Proceedings of the IASS 2005, Vol.I, 307-316, 2005.
[34] S. Kato, Y. Konishi and S. Nakazawa, Pushover Analysis and Static Estimation of Seismic
Response of Large Steel Space Structures, Proceedings of the IASS-APCS 2003, 54-55,
2003
[35] S. Kato, S. Nakazawa and K. Saito : Two-Mode Based Estimation of Equivalent Seismic
Loads and Static Estimation of Dynamic Response of Reticular Domes Supported by
Ductile Substructures, Journal of the IASS 2006; 47:35-52.
[36] S. Kato, S. Nakazawa and K. Saito : Estimation of Static Seismic Loads for Latticed
Domes Supported by Substructure Frames with Braces Deteriorated due to Buckling,
Journal of the IASS 48; 71-86, 2007.
[37] S. Nakazawa, S. Kato, T. Yoshino and K. Oda : Study on Seismic Response Estimation
Based on Pushover Analysis for Membrane Structures Supported by Substructure,
Proceedings of the IASS 2005, Vol. I, 329-336, 2005.
11
419
[38] Zhi Xudong, Fan Feng, Shen Shizhao : Failure mechanism of single-layer reticulated
domes subjected to earthquakes, Journal of the IASS, 2007; 48: 29-44.
[39] Koichiro Ishikawa, Shiro Kato : Elastic-plastic Dynamic Buckling Analysis of Reticular
Domes Subjected to Earthquake Motion, International Journal of Space Structures 1997,
12:205-215.
[40] Y. Taniguchi, P. L. Gould, M. Kurano : Earthquake Input Energy at Dynamic Collapse for
Double-Layer Cylindrical Lattice Roofs, Journal of the IASS 2008; 49.
[41] Shoji Nakazawa, Toshio Shima, Ikuo Tatemichi, Shiro Kato, Kenta Hirano : Evaluation for
Seismic Risk Based on Damage Ratio and Seismic Resistance of Spatial Structures,
Proceedings of the IASS-APCS2006, China, Beijing, AO16, 2006.
[42] Dabin Yang, Yigang Zhang, Jinzhi Wu : Seismic Performance Assessment of Single Layer
Latticed Domes Using IDA, Proceedings of the APCS 2009, Nagoya, APCS09-P0067,
2009.
[43] Shoji Nakazawa, Shiro Kato, Ryoichi Shibata : Seismic Risk Evaluation of Spatial
Structures by using Grid Computing System, Proceedings of IASS Symposium 2009,
Valencia, Spain, 366-377, 2009.
[44] Shiro Kato, Shoji Nakazawa : A Trial for Seismic Fragility Evaluation of a Large Lattice
Dome Supported by Buckling Restrained Braces, International Journal of Space
Structures 2010. 25:125-134,.
[45] Spatial Structures - Seismic Design and Realization in Japan, published by Architectural
Institute of Japan, 2001 ( in Japanese )
[46] Dynamic Behavior and Seismic Design of Spatial Structures, published by Architectural
Institute of Japan, 2006 ( in Japanese )
[47] C. Hung, Y. Shinohara, M.Yamada : A Study on the Static Seismic Force for the Design
of the Arch, Proceedings of IASS 2001, TP080, 2001.
[48] S. Kato, S. Nakazawa, X.Gao : Elastic Responses and Equivalent Static Forces for Large
Span Arches, Proceedings of IASS 2002, 524-529, 2002.
[49] S. Kato, S. Nakazawa, F. Atsumi : A Study on Elastic Seismic Response and Estimation of
Static Seismic Load of the Gable Trussed Structures, Steel Construction Engineering 2002;
9:65-80.
[50] J. Hujiwara, T. Takeuchi, K. Oda : Seismic Response Evaluation for Framed supported
Membrane Roof Structure Using Equivalent Static Loads - An Example with a Single
Layer Cylindrical Roof Structure -, Research Report on Membrane Structures 2005, No.19,
399-406, 2005.
[51] S. Yamada, Y. Matsumoto, E. Saito ; Seismic Response Behavior of Single Layer
Latticed Cylinndrical Roofs and the Load Modeling for Seismic Design, Proceedings of
IASS 2005, Vol.I, 399-406, 2005.
[52] T. Takeuchi, T. Ogawa, T. Kumagai : Seismic Response Evaluation of Lattice Shell Roofs
Using Amplification Factors, Journal of the IASS 2007; 48.
[53] Toru Takeuchi, Tomohiko Kumagai, Shyunsuke Okayama, Toshiyuki Ogawa : Seismic
Response Evaluation of Low – to – High rise Lattice Domes, Proceedings of APCS 2009,
pp.71-72, Nagoya, Japan, 2009.
[54] Kengo Takamatsu, Toru Takeuchi, Tomohiko Kumagai, Toshiyuki Ogawa : Response
Evaluation of Seismically Isolated Lattice Domes using Amplification Factors,
Proceedings of IASS Symposium 2009, pp.120-121, Valencia, Spain, 2009.
12
420
Seismic retrofit of steel-structure school gymnasia

with energy dissipation braces
Toru TAKEUCHI1*, Yuki TUTSUMI 2, Tomohiko KUMAGAI1, Toshiyuki OGAWA1
1*
O-okayama 2-12-1, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, Japan
ttoru@arch.titech.ac.jp
2
Graduate student (previous), Tokyo Institute of Technology
Abstract
This paper describes seismic retrofit for steel-structure school gymnasia using
various energy dissipation devices as elasto-plastic or viscous dampers with brace
configuration. Their response reduction effects on roofs are discussed and practical
evaluation methods for the design of structural and non-structural elements are proposed.
Keywords: School gymnasia, Seismic response, Elasto-plastic damper, Viscous damper
1 Introduction
A number of school gymnasia in Japan built in the 1970s in Japan have exhibited or
lead one to foresee insufficient seismic performance, and seismic retrofits on them
are still underway throughout the country. However, current assessment practices do
not take into account the vertical vibration excitation peculiar to raised roof, which
heavily impacts the collapse of non-structural elements, such as ceiling components
or lighting equipments, which is widely observed in the past earthquakes.. Energy
dissipating retrofits are better suited than common strength-based retrofits to help
reducing such excited vibration; however, optimum design and evaluation methods
remain unclear. This paper looks at the typical school gymnasia in Japan, and
investigates retrofit design using elasto-plastic or viscous dampers, discussing its
effects on roof-response reduction and proposing practical response estimation
methods.
2 Studied Models
The analytical models are typical Japanese school gymnasia constructed in1970’s
composed of steel truss roof with two stories of substructures, where the lower is
reinforced concrete and the upper is steel structure, as shown in Fig. 1. The roof covers
32m span and 42m length, and the line connects A-O-A’ in the figure is called as the
centre line of the roof. Cylindrical roofs and chevron roofs are studied in this paper, and
roof rises are set with their half-subtended angle θ as 30°. The dimensions of the
structural members are given in Table 1. They are designed against seismic force of
base shear ratios of 0.2. Because of modern Japanese regulation requires 5 times of
seismic input from 1970’s, a numbers of such gymnasia have insufficient seismic
421
performance and require retrofits. The most common retrofit method is simply add
ordinary braces satisfying the required strength; however it is known that such
substructure reinforcement increase the vertical vibration excitation peculiar to raised
roof, and heavily impacts the collapse of non-structural elements, as ceiling
components or lighting equipments. Energy dissipating retrofits are considered to be
better suited than such strength-based retrofits to help reducing such excited vibration.
To confirm the effect of energy dissipating retrofits, FEA analytical models as shown in
Fig.1 (I)-(III) are constructed. (I): Original models before retrofits with insufficient
seismic strength with L-section braces in longitudinal directions. (II): Strength-based
retrofits adding strong H-section braces to the original in both directions in the second
level to stand with seismic input of 1.0 base shear ratios. (III): Energy-dissipating
retrofits adding elasto-plastic dampers as Buckling Restrained Braces or viscous
dampers at both directions. Hysteresis models of ordinary L-section braces follow
buckling behaviour with Shibata-Wakabayashi rules[2], elasto-plastic dampers follow bi-
linear hysteresis, and viscous dampers follow Maxwell models. Characteristics of the
dampers are parametrically changed and named as in Fig.2. The hysteresis curves of the
Original (FC), Strength-based retrofit (FCS), Energy-dissipating retrofit with elasto-
plastic dampers (FCH) obtained by push-over analyses are shown in Fig.3.
B’
A 2nd
Steel
HR=4.3m frame
O
H2=5m 1st
RC
H1=4m B frame
A’
RCwall
RC
Lx=32m RC
Ly=42m
θ
y
x
σ Replace to ED brace Replace to

ED brace
ε
(a) Cylindrical (b) Chevron Add ED brace
Add ED brace
L-brace
(I) Original model (a) Cylindrical (b) Chevron
Q Q Q
Kδ δ δ
Joint Elasto- Viscous
Replace to H-brace Replace to H-brace plastic Damper
Add H-brace Add H-brace Damper
(a) Cylindrical (b) Chevron (III) Energy-dissipating retrofit

(II) Strength-based retrofit
Fig. 1: Studied seismic retrofit concept for school gymnasium
422
Table. 1: Member section for studied model

FCH0.5-0.1
Yield Story Drift Angle θy (%)
Truss depth 800 Stiffness Ratio of Damper/Frame Kd/Kf
(Elasto-plastic Damper)
Truss Chord 2L-150×150×15 Equivalent Damping Factor heq
Truss diagonal 2L-75×75×12 (Viscous Damper)
Steel Column H-700×200×12×25 Null: Original
S: Strength-based retrofit
Original brace L-75×75×6 H: ED retrofit with Elasto-plastic damper
Strength-based brace H-200×200×8×12 O: ED retrofit with Viscous damper
RC column 700×400 A: Chevron roof
RC wall thickness 150 C: Cylindrical roof
(mm) Fig. 2: Studied model index
Shear F.(kN) Shear F.(kN)
5000
4000 FC H 2-0.1 FC H 50-0.1
FC H 1-0.1
3000
FC S FC
2000 2500 S
FC H 0.5-0.1
1000 FC
δ =0.7cm δ fy =4.7cm FC
dy
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
δ (cm)
FC 30-0.1
Fig. 3: Hysteresis curves of studied models H
FC 20-0.1
H
FC 10-0.1
H
=0.5cm
O1+1 O1+2
43.56%,0.33sec 16.67%,0.035sec 2000 11.11%,0.036sec (cm)
6.4%,0.15sec
δ
(a) Span directions
dy
O1+1
24.49%,0.44sec 16.24%,0.12sec 14.38%,0.053sec 11.85%,0.073sec
(b) Longitudinal directions
Fig. 4: Prominent vibration modes for Original models
The elastic vibration modes in original models are shown in Fig. 4. Major vibration
modes in both directions are mainly governed
1500 by the sway of the second 3stories
conjunction with asymmetrical roofs.
2.5
423
2
3 Seismic Responses
Time-history analyses are carried out for the models described in Chap.2 for evaluating
the effects of various types of retrofits. Used seismic input are the artificial wave
adjusting the phases of El Centro NS 1940, Hachinohe NS 1968, JMA Kobe NS 1995,
Taft EW 1952 to the target acceleration spectrum as shown in Fig.5. Examples of
obtained hysteresis loops of each brace are shown in Fig.6.
Firstly the maximum story drift angle in the second floor is shown in Fig.7. Original
models (FC) show the maximum story drift angle of 0.7-0.8% in span(x)-direction and
1.0-1.5% in longitudinal directions. Besides the strength-based retrofits (FCS, FAS)
show drastic reduction in drift, energy-dissipating retrofits (FCH, FAH, FCO, FAO) show
gradual reduction along the increase of damper stiffness or damping ratios.
S A(cm/sec 2 )
BRI-L2
2000 BCJ-L2
2
S =1378.4cm/sec El Centro
Ap
Hachinohe
1500 JMA Kobe
Taft EW
1000 Base layer
500
S Ag =482.4 cm/sec2
0
0.01 0.1 1 10
T (sec)
2 Fig. 5: Acceleration spectrum of seismic input
σ (N/mm ) N/Ny Force
減衰力(kN)
300 100
1
200
100 0 0
0
-1
-100 -100
-0.8 -0.6-0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 -4 -2 0 2 4 -10 0 10
δ/L (%) δ /δy Disp.
水平変位(cm)
(a) Original (b) Elasto-plastic (c) Viscous
Fig. 6: Hysteresis loops of each type of braces
Drift angle θ (%) Drift angleθ (%)

1.0 3.0
FC,FA 0.5 FC,FA
FCH,FAH 0.5
0.5 2.0
FC,FA
H H FCO,FA
FCS,FAS 1.0
0 0.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 Kd2.5
/Kf FC,FA
FC,FA
(a) Elasto-plastic damper (b) Viscous damper 0(a) Elasto-plastic damper
S S (b) Viscous damper
(A) Span directions 0 10 20(B) Longitudinal
30 40 directions
/K 0 0.1
50 K60 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
d f
Fig. 7: Response reduction in maximum story drift
O
424
RS
Chevron
2S
1S Cylidrical
AH/SAg AH/SAg AH/SAg AH/SAg
0 2 4 60 2 4 60 2 4 60 2 4 6
(a) FC, FA (b) FCs, FAs (c) FCH, FAH0.5-0.1 (d) FCO, FAO0.2
Original Model Strength-based retrofit Elasto-plastic damper Viscous damper
Fig. 8: Maximum horizontal acceleration response in each story
Fig. 8 shows the maximum acceleration ratio in each model. Contrary to the drift,
horizontal acceleration in roof level is remarkably excited in strength-based retrofits,
while the acceleration response is much reduced in energy-dissipating retrofits
especially with viscous dampers (FCO, FAO).
The maximum acceleration distributions in the roof centre line in each model are shown
in Fig.9 plotted in their absolute values. In span (x) direction, strength-based retrofits
(FCS, FAS) indicate higher excitation both in horizontal and vertical accelerations than
original. On contrary, energy-dissipating retrofits show response reduction especially
with viscous dampers. Similar tendencies are observed in longitudinal (y) direction. In
these results, the difference between cylindrical roofs and chevron roofs are not
significant except for the longitudinal accelerations of strength-based retrofit.
AH(cm/sec2 )
H H H
3000
Analysis(Cylindrical)
Horizontal 2000
Acceleration
1000
Analysis(Chevron)
0 O O O
A O A' A A' A A' A A'
AV(cm/sec2)
V V V
2000
Proposed: Eq.(1)-(10)
Vertical 1500
Acceleration 1000
500
0 O O O
Proposed:Eq.(1)-(8)
AH(cm/sec2 )
鉛直加速度
(A) Span directions
鉛直加速度鉛直加速度
H H H
3000
Horizontal 2000
Acceleration
1000
0 O O O
AV(cm/sec2) 水平加速度水平加速度水平加速度
V V V
2000
Vertical 1500
Acceleration
1000
500
0 A O O O
O A' A A' A A' A A'
鉛直加速度鉛直加速度鉛直加速度
(B)Longitudinal directions
(a) FC, FA (b) FCS, FAS (c) FCH, FAH10-0.1 (d) FCO, FAO0.1
Original model Strength-based retrofit Elasto-plastic damper Viscous damper
Fig. 9: Maximum acceleration response along the roof
425
Horizontal Acceleration Horizontal Acceleration

1 1
50
2.0 0.8 30
0.8
1.0 20
0.6 K /K =0.5 0.6
0.4
d f
0.4 Kd /Kf =10
0.2 0.2
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 160 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 160 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Yield story drift δ dy (mm) Damping Factor heq Yield story drift δ dy(mm) Damping Factor h eq
Vertical Accelaration Vertical Accelaration
1 1
2.0
0.8 1.0 0.8 50
0.6 30
0.6 Kd /Kf =0.5 20
0.4 0.4 K /K =10
d f
0.2 0.2
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 160 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 160 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Yield story drift δ dy (mm) Damping Factor h eq Yield story drift δ dy(mm) Damping Factor h eq
(a-1) Elasto-plastic (a-2) Viscous (b-1) Elasto-plastic (b-2) Viscous
(A) Span directions (B)Longitudinal directions
Fig. 10: Response reduction ratio in each model
Fig. 10 shows the acceleration reduction ratios of energy-dissipating retrofits from

strength-based retrofits in each model. Generally elasto-plastic dampers with soft and
small yield drift, and viscous dampers with lower damping ratios are effective to reduce
roof responses. In the studied model, adding viscous dampers of heq=0.1-0.3 in the span
direction, and elasto-plastic dampers of Kd/Kf=20-30, δdy=7-9mm in the lomgitudinal
directions are considered to be suitable for reducing the response in both the roof and
the second floor, for viscous dampers are not enough effective to reduce the maximum
story drift in longitudinal direction within 0.5% angle.
4 Practical Response Evaluation

In practical design, time-history analyses including geometrical and material non-
linearity as in previous chapter are time-consuming and not suitable for parametrical
design trials. In this chapter, easy and practical response evaluation process is
investigated, using the method by the authors [1]. The evaluation process can be
described as follows.
Firstly, the whole structure is modelled as DDOF (double degree of freedom) model as
in Fig.11 with masses of m1=MS1(1st floor mass), and m2=MR(roof mass)+MS2(2nd floor
mass) with horizontal stiffness of each story. Next, acceleration response of the upper
MR
m2= MR +MS2
MS2 K2 Keq2
m1=MS1
MS1 K1 Keq1
Sym.
Fig. 11: DDOF model for response evaluation
426
mass Aeq is evaluated from the SRSS combination of the two vibration modes of DDOF
and design response spectrum.
Amplification factors for the cylindrical raised roofs can be evaluated by the following
equations [1] and allied for gymnasia roofs.
<Span directions>
 3/ 2 (0 < RT ≤ 1/ 4)

Horizontal: FH = 1/ 2( 1/ RT + 1) (1/ 4 < RT ≤ 1) (1)
 1 (1 < RT )

 3CV θ (0 < RT ≤ 5/16)

Vertical:

( )
FV =  5/ RT − 1 CV θ (5/16 < RT ≤ 5) ( CV =1.33 for low-rise roofs) (2)
 0 (5 < RT )
<Longitudinal directions>
 5 / 2 (0 < RT ≤ 8 / 25)

Horizontal: FH =  2 / RT (8 / 25 < RT ≤ 2) (3)
 1 (2 < RT )

 3CV θ (0 < RT ≤ 3 /16)

Vertical: FV = 

( )
3/ RT − 1 CV θ (3 /16 < RT ≤ 3) ( CV =0.90 for low-rise roofs) (4)
 0 (3 < RT )
Where, θ is half-subtended angle of raised roof (θ =30° in this model), natural period
ratio RT =Teq/TR, where Teq is the first natural period of DDOF model and TR is the
natural period of asymmetrical one-wave mode of the roof.
By estimating the amplification factors FH, FV, the maximum acceleration distributions
on the roofs can be estimated by multiply on Aeq, as the following equations.
<Span directions>
  x   y  
Horizontal: AH ( x, y ) = Aeq 1 + ( FH − 1) cos π   cos π    (5)
  Lx   Ly  
 x   2y 
Vertical: AV ( x , y ) = Aeq FV cos π   sin π   (6)
 Lx   Ly 
<Longitudinal directions>
  y  
Horizontal: AH ( x, y ) = Aeq 1 + ( FH − 1) cos π    (7)

  L y  
 2x   y 
Vertical: AV ( x, y ) = Aeq FV sin π   cos π   (8)
 Lx   Ly 
427
Also Ref.[1] indicates the excitation of the roof response by the mass of substructure,
when the mass ratio RM=MS/MR>1.2 and 0.5<RT≤1.5, where MS is equivalent mass of
DDOF and MR is the mass of the roof. The effects can be covered by the following
equations. RM is 3.7 in the studied model, these equation are recommended to be applied.
2 1
F 'H = FH +
(1 − RT ) + (1/ RM )θ
2 2 (9)
1 (10)
F 'V = FV 2 + 2 2
(1 − RT ) + (1/ RM )
The effects of energy-dissipating dampers are considered to evaluate Aeq from DDOF
model and design response spectrum. The effect of elasto-plastic dampers are reflected
as equivalent stiffness and equivalent damping ratio following the method described in
ref.[4], and the effect of viscous dampers are reflected as damping only; however, effect
of damping are ignored for estimating the vertical response of the roof, from the
findings described in ref.[5].
From the maximum response of the each roof models obtained from numerical time-
history analyses in Chap.2, equivalent amplification factors are calculated by the
following equations.
A A
Horizontal: FH = A (T , h )
H max
Vertical: FV = A (T , h )
V max
(11), (12)
eq eq eq eq eq 0
Obtained results are compared to the proposed equations (1)-(4) and (9),(10) in Fig.12
(span directions) and Fig.13 (longitudinal directions). The effects of substructure
excitations are observed in horizontal accelerations of span directions, while they are
not significant in vertical accelerations. In overall views, the proposed equations seem
to cover the numerical results in conservative side.
Detailed acceleration response distribution examples derived from Eq.(1)-(10) are
plotted also in Fig.9. The vertical acceleration estimation in span directions using
Fig.(10) is too conservative; however, other estimations generally express the results in
right orders. From these results, the proposed method are considered to be valid for
evaluating the effect of energy-dissipating retrofits on the roof response reductions.
They are also expected to be used for checking the risk of non-structural elements such
as ceiling components or lighting equipments.
Ref.[1] indicates the acceleration distribution derived from the proposed equations (1)-
(10) can also be used as rough estimations of equivalent static loads for the roof
member design, by multiplying the roof mass distributions. Fig.13 shows the
comparison of the member forces obtained from numerical analyses (●) to the proposed
method used as equivalent static loads (dotted lines) in strength-based retrofit. Also the
results using conventional horizontal static loads ignoring the effects of amplification
factors FH, FV are plotted in solid lines. The figure indicates that the design with
conventional horizontal loads can be under-estimation for roof member forces; however
covered by the proposed method using amplification factors.
428
BCJ-L2 El Centro NS Hachinohe NS JMA Kobe NS Taft EW
Amp. Factor (H) FH Amp. Factor (V) FV Amp. Factor (H) FH Amp. Factor (V) FV
3 3 3 3
Eq.(3)
Strength-based Eq.(10)
2 2 2 2
Eq.(9) Eq.(2) Strength-based Eq.(4)
Original Strength-based Original Strength-based
1 1 1 1
Original Original
Eq.(1)
0 0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 R6T 0 1 2 3 4 5 R6 0 1 2 3 4 5 R6T 0 1 2 3 4 5 R6T
T
(a) Original model
Amp. Factor (H) FH Amp. Factor (V) FV Amp. Factor (H) FH Amp. Factor (V) FV
3 3 3 3
Eq.(3)
Eq.(9) Kd /K f=2.0 Eq.(10) K d / K f =30
2 2 2 2
Kd /K f=1.0 Eq.(2) K / K f =2.0
K d / K f =20
K d /K f =50
Kd /K f=0.5 d
K d / K f =10 Eq.(4)
K d / K f =1.0 K d /K f =30
1 1 1 1
K d / K f =0.5 K d /K f =20
K d / K f =50 K d /K f =10
Eq.(1)
0 0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 R6T 0 1 2 3 4 5 R6T 0 1 2 3 4 5 R6T 0 1 2 3 4 5 R6T
(b) Elasto-plastic retrofit
Amp. Factor (H) FH Amp. Factor (V) FV Amp. Factor (V) FH Amp. Factor (V) FV
3 3 3 3
Eq.(3)
Eq.(9) heq =0.20 Eq.(10)
2 2 2 2
heq =0.10 Eq.(2) h =0.20 heq =0.10
heq =0.04
eq Eq.(4)
heq =0.10 heq =0.04 heq =0.10
1 1 heq =0.04
1 1
heq =0.04
Eq.(1)
0 0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 R6T 0 1 2 3 4 5 R6T 0 1 2 3 4 5 R6T 0 1 2 3 4 5 R6
T
(c) Viscous retrofit

(A) Span directions (B)Longitudinal directions
Fig. 12: Comparison with proposed method
Horizontal Aeq Proposed: Eq. (1)-(8)

Proposed: Eq.(1)-(10) ●Time-history analysis (BCJ-L2)
Axial force (kN)
80
60
40
20
0
. A O A' A O A'
(a)Upper chord member (b)Lower chord member
Fig. 13: Validities of proposed method as equivalent static loads
429
5 Conclusions
Seismic retrofit for steel-structure school gymnasium using various energy dissipation
devices are studied, their response reduction effects on roofs are discussed and practical
evaluation methods for the design of structural and non-structural elements are proposed.
The obtained conclusions are as follows.
1) Energy-dissipating retrofits are effective to reduce the roof response comparing to
the strength-based retrofits, which will help to improve the damage of non-structural
elements as ceilings, which is widely observed in the past earthquakes.
2) Proposed evaluation method of the roof response using amplification factors are
considered to be valid also for school gymnasia, including the effects of energy-
dissipating dampers.
References
[1] Takeuchi T. Kumagai T. and Ogawa T. Seismic Response Evaluation of Lattice

Shell Roofs with Substructures, Journal of IASS 2007; 48(3) :197-210.
[2] Shibata M. Nakamura T. Wakabayashi M. Mathematical Expression of Hysteretic
Behavior of Braces : Part 2 Application to dynamic response analysis, AIJ J. Build.
Eng., No.320, pp.29-34, 1982.10
[3] Takeuchi T. Shirabe H. Kumagai T. and Ogawa T. Seismic Response Evaluation of
Lattice Roofs Supported by Multistory Substructures, IASS 2007, Venice, Italy,
2007.12
[4] Kumagai T. Takeuchi T. Ogawa T. Nakama A. Sato E. Response evaluation of
lattice domes with elasto-plastic substructures using response amplification factors,
IASS 2005, Bucharest, Rumania, Oct. 2005, pp.391-398
[5] Takamatsu K. Takeuchi T. Kumagai T. and Ogawa T. Response Evaluation of
Seismically Isolated Lattice Domes using Amplification Factors, IASS 2009,
Valencia, Spain, 2009.10, pp.
430
Analysis of seismic responses for suspend-dome structures
Zi CAO1*, Suduo XUE1, Yuan FENG2, Xuesheng WANG1, Xun XIA2,Liwei WANG2
1*
Professor, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100022, China
E-mail: czbeijing@vip.163.com
2
China Southwest Architectural Design and Research Institute,Chengdu,610081, China
Abstract The dynamic characteristics and seismic responses for the suspend-dome structure
are presented in this paper. A series of useful conclusions are obtained. By means of the
comparison of seismic responses of suspend-dome structures for different analytical methods,
different analytical methods, different earthquake excitations, it is observed that the
reasonable analytical model for this kind of structures must be taken as the integral model. It
is necessary to consider the relevance among vibration modes and among earthquake
excitations in various directions when analyzing the structures. The analysis of suspend-dome
structures subjected to three -component seismic excitation could not be neglected.
Keywords: suspend-dome structure, dynamic characteristics, seismic response, upper

structure model, integral model, earthquake excitation
1 Theoretical analysis for suspend-dome structures

The suspend-dome structure, composed of single-layer latticed shell structure and cable-strut
tensile system, is a kind of new self-balance spatial structure. It is easy of construction than it
for a cable dome, and it has more stability and loading ability than a single-layer latticed shell.
The suspend-dome structure has been more and more used in recent years.
Taking Changzhou gymnasium as an example, the seismic responses of suspend-dome
structures will be analyzed. The long span for Chang-Zhou gymnasium with elliptical plan is
114m, round 6000 seats. The roof diagram of gymnasium is shown in Fig. 1.
(a) single-layer latticed shell (b) cable-strut tensile system

Fig. 1 The roof diagram of gymnasium
431
The seismic fortification intensity of this suspend-dome structure is 7 degree and site
category is Ⅲ. The damping ratio is taken as 0.02 and 0.035 for the upper structure model
with hinged supports ( Model 1 ) and for the integral model concluding the upper structure
and the supporting system( model 2 ), respectively.
The governing equation for seismic response analysis of multi-freedom structures can be
written as
{} {}
[M ] U&& + [C ] U& + [K ]{U } = −[M ][E ] U&& { }g
(1)
where [M ] , [C ] and [K ] are mass, damping and stiffness matrixes of the structural
system, respectively; {U&&},{U& } and {U } are vectors of acceleration, velocity and

displacement, respectively; [E] is an index matrix of the inertia forces.
{U&& } = {X&&
g g , Y&&g , Z&&g }
T
is the acceleration vector of ground motion.
According to the concept of pseudo excitation method, the power spectrum density matrix for
structural displacement is then obtained:
r
[SUU (ω )] = ∑ {U k (ω )}* {U k (ω )}T (2)
k =1
Equ.2 can be written as follows:

* T
[SUU (ω )] =  ∑ {φ j }H j (iω ){φ j }T [M ][E ]  q 

 ∑ {φ j }H j (iω ) {φ j }T [M ][E ]
q r
∑ λ {ψ } {ψ }
* T
k k k
 j =1  k =1  j =1 
* T
[ ]
= [Φ ][H ] [Φ ] [M ][E ] S U&& gU&& g [E ] [M ][Φ ][H ][Φ ]
T T
(3)
where [Φ ] is vibration mode matrix , [ H ] = diag [ H 1 H2 L Hq ].
Based on the theory mentioned above, a series of calculation results are carried out from
analysis of the suspend-dome in this paper as follows:
1. Comparison of seismic responses by using different analytical methods, including response
spectrum method, time-history analysis method, and pseudo- excitation random vibration
analysis method,etc.
2. Comparison of seismic responses for the suspend-dome subjected to single, double and
three – dimensional seismic excitation.
3. Comparison of seismic responses for the suspend-dome by using different analytical
models，such as the upper structure model ( model 1 ) , for the integral model ( model 2 ) and
model with elastic supports.
Comparison of seismic responses of suspend-dome structure under X、Y、Z different
directions of earthquake excitations are illustrated in Fig.3-4. Comparison of seismic
responses of the suspend-dome structure under one-dimensional earthquake excitation and
multi-dimensional excitation are illustrated in Fig.5-6. Corresponding order numbers of ring
432
bars between Fig3-6 and the practical structure are list in Table 1.
The expression X0.85YZ (case 1) means that the adjustment proportion of the excitation
amplitude in X、Y、Z directions is 1.00 : 0.85 : 0.65. The results given in Fig.3-6 are all
calculated by using pseudo excitation random vibration analysis method. The lateral
coordinate expresses the order of ring bars for the single-layer latticed shell. The longitudinal
coordinate expresses seismic internal forces of ring bars . The first ring is the internal central
ring.
The plus and minus signs of seismic internal forces are all neglected in this paper.
Table1 Corresponding order numbers of ring bars between Fig3-6 and the practical structure
Order Fig.3-6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
of ring
the practical structure 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 14
bars
70
60
force (kN)
50
环杆轴力(kN)

X方向地震作用
40 o Earthquake excited in Y-direction
Y方向地震作用
· Earthquake excited in Z-direction
30 Z方向地震作用
Axial
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Order of 与短轴正交的环杆顺序号
ring bars orthogonalized the short axis
Fig.3 Comparison of seismic responses of suspend-dome structure under different directions

of earthquake excitations(a)
35
*Earthquake
excited in X-direction
oEarthquake excited in Y-direction
30 ·Earthquake excited in Z-direction
force (kN)
25
环杆轴力(kN)
20
Axial
15
10
X方向地震作用
5 Y方向地震作用
Z方向地震作用
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Order of ring与斜轴正交的环杆顺序号
bars orthogonalized the diagonal axis
Fig.4 Comparison of seismic responses of the suspend-dome structure under different

directions of earthquake excitations (b)
433
80
70
60
force (kN)
环杆轴力(kN)
50
40
Axial
30 * One-dimensional excitation

o Case 1 of 单维虚拟法最大值
Multi-dimensional excitation
· Case 2 of 虚拟
Multi-dimensional
X0.85YZ excitation
20
虚拟 Y0.85XZ
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Order of ring bars orthogonalized the

与短轴正交的环杆顺序号 short axis
Fig.5 Comparison of seismic responses of the suspend-dome structure under

one-dimensional earthquake action and multi-dimensional excitation (a)
40
o Earthquake excited in
X方向地震作用
Y-direction
35 · Earthquake excited in Y方向地震作用
Z-direction
△ Earthquake excited in multi-direction
Z方向地震作用
30
多维地震作用
force (kN)
环杆轴力(kN)
25
20
Axial
15
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Order of ring bars orthogonalized the long axis
与长轴正交的环杆顺序号
Fig.6 Comparison of seismic responses of the suspend-dome structure under

One-dimensional earthquake action and multi-dimensional excitation (b)
It is observed from a series of calculation results and Fig. 3-6 that:

1. The seismic responses of suspend-dome subjected to earthquake excitation in different
directions will be quite different (see Fig.3-4).
Under the earthquake excitation in X direction, the seismic responses of members near the
long axis of the suspend-dome are larger than them near the short axis. And Under the
earthquake excitation in Y direction, the seismic responses of members near the short axis of
the suspend-dome are larger than them near the long axis.
2. Comparing the seismic responses of the bars in the same ring for the suspend-dome subjected
434
to earthquake excitation in different directions, the seismic responses subjected to earthquake
excitation in Y direction are much larger than them subjected to earthquake excitation in X
direction.
3. Comparing the of one-dimensional and multi-dimensional earthquake excitation (see
Fig.5-6), the multi-dimensional seismic responses of a large part of members are larger than
single-dimensional seismic responses.
The seismic forces of some members for the suspend-dome subjected to earthquake excitation
are much more than them subjected to single-dimensional earthquake excitation. In general,
the three- dimensional seismic responses are 30%-60% more than the single- dimensional
seismic responses. So the analysis of suspend-dome subjected to multi-component seismic
excitation could not be neglected.
2 Regularity of seismic responses for the suspend-dome
In order to understand the regularity of seismic responses for the suspend-dome, there are a
lot of analysis results for the roof of this gymnasium by using different analytical models and
subjected to earthquake excitation in different directions. Herein only the earthquake
responses of the cable elements, ring bars and diagonal bars for the suspend-dome are
illustrated in Table 2-4 . In which the seismic fortification intensity is 7 degree, the analytical
model is considered as the integral model subjected to single dimensional seismic excitation.
Herein the time-history analysis method is used.
The static forces and seismic responses of ring cable elements are list in Table2 . Static
internal forces and seismic responses of ring members are list in Table3 . Static forces and
seismic responses of diagonal members list in Table4. The order of ring is the practical order
of the structure.
Ns is Static internal forces of members, NP is prestressing forces of members, NE is seismic
internal forces. ξ is the coefficient of seismic internal forces, it is the absolute value of the
ratio of seismic forces to static internal forces concluding prestressing forces of members .
Table2 Static forces and seismic responses of ring cable elements (kN)
Order Ring cable elements next to the short axis Ring cable elements next to the long axis
of rings Ns +NP NE ξ Ns +NP NE ξ
1 144.64 10.58 0.073 87.99 0.51 O.006

2 228.82 9.38 0.041 158.80 4.27 0.023
3 430.47 18.74 0.044 351.09 2.51 0.007
4 661.52 15.55 0.024 573.19 0.87 0.002
5 816.94 22.74 0.028 721.69 2.40 0.003
6 1067.92 7.70 0.007 1046.97 1.66 0.002
435
Table3 Static internal forces and seismic responses of ring bars (kN)
Order of Ring bars next to the short axis Ring bars next to the long axis
circles Ns +NP NE ξ Ns +NP NE ξ
1 -213.28 34.82 0.163 -203.40 10.04 0.049
3 -342.84 43.89 0.128 -330.50 15.21 0.046
5 -361.52 47.51 0.131 -341.14 12.73 0.037
7 239.99 54.70 0.228 -214.36 2.66 0.012
9 -82.87 86.56 1.045 -113.16 3.01 0.027
11 -101.14 67.00 0.662 -143.13 2.56 0.018
13 283.92 53.88 0.190 239.88 5.30 0.022
Table4 Static forces and seismic responses of diagonal members (kN)

Order of Diagonal members next to the short axis Diagonal members next to the long axis
circles ξ
1 -86.75 12.66 0.146 -95.80 16.69 0.174
3 -60.82 14.59 0.240 -56.36 30.72 0.545
5 -90.79 13.52 0.149 -77.78 25.82 0.332
7 -144.55 10.51 0.073 -122.71 26.09 0.213
9 -329.16 15.04 0.046 -272.56 30.41 0.112
11 -144.72 15.98 0.110 -82.79 33.15 0.400
13 -756.75 24.90 0.033 532.17 36.46 0.069
By means of a lot of analytical results of practical examples , the distribution regularity of

seismic internal forces for suspend-dome are revealed as follows (Table 2-4):
Comparing the seismic responses of the ring bars and cable elements (Table 2-3), it is
observed that the seismic internal forces of cable elements much smaller than them of ring
bars.
2. The seismic internal forces of ring bars are much larger than them of diagonal bars
From Table 3-4, the seismic internal forces of ring bars are all larger than them of diagonal
bars. The maximum coefficient of seismic internal forces of the ring bars is 1.045, and it of
3. Comparing the distribution regularity of the suspend-dome to it of the single-layer latticed
shell, the stresses of members for the suspend-dome are well-distributed. (see Table 3)
This is because the suspend-dome structure is composed of single-layer latticed shell and
436
cable-strut tensile system, the stress distribution of the members for single-layer latticed shell
is improved by the cable-strut tensile system.
3 Interaction between the suspend-dome roofs and supporting systems
The suspend-dome roof is usually supported on the frame structure that has a lateral flexibility.
In order to find a reasonable analysis model for this kind of structures, a comparison is made
among different analytical models. A series of analysis results of dynamic characteristics and
seismic responses for the suspend-dome are obtained. As a result, it is concluded that the
interaction between latticed roof structures and supporting systems has to be taken into
account.
3.1 The comparison of dynamic characteristics for different analysis models
The comparison of free vibration periods of suspend-dome is illustrated in Table 5.

Table 5 Free vibration periods of suspend-dome（s）
Order of vibration modes 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
The upper structure model 0.441 0.389 0.374 0.353 0.344 0.343 0.331 0.320
A integral model 1.077 1.019 0.917 0.864 0.556 0.510 0.481 0.447
Order of vibration mode 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

The upper structure model 0.318 0.304 0.299 0.289 0.288 0.281 0.278 0.276
A integral model 0.440 0.406 0.396 0.388 0.380 0.362 0.360 0.359
It is observed from Table 5 that:

1. The dynamic characteristics for the suspend-dome by using different analytical models are
quite different
The fundamental free vibration period of the suspend -dome with an integral model is 2.44
times of it with the upper structure model (see Table 5). When comparing the vibration
period with the same vibration mode, the value of the fundamental free vibration period by
using a integral model is 1.26 times of it with the upper structure model.
So it is necessary to consider the interaction between latticed roof structures and supporting
systems.
2. The value of the forth and fifth free vibration period for the integral model varies too much
This is because only the supporting system vibrated by oneself at first, and from the fifth free
vibration period the roof structure will vibrate with the supporting system simultaneously. So
there is a sudden change for the free vibration period.
3. The values of free vibration periods of suspend-dome are quite intensive. So it is necessary
to consider the relevance of vibration modes to seismic responses for structures.
437
3.2 Comparison of seismic responses for different analytical models
The seismic responses of ring bars for the suspend-dome by using different analytical models
and different seismic excitations are illustrated in Fig.7 and Table 6.
450
* Model 1固支模型地震内力
400 o Model 2
· 整体模型地震内力
Load case 1 for Model 1
350 o Load case 1 for Model 2
固支模型静＋预
整体模型静＋预
环杆轴力绝对值(kN)
300
force (kN)
250
200
Axial
150
100
50
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Order of ring bars
环杆顺序号
Fig.7 Comparison of static internal forces and seismic responses by using the upper
structure (Model 1) and the integral model(Model 2)
Table 6 Comparison of seismic responses for ring bars

Ratio of seismic internal forces Ratio of seismic internal forces
Order of (three / one-dimensional excitations) (Model 2/ Model 1)
Place of members
ring bars One-dimensional Three- dimensional
Model 1 Model 2
seismic excitations seismic excitations
1
3
5
7
9
11
13
438
It is obtained from Fig.7 and Table 6 that：
1. It may lead to unsafe results by using the upper structure model instead of the integral
model
Comparing with the static internal forces using the upper structure model and a integral model
(see Fig.7)，the results of static internal forces are quite different by using these two models.
The results of static internal forces of some bars for the upper structure model are 30%
smaller than them by using the integral model.
2. The results of seismic internal forces for suspend-dome are quite different by using the
upper structure model and the integral model
It is observed from Table 6, the seismic responses of a large part of ring bars by using the
integral model are larger than them by using the upper structure model. In which the seismic
internal forces of some bars by using the integral model are two times than them by using the
upper structure model.
4 Conclusions
4.1 Selection of reasonable analytical model for suspend-dome structures
1. The dynamic characteristics for the suspend-dome by using different analytical models are
quite different.
When comparing the free vibration period with the same vibration mode, the value of the
fundamental vibration period by using an integral model is 1.26 times as large as it for the
upper structure model.
2. It will lead to unsafe results by using the upper structure model to analyze the static internal
forces and seismic responses
The seismic internal forces of some bars by using the integral model are two times than them
by using the upper structure model.
3. According to the analyses and comparisons between different analytical models, it is shown
that the interaction between the roof structure and the supporting structure has to be taken into
account. It means that the reasonable analytical model for suspend-dome structures must be
the integral model.
4.2 The regularity of seismic internal forces for the suspend-dome
Comparing the seismic responses of cable elements and their static internal forces, it is
observed that the seismic internal forces of cable elements much smaller than the static
internal forces.
2. The seismic internal forces of ring bars are all larger than them of diagonal bars
439
The maximum coefficient of seismic internal forces of the ring bars is 1.045, and it of
3. Comparing with the single-layer latticed shell structure , the stress of members for the
suspend-dome are well-distributed
4. In general, the seismic responses of members near the short axis of the suspend-dome with
elliptic plan are larger than them near the long axis.
4.3 Selection of analytical method and earthquake excitation
1. The values of free vibration periods of suspend-dome are quite intensive. So it is necessary
to consider the relevance among vibration modes and among earthquake excitations in various
directions when analyzing this kind of structures.
2. The seismic responses of suspend-dome subjected to earthquake excitation in different
directions will be quite different, the earthquake excitations in different directions must be all
analyzed for the suspend-dome structure.
3. The methods mentioned above to analyze the multi- dimensional earthquake responses of
structures all can be used. In which, the pseudo excitation random vibration analysis method
is highly efficient and accurate compared with the conventional CQC method.
4. The analysis of suspend-dome subjected to three - dimensional seismic excitation could not
be neglected.
The seismic forces of some members for the suspend-dome subjected to three- dimensional
seismic excitation are much more than them subjected to one-dimensional seismic excitation.
Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support from the national science and technology
supported programme (2006BAJ13B01-03) and the science and technology development
programme of Beijing Municipal Education Commission (KM200710005031). The grant
from the Key Laboratory of Urban Security and Disaster Engineering of Beijing University of
Technology is also appreciated.
References
[1] Mingshan ZHANG，Shilin DONG, Zhihong ZHANG. Analysis of static forces and
stability for cable-supported lattice shells. Journal of Spatial Structures, 2004.10(2):8-12. (in
Chinese).
[2] Mamoru Kawaguchi, Masaru Abe, Ikuo Tatemichi. Design, test and realization of
suspend-dome system. Journal of IASS,1999,40:179-192.
[3] Zhihua CHEN, Liya QIN, Jianbo ZHAO. An experimental study on rigid suspend-dome
structures. Journal of Civil Engineering,2006,39(9): 47-53(in Chinese).
440
Vibration Tests on Seismic Response Reduction of Cylindrical

Lattice Shell Roof by Viscous Damper Added to Substructure
Tomohiko KUMAGAI1* , Fumi USHIWATA2 , Toru TAKEUCHI1 , Toshiyuki OGAWA1
1*
2-12-1-M1-34, Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8550, Japan
kuma@arch.titech.ac.jp
2
TakenakaCorporation
Abstract
In this paper, the seismic vibration tests are carried out using small scale models
of cylindrical lattice shell roofs supported by substructure with viscous damper under
horizontal motions.
The cylindrical lattice shell roofs used in the experiments are made of steel
plates 0.8mm thick. The arch span is 75 cm. The substructures consist of a linear motion
slider, compression or tension springs and weights. The natural periods of substructures
are adjusted by varying the spring constants and the weights. The shell roofs are
subjected to earthquake motions with gable (arch) direction. The viscous damper is
selected as the additive damping is 20%. The coefficient of viscosity of damper is
1100kg/s at velocity with 20cm/s. The shell roofs and substructures are in elastic range
under earthquake motions.
From the experimental results, the response reduction effect by adding the
viscous damper is examined. At first, the fundamental vibrational characteristics of shell
roof and fundamental characteristics of viscous damper are examined. The effects of
relationship between mechanical properties of roofs and substructures, exis tence of
damper and shortening of time axis on response behavior of shell roofs are made clear.
In addition, it is confirmed that the simple response evaluation methods proposed in
previous papers apply to the responses with viscous damper.
Keywords:cylindrical lattice shell, substructure, viscous damper, vibration test, seismic

response reduction, response evaluation method
1Introduction
The cylindrical lattice shell structures are used for the roofs of a gymnasium, an
exhibition hall and so on. These structures are also used for evacuation facility and
disaster prevention base in a time of disaster such as an earthquake or a typhoon.
Therefore, it is hoped that these structures have sufficient earthquake performance for
resisting large earthquake motions. It is effective in avoiding the failures of members of
roof for large earthquake motion adding the damping devices at substructure. By adding
the devices, the seismic input to shell roof decreases.
In this paper, the seismic vibration tests are carried out using small scale models of
cylindrical lattice shell roofs supported by substructure with viscous damper under
441
horizontal motions. It is confirmed that the simple response evaluation methods

proposed in previous papers apply to the responses with viscous damper, [1]~[3].
2Outlines of vibration tests of cylindrical lattice shell

2.1 Specimens and experimental devices
The roof structure for experimental model is the cylindrical lattice shell roof as shown
in Photo 1 and Fig.1. The span of gable direction of lattice shell Lx is 75cm. The half
subtended angle  is 30deg.. The shell roof is made of cold rolled steel plates (SPCC)
0.8mm thick. The line through AOA' in gable direction is called "center line". The line
through BOB' in longitudinal direction is called "ridge line". The names of models are
shown at the right of Fig. 1. Fig. 2 shows the schematic diagrams for experimental
models. The models are the following 3 types. R model is the model of shell roof
without substructure, F model is the model of shell roof with substructure and E model
is the equivalent single- mass model with mass of shell roof and substructure. In addition,
Photo 1: Experimental device of cylindrical lattice shell structure with viscous damper
Fig. 1:Shape of cylindrical lattice shell roof
Fig. 2:Schematic diagrams for experimental models
442
d model is the model with viscous damper and n model is that without damper on F and
E models. The parameters for experiments are shown in Table 1. The ratios RT of the
natural period of E model to that of 1st mode of R model are adjusted to 0.8, 1.0 and 1.2.
The experimental device is shown in Fig.3. The shell roofs are fixed with hinges, the
boundary of roof is a pin support. The substructures consist of a linear motion slider,
compression springs and weights. The natural periods of substructures are adjusted by
varying the spring constants. The brazen weights is attached to the nodes of shell for the
purpose of lengthening the period of shell roof and the stresses occurring uniformly
under the dead load. The viscous damper is selected as the additive damping is 20%.
The coefficient of viscosity of damper is 1100Ns/m at velocity with 20cm/s.
Table. 1:Parameters for

experiments
Fig. 4:Positions for

measurements
Fig. 3:Experimental device
2.2 Measurement and loading programs

The responses of structures are measured with accelerometers, a motion capture system
(MC) and strain gauges. The positions for measurements are shown in Fig.4. The
443
accelerations of shell structures are obtained by differentiating the measured

displacements by MC twice with respect to time t. The accuracies of these accelerations
are verified by comparison of the response values by the motion capture systems with
those by the accelerometers. The input earthquake motions are BCJ- L1 which is an
artificial earthquake motion of the Building Center of Japan, El Centro NS (1940) and
JMA Kobe NS (1995). The time axes of earthquake motions are shortened in quarter
(T/4). In addition, earthquake motions with half (T/2) and original (T/1) time axes are
used at JMA Kobe. The input direction is horizontal direction in gable direction. The
maximum accelerations of input earthquake motio ns Ag max are standardized to be
150~200 cm/s2 . The shell roofs and substructures are in elastic range under these
earthquake motions.
3Vibrational characteristics of cylindrical lattice shells

3.1 Vibrational characteristics of roof model
The eigenmodes of R (roof) model are measured by inputting sweep waves and sine
waves. The number of measured eigenmodes is 7. Fig.5 shows the natural vibrational
characteristics for R model. Phase difference between the measuring points is observed.
Therefore, the shapes of eigenmodes with maximum amplitude at all nodes are shown
in figures. The natural periods are 0.098sec for 1st mode and 0.079sec for 5th mode.
The shape of 1st mode is antisymmetrical 2 waves mode (O2). That of 5th mode is
symmetrical 1.5 waves mode. Fig. 6 shows the vertical response magnification factor at
node with maximum response of shell roof subjected to sine wave with natural period of
each mode. The magnification factor of 5th mode is larger than those of other modes.
Fig. 6:Vertical response magnification

Fig. 5:Natural vibrationalcharacteristics factors of each mode (node with
(R model) maximum response, sine wave)
3.2 Vibrational characteristics of equivalent single-mass model

The vibrational characteristics of E (equivalent single- mass) models are shown in Table
2. In the case of E model, the amplitude dependence occurs in the relationships between
the damping factors and the amplitude of response. Therefore, the damping factors at
the maximum value of responses under each earthquake motion are applied to the
damping factor of E model. The damping factors of E-RT -d model with damper are
about 7~18% larger than those of E-RT-n model without damper. However, There is
little difference of natural period by the existence of damper. Fig.7 shows the
444
relationships between coefficient of viscosity and velocity by the performance tests for
viscous damper. The tests are carried out by inputting the s ine waves or moving with
uniform velocity. The viscous damping coefficients are calculated from the energy
consumption per 1 cycle obtained from the load-displacement curve by tests. The test
results approximately agree with the curve obtained by free vibration of E-RT 1-d model.
Table. 2:Natural vibrationalcharacteristics (E model)
(Damping factor: JM A Kobe NS T/4 input) Fig. 7:Performance tests

for viscous damper
(Sine wave 10Hz input)
4Seismic response behavior of cylindrical lattice shells

4.1 Seismic response behavior of roof model
Fig.8 shows the distributions of maximum response accelerations of R model on the
center line AOA' and entire shell roof. In the case of vertical response, the shape of
distribution is an almost symmetrical shape about the ridge line BOB'. However, the
node with maximum response is located in left side. The reason for this is that the shell
roof is the asymmetrical shape about the ridge line with geometric initial imperfection.
On the other hand, in the case of horizontal response, the shape of antisymmetrical 2
waves is observed in Fig.8(A). Fig.9 shows the distributions of maximum response
displacements. The larger displacements occur in the vicinity of boundary on the side of
Node A in any direction.
Fig. 8:Distributions of maximum Fig. 9:Distributions of maximum

response accelerations of R model (JMA response displacements of R model (JMA
Kobe NS T/4, Agmax=200cm/s2 ) Kobe NS T/4, Agmax=200cm/s2 )
4.2 Response reduction effect by vibration control device

First, the response reduction effects of E (equivalent single- mass) models by addition of
viscous damper are examined. The amplification factors of maximum response
acceleration of E model Aeq to the maximum acceleration of input earthquake motion
445
Agmax, and response spectra are shown in Fig.10. The amplification factors of E-RT -n
model correspond to the response spectrum with h=0.003~0.01, those of E-RT -d model
correspond to the response spectrum with h=0.1~0.2. These damping factors
approximately agree with the damping factors of E models shown in Table 2.
Next, the response reduction effects of F (shell roof with substructure) models are
examined. Fig.11 shows the distributions of maximum response accelerations of F
model on the center line AOA'. Regardless of RT, the response accelerations of F-RT -d
models are reduced to half in comparison with those of F-RT -n models in any response
direction. In the case of vertical response accelerations of F-RT -n models, the shapes of
distribution are shapes with two peaks about the apex O in any RT. In the case of F-RT -d
models, the shapes of distribution of RT =1, 1.2 models are shapes with two peaks about
the apex. However, in the case of RT=0.8 model, maximum vertical response
acceleration occurs at the apex O. The distribution shape of F-RT 0.8-d model is similar
to shape of 5th mode of shell roof. This behavior indicates that the 5th mode appears
due to shift of natural period by addition of viscous damper. Fig.12 shows the
distributions of maximum response accelerations of F-RT 1 model on entire shell roof.
The distribution of horizontal response becomes uniformly by addition of damper. In
the case of vertical response, the accelerations increase sharply at the boundary
regardless of the addition of damper. The maximum response accelerations occur in the
vicinity of center line near boundary (near node A or A').
Fig. 10:Acceleration response

amplification factors of E model to input
acceleration of earthquake motion, and
response spectra (JMA Kobe NS T/4)
Fig. 12:Distributions of maximum response

accelerations of F-RT1 model (Entire shell Fig. 11:Distributions of maximum response
roof, JMA Kobe NS T/4, A gmax=150cm/s2 ) accelerations of F model (Centerline
AOA’, JMA Kobe NS T/4)
446
Fig.13 shows the maximum and minimum values of axial forces and bending moments
on the center line AOA' for F-RT 1 model. These member forces are evaluated from the
measured value of strain gauges using Eqs. (1) and (2) shown in Fig.13. The member
forces are reduced to half by addition of damper as in the case of response accelerations.
The absolute values of maximum and minimum values are almost equal.
Next, the acceleration response amplification factors of F model are examined.
Fig.14 shows the acceleration response amplification factors of F-RT 1 model on center
line AOA'. The acceleration response amplification factors are obtained by dividing the
maximum response accelerations of shell roof AV, AH by the response acceleration of E
model. The response accelerations reduced by addition of viscous damper as shown in
Fig.11. However, the results of F-RT 1-d model are larger than those of F-RT 1-n model
on the response amplification factor. This fact indicates that the response reduction by
addition of damper for F model is smaller than that for E model.
Fig. 13:Max and min values of axial Fig. 14:Response amplification factors of
forces and bending moments on F-RT1 model (Centerline AOA’, JMA Kobe
centerline AOA’(F-RT1 model, JMA NS T/4, Agmax=150cm/s2 )
Kobe NS T/4, Agmax=150cm/s2 )
Fig.15(a) and (b) show the relationships between acceleration response amplification
factor under earthquake motion with T/4 and natural period ratio RT. In these figures,
the evaluation formulae for acceleration response amplification factor, [3] are indicated
together (Eqs.(3)~(6)).
Vertical:
(3)
Horizontal:
(4)
447
correction formulae considering the resonance at around RT=1.0:

Vertical:
(5)
Horizontal:
(6)
whereRM is the ratios of the total mass to the mass of shell roof (RM=2.6).
The results of R (roof) model are dealt with as those of F model with RT=0 in these
figures. In addition, the response amplification factors are defined again as following
equations according to the paper,[3].
FRV=AVmax/Aeq CV (CV =1.33, (rad.)) (7)

FRH = AHmax / Aeq (8)
whereAVmax and AHmax are maximum vertical and horizontal response accelerations for
all nodes of roof, Aeq is maximum response acceleration of equivalent single- mass
model, CV is constant for half subtended angle of shell roof .
The application range for evaluation formulae of previous paper is the cases of the
natural period of shell structure existing in the range of constant acceleration and
antisymmetrical 1 wave mode being a predominant mode. Therefore, the condition of
shell structure of this study is different from that of previous paper. However, the
responses of F-RT -n model without damper approximately correspond to the evaluation
formulae. The vertical responses of F-RT -d model with damper exceed the evaluation
Fig. 15:Relationships between acceleration response amplification factor and

natural period ratio, and evaluation formulae (Earthquake motions with T/4)
448
formulae at RT=0.8, 1. Assuming that the response reduction effect by additive damping
for vertical response accelerations of shell structure is smaller than that for response
accelerations of equivalent single- mass model, the response amplification factors for F-
RT -d model are evaluated again by using the responses of E-RT-n model without
response reduction effect by additive damping. As a result of reevaluation, the response
amplification factors of F-RT -d model can be estimated on safe side as shown in
Fig.15(c).
Next, it is examined why the response amplification factors of F-RT -d model are larger
than those of F-RT -n model.Fig.16 shows the relationships between response
amplification factor AS /Aeq and natural period ratio RT. Here, AS is the horizontal
response acceleration of substructure of F model. The response amplification factors of
F-RT -n model are less than one time at RT=0.8, 1. This behavior is elucidated by the
following reason. The shell roof and substructure resonate because the natural periods
of shell roof and substructure exist closely. Therefore, the input energy is consumed by
the vibration of shell roof, the response of substructure reduces. On the other hand, this
vibration behavior does not occur in F-RT -d model due to the vibration control of shell
roof by viscous damper. The amplification factors are about 1.0 at RT =1.2 regardless of
the addition of damper because of non-resonant vibration.
Fig. 16:Relationships between acceleration response amplification factor of

substructure of F model and natural period ratio
4.3Effects of natural period ratio and input earthquake motion on

response reduction ratio
The relationships between the acceleration response reduction ratio and natural period
ratio are shown in Fig.17. The acceleration response reduction ratio is defined as the
ratio of response with damper to response without damper. The predicted values are
evaluated as the values of response spectrum with damping factor of F-RT -d model
divided by those with damping factor of F-RT -n model. The relationships between the
response reduction ratios and the natural period ratios of predicted and experimental
values show similar tendencies on BCJ-L1 and JMA-Kobe NS. In addition, the
predicted values correspond better to the experimental values at RT =1.2 than other RT.
The reduction effect at RT =1.0 is largest in any direction.
Fig.18 shows the relationships between the acceleration response reduction ratio and the
time axis of input earthquake motion. The reduction effect of time axis T/1 of
earthquake motion with long period is smaller than the effects of other time axes
regardless of RT. In the case of input earthquake motion with long period, the reduction
449
effect by damper becomes small because the velocity of response is small and the quasi-
static response occurs.
Fig. 17:Relationships between acceleration response reduction ratio of response

of F-RT-d model to response of F-RT -n model and natural period ratio
Fig. 18:Relationships between acceleration response reduction ratio of response

of F-RT-d model to response of F-RT -n model and natural period ratio (JMA Kobe
NS)
Finally, the comparisons between the experimental values and the predicted values of
acceleration response reduction ratios for each seismic wave are shown in Fig.19. With
a slight dispersion in El Centro NS T/4 and JMA Kobe NS T/1, the predicted values
approximately agree with the experimental results. Therefore, it is possible to predict
the acceleration response reduction ratios of shell structures by using additive damping
and response spectrum.
Fig. 19:Comparisons between experimental values and predicted values of

acceleration response reduction ratio of response of F-RT-d model to response of
F-RT-n model
450
5Conclusions
It is concluded as follows, from the above results.
1) It is possible to reduce the maximum vertical and horizontal response
accelerations, and maximum axial forces and bending moments of shell roof by
adding the viscous damper to the substructure and consequently decreasing the
horizontal response acceleration of substructure.
2) It is necessary to note that the reduction effect of shell roof by additive damping is
smaller than that of equivalent single- mass model by additive damping in regard
to the calculation of acceleration amplification factor to the response of equivalent
single- mass model.
3) It is possible to predict the acceleration response reduction ratios of shell
structures by using additive damping and response spectrum.
Acknowledge ments
The present paper was supported in part by a gra nt from Grant- in-Aid for Young
Scientists (B) (Research No.18760414) and Grant- in-Aid for Scientific Research (B)
(Research No.19360247) by Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS). The
experiments in this paper are carried out using the facility by JSPS the 21st Century
COE Program “Evolution of Urban Earthquake Engineering”.
References
[1] Takeuchi T, Ogawa T, Nakagawa M and Kumagai T.Response Evaluation of

Medium-Span Lattice Domes with Substructures Using Response Spectrum
Analysis. Shell and Spatial Structures from Models to Realization, IASS2004
symposium, Montpellier, 2004; TP076 (CD-ROM 1-8).
[2] TakeuchiT, Ogawa T, Yamagata C and Kumagai T.Seismic Response Evaluation
of Cylindrical Lattice Roofs with Substructures Using Amplification Factors.
Proceedings of IASS 2005, Bucharest, 2005; 391-398.
[3] Takeuchi T, Ogawa T and Kumagai T. Seismic Response Evaluation of Lattice
Shell Roofs using Amplification Factors.Journal of the International Association
for Shell and Spatial Structures2007; 48: 197-210.
451
Effect of flexibility of substructures upon failure behavior of

single-layer saddle-shape reticulated shells subjected to the
severe earthquake
Zhiwei Yu1*, Xudong Zhi1, Feng Fan1
1*
Department of Civil Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, PR China
202 Haihe Road, Nangang District, Harbin 150090, Heilongjiang, P. R. China
cefish2008@163.com
Abstract
This paper presents the study on the influence of substructures on the failure behavior of
single-layer saddle-shape reticulated shells subjected to the severe earthquake. More
accurate numerical models taken substructures into account are built in this paper.
Applied on the full-range dynamic response analysis method in load domain, the failure
mode of the single-layer saddle-shape reticulated shells with substructures is illustrated
according to the rigidity of substructures. A comprehensively numerical study is carried
out on the dynamic behavior of the single-layer saddle-shape reticulated shells subjected
to the severe earthquake. Failure criterion is proposed to estimate the ultimate load for
saddle-shape reticulated shells. It is observed that the flexibility of substructures has
large influence on the failure behavior of saddle-shape reticulated shells under the
severe earthquake. The ultimate load increases with the decrease of the rise-span ratio
and roof load, and saddle-shape reticulated shells with substructures should be carefully
examined in practical design. The results can provide a reference for anti-seismic design
theory of saddle-shape reticulated shells.
Keywords: Saddle-shape reticulated shells, Substructure, Failure behaviour, Ultimate

load, Severe earthquake
1 Introduction
The single-layer steel reticulated shell, a common form of spatial structure, has
developed rapidly in recent years due to the light weight, easy assembly and aesthetic
beauty [1-3]. Research work on large span spatial reticulated shell was mainly focused
on stability analysis [4-6], buckling and path tracking and elasto-plastic large
deformation simulation [7-13]. Only limited research has been conducted to investigate
the dynamic failure mechanism of steel reticulated shells, and the complicated failure
characteristics of single-layer steel reticulated shells have been revealed clearly and
accurately by complete geometrical and material non-linear analysis [14-17]. Two
dynamic failure modes, dynamic instability and dynamic strength failure, are presented
in these studies. However, most of the studies were based on the Simplified Analytical
Model (SAM) that is installed directly onto the ground by pin for the purpose of
452
simplicity. In other words, the steel reticulated shell was fully restrained against any
vertical and horizontal displacement. The interaction effects between the steel
reticulated shell and the substructure are commonly ignored in the earthquake resistant
analysis. In fact, spatial steel reticulated shells are usually supported by concrete
columns or substructures by pinned connections in the practical design. Therefore,
further research is required in this area to guide the design engineers to build more
accurate structural models of the steel reticulated shells with the consideration of
substructures.
In this paper, the failure characteristics of single-layer saddle-curve reticulated shells
with substructures subjected to severe earthquake are discussed with the consideration
of material damage accumulation. A method for estimating the ultimate load is
proposed based on the comprehension of structural anti-seismic performance.
Furthermore, the influence of substructure upon dynamic performance and failure
behavior of single-layer saddle-curve reticulated shells under the severe earthquake is
particularly investigated. The effects of different structural parameters on failure
characteristics of single-layer saddle-curve steel reticulated shells are discussed.
2 Analytical model
The structure is assumed to be composed of two structural components: a single-layer
saddle-shape reticulated shell as an upper structure and a series of supporting columns
as a substructure. The geometry and the notation of the composite structure are shown
in Fig.1 and Fig.2. The analysis parameters are presented in Table 1. Nonlinear time-
history response analysis is carried out by the finite-element software ABAQUS.
S40060306
Cross section of substructure
Reciprocal of rise-span ratio
2
Roof weight (x10Kg/m )
Span(m)
Shell
Fig.1 Single-layer saddle-shape Fig. 2 Notation of the single-layer

reticulated shell with substructure saddle-shape reticulated shell
453
Table 1: Analysis parameters of single-layer saddle-curve reticulated shells
Span / L (m) 40
Roof Weight (Kg/m2) 60 120 180
Rise-Span / f/L 1/3 1/5 1/7
Earthquake Taft (1952)
Material Damage Accumulation Considered
Dimension of Substructure (m) 0.6 1.0 1.5
2.1 Description of single-layer saddle-curve reticulated shells

Single-layer saddle-curve reticulated shells of orthogonal diagonal grid type are
analyzed in the following sections. The members of the reticulated shell are assumed
steel tubular sections. The member section sizes of reticulated shells are determined
from static stability design, and the cross-sections of the steel tube are shown in
Appendix Table 1. The PIPE beam element is selected to simulate the members of
reticulated shells. The material is mild steel with Young’s modulus of 205GPa and yield
strength of 235MPa. The density is 7850Kg/m3. Geometrical and material nonlinearity
are taken into consideration in the dynamic analysis.
2.2 Substructure modelling

The beam-column system is adopted in the paper to compare with the Simplified
Analytical Model (SAM) which is installed directly onto the ground by pin. The
dimensions of the cross section of the beams, for the simplicity, are assumed to be 1.0m.
To cover a full range of support conditions, 3 different rectangular concrete columns
with different dimensions of cross-sections are selected which is 0.6m, 1.0m and 1.5m.
The maximum length of the column is 10m, as shown in Fig. 1. The bottom nodes of
columns are fully restrained by fixed supports. Perfect elastic material with a Young’s
Modulus E of 30GPa and Poisson ratio of 0.2 is adopted. The density is 2500 Kg/m3.
2.3 The damping ratio of the model

In order to investigate the composite structure system of steel reticulated shells and
concrete supporting structures, the simplified formula of damping ratio of the systems
composed of different materials was derived according to the research work of Shibata,
M [18]. The equivalent damping ratio of the composite structure system is expressed as
∑ξ W i i
ξ= i =1
n (1)
∑W
i =1
i
454
where ξi is the damping ratio of each member i. ξi =0.02 is for the steel members, and
ξi =0.05 is for the concrete members. Wi is the potential energy of each member i, and
Wi =
Li
6 ( EI )i
( M ai2 + M bi2 − M ai M bi ) (5)
where Mai, Mbi are the moments at both ends of each member i. Li, E and I are the length,
the elastic modulus and the moment of inertia of each member i, respectively.
Based on the equivalent damping ratio of composite structure system obtained from Eq.
(1) and Eq. (2), the Rayleigh damping coefficients can be calculated by solving the
following Eq. (3).
 4πξ 2ωiω jξ
α = =
 Ti + T j ωi + ω j
 (6)
 β = TT i jξ 2ξ
=

 π (Ti + T j ) ωi + ω j
where Ti and Tj denote the ith and the jth period of the integral structure, ωi and ω j
denote the ith and the jth frequency of the integral structure which can be obtained by
free vibration analysis.
3 Analytical method
A procedure of Full-range Dynamic Response Analysis in Load Domain (FDRALD)
has been developed for the study of dynamic instability problems of complicated
structures like reticulated shells. FDRALD entails gradually increasing the intensity
parameter (the maximum amplitude) of the studied dynamic load (seismic load). For
each of the selected parametric values of the load, a nonlinear dynamic time-history
responses analysis is carried out. And some characteristic responses of the structure are
recorded. The failure for the structure can be determined through a comprehensive study
of the relationship between some structural responses and the load intensity. In this
paper, the characteristic responses of the single-layer saddle-curve reticulated shells are
defined as follows:
(1) The maximum displacement of the structure: the maximum deformation value
corresponding to the load intensity throughout the entire dynamic response analysis.
(2) The ratio (percentage) of yielded members: Different levels of development of
plastic deformation on the cross-section of the pipe member (1P~8P, as shown in Fig. 3)
are possible. There are eight integration points on the cross section. The symbol nP
indicates that n integration points on the cross-section are yielded, and 8P indicates
455
yielding of the entire section. Ratios of 1P~8P members represent the range and the
level of plastic yielding of the reticulated shell.
Fig. 3 Definition for different levels of plastic deformation on cross section
(3) Number of members with different failure levels on cross-section (1F~8F): Symbol
nF indicates that at least n integration points fail of the cross-section, and 8F indicates
the whole cross section of the member is in a failure state.
(4) The structural average strain: The average value of the maximum strains of all
members.
The full-range curves relating the load amplitude with the characteristic responses can
be obtained. The series of curves visually show how the dynamic behavior of the
structure changes along with the increase of load intensity until the structure collapses.
4 Failure modes of reticulated shells with substructure

Spatial steel reticulated shells are usually supported by concrete columns or
substructures by pinned connections in the practical design. Different rigidities of
supporting substructures will have different influence on the failure characteristics of
single-layer saddle-shape steel reticulated shells. Therefore, in order to investigate the
interaction effects between the steel reticulated shell and the substructure, parametric
analyses are performed for a large number of models with different geometrical
characteristics listed in Table 1.
Load Amplitude (gal)
3500 3500
Load Amplitude (gal)
SAM SAM
3000 2.0m 3000
2.0m
2500 1.0m 2500 1.0m
0.6m 0.6m
2000 2000
1500 1500
1000 1000
500 500
0 0
0.0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Maximum Displacement (m) Ratio of 1P(%)
(a) Displacement of reticulated shells (b) Ratio of 1P of reticulated shells with

with different substructures different substructures
Fig. 4 Characteristic responses of reticulated shells with respect to the load

amplitude with different substructures
456
Fig. 4 shows the full-range curves of characteristic responses of the single-layer saddle-
shape reticulated shell (S401205) with respect to the load intensity compared with
different substructures. It can be seen that the characteristic responses including the
maximum displacement and the ratio of yielded members increase with a decrease of
the stiffness of substructures.
Two samples of the above investigation (in Fig. 4) are presented in this section for the
reticulated shells with flexible and rigid supporting substructure, respectively.
(1) Reticulated shell with flexible supporting substructure
Fig. 5(a) shows the development areas of plastic deformation of the single-layer saddle-
shape reticulated shell with flexible supporting substructure (the cross-sectional width is
0.6m) in full-range dynamic analysis. It can be seen that plastic deformation develops
from members at the corner area of the reticulated shell. The failure of the reticulated
shell results from the excessive plastic deformation of the members at the corner, as
shown in fig. 5(b). It is because the stiffness of the supporting substructure at these
areas is low. The failure mode of the reticulated shell with the flexible supporting
substructure is supposed to be the local dynamic strength failure.
150gal 250gal 400gal 500gal
(a) Full-range development of plastic deformation
(b) Structural deformation before collapse
Fig. 5 Characteristic responses of reticulated domes with flexible substructure
457
(2) Reticulated shell with rigid supporting substructure
Fig. 6(a) shows the development areas of plastic deformation of the single-layer saddle-
shape reticulated shell with rigid supporting substructure (the cross-sectional width is
2m) in full-range dynamic analysis with respect to the increasing load intensity. It can
be seen that the plastic deformation of the reticulated shell distributes extensively and
develops deeply. The structural integrity is severely destroyed due to the extensive
development of plastic deformation and the large displacement of the steel reticulated
shell, as shown in fig. 6(b). The failure mode of the reticulated shell with the rigid
supporting substructure is supposed to be the integral dynamic strength failure which is
similar to that of the reticulated shell without the consideration of substructure
compared of the characteristic responses.
(a) Full-range development of plastic deformation
(b) Structural deformation before collapse
Fig. 6 Characteristic responses of reticulated shells with rigid substructure
458
5 Variation of failure characteristics of reticulated shell with different

parameters
5.1 Criterion for determination of the ultimate load strength

It can be seen from the example in last section (S401205) that there is not a distinct
failure characteristic when the single-layer saddle-curve reticulated shell is subjected to
continually increased earthquake motions. Thus, a method for distinguishing the
ultimate load strength is proposed based on general judgment of structural responses
and practical design factors in engineering. In the example, the maximum displacement
is about 1/100 of span which will cause severe damage of accessory roof facility and
seriously influence the function of use. Therefore, the reticulated shell reaches to an
ultimate state, and the load intensity of 700gal can be determined to be the ultimate load
strength of the reticulated shell subjected to the severe earthquake.
5.2 Effect of rise-span ratio
(a) Ultimate loads (b) Ratio of 1P
Fig.7 Influence with different rise-span ratio
Fig.7 shows the variation of the characteristic responses with respect to rise-span ratio
at different rigidities of substructures. It can be seen that the ultimate load increases
with the decrease of rise-span ratio. This mainly results from the high resistance to the
horizontal earthquake action of the dome with low rise-span ratio relative to that of high
rise-span ratio. The level of plastic development of the reticulated dome increases with
the decrease of the rise-span ratio which implies that the structure has good ductility
with the low rise-span ratio. It is therefore recommended to introduce the reticulated
dome with low rise-span ratio.
459
5.3 Effect of roof weight
(a) Ultimate loads (b) Ratio of 1P
Fig.8 Influence with different roof weight
Fig.8 shows the variation of the characteristic responses with respect to surface load
intensity at different rigidities of substructure. It can be seen that the load bearing
capacity increases with the decrease of the surface load intensity.
6 Conclusions
The effect of support flexibility on the failure characteristics of single-layer saddle-
shape reticulated shells subjected to severe earthquake is studied systematically. Failure
criterion is proposed to estimate the ultimate load for the single-layer saddle-shape steel
reticulated shells. The ultimate load increases with the decrease of the rise-span ratio
and roof load. The influence of substructure upon dynamic performance and failure
behavior of single-layer saddle-curve reticulated shells under the severe earthquake is
particularly investigated. For the reticulated shell with the rigid substructure, it is found
that the extensive development of plastic deformation and the large displacement result
in the failure of the reticulated shell. The plastic deformation of the structure distributes
extensively and develops deeply. For the reticulated shell with the flexible substructure,
the failure of the reticulated shell results from the excessive plastic deformation of
members at the corner. The plastic deformation of the reticulated shell mainly
distributes on these areas. The substructure greatly influences the failure behaviors of
the single-layer saddle-shape reticulated shell subjected to the earthquake. It is
concluded that single-layer saddle-shape steel reticulated shells with substructures
should be carefully examined in the analysis and design stages.
Acknowledgement
We would like to thank National Natural Science Foundation of China for supporting
this project (Project number 90715034).
460
References
[1] Mokowski ZS. Space structures-a review of the developments within the last
decade. In: The fourth international conference on space structures 1993.
[2] Morley S, King A and Ashfield M. Stadium Australia: For 2000 Olympics.
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Structures and Buildings 2000;
307-314.
[3] Shen SZ. Recent advances on the fundamental research of spatial structures in
China. Journal of the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures
2006;47(2):93–100.
[4] Wang BB and Li YY. A theoretical study of super-span latticed shells. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 1999;51:287–296.
[5] Gosowski B. Spatial stability of braced thin-walled members of steel structures.
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 2003;59:839–865.
[6] Gioncu V. Stability theory: Principles and methods for design of steel structures.
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 2003;59:269-270.
[7] Wang C, Shen SZ and Chen YB. Dynamic stability of reticulated dome. In:
Proceedings of the first international conference on advances in steel structures.
Hongkong, China, Pergamon, Oxford, UK: 1996.
[8] Shen SZ. The dynamic stability problem of reticular shells. In: IASS-APCS
Symposium. Taipei, China:2003.
[9] Borri C and Spinelli P. Buckling and post-buckling behavior of single layer
reticulated shells affected by random imperfections. Computers & Structures
1988;30:937–943.
[10] Nie GH. On the buckling of imperfect squarely-reticulated shallow spherical shells
supported by elastic media. Thin-Walled Structures 2003;41:1–13.
[11] Forman SE and Hutchinson JW. Buckling of reticulated shell structures.
International Journal of Solids and Structures 1970;6:909–932.
[12] Kato S and Murata M. Dynamic elasto-plastic buckling simulation system for
single layer reticular domes with semi-rigid connections under multiple loadings.
International Journal of Space Structures 1997;12(3-4):161–172.
[13] Kumagai T and Ogawa T. Dynamic buckling behavior of single layer lattice domes
subjected to horizontal step wake. Journal of the International Association for
Shell and Spatial Structures 2003;44(3):167–174.
[14] Tashakori A and Adel H. Optimum design of cold-formed steel space structures
using neural dynamics model. Journal of Constructional Steel Research
2002;58:1545–1566.
[15] Kato S, Ueki T and Mukaiyama Y. Study of dynamic collapse of single layer
reticular dome subjected to earthquake motion and the estimation of statically
equivalent seismic forces. International Journal of Space Structures 1997;12(3-
4):191–204.
461
[16] Kato S. Collapse of semi-rigidly jointed reticulated domes with initial geometric
imperfections. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 1998;48:145–168.
[17] Zhi XD, Fan F and Shen SZ. Failure mechanisms of single layer reticulated domes
subjected to earthquake. Journal of the International Association for Shell and
Spatial Structures 2007;48(1):29–44.
[18] Shibata and Mete A. Sozen. Substitute structure method for seismic in design in
R.C. Proc. ASCE 1976:102.
Appendix 1
Cross-sections of single-layer saddle-curve reticulated shells
Roof weight Ratio of Cross-section of

Notation Span (m)
(Kg/m2) rise to span members (mm)
S400603 1/3 Ф76X4.0
S400605 60 1/5 Ф89X4.0
S400607 1/7 Ф114X4.5
S401203 1/3 Ф95X4.5
S401205 40 120 1/5 Ф121X5.0
S401207 1/7 Ф140X6.0
S401803 1/3 Ф114X5.0
S401805 180 1/5 Ф140X6.0
S401807 1/7 Ф168X7.0
462
Research on dynamic characteristics of cable supported

barrel vault structure
Guojun Sun1, Zhihua Chen2,*, Xiangyu Yan3 and Wentao Qiao4
1,3,4
PhD. Student, School of Civil Engineering, TianJin University, China
2
Professor, School of Civil Engineering, TianJin University, China
*(Corresponding author: E-mail: zhchen@tju.edu.cn)
Abstract
Cable supported barrel vault structure system was a new-style hybrid spatial
steel structure based on beam string structure (or truss string structure), suspendome and
cylindrical latticed shell. It is composed of the upper cylindrical latticed shell, the lower
cables and the middle struts; the struts are usually set up vertically along the span
direction; the lower end of the strut is linked with the cable by the dead joint, the upper
end is linked with the upper latticed shell by pin roll joint, the two ends of the cable are
linked with the latticed shell by anchor joints, and anchor joints are usually set up in the
place of the supports. In dynamic research on cable supported barrel vault, several main
parameters which influence the dynamic characteristics of the cable supported barrel
vault structure was studied, including the rise ratio, the sag ratio, the number of the
struts, support constraint condition and cable prestress. The affection curve of frequency
of cable supported barrel vault with different parameters was obtained, and some
conclusions were drawn as follows: the 1st mode of cable supported barrel vault
structure is bending vibration of the whole structure, and the 4th mode is vertical
vibration of the whole structure; the influence of rise-span ratio, sag-span ratio and
cable prestress is very obvious.
Keywords: cable supported barrel vault; dynamic characteristics; rise ratio; sag ratio
1 Introduction
Cable supported barrel vault structure (Fig.1) is one new type of space structure, with
the tensegrity bring into the thick double-layer or multi-layer cylindrical latticed shell
[1]. It is composed of single-layer or thin double-layer cylindrical latticed shell, struts
and cables, on the one hand, because of the action of struts and cables, the rigidity of the
whole structure system is advanced and the out-plane stability of the structure itself is
improved, thus, the problem of the span is solved, on the other hand, the single-layer or
the thin double-layer cylindrical latticed shell is used, so the steel is going to be used
less and the cost will be cut down, in the meantime, the difficulty of the construction is
reduced evidently. Moreover, the horizontal arch thrust is reduced effectively by the
prestressed cables, so the heavy burden on the lower structures supporting the latticed
shell is released a lot.
463
Fig. 1: cable supported barrel vault structure
At present, the static and dynamic performance of barrel vault structure have been
researched [2-4], but of cable supported barrel vault structure have been only researched
on the static performance[5].The dynamic response of a cable supported barrel vault
structure under dynamic loads, such as wind, earthquake or traffic, is very complex and
requires special studies. In dynamic research on cable supported barrel vault, several
main parameters which influence the dynamic characteristics of the cable supported
barrel vault structure was studied, including the rise ratio, the sag ratio, the number of
the struts and support constraint condition. The research on these parameters will be
carried out in the paper. Then, a practical project is taken for example, the seismic
response analysis of the cable supported barrel vault is carried out by the method of
single support excitation and multi-support excitations considering the earthquake wave
passage effect respectively. By contrasting research, some conclusions are drawn for the
practical engineering application.
2 Subspace iteration method

The subspace iteration method [6] for the dynamic characteristic was used. The
eigenproblem of the structural dynamics may be written as follows:
KX = MX Λ (1)
where K and M are the stiffness and mass matrices of the structure of the order n,
respectively, the columns of X the eigenvectors, and Λ a diagonal matrix with
eigenvalues on its diagonal.
Applying a shift µ to equation (1) gives
( K − µ M ) X = MX Ω (2)
Where
Ω = Λ − µI (3)
464
and I is the unit matrix.

Suppose that the p smallest eigenvalues λi (i=1,2, … , p) and corresponding
eigenvectors xi are required. For faster convergence, q trial vectors are normally used
with q = min{2 p, p + 8} . Then, the algorithm of the subspace iteration method with the
shift µ can be described as follows:
( k +1)
Step 1. Find the eigenvector approximations X by the simultaneous inverse iteration
method:
( k +1)
(K − µM ) X = MX ( k ) (4)
( k +1)
where X and X ( k ) are the (n × q) matrices.
Step 2. Compute the projections of the matrices ( K − µ M ) and M :
( k +1) ( k +1)T ( k +1)

K =X (K − µM ) X (5)
( k +1) ( k +1)T ( k +1)
M =X MX (6)
( k +1) ( k +1)
where K and M are the (q × q) symmetric matrices.
Step 3. Solve the eigenproblem of the reduced order q:
( k +1) ( k +1)
K Q ( k +1) = M Q ( k +1) Ω ( k +1) (7)
where Q ( k +1) and Ω( k +1) are the (q × q ) matrices.

Step 4. Find the improved eigenvectors X(k`1):
( k +1)
X ( k +1) = X Q ( k +1) (8)
and the improved eigenvalues Λ ( k +1) :
Λ ( k +1) = Ω ( k +1) + µ I (9)
Λ ( k +1) converges to Λ and X ( k +1) converges to X as k approaches infinity. The

convergence rate of the subspace iteration method with shift is
(λ j − µ ) / (λq +1 − µ ) (10)
465
If a shift is an eigenvalue itself or very close to it, the iteration procedure becomes
unstable because of the singularity problem occurring during the LDLT factorization
process of the coefficient matrix. To avoid this singularity problem, that is, to guarantee
the numerical stability of the subspace iteration method with shift, the following
condition was adopted in the subspace iteration method;
1.01λ S −1 ≤ µ ≤ 0.99λ S (11)
Where λ S −1 is the calculated approximation to the (s-1)th eigenvalue and λ S the sth
eigenvalue.
3 Analysis model of cable supported barrel vault structure

The project analyzed in this paper is a roof of a textile mill workshop-the first cable
supported barrel vault structure in China (Fig.2), which is 410m long and divided into
four parts, the span is 50m, and one of the four parts which is 116.2m long is analyzed.
According to the demand of the architecture, the rise of this cable supported barrel vault
structure is 4.3m, the sag is 0.7m. The grid pattern of the upper single-layer latticed
shell is three-way latticed grids, and the grid size is 4.5m or so, about the rod section,
five kinds of sections are selected, includingΦ180x6,Φ203x8,Φ245x8,Φ299x8
andΦ325x10. The sections of the struts are allΦ273x10. The cables are all the semi-
parallel steel strandΦ7x73, 1860Mpa. Roof dead load is 0.80kN/m2, and roof live load
is 0.50kN/m2. The building perspective is shown in the Fig2, and the elevational
drawing and the plane graph are shown in the Fig3.
Fig.2. Building perspective
466
Fig3. Elevational drawing and Plane graph
In order to reduce the calculating workload, in the scheme for parameters analysis, only
one span is used, but the rise, sag, the strut number are variable, thus, the rise-span, sag-
span, and the number of struts of the structure and support constraint condition are all
variable. Moreover, in order to get the useful results for the practical design, the usual
range of the rise-span ratio (0.06-0.15), sag-span ratio (0.01-0.08), strut number and the
grid pattern-three-way latticed grids are considered.
4 Modal analysis
ANSYS is relatively suitable to analysis of structure modal [7], so a finite element
model (F.E.M.) was constructed using the ANSYS finite element program. The relative
parameter is that the rise-span ratio is 0.086, the sag-span ratio is 0.014, and the strut
number of the structure is five. The support constraint condition is one end is three-
direction hinged, and other is two-direction hinged at every cable end as is shown in
fig.4. the fore-six step free vibration mode are plotted in table 1.
467
Fig4. ANSYS finite element
It can be observed that the 1st, 2nd, 3rd modes are antisymmetric in the direction of
long axis, and are symmetric in the direction of short axis. The 4th mode is symmetric
in the direction of short axis and long axis. The 5th and 6th modes are antisymmetric in
the direction of short axis. They are excited by horizontal seismic motions.
Table 1 fore-six step free vibration mode
1st 2nd 3rd
4th 5th 6th
5 Parameters research on dynamic characteristics of cable supported

barrel vault structure
5.1 Influence of rise-span ratio on dynamic characteristic of cable

supported barrel vault structure
The roof of the textile mill workshop is still taken for the basic example in this section,
keeping the other terms, but changing the rise of the structure, the influence of the rise-
span ratio on dynamic characteristics of the structure is analyzed, here four kinds of
rise-span ratio namely 0.06, 0.086, 0.12 and 0.15 are considered, being subject to the
load combination of roof dead load, roof live load and dead weight, by calculating, the
fundamental frequency results are listed as follows in the form of graph:
468
Fig5. Influence of rise-span ratio of cable supported barrel vault structure
As is shown in the fig 5, the fundamental natural frequency (FNF) of cable supported
barrel vault structure is reducing as the rise-span ratio augments, in the meantime, the
fundamental period is increasing as the rise-span ratio augments. But as is shown in the
fig 6, the fundamental natural frequency of barrel vault structure is reducing, and then
increasing as the rise-span ratio augments. When the rise-span ratio augments is 0.086,
the fundamental natural frequency of barrel vault structure is the least. The FNF of
cable supported barrel vault structure is larger than barrel vault structure, namely, barrel
vault structure becomes stronger because of the incoming of cable and strut. The variety
of 1st and 4th natural frequency of barrel vault structure is very small, and the change of
natural frequency is consistent. About cable supported barrel vault structure, its 1st and
4th natural frequency can be adjusted by changing the rise-span ratio. The 4th mode is
vertical vibration as a whole, and it varies smaller as the rise-span ratio altering in barrel
vault structure than cable supported barrel vault structure.
Fig6. Influence of rise-span ratio of barrel vault structure
469
5.2 Influence of sag-span ratio on dynamic characteristic of cable

keeping the other terms, but changing the sag of the structure, the influence of the sag-
span ratio on mechanics characteristics of the structure is analyzed, here four kinds of
sag-span ratio namely 0.014, 0.03, 0.05 and 0.08 are considered, being subject to the
load combination of roof dead load, roof live load and dead weight, by calculating, the
fundamental frequency results are listed as follows in the form of graph:
Fig7. Influence of sag-span ratio of cable supported barrel vault structure
As is shown in the fig 7, the FNF of cable supported barrel vault structure is increasing
as the sag-span ratio augments, in the meantime, the fundamental period is reducing as
the sag-span ratio augments. But the FNF is not changing obviously as the sag-span
ratio augments. The 4th natural frequency is reducing as the sag-span ratio augments.
Moreover, the 4th vertical vibration mode as a whole can be adjusted by changing the
sag-span ratio.
5.3 Influence of strut number on dynamic characteristic of cable

keeping the other terms, but changing strut number of the structure, the influence of
strut number on mechanics characteristics of the structure is analyzed, here four cases
namely 3, 5, 6 and 11 are considered, being subject to the load combination of roof dead
load, roof live load and dead weight, by calculating, the fundamental frequency results
are listed as follows in the form of graph:
470
Fig8. Influence of strut number of cable supported barrel vault structure
As is shown in the fig 8, the FNF of cable supported barrel vault structure is reducing as
strut number augments, in the meantime, the fundamental period is increasing as the
sag-span ratio augments. As the strut number changing, the vibration constraint
condition of the upper cylindrical latticed shell changes. In consequence, the
fundamental natural frequency of cable supported barrel vault structure can be adjusted
by changing the strut number. The change of natural frequency is consistent on any step.
5.4 Influence of support constraint condition on dynamic characteristic of

cable supported barrel vault structure
keeping the other terms, but changing support constraint condition, the influence of
support constraint condition on mechanics characteristics of the structure is analyzed,
here two cases namely level constraints at two ends and at one end are considered,
being subject to the load combination of roof dead load, roof live load and dead weight,
by calculating, the fundamental frequency results are listed as follows in the form of
graph:
471
Fig9. Influence of support constraint condition of cable supported barrel vault structure
As is shown in the fig 9, the FNF of cable supported barrel vault structure is different
between level constraints at two ends and at one end. The natural frequency of the
structure at two ends level constraints is larger obviously than at one ends level
constraints.
5.5 Influence of cable prestress on dynamic characteristic of cable

keeping the other terms, but changing the prestress of the structure, the influence of the
prestress on mechanics characteristics of the structure is analyzed. The cable disposition
is shown in the fig 10, and the forces of the cables are figured out as:
N = {N1 , N 2 , N 3 , N 4 ,⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅⋅, N13 , N14 } . Here four kinds of the forces of the cables namely
0.8N, 1.0N, 1.2N and 1.5N are considered, being subject to the load combination of roof
dead load, roof live load and dead weight, by calculating, the fundamental frequency
results are listed as follows in the form of graph:
Fig 10. Cable disposition
472
Fig11. Influence of prestress of cable supported barrel vault structure
As is shown in the fig 11, the natural frequency of cable supported barrel vault structure
is not change as the prestress of cable change. In In consequence, the value of cable
prestress does not affect the dynamic characteristics of cable supported barrel vault
structure.
6 Conclusions
The cable supported barrel vault structure is a new-style hybrid spatial steel structure
based on beam string structure (or truss string structure) and cylindrical latticed shell.By
the research on the influence of rise-span ratio, sag-span ratio, strut number, support
constraint condition and cable prestress on the dynamic characteristics the structure,
some conclusions are drawn:
(1) The 1st, 2nd, 3rd modes are antisymmetric in the direction of long axis, and are
symmetric in the direction of short axis. The 4th mode is symmetric in the direction of
short axis and long axis. The 5th and 6th modes are antisymmetric in the direction of
short axis. They are excited by horizontal seismic motions. Among them, the 1st mode
is bending vibration of the whole structure. The 4th mode is vertical vibration of the
whole structure.
(2)The influence of the cable supported barrel vault structure rise-span ratio is smaller
than barrel vault structure. The FNF of cable supported barrel vault structure is reducing
as the rise-span ratio augments. The FNF of cable supported barrel vault structure is
larger than barrel vault.
(3) The FNF of cable supported barrel vault structure is increasing as the sag-span ratio
augments, but the fundamental natural frequency is not changing obviously as the sag-
span ratio augments. The 4th natural frequency is reducing as the sag-span ratio
augments. Moreover, the 4th vertical vibration mode as a whole can be adjusted by
changing the sag-span ratio.
(4) As the strut number changing, the vibration constraint condition of the upper
cylindrical latticed shell changes. In consequence, the fundamental natural frequency of
473
cable supported barrel vault structure can be adjusted by changing the strut number, and
it is becoming larger as the strut number augments.
(5) Influence of support constraint condition on dynamic characteristic of cable
supported barrel vault structure is very obvious. The natural frequency of the structure
at two ends level constraints is larger obviously than at one ends level constraints.
(6) The natural frequency of cable supported barrel vault structure is not change as the
prestress of cable change. In In consequence, the value of cable prestress does not affect
the dynamic characteristics of cable supported barrel vault structure.
Acknowledgements
Special appreciation is due to every student in my lab associates, for their help in
peacetime. This work is sponsored by Program for New Century Excellent Talents in
University of Ministry of Education in China (Grant No: NCET-06-0228) and The
National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 50778122).
References
[1] Zhihua Chen, Xiangyu Yan, Wentao, Qiao, et al. Structure System of Cable
Supported Barrel Vault Structure. China, 200820075205.6[P].
[2] Tomohiko KUMAGAI, Toru TAKEUCHI, Izumi SUZUKI, et al. Dynamic
responses of cylindrical lattice shell roofs under horizontal earthquake motions
with arbitraty direction by shaking table tests. Proceedings of The International
Association for Shell and Spatial Structures Symposium 2009, Spain, 409-419.
[3] T. Langbecker, F. Albermani. Kinematic and non-linear analysis of foldable
barrel vaults. Engineering Structures 2001; 23: 158–171.
[4] Cao Zhenggang, Sun Ying, Fan Feng, et al. Elasto-plastic stability of single-layer
cylindrical reticulated shells. China Civil Engineering Journal 2009; 03:55-59.
[5] Yan Xiangyu, Chen Zhihua, Qiao Wentao, et al. Application of a hybrid structure
of large-span portal frame and cable supported barrel vault. Industrial
Construction 2010; 03:107-110.
[6] Hyung-Jo Jung, Man-Cheol Kim, In-Won Lee. An improved subspace iteration
method with shifting. Computers & Structures 1999; 03: 625-633.
[7] ANSYS. Users’ manual. Swanson Analysis Systems Inc. 2010.
474
Evaluation of Seismic Capacity of a School Gymnasium

Based on Elasto-Plastic Earthquake Response Analysis
Takanori OYA1*, Shoji NAKAZAWA2, Kyohei KASHIWAI3, Shiro KATO4
1*
TOMOE Corporation
4-5-17, Kachidoki, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, 104-0054, Japan
t_ooya@tomoe-corporation.co.jp
2
Associate Professor, Toyohashi University of Technology
3
Nakabayashi Architecture Office
4
Prof. Emeritus, Toyohashi University of Technology
Abstract
This paper discusses on seismic capacity of a school gymnasium subjected to
reinforcing by hysteretic damper braces against earthquake motions in the longitudinal
direction. Generally based on the seismic evaluation standard in Japan for existing
gymnasia, seismic performance index Is is defined as product of a yield base shear
coefficient Cy and a ductility index F. The index F is not clearly defined in terms of
ductility factor µ. In this paper, the two indexes Is and F are redefined as dIs and dF
respectively, based on elasto-plastic earthquake response analysis, where the values of
dIs and dF are defined depending on a ductility factor µ of a brace element, and the
seismic capacities of both the original and the reinforced structure are evaluated by this
method. First, characteristics of dF depending on µ are discussed about two models with
different types of hysteresis brace: one is a slip-bilinear model for original structure and
the other is a normal-bilinear model for reinforced structures. The values of dF are
compared with those F values used in the seismic evaluation standard and the values in
the previous research using one-mass system. Second, the seismic performance indexes
obtained respectively by the evaluation standard method and the dynamic analysis
method are compared. In the case of original structure, the seismic performance index
evaluated by the proposed method is characteristically in agreement with the index by
static method. On the other hand, it is confirmed that the efficiency of reinforcement is
underestimated in the case of using the seismic evaluation standard for existing
structures in comparison with those by the proposed method.
Keywords: Steel Gymnasium, Reinforcement, Hysteretic Damper Brace, Ductility

Index, Longitudinal Direction, Earthquake Response Analysis
1 Introduction
The seismic retrofits of school gymnasia have been recently and actively enforced in
Japan. Although the school gymnasia might be used as refuges after earthquake
disasters, a fact that 70% of gymnasia could not be in effective use for refuges in the
Mid Niigata Prefecture Earthquake in 2004 was due to damage of non-structural
members according to the report [1]. Therefore, the seismic capacity of school
475
gymnasium is being discussed with respect to the serviceability after earthquake

disasters, and some effective seismic indexes are in urgent need for seismic capacity
evaluation in terms of various limit state deformations.
In the previous paper [2], the authors redefined the dynamic seismic performance index,
dIs, and the dynamic ductility index, dF, for presenting a new seismic capacity
evaluation method according to various limit states and researched the relationships
between several limit states for braces and dF or dIs with respect to the longitudinal
direction of school gymnasium.
The present paper, for the seismic retrofit of a school gymnasium in the longitudinal
direction, proposes installation of hysteresis dampers instead of existing braces, since
such existing braces have low ductility. In this paper assuming that a steel gymnasium
is short of seismic capacity only at the 1st story, the dynamic ductility indexes are re-
evaluated to be compared with those based on the evaluation standard method [3], by
performing a set of earthquake response nonlinear analysis of the retrofitted gymnasium
which is originally of slip type braces and is reinforced by normal bi-linear type braces.
2 Definition of dynamic ductility index dF

Generally based on the seismic evaluation standard in Japan for existing gymnasia
(called as static evaluation method in this paper), the seismic performance index, Is, is
expressed as follow using a product of a yield base shear coefficient Cy and a ductility
index F.
Is = Cy ⋅ F (1)
The seismic performance index Is is defined and utilized for judging structural seismic
capacity, but not applied to non-structural elements. And the value of ductility index F
is specified according to deformation capacity of structural members, but without any
explicit consideration of vibration characteristics of structures.
In this paper, seismic performance index Is and ductility index F are redefined as dIs and
dF respectively based on elasto-plastic earthquake response analysis as those for
evaluating the seismic capacity according to several limit states defined with different
deformations.
The dynamic seismic performance index, dIs, and the dynamic ductility index, dF, are
defined as follows depending on the ductility of structural elements.
C E 0 = λE * ⋅ C0 ≡ d I s (2)
d F = d I s C y = λ E * ⋅ C0 C0 y (3)
Referring to Fig.1, where C0 means a base shear coefficient in elastic response analysis
subjected to earthquake of intensity λE=1.0 corresponds to serviceability limit for
standard seismic design, and λE* means a magnification intensity for which the
structure reachs a certain critical state defined by ductility factor µ of a brace element.
476
C ( =Q/W )
CE0
Roof
λE*
Cy
λE =3 λE =4
λE =2 Wall
C0 Q
λE =1 μ
μcr
Fig. 1: Seismic capacity index corresponding to ductility factor µ
2
. 2
99.20
2 . 9
5 . 9 02.92
. 8 2
1 8 . 4
8 8.82
18.40
5.90
C 1 C 1
. 2
99.20
A
18.40
1 8 . 2
A D
longitudinal direction 4 – sec.
B R2
. 9 2
22.92
T . L .
W 2
. 7 5
. 8 2
E . L .
8 8.82
22.75
G 1
2 6
W 1 M . L .
. 7
. 1 5
C C G 2
C C C
C 2 1 1 1 1 1 C2 C 2 C 2
3 3.15
2 9
G . L .
. 9
B R1
5.40 × 4
4 7 55 . 4 5 . 4 5 . 4 5 . 45 5.48
5 .5.48 . 4 7 5 6 . 5 55.40
6.50 . 4 66.50
. 5
332.55
5 . 7 3 118.40
8 . 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 A B C D
A, B – sec. 1, 7 – sec.
Fig. 2: Structural Model (m)
3 Structural Model
3.1 Model for response analysis

Fig.2 shows a typical school gymnasium, which is investigated in this paper. The
structure is fundamentally the same one introduced in the previous paper [4], with a
small modification to the size of braces. The gymnasium has a single layer cylindrical
latticed shell roof with two truss arches at its both gable ends. The roof is called a
diamond shell structure, and the static system under a lateral dead load is almost of
simple supports on all boundaries, where the straight sides are vertically supported by
slender columns. In the longitudinal direction, the roof is supported by a substructure of
two story braced frame, especially against horizontal earthquake forces.
477
The span is 18.40m in the arch direction, and the length is 32.55m in the longitudinal
direction. The height at roof top is 8.82m. The list of members is shown in Table 1, and
the outline of structure is shown as two-mass story structure in Table 2.
The original braces are steel tension bars of slip-type hysteresis, installed in the 1st and
2nd stories. The yield base shear coefficient for design is assumed 0.40 for Cy and the
braces are assumed short of ductility. And the shear coefficient of 2nd story for design
is assumed 1.06 and the braces are assumed also short of ductility.
The seismic performance index, Is, for 1st story is calculated 0.52 by Eq. (1) using
ductility index F=1.3 for braces because of low ductility joints. And Is for the 2nd story
is calculated 1.18 by the similar static evaluation method (with a some correction of
seismic vertical forces due to horizontal earthquakes). Since the standard [3] requires
Is0=0.7 to the 1st story as demand capacity, it is judged short of seismic capacity index.
For reinforcing the structure, braces with normal bi-linear hysteresis type such as BRB
(Buckling-Restrained Brace) are newly installed in the 1st story by removing original
braces. The yield base shear coefficient of the 1st story is assumed still 0.4 similar to the
original structure. The outline of installed braces is shown in Fig.3.
The material of all members is assumed mild steel as SN400 class, and the Young’s
modulus is E=205 kN/mm2. The members except for braces are assumed elastic, and
yield stress of braces is σy=235 N/mm2.
Table 1: List of members
C1 H-200x1200x55x8
θ θ
C2 H-350~680x6x9 l0=5.48m l0=5.48m
G1 [-200x80x7.5 Qy Q Qy Q
δ δ
G2 [-150x50x4.5 δsy δdy
2L-45x45x4+FB4.5x38
Roof (a) Slip Bilinear Brace (b) Bilinear Brace
~2L-75x75x6+FB4.5x38
installed in 1st story installed in 1st story
BR1 A=615.8 mm2 of Original Structure of Reinforced Structure
and 2nd story
BR2 A=367.2 mm2
Fig. 3: Braces
Table 2: Outline of structure ( for 2 masses model)
Wi [kN] ΣWi [kN] K [kN/m] Qy [kN] δy [mm] Cy [kN]
2 486.7 486.7 66,017 517.6 7.84 1.06
1 262.0 748.7 35,978 299.5 8.32 0.40
478
3.2 Assumption of limit state deformation

In this paper, a limit state deformation is assumed to be given depending on a ductility
factor of brace. The relationship between the ductility factor µ of brace and the story
drift angle, γ, is expressed as follows.
µ ⋅ ε y = ε = 0.5 × γ sin 2θ (4)
When the brace angle θ is assumed 45 degrees and the ordinary mild steel is used, the
relationship is described as shown in Table 3.
Table 3: Relationship between µ and γ
µ γ Limit State
2 1 / 200 serviceability limit for standard seismic design
4 1 / 100 reparability limit
12 1 / 33 safety limit
3.3 Input earthquake motions

Input earthquake motions are artificial motions simulating the design acceleration
response spectrum for the ordinary soil condition of the kind II given in the Notification
of the Ministry of Land Infrastructure and Transport of Japan. Several levels for seismic
intensity λE are assumed. The serviceability limit level is specified as λE =1.0, and the
safety limit level is specified as λE =5.0. In this study, twelve set of phases drown from
observed ground acceleration records, expressed in terms of FFT series, and they are
used to generate the corresponding time history accelerations. With respect to the
serviceability limit level, the acceleration response spectra of the artificial earthquake
motions are illustrated in Fig. 4.
3.4 Numerical method in response analysis

A Newmark-β shceme with β=1/4 is used in numerical integration, and the time interval
for response calculation, ∆t, is 0.001s. The damping matrix is assumed as Rayleigh
damping with 2% for the first and second periods of 0.334s and 0.248s.
The first natural period of the model is 0.334s, and the corresponding effective mass
ratio is 0.954. The corresponding mode shape is shown in Fig.5.
479
300
250
200
SA [cm/s ]
2
150
100
50
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
T [s]
Fig. 4: Acceleration response spectra Fig. 5: 1st Mode shape

of the artificial earthquake motions
(h=5%)
4 Seismic capacity depending on ductility factor based on response

analysis
4.1 Dynamic response of model structure

Fig.6 illustrates the distributions of maximum deformation of the top, eaves and middle
level in the cases of 1.0 and 5.0 for λE. And Fig.7 illustrates the distributions of
maximum story drift angle, γ, of T.L. ~ E.L., E.L. ~ M.L. and M.L. ~ G.L. (shown in
Fig.2) in the cases of 1.0 and 5.0 for λE.
In the case of λE =1.0, each story is uniformly deformed. While, in the case of λE =5.0,
only the 1st story is largely deformed and upper layers show response almost as a rigid
body. Thereafter, the attention is mainly paid to the behavior of the 1st story.
The relationship between µave and λE as the result of response analysis for 12 waves is
illustrated in Fig.8. In the figure, the continuous line indicates the average of the
reinforced structure and the dashed line does the one of the original structure,
simultaneously. Here µave denotes an absolute average of the positive and negative
responses. In the case of the original structure, λE increases linearly depending on µave
in the range of µave over 2, and µave reaches 12 when λE is 3.5. While, in the case of the
reinforced structure, λE increases nonlinearly depending on µave, and µave reaches 12
when λE is 8.5.
Fig.9 illustrates the relationship µave and λE with comparison between the 1st and 2nd
stories. In case of original structure, µave of the 2nd story is about 1.5 when µave of the
1st story reaches 12. On the other hand, in case of reinforced structure, µave of the 2nd
story is about 4 when µave of the 1st story reaches 12. But, when the braces installed in
the 2nd story of reinforced structure reach yield strength, λE is over safety limit level.
So, this type is assumed a 1st story yielding type structure.
480
T.L. 3 T.L.3
Original Structure (Ave.

E.L. 2 E.L.2 of 12 waves)
Originla Structure
位置
Reinforced Structure
M.L. M.L. (Ave. of 12 waves)
1 1 Reinforced Structure
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0 10 20 30 40
Disp. [cm] Disp. [cm]
(a) λE =1.0 (b) λE =5.0

Fig. 6: Distributions of maximum displacement
T.L~3 T.L~
3
E.L E.L
Original Structure (Ave.

E.L.~ E.L.~ of 12 waves)
M.L.2
2
M.L. Original Structure
Layer
位置
Reinforced Structure
M.L~ M.L~ (Ave. of 12 waves)
G.L1 G.L 1 Reinforced Structure
0 0
0.0E+0 1.0E-04 2.0E-04 3.0E-04 4.0E-04 5.0E-04 0.0E+0 2.0E-03 4.0E-03 6.0E-03 8.0E-03 1.0E-02
0 0
γ [rad] γ [rad]
(a) λE =1.0 (b) λE =5.0

Fig. 7: Distributions of maximum story drift angle
10
9
8 Ave. of 12 waves -
Original Structure (1st
7 Layer : Slip-bilinear)
Ave. of 12 waves -
6 Reinforced Structure (1st
Layer : Normal-bilinear)
5 Slip-bilinear
λE
4 Normal-bilinear
3
2
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
µ ave
Fig. 8: Relationship between µave and λE of 1st story
481
10
9
8 1st Layer (Original : Slip-
bilinear)
7 1st Layer (Reinforced :
Normal-bilinear)
6 2nd Layer (Original)
5
λE
2nd Layer (Reinforced)

4
3
2
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
µ ave
Fig. 9: Relationship between µave and λE of 1st story and 2nd story
4.2 Dynamic ductility index dF

The ductility index dF of the 1st story is illustrated in Fig.10. The values are calculated
by Eq.(3) depending on µave. The values of dF are the results by interpolating the
responses based on response analysis increasing λE by each 0.5.
In the figure, the bold continuous line and the bold dashed line indicate the average of
the results for 12 waves. And the continuous line and the dashed line indicate “Ave. –
σ (standard deviation)”. The coefficients of variation are located in the range from 0.18
to 0.26 for the original structure, and the values are in the range from 0.15 to 0.18 for
reinforced one.
dF value of original structure increases almost linearly depending on µave. While, dF
value of reinforced structure decreases its gradient depending on µave. The ratio of dF of
reinforced structure to original structure is 1.63 when µave is 2, and is 2.35 when µave is
12. And the maximum ratio is 2.47 when µave is 8.
In the figure, F values used in seismic evaluation standard are indicated also. Although
F value is set irrespective of natural period of structure, “Ave. - σ” of dF of original
structure for µave=2 almost equals to F=1.3 for braces with low ductility joints in static
evaluation method. On the other hand, “Ave. - σ” of dF of original structure for µave=10
is well in agreement with F=2.2 for braces with high ductility joint.
The values of dF of reinforced structure is similar to or over the value of F for high
ductility member in the range of µave from 2 to 12.
In Fig.11, the values of dF calculated by response analysis of one-mass system [2] are
illustrated with the results of full models in the present study. In the case of original
structure, the values of dF of full model and those of one-mass system with slip-bilinear
are characteristically in agreement with each other. On the other hand, in the case of
reinforced structure, the values of dF of full model are estimated larger than those of
482
one-mass system in the range of µave over 4. The reason is assumed as follows:
Although the ductility factor of the 2nd story is small when µave of the 1st story reaches
12 in the case of original structure, the factor is relatively large in the case of original
structure, as shown in Fig.9. So, the total energy dissipation of this model is assumed
larger one-mass system.
On the grounds that the braces installed in the 2nd story of reinforced structure do not
reach yield strength when λE reaches safety limit level and the estimated values by the
results of one-mass system are smaller than the values by the results of full model, the
evaluation with one-mass system is available for this model. But, it is necessary to
consider the effects of braces in the 2nd story when accurate evaluation is required for
larger intensity of earthquake motions than safety limit level.
12
Original structure
10 (Ave. of 12 waves)
Ave. of 12 waves
8 Reinforced structure
(Ave. of 12 waves)
6
dF
Original structure
4
Reinforced structure
2
Ave. -σ
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
µ ave
Fig. 10: dF of 1st story depending on µave
12
1st Layer
(Original : Slip-
10 bilinear)
8 1st Layer
(Reinforced :
Normal-bilinear)
6
dF
one-mass (slip)
4
one-mass (bi-linear)
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
µ ave
Fig. 12: dF of the 1st story depending on µave with comparison to one-mass system
483
4.3 Seismic capacity

In the Fig.12, dynamic seismic performance index, dIs, of 1st story calculated with dF
are plotted depending on µave. In this section, the seismic performance is discussed
paying attention to “Ave. - σ” of dIs values in consideration of the difference of
earthquake motions, when Is0=0.7 is set as a demand capacity.
When limit deformation of braces of the original structure is µave=2, it is necessary that
original braces must be replaced by high ductility braces such as µave over 6 or the
structure must be reinforced with members which have about 0.2 strength in shear
coefficient. Oppositely, even if the deformation capacity large as µave=12, it is necessary
that the structure must be reinforced with members which have about 0.1 strength in
shear coefficient when the story drift angle should be controlled to about 1/100 rad.
(corresponding to µave=4).
On the other hand, dIs value is 0.87 when µave=2 in the case of the reinforced structure,
so the structure satisfies the demand capacity for any deformation limit.
In the figure, examples of index by static evaluation method are illustrated
simultaneously. The index by dynamic evaluation of the original structure for µave=2 is
well in agreement with the index by static evaluation method in the case of low ductility.
The indexes by dynamic evaluation method of the reinforced structure for µave over 2
estimated greatly larger than the index by static evaluation method in the case of high
ductility.
3.5
3.0 Ave. of 12 waves

I s =1.32 (F =2.2)
2.5
Original structure
2.0 Ave. -σ (Ave. of 12 waves)
Reinforced structure
dIs
1.5 (Ave. of 12 waves)

Original Structure
1.0 (Ave. - σ)
d I s 0=0.7 Reinforced sturcutre
0.5 (Ave. - σ)
I s =0.52 (F =1.3)
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
µ ave
Fig. 13: dIs of 1st story depending on µave with comparison to static evaluation
5 Conclusions
The paper discusses the seismic performance of a typical steel gymnasium subjected to
earthquake motions in the longitudinal direction based on the results obtained by the
dynamic evaluation method in the two different cases of the original structure and the
reinforced structure with hysteretic damper braces.
Based on the present study, following conclusions can be drawn:
484
(1) The effect in seismic performance index of reinforcement due to hysteretic damper
is estimated two times or more by comparison with an original structure.
(2) F value for low ductility braces roughly corresponds to dF value of original structure
in the case of µave =2, and dF value of reinforced structure is larger than F value for
high ductility member except for a small ductility zone as µave =2.
(3) In this case, dF values with a full model analysis are almost in agreement with the
values with one-mass system analysis. This result implies that the global research
using one-mass system is useful and effective for this type of structure.
References
[1] Architectural Institute of Japan. The report of research about seismic capacity for
education facilities, 2005.3 (in Japanese)
[2] Takanori OYA, Shoji NAKAZAWA, Kyohei KASHIWAI and Shiro KATO.
Evaluation of Seismic Capacity of Sport Halls Based on Elasto-plastic Earthquake
Response Aanalysis – Dynamic ductility index and demand strength of braces on
longitudinal direction -, Journal of Structural Engineering, pp.469-480, Vol.56B,
2010.3 (in Japanese)
[3] Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. Standard for
seismic evaluation of school gymnasia and public halls, 2006.5 (in Japanese)
[4] Takanori OYA, Takashi FUKASAWA, Makoto FUJIWARA, Yoshihiko
KUROIWA and Jun ARAI. Practical study on a new type Buckling-Restrained
Brace. Proc. of IASS Symposium, pp.110-111, Valencia, Spain, 2009.
485
Analytical investigation on the seismic performances of 60m

span spatial arch trusses under strong earthquake waves
Jing LIU1, Hai-wang LI1*, Wen-zhong PANG2, Leiming DU3, Xue-Feng Shu1
1
Institute of Applied Mechanics & Bilmedical Engineering ,Taiyuan University of
Technology,79, Yingzexi Street, Taiyuan, 030024, China
1
* Department of Civil Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology
79, Yingzexi Street, Taiyuan, 030024, China;lhwtut@126.com
2
Hebei Construction Research and Technology Co., Ltd, Shijiazhuang, 05002, China
3
Department of Architectural Engineering, Shanxi Engineering Vocational College,
Taiyuan, 030009, China
Abstract
In the development of human civilization, earthquakes continue to cause huge losses.
After the destroyed earthquake, the casualty rescue and disaster victims’ shelters is
being a major problem. If future large-span public buildings would be designed as
strong earthquake shelter refuge-shelters, it would have significantly improved the
urban and town areas disaster recovery capabilities after great earthquakes. As one case,
this paper presents the analytical investigation on the seismic performances of 60m-span
steel spatial trusses designed in different seismic fortification levels in order to realize
having the function of indoor earthquake refuge-shelters, and the following conclusions
can be obtained: Much smaller increase of the steel consumption index corresponds to
much higher increase of the seismic fortification level of the structure, and it is practical
to use them to build the large-span public buildings with the function of indoor
earthquake shelters; for the spatial arch trussed designed with different SFL, their
displacement ductility coefficients are all more than 3.0 and it means the trusses have
big deformed capacity and energy-dissipation capacity before collapse; for X direction
input of earthquake wave their failure modes are elastic-plastic dynamic buckling and
for Z direction input of earthquake wave their failure modes are strength failure; when
reaching their ultimate state under strong earthquake, the total percentage of all kind of
plastic hinge members in all truss members ranges from 25.6﹪ to 39.3; under the action
of strong earthquake, the weak positions of the trusses are at 1/4 and 3/4 span, mid-span
and near the support ends.
Keywords: indoor earthquake refuge-shelters, seismic performances, ductility

indicators, failure mechanism, steel spatial arch truss
1. Introduction
In the development of human civilization, earthquakes continue to cause huge losses.

__________________________________________________________________
Supported by China National Natural Fund (50878137);
Supported by Shanxi Province Science and Technology Fund (20080321086);
Supported by Shanxi Province visiting scholar abroad Fund (2009-26).
486
After the destroyed earthquake, the casualty rescue and disaster victims’ shelters is
being a major problem. The great role of the Jiuzhou Stadium as a sole success victims’
shelter in Great Wenchuan Earthquake happens to show the great significance of
planning and setting up earthquake refuge-shelters in towns and cities[1][2]. If future
large-span public buildings would be designed as strong earthquake shelter refuge-
shelters, it would have significantly improved the urban and town areas disaster
recovery capabilities after great earthquakes. In order to realize the purpose above,
many research programs are being carried in Taiyuan University of Technology. As a
trial study, this paper presents the analytical investigation on the seismic performances
of 60m-span steel spatial trusses, as the main structure of an earthquake refuge-shelter,
designed in different earthquake fortification levels when they are loaded in strong
earthquake waves. To achieve the special function as earthquake refuge-shelters of large
span structures, it demands higher seismic fortification levels than the current national
standard to design related structures or many new advanced techniques. Based on the
idea above, earthquake fortification level for the earthquake refuge-shelters in the 8
degree (0.2g) seismic intensity zone according to the current national seismic code [3] is
planning to be changed to five different seismic fortification levels shown in table 1.
One and the same 60m-span spatial arch truss is designed respectively with 5 seismic
fortification levels. Following presents the investigation on their seismic performances
when they are loaded in strong earthquake waves.
Table 1: Parameters of different SFL in 8 degree(0.2g) seismic intensity zone

SFL PGA/gal MSIC CPG/gal
8 degree small earthquake
70 0.16 0.45
in elastic behavior
8 degree middle earthquake
200 0.49 0.45
in elastic behavior
8 degree major earthquake
400 0.9 0.50
in elastic behavior
8.5 degree major earthquake
510 1.20 0.50
in elastic behavior
9 degree major earthquake
620 1.40 0.50
in elastic behavior
Note: SFL: Seismic fortification level; PGA: Peak ground acceleration; MSIC: The maximum seismic
influence coefficient; CPG: Characteristic period of ground motion.
2. The analytical model
The analytical model as shown in Fig.1 is taken from an earthquake refuge-shelter roof
with steel spatial arch trusses as its main structure. The space between arch trusses is
9.0m. The arch truss’s span is 60m and its rise to span ratio is 0.2. Its section is triangle,
and the height and width of triangle section are all 2.0m. Between the trusses strong
lateral brace system is arranged to prevent the trusses from buckling laterally. Its two
end boundary nodes are all pin ended. The material adopts bilinear elastic-plastic
material model, with density 7850Kg/m3, elasticity modulus 2.06GPa, tangent modulus
6.18GPa, the Poisson ratio 0.3, and the yield strength 235MPa. The damp is taken as
487
Rayleigh with the damping ratio ζ=0.02. The number of nodes is shown in Fig.2, and
the number of truss members is shown in Fig.3.
Fig.1: Analytical Model
(a) The nodes number of upper chords and horizontal web members
(b) The nodes number of lower chords and oblique web members of left span
(c) The nodes number of lower chords and oblique web membersof right span
Fig.2:The series number of nodes
(a) The members number of upper chords and horizontal web members of left span
(b) The members number of upper chords and horizontal web members of right span
488
(c) The members number of lower chords and oblique web members of left span
(d) The members number of lower chords and oblique web members of right span
Fig.3: The series number of truss members
3. Calculation results and analysis
3.1 The steel consumption indexes

The truss is designed respectively according to the five different seismic fortification
levels. Their steel consumption indexes are listed in Table 1 and the relation between
the index and seismic fortification level is shown in Fig.4.
Table 2: The steel consumption indexes
SFL SFL 1 SFL 2 SFL 3 SFL 4 SFL 5
PGA/gal 70 200 400 510 620
The total steel weight/Kg 3993 4083.5 4658 5846.5 6222
Steel consumption index
7.39 7.56 8.63 10.83 11.52
（Kg/m2）
12
11
Steel usage of unit/
10
6
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Seismic fortification level/gal
Fig.4: The relation of the steel consumption index and seismic fortification level
From Table 1 and Fig.4, the results shows that the ratio of the steel consumption
indexes of 5 seismic fortification levels is 1:1.02:1.17:1.47:1.56, but the ratio of the
PGA corresponding to 5 seismic fortification levels is 1:2.86:5.71:7.29:8.86. The data
above mean that much smaller increase of the steel consumption index corresponds to
much higher increase of the seismic fortification level of the structure.
489
If it could be accepted, for example 9 degree-major earthquake in elastic behavior(SEL5)

might be used as the new seismic fortification level of large-span buildings with
earthquake shelter function in official 8 degree (0.2g) seismic fortification zones, the
price for the cities and towns to build all their large-span public buildings as earthquake
shelters is afforded .
3.2 Elastic-plastic seismic performances

In order to understand the seismic behaviour of the trusses corresponding to 5 seismic
fortification level under strong earthquake action, many nonlinear calculations are
carried out by SAP2000[5].Hollywood wave and El-Centro wave are chosen as
earthquake wave applied to the trusses horizontally (X direction) and vertically (Z
direction). The concentrated mass from whole dead load and half snow load as Mass
element is taken into the consideration in the numerical computation. The initial
condition for each dynamic time-history calculation is the deformed state of the
structure under the action of the whole dead load and the half snow load. Many
calculations with different peak value of the input earthquake wave corresponding to the
trusses designed according to the five kinds of SFL are carried out to find two limit
conditions for each truss. The first is the elastic limitation, the second is ultimate state.
The critical PGA for the two conditions of each truss is listed in Table 3. Displacement
ductility coefficients of each truss are listed in Table 4. The relationship between PGA
and the node displacement peak value during loading history for each truss is shown in
Fig.5.
Table 3: Critical peak ground acceleration for two limitations

Critical PGA
X direction Z direction
SFL EL-Centro wave Hollywood wave EL-Centro wave Hollywood wave
Elastic Ultimate Elastic Ultimate Elastic Ultimate Elastic Ultimate
limit state limit state limit state limit state
SFL1 400 1980 360 1550 280 1150 350 1150
SFL2 430 2330 380 1680 300 1250 380 1350
SFL3 630 3030 550 2030 450 1700 450 1600
SFL4 930 3600 1030 2700 550 2200 550 2050
SFL5 1050 4280 1300 3400 580 2400 700 2080
Table 4: Displacement ductility coefficient

Displacement ductility coefficient
SFL EL-Centro wave Hollywood wave
X direction Z direction X direction Z direction
SFL1 4.288 4.959 4.253 4.566
SFL2 4.438 5.643 5.193 6.266
SFL3 4.828 6.271 3.453 7.104
490
SFL4 3.720 6.858 3.839 7.622

SFL5 5.623 6.799 3.482 7.693
Table 3 shows that: The elastic critical PGA and ultimate critical PGA under both EL-
Centro wave and Hollywood wave increase as the SFL enhancing; the elastic critical
PGA and ultimate critical PGA for both different kind of earthquake waves and
different input direction of the same earthquake wave are all different from each other;
the elastic critical PGA and ultimate critical PGA under EL-Centro action wave is
respectively bigger than that under Hollywood wave action; the elastic critical PGA and
ultimate critical PGA of the same earthquake wave for Z direction is respectively much
larger than that for X direction.
Table 4 shows that: the displacement ductility coefficients are all more than 3.0 and it
means the trusses have big deformed capacity and energy-dissipation capacity before
collapse; For the same earthquake wave, their displacement ductility coefficients under
Z direction earthquake wave is bigger than that under X direction earthquake wave, It
indicates that the vertical deformed capacity and energy-dissipation capacity are all
larger than the horizontal deformed capacity and energy-dissipation capacity.
2100 2500 3500

1800 3000
2000
1500 2500
PGA/gal
1500
PGA/gal
PGA/gal
1200 2000
900 1000 1500
600 1000
500
300 500
0 0 0
0 150 300 450 600 750 0 150 300 450 600 0 150 300 450 600 750 900
displacement/mm displacement/mm displacement/mm
(a)SFL1 (b)SFL2 (c)SFL3

4000 4500
3500 4000
3000 3500 X direction EL-Centro wave
2500
3000
PGA/gal
PGA/gal
2500 Z direction EL-Centro wave

2000
2000
1500
1500 X direction Hollywood wave
1000
1000
500 500 Z direction Hollywood wave
0 0
0 150 300 450 600 750 900 0 150 300 450 600 750 900
displacement/mm displacement/mm
(d)SFL4 (e)SFL5
Fig. 5: Maximum node vertical displacement – peak ground acceleration
The results From Fig.5 indicate that: For X direction El-Centro wave before the ultimate
state all the relation curves between the PGA and the related maximum node vertical
displacement corresponding to the SEL1 ~ SEL5 tend to grow gradually, but after the
ultimate limitation the micro increment of the PGA causes the great increment of the
maximum node vertical displacement. For the X direction Hollywood wave share the
491
same changing tendency as the X direction El-Centro wave. From the results above their
failure type is the dynamic buckling.
For Z direction El-Centro wave before and after the ultimate state all the relation curves
between the PGA and the related maximum node vertical displacement corresponding
to the SEL1 ~ SEL5 tend to grow gradually. For the Z direction Hollywood wave share
the same changing tendency as the Z direction El-Centro wave. From the results above
their failure type tends to be strength failure.
3.3The failure mode

The nonlinear analysis on the five spatial trusses corresponding to the SFE1 ~ SFE5
under EL-Centro wave is carried out with plastic hinge method by SAP2000. The
generalized force-displacement relation for the plastic hinge defined in the members of
the trusses is shown in Fig.6, which is defined according to FEMA356[6]. Their failure
modes and plastic hinge distribution are shown in Fig.7, where B—yield point,C—
ultimate bearing capacity point, D—residual strength, E—total failure, IO—Immediate
Occupancy, LS—Life Safety, CP—Collapse Prevention. There are 7 phrases for each
plastic hinge, which lies in B and IO is initial stage (the safest, presented with purple in
the Fig.) and which lies after E is the ultimate stage (the most dangerous, presented with
red in the Fig.). The quantity of the members entered into each phrase plastic hinge and
its percentage in all truss members are exhibited in Table 5, while the trusses are in the
ultimate state.
.
Fig.6: Generalized force-Deformation Relation for Plastic Hinges
The conclusions from Fig.7 are listed as following:

(1) With the improvement of structural SFL, the ultimate critical PGA gradually
increases greatly. It shows that the ultimate critical PGA for SFL5 is around 2.15
times higher than that for SFL1.
(2) For X direction input of EL-Centro wave, their failure positions of the truss of SFL
1 and SFL2 are nearly on the position of 3/4 span, while failure positions of the truss
of SFL 3, SFL 4 and SFL5 are near the pin end.
(3) For Z direction input of EL-Centro wave, their failure positions of the truss of SFL1
and SFL2 are at 1/4 and 3/4 span, while failure positions of the truss of SFL3, SFL4
and SFL5 are at mid-span.
(4) For the strength failure, while X direction input of EL-Centro wave, its failure
process is that some upper and lower chords firstly enter plastic Stage and their
plastic hinges develops with the increase of the earthquake wave, and then nearby
492
web members enter into plastic stage and form their plastic hinges. Since their
plastic hinges concentrate and develop from the Immediate Occupancy to the Life
Safety even to Total Failure phrase more and more, the truss becomes mechanism
and finally collapses.
(5) For the buckling failure, while Z direction input of EL-Centro wave, before ultimate
state less plastic hinges appear and its deflection grows gradually, but after ultimate
critical state many plastic hinges appears suddenly and there is a big increment of it
deflection to any failure state.
（a）X directional - 2000 gal (b) Z directional -1180 gal

(1.5 times) under SFL1 (1 times) under SFL1
(c) X directional - 2350 gal (d) Z directional - 1280 gal

(magnify 1 times) under SFL2 (magnify 1 times) under SFL2
(e) X directional - 3050 gal (f) Z directional - 1730gal

(g) X directional - 3630 gal (h) Z directional - 2230gal

(i) X directional - 4300 gal (j) Z directional - 2430gal

Fig.7: The distribution of plastic hinge and failure modes under EL-Centro wave
effectingto Table 5, the conclusions are shown as follow: To the failure state of the
According
trusses conresponding to SFL1~SFL5, the percentage of the members entered into
different phrase plastic hinge, from B—IO, IO—LS, LS—CP, CP—C to C—E, to all
493
the truss members respectively ranges from 0.7﹪ to 5.9﹪, 14.4﹪ to 27.4﹪, 1.5﹪ to
4.4﹪, 0.7﹪ to 3﹪ and 2.2﹪ to 4.8﹪, and the total percentage of all kind of plastic
hinge members in all truss members ranges from 25.6﹪ to 39.325.6﹪. It shows that
plastic development of the spatial arch truss members has been expanded deeply and
that the structures have strong energy-dissipating capacity when reach their ultimate
state under strong earthquake.
Table 5: Quantity and percentage of plastic hinge members in all truss members
Total
Input Number and proportion of plastic hinge（%）
SFL proportion
direction B—IO IO—LS LS—CP CP—C C—E （﹪）
X 4(1.5) 46(17) 11(4.1) 3(1.1) 7(2.6) 71(26.3)
SFL1
Z 5(1.9) 64(23.7) 4(1.5) 3(1.1) 13(4.8) 89(33.0)
X 7(2.6) 50(18.5) 7(2.6) 2(0.7) 6(2.2) 72(26.7)

SFL2
Z 2(0.7) 52(19.3) 12(4.4) 4(1.5) 11(4.1) 81(30)
X 5(1.9) 59(21.9) 12(4.4) 7(2.6) 7(2.6) 90(33.3)

SFL3
Z 2(0.74) 48(17.8) 5(1.9) 6(2.22) 8(3.0) 69(25.6)
X 16(5.9) 57(21.1) 7(2.6) 2(0.74) 10(3.7) 92(34.1)

SFL4
Z 9(3.3) 39(14.4) 5(1.9) 6(2.2) 9(3.3) 68(25.2)
X 6(2.2) 74(27.4) 10(3.7) 8(3.0) 8(3.0) 106(39.3)

SFL5
Z 4(1.5) 42(15.6) 5(1.9) 8(3.0) 6(2.2) 65(24.1)
4. Conclusion
From the above analysis in this paper, the following conclusions can be obtained:
(1) Much smaller increase of the steel consumption index corresponds to much higher
increase of the seismic fortification level of the structure. It is practical to build all
the large-span public buildings with the function of indoor earthquake shelters:
(2) For the spatial arch trussed designed with different SFL, their displacement ductility
coefficients are all more than 3.0 and it means the trusses have big deformed
capacity and energy-dissipation capacity before collapse;
(3) The results indicate that: there are two types of their failure modes. For X direction
input of earthquake wave their failure modes are elastic-plastic dynamic buckling
and for Z direction input of earthquake wave their failure modes are strength failure.
(4) When reaching their ultimate state under strong earthquake, the total percentage of
all kind of plastic hinge members in all truss members ranges from 25.6﹪ to 39.3﹪.
(5) Under the action of strong earthquake, the weak positions of the trusses are at 1/4
and 3/4 span, mid-span and near the support ends.
References
494
[1] Haiwang LI and Xuefeng SHU and Fei ZHI. A new function for large-span civil
buildings Proceedings of the International Association for Shell and Spatial
Structures (IASS) Symposium 2009, 28 September – 2 October 2009, Universidad
Politecnica de Valencia, Spain:358-359.
[2] LI Haiwang and LI Jianxian and ZHI Fei and MA Fu and QIN Dongqi. A
parameter study on dynamic buckling of spatial arch trusses under seismic action.
Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Computation of Shell and
Spatial Structures IASS-IACM 2008: “Spanning Nano to Mega” 28-31 May 2008,
Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA.
[3] GB50011-2001(2008 edition) Code for seismic design of buildings[S]. Beijing:
China architecture & building press, 2008.
[4] GB50009-2001(2006 edition)Load code for the design of building structures[S].
Beijing:China arch architecture & building press,2006.
[5] Civil King Software Technology Co., Ltd.China institute of Building Standard
Design & Research. Usage guide to Structure Analysis Program 2000 Chinese
edition.China Communications Press.
[6] FEM 356 The Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings. Federal Emergency
Management Agency,2000.
495
A New Method for Evaluating the Vertical Seismic

Performance of Complicated Spatial Structures Based on
Mass Participation Factor*
Bing Liao1*, Yongfeng Luo 2
1*
Department of Building Engineering, Tongji University Shanghai 200092, China
1239 Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, China
Email: Lake997@163.com
2
Abstract
The spatial structure is one kind of complicated structure systems. Its dynamic
performance is characterized by obvious vertical vibration modes and close frequency
distribution. Currently, the response superposition spectrum method is generally used in
the seismic response analysis. However, this method is inaccurate when applied to the
vertical seismic analysis of complicated spatial structures. This is because it is often too
difficult to get enough accumulation of vertical mass participation factors. Therefore, in
terms of mass participation factors, the computational method of the vertical seismic
performance of complicated spatial structures is investigated in this paper.
The dynamic characteristics of complicated spatial structures are different from that of
traditional structures. A large number of anti-symmetrical vertical vibration modes
appear in lower frequencies range, while few symmetrical vertical vibration modes can
be found and they are all corresponding to higher frequencies. As a result, the
accumulation of the vertical mass participation factors is too slow during dynamic
analysis. It is too difficult for the vertical mass participation factor to accumulate to
sufficient values required by the seismic design code.
The theory background of the relationships between the mass participation factors and
the truncation of vibration modes is introduced briefly. According to the relationships, a
new method for calculating the vibration of complicated spatial structures under the
vertical and horizontal earthquake excitation is proposed in the paper. Using the
proposed method, the accuracy of the vertical seismic response analysis of complicated
spatial structures by means of the response superposition spectrum method can satisfy
the design requirement.
Keywords: Complicated spatial structure, vertical mass participation factor,

contribution of vibration mode
1. Introduction
The earthquake response spectrum has been widely used in the seismic engineering
all over the world, since it was proposed by Biot[1] firstly in 1941. It was initially
introduced into seismic design in china by Liu Hui-sien[2] in 1958. Ever since the first
seismic design spectrum was put forward by Housner[3] in 1959, due to its compact
*Specialized Research Fund for the Doctored Program of Higher Education, 20070247002
496
form and explicit physical significance, earthquake response spectrum theory has
attracted a great number of seismic scientists and engineers into investigation.
As one of the basic methods for seismic analysis of structures, the response
superposition method is popular for calculating the seismic responses of linear
structures. The truncation of main vibration modes which are used for seismic response
superposition is one of the most significant steps in the response spectrum method.
In the seismic calculation of real structures, the finite element method is usually used
for structure dynamic analysis. Generally, since the element mass is concentrated to the
ends of an element by the lumped mass method, the dynamic freedom quantities of a
real structure is often very great. It is impossible to consider all the vibration modes of a
structure in dynamic analysis. On the other hand, the frequencies and vibration modes
of a structure are usually calculated by numerical methods, such as the Rayleigh-Ritz
method, Lanczos method and Subspace-Iteration method [4]. Because of the inaccuracy
of higher frequency modes calculated by numerical methods, the former hundreds of
vibration modes are truncated for the accurate calculation of the vibration of structures.
2. The Traditional Methods for Truncating Vibration Modes
2.1. For tall buildings

In reference [5], the seismic response of conventional buildings, with height less than
40m and evenly distributed mass and stiffness, can be calculated by the equivalent base
shear method. The equivalent base shear method is essentially the same as the response
superposition spectrum method if only the first vibration mode is truncated.
For other tall buildings, the seismic performance should be calculated by the response
superposition spectrum method. Because the lateral stiffness and the torsional stiffness
of conventional tall buildings are usually weaker, the lateral and torsional deformations
are dominant in main vibration modes of lower frequencies. According to experience, if
the coupling of the torsional vibration and the lateral vibration of the structure is not
considered, the number of vibration modes truncated should be the multiple of three and
less than the number of structure floors; for the tall building with irregular planes, in
which the coupling of the torsional vibration and the lateral vibration must be
considered, the number of vibration modes must be more than 9 but less than the
number of triple of the floor number. And former 9~12 vibration modes should be
usually truncated for calculation of the lateral seismic responses of tall buildings.
It was pointed out by Shi Hong-lin [6] that, for tall frame structures suffering the vertical
earthquake excitation, former 3×(n+1) vibration modes is just sufficient for accuracy of
the seismic analysis, in which ‘n’ indicated the number of frame ways.
2.2. For complicated spatial structures

In reference [5], for long span structures and long cantilever structures in the area of
seismic fortification intensity of 8 and 9 degree, the vertical seismic response should be
calculated. For the complicated spatial structures, the code indicates that the
497
accumulation of mass participation factors should be reached more than 90% by means
of truncating sufficient vibration modes.
The mass participation factors of three directions are dominant parameters used for
vibration modes truncation, especially for the complicated and spatial irregularly
structures.
2.3. Investigation of mass participation factors

According to the certainty vibration theory, the seismic response of linear structures can
be acquired from convolution integral of the earthquake excitation time function and the
unit impulse response function. Therefore, in the definition of mass participation factor,
there is a dominant premise that the structure response under a unit impulse is the basic
component of seismic response of the linear structure.
In term of the response superposition theory, the response of a linear system with multi-
degree of freedoms can be decomposed into that of a number of linear systems with
single-degree of freedom, according to the vibration modes of the structure system. For
example, the displacement response equation of a structure system which includes N
vibration modes can be unified as follows
{ }
N
{u ( t )} = ∑ φ( j ) y j ( t ) = [Φ ]{Y ( t )} ·························· (1)
j =1
where the time-dependent vectors, {u(t)}, is the absolute node displacements of the
system; [Φ] is a “Nd×N” matrix containing N vectors of {Φ(j)}, which are the shape
function of the system; and {Y(t)} is a vector containing N time functions of yj(t), which
are the dynamic degree of freedoms of the system.
Therefore, for the unit impulse excitation in any certain direction, such as the x-
direction, the kinematic equation of the j-th vibration mode of the linear system can be
given as
y j + 2ξ j ω j y& j + ω2j y j = p jxu&&xg = p jx ···························· (2)
&&
{ } [ M ]{I }
T
Where p jx = − φ( j ) x
is defined as the modal participation factor.
The modal participation factor pjx actually expresses the component of j-th vibration
mode under the unit impulse acceleration in the x-direction, as given by
 p1x 
p 
 φ(1)
 { } { }  
{ }
φ( 2) ... φ( n )  ×  2 x  = − { I } x ······················ (3)

 ... 
 pnx 
For the unit impulse load, there is another important premise that the steady state
solution of the kinematic equation involves no damping or elastic forces. Therefore, the
Equation (2) follows
y j = p jx ··········································· (4)
&&
The node inertial forces of the j-th vibration mode in the x-direction are defined as
498
{F ( ) } = [ M ]{u&&} = [ M ]{φ( ) } &&y

j j
j { )} p
= [ M ] φ(
j
jx ·················· (5)
The base resisting reaction corresponding to the j-th vibration mode in the x-direction is
the sum of forces of all nodes, expressed as
V jx = − {I }x F (
T
{ )} = − p
j
jx {I }x [ M ]{φ ( j ) } = p 2jx
T
···················· (6)
The total base reaction in the x-direction, including N modes, will be
 p1x 
p 
{ } { }  
{ }
N
Vx = ∑ p 2jx = − { I } x [ M ]  φ (1) φ ( 2) ... φ ( N )   2 x  = { I } x [ M ]{ I } x = ∑ mx (7)
T T
 
j =1  ... 
 pNx 
For the unit impulse acceleration in any direction, the exact base reaction must be equal
to the sum of all mass components in same direction in quantity, i.e. Vx = ∑ mx .
Therefore, the mass participation factor is defined as the participating mass divided by
the total mass in each direction, expressed as [6]
p 2jx p 2jx p 2jx
X jmass = = N = ······························ (8)
Vx
∑ p jx 2 ∑ mx
j =1
The accumulation of the mass participation factors of former n vibration modes can be
presented as [6]
n n n
∑ p 2jx
j =1
∑ p 2jy
j =1
∑p
j =1
2
jz
X mass = , Ymass = , Z mass = ···················· (9)

∑m x ∑m y ∑m z
If all N vibration modes are adopted, all of these factors will equal to 1.0. It means the
actual base reaction of the structure is summation of the base reaction of all vibration
modes. The seismic response superposition of all N vibration modes equals to the exact
solution of structure seismic response. Therefore, it is clear that the rule of 90%
accumulation of the mass participation can be used to estimate the accuracy of vibration
of a structure.
3. Dynamic characteristics of complicated spatial structures

For complicated spatial structures, a great number of vibration modes always need to be
truncated to get sufficient accumulation of mass participation factors. Sometimes, the
truncated number even overflows the capacity of the calculation software, especially for
the vertical mass participation factor of spatial structures.
There are two main reasons for this problem. Firstly, there are a lot of adjacent vibration
modes with very close frequencies in complicated spatial structures. Meanwhile,
hundreds of the vibration modes with lower frequency are vertically anti-symmetrical,
which contribute little to the accumulation of the vertical mass participation factor, but
may contribute greatly to the seismic response of the structure. Secondly, it is due to the
premise of vertical mass participation factor, which is based on the excitation mode
499
under unit vertical acceleration. For the complicated spatial structures including the
below supporting parts, the vertically symmetrical vibration modes always exist in
higher frequency segment. These modes are very difficult to be truncated. As a simple
example, the dynamic characteristics of a single-layer latticed shell are shown in Figure
1. The first vertically symmetrical vibration mode occurs in the 20th mode.
The 4th mode (f4=8.8Hz) The 20th mode (f20=77Hz)

Fig. 1: Dynamic characteristics of a single-layer latticed shell
According to the rule of 90% accumulation of mass participation required in design

code, some special vibration modes with higher frequencies of the complicated spatial
structures must be truncated in the response superposition. However, it is very difficult.
On the other hand, because of the attenuation of higher-order frequencies in the
earthquake wave, these special vibration modes with higher frequencies are actually not
sensitive to the earthquake excitation. Therefore, the effects of the vibration modes with
lower frequencies should be taken into account. Furthermore, the horizontal earthquake
excitation also causes vertical seismic response in the upper system of a complicated
spatial structure. In this situation, the failure shape of a spatial structure usually occurs
to be vertically anti-symmetrical, which verifies the importance of vertically anti-
symmetrical vibration modes in the seismic response of spatial structures.
4. The new method for calculating the vibration of complicated spatial

structures
A complicated spatial structure usually has large spans but weaker vertical stiffness in
its upper structure, such as steel roof domes and shells. So the upper structure is usually
sensitive to failure of the vertical vibration mode.
According to the definition of the mass participation factor, it can be concluded that the
distribution of stiffness and mass of a structure affects the structure vibration modes
significantly. To solve the problem mentioned above, a simplifying method for
calculating the vibration of complicated spatial structures is proposed based on the mass
participation factor.
500
The lower parts of spatial structures are usually composed of columns and/or shear
walls, in which large vertical stiffness and mass exist. According to Equation (9), the
strong and heavy lower structures essentially lead to a smaller numerator but larger
denominator in the vertical mass participation factor. Therefore, only when the vibration
modes with obvious vertical deformation in the lower structure are truncated in the
response superposition, the vertical mass participating will increase significantly and
reaches demanded quantity. Nevertheless, the vibration modes with higher frequencies
in the lower structure are very difficult to be truncated, and contribute little to the
vertical seismic response of the upper structure. On the other hand, the anti-symmetrical
vertical vibration modes of the upper structure are adverse in the accumulation of
vertical mass participation factor. Therefore, according to the earthquake excitation in
different directions, the new simplifying method will mainly modify the lower part
model of complicated spatial structures for quick accumulation of vertical mass
participation factor.
4.1. Simplification for vertical excitation

For the vertical earthquake excitation, the lower structure has little influence on the
seismic response of the upper spatial structure, as shown in Figure 2. From this point of
view, the model of the spatial structure could be simplified without the lower structure.
This simplified model is accurate enough for the vertical seismic response calculation of
complicated spatial structures. And it has been widely used in the seismic analysis of
real structures.
Fig. 2: Vertical excitation mode of spatial structures
4.2 Simplification for horizontal excitation

For the horizontal earthquake excitation, the lateral stiffness of the lower structure
dominates the vertical seismic response of the upper structure, while the vertical
stiffness of lower structure rarely influences on it, as shown in Figure 3. Based on this
point, to reduce the vertical degree of freedoms of the lower structure, the vertical
displacements of its top joints can be restrained. According to Equation (9), this
modification can greatly reduce the vertical mass participation of lower structures, but
remain the horizontal mass participation. The modification greatly reduces the
denominator of vertical mass participation factor. On the other hand, this modification
eliminates some vibration modes of lower structures, or it is to highlight the influence of
vibration modes of the upper structure in the numerator of vertical mass participation
501
factor. Using the modified model, the accumulation rate of the vertical mass
participation factor increases apparently, while the vertical seismic response of the
upper structure is almost the same as the original one.
Fig. 3: Horizontal excitation mode of spatial structures
5. The numerical example of a single-layer latticed shell

The latticed shell is a usual form of spatial structures. Its vibration modes are usually
overall deformation modes. It is convenient for the investigation of the mass
participation factor. For verifying the method proposed above, a single-layer latticed
shell including a lower structure of columns is computed as an example. The shell size
and its member sections are shown in Table 1. The original and modified models of the
latticed shell are given in Figure 4.
Table 1. Structure parameters of the single-layer latticed shell
Span (m) Rise-span ratio Height of column (m) Member of shell Lower column
9 1/3 2 Φ95×4.0 Φ245×10.0
The original model (the 20th mode) The modified model (the 20th mode)
Fig. 4: The original and modified models of the latticed shell
The total degrees of freedoms of the original and modified models are 75 and 67
respectively. According to the numerical results, the comparison of vertical mass
participation between the original and the modified models is given in Table 2.
502
Table 2. Comparison of vertical mass participation factor
Original model
TRAN-Z
Vibration Mode Accumulation Participation Accumulatio
Mass (kg)
(kg) factor (%) n (%)
1 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
…… …… …… …… ……
19 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
20 367.92 367.92 25.83 25.83
21 20.60 388.53 1.45 27.27
30 294.09 682.86 20.64 47.93
49 237.42 920.28 16.67 64.60
60 494.49 1414.77 34.71 99.31
…… …… …… …… ……
75 0.00 1424.60 0.00 100.0
Vertical total
1424.60
mass(kg)
Modified model
TRAN-Z
Vibration Mode Accumulation Participation Accumulatio
Mass (kg)
(kg) factor (%) n (%)
1 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
…… …… …… …… ……
19 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
20 333.74 333.74 52.13 52.13
21 20.14 353.88 3.15 55.28
30 225.45 579.55 35.22 90.53
Vertical total
640.16
mass(kg)
As given in Table 2, the former three vertical vibration modes of two models occur both
in 20th, 21st and 30th. Their vibration shapes are also similar. Then there is obvious
difference of accumulation of vertical mass participation between both models. The
accumulation of former thirty vertical vibration modes is 90.53% in the modified model,
while it is only 47.93% in the original model. The vertical vibration of lower columns
occurs obviously in the 60th vibration mode of original model, but without any motion
in the upper shell at same time, as shown in Figure 5. It proves that the vertical vibration
of lower columns has little influence on that of the upper shell, and the vertical mass
participation of this mode contributes obviously to the original model, which has
reached 34.71%. This is a disadvantage in vertical seismic response superposition of the
upper spatial structure.
503
Fig. 5: The 60th vibration mode in the original model
In order to verify the efficiency of the new method, a difference ratio, express as ‘T’, of
vertical internal seismic forces of two models is calculated by
F − Fi′
Ti = i ······································· (10)
Fi
Where, Fi and F′i are the vertical internal seismic forces of element ‘i’ in the original
model and the modified model respectively.
The axial force, shear and moment of element ‘i’ in the upper shell are compared with
the difference ratio Ti.
According to the accumulation rule of the design code, 75 vibration modes are truncated
for response superposition in the original model, and 30 vibration modes are truncated
in the modified model. The distribution of number of elements in different ranges of T
is shown in Table 3 and Figure 6.
Table 3: Distribution of elements in different range of T
Number of elements
Range of distinction ratio T
Axial force Shear Moment
0.0% < T < 15.0% 48 48 48
15.0% < T < 50.0% 0 0 0
50.0% < T 0 0 0
Total number of elements 48
504
Disfference ratiao T of axial force 0%<T<15% Disfference ratiao T of shear 0%<T<15%

15%<T<50%
15%<T<50%
50%<T
50%<T
0% 0%
100% 0% 100% 0%
The difference ratio T of axial forces The difference ratio T of shears
Disfference ratiao T of moment 0%<T<15%
15%<T<50%
50%<T
0%
100% 0%
The difference ratio T of moments

Fig. 6: Distribution of elements in different range of T
As given in Table 3 and Figure 6, for the upper structure of the single-layer latticed
shell, the vertical seismic response, superposition with 75 modes, of the original model
is almost the same as the response, with 30 modes, of the modified model. The
maximum difference ratio, Timax, of internal forces of all elements is 12.5%, which is
still in the range of 0.0%<T<15.0%. This comparison verifies that the proposed method
for calculating the vertical seismic response is accurate enough for the single-layer
latticed shell. This method can also be applied to other types of complicated spatial
structures.
6. Conclusion
The dynamic characteristics of the spatial structures are summarized in the paper,
including the significance of vertical vibration modes and close frequency distribution.
Because of the dynamic characteristics, the response superposition spectrum method is
usually inaccurate for the vertical seismic analysis of complicated spatial structures.
Based on the theory background of the relationship between the mass participation
factors and the truncation of vibration modes, a new method for calculating the
vibration of complicated spatial structures under the vertical and horizontal earthquake
excitation is proposed in the paper.
505
The accumulation rate of vertical mass participation factor increases obviously, if the
new method is adopted in dynamic analysis of the complicated spatial structures.
Taking a single-layer latticed shell as a numerical example, the calculation accuracy of
the modified model is verified by the difference ratio T of internal seismic forces of the
upper shell. The proposed method in the paper can provide useful reference and advices
for the seismic analysis of complicated spatial structures.
References
[1] Biot M A. A mechanical analyzer for the prediction of earthquake stress. Bull Seism,
Soc. Am.1941; 31: 151-171.
[2] Liu Hui-Sien. Seismic forces on structures. Chinese Journal of Civil Engineering
1958; 5: 96-106.
[3] Housner G W. Behaviors of structures during earthquakes. ASCE, 1959, 85(EM 4):
109-129.
[4] Yu Zai-dao. Dynamic of Structures. Shanghai: Tongji Press, 1987.
[5] GB50011-2001, Code for seismic design of buildings. Beijing: China Architecture
and Building Press, 2001.
[6] Shi Hong-lin, Liu Hong-bing, Huang Yu-hua. Analysis of vibration of multi-story
and high-rise frame structures subjected to vertical vibration. Earthquake Resistant
Engineering and Retrofitting 2006; 28: 10-14.
[7] Wilson E, et al. Three-dimensional Static and Dynamic Analysis of Structures
Third Edition. Berkeley: Computers and Structures, Inc. 2002.
[8] Y. Ohsaki, Xie Li-li, et al. Theory of Vibration. Beijing: Earthquake Press, 1990.
506
Evaluation of Seismic Performance of Single Layer Lattice

Dome supported by Ductile Braces
Shoji Nakazawa1, Yuna Yagi2, Shiro KATO 3*
3*
kato@tutrp.tut.ac.jp kato-shiro@tg.commufa.jp
1, 2
Abstract
The present paper studies on seismic fragility based on a simple procedure to evaluate
the seismic risk of spatial structures. As an example for calculating the seismic risk, a
numerical investigation is performed for a single layer lattice dome supported by a
substructure implemented with ductile braces as buckling restrained braces. The
analysis of seismic loss is based on a simple rule for judging the damage to both of the
structural and non-structural elements. The effectiveness and feasibility of the study is
discussed and necessity of some kind of energy absorbing devices is suggested for more
damage reduction through several examples with different yield base shear coefficient.
Keywords: seismic fragility, ductile braces, lattice dome, nonlinear, dynamic response
1 Introduction
For keeping higher security against seismic hazard, anti-earthquake reinforcement has
been increased in Japan especially for public works as sport halls [1]. In such
reinforcing cases, a seismic risk analysis (SRA) [2,3] would be required in general to
qualify and quantify the seismic damage to individual facilities, aiming at providing
information for retrofitting cost and risk mitigations.
In the present study, a seismic loss function (SLF) representing a relationship between
seismic expected loss and ground motion level is evaluated based on dynamic response
analysis considering geometrically and materially nonlinearities of a single layer lattice
dome. In order to evaluate the seismic loss, seismic fragility curves (SFCs) have been
determined so far with respect to structural/non-structural components, for examples
beams, columns, braces and finishing materials, based on the results of numerical
studies or in-situ damage investigations [4]. In the previous studies [3, 5-7], the seismic
risk of spatial structures was calculated based on numerical results by elasto-plastic
dynamic response analysis, since there has been little damage investigation for such
structures.
Similarly to the previous studies, the present investigation adopts a numerical
simulation for fragility and seismic loss analysis with a focus on the effect of the
substructure to seismic damage. The focus is to know whether high yield base shear
strength of the substructure will reduce or amplify the damage compared to a case of
substructure with low yield base shear strength, and which part of structure will suffer
more serious damage.
507
2 Numerical model of single layer dome

2.1 Numerical model
(1) A dome with a diameter of 100 meters of circular plan is assumed for analysis as
one of the typical examples for sport halls. The structure is shown in Fig.1. For risk and
fragility analysis, the total building including the dome is divided into three parts: the
central part L1 and the side part L2 of dome, and the substructure L3 supporting the
dome. The substructure of L3 is composed as shown in Fig.2 of diagonal braces and
vertical columns with wall finishing as non-structural covering material. The dome is
divided into the two parts of L1 and L2, since their dynamic responses are expected
different each other. The dome may be of double layer or single layer, and it is assumed
in this study as a single layer steel lattice roof, where a ceiling of large area is finished
on its inside roof.
(2) As for the dome, as described above the roof being divided into two parts, the single
layer lattice dome is assumed to be composed of steel tubular members connected
rigidly at nodes, and the cross sections of the members are proportioned so that the
dome endures two times dead load of Pd0=1470N/m2 per unit surface area. The member
sizes are shown in Fig.3 and Table 2. The dome is also designed to resist within elastic
range the additional static earthquake load as PE0 with 0.3 as a base shear coefficient
defined at the dome base under a condition that the braces behave elastic-plastically.
Y
L1
L2 L2
O Q
T
S P H
A B h
B O Q T P A
L
X
Z R
φ0
X
S
Fig.1: Steel single layer lattice dome

supported by substructure
q thickness
q δ
0.35
qyb κKBR
0.40
KBR 0.45
ABR δ
δyb 0.50
ϕ 0.55
0.60
0.65
Fig.2:Replacement of brace hysteresis
into equivalent bi-linear rule Fig.3： Member arrangement
508
Table 1 : Size of members
size Area
member
(mm) (cm2)
substructure columns ∞
7,26 φ‐296×3.5 32.55
10 φ‐296×4.0 37.20
4, 8,11,13,14,17,23,24,27 φ‐296×4.5 41.85
1,16,19,20,21 φ‐296×5.0 46.50
dome
2, 5,18,22 φ‐296×5.5 51.15
9,12,15,25 φ‐296×6.0 55.79
3,6,28 φ‐296×6.5 60.44
tension ring φ‐592×30 557.95
The earthquake load, PE0, was prepared using a linear earthquake response of the dome
under El Centro NS with a peak acceleration of Amax=110 cm/s2. The total weight of the
dome is assumed as Wt=14370kN including the tension ring, and the weight of the wall
is included as the mass of substructure. The elastic modulus E and yield strength σy are
assumed as 205x103N/mm2 and 235N/mm2, respectively. The detail of members and
other structural characteristics are abbreviated for brevity.
(3) The parameters of the braces which constitute the substructure are shown in Table 2.
Two types are assumed for its yield base shear coefficient: αy0= 0.3 and 0.5 to see the
difference of damage depending on the yield base shear coefficient. The hysteresis rule
for braces is bi-linear. In this study, the case of αy0= 0.3 is designated as LS and the case
of αy0= 0.5 as HS. ABR is the area of each brace element, KBR is the sway rigidity of one
set of braces as given in the right part of Fig.2, and κ represents the shear rigidity after
yield being assumed 0.01 to the linear brace rigidity. δyb is the yield story drift for initial
yield. The hysteresis of the brace is assumed a bi-linear type supposing a buckling
restricted brace, however the rigidity is just assumed same as ordinary ductile braces,
not changed to represent conditions of real buckling restrained braces. The axial rigidity
of columns is assumed very large, and the vertical displacements at column heads are
fixed zero in the analysis.
Table 2: Bracing elements
σy ABR KBR κ δyb
Type αy0
( N/mm2 ) (cm2) ( kN/mm) = Kf / KBR (mm)
LS 0.3 235 4.229 13.09 0.01 11.1
LH 0.5 235 7.047 28.12 0.01 11.1
αy0 : design base shear coefficient for braces, σy : yield stress,
ABR : sectional area of the brace, δyb : story drift for initial yield
2.2 Input ground motions

Investigation of the fragility of a dome requires a set of earthquake motions that are
selected by reflecting the site seismic activity. However, the dome studied in this paper
is only an example, and accordingly artificial earthquake motions were prepared based
509
on the design spectrum of Japan Building Code [9] corresponding to a soil layer for the
medium soil condition II. The design spectrum for the serviceability limit level is
specified as λE =1.0 for rare earthquakes, and for ultimate level as λE =5.0 for the very
rare earthquakes. For investigation, twelve artificial ground earthquake motions are
simulated using the phases of recorded earthquake accelerations. They are El-Centro NS,
Taft EW and others that are often applied in anti-earthquake design. The average peak
acceleration for λE=1 corresponds roughly to 115 cm/s2. The simulated acceleration
spectrum is shown in Fig.4.
500 SA(cm/s2)
μ+σ damping factor h = 2% ,
λE =1.0
400
300
μ : mean
μ-σ
200
100 σ : standard deviation
0
0.0 1.0 2.0 [sec] 3.0
Fig.4: Mean and standard deviation of acceleration
response spectra of seismic motions
3 Seismic response characteristics

The analysis is based on an elasto-plastic buckling analysis considering geometrical and
material nonlinearities [8]. For time series dynamic response, Newmark β scheme with
β=1/4 is applied, and the time interval for response calculation Δt is 0.001sec. The
Rayleigh damping matrix is used assuming damping factors of 2% for the two dominant
vibration modes which have a significant participation factor.
Fig.5 illustrates the relationships between maximum responses and seismic intensity λE
in both cases of LS and LH for substructure. Presented values are the maximum values;
for the part L1, horizontal acceleration AQH, vertical acceleration AQV and vertical
displacement δQV at the point Q, and similarly for the part L2, APH, APV and δPV at the
point P, and for the part L3, story shear drift angle Δ S and horizontal acceleration ASH
at the Point S. Fig.6 illustrates the response of plastic rotation at a member end of the
member TP shown in Fig.1 depending on the seismic intensity, and Fig.7 illustrates a
relationship between the vertical displacement δPV at node P and plastic rotation θp of
member TP. Information listed in Table 3 are summaries of the responses shown in
Figs.5 to 7, and it shows a clear fact that, once the member of TP around the point P
yields at their connections, the vertical displacement δPV increases rapidly. According to
the phenomena of plastic rotation, a judgment is introduced for the damage state due to
vertical displacements in the Table 4.
510
The thresholds of δV1=15cm, δV2=25cm and δV3=35cm in Table 4 are assumed by

adoption of the response phenomenon of the members TP as a safe side damage
evaluation. It is found in the present analysis in both cases of LS and LH, although any
data being not presented in this study, that around the point Q in the part L1 no
members experience a large plastic rotation at nodes.
AQH [cm/s2] 3000 AQV [cm/s2] 20 δQV [cm]
1500
μ+σ LH
μ+σ
μ
μ-σ μ 15
μ-σ μ+σ
1000 LH 2000 LH μ
μ-σ LS
10
LS LS
500 1000
5
λE λE λE
00 00 2 4 6 8 00 2 4 6 8
2 4 6 8
AQH :horizontal acceleration of L1 AQV :vertical acceleration of L1 δQV :vertical displacement of L1
1500 APH [cm/s2] 3000 APV [cm/s2] 80 δPV [cm]

μ+σ
μ μ+σ
μ-σ μ 60
1000 LH 2000 μ-σ LH
LH
LS 40 μ+σ
500 1000 LS μ
20 μ-σ
λE λE LS λE
00 2 4 6 8 00 00 2 4 6 8
2 4 6 8
APH :horizontal acceleration of L2 APV :vertical acceleration of L2 δPV :vertical displacement of L2
2000 ASH [cm/s2] 0.10 ΔS
0.08
1500
μ+σ μ LS
μ-σ 0.06
1000 LH
μ+σ
0.04 μ
μ-σ
500
LS 0.02 LH
λE λE
00 2 4 6 8 0.00 0 2 4 6 8
ASH :horizontal acceleration of L3 Δ S : story shear drift angle of L3
Fig.5: Response characteristics of two structures of LS and HS
511
0.15 θP [rad]
100 δPV[cm]
μ+σ
80
LS (L2)
0.10
μ 60 LH(L2)
LH
40
0.05
μ-σ 20
LS θP [rad]
λE 0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15
0.00 0 2 4 6 8
Fig.6: Response characteristics Fig.7: Plastic rotations of member TP
of two structures of LS and LH around Point P
Table 3:Characteristics of response at the central and side parts of dome and at
substructure
part Fundamental characteristics of responses
L1 Vertical displacement δQV in both cases of LS and LH crosses over 15cm once the
seismic intensity λE is beyond 5, and the response of LH is a little larger than LS
before λE=5, and a little smaller after λE=5. The vertical accelerations in both cases
of LS and LH are increased so higher as 1200cm/s2 for seismic intensity λE=2. The
response in case of LH is higher than LS once λE crosses over λE=2. Horizontal
acceleration response in case of LH is much larger than LS over any seismic
intensity. The plastic rotation will not happen in the present dome.
L2 Vertical displacement δPV increases larger once the intensity λE crosses over 5 in
both cases of LS and LH. However, in case of LS, the plastic rotation will not be so
much amplified compared with LH. At around λE=5 some cases of LH the
displacement crosses over 35cm, and plastic rotation at point P grows rapidly along
with the vertical displacement. The accelerations in case of LH increase much in
both horizontal and vertical directions than in case of LS, and the damage to non-
structural elements on roof will be much larger in case of LH once the seismic
intensity λE crosses beyond 2 or 3.
L3 Sway ∆s in case of LS increases faster than LH depending on increasing λE, on the
other hand, ASH in case of LS is not amplified larger than LH. In both cases, the
damage seems not so large if the intensity λE remains less than 3 based on the
damage criteria of Tables 4 and 5. If a strategy is required to reduce damage still for
lower intensity of 3 for λE, some energy absorbing dampers are necessary.
4 Example of seismic risk analysis of lattice dome
4.1 The damage evaluation indexes and criteria

(1) For damage evaluation, every part of L1, L2 and L3 are decomposed into structural
elements and non-structural elements. At present, the proposed rules are assumed only
for the present study, and damage to equipments is not taken into consideration.
512
(2) The damage on the structural elements of dome is assumed to be evaluated by the
maximum vertical displacement δV of the dome. Several damage states ( DS denoting
Damage State) are set up for defining the degree of damage as shown in Table 4. The
criteria of the damage states denoted as A, B, C and D and damage ratio RL1 S 0 (DS) of
structural elements of the part L1 are also listed. This criterion is applied to the parts of
L1 and L2. Here the subscripts L1 S 0 of RL1 S 0 denote the abbreviation as Part L1
Structural elements.
(3) The non-structural elements of the dome represent a finishing material on the roof.
The damage state ( DS ) is assumed to be estimated by the maximum horizontal and
vertical accelerations of dome, AV and AH. The criteria of the damage states together
with damage ratios of non-structural elements of dome RL1 N 0( DS ) are assumed with
reference to [10] as shown in Table 5. The subscripts L1 N 0 of RL1 N 0 denote the
abbreviation as Part L1 Non-structural elements. Here, an additional measure is
introduced that the damage criterion on dome finishing is graded up than the ordinary
reference for walls and ceilings at the revel of substructure since a lager acceleration
responses have been already known on dome roofs based on previous studies.
(4) The structural elements of the substructre are a set of ductile braces, and the damage
state ( DS ) is assumed to be estimated by the story drift angle ΔS based on conventional
criteria for steel braces, although the ductile braces such as buckling restrained braces
have higher performance than ordinary braces with compression capacity.
(5) The non-structural element of the substructure represents a finishing material, and
the damage is estimated by maximum story drift angle and horizontal accelerations of
the substructure, ΔS and AH. The damage ratios of structural and non-structural elements,
which are expressed as RL3 S 0 and RL3 N 0, are also listed in Tables 6 and 7, respectively.
The subscripts L3 S 0 of RL3 S 0 denote the abbreviation as the part L3 Structural elements,
while the subscripts L3 N 0 of RL3 N 0 denote the part L3 Non-structural elements.
4.2 Seismic fragility curve (SFC)

SFC is probability of failure at a certain seismic intensity λE. In general, when the
probability distributions of both the load and resistance are known, probability of failure
pf can be calculated based on a theory of structural reliability [2, 3], as already
illustrated in the previous studies [5, 6] even in case of spatial structures. On the other
hand, SFC is calculated more simply and directly in this study based on Monte-Carlo
method. Seismic response analyses subjected to twelve earthquake motions are carried
out, and maximum responses are analyzed in terms of seismic intensity λE. With respect
to the SFC of the structural elements of the part L2 of the dome, for example, the
occurrence probability of damage state A denoted by pL1 S A( λE ) is directly calculated as
the ratio of the number corresponding to damage state A among the twelve responses
based on the result of maximum vertical displacement δPV at the point P of the dome.
However due to page limitation, the results of probability of damage states (A, B, C and
D) are abbreviated in this presentation. At present, the proposed rules are assumed only
for the present study, and accordingly it
513
Table 4: Damage state and damage ratio of the structural elements at dome
Criteria δV < δV1 δV1 < δV < δV2 δV2 < δV < δV3 δV > δV3
Damage State ; DS A B C D
RL1 S 0 (DS), RL2 S 0 (DS) 0.0 0.25 0.50 1.0
δV : maximum vertical displacement of the dome, δV1 = 15 cm, δV2 = 25 cm, δV3 = 35 cm
Table 5(a) :Damage state and damage ratio of the non-structural elements at dome
AV≦ AV1 AV1 ＜ AV ≦ AV2 AV2 ＜AV ≦ AV3 AV ＞ AV3
AH ≦AH1 A B C D
AH1< AH≦AH2 B B C D
AH2＜AH≦AH3 C C C D
AH ＞AH3 D D D D
AV, AH : maximum vertical and horizontal acceleration of the dome
AV1 = AH1 = 1200cm/s2, AV2 = AH2 = 1600cm/s2, AV3 = AH3 = 2400 cm/s2
Table 5(b) :Damage state and damage ratio of non-structural members at dome
Damage State ; DS A B C D
RL1 N 0 (DS), RL2 N 0 (DS) 0.0 0.25 0.50 1.0
Table 6: Damage state and damage ratio of the structural elements at substructure
Criteria Δ≦Δ1 Δ1 ＜Δ≦Δ2 Δ2 ＜Δ ≦ Δ3 Δ ＞Δ3
Damage State ;
A B C D
DS
RL3 S 0 (DS) 0.0 0.25 0.50 1.0
Δ : maximum story drift angle of the substructure, Δ1 = 1/100, Δ2 = 1/50, Δ3 = 1/30
Table 7(a): Damage state and damage ratio of the non-structural elements of substructure
Δ≦Δ1 Δ1 ＜Δ≦Δ2 Δ2 ＜Δ ≦ Δ3 Δ ＞Δ3
AH ≦AH1 A B C D
AH1< AH≦AH2 B B C D
AH2＜AH≦AH3 C C C D
AH ＞AH3 D D D D
AH : maximum horizontal acceleration at substructure
AH1 = 800cm/s2, AH2 = 1200cm/s2, AH3 = 1600 cm/s2
Table 7(b): Damage state and damage ratio of non-structural members at substructure
Damage State ;
A B C D
DS
RL3 N 0 (DS) 0.0 0.25 0.50 1.0
4.3 Expected damage ratio

(1) RL1 S (λE) denotes, for example, an expected damage ratio of the structural element of
the part L1 of the dome corresponding to seismic intensity λE. The value is calculated as
follows.
RL1 S (λE ) = ∑  R
DS
L1 S 0 ( DS ) × pL1 S DS (λE )  ; DS = A, B, C , D (1)
514
where, RL1 S 0(DS) and pL1 S DS (λE) denote the damage ratio and the occurrence
probability of damage state DS with respect to the Part L1-Structural elements of dome,
and the variable DS varies as A, B, C and D.
(2) The expected damage ratios of other components are similarly calculated described
with respect to Eq.(1), and the expected damage ratios for the three parts are illustrated
in Fig.8 for both the structural and non-structural elements. Commonly to all
components, every expected damage ratio increases along with increase of seismic
intensity λE. A typical tendency is found, as shown for the parts L1 and L2, that the
expected damage ratios of structural and non-structural elements grow much larger once
the seismic intensity crosses beyond 2 or 3. The damage to non-structural elements will
become more dominant beyond 3 for the seismic intensity. (2.1) The damage ratios of
the parts L1 and L2 in case of LH with a large yield base shear are found larger than
those in case of LS with a low yield base shear. (2.2) On the other hand, the expected
damage ratio of L3 is dominant for both of structural and non-structural members of
substructure in the case of LS with a low yield base shear, since the story drift angle
becomes in the case of LS larger than LH. The above tendencies imply that some kinds
of energy absorbing devices will work effectively to reduce the damage to non-
structural elements on dome roof and to substructure.
1.0 RL1 S (λE) 1.0 RL2 S (λE) 1.0 RL3 S (λE)

0.8 LS 0.8 LS 0.8 LS
LH LH LH
0.6 0.6 0.6
0.4 λE 0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2 0.2
λE λE
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
structural element structural element structural element
1.0 RL1 N (λE) 1.0 RL2 N (λE) 1.0 RL3 N (λE)
0.8 LS 0.8 LS 0.8 LS
LH LH LH
0.6 0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2 0.2
λE λE λE
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
non-structural element non-structural element non-structural element

L1(central) of dome L2(side) of dome L3 of Substructure
Fig.8：Expected Damage ratio
Table 8: Ratios of relative cost, CJ0, for building parts

Parts J={L1 S, L2 S, L3 S, L1 N, L2 N, L3 N}
L1 L2 L3
S tructural elements 0.2 0.2 0.3
N on-structural elements 0.1 0.1 0.1
515
4.4 Seismic loss function (SLF)

For calculation of seismic loss function (SLF), a hypothesis is placed with respect to the
cost for each part as shown in Table 8. The seismic loss function (SLF) represents the
relation between the seismic expected loss and the seismic intensity, ground motion
level in other words. The seismic expected loss is the product of the probability of
damage state and its corresponding loss associated with the damage state. Although the
seismic loss function is calculated in general using an event tree modeling, SLF is
simply calculated in the present study using the following procedures. The seismic loss
of the whole structure, CSL(λE, k), corresponding to input earthquake motion k of seismic
intensity λE is calculated for simplification.
 ∑ [C J0 × RJ (λE , k ) ] ; J = L1 S , L1 N , L2 S , L2 N , L3 S , L3 N
C SL (λE , k ) =  J
 1.0 ; if any of damage state is D for L1 S , L2 S , or L3 S

(2)
Here, the damage of each composition is assumed to be mutually independent, and
CSL(λE,k) is calculated from the alignment sum of the seismic loss of each component.
However, when the damage state of the structural element is "D" in case of L1, L2 or L3,
it is concluded that the whole structure is collapsed and CSL(λE,k) is assumed 1.0
unconditionally. Since SLF is given as an expected value of CSL(λE,k), the seismic loss
function, CESL(λE), is calculated as
1 N
CESL (λE ) = E [ CSL (λE , k ) ] = ∑ [ CSL (λE , k ) ] (3)
N k =1
in which N expresses the number of input earthquake motions, being 12 in this study.
Moreover, the standard deviation σSL(λE) of CSL(λE,k) can be calculated as follows.
1 N
(σ SL (λE ) ) = Var [ CSL (λE , k ) ] = ∑
2 2
CSL (λE , k ) − CESL (λE ) (4)
N k =1
Fig.9 shows plots of the seismic loss function, CSL(λE, k), for each of twelve artificial
earthquake motions. CSL(λE, k) fluctuates due to the difference of earthquake motions.
The expected seismic loss CESL(λE) is illustrated together with the standard deviation
σSL(λE) as a form of CESL(λE)+σSL(λE). The value of CESL(λE) increases with increase in λE.
CSL(λE, k) reaches 1.0 in the several cases subjected to severe earthquake motions, since
the damage state of the structural elements of the substructure becomes “collapse” as
defined D. When λE increases, the losses in case of LS and LH increase fast, some cases
reaching 1.0 at around λE =5. Also, a characteristic difference is found between LS and
LH that the seismic loss is larger in case of LS than LH. However, even in case of LH
with 0.5 as yield base shear coefficient, loss begins around λE =3, reaching 0.2 for λE =5.
This kind of public works have an aim for keeping sure safety to serve as refuges still
after severe earthquakes with intensity of over 5, and accordingly it will be required to
add more toughness to structures so that seismic loss should decrease.
516
1.0 Expected loss 1.0 Expected loss
CSL(λE,k) CSL(λE,k)
0.8 CESL(λE)
0.8 CESL(λE)
CESL(λE)+σSL(λE) CESL(λE)+σSL(λE)
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
λE λE
0.0 0.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
(a) LS (αy0=0.3 ) (b) LH (αy0=0.5 )
Fig.9 Seismic loss function ; CESL(λE)
Once the yield base shear would be graded up, damage to non-structural elements
would increase. On the other hand, once the yield base shear would be graded down, the
damage to substructure would be amplified. This kind of trade-off dynamic behavior of
domes under earthquake motions will be a little serious from a view point of damage
reduction. From this trade-off condition, some kinds of more effective measures is
required to suppress the damage by installing some energy absorbing devices at
substructure. In some cases, buckling restrained braces will be effective under a
condition that they start plastic deformation even under low seismic intensity as λE =1
and some viscous dampers will be added together with low yield buckling restrained
braces.
5 Conclusions
The present study has proposed a simple discrete procedure to evaluate the seismic risk
of a single layer lattice dome supported by braces at substructure. As an example for
calculating seismic risk by using the procedure, several numerical studies were
presented to know if ductile braces as buckling restrained braces at substructure work
effectively for damage reduction including structural and non-structural elements.
(1) First, the damage states and criteria of the structural and non-structural elements
were assumed depending on the magnitude of earthquake response.
(2) Second, a set of large dynamic response analysis were performed, followed by
calculation of both the seismic fragility curves and seismic loss functions based on
the results of elasto-plastic seismic response analysis. In the examples for analysis,
commonly to all components, every expected damage ratio increases along with
increase of seismic intensity λE. A typical tendency is found that the expected
damage ratios grow much larger once the seismic intensity crosses beyond 2 or 3.
(3) The damage to non-structural elements will become more dominant over beyond 3
for seismic intensity.
(4) The damage ratios of the dome with a large yield base shear are found larger than
those with a low yield base shear. On the other hand, the expected damage ratio of
517
substructure is dominant at the structural members of substructure in the case of a

low yield base shear, since the story drift angle becomes larger in the case of LS
than LH.
(5) From the characteristics of response difference between the two substructures, it is
clearly confirmed that the damage of the dome is subjected to a principle of a trade-
off to the damage of the substructure with respect to the yield base shear coefficient
of the substructure. The above tendencies imply that some kinds of energy
absorbing devices will work effectively to reduce the damage to non-structural
elements on dome roof and to substructure.
References
[1] T.Takeuchi, S.D.Xue, S.Kato, T.Ogawa, M.Fujimoto and S.Nakazawa, Recent

Developments in Passive Control Technologies for Spatial Metal Structures, Proc.
of IASS-APCS 2006 Symposium, 2006, DR18.
[2] M.Mizutani, Basic methodology of a seismic risk management procedure,
ICOSSAR '97, Vol.3, 1997, 1581-1588.
[3] M.Ooi, M.Mizutani, S.Yoshida, A.Nobata, K.Tanouchi and H.Fujiwara, Study on
Seismic Fragilities of Categorized Wooden Houses, Technical Note of the National
Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention, No.250, 2004.
[4] K.Kawaguchi and Y.Suzuki, Damage Investigations of Public Halls in Nagaoka
City After Nigata-Chuetsu Earthquake 2004 in Japan, Proc. of IASS2005, 2005,
421-428.
[5] S.Nakazawa, T.Shima, I.Tatemichi, S.Kato and K.Hirano, Evaluation for Seismic
Risk Based on Damage Ratio and Seismic Resistance of Spatial Structures, IASS-
APCS 2006 Symposium, 2006, AO16.
[6] S.Nakazawa, S.Kato, K.Hirano, Methodology to Evaluate the Effectiveness of
Retrofit Proposal Based on the Discounted Cash Flow Method, IASS 2007
Symposium, PN368, Venice, Italy, 2007.
[7] S.Kato and S.Nakazawa, Seismic risk Analysis of large lattice dome supported by
buckling restrained braces, IASS-IACM2008, Cornell University, Ithaca, USA,
2008.
[8] S.Kato, S.Nakazawa and Y.Niho, Seismic Design Method of Single Layer
Reticular Domes with Braces Subjected to Severe Earthquake Motions, APCS2000,
2000, Seoul, Korea, 131-140.
[9] M. Midorikawa, Performance-Based Seismic Design Provisions for Buildings in
Japan, IASS 2005 Symposium, 2005, 307-316.
[10] Federal Emergency Management Agency, HAZUS99 technical manual,
Washington, D.C., NY, 1999.
518
Dynamic analysis of space latticed structure incorporating the

substructure and SSI
S.D.XUE1*, X.B.LUAN 2 and Y.K.SUN 3
1*
Professor, the college of architecture and civil engineering,
Email: sdxue@bjut.edu.cn
2
PhD. Candidate, the college of architecture and civil engineering,
Email: xbluan@emails.bjut.edu.cn
3
MS student, the college of architecture and civil engineering,
Email: sunyankunpinno@163.com
Abstract
The effect of dynamic action that the soil medium have on the structure is simplified as
the spring-dashpot system calculated by the George Gazetas’ formulas for the effective
dynamic stiffness and dashpots of arbitrarily shaped, rigid embedded foundations. The
3-D model including the interaction between space lattice structure, the foundation and
basement is built by the ANSYS software. The parametric analysis of the model is
carried out under three soil category in the seismic code of China. The effect of the soil-
foundation-structure interaction on the dynamic characteristic and the seismic response
of the latticed space structure under different soil stratum and different structure
stiffness are studied. It sums up the differences of the response between the structure
with SSI and the structure with rigid connection. Some suggestions for the engineering
practice are put forward. The analysis shows that the soil-foundation-structure
interaction makes the period of the structure longer, and increases the internal forces
and acceleration.
Keywords: space latticed structure, soil-foundation-structure interaction, FEM, seismic

response
1 Introduction
In most cases, the supporting structure and the supporting soil medium are not
considered in the seismic analysis of space structures. The investigation by
Moghaddam[1] shows that the seismic behavior of the spatial structure is different from
that of the conventional one like the high-rise building when the two factors are not
considered. Shiro Kato [2-3] has incorporated the ductile substructure in the seismic
analysis of the reticulated domes.
519
The soil medium, which is not rigid, will increase the flexibility of the whole structure
and hence increase the natural period and change the dynamic characteristic of the
structure. The research by Sekhar[4], Koushik[5][6] suggest that such a increase in the
natural period will increase or decrease the response of the structure depending on the
locations of the natural period in the design response spectrum.
This paper will present the result of the space latticed structure considering the SSI. And
the effects of the SSI on the dynamic characteristic and the seismic response of the
structure are studied.
2 Analysis model
The analysis model is divided into three parts: the space latticed structure, the
supporting structure and the foundation. The elements of the space latticed structure are
modelled by link 8 and the columns are modelled by BEAM 4 in the ANSYS software.
The dead load and live load are transmitted to the node in the upper chord and lower
chord respectively and modelled by the MASS 2. The interaction between the soil and
structure is modelled by the COMBINE 14. The finite element model for the space
latticed structure with the rigid connection and the structure with SSI are shown in
figure 1 and figure 2, respectively.
Fig.1: FEM model with rigid connection Fig.2: FEM model with SSI
2.1 The space latticed structure and the column

The analysis model is a 48m × 64m × 3.5m space latticed structure supported by the
column. The upper chord is subjected to the 0.5kN/m2 static load and 0.5kN/m2 live
load and the lower chord is subjected to the 0.5kN/m2 live load. The three different size
categories for the member of the space latticed structure are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Three categories of cross sections for the space latticed structure (mm)
Upper chord Web member Lower chord
Ⅰ φ159 × x8 φ140 × 4 φ159 × 8
Ⅱ φ140 × 10 φ140 × 4 φ140 × 10
Ⅲ φ159 × 10 φ140 × 4 φ140 × 4
520
The three cross sections for the concrete column with grade C40 are 800mm × 800mm,
1000mm × 1000mm, 1200mm × 1200mm, respectively.
2.2 The foundation model
To analyze the soil-foundation-structure system under dynamic load, the impedance

function associated with the rigid massless are often used. Translations of the
foundation in two mutually perpendicular principle horizontal directions and vertical
directions as well as rotational stiffness about the three different directions are
considered. The expressions for stiffness, the dashpot and the added mass are shown in
Table 2. The G is the shear modulus of the soil and the R is the radius of the foundation
and ν is the passion ratio, ρ is the density of the soil.
Table 2: The expression for the stiffness, dashpot and added mass
Circular footing
motion Added
spring stiffness k dashpot
mass
4GR
vertical 1.79 kρR 3 1.5 ρR 3
1−υ
8GR
horizontal 1.08 kρR 3 0.28 ρR 3
2 −υ
8GR 3 0.47 kρR 5
rocking 0.49 ρR 5
2(1 − ν )
16GR 3
torsion 1.11 kρR 5 0.7 ρR 5
3
It has also been observed that the stiffness of the equivalent springs is dependent on the
frequency of the excitation such as the seismic ground motion. This frequency
dependence is considered by multiplying the equivalent spring stiffness by a frequency
dependent factor. But it is very difficult to adopt any frequency dependence factor in
terms of the non-dimensional parameter a0 = ω B / Vs , where ω is the excitation
frequency; B is the wide of the foundation and Vs is the shear velocity of the soil. In this
study, the effect of such multiplication factor is not considered.
Table3: Parameters of foundation soil
site type Shear velocity(m·s-2) Shear modulus(Mpa) Posion ratio Density(kg·m-3)

Ⅰ 426 370 0.37 2040
Ⅱ 200 74 0.37 1850
Ⅲ 110 26 0.37 1780
521
According to the seismic code of China, three different categories of soil are considered
in the analysis, which are shown in the Table 3.
3 Effect of SSI on the dynamic characteristic of the space latticed

structure
To analyze the effect of different soil conditions and the different column section size
on the dynamic characteristic of the whole structure, three coefficients are defined. β1 is
the stiffness ratio between the column and the space latticed structure. β 2 is the
stiffness ratio between the superstructure and the foundation.
K
β1 = l (1)
Kw
Kl = kl′ × m (2)
El I l
k l′ = (3)
ll
Kw = kw′ × n (4)
Ew I w
k w′ =
lw (5)
Where K1 is the total shear stiffness of the column; K w is the stiffness of the space
latticed structure; k1' and k w' are the shear stiffness of one column and the bending
stiffness of the space latticed structure.
Kw
β2 =
Ks (6)
Ks = ks′ × m (7)
GI j
ks′ =
(1 −ν )h (8)
Where K s is the total stiffness of the soil medium; G is the shear modulus of the soil;
I j is the moment of inertia; h is embedding depth of the foundation; and ν is the
possion ratio of the soil medium.
For convenient, we define the following ratio to determine the effect of SSI on the
dynamic characteristic of the structure.
522
ωx − ωg
ω' = (9)
ωg
Where ω x is the frequency for the structure considering the SSI; ω g is the frequency for
the structure with the column rigid connected.
3.1 The effect of β1 on the dynamic characteristic of structure

Figures 3 to 5 show the effect of β1 on the natural frequency of the structure on soil type
I, II, and III, respectively. From these figures we can see that at the same site
conditions, with the increase of β1 , the effect of interaction on the natural frequency
increases. At the site type Ⅰ , Ⅱ and Ⅲ , when the β1 is greater than 3, the SSI
should be considered.
Fig.3: The effect of β1 on the natural frequency of the structure on the soil type Ⅰ
Fig.4: The effect of β1 on the natural frequency of the structure on the soil type Ⅱ
523
Fig.5: The effect of β1 on the natural frequency of the structure on the soil type Ⅲ
3.2 The effect of β 2 on the dynamic characteristic of structure

Figures 6 to 8 show the effect of β 2 on the natural frequency of the structure on soil
type Ⅰ, II and III, respectively. From these figures it can be observed that at
the same site conditions, the effect of β 2 on the frequency of the structure is small. With
the increase of β 2 , the effect of the interaction on the natural frequency is not changing
greatly. As the stiffness of the superstructure is small, when the stiffness of the member
varied, the contribution of it on the superstructure is small.
Fig.6: Effect of β 2 on the natural frequency of the structure on the soil typeⅠ
Fig.7: Effect of β 2 on the natural frequency of the structure on the soil type Ⅱ
524
Fig.8: Effect of β 2 on the natural frequency of the structure on the soil type Ⅲ
4 Effect of SSI on the dynamic response of the space latticed structure

For convenience, we define the parameter α ′ to illustrate the difference between the
axial forces in the structure with the column rigid connected and the axial force in the
space latticed structure.
Nx − Ng
α' = (10)
Ng
Where α′ is the increase coefficient for the axial force in the structure; N x is the axial
force in the structure with the column rigid connected; and N g is the axial force in the
structure considering the soil structure interaction.
4.1 Input ground motion

The earthquake input in the seismic analysis of space latticed structure considering the
SSI should be on the site basis. Three ground motions in the analysis for the
corresponding site categories Ⅰ , Ⅱ , and Ⅲ are shown in the figures 9 to 11
respectively. The peak acceleration is scaled to 0.15 g .
acceleration(cm/s2)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
-20 0 10 20 30 40 50
-40
-60
-80
time
Fig.9: The Qian an ground motion at soil category Ⅰ
525
400
a c c e l e r a t i o 2)n ( m / s
300
200
100
0
-100 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
-200
-300
time
Fig.10: The El-centro ground motion at soil category Ⅱ

a c c e l e r a t i o n ( g )
0 . 2
0 . 1 5
0 . 1
0 . 0 5
0
- 0 . 0 5 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0
- 0 . 1
- 0 . 1 5
- 0 . 2
t i m e
Fig.11: The TAFT ground motion at the soil category Ⅲ
4.2 The effect of β 2 on the peak forces of the web member and the lower
chord member
The variations of the axial force in the lower chord member and the web member with
the β 2 are shown in Figure 12 and Figure 13 respectively. It is seen that at the same site
conditions, the effect of β 2 on the peak forces of both web and lower chord members is
small. With the increase of β 2 , the effect of the interaction on peak forces changes
slightly.
526
a）
a) Site typeⅠ a) Site typeⅠ
b）Site typeⅡ b）Site typeⅡ
c）Site type Ⅲ c）Site type Ⅲ

Fig.12: Axial stress of web member Fig.13: Axial force of lower chord member
4.2 The effect of stiffness ratio on the peak response of the time history of
the acceleration
Figure 14 shows the effect of the stiffness ratio β1 on the peak response of the time
history of the acceleration. From the figure, we can see that at the same site conditions,
with the increase of β1 , the effect of soil structure interaction on the peak acceleration at
527
the upper chord increases. When β1 is greater than 6 at the soil type and Ⅱ and the β1
is greater than 3 at the soil type Ⅲ, the effect of SSI should be considered in the
calculation of the peak acceleration in the upper chord.
a） soil type Ⅰ
B）Soil type Ⅱ
c）Soil type Ⅲ
Fig. 14: The effect of β1 on the peak node acceleration in the upper chord
528
5 Conclusions
The paper discusses the effect of SSI on the dynamic characteristic of the space latticed
structure. The stiffness ratio between the space latticed structure, the column and the
soil medium is very important parameter in the seismic analysis of the spatial structure
when the SSI is incorporated in the model. However, the research in the above is in the
elastic range. In the future research, it has great significance to carry out inelastic
response of the structure considering the SSI under the strong motion. Further, it’s very
interesting to incorporate the characteristic of the ground motion in the SSI analysis,
especially under the near fault ground motion.
Acknowledgement
The research is funded by the grant from the key research programme of National
Natural Science Foundation of China (90715034).
Referencess
Reference
[1] Hassan A. Moghaddam. Seismic behaviour of space structures, International

Journal of space structure, 2000; 1515:119-135.
[2] Shiro Kato, Shoji Nakazawa, Keita Saito.: Two-mode based estimation of
equivalent seismic loads and static estimation of dynamic response of reticulated
domes supported by the ductile substructures, Journal of the international
association for shell and spatial structures, J.IASS, 2006;47
47 :35-52.
[3] Shiro Kato, Shoji Nakazawa, Keita Saito.: Estimation of static seismic loads for
latticed domes supported by substructure frames with braces deteriorated due to
buckling, Journal of the international association for shell and spatial structures:
J.IASS, 2007; 48
48:71-86.
[4] Sekhar Chandra Dutta.: Response of low-rise buildings under seismic ground
motion incorporating soil-structure interaction, Soil Dynamic & Earthquake
Engineering, 2004; 2424: 893-914.
[5] Koushik Bhattacharya.: Effect of soil flexibility on dynamic behaviour of building
frames on raft foundation, Journal of sound and vibration, 2004; 274
274:111-135.
[6] Koushik Bhattacharya.: Assessing the lateral period of the building frames
incorporating soil-flexibility, Journal of sound and vibration, 2004; 269
269:795-821.
529
Dynamic analysis of large-span steel complicated

arge-span
connect ed structure
connected structuress
Xiu-li Wang, Cheng-zhi LI
School of Civil Engineering, Lanzhou University of Technology
287#, Langongping Road, Lanzhou, Gansu, PR China,730050
Email: wangxl9104@126.com
Abstract:: With the development of technology, the types of architecture become more
Abstract
and more diversified. The architects like to design the connected architectures because
of their magnificent figuration and the modernized style. When one or more corridors
were setting between two or more buildings at some height, the all system was called
the connected architecture. The dynamic property of the connected architecture, stress
mechanism and dynamic response are worth to go to further studies. It is important to
do some research on the development of the connected structures. In this paper, based
on the change of a long span steel connected structure, three groups of examples are
founded and the dynamic analysis method is used to compute the dynamic
characteristics and responses.
Keywords:: connected structures; dynamic characteristics; seismic response.
Keywords
1 Introduction
In recent years, the diversification of architectural forms, architectural graphic also tend
to diversified and complicated. As the diversity of the architectural form and based on
the architectural function requirements, Many engineering using connect body structure
between single building, in the conjoined twins structure, the main structure’s symmetry
or the rule degree of the plane layout will rule on seismic response of the structure of a
difference .The article will discuss the seismic response at different situations for a
changing steel frame structure model. Most current literature and the research results of
the calculation model for " both just joined " or "conjoined twins on both sides of the
elastic analysis, connect" mostly. This paper in order to compare conjoined structure,
the discussion is only joined with the main structure of the hinged at both ends.
2 Structure calculation mode of vibration

This paper establishes three groups model by the factors of the different slope tilt,
different rigidity and different plane layout, conjoined for steel truss in the modal. Using
ANSYS software analysis, The frame column section of main structure
is□400X400X20,frame beams section is H400X200X10X12, the support section is
H300X200X12X16 ,and the chord of the conjoined twins structure is □400X400X20,
the flank rod isФ219X16 and All steel grade are Q345. Beam-column and conjoined
twins bar element use beam188 unit simulation.. The coordinate of the modal is X axis
530
parallel horizontal structure, Z axis parallel structure vertically, the Y axis vertical
upward. In order to make comparable for each example, the body structure stiffness of
each layer does not change. The main structure are 16m x 33m steel frame - supporting
system and decorate the support symmetrical and evenly at both ends of the structure,
the X direction and Z direction are all Four single-span and the vertical continuous
layout, the main body is 3.6m tall, two steel frame 36m for horizontal spacing. The form
of the conjoined twins structure and layout is changing with each modal. Three groups
of example layout shown in figure 1, figure 2.The three groups modal: in the A group,
main structure is two symmetrical 9 floors steel structure. The conjoined plane layout
household, one end of the facade connects the body structure top. Another end connects
the 9 layer, 8 layers, 7 layers and 5 layer of the body structure respectively, forming
four examples; in the group B, main structure is two symmetrical 9 floors steel structure.
Double conjoined steel truss plane household decorates. One end of the facade connects
the body structure top. Another end connects the 9 layer, 8 layers, 7 layers and 5 layer
of the body structure respectively, forming four examples; in the group C, main
structure is two horizontal stagger arrangement of 9 floors steel structure. The conjoined
plane decorated in one side of the two subject .One end of the facade connects the body
structure top. Another end connects the 9 layer, 8 layer, 7 layer and 5 layer of the body
structure respectively, forming four examples; the facade decorated is shown in figure 3,
figure 4.
Figure 1 layout of group A and B Figure 2 layout of group C

End fixed End fixed
igure 3: A, C group elevation F
Figure 3 elevation layout of group A and C Figure 4 group B elevation layout
modeel analysis
3 Structural mod
Monomers and each example calculated the before 20 vibration mode shown in table 1
～ table 3. By each period statistics table and each vibration mode analysis, we can
conclude:
531
1. The quality increased period while stiffness reduced the period. Because single
structure more rules and the strikeout more regularly, the former strikeout followed the
order that translation to Z and translation to A then torsion appear alternately. Along
with the conjoined join, vibration model is complicated. Following each example, we
will find that when each group periods bigger than the corresponding monomer period,
the two single structures will coordinate deformation. The influence of the period
decreases by the conjoined stiffness less than the influence of the period increasing by
the conjoined increased quality.
Table 1 Period of group A
9 floors monomer A1 A2（1/10） A3（1/5） A4（1/2.5）
Direction
T1 1.036 Z 1.093 Direction Z 1.079 Direction Z 1.063 Direction Z 1.017 Direction Z
Direction Direction Direction
T2 0.8602 X 0.8493 X 0.8434 Direction X 0.8375 Direction X 0.8313 X
T3 0.5909 Torsion 0.7952 X Torsion 0.7930 X Torsion 0.7911 X Torsion 0.7877 X Torsion
Direction
T4 0.5398 Z 0.6340 Z Torsion 0.6116 Z Torsion 0.6121 Z Torsion 0.7296 Direction Z
Direction Turn Turn
T5 0.4537 X 0.5558 Direction Z 0.5444 backward
0.5468 backward
0.5747 Z Torsion
Table2 Period of group B

9 floors monomer B1 B2（1/10） B3（1/5） B4（1/2.5）
T1 1.036 Direction Z 1.126 Direction Z 1.108 Direction Z 1.085 Direction Z 1.005 Direction Z
T2 0.8602 Direction X 0.8734 Direction X 0.8642 Direction X 0.8558 Direction X 0.8470 Direction X
T3 0.5909 Torsion 0.7992 X Torsion 0.7959 X Torsion 0.7929 X Torsion 0.7877 X Torsion
Turn Turn
T4 0.5398 Direction Z 0.5559 Z Torsion 0.5569 backward 0.5592 backward 0.7300 Torsion
Turn Turn
T5 0.4537 Direction X 0.5498 backward 0.5365 Z Torsion 0.5458 Z Torsion 0.5760 backward
Table3 Period of group C

9 floors monomer C1 C2（1/10） C3（1/5） C4（1/2.5）
Direction
T1 1.036 Z 0.9153 Direction Z 0.9021 Direction Z 0.9064 Direction Z 0.9301 Direction Z
Direction
T2 0.8602 X 0.8499 Direction X 0.8444 Direction X 0.8391 Direction X 0.8322 Direction X
T3 0.5909 Torsion 0.8050 Torsion 0.8001 Torsion 0.7992 Torsion 0.8048 Torsion
Direction Inclined to Inclined to Inclined to Inclined to
T4 0.5398 Z 0.7781 torsion 0.7742 torsion 0.7777 torsion 0.7819 torsion
Direction
T5 0.4537 X 0.5570 Z Torsion 0.5577 Z Torsion 0.5583 Torsion 0.5688 Torsion
2. Compare A group and B group at different influence on stiffness. A group of

conjoined is single truss, group B conjoined is double truss, the stiffness of Group B
bigger than group A. According to the conjoined position corresponds to 2 groups,
comparing the two examples. We will find that A and B group of T1, T2 and T3 period
changes is reducing with the slope is increasing. This shows that the influence which
several of the conjoined to provide rigidity reduced period is increasing with the
increasing of the conjoined slope relative to the enlarge influence to the period because
of the quality increase of conjoined structure.
3. Compare A group and the group C structure layout of different effects. Group C
structure plane is more complex, but group A is symmetric on the X axis. T1 in group A
is bigger than it in group C. This is because the complex group C increased body
stiffness and quality in the vertical and horizontal distribution of inequality after adds
532
conjoined twins. Caused the internal force in handover parts increased between main
and conjoined.
4. From each modal can be seen that after setting conjoined, at high order modes, the
main vibration model will appear translation and rotating coupled. Torsion vibration
model of the structure is more abundant, with the change of slope; the eccentric
structure characteristics are more obvious. Group C also appears to be very clear
diagonal vibration isolators.
4 Time history elastic-plastic analysis under the action of earthquake
These structures are most prominent features of eccentric structure; we must do three-
dimensional analysis when calculating its vibration response. The article considers three
seismic inputs when analysis the earthquake response, using El Centro seismic waves
and the earthquake is 8 degrees severe earthquake. The structure time-history response
under earthquake has been used. This paper mainly analyses the main structure of the
top level maximum displacement and main body structure of displacements between
layers. To distinguish easily, each steel frame of the mobile terminal at examples is left
main structure and the chart on the left side. The steel framework of fixed side is right
subject and the chart on the right side.
1. Example group A
The comparison of the horizontal plane maximal displacement between group A and
single structure is shown in figure 5
The vertex displacement of X

The vertex displacement of Z The vertex displacement of Z
Figure 5 A group of horizontal maximum displacement
533
As shown in figure 5, in the group A, the lateral of left main in X is gradually

decreasing with the increasing of conjoined slope. The right side is greater than single
subject moving in to the lateral X when the slope is less than 1/2.5 and the lateral in X
reach a maximum value in the group A2. This shows that between the main structure
and joined still have framework role and this effect exists extreme value point. The
comparison of the horizontal layer displacement Angle between group A and single
structure is shown in figure 6. The figure 6 shows that the layer displacement Angle
curve in X direction of group A is still closer. But the change role of layer displacement
Angle between left and right main layer have some difference. The present trend of left
main layers displacement Angle curve is A1 outside than the curve of monomer
basically. Then close to the inside with the increase of the slope and inside of the
monomer in A3 until the layer displacement Angle curve of A4 in the inside. The
present trend of right main layers displacement Angle curve is A1 outside than the
curve of monomer. Then continue outward with the increase of the slope. Like A2,
closing to the inside with the increase of the slope. Like A3, in the inside of monomers.
This shows that joined the conjoined twins in certain slope is favorable to reduce the
displacement Angle, the layer displacement Angle which in the connection position
changed significantly because of structure is more complex than a planar conjoined
twins. It shows that earthquake is complicated because of conjoined twins.
Layer
Layer
Displacement between layers of X Displacement between layers of X

Layer
Layer
Displacement between layers of Z

Displacement between layers of Z
Figure 6 the horizontal layer displacement Angle of group A
534
2. Example group B
The comparison of the horizontal plane maximal displacement between group B and
single structure is shown in figure 7.

Figure 7 horizontal maximum displacement of group B
From figure 7, the vertex displacement in the X direction of each group B is similar to
group A. This shows the quality influence factors are large. Compared with group
A ,the vertex displacement change trend is opposite in direction Z of group B. Smaller
slope B1 and B2 were less than the corresponding A1 and A2 .This shows the influence
of the conjoined rigidity for the main structure is bigger, in the Z axis. But the B3 and
B4 are less corresponding A3 and A4.This shows the stiffness influence less than the
quality influence. These are consistent with the front characteristic analysis.
3. Example group C
The comparison of the horizontal plane maximal displacement between group C and
single structure is shown in figure8. Through calculating with ANSYS, we can find that
the vertex displacement of group C is more complicated. In the direction X of group C,
the right subject vertex displacement is greater than that in the single whatever slope.
And present the increasing trend with the slope is increased, Because of the change of
position and the plane is irregular and the complexity of the conjoined role, left main
makes vertex displacement complicated. In the Z axis, the vertices displacement in left
main is bigger than that in monomer. The first three examples in the right main are all
535
bigger than that in the monomer. But it will less than monomer when the slope is
biggest and the displacement are minimal in every example. It shows that the change of
slope make the eccentric body torsion changes obviously.

Figure 8 horizontal maximum displacement of group C

Conclusion
Through large calculation and analysis we will have some basic conclusions as follows.
1. The torsion vibration model ingredients of the structure increased because the join of
the conjoined and slope structure. There are inclined to vibration. This makes the
torsion effect obviously. For the conjoined structure in this article, because the
conjoined is cant with slope and the role to the two side main structure is not same.
Thus the dynamic characteristics complex and appear more complex vibration modal. In
the earthquake, the more complex structure, the more differences of the deformation
about connect body and the main structure and the poor of the structural integrity
2. From the comparative analysis of quality effect and stiffness effect, we can found that
the quality increased the strikeout period while the stiffness reduced the period. when
the period of each example less than the corresponding monomer period, the stiffness
influence to the period large more than quality influence to the period and vice versa.
Through comparison A and B we found that the influence of period decreases from
536
stiffness conjoined provided and the influence of period increase from quality conjoined
increased. There exist extreme in different slope.
3. The conjoined which plane is rules (as A, B) have different functions in two
directions. conjoined structure with inclined plane and main structure have framing
effect and this effect exists extreme value point. In other words, the whole structure
displacement has minimum value when the conjoined have a slope.
4. For the conjoined structure in the article, the layer displacement Angle Where the
conjoined at reduced obviously. From the analysis of the results showed that all the
displacement and layer displacement Angle meet seismic code requirements.
5. For the cant conjoined twins structure which has irregular plane. The conjoined
coupling made the torsion effect more significantly. If the main structure have large
eccentric, subject and conjoined twins should adopt a weak links.
References
[1] Huang kunyao, Sun bingnan, Lou wenjuan. Asymmetric conjoined twin towers of
structural dynamic characteristics and seismic response analysis. Industrial buildings
2001，8 8：27-2
[2] Xu peifu, Xiao congzheng, Wang cuikun. The earthquake and design suggestion of
Overhead corridor. Building structure 2004, 1:51-52
[3] Bian chaodong. High-level conjoined twins structure strikeout and the participate
coefficient analysis Architectural science 2002，8 8.
[4] Liu jingbo, Li zhengyu. Big span high-level connection body building structure
dynamic analysis. Building structure journal 2004，25 25((1)：45-52.
25
[5] Huang kunyao . The influention of the Seismic response conjoined twin towers
high-rise buildings from conjoined twins stiffness Building structure journal 2001，
22((3)：21-26.
22
537
Analysis on structure supporting the reflector of FAST under

specially variable earthquake ground motions
Yugang Li 1, Hongliang Qian1, Feng Fan 1, Qinglong Zeng1, Shizhao Shen1
1
202 Haihe Road, Nangang District, Harbin 150090, P.R.China
lyghit@tom.com
Abstract
For the large-span structures different supports will encounter different excitations
due to the spatial variations of the earthquake ground motion. In this paper, the
responses of the reflector of the Five- hundred-meter Aperture Spherical Telescope
(FAST) under uniform excitation and multi-support excitations are studied by using the
time history analysis method. Spatially variable ground motion time histories are
simulated via the phase difference spectrum, the power spectrum and the coherency
function model. It is found that responses of FAST under three-dimensional
multi-support excitations are larger and more complicated than that of the uniform
excitation. It also shows that the near surface parts of FAST are more sensitive than the
far away parts with respect to the spatial variations.
Keywords: FAST, multiple support excitations, simple support excitation, time history
method
1 Introduction
FAST (Five-hundred-meter Aperture Spherical Telescope) is a large radio telescope
with an active spherical main reflector .It is a single-aperture telescope with the largest
aperture and the strongest observations capabilities under construction and planned in
the world (Fig.1), which will maintain the leading position in the following 20 or 30
years[1].
The structure supporting the reflector of FAST adopts the whole cable net: knit the
flexible cable meshed in geodesic triangle system into 500m diameter spherical primary
cable net, of which the surrounding is fixed at the supporting structure around. Every
main cable net node is set up down inhaul cables which can be used as stable cables and
control cables, in order to bring about the form of reflector’s reference state and the
transform of working state[2] (Fig.2).
From these differential Array records, it is found that in the earthquake propagation
process, the structures encounter different excitations at different supports, on account
of travelling wave effect, dispersion frequency effect, site effect and attenuation effect
[ 3 ]
.
The difference will be bigger as the distance comes longer, so the spatial variations of
the earthquake ground motion cannot be neglected for the large-span structures.
538
In this paper, the ground motion for FAST site is simulated via trigonometric series
synthesis method based on representing spectral. And make the time history analysis on
the structures supporting the reflector of FAST under multi-support excitations and
uniform excitation.
Fig.1: FAST radio telescope Fig.2: Structure supporting reflector of FAST
2 Simulation of spatially variable ground motion

FAST is located at Karst terrain in Pingtang County in Guizhou Province, which is
Karst depression, its site classification for the I-level. In the "the Chinese Code for
seismic design of buildings" (GB 50011-2001), there is not seismic fortification
intensity for Pingtang County. Adjacent to it, seismic fortification intensity for
Changshun County, Luodian County, Huishui County and Duyun County is six degree,
while a little farther from it, seismic fortification intensity for Wangmo County is seven
degree. Considering the occurrence of the Wenchuan County earthquake with Ms 8 in
Sichuan Province, with seismic fortification intensity of 7 degree, this paper makes
seismic response analysis on the structure supporting the reflector of FAST at 7 and 8
degree. The seismic design acceleration amplitude separately values 35 cm/s2, 70 cm/s2,
220 cm/s2 and 400cm/s2, with magnitude 7and 50km from the epicentre.
FAST has 2395 bearings (Fig.3), of which 2195 are for control cables, and 200
bearings for 50 lattice steel column. Limited to the computer memory, earthquake
ground motion for the whole 2395 points cannot be simulated. In this paper, this
approach is: firstly simulate the earthquake ground motion for 15 × 15 points distributed
evenly within the FAST site (Figure 4), then set the simulating ground motion time
histories for the points nearest to the bearings as the ones for the bearings.
Aiming power spectrum via Du Xiuli-Chen Houqun model:
ω g4 + 4ξ g2ω g2ω 2 1 ω2
Sa (ω ) = 2 × × × S0 (1)
(ω g − ω 2 ) 2 + (2ξ g ω g ω ) 2 1 +（Dω）2 ω 2 + ω02
In the formula, ω g acts as the angular frequency for single degree of freedom to the
soil mass, and ξ g as the damping ratio; S0 is the spectral intensity determined by the
acceleration intensity; D is the spectral parameter for characteristics of the bedrock;
ω0 is the low corner frequency.
539
Coherency function via Hao and Oliverra model [4-5] ：

dijL
(
⎢⎣ )
γ ij (dijL , dijT , f ) = exp ( −β1dijL − β2 dijT ) × exp ⎡− α1 dijL + α2 dijT f 2 ⎤ × exp(i 2π f
⎥⎦ vapp
) (2)
In the formula, β1 and β 2 are the constants, while α1 and α 2 are the functions of
frequency:
300 300
200 200
100 100
Y（m）
Y（m）
0 0
-100 -100
-200 -200
-300 -300
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300
X（m） X（m）
Fig.3 Bearing Location of FAST Fig.4 Location Simulation
2πa bω 2π d eω
α1(ω) = + + c, α2 (ω) = + + g, 0.314 ≤ ω ≤ 62.83 (3)
ω 2π ω 2π
Here are the regression coefficients of ground motions for Support 30 through the
SMART-I, recorded in Table 1.
Table 1: Parameters in coherency loss function
β1 β2 a b c d e g
2.25 5.10 106.6 0.265 -0.999 66.55 0.588 -11.18
Phase difference spectrum is got via Thráinsson and Kremidjian model [6]. In
Literature [6], it shows the probability density function of phase difference spectrum, as
well as the statistical formula for the mean and variance of it. According to the intensity,
site conditions and the epicentre distance of FAST site, the frequency distribution of
phase difference spectrum is shown in Figure 5.
In Literature [7], it shows the composite formula of space-dependent multi-point
earthquake ground motion.
n N −1
un ( t ) = ∑∑anm (ωk ) cos ⎡⎣ωk t +θnm (ωk ) + ϕmk ⎤⎦
m=1 k =0
(4)
The cross-spectral space matrix S (iωk ) is obtained by the multiplication of the power
spectrum and coherency function. Then carry out Cholesky decomposition on it,
S (iωk ) = L ( iωk ) LH ( iωk ) (5)
540
⎡l11 (ωk ) 0 ⋯ 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢l21 ( iωk ) l22 (ωk ) ⋯ 0 ⎥
L ( iωk ) = ⎢ ⎥ (6)
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ln1 ( iωk ) ln 2 ( iωk ) ⋯ lnn (ωk ) ⎥⎦
anm (ωk ) = 2 ∆ω lnm (iωk )
Then, Im[lnm (iωk )] (7)
θ nm (ωk ) = tan −1
Re[lnm (iωk )]
ϕ mk is a phase spectrum via Thráinsson and Kremidjian model.
Fig.5:Frequency distribution of Phase difference spectrum
0.4 0.4
加速度（m/s2）
加速度（m/s 2）
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
-0.2 -0.2
-0.4 -0.4
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
时间（s）时间（s）
Fig.6a Ground motion for support 1 Fig.6b Ground motion for support 200
According to the above conditions, ground motions of 2395 points are generated,
which are needed by the time history analysis on FAST under multi-support excitations.
In Figure 6, it shows two seismic waves with the acceleration amplitude of 0.35m/s2.
3 Analysis on earthquake ground motions under uniform excitation
and multi-support excitations
The propagation direction of ground motion is in accordance with the X-direction of
FAST model, and the acceleration amplitude at the vertical seismic propagation
direction values 0.85 times of the one at X-direction, while the acceleration amplitude
541
of vertical ground motion values 0.6 times of the one at X-direction. This paper makes
an earthquake ground motion analysis on the structure supporting the reflector of FAST
under uniform excitation and multi-support excitations at four acceleration amplitudes,
separately considering the actions of earthquake frequently occurred and earthquake
rarely occurred with the seismic fortification intensity of 7 and 8 degree. Due to the
complexity of the structure and the limitation to space, the paper only shows the results:
the displacement of main cables node, the stress of main cables and the axial force of
control cables.
In order to get the responses of the structure under spatially variable ground motion,
the data reduced the responses under the action of static loads, are purely a structural
response under ground motion. During the analysis on the data, the concept of influence
coefficients is defined, as follows:
b-a
ρ= (7)
a
In the formula, ρ is the influence coefficient, a is the structural response under
uniform excitation, and b is the structural response under multi-support excitations.
3.1 The structural responses under ground motion at the amplitude of

35cm/s2
The ground motion at the amplitude of 35cm/s2 is corresponding to the seismic
fortification intensity of 7 degree under the action of frequently occurred earthquake,
with the exceeding probability as 63.2% within 50 years. To reflect the overall
difference under uniform excitation and under multi-support excitations, the data are
separately arranged in ascending order. Figure 7 shows the structural responses under
uniform excitation and multi-support excitations. The maximum displacement of main
cables node, the maximum stress of main cables and the maximum axial force of control
cables, under multi-support excitations are significantly greater than the ones under
uniform excitation, with partial responses much greater.
0.06 multiple support

displacement（m）
simple support
0.04
0.02
0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Node
Fig.7a Displacement of Main cables node
542
120
Axial force（kN）
multiple support 9 multiple support
stress （Mpa）
simple support simple support

80 6
40 3
0 0
0 2000 4000 6000 0 500 1000 1500 2000
cable cable
Fig.7b Stress of Main Cables Fig.7c Axial force of control cables
Statistical results of the maximum displacement of main cables node, the maximum
stress of main cables and the maximum axial force of control cables are shown in Table
2: the ones under multi-support excitations are greater than the ones under uniform
excitation. For example, the maximum stress of main cables under specially variable
earthquake ground motions increases by 243.32%, and the average influence on the
displacement of main cables node is equal to the one on the stress of main cables, about
36%, meanwhile, the average influence on the axial force of control cables comes to
64%. This is because the control cables directly bear the spatial variation under ground
motion, internal forces under pseudo-static effect increases largely.
Table. 2: Seismic response analysis
displacement stress of main cables axial force of control

(m) (Mpa) cables (kN)
maximum mean maximum mean maximum mean
multiple 0.05466 0.02307 118.130 12.43845 8.41840 1.65744
simple 0.02863 0.01692 34.419 9.13247 2.94560 1.01055
ρ 0.90919 0.36348 2.43212 0.36200 1.85796 0.64014
Figure 8, Figure 9 and Figure 10 show the nephogram of the displacement
distribution of main cables node, the stress distribution of main cables and the axial
force distribution of control cables. The reactions under uniform excitation and under
multi-support excitations are significantly different. The distribution of structural
responses under uniform excitation is in regular, with the clear dipartite boundaries of
displacement, especially the nephogram of displacement distribution (Figure 10b). The
displacement increases from right to left, with the dipartite boundaries clear, continuous
and smooth. Compared with it, the distribution of the structural responses under
multi-support excitations turns complicated, and the maximum and minimum position
in the structure are inconsistent with the ones under uniform excitation, with the
dipartite boundaries discontinuous. And it can be seen from the figure, the structural
responses under multi-support excitations are totally larger than the ones under uniform
excitation.
543
Fig.8a Stress distribution of main cables Fig.8b Stress Distribution of main cables
under multiple support excitations under uniform excitation
Fig.9a: Axial force distribution of control Fig.9b: Axial force distribution of control
cables under multiple support excitations cables under uniform excitation
Fig.10a: Displacement distribution of Main Fig.10b: Displacement distribution of

cables node under multiple support excitations Main cables node under uniform excitation
544
3.2 The structural responses under ground motion at other amplitudes

amplitudes
maximum(multiple)
mean(multiple)
0.
8
displacement（m） maximum(simple)
mean(simple)
0.
6
0.
4
0.
2
0.
0
0 100 200 300 400
peak acceleration（cm/s2）
Fig.11a Displacement changes with the acceleration amplitude
maximum(multiple) maximum(multiple)
mean(multiple) mean(multiple)
150
maximum(simple) maximum(simple)
1200 mean(simple) mean(simple)
Axial force（kN）
120
stress（Mpa）
900
90
600
60
300 30
0 0
0 100 200 300 400
0 100 200 300 400
2
peak acceleration（cm/s ）
peak acceleration(cm/s2)
Fig.11b Stress of main cables changes Fig.11c Axial force of control cables changes
with the acceleration amplitude with the acceleration amplitude
Make time history analysis under multi-support excitations and uniform excitation
at the amplitudes of 70cm/s2, 220cm/s2 and 400cm/s2,of which the distributions of
structural responses are similar to those of ground motion at the amplitude of
35cm/s2.The result is shown in Table 3:the displacement and stress distribution of main
cables with respect to the spatial variations are well-matched, 32% to 36%, while the
axial force distribution of control cables with respect to the spatial variations are more
sensitive, 52% to 58%.At the amplitude of 400cm/s2,the maximum of the displacement
of main cables node, the stress of main cables and the axial force of control cables
caused by purely ground motion under multi-support excitations are separately
0.62379m，1049.4Mpa，99.636kN, which cannot be neglected. But the structure does
not collapse, which meets the requirements under major earthquake. In Figure 11, the
545
structural responses change at different amplitudes, and the mean and maximum of the
displacement of main cables node, the stress of main cables and the axial force of
control cables are linear at the amplitudes of 35cm/s2~400cm/s2, which shows that the
overall structure works within its elastic range, and the cable network structure has a
good seismic behaviour.
Table. 3 Seismic response analysis
Stress of main cables Axial force of control

Peak Displacement (m) (Mpa) cables (kN)
(cm/s2\)
maximum mean maximum mean maximum mean
multiple 0.10941 0.04461 276.42 26.18135 23.889 3.45827
70 simple 0.05249 0.03322 52.349 19.72159 7.1130 2.24242

ρ 1.08440 0.34287 4.28033 0.32755 2.35850 0.54220
multiple 0.34417 0.14116 605.99 82.35297 78.431 10.78876
220 simple 0.16531 0.10432 164.36 62.00884 22.737 7.06819

ρ 1.08197 0.35314 2.6870 0.32808 2.44949 0.52638
multiple 0.62379 0.25742 1049.4 141.60 99.636 18.338
400 simple 0.32698 0.19391 393.85 104.46 39.337 11.638

ρ 0.90773 0.32752 1.66447 0.35552 1.53288 0.57566
4 Conclusions
Through the analysis on the structure supporting the reflector of the FAST at four
acceleration amplitudes under multi-support excitations and uniform excitation, we can
draw the conclusions as follows:
(1) The responses of FAST under uniform excitation increase with increasing
acceleration amplitude, approximately linearly, while the maximum stress of main
cables purely caused by the ground motion is 393.85Mpa at the acceleration amplitude
of 400cm/s2.
(2) The responses of FAST under multi-support excitations are larger than those
under uniform excitation, while the displacement of main cables node and internal force
of cables individually are much higher than those under uniform excitation. The
maximum stress of main cables purely caused by the ground motion is 1049.4Mpa at
the acceleration amplitude of 400cm/s2, and internal force under multi-support
excitations cannot be neglected.
(3) The displacement and stress distribution of main cables under multi-support
excitations are averagely well-matched, increasing by 32% to 37% more than those
under uniform excitation, while the axial force distribution of control cables under
multi-support excitations are more sensitive, increasing by 52% to 65%, which are
related with the spatial variations that control cables bear directly. The responses under
multi-support excitations turn more complicated than those under uniform excitation,
with the distributions of the displacement and internal force in disorder.
546
Referencess
Reference
[1] Qiu Yuhai. A novel design for giant radio telescopes with an active spherical main
reflector. Chinese Astronmy and Astrophys 1998; 22
22:361-368.
[2] Qian Hongliang，Theoretical and experimental research on supporting structure of
fast refelector. Dissertation for the Doctoral Degree of Harbin Institute of
Technology, 2007.
[3] Kiureghian A D. A coherency model for spatially varying ground motions.
Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics 1996; 25 25: 99-111.
[4] H. Hao，C. S. Olivera and J. Penzien, Multiple-station ground motion processing
and simulation based on SMART-1 array data. Nuclear Engng and Design 1989;
111: 293-310.
111
[5] H. Hao.Arch response to correlated moltiple excitations. Earthquake Engineering
and Structural Dynamics 1993; 22 22:389-404.
[6] Thráinsson H, Kiremidjian A S. Simulation of digital earthquake accelerograms
using the inverse discrete Fourier ransform. Earthquake Engineering and
Structural Dynamics 2002; 3131: 2023-2048.
[7] Qu Tiejun,Wang Qianxin.Simulation of spatial correlative time histories of
multi-point ground motion(I)Basic formula. Journal of Earthquake Engineering
and Engineering vibration 1998; 1818: 8-15.
547
2.4 WG 12 Timber Structures
548
Permanent and Temporary Joint (ROTEGRITY-Joint) for

Hakone Out-door Museum “Woods of net -Timber Dome-”
Norihide Imagawa1*, M .Imagawa2, D .Inoda2
1*
Surgical Architect / Director of TIS&PARTNERS. Co., Ltd.
Professor of Tokyo Denki University
Takii-Tokyo Blg. 8F, 1-6-1, Jimbocyo, Kanda, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 101-0051 JAPAN
Email : imagawa@tis-partners.co.jp
2
M.Sc Eng. TIS&PARTNERS. Co., Ltd.
Abstract
Hakone Out-door Museum “Woods of net –Timber Dome-” is a 40th
anniversary project for Hakone Out-door Museum, Kanagawa, Japan. “Castle of net”,
which made by Toshiko Horiuchi Macadam, has been used for 30 years and new nylon
tension structure needed for 40th anniversary. The only one joint for this timber dome
has made by traditional Japanese timber detail, present analytical technology and also
the knowledge for timber character.
Keywords: Permanent and Temporary Joint, Timber dome, Traditional Japanese timber
detail
1 Introduction
Hakone Out-door Museum “Woods of net –Timber Dome-” is a 40th anniversary project
for Hakone Out-door Museum, Kanagawa, Japan. “Castle of net”, which made by
Toshiko Horiuchi Macadam, has been used for 30 years and new nylon tension structure
needed for 40th anniversary.
Architect Takaharu and Yui Tezuka suggest that for the nylon space, the timber
masonry dome must have no iron material. The point of this project is how to make the
joint. The author, surgical Architect Imagawa devises mating joint cold “ROTEGRITY-
Joint”. By this new joint technology, the timber dome has been constructed.
Out side appearance of In side appearance of

“Woods of net” “Woods of net”
549
2. Overview of the Timber Dome

The structure of “Woods of net –Timber Dome-” seems to be Japanese traditional
timber structure system “Azekura Zukuri”, which heap up timber beam with no metal
material. However “Azekura Zukuri” is closed box structure system, the timber dome is
open ellipse structure with height 12m, span 35m×25m(total floor area 500m2) and the
amount of timber 300m3. As the dome consists of not only arbitrary but ellipse form, it
is unstable joint compare to Japanese traditional joint. For this reason, we design a new
fix joint named “ROTEGRITY-Joint”. This new joint has a dowel and wedge to be a
stable fix beam joint.
3 “ROTEGRITY-Joint”
3.1 Background of “ROTEGRITY-Joint”

There is a variety of Japanese traditional timber joint and each of them has ideas and
satisfies demand performance, which means the joint has enough strength and
durability. ”ROTEGRITY-Joint” comes from Izumo Shinto Shrine’s wedge joint,
Kiyomizu Temple’s wedge joint and Itsukushima Shinto Shrine’s joint.
■Izumo Shinto Shrine’s joint
550
3.2 Outline of “ROTERITY-Joint”

As the joint itself rotates, we use it’s own weight to make fix joint by heap up the beam.
Mating beam and wedge resists bending moment and Shear force. Dowel transfers axial
force.
Typical point of this joint is 4 pieces mating beams (integrate) and both ends of wedge
makes this joint fix.
For this reason, we named this new joint “ROTEGRITY”. (Rotate + Integrity =
Rotegrity)
551
552
4 Conclusion
Hakone Out-door Museum “Woods of net –Timber Dome-” has been realized with No
iron material and new joint.
The only one system joint (but different angle 1196 types) for this timber dome has
made by traditional Japanese timber detail, present analytical technology and also the
knowledge for timber character.
At last, we want to express our thanks to Toshiko Horiuchi Macadam, Architect
Takaharu and Yui Tezuka and Chuto co.,ltd.
553
Analysis method for Hakone Out-door Museum “Woods of

net -Timber Dome-”
Norihide Imagawa1*, M .Imagawa2, D .Inoda2
1
*Surgical Architect / Director of TIS&PARTNERS. Co., Ltd.
Professor of Tokyo Denki University
Takii-Tokyo Blg. 8F, 1-6-1, Jimbocyo, Kanda, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 101-0051 JAPAN
Email : imagawa@tis-partners.co.jp
2
M.Sc Eng. TIS&PARTNERS. Co., Ltd.
Abstract
Hakone Out-door Museum “Woods of net –Timber Dome-” is a 40th anniversary
project for Hakone Out-door Museum, Kanagawa, Japan. “Castle of net”, which made
by Toshiko Horiuchi Macadam, has been used for 30 years and new nylon tension
structure needed for 40th anniversary. The only one joint for this timber dome has made
by traditional Japanese timber detail, present analytical technology and also the
knowledge for timber character.
Keywords: Permanent and Temporary Joint, Timber dome, Traditional Japanese timber
detail
1 Introduction
Hakone Out-door Museum “Woods of net –Timber Dome-” is a 40th anniversary project
for Hakone Out-door Museum, Kanagawa, Japan. “Castle of net”, which made by
Toshiko Horiuchi Macadam, has been used for 30 years and new nylon tension structure
needed for 40th anniversary.
Architect Takaharu and Yui Tezuka suggest that for the nylon space, the timber
masonry dome must have no iron material. The point of this project is how to make the
joint. The author, surgical Architect Imagawa devises mating joint cold “ROTEGRITY-
Joint”. By this new joint technology, the timber dome has been constructed.
Out side appearance of In side appearance of

“Woods of net” “Woods of net”
554
2. Overview of the Timber Dome

The structure of “Woods of net –Timber Dome-” seems to be Japanese traditional
timber structure system “Azekura Zukuri”, which heap up timber beam with no metal
material. However “Azekura Zukuri” is closed box structure system, the timber dome is
2
open ellipse structure with height 12m, span 35m×25m(total floor area 500m ) and
3
the amount of timber 300m . As the dome consists of not only arbitrary but ellipse form,
it is unstable joint compare to Japanese traditional joint. For this reason, we design a
new fix joint named “ROTEGRITY-Joint”. This new joint has a dowel and wedge to be
a stable fix beam joint.
Up side beam
■Overview of the dome
Laminated Lumber 598 pieces
2.1.1 Body text
Dowel
Down side beam

2.1.2 Headings
Wedge
2.1.3 Captions
Support point 35m

Cast iron joint 25m
Solid figure of the dome Framework of “ROTEGRITY-Joint”
3 Outline of “ROTERITY-Joint”
As the joint itself rotates, we use it’s own weight to make fix joint by heap up the beam.
Mating beam and wedge resists bending moment and Shear force. Dowel transfers axial
force.
Typical point of this joint is 4 pieces mating beams (integrate) and both ends of wedge
makes this joint fix.
For this reason, we named this new joint “ROTEGRITY”. (Rotate + Integrity =
Rotegrity)
■Method of fixation
Own weight
Up side beam Dowel

Own weight
Down side beam Wedge

Restrain rotation by using its own weight and
Joint itself rotates each ends wedge.
555
4 Analysis method
4.1 Modeling
Modeling “ROTEGRITY-Joint” is the most important in analysis. 4 pieces mating
beams and both edges of wedge makes this joint which has a dowel and wedge fix. For
this reason, we have judged this joint is fixed and make beam element model for mating
beam and dowel with splice condition rigid.
■Method of Modeling
Up side beam Up side beam
Rigid joint
modeling
360
360
60
Dowel Dowel
360
Down side beam Down side beam
V2
L2
C1
Z
Y X
Analysis model
556
4.2 Analysis condition

The load for this model is vertical load, snow, wind and earthquake. In vertical load, we
set not only element weight but nylon net tension force. In snow load, we put 60 cm
depth of snow as line load. Wind and earthquake load has 10 directions, ±0°, 30°
45°60°.
For confirming full model analysis, we make a simple model and compare with full
model.
■Case of Dead Load and Live Load ■Case of Snow Load

V2 V2
L2 L2
C1 C1
5649.8 10339.
4608.7 10339. 6376.5
4144.9 4608.7 12944.
707.11 6526.1
5649.8 5813.8
4144.9
6376.5
5813.8 707.11
10312.
12944. 6526.1 10594. 10312. 6353.
10594.
10437.
8367.2 6353. 7738.9 12189. 8367.2
10437. 7886.1
6767.6
7738.9
8981.1 12189.
8553.9 6767.6 7886.1
10990.
7153.7 8159.7 8981.1
7100.7
8590.7 8553.9 10990.
7153.7
8902.8
12081. 10284.
7100.79120.3 8590.7
12081.
8902.8
7386.3
7376.4
10284. 2282.5 9120.3
7386.3 7376.4
8159.7
2282.5 14907. 14907.
8285.7
1174.7
8285.7 8409.5
4982.
1174.7 8409.5 5586.6 4982. 5586.6
8009.5
13842. 6908. 7642.6
6908.11281. 7642.6 11281. 7103.5 8009.5
8584.3 5511.8
3136.9 8986.2 5511.8 13842.
8986.2 7103.5 12653.
7817.2 3136.9
4013.7 8584.34013.7 7817.2
8275.7 8275.7 12653.
374.17 9032.2 8609.9 9032.2
4013.7 8609.9 4013.7 374.17
6628.7
9073. 14492.
7761.5 6628.7
7112.610356. 7969.6 7112.6 7761.5
14492.
6640.7 10106. 6640.7
10356. 9073.
7969.6
6774.5 10487.
12227. 7811.2 10106.
5989.2 6774.5 10487.
7811.2
5989.2
12227.
Z
Z
Y
X Y
X
■Case of Seismic Load and Wind Load
2175.62175.6
1745. 2175.6
2175.6 1745.
5429.
2286. 5429. 1479.41745. 1479.4
2175.6
1745. 2286. 2175.6
2175.6 5429. 1745. 1288.1
2175.6 1479.4 1288.1 1479.4 1745. 2175.61745.
1745. 5429.1745.
2286. 700.
316.23 1479.4 5429. 2175.6
1177.6
1479.4 1288.1 1288.1830.66 1479.4 1745.1479.4
1745. 927.36
1288.1 1479.4 1288.1 1177.6
950.2603.8 2563.2
2286. 5429.
830.66 1745.
1288.1
2175.6 800.
1177.6 950. 1640.1 1016.6
1288.1 2175.6
1745. 1479.4 950. 1288.1 2662.7
2286. 6767.6
1177.61016.6 1177.6
7153.7 1479.4 1479.4
1479.4
1745. 1177.6
927.36
2642. 800. 2286. 1907.5 3036.4
1907.5
7376.41177.6 1745. 1177.6
2175.6
1745. 950.1016.6
7386.3
1177.6 1288.1 1288.1
1288.1 316.23 1288.1
5429. 1016.6 1016.6
5429. 700. 1016.6
1745.
1745.1479.4 1016.6 8285.7
2563.2
5429.1907.5 5429.
758.221907.5
758.22
1016.61745.1479.4
2175.6
1479.4 2662.7 1177.6 1016.6 8009.5 1177.6
700. 1640.1 1907.5 1177.6
1288.1 1907.5
1177.6 758.22
1907.5 316.231907.5 1288.11479.4
1288.11479.4
2603.8 1907.5 758.222175.6 2603.8 1745.
1016.6
1745.1016.6 8986.2
2175.61016.6
758.22 7817.21479.4 758.22 1016.6
1745.
1288.1 1177.6 758.22 2175.6
927.36 1288.1
1177.6 8275.7 830.66 2175.6 1745. 758.22 1177.6
1907.5
1479.4
1479.4
1479.4 1907.5 1907.5 2175.6 758.22 1288.1 1907.5
1726.3
1479.41016.6 830.66
1745. 700. 927.36 1745.
1288.1
1745.
1016.6 1177.6
1479.4
1745.
2662.7 1016.6 1177.6
758.22
1288.1 758.22 758.22 1745. 316.23 1745. 1745. 7761.5 1288.1 758.22
1479.4 1479.4 1288.1 1907.5 2642. 1177.6
1177.6
1907.5 1016.6
1479.4
7112.6
3036.4
1479.4 1745. 1479.4
7969.6 1288.1
1479.4 1907.5 1016.6
1177.6 6640.7 2603.81745. 1479.4
1288.1 1288.1 1177.6758.22
758.221907.5 1479.4 2662.7 1479.41288.1 1016.6 1177.6 1907.5
1288.1 1640.1 758.22
1479.4
1016.6 1288.1
1016.6 6774.5
1479.4 1288.1 7811.2 1177.6
X+90°
1177.6 1479.4
5989.2 1288.1 1288.1 1907.5
1177.6 1016.6 1288.1 1016.6 758.22
1288.1
1907.5
1907.5 1177.6758.22 1177.6 1177.6 1016.6 758.22
1288.1
1016.6
1907.5
758.22
1016.6 1907.5
758.22 1016.6
1177.6
1907.5
1907.5
758.22
1288.1
1016.6
1177.6
1907.5
1177.6
1016.6
1177.6
1177.6 1016.6
1177.61016.6
1016.61907.5
1177.6
1907.5
1016.6
758.22
1907.5
758.22
X+60°
758.22
1016.6 758.22 1016.6 1907.5
X+45°
1907.5 758.22 1907.5
758.22 1016.6
758.22 1907.5
1907.5 758.22 1907.5 758.22 758.22
1907.5
758.22
758.22 758.22
758.22
Y
Z Y
X+30°
X
Z X
X+0°
■Case of simple model

V1 V1
L2 L2
C1 C1
Y
Z
Y X Z X
557
4.3 Analysis result

We have checked each element’s (598 beams) bending moment, shear stress, torsion
moment and also for each joint’s complex stress, torsion stress, compression stress and
tension stress.
The design criteria for this model are 70% of allowable stress for vertical load, 85% for
snow, wind, earthquake load and deformation angle is under 1/600. This allowance
design comes from the concept which to build more than 30 years. The result of
sectional design is about 50% of allowable stress for vertical load, 45% of allowable
stress for earthquake and max deformation angle is 1/809.
■Result of Dead Load and Live Load
6740955. 144277.
5995553. 125083.
5250152. 105890.
4504750. 86697.
3759348. 67504.
3013947. 48311.
2268545. 29118.
1523143. 9925.
777742. -9268.
32340. -28461.
-713062. -47654.
-1458464. -66847.
-2203865. -86040.
-2949267. -105233.
Z -3694669. Z -124426.
Y Y
X X
-4440070. -143619.
-5185472. -162812.
Output Set: DL+LL Output Set: DL+LL
Contour: Beam EndA Plane1 Moment Contour: Beam EndA Pl1 Shear Force
■Result of Seismic Load

1280659. 43127.
1113862. 37764.
947064. 32402.
780267. 27040.
613470. 21678.
446672. 16316.
279875. 10954.
113077. 5592.
-53720. 229.7
-220518. -5132.
-387315. -10494.
-554113. -15857.
-720910. -21219.
-887708. -26581.
Z -1054505. Z -31943.
Y Y
X X
-1221303. -37305.
-1388100. -42667.
Output Set: EX_60 Output Set: EX_60
Contour: Beam EndA Plane1 Moment Contour: Beam EndA Pl1 Shear Force
■Transration of Dead Load and Live Load

V2
L1 0.755
C1
0.355
-0.0444
-0.444
-0.844
-1.244
-1.643
-2.043
-2.443
-2.843
-3.242
-3.642
-4.042
-4.442
Z -4.842
Y X
-5.241
Output Set: DL+LL -5.641
Contour: T3 Translation
558
5 Conclusion
Realizing this timber dome needs time and cost for drawing and analysis as each beams
has different direction and length.
However we spent much time, we are able to realize by the knowledge of traditional
Japanese timber joint, analysis technology, and construction technology access.
This design process that integrates traditional technology and the newest analysis is the
one method for making structures.
At last, we want to express our thanks to Toshiko Horiuchi Macadam, Architect
Takaharu and Yui Tezuka and Chuto co.,ltd.
559
Innovative spatial timber structures: workshops with physical

modeling explorations from small to full scale
Olga POPOVIC LARSEN1*, Gabriel TANG2, Daniel LEE3
1*
Professor in Structures in Architecture
The Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts School of Architecture (KA)
Institute of Technology
Philip de Langes Alle 10
1435 Copenhagen
Denmark
Olga.PopovicLarsen@Karch.Dk
2
Senior Lecturer in Architecture
Department of Architecture and Planning
Sheffield Hallam University
Howard Street
Sheffield S1 1WB
England, UK
3
Assistant Professor, KA Denmark
Abstract
Architects and Engineers are educated and work within two separate cultures yet
they are both concerned with conceptual structural design. The collaboration between
the professions is especially important when designing buildings where the structure to
a great degree forms the spaces, as in the cases of form generating structures such as
gridshells, reciprocal frames, space trusses etc . This paper describes several specialist
research based workshops developed at KA over the last two years that use physical
modelling of 1:1 innovative timber load-bearing structures such as gridshells and
reciprocal frames.
Keywords: physical modelling, conceptual design, morphology, gridshells, tensegrities,

reciprocal frames
1 Introduction
The Engineering and the Architectural profession have become separate in the last 100-
150 years. The time before the Industrial Revolution was characterised by the Master
builder as the main creator of any large scale building structures. The art of designing
and constructing was based on explorations with physical models and building of
prototypes. To a great extent the knowledge, skills and technical understanding were
tested by trial and error. However, the Industrial Revolution brought great advances in
the fields of technology and material sciences. As a result it was no longer possible to
have a one overall profession dealing with design and construction. This was the
560
beginning of real progress in the field of the technical and material sciences. It was a
time when the real separation into two distinct and separate professions – Architecture
and Engineering started.
2 Architectural versus Engineering training

The two professions: Architecture and Structural Engineering are taught and work
within two separate cultures. This is fully appropriate when they address different
aspects of a design project. However both architects and engineers are concerned with
conceptual structural design. Thus it is important that they are able to collaborate and
together that they are able to develop design proposals that are imaginative, creative,
efficient and practical. The need of collaboration is especially important when designing
buildings where the structure to a great degree forms the spaces, as in the cases of form
generating structures such as gridshells, reciprocal frames, space trusses etc.
In that sense it is worth mentioning the successful collaborations of architects and
engineers who have been able to achieve a real synthesis in their building designs.
The Savills Garden Gridshell, Windsor Great Park (2006)
Figure 1a and b: The gridshell roof at The Savills Garden Gridshell
The collaboration between Glenn Howells Architects, Buro Happold Structural

Engineers and Green Oak Carpentry has produced the delightful roof structure at the
Royal Landscape. The project houses a visitor centre, shop, services and café, forming a
gateway entry into the landscape garden. Measuring 90m long by 25m wide, making it
the biggest roof of this kind in the UK. The roof form consists of three domes, and is of
a sinusoidal shape.
The concept of the visitor centre was based on the concept of a leaf lying gently on the
landscape. The design team consisted of Buro Happold Structural Engineers and Green
Oak Carpentry who had previous experience of working together and who had built up
561
a working relationship whilst working on the Weald and Downland Jerwood timber
gridshell (2002) with Edward Cullinan Architects.
The building rests within a green-field setting of the Royal Landscape within Windsor
Great Park. The larch and oak timber used in the construction of the gridshell roof is
derived from commercially managed forestry grown on-site within the grounds.
The reiterative process of design was consolidated from the team's expertise and
experience on previous timber construction.
"……many people talk about collaboration but on this one (Savill’s Gridshell), one of
the rules was that we did not regard ourselves as the decision maker. The architect was
not at the top of the tree. It was very even between the craftsperson, the engineer and the
architect, " said the architect Glenn Howells. This respecting collaborative relationship
is very much valued in the creation of building with such an crafted output with a strong
conceptual structural design.
The Eden Project, St. Austell, Cornwall, UK (2000)
Fig 2 a and b The Eden Project ETFE Roof (construction and finished)
This working relationship and mutual understanding between the architects and
engineers is apparent in the highly engineered Eden Project in St. Austell, Cornwall.
The friendship and working relationship between the architect Nicholas Grimshaw and
the structural engineer, Tony Hunt, can be traced back to many preceding projects. The
results of their working relationship included projects can be seen in projects such as the
innovative roof at Waterloo EuroStar Train Terminal in London.
The Eden project consists of a series of 8 interlinked geodesic domes/ biomes made by
stretching ETFE across lightweight steel to form pentagonal/ hexagonal triple-layer
0.2mm thick foil ETFE cushions each measuring a maximum of 11m across and 70m2
in area. The lightness and ultra-violet light translucency required by plants and the long
lifespan of 20 years, coupled by the ease of maintenance due to its lightness made ETFE
the preferred choice of cladding material when compared to glass.
The success of the project which attracted 2 million visitors in the first year of opening
in March 2001 (www.grimshaw-architects.com) and the conceptual design development
is a testament to the successful collaboration of the architect and structural engineers.
562
Apart from teams that create a seemless resolution between architecture and engineering,
there are many other architect/ structural engineers that straddle the true definitions of
the 2 professions - single individuals who bridge this separation. The thinking and
rationalisation of the individuals can be seen in the structural experimentation of
lightweight structures by Frei Otto, the thin Gaussian vaults of churches and silos of
Eladio Dieste in Uruguay, the thin concrete shells of Heinz Isler in Switzerland, the
paper gridshell structures of Shigeru Ban in Japan and Antoni Gaudi’s hanging chain
models in the exploration of forms and the organic structural expressions for the
Sagrada de Familia in Barcelona.
The reverse is true and widely accepted - when the collaboration of the architect and
engineer has not been well established, the resulting design solutions are often not as
well-integrated when the structural integrity is diluted.
During an interview with David Kirkland, project director of the Eden Project at
Grimshaw's, he comments, "……the architect describes the structure from an aesthetic
angle, then asks the engineer to make it work. That approach has produced some of the
worst failings of high-tech architecture over the last few decades.”
The ability of architects not only to think spatially, but also to create, design and analyse
structurally, is a useful attribute to produce strong, powerful conceptual results. This is
partly made possible and enhanced by the process of making and physical
experimentation.
2.1 The Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts (KA) tradition

Founded in 1754, The School of Architecture at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine
Arts was originally named 'The Royal Danish Painting, Sculpture and Building
Academy of Copenhagen', and was offered as a gift to King Frederik V on the occasion
of his 31st birthday.
The academy was built as an addition to the painting and drawing academy founded by
King Christian VI and King Frederik VI in 1738 and 1748 respectively, and was
inspired by the first European, royal academy of fine arts, which was founded in Paris in
1648. 1771 was a very important year in the history of the Academy. This was the year
when the Academy’s name was changed to 'The Painting, Sculpture and Building
Academy'. And that very same year, the Struenses Reglement of 21 June 1771 was
implemented, which meant that the schools were obligated to not only educate artists,
but also offer tradesmen an education. Thus, craftsmanship and the study of fine arts
were unified.
The connection to the crafts is still one of the distinct qualities that the education at KA
still offers today. Both the obligatory courses and the specialist courses are very much
“hands-on” and incorporate the “art of making” into the way of learning.
2.1.1 Undergraduate courses
The teaching of load-bearing structures is offered as part of the obligatory courses in

Architectural Technology as well as in the form of Specialist courses. The obligatory
courses are offered across the whole year level typically to about 200 students at a time.
563
The subject of Load-bearing Structures is taught in TEK 1 (first year) and TEK 2
(second year) with a strong emphasis on the understanding of materials, their use to
create load-bearing structures as well as their implication on architecture. The courses
are thought as a combination of lectures, seminars and workshops where students
experiment with small scale physical models.
2.1.2 Specialist courses
Innovative new courses have been offered but a special initiative by the first author has
been to develop innovative courses to expand the basic understanding of structures, to
inspire and also to offer learning by making based on the research of the authors of the
paper. Several such courses have been offered during the last two years1. They include:
Structural Morphology which had been established by Assoc. Prof Ture Wester;
Advanced Structures and Organic Structures. New courses that will run in 2010-2011
include Conceptual Structural Design, Advanced Conceptual Structural Design and
Applied Advanced Conceptual Structural Design.
All the above courses have in common that they are research based and are a
combination of hands-on workshops which are supported by seminars and lectures. The
experimentation with small to large physical modelling is a very important
characteristic of the courses.
2.2 Organic Structures course

Due to the limited space this paper describes in detail the “Organic Structures”
specialist course that was run for the first time during 2009/2010 at KA. It was aimed at
Y3 students and the main topic of study was Nature inspired load-bearing structures and
their application in Architecture. Special emphasis in the 1:1 “hands-on” modelling
workshops were put on Gridshells and Reciprocal Frames. The course was initiated and
organised by the first author of the paper, supported by the second author as well as Prof
Tony Hunt, visiting Velux Professor at KA, founder of Anthony Hunt Associates (now
SKM AHA), Tom Hay, Associate Director Buro Happold Copenhagen and Consultant
to KA, and Biagio de Carlo, Architect from Italy.
2.2.1. Reciprocal Frames
Reciprocal Frame Structures (RF) are a form of a three-dimensional grillage structure.

In their simplest configuration they are formed by placing beams in a closed circuit in
which each beam is supported by the preceding beam at the inner end, and by an
external wall or ring beam on the outer end. In their more complex configurations
gridshell-like structures with a double curvature can be formed. Although RFs have
been used in many countries throughout history and are known under different names:
Serlio-type ceiling; Reciprocal frames, Svastica structures, Nexorades, Lever-arch
structures etc., they are not widely known and used in bildings. The most beautiful
contemporary examples have been built in Japan. The work of architects Kazuhiro Ishii
1
Since August 2008 when the first Author of this paper joined KA
564
and Yasufumi Kijima as well as structural engineer Yoichi Kan, shows the potential of
RFs for creating imaginative architectural and structural forms.
Figure 3a and 3b: Reciprocal Frame CAD model, The Auditorium building in Seiwa
2.2.2. Grishells
Gridshells are a three-dimensional structural system in which short members are

combined to form a load-bearing grid structure. Due to the achieved shell action the
members in the grid work mainly in compression which makes the system structurally
more efficient. In addition the three-dimensional forms of the structure create a distinct
architectural aesthetic and a possibility for creating a new language of expression.
Gridshells have not been used widely in architecture, yet they have so much to offer. If
constructed out of timber they offer a great opportunity for material saving. This is due
to the fact that the clear span grids are formed by using short and small section pieces of
timber joined together to form long flexible laths, which are assembled into a three-
dimensional system of mutually supporting load-bearing structure. At a time when
sustainable approaches in design are becoming increasingly important, the opportunity
to save material by using an efficient structural system is essential. In addition,
gridshells offer the opportunity of creating distinct three-dimensional architectural
forms. This three-dimensionality of gridshells as a structural system has an
architectural/spatial implication. The structural/technical and the architectural/aesthetic
aspects are inseparable in the gridshell design process.
Examples of timber gridshell buildings include: The Mannheim Multihalle, 1975, by
Carlfried Mutschler, Frei Otto and Ove Arup & Partners (Engineers); Roof canopies,
Expo 2000, Hanover, by Thomas Herzog and Bois Consult Natterer (Engineers); The
Weald and Downland Jerwood Gridshell, near Chichester, 2002, by Edward Cullinan
Architects and Buro Happold (Engineers); The Savill Building, Windsor (2008) by
Glenn Howells Architects and Buro Happold (Engineers)
2.2.3 The Organic Structures Student Workshop 8th – 13th March 2010 , Royal
Danish Academy of Fine Arts, Copenhagen, Denmark
The workshop commenced with presentations by workshop leaders and teachers on

organic structures. This included tensegrities, geodesics, gridshells and reciprocal frame
565
construction and related structural principles. The presentations gave an overview of the
different types of structural systems and are aimed to get students interested and
understand better the applications of such structural configurations with a view of
constructing either a reciprocal frame or a gridshell structure at the end of the week-long
workshop.
Figure 4: The gridshell design

On Day 2, the students were given a list of topics related to the presentation topics of
the day before. The students were required to carry out research in small groups to
prepare a group presentation the following day. Before the students dispersed to carry
out their research, they were provided with small timber members (model-making
timber of various lengths) to make and test their new knowledge, ideas, structural
principles and exercise their creativity in application. All results of this enquiry and
testing of new knowledge were presented the day after.
The Day 3 presentation was immensely lively, interactive and student-led. The different
student groups produced numerous interesting models under an array of headings for
the presentation.
One group produced an interesting gridshell model on foam board. Inspired by flying
machines invented by Leonardo Da Vinci, the gridshell is conceived poetically as wings
protecting and enveloping a space underneath .
This scheme was further developed into a larger scale model, this time under more
consultation and design input from the teaching staff. For the gridshell to maintain
structural integrity, the structural elements had to be increased in numbers from 5 to 10
on one wing and 4 to 12 on the other wing to create a denser “weave” of structural
members.
566
Figure 5a and b: CAD structural diagram
Next, the structural members are numbered systematically. The entire model was
appropriately scaled up. Each structural member was correspondingly scaled up in
length.
To construct the gridshell, each structural member was made-up by joining 10mm
diameter bamboo canes together using nylon cable ties. Each structural member was
made-up and labelled individually. Before being joined up, the 2 metre long bamboo
canes are rigid. However, when they are connected together, these longer constructed
elements achieved a considerable increased bending and flexibility.
Subsequently, when all the bamboo structural members of various lengths were made,
they were brought to “site” and assembled. The locations of these members were
transferred from the scaled model as grid co-ordinates onto the grassed area.
Figure 6: The construction was under way

The design has 2 springing points where each “wing” is collected together and from
which the structural members arched out. A hollow metal profile piece was positioned
into the ground at each location that enabled the respective structural members to be
placed.
As this was a temporary structure, the opposite ends/ terminating ends of the structural
members were inserted directly into the grassed earth to a depth of 100mm
567
With the help of the students, each structural member of the first “wing” was held up
individually. Subsequently, with the structural elements erected into position
subsequently, the intersections of the elements between the 2 “wings” are loosely fixed
by 2 diagonal cable-tie fixings. The lateral stability of the gridshell is strengthened as
more structural members were introduced to complete the gridshell. Whilst the
structural members are finding their final position, the diagonal node fixing cable ties
are tightened to fix the node positions which gave the gridshell the “relaxed” form.
Figure 7a and b: The completed gridshell
The gridshell structure was left in situ for 3 months and has generated much interest
from fellow students and visitors.
The reciprocal frame workshop occurred simultaneous to the gridshell construction
exercise following the same programme format. Experimentation using short length
models were made and the students saw the principles and possibilities of each
reciprocal frame unit being either convex or concave.
Following further consultation with the tutors, a mobius loop strip structure was
conceived and was decided as the design to be built.
Square section pine timber pieces of (sectional dimension 25 mm by 25mm and 1metre
long) were cut to length. 3 holes of diameter 5mm were drilled at a distance of 33 cm
from each end to enable the members to be attached together.
Figure 8a and b: The RF design and the RF segment
568
Figure 9a and b: The single module, the first RF “shells”
Single units consisting of 4 timber members held together are constructed as modules.
They were further linked together to form 2 shells measuring approx 2m in diameter.
These two “shells” were offered up towards each other in an attempt to link them
together as in the smaller scaled mock-up. However, due to the limited amount of
materials that was available, the shape and size of the structural model had to be
modified. The 2 components had to be held together by some improvisation in the form
of raffia string tied from each “shell” as the entire loop could not be completed, which
would otherwise support the loop.
Figure 10 and b: The RF shell – detail of Physical and, CAD model
569
Figure 11a and b: The complete reciprocal frame structure
2.5 Discussion, Conclusions and Acknowledgements
The two design and building exercises were successful in serving as educational
vehicles to illustrate the importance of structural design and consideration in
architecture. However, differences can be observed between the two.
Compared with the reciprocal frame activity, the gridshell construction involved more
planning. As a result additional stabilisation was not necessary as the structural
principle was more defined and structural behaviour more predictable. The reciprocal
frame structure, on the other hand exposed the students to a reactive, organic and an ad
hoc system of design that required quick thinking, ingenuity and creative responses to
problems that occurred during the building process. In both activities, the students took
on a design lead, developed their organisation and communication skills and displayed
the systematic breaking down of tasks. Due to the limited building material available,
the reciprocal frame structure turned out to be more “open-ended” and suggestive as a
form.
Repetition, patterning and structural principles were apparent and fundamental in the
teaching and learning of both structural systems. Material used for the two exercises
aptly demonstrated the different qualities of timber. The reciprocal frame relied on the
rigidity of short timber members to create a webbed structure whilst the gridshell
required the inherent flexibility offered by longer timber members to enclose a space.
Visually, the structural systems imparted a different sense of aesthetics. The gridshell
formed a visually pleasing, curving form with a regularity in the spacing of the
structural elements. As it was made from thinner tubular bamboo, the gridshell structure
tended to be more “invisible” compared to the reciprocal frame structure. Conversely,
the reciprocal frame is more visually discernible due to the angular and larger sectional
timber members. As the structure did not rely on the bending ability of the material, this
allowed shorter but larger timber sections to be used.
The students exuded confidence, enthusiasm and importantly, professionalism. They
worked effectively as a team. Upon completion of the RF structure, the students
generously helped the other team to complete their gridshell structure. Grateful
gratitude is extended to the students at the KA who participated in the workshop. The
workshop also depicted the blurred boundaries between architecture and engineering,
570
imposing a bearing on how structural engineers and architects are taught in the modern
day.
The workshop also illustrated how materiality and their implied structural principles can
affect the spatial experience. It also showed how by having a strong and interesting
structural concept from the project outset can enrich and have an implication on the
aesthetics of the space it encloses. The workshop gave an opportunity to architecture
students to explore with full scale models and learn about complex innovative structures.
The workshop gave an insight into the structural concepts of gridshells and complex
reciprocal frames.
References
[1] Popovic Larsen O. and Tyas A., Conceptual Structural Design: Bridging the Gap
Between Architects and Engineers, Thomas Telford, London, 2003.
[2] Popovic Larsen O. Reciprocal Frame Architecture, Elsevier, London, 2007.
[3] Pearman H. and Whalley A. The Architecture of Eden, Eden Project Books 2003
[4] Interview with Glenn Howells, 10th June 2009 by Popovic Larsen O. and Tang G.
[5] Popovic Larsen O. Reciprocal Frames in Japan, IASS 2009 Proceedings, Valencia
2009
571
Experimental study on bending behavior of timber beams

*
strengthened with CFRP sheets
Jun-jie LIU1, Ji-ping HAO1 , Wei-hui ZHONG1 , Qi ZHOU1 ,
Shi-wei WANG2, Jin-song LIN3,Hai-bo LU3
1．Xi’an Univ. of Arch. & Tech. ，Xi’an 710055，China；
liujunjie_018@163.com
2 . The Palace Museum ，Beijing100009，China；
3. Beijing HUAN YOU Building and Technology Development Company，Beijing
100045，China
Abstract
In the tests, through the flexural capacity tests of 10 single timber beams and
composite timber beams strengthened with carbon fiber reinforced polymer(CFRP)
sheets, the structural behaviors are analyzed in terms of ultimate bearing capacity,
deflection, strain distribution of cross section , the stress state of CFRP ring hoops, and
etc. Ultimate bearing capacity of reinforced single timber beams is increased by about
25%, and ultimate bearing capacity of reinforced composite timber beams is increased
by 65 to 79%, and the rigidity of reinforced beams is also increased in certain degree. At
the same time, based on elastic theory , the simple and practical formulas of flexural
capacity for the beams are proposed. The cross-sectional strain distribution of single
timber beams and the composite timber beams with composite surfaces reinforced by
structural adhesive is in line with plane-section assumption, and the cross-sectional
strain distribution of the upper and lower beams of the composite timber beams with
composite surface not reinforced is in line with plane-section assumption respectively.
CFRP hoops and structural adhesive between the upper and lower beams can effectively
weaken the separation trends of the upper and the lower beams, and are favorable to
their work together, and can improve their flexural capacity. In a word, the tests show
that CFRP sheets have a good strengthening effect for timber beams.
Keywords: timber beam; CFRP sheets strengthen; bending behavior
1 Introduction
With the development of science and technology,Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer（be
breviated to CFRP），provids for the ancient architecture protection and reinforcement
with new ideas and new methods。Abroad, Plevris[1]、GangaRao[2]、Johns[3]、
Borri[4] and Gilfillan.R[5].etc, performced tests for bending behavior on timber beams
pasted with fiber sheets on stretched surface ，and studies showed that the cross-
Reinforcement Research Project onTimber Structure of Palace Museum

Thanks for ZHONGXING Heritage Buildings Design Company, Shenzhen LIANGTU Design
Company, and Beijing YISHEXUKE Technolgy Company the great help.
572
sectional strain distribution of the reinforced timber beams was in line with plane-
sectional assumption,FRPsheets could constraint crack, limit wood defects and prevent
local wood of failure effectively，and could improve the flexural capacity, stiffness and
ductility of reinforced timber beams significantly。Interiorly，Jianxun Ma[6][7] and
Qifang Xie[8][9]performanced tests for bending behavior on timber beams pasted with
different number of firber sheets，The former noted that the capacity and stiffness of
reinforced timber beams were improved with stirrup ratio in varying degrees， and
CFRP anchorage length and the U-hoop had a significant effect on the capacity,the
latter study found the distribution about the bond stress betwwen CFRP sheets and
wood。In the tests, through the flexural capacity tests of single timber beams and
composite timber beams strengthened with CFRP sheets, the structural behaviors were
analyzed in terms of ultimate bearing capacity, deflection, strain distribution of cross
section , the stress state of CFRP ring hoops, and etc.
2 Specimen Design
This study was based on the reinforcement projects of the seventh beam and its
following beam in Palace Museum Cining Gong。In the test, ten timber beams in five
groups were designed, among which there were two groups of four single timber beams
and three groups of six composite timber beams。The size of the single timber （were
labeledas DL1 and DL2）beams was 3000mm×180mm×240mm(Length × width ×
height)， composite timber beams（were labeled as DHL1、DHL2 and DHL3）were
made up of single timber beams which size was 3000mm×180mm×120mm。In each
group ， two specimences were labeled as “-1” or “-2”, for example DL1-1 and DL1-2
standed for tow different specimences of the first group.Reinforcement methods were
listed in Table 2.1， parts of reinforcement methods were plotted in Fig. 2.1~2.2。In
the Table 2.1,the CFRP pasted to the botom of the timber beams was II degree of
300g(0.167mm thick),CFRP hoops was II degree of 200g(0.111mm thick).
Table 2.1: Reinforcement methods
Number Reinforcement methods
DL1 not reinforced
DL2 With two CFRP sheets pasted to the botom of timber beams, and CFRP hoops setted
With no structural adhesive between composite surfaces, setting four shear bolts ,and
DHL1
CFRP hoops the same as DL2
With two CFRP sheets pasted to the botom of timber beams, structural adhesive between
DHL2
composite surfaces, setting four shear bolts , and CFRP hoops the same as DL2
With two CFRP sheets pasted to the botom of timber beams, structural adhesive between
DHL3 composite surfaces, setting four shear bolts , and CFRP hoops setted at mid span and
Shear-bending section
573
Fig. 2.1: Reinforcement methods of DL2
Fig. 2.2: Reinforcement methods of DHL3

3 test situation
3.1 Material
Northeast pine was used in this experiment, of which physical and mechanical
properties in Table 3.1。The properties of CFRP sheets and structural adhesive were
shown in Table3.2.
Table 3.1: physical and mechanical properties of wood
Tensile strength Compression
Species Moisture Flexural Elastic
parallel to grain strength parallel to
name content/% strength/Mpa modulus/Gpa
/MPa grain/MPa
Northeast
16.1 79.4 33.1 58.4 10.0
Pine
Table 3.2: properties of CFRP sheets and structural adhesive
Thickness Tensile elastic Shear Bond
Material name
/mm strength/Mpa modulus/Gpa strength/Mpa strength/Mpa
CFRP
0.111 3632 225 39.2 4.35
(200g)
CFRP
0.167 3673 226 40.0 4.26
(300g)
Adhesive — 32.6 2.669 17.8 36.7
3.2 The layout of displacement meters and the strain gauges ,and loading program
The displacement meters were setted in the midspan for measuring the maximum
deflection of beams, while were setted at the load point. Strain gauges were arranged in
key locations, such as in the midspan section, CFRP hoops and ends of bottom
reinforcement material . The representative layout of the displacement meters and the
strain gauges was shown in Fig. 3.1. In the test, two concentrated loads were put on the
beam through the allocation beam,which was shown in Fig. 3.2.
574
Fig. 3.1: Layout of displacement meters and the strain gauges
Fig. 3.2: Loading program
4 Test results and analysis
4.1 Failure phenomena

The botom fiber in pure bending section of DL1、DL2-2 and DHL1 was snapped；
shear failure occurred with DL2-1 and DHL2-2 in the material defect zone； DHL2-1
and DHL3 were destroyed in the shear-bending segment, generated along the diagonal
splitting specimens, and structural adhesive between composite surfaces was damaged
in different degrees. In the testing process reinforcement materials on the bottom of
single beams were stripped in different degrees.Typical damages were shown in
Fig.4.1~4.4.
Fig. 4.1: Bending failure with DL1-1 Fig. 4.2: Shearing failure with DL2-1
575
Fig. 4.3: Bending failure with DL2-2 Fig. 4.4: Shear-bending failure with DHL2-1
4．2 Main results

4.2.1Carrying capacity、mid-span deflection and failure modes
In the study, bending failure modes were the main modes ,and shear failure and shear-
bending failure modes were few. The main results were shown in Table 4.1. As can be
seen from Table 4.1, carrying capacity of single and composite timber beams was
improved in different degrees,with single beams about 25% and composite about 65~79
%. Ultimate bearing capacity of the composite timber beams DHL2 and the single
timber beams DL2 with same CFRP reinforcement method was approximate, in which
the former was 6.2% smaller than the latter. In the Table4.1,reference beams for DL2
were DL1, for DHL2~DHL3 were DHL1; load capacity increase rate was calculated by
compareing the average capacity value of each group and its reference speciment .
Table4.1: Main results
Capacity
Mid-span
BeamNo. Ultimate load(KN) Increase rate Failure mode
deflection(mm)
%
DL1-1 141 35 Bending failure
—
DL2-1 142 38 Shearing failure
25.48
DHL1-1 100 80 Bending failure
— Shearing failure and
DHL1-2 84 83
Bending failure
DHL2-1 159 38 Shear-bending failure
65.22
DHL2-2 145 65 Shearing failure
79.89
4.2.2Load-deflection Relationships
It could be seen that mid-span load-deflection curves of all speciments could be divided
to two periods ,elasticity and inelasticity(or elastic-plasticity) period in Fig. 4.5~4.6. As
plotted in Fig.4.5, load-deflection curves of single beams were close to eachother in the
linear phase, which indicated that the initial stiffness was nearly the same, while non-
elastic (or elastic-plastic) poroperties were more obvious than reference beams. As
plotted in Fig.4.6, the load-deflection curves about composite timber beams under
different reinforcement were quite different, and carrying capacity and stiffness about
576
unreinforced composite timber beams with large deformation were the smallest. At the
same time, the stiffness of the reinforced beams was improved in some degree.
200
DL2-2 200
175
175 DHL3-1
150 DHL2-1
DL1-1 150 DHL3-2
load（ KN）
125
load（ KN）
DL2-1 125 DHL2-2 DHL1-1
100 DL1-2 100
75 75 DHL1-2
50 50
25 25
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80 100
deflection（mm） deflection（mm）
Fig.4.6: Load-deflection curves of composite beamsFig.4.5: Load-deflection curves of single beams
4.2.3 Cross-sectional Height-strain Curves
This test proved strain distribution of single timber beams along the height direction
consistented with the plane section assumption. As plotted in Fig.4.7(a), the cross-
sectional strain distribution of the composite timber beams with composite surfaces
reinforced by structural adhesive was the same with the single timber beams,
suggestting that the upper and lower beams which were parts of composite timber
beams were working together with better coordination, while as plotted in Fig.4.7(b) the
cross-sectional strain distribution of the upper or lower beams of the composite timber
beams with composite surface unreinforced was the same with the single timber beams
respectively. Viewing from the strain of the press area that few program beams had
access to plastic compression situation, with literature [6] [8] the different analysis ,for
which there may be several reasons : the striping of the CFRP sheets, the dislocation
with the adhesive between interfaces of the upper and the lower beams, timber
properties and so on.
250 250
P/Pu= DHL1-1
DHL3-2 P/Pu=
0 0
200 0.1 200 0.1
Cross-sectional
0.2
height（mm）
0.2
Cross-sectional
0.3
height（mm）
150 0.3 150 0.4

0.4 0.5
0.5 0.6
100 0.6 100 0.7
0.7 0.8
0.8 0.9
50 50 1
0.9
0 0
-3500 -2500 -1500 -500 500 1500 2500 3500 -6000 -4000 -2000 0 2000 4000
−6
Strain （ × 10 ） −6
Strain（ × 10 ）
(a) (b)
Fig.4.7: Typical cross-section height - strain curves
4.2.4 Analysis and Calculation of Bearing capacity
1 Basic assumptions
(1) Assumie that the cross-sectional strain distribution was in line with plane-section
assumptions.
577
(2) Assumie that the tension and compression elastic modulus of the wood material
were the same, with defects not taken into account; adopted completely elastic stress-
strain distribution model with the timber under tension and compression condition.
(3) Assume that uniform stress distribution on the section of CFRP sheets, neglecting
the influence of thickness to the section height; take elastic stress-strain distribution
model with CFRP sheets.
(4) Assume that,CFRP and wood bonded well ,debonding does not occur before destroy.
2 Bending failure modes
Under these basic assumptions, when compression edge fiber yielded the timber beams
reached to their flexural capacity limit state, at wich time CFRP fabric gived full play to
the reinforce effect.Basd on this principle the speciments could be divided into the
following two failure modes:
(1) Bending failure with single timber beams: the whole cross-section of timber beams
worked together.
(2) Bending failure with composite timbers: whole cross-section of timber beams didn’t
work together.
3 Calculation of bearing capacity
(1) Bending failure with single timber beams
Section stress-strain distribution curves about single timber beam were plotted in Figure
4.8. ε cy
f cy
T T
c
Mu FT
xc
h
h-x c
t
FT
t
ε tw
σ tw FF
AF T T
b
Fig.4.8: Section stress-strain distribution curves with single timber beams

According to the internal forces balance of the cross section , it could be found that
FTc = FTt + FFt （4.1）
And according to the plane sectional assumption, it could be found that
ε Tcy x
tw
= c （4.2）
εT h − xc
It could be obtained by the physical relations as bellow:
1
FTc = bxc f Tcy （4.3a）
2
1
FTt = ETε Ttw b ( h − xc ) （4.3b）
2
FFt = EFε Ttw AF （4.3c）
Substituting the formula (4. 3a ~ c) into the formula (4.1) and considering equation
(4.2) ,it could be obtained as bellow:
578
h + 2α F hF
xc = h （4.4）
2 ( h + α F hF )
After substituting it into the formula (4.3a~c), we could get the expressions of each
component of the formula (4.1).
Then the limit moment of the timber was:
 1  1
M u = FTc  h − xc  − FTt ( h − xc ) （4.5）
 3  3
For the unreinforced beams, the above formula applied, only that the parameters related
with CFRP sheets could be taken as zero.
In the fomulas , FFt =the tension force of the CFRP; FTt =tension force of the timber;
FTc =compression force of the timber; ε Ttw =outside tensile strain of the timber fiber ; ε Tcy =
limit elastic strain of the compression timber; f Tcy = limit elastic stress of the
compression timber; AF =sectional area of CFRP sheet; α F = ratio of elastic modulus of
CFRP sheets and timber; x c =the height of the compression zone of timber; b =the width
of the timber section; h = The height of the timber section; ET =tensile elastic modulus of
timber ; EF = tensile elastic modulus of CFRP sheets. The comparison of theoretical and
experimental capacity of single timbers was shown in Table4.2.
Fig.4.2: Comparison of Bending Capacity of single timbers
M ue M u0
Beam No. M ( kN ⋅ m ) M M ue M M u0
( kN ⋅ m ) ( kN ⋅ m )
DL1-1 49.35 65.20 0.76 16.42 3.01
DL1-2 41.30 65.20 0.63 16.42 2.52
DL2-1 49.70 67.19 0.74 16.97 2.93
DL2-2 64.05 67.19 0.79 16.97 3.77
DHL2-1 55.65 67.19 0.83 16.97 3.28
DHL2-2 50.75 67.19 0.82 16.97 2.99
DHL3-1 61.60 67.19 0.92 16.97 3.63
DHL3-2 54.25 67.19 0.81 16.97 3.20
In the table, M = experimental value of bending capacity ， M = theoretical value ofe
u
the completely elastic flexural capacity , M u0 = the theoretical value of bending capacity
by substituting the pine parameters in the specification [10] into this formula.
(2) bending failure of composite timber beams
Stress and strain on the timber section was equivalent to the situation of the stress and
strain of two single-beam combination, as shown in Fig. 4.9.
579
εTcy fTcy
c
FT
xc
xc
Mu
εTcy fTcy
h -x c
h -x c
t
FT
2
h
tw
ε T F
c
T
xc
xc
fTtw
h -x c
h -x c
t
FT
2
b εTtw fTtw
Fig 4.9: Stress and strain of composite timber beams

The derivation process of bending capacity formulas with composite timber beams
without reinforcement was similar to single timber beams , so we could get the formula:
2
M u = FTc h （4.6）
3
For the composite timber beams reinforced on the bottom, the top fibers of under beam
will first enter the yield situation, then the flexural capacity of the under beams by (4.5)
was shown as bellow:
1 1  1 1 
M u2 = FT2c  h − xc2  − FT2t  h − xc2  （4.7）
2 3  3 2 
where subscript “2” represented the under composite timber beams.
As cross section of the upper beams should generate the same corner with the under
beam, and according to the principle of proportionality ,it could be derivated that the
strain of the top fiber of the upper timber beams was shown as:
h cy
ε Tcw1 = εT （4.8）
4 xc2
where ε Tcw1 = compression strain on the top fiber of upper timber beams of composite
timber beams.
By the physical relations and geometric relations it could be get that the moment of the
upper beams when the under beams reached to the limit state as bellow:
bh3 cy
M u1 = fT （4.9）
96 xc2
So the limit moment of the composite timber beams reinforced in the bottom was:
M u = M u1 + M u2 （4.10）
The comparison of theoretical and experimental capacity of composite timbers was
shown in Table 4.3.
Table4.3: Comparison of bending capacity of composite timbers
Beam No. M ( kN ⋅ m ) M ue ( kN ⋅ m ) M M ue M u0 ( kN ⋅ m ) M M u0
DHL1-1 35.00 32.60 1.07 8.21 4.26
DHL1-2 29.40 32.60 0.90 8.21 3.58
580
In Table 4.2,4.3 ,it could be seen that experimental values of flexural bearing capacity
of timber beams are closer to the results getted by fully flexible approach, so the method
was feasible. But pointed out that substituting materials parameters in the "design of
timber structures" GB 50005-2003 into the above formulas to calculate was reasonable
and good reliable, and could be used as a practical engineering design reference.
4.2.5 Strain of CFRP Hoops
CFRP hoops were glued on the wood through adhesive, the stress state of which was
changing with the changing of the stress state of the near wood. As plotted in Fig.4.10,
measuring point 2 and point 3 on CFRP hoops on both sides of load point and
measuring point 4 on CFRP hoops in shear-bending zone were in the compression state
in the loading process of the test, but when it was close to the ultimate load, stress state
had the big change with CFRP hoops suddenly, even into the opposite state. At the same
time, because upper and down beams in pure bending section were separating gradually,
measuring point 1 in pure bending section had a trend of a gradual tension. So, a certain
amount of CFRP sheets in the pure bending and shear-bending section, could weaken
the separational trend of the upper and lower beams effectively, made the upper and
lower beam work together ,improved the integrity and bending capacity.
180
160
140
Load（KN）
120
100 measuring point4
80 measuring point3
measuring point2
60
measuring point1
40
20
0
-800 -400 0 400 800 1200
strain（ × 10 −6 ）
Fig.4.10: Typical strain curves of CFRP hoops

4 Conclusion
1、Ultimate bearing capacity of reinforced single timber beams was increased by about
25%, and ultimate bearing capacity of reinforced composite timber beams was increased
by 65 to 79%. Ultimate bearing capacity of composite timber beams DHL2 and single
timber beams DL2 with same CFRP reinforcement method were approximate.
2、Completely elastic flexural capacity calculated value and experimental value were
approximate, so the proposed formulas of the bending capacity could be used as
reference for the actual engineering design.
3、The cross-sectional strain distribution of single timber beams and the composite
timber beams with composite surfaces reinforced by structural adhesive was in line with
plane-section assumption, and the cross-sectional strain distribution of the upper and
lower beams of the composite timber beams with composite surface not reinforced was
in line with plane-section assumption respectively.
4、The composite timber beams with composite surfaces unreinforced could not work
together, while the composite timber beams with composite surfaces reinforced by
581
structural adhesive could work together better, and the integrity of upper and lower
beams was better.
5、A certain amount of CFRP sheets in the pure bending and shear-bending section,
could weaken the separational trend of the upper and lower beams effectively, made the
upper and lower beam work together ,improved the integrity and bending capacity.
References
[1] Plevris N, Triantafillou T C.FRP-reinforced wood as a structural material. Journal

of Material in Civil Engineering 1992; 4(3):300-317.
[2] GangaRao H ,Sonti S ,Superfesky M. Static Response of Wood Crossties
Reinforced with Composite Fabrics. International Society of the Advancement of
Materials and Process Engineering Symposium and Exhibition,1996,1291 – 1303.
[3] Johns K, Lacroix S.Composite Reinforcement of Timber in Bending.Canadian
Journal of Civil Engineering 2000; 27:899 – 906.
[4] Borri A,Corradi M, Grazini A. A Method for Flexural Reinforcement of Old Wood
Beams with CFRP Materials. Composite Part B:Engineering 2005; 36:143 – 153.
[5] Gilfillan R ,Gilbert S,Patrick G.The improved performance of homegrown timber
glulam beams using fiber reinforcement. Journal of the Institute of Wood Science
2001; 15 (6):307-317.
[6] Jian-xun Ma . Experimental study on bending behaviour of timber beams reinforced
with CFRP sheets. Industrial Construction 2005; 35(8):35-39.
[7] Jian-xun Ma. Analysis on bending capacity of timber beams reinforced with CFRP
sheets. FRP and structure strengthening 2007; 27-36.
[8] Qi-fang Xie.Experimental study on bending behavior of timber beams strengthened
with CFRP sheets. Industrial Construction 2007; 37(7):104-107.
[9] Qi-fang Xie .Calculation of flexural capacity for timber beams reinforced with
CFRP sheets. Building Structure 2008; 5.
[10] Code for design of timber structures (GB50005-2003). China Architecture &
Building Press, 2003.3
582
Field Tests and Investigations on Dynamic Characteristics of

the Timber Construction
Jiahua KANG1* Haibei XIONG2 Xilin LU2
College of Civil Engineering, Tongji University

kangjia3721@163.com
Abstract
Field tests were performed on three timber buildings in order to get their dynamic
characteristics. Data obtained from field tests, laboratory tests and literatures review
were used to investigate the fundamental period and damping ratio of timber
construction. Results show that: 1) The value of damping ratio showed a strong
amplitude dependence, high damping ratio can be obtained depended on large amplitude
vibration; 2) Damping ratio got from the realistic seismic response was larger than the
value recommended by the code, while the value got from the ambient vibration test
was conservative; 3) The period formula proposed by the codes can not estimate the
period of timber construction correctly; 4) Gypsum board can advance the stiffness of
the structure and meanwhile reduce the stiffness degradation during the earthquake; 5)
The coefficient of seismic effect of timber constructions that is proposed to adopt the
maximum value by the Technical Specification of Timber Construction
(DG/TJ08-2059-2009）is conformed reasonable.
Key words: timber construction; fundamental period; damping ratio; coefficient of

seismic effect; field test
1. Introduction
The timber constructions are generally recognized to perform well in seismic zones. The
Xiang’E elementary school, Dujiangyan, Sichuan province, China, is the first timber
construction school rebuilt after the Wenchuan earthquake (May 12, 2008). In recent
years, tests including shaking table tests, cyclic tests have been done on timber
constructions in the State Key Laboratory of Disaster Reduction in Civil Engineering,
Tongji University. Lots of structural information such as the dynamic and the static
characteristics were obtained from these tests. But there were little data got from the
existed building in the form of field tests. In domestic research institutes there is little
report about the tests on the timber constructions[1], while lots of oversea studies on the
583
dynamic characteristic of timber constructions were reported[2~5].So field tests were

done on the Xiang’E elementary school facilities in order to obtain the fundamental
periods and damping ratios of three timber buildings. Meanwhile, other data obtained
from laboratory tests and literatures reviews were also used for this research.
2. Structure Introduction
There were three timber buildings in Xiang’E elementary school (figure 1), namely
teaching building (figure 2), dormitory (figure 3) and cafeteria (figure 4). The structural
information of the school facilities were listed in table 1.
Dormitory
cafeteria
Teaching Building
Fig.1: Perspective of Xiang’E elementary Fig.2: Shear wall layout on the second
school floor of teaching building, unit 2
Fig.3 Shear wall layout on the second Fig.4 Post-and-beam system layout on
floor of dormitory first floor of cafeteria
Table 1： Structural information of Xiang’ E elementary school
Facility name Plan dimension (m×m) Story height(m) Number of Story Total height (m)
Teaching Unit 1 52.8×9.9 3.6 2 11.05
584
building Unit 2 43.5×16.8 3.6 2 11.05

Unit 3 32.8×10.4 3.6 2 11.05
Dormitory 26.6×16 3.6 3 14.39
Cafeteria 24×16.24 — 2 (local) 11.00
The dormitory and the teaching building were timber construction. The wall frames
were assembled with 140mm×40mm studs at 405mm centre, with blocking, double
140mm×40mm top plate and a 140mm×40mm bottom plate. Studs were end-nailed to
top and bottom plates using 3.8mm×82mm nails (two per end). Wall bracing was
provided by 9.5mm external OSB sheathing, attached with 3.3mm×64mm nails at
75mm~150mm spacing in different walls (table 2). The roofs were constructed of
pre-fabricated trussed laid out with blocking on 610mm spacing, sheathed with 12.5mm
plywood and fastened using nails at 150/300mm spacing. One piece of gypsum board or
double pieces of gypsum board were attached on the external wall and inside wall by
self-drilling screws at 300mm spacing, respectively.
Bottom plates of the walls in the lowest storey were anchored to the concrete foundation
using 20mm bolts and plate washer at approximately 400mm~750mm spacing.
Hold-down restrains (i.e. on end studs) were used in all of the walls. Besides to nails
(3.83.8mm×82mm), the metal belt fasteners were used to connect the walls and the
floor diaphragms in order to transfer the storey shear effectively. The three details of
seismic design mentioned above guaranteed safety of the school facilities under
earthquake with fortification intensity is VIII (PGA is 0.20g).
Table 2：Spacing of nails (Unit: mm)
First story Second story Third story

Facility name Longitudinal Transverse Longitudinal Transverse Longitudinal Transverse
wall wall wall wall wall wall
Unit 1 75/150 75/150 100/150 75/100/150 — —
Teaching
Unit 2 75/100/150 75 100/150 100 — —
building
Unit 3 75/150 75/100 100/150 75/100/150 — —
Dormitory 75/150 75 100/150 75/150 150 150
Cafeteria 75 100 75 100 — —
The cafeteria was a hybrid timber construction of post-and-beam system and timber
shear wall system. The post and beam in hall are made of Chinese glulam, and at
exterior wall, some post and beam are made of build-up beams and columns by
dimention lumber ( SPF) in site for low cost, The timber shear walls were also used in
exterior wall and partly two story area.
3. Test Information
585
Ambient vibration tests were performed on the three school facilities when they were in
normal service (Case I) and vacant (Case II). These tests measured naturally occurring
ambient vibrations induce by wind, traffic, or other sources. Two piezoelectric
accelerometers were located at the top story of each building, which was arranged alone
the longitudinal direction (L. Dir.) and transverse direction (T. Dir.) of building
respectively. The sensors were connected to the data collector through the wires then the
data were saved in computer. The sensors recorded absolute accelerations in an analog
with dynamic range from 0.05Hz to 500Hz and measurement range 0.1g. The field
test photo is shown in figure 5, and the location of the sensors is shown in figure 6.
sensor in transverse direction
sensor in longitudinal direction
Fig.5：Test field Fig.6：Layout of the sensor
4. Data Analysis
Spectrum function X T (ω ) is obtained from vibration signal xT ( t ) (figure 7~10)

through Fourier transform, and then power spectrum density GX (ω ) is obtained.
Sampling frequency 50Hz maximum:1.039 minimum:-0.858 Sampling frequency 50Hz maximum:1.084 minimum:-1.534
Amplitude (cm/s2)
Amplitude (cm/s )
2
Time(s) Time(s)
Fig. 7：Acceleration record of teaching Fig. 8：Acceleration record of teaching

building in L.Dir. in Case I building in T.Dir. in Case I
586
Sampling frequency 50Hz maximum:1.649 minimum:-1.552 Sampling frequency 50Hz maximum:2.108 minimum:-2.637
Amplitude (cm/s )
Amplitude (cm/s2)
2
Time(s) Time(s)
Fig.9：Acceleration record of teaching Fig.10：Acceleration record of teaching

building in L.Dir. in Case II building in T.Dir. in Case II
So that power spectrum can be drawn. Formulas are defined as follows:
+∞ +T
X T (ω ) = ∫ xT ( t ) e− jωt dt = ∫ xT ( t ) e − jωt dt （1）
−∞ −T
1
GX (ω ) = lim X T (ω , ξ ) （2）
T →∞ 2T
Self-power spectrum (Fig.11~14) is obtained through Fast Fourier Transform. Where

the value is near the natural frequency the peak will be steep. By the power spectrums
from every record signal, natural frequencies are obtained, and corresponding damping
rates can be identified with half-power point method, that is:
Bm
ζj = （3）
2 fm
Where Bm is the half-power point bandwidth of the spectral peak corresponding to
jth-order vibration mode shape.
587
Mode frequency damping ratio Mode frequency damping ratio
1 6.93 3.06% 1 7.18 2.32%

Amplitude
Amplitude
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 11：Self-power spectrum in L.Dir of Fig. 12：Self-power spectrum in T.Dir of

teaching building in Case I teaching building in Case I
Mode frequency damping ratio Mode frequency damping ratio
1 6.74 1.21% 1 6.74 1.21%
2 12.79 0.51% 2 12.79 0.51%

Amplitude
Amplitude
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 13：Self-power spectrum in L.Dir of Fig. 14：Self-power spectrum in T.Dir of

teaching building in Case II teaching building in Case II
Using the above theory, structural dynamic properties are obtained from ambient
vibration response records. All the analysis results are shown in table 3.
Table 3：Summary of the field test results of Xiang’E elementary school facilities
School Period of Damping Period of Damping

Case Direction Direction
facilities first mode (s) rate (%) second mode (s) rate (%)
I 0.144 3.06 La 0.139 2.32 Tb
Unit1
II 0.148 1.21 L 0.139 1.74 T
Teaching I 0.154 2.14 L 0.120 3.10 T
Unit3
building II 0.153 3.94 L 0.118 3.42 T
I 0.153 3.44 L 0.118 1.41 T
Unit3
II 0.151 4.34 L 0.122 3.21 T
dormitory II 0.192 2.31 L 0.155 2.66 T
588
Cafeteria II 0.177 0.52 T 0.164 1.79 L

a: L means longitudinal; b: T means transverse
5. Study and Discussion
5.1 Period and damping value recommended by current code

According to current building codes, a design earthquake action can be calculated based
on the building’s fundamental period, site location, occupancy and etc by means of
simplified base shear method. The fundamental period is an important factor in
determining the approximate earthquake coefficient for seismic design of a structure.
The 1997 UBC[6], published by the International Conference of Building Officials,
prescribes the following period formula for buildings.
T = Ct hn3/4 （4）
hn=height, in feet, above the baser to the uppermost level in the main portion of the
structure. For timber construction, Ct=0.02. In FEMA-273[7] Section 3.3-Analysis
Procedures, it also offers a formula to determine the period of the timber construction.
The forms of the formula is same as that of UBC[6], but constant Ct =0.06. ASCE/SEI
7-05[8] and Canada code[9] provide the same formula to determine the period of timber
construction as that of UBC, but the constant Ct =0.05 because the unit of the hn is meter.
The period formula provide in Code for design of timber structure (2005)[10] is same as
that in the UBC[6]. It can be found that the period formula of timber construction
recommended by the codes is depend on one factor, namely, the total height of the
structure. The codes, mentioned above, recommend that 5% can be adopted as the
damping ratio to determine the seismic force in design procedure.
5.2 Period and damping value from laboratory and field test
FPInnovations Forintek Canada Corporation (FPI) cooperates with Tongji University,
Shanghai, China, initiated a research program in 2004 on the seismic resistance of
timber construction. The objective of the test program is to provide data needed for the
quantitative assessment of the seismic building code provisions for this type of housings
in both Canada and China. Three shake table tests have been done including the test of a
symmetrical two-storey structure with gypsum boards (No.1~No.3)[11], the test of an
unsymmetrical two-storey structure without gypsum boards (No.4~No.5)[12], and the
test of a three-storey timber-concrete hybrid structure. The structures were shook using
the white noise (level 1 to 4, 0 to 0.4g) after each level of simulate seismic excitation.
The period and damping ratio information of the former two tests obtained from the
white noise results are listed in table 4.
589
Table 4：Summary of dynamic characteristics of timber

constructions obtained from laboratory tests [11] [12]
Structure number Height (m) Period (s) Damping ratio(%) PGA (g)
0.23 2.4 0
0.23 2.4 0.1
No.1
0.23 2.4 0.2
0.24 3.9 0.4
0.24 4.0 0
0.24 4.6 0.1
No.2
0.26 6.7 0.2
0.28 8.8 0.4
0.27 6.5 0
6.3 0.28 6.1 0.1
No.3
0.30 8.1 0.2
0.41 11.6 0.4
0.28 — 0
0.28 — 0.1
No.4
0.32 — 0.2
0.86 — 0.4
0.31 — 0
0.32 — 0.1
No.5
0.39 — 0.2
0.89 — 0.4
It can be found that structure with gypsum board were stiffer than the structures without
it at the same level motivation, and the stiffness degradation of the structure with finish
materials were slighter than the structure without finish material. So one can see that
gypsum board can advance the stiffness of a structure and can reduce the stiffness
degradation during the earthquake. The similar conclusion was also obtained in the
static tests[13~18].
In North America and Japan, lots of studies have been done on timber buildings. First
full-scale test of timber building under vibration was performed in Japan in order to
obtain the response of the structure under simulated earthquake, including mode, period,
and damping ratio. Foliente[2] summarizes the reported natural periods of timber
construction (one-story to three-story buildings) obtained in Japan and North America
before 1995, the periods of timber buildings range from 0.06s to 0.33s. Vanessa[3] did
lots of tests on North America timber construction under ambient vibration, forced
vibration, and realistic seismic earthquake, the period and damping ratio obtained from
590
the response data are listed in table 5. It can be found that periods got from the ambient
vibration were smaller than those of realistic seismic response and forced vibration in
terms of the structure height.
Table 5：Summary of dynamic characteristics of
timber constructions from literature review 1 [3]
Height (m) Period (s) Damping ratio (%) Test method PGA(g)
9.1 0.22 11.8 0.092
4.0 0.14 11.2 Realistic 0.201
5.2 0.18 7.0 seismic 0.044
4.3 0.14 6.3 response 0.082
7.9 0.20 14.9 0.062
4.0 0.09 — —
3.0 0.08 — —
3.0 0.08 — —
3.0 0.08 — —
6.1 0.11 — Ambient —
6.1 0.15 — vibration —
9.1 0.20 — —
9.1 0.22 — —
3.0 0.15 — —
6.0 0.22 — —
3.0 0.19 2.8 —
6.0 0.23 4.8 Forced —
6.0 0.38 6.6 vibration —
3.0 0.21 4.4 —
Under the CUREE-Caltech Timber Project the full-scale shake-table tests on 2-story
house[4] and 3-story house[5] were done at UC San Diego and UC Berkeley,
respectively. At UC San Diego there were two 2-story houses, one with finish material
(No.7) and the other was a pure structure (No.6). The structures was shake-table tested
using the 1994 Northbridge, Canoga Park record, scaled at increasing levels of peak
accelerations (level1 to 4, 0.05g to 0.5g) as well as the Rinaldi record (level 5, 0.89g).
The period and damping ratio results obtained from shake table tests are listed in table 5.
At UC Berkeley the test was divided into three phases: Phase I- no wall finish materials,
no retrofit scheme; Phase II- walls finishes installed, retrofitted structure; Phase III-wall
finishes installed, no retrofit scheme. The period and damping ratio results obtained
from forced vibration tests in phase I and II are listed in table 6. The same conclusion
can be got, namely, the finish material can improve the stiffness of the structure.
591
Table 6：Summary of dynamic characteristics of

timber constructions from literature review 2 [4] [5]
Structure number Height (m) Period (s) Damping ratio (%) PGA (g)
0.26 4.3 0.05
0.27 4.2 0.22
No.6 6.1m 0.27 3.9 0.36
0.34 7.2 0.5
0.34 8.7 0.89
0.16 6.1 0.05
0.16 11.5 0.22
No.7 6.1m 0.17 8.1 0.36
0.18 7.4 0.5
0.19 6.2 0.89
No.8 9.1m 0.36 4.3 —
No.9 9.1m 0.25 8.8 —
Figure 15 shows the period comparison between the test value and the value determined
by the formula. Period values included in the figure were got from the ambient vibration,
the forced vibration, and the simulate and realistic seismic response under 0.2g level.
One can see that the formula recommended by FEMA-273[7] overestimates the period
of the timber buildings, while the period formula recommended by the Chinese code[10]
can estimate the period of the timber buildings reasonably. It can be found that most of
the period values centralized in the range from 0.1s to 0.3s. table 7 shows the
characteristic period of ground motion according to different site condition and
classification of design earthquake in Chinese code for seismic design of buildings.
From table 6 one can see that most of the characteristic periods of ground motion were
large than 0.30s. In Chinese code, the allowable maximum storey of timber
constructions is three, for most of the timber structures in China the period determined
by the formula recommended by the code was smaller than 0.30s. So Technical
specification for timber construction (Shanghai local code)[19] recommended that the
maximum coefficient of seismic effect corresponding to different seismic fortification
intensity, there is no period formula provide in this code
592
1.25
FEMA-273
Chinese code
1 0.1s
value mention in paper
Period(Unit:s)
0.75 0.3s
0.5
0.25
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Structure height(Unit:m)
Fig.15：Comparison of fundamental period obtained

from tests and formula
Table 7：Characteristic period of ground motion (Unit：s)
Site condition
Classification of design earthquake
I II III IV
Group 1 0.25 0.35 0.45 0.65
Group 2 0.30 0.40 0.55 0.75
Group 3 0.35 0.45 0.65 0.90
The value of damping ratio mentioned in this paper collected from the field tests,
laboratory tests, and the literatures review showed a strong amplitude dependence. Most
of the damping ratio got from forced vibration and the realistic seismic response and
simulated seismic response was close to or larger than 5% the value that recommended
by the codes mentioned in this paper. Particularly, the data obtained from realistic
seismic response was very interesting since it can make us better understanding the
actual behavior under the earthquake. Damping ratio got from the ambient vibration was
smaller than the code value, the value obtained from the field tests on the three facilities
of Xiang’E elementary school ranged from 0.52%~3.94%.
6 Conclusion
Data obtained from the field tests, laboratory tests and literatures review were used to
593
investigate the fundamental period and damping ratio of the timber construction. The
results confirmed that the coefficient of seismic effect for timber constructions which
proposed to adopt the maximum value in the Technical Specification of Timber
Construction (DG/TJ08-2059-2009 ） is reasonable, besides which the following
conclusions also can be got:
(1) The value of damping ratio showed a strong amplitude dependence, high damping
ratio can be obtained depended on large amplitude vibration. Damping ratio got from
the realistic seismic response was larger than the value recommended by the code, while
the value got from the ambient vibration test was conservative.
(2) The period formula proposed by the codes can not estimate the period of timber
construction correctly.
(3) The gypsum board can advance the stiffness of the structure and meanwhile reduce
the stiffness degradation during the earthquake.
Reference
[1] Haibei, XIONG, Shuo, XU, Wensheng LU. Test Study of Fundamental Periods of
Wood-framed Houses. Journal of Tongji University (Natural Science) 2008; 36(04):
449-452.
[2] G. C. Foliente and E. Zacher. Performance Tests of Structural Systems under
Seismic Loads. 1994.
[3] Vanessa S, C. Dynamic Characteristics of Wood-frame Buildings. PhD thesis,
California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California. 2003.
[4] D. Fischer and et al. Shake Table Tests of a Two-story Wood-frame House.
CUREE-Caltech Wood-frame Project Task 1.1.1 Report. Consortium of
Universities for Research in Earthquake Engineering （CUREE）, Richmond, Calif.,
2001.
[5] K. Mosalam and et al. Seismic Evaluation of an Asymmetric Three-Story
Wood-frame Building. CUREE-Caltech Wood-frame Project Task 1.1.2 Report.
Consortium of Universities for Research in Earthquake Engineering (CUREE),
Richmond, Calif., 2002.
[6] International Conference of Building Officials, Uniform Building Code. Whittier,
Calif., 1997.
[7] Applied Technology Council, Washington, D.C. NEHERP Guidelines for the
Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings (FEMA-273), 1997.
[8] American Society of Civil Engineering. ASCE/SEI 7-05 Minimum design loads for
buildings and other structures. Washington: The America Society of Civil
Engineering, 2006.
594
[9] Canadian Commission on Building and Fire Code (CCBFC). National Building
Code of Canada. Ottawa: The National Research Council of Canada, 2002.
[10] Ministry of Construction of the People’s Republic of China. GB 50005-2003 Code
for design of timber structures. Beijing: China Architecture and Building Press,
2006.
[11] Tongji University. State Key Laboratory of Disaster Reduction in Civil
Engineering. Shaking table test report of two storey light frame wood house.
Shanghai, Tongji University. State Key laboratory for Disaster Reduction in Civil
Engineering, 2004.
[12] Tongji University. State Key Laboratory of Disaster Reduction in Civil
Engineering. Shaking table test report of irregular plan of two-storey light frame
wood house. Shanghai, Tongji University. State Key Laboratory of Disaster
Reduction in Civil Engineering. 2005.
[13] Wolfe, R. W. Contribution of gypsum wallboard to the racking resistance of
light-frame walls. FPL-439, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Product
Laboratory, Madison, Wis, 1983.
[14] Karacabeyli, E., and Ceccotti, A. Test results on lateral resistance of nailed shear
walls. Proc., 1996 Int. Wood Engineering Conf., Louisiana State Univ., Baton
Rogue, La.
[15] Johnson, A. C. Monotonic and cyclic performance of long shear walls with
openings. MS thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Univ., Blacksburg,
Va. 1997.
[16] Chia-Ming Uang and Kip Catto, Effects of finish materials and dynamic loading on
the cyclic response of wood-frame shear walls. Strut. Eng. 0733-9445, 2003.
[17] Arijit Sinha and Rakesh Gupta, Strain distribution in OSB and GWB in
wood-frame shear walls. Strut. Eng; 0733-9445, 2009.
[18] Songlai CHEN, Shengdong ZHANG, Huanding Wang, et.al. In Situ Experimental
Study of Deformation Mechanism Under Lateral Loads for Wood Frame Building .
Journal of Tongji University(Natural Science) 2008,; 36(04): P451-459.
[19] Shanghai, Engineering Construction Specification. DG/TJ08-2059-2009. Technical
specification for wood frame construction. Shanghai, 2009.
595
Simple and High-tech Timber Constructions for

Sustainable Eco-balance
Julius NATTERER 1*, Yu-hsiang YEH 2
1*
Bois Consult Natterer
Route de la Gare 10, CH-1063, Switzerland
bcn.sa@vtxmail.ch
2
PhD candidate in Department of Civil Engineering, TU Dresden
Dresden, Germany
symptote@yahoo.com.tw
Abstract
Various applications of timber constructions have arisen in the recent decades.
With progress of techniques, it is possible to manufacture woods as a variety of
construction elements. Structural wooden products comprise sawn wood, stack-of-
planks, glue-laminated timber and veneer lumber etc. These engineered woods are
reliable, producible and feasible for diverse functions and demands. As far as
application is concerned, wood is intended for massive wooden houses, multi-storey
buildings, spatial constructions, shells and halls etc. By means of cooperation between
engineers and architects, wooden constructions appear in manifold ways and are
appealing in terms of forms and functions. It is also possible to combine woods with
other materials such as concrete and glass to extend applicative aspects of timber. This
paper is intended to reveal the realized projects composed of timber structural elements.
These constructions, including different building types, demonstrate the probability and
diversity of using wood for structures. All the constructions can be built by simple
carpentry or sophisticated techniques. Meanwhile, the utilization of wood improves the
cultivation, protection and maintenance of forest. This leads to ecological benefit for
humans because forest not only generates O2 but also provides renewable building
materials. More usage of woods facilitates greater cultivation of forest. Greater amount
of forest stores more CO2 and offers more energy resources because of wood fuel. The
cyclic and complementary progress results in sustainable development for the society.
It is worthy of promoting timber engineering by enhancing educational systems and
dedicating research efforts. Forest industry requires more human intelligence and
deserves larger market and development to pursue a sustainable environment.
Consuming woods for diverse requirements is neither to destroy nor impede the
sustainable development. Instead, it plays a roll of catalyst and trigger for eco-friendly
society. Multi-purpose application of wood is beneficial ecologically and economically.
Keywords: timber constructions, sustainable, eco-balance
596
1 Introduction
Full paper submitted to this symposium must not be under simultaneous consideration
by any other publisher and should not have been published elsewhere in substantially
similar form.
It is expected that authors will submit carefully written and proofread material. Spelling
and grammatical errors, as well as language usage problems, are not acceptable. There
is no strict limitation to the number of pages, but it is suggested that the paper length
should not exceed 12 pages. Papers should clearly describe the background of the
subject, the authors work, including the methods used, and concluding discussion on the
importance of the work. Papers are to be prepared in English (British or American) and
SI-units shall be used.
As renewable material, may wood become the material of 21st century?
Contemporarily, with soaring importance of ecological consideration, wooden material
could lead to significant triumph in terms of CO2 emission and energy efficiency.
Compared to other building materials, wood requests much less fossil energy.
Furthermore, CO2 could be not only prevented from disposal efficiently but also stored
from atmosphere depending on re-forestation.
In the beginning of last century, a tremendous amount of research effort is dedicated for
steel. Eiffel Tower in Paris is one remarkable example of the application of this new
technology. Today, in the progress of high techniques, many experts take the Expo-roof
in Hanover as the landmark of a century, which indicates a veering trend to wood. The
researches of the building materials must be proceeded intensively and under
overwhelming development. For planners, architects and civil engineers, wood reveals
as an infinitely positive image. In the past, however, the awareness of wood’s
characteristics remained too scarce.
New European norms advect the latest awareness upon constrain of threshold. With the
inauguration of new European norms, the application of wood has promoted in many
aspects. For example, the definition of the characteristic values of rupture has raised.
These values do not yet provide optimal assessment of building materials’ reliability to
the valid criteria for visual classification in various countries. Actually, based on such
criteria, the values of the defined qualities could differ from 100% to 200%. Due to the
consequences of great discrepancy, the security factors is necessary, which depend on
the characteristic values. This inevitably leads to wasteful consumption in wood. This
application of non-destructive measuring method, however, such as utilization of
ultrasonic, results in various values like elasticity, stress and capability more reliable,
reproducible and accurate. Thus, it is possible to define woods’ properties, which
exhibit higher performance. In order to ensure economical utilization of materials’
properties, the qualified high-performance woods must be adopted in the intensively-
stressed areas of constructions. With regard to the demand for resistance and strength, it
is possible to find out economic and esthetic solutions for each purpose based on a
variety of materials.
597
2 New techniques in timber structures

The multi-purpose application of wood in building science depends on the engineering
development of woods for structural building materials. The amount of consumption
raises up to 2-3% of entire building volume from 1%. The criteria of development are
better evaluation of properties of woods, enhancement of diverse approaches of
materials’ probability and development of new time-saving assembling techniques,
which preferably result in high pre-fabricating efficiency.
Moreover, massively-applied techniques for floors, walls and roofs of condensed
settlement and administrative structures are also in connection with other massive
building materials. For special constructions like vaults, halls and bridges for modern
architectural components, these techniques improve the imagination of building
materials and offer alternative and competitive choices.
The chance of houses composed of ingineered wood and the application of wood as
structural materials are based on qualitative criteria. Compared to other building
materials, the profitability from using wood is clear. When people would approach an
augmented application in timber building science, that is primary task. Wood, as
materials for structural constructionsm, is a spark for further application in buildings.
3 Material variations in engineered woods

All wooden materials from round-wood, squared-timber to composite wood like glue-
laminated timber, laminated veneer lumber and plywood etc, are under development
and promotion. These rely on a chance for houses, multi-storey buildings, towers,
bridges and other constructions, especially for targeting buildings in natural and
monumental protections.
4 Constructions of round, squared and shaped woods

The application of qualified high-performance wood should not be intended for single
purpose in timber buildings. It is equally necessary to encourage the utilization of wood
under all aspects.
With application of round wood, squared wood and shaped wood, all alternatives with
economical consideration are also adoptable. The shaped wood is composed through
combining composite massive wood close to building sites.
5 Constructions of glued lumber

Thus, the selective utilization must be particularly emphasized for the execution of
extremely stressed high-tech constructions, like halls, bridges and unusual constructions,
especially the application of glued lumbers.
598
6 Constructions of massive wood for floors, walls and roofs

With the emergence of chances in houses and multi-storey buildings, bulk application is
also recommendable for walls, floors and roofs in massive buildings.
The stack-of-plank buildings realize the purpose in ideal ways. With these methods, the
planks are integrated broadly and extensively. Thus, the massive elements arise, whose
thickness of enlarges as well. With this system, a kind of “social association” comes
out by means of nails, screws, pegs or glue. In this development, a probable defect of
particular plank elements may not cause destruction of the entire structure, because the
stress may be distributed by the adjacent planks.
Nailed planks with visible desk
d = 6-18 cm
Variantes
No O1 2
MF/12.95
Piccture 1: systemic effect Picture 2: stack-of-plank variation
The advantages of such structures are manifold. They facilitate that the necessary static
requirement reduces compared to traditional intermediate ceiling. Because of the self
weights, these woods improve the sound protection as well, which are also thermal
retard. The over heating of buildings in summer becomes impeded and, the energy
consumption in winter is saved as well through solar irradiation. These structures are
visible and display architecturally appealing and optically attractive possibility of
interior decoration. In the other hand, these structures could be broadcasted with
gypsum boards or wall papers. The realization in diverse profiles grants the design
various appearances.
Wohnsiedlung,
Arlesheim (CH), 1999
Die Wohnsiedlung
besteht aus 72 zwei-bis
dreistöckigen Häusern
mit einem zusätzlichen
Flachdachaufbau. Die
sichtbaren Flächen der
Trennwände sind mit
Gipskartonplatten
verkleidet.
599
Studentenwohnheim „La
Bourdonnette
Bourdonnette“ “ in
Lausanne (CH)
Im Jahre 2004 wurden 7
vier geschossige
Wohngebäude in
Holzbauweise errichtet.
Die Wände wurden in
Holz-Rahmen-Bauweise
erstellt, die Decken als
Massivholzdecken mit
Brettstapeln. Die
Treppenhäuser und
Sanitärbereiche wurden
als vorgefertigte
Stahlbetonelemente
ausgeführt. Die Bauweise
besticht durch ihren sehr
einfachen aber sehr
durchdachten modularen
Aufbau.
7 Constructions of wood-to-concrete composite floors

The uniform outlook will help the reader to follow the proceedings. This can be
obtained most easily if authors use this template file to construct their papers. Authors
can create their contributions by simply replacing the contents of this file and saving it
as a Word document. Please remember that your submitted .doc files should not be
password protected or otherwise locked, because we may need to add page numbering
and make additional minor edits and format changes.
Through connecting system, economical efficiency could be achieved in buildings with
large span and huge burden.
Wood is used for tension while concrete is applied for pressure areas. Thus, the diverse
building materials are adopted appropriately and optimally depending on their
properties. Combination of both components is approached by means of traceable
screws or bolts. The various burden and aesthetic desire could request for wooden
elements possessing different cross-section, such as round wood, planks, glue-laminated
timber and veneer lumber etc. Thus, the application of double-sized sawn wood is
considerable for bridges, while half round wood could be used for floors. For heavily-
loaded floors, glue-laminated timber is applied as composite plate. For the extremely
high loading, the T-shape beams with glue-laminated timber could be adaptive. In the
comparison with common systems, the dead load of structures is absolutely less than
reinforcement concrete constructions.
600
Picture 3: Comparison of dead-load and live- Picture 4: diagram of functionality

load for different floors
Behindertenschule,
Buchegg (CH), 1997
Erweiterung eines
bestehenden Gebäudes
mit leicht gerundeter, ca.
60 x 10 m2 grosser
Grundfläche. Die
Zwischendecke ist als
Brettstapel-Beton-
Verbundkonstruktion
ausgeführt. Die Vertikal-
lasten werden von der
Stahlbetoninnenwand und
Rundholzstützen mit Brett-
schichtholzunterzügen
abgetragen. Die
Gebäudehülle wurde als
vorgehängte,
nichttragende Holzfassade
ausgeführt.
601
Mehrfamilienhaus,
Berlin(D), 2008
8 Constructions of wood-and-glass composite plates

A significant development for the engineered timber is the combining techniques for
structural components such as façade, walls and roofs.
A further high-tech material is the reinforcement of wood and wooden materials which
are strengthened by glass fiber or carbon fiber. The examples of the ship and aircraft
constructions are inflamed.
Thus, the reinforcement is also realized for connections for components and imposes
unimagined possibility for the engineered wood in buildings.
9 Constructions of wooden spatial structures

Bar system like bar-cluster and towers
With regard to the problem of the variety of wood, which counteracts, a typical example
is static high-class mixed structural systems with the so-called social expectation. It
means that shrewdness of the structures is already proved in old wooden constructions.
Thus, the spatial structures like bar-systems and towers, as well as flat structures like
structural instep, folded construction and rip shell made of round wood, planks, glue-
laminated timber and veneer lumber could be combined with each other to develop
fantastically shaped constructions and building forms. In addition to the selective
utilization of building materials , the realization of high-tech constructions such as
towers and huge-spanning roofs and bridges requires sophisticated planning.
In oder to realize light and architectonically demanding constructions, the connection
techniques are especially emphasized and considered as economically efficient criteria.
With the optimization of structures, more criteria taken into account.
Thus, the choice of the highly-pressed bar-systems enables the large spans of main
structures and the bilateral stress is transited to normal force.
Not only the detail comes, which constitutes the majority of constructing cost and
makes great sense. It should be intended by means of minimum constrains, such as the
quantity of connecting points. Thus, the pressure-bearing elements could be
accomplished as economically efficient connection depending on simple assembly of
602
components. Besides, the bar-structures enable different application possibilities,

which adjust themselves by allocating the intermediate spaces in the interior of
buildings.
Aussichtsturm, Wil
(CH) 2004
Gesamthöhe:
Dachspitze 38 m,
Aussichtsplattform auf
34 m, Mittelpodeste auf
8 m, 17 m und 25 m
Höhe, bzw. nach 8
Stufen Einzelpodeste.
Die Form des Turmes
ist dreiecksförmig mit
12 m Schenkellänge an
der Basis und der
Plattform. Das Dach
dient als
Witterungsschutz für
die Konstruktion und
die Besucher.
Aussichtsturm,
Lausanne (CH) 2003
35 Meter hoher Turm

aus Massivhölzer
(Douglasien).
Aussichtsplattform auf
30 m. 151 gewendelt
angeordnete
Treppenstufen
(Diameter am Turmfuss
12 m, auf Plattform 6m)
brettstapelartig
geschichtete
Rundhölzer
24 Vertikalstützen.
10 Flat structures of glue-laminated woods

Flat structures composed of bending-resistant wooden corrugate shells, fulfil the criteria;
they are static, high-class and infinite and would be stressed mainly axially. Besides,
the wooden corrugate shells convince also because of their variety in forms, which
results in almost random styles.
603
Freilichttribüne,
Freilichttribü
Altusried (D) 1998
Die Freiluftbühne bietet

4000 Zuschauern Platz.
Die Struktur überdacht
eine Fläche von 30 x
100 m2 in einer Höhe
von 13 m. Die vier hoch
belasteten
Fachwerkträger aus
Rundholzstämmen sind
im Abstand von 25m
angeordnet. Die
Dachschale ist zwischen
den Fachwerkträgern
gespannt und besteht
aus zweilagig diagonal
vernagelten
Bretterlagen.
Suspended shell,
Wien (A) 1981
Suspended roof shell of

170m diameter. The
shape of the ribs has
been developed to
achieve symetrical loads
in a state of tension. The
covering layer of counter
directionally aligned
planks assume the shear
resistance forces.
11 Constructions of wooden ribs hall

Based on the simple executive principle, which are also realized by smaller and
common firms without huge investigation, wooden corrugate shells could be a chance
for the carpentry in the steak-of-plank buildings.
The constructions exist basically from together-screwed plank piles, which travers in
the crossing points and posseses a great potential for load re-distribution based on their
compliant connections. The heavy demand for accuracy and the multi-possibility of
forms make a tight interaction between architects and structure planners in the design
phase.
604
Sporthalle,
Arlesheim (CH) 2000
Das Dach besteht aus
einer Holzrippenschale
(35X54 m2). Die
Randlasten der
Tonnenschale werden
durch in der
Schalenebene liegende
Bögen aufgenommen
und in die Auflager
geleitet.
Polyd
Polydôôme, Ecublens
(CH) 1991
Sphärische Kuppel in
Brettstapelbauweise für
ein Auditorium der
ETH-Lausanne in
Ecublens über 25x25m
Kindergarten,
Triesen (FL), 1999
Sphärische Brettstapel-
Kuppelschale, die eine
Grundfläche von 17x17
m bedeckt. Aufgrund
von schlechtem
Baugrund wurde das
gesamte Bauwerk auf
den 4 Eckpunkten
aufgelagert. Der Boden
wird von Stahlprofilen
getragen, die an den
Randbögen der Schale
aufgehängt sind.
605
Expo-Dach,
Hannover (D) 2000
Das Dach besteht aus

insgesamt 10
miteinander
gekoppelten Schirmen
die eine Grundfläche
von 16000 m2
umspannen.
Die Struktur der
Schirme setzt sich aus
jeweils vier
Rippenschalen, vier
Krag-trägern, einem
zentralen Stahlknoten
der Turmkon-struktion
zusammen.
12 Conclusion
In the past and in the future, the society manages the ecological challenges, when the
forest becomes economical and the cost for sustainable exploitation is considerer. Our
ancestors cultivate and protect the forest not only depending on altruistic attitude but
also owing to the awareness that forest provides both combusting materials and building
resources. The countervailing effect of forest about climatic influence and its protective
function must be considered as well. Moreover, the forest wields the social, aesthetic
and cultural functions, which could not be satisfied monetarily. The application of
wood for architectures is not the only one chance. Woods rescue the world and their
utilization contributes their maintenance and rejuvenation. The exclusive demand of
wood for engineering procreation could not solely benefit its purposes.
The woods in the future could not individually fulfil their tasks for human beings and
the environment. It is like that the city of the future could be maintained by monument.
In the future, the forest plays a more significant roll as building materials and O2
supplier because of the scarcity of fossil energy and raw materials along with a
tremendous consideration of CO2 balance.
It is compulsorily necessary to intensively carry out the research and development about
wood. In the meanwhile, the education from Diplom and postgraduate must be
enhanced to enable contemporary and modern execution of researches’ results and
practical development. The wood must regain its privileged status, which wood
possessed once in the society. This should not be made in a nostalgia manner. Instead,
606
it should depend on further development to realize innovative concepts. By means of

perfect consensus of form and functions and through the careful choices of building
materials, the requirement of modern architectures must be designed as competitive
terms.
The adoption of wood is not only an evidence for qualified architectures but also
constitutes constructive contribution for maintenance for the environment.
Referencess
Reference
[1] Natterer, J., Herzog, T., Schweitzer, R., Volz, M., & Winter, W. (2004). Timber
construction manual. Basel: Birkhäuser.
[2] Herzog, T. (1996). Solar energy in architecture and urban planning. München:
Prestel.
[3] Kleiner, H. (1995). Ökologische Architektur: ein Wettbewerb. München: Callwey.
[4] Wiederkehr, R., & Makiol, P. (2008). Konstruieren mit Holz: 1992-2007. Zürich:
Lignum
607
History and Progress of Timber Structures in China

1 1 2
Minjuan HE，Guirong HE ，Chunmei Yang
(1. Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092;
2. Suzhou Crownhomes Co., Ltd, Suzhou 215000)
Abstract
Timber structures have been a traditional structural type in Chinese history for the ease
of obtaining raw material locally and easily manufacturing, and building techniques and
skills were passed generation by generation. Up to now, there are still historical timber
buildings standing all over China, buildings about one thousand years like Ying-xian
Pagoda and Fo-guang Temple, more than hundreds of years like the Gu Gong, more
than fifty years like many residential houses and workshop buildings. About thirty years
ago, due to fast speed of construction, the forestry recourse was almost used up and then
Chinese government made strict policy for the limitation of appliance of wood as
building materials. Recently, with the development of forestry resource, the promotion
of policy of sustainable development and better understanding of wood as a renewal and
low-carbon building material, modern timber structure met its new challenges and
opportunities. Nowadays in China, timber structures could be found in residential
houses and landscape architecture. A few exhibition halls in 2010 Shanghai World Expo
were built in timber material. This paper introduces the history of timber structures in
China, exposits the building types and distinguishing features of timber structures and
predicts the future development trend of timber structures in China.
Keywords: Modern timber structure, development and application, future development
trend.
1 Introduction
Wood material is one type of renewable material known and used earlier by human. It
is widely applied in the construction, the decoration, the furniture as well as the
transportation because of its natural and artistic texture, thermal insulation property and
excellent application and processing characteristic. Timber structure refers to the
engineering structures used wood material as structural material, which has been a
traditional structural type in China. Timber structures have been applied in the house
construction, bridging, road and other aspect. In the house construction aspect, the
timber structure is used massively in low-storied buildings, such as residential houses,
schools and office buildings, as well as in the large span constructions[1].
Compared with other structures, timber structures have many obvious advantages. To
name some of them: wood is a renewable and biodegradable resource; low carbon and
environmental protection; strong in relation to its weight; good heat and electrical
insulator; light and beautiful; constructed conveniently; good anti-seismic performance
and durability. Certainly, timber structures have certain shortcomings, which is similar
to that steel products is easy to rust, concrete quality becomes worse because of its
608
freezing and thawing cycle. Its main drawbacks are: wood is an anisotropic material, it
is subject to decay if not kept dry, and damaged by the termite. These shortcomings will
affect the application of timber structures sometimes, which could be escaped
completely as long as reasonable design and application.
2. History of timber structures

Timber structures have been a traditional structural type in Chinese history for the ease
of obtaining raw material locally and easily manufacturing. The production, growth and
change of timber structure runs through the whole development process of Chinese
ancient construction. About 3500 years ago, Chinese started building post and beam
timber constructions connected by mortise and tenon. Many palaces, temples and
residential structures are produced by wood beams, columns, frames, purlins, dou-gong,
sparrow brace, and other components. Chinese ancient timber structure, with an
excellent reputation for its flexible style, reasonable layout, appropriate volumes, and
delicate decoration, has become one of the five oldest building systems.
Building techniques and skills were passed generation by generation. Up to now, there
are still historical timber buildings standing all over China. As a masterpiece of Chinese
timber construction, Yingxian Pagoda[2], octagonal in shape(Fig.1), is built without a
nail, screw, or bolt. Its unique construction employs fifty-four different kinds of
dougong, or bracket arms. It is the oldest all-wood pagoda in China, and the highest all-
wood pagoda in the world. There are also lots of wood temples and monasteries, such as
Foguang Temple(Fig.2), built in 857 AD, is the third oldest dated wooden building in
China according to architectural records. Its triangle herringbone trusses were the
earliest application among the ancient timber construction. Another important example
is Gu Gong, constructed during the Ming Dynasty. It is the biggest collection of fully
preserved ancient wooden buildings in the world. In addition, there are lots of
residential houses throughout the country. In a manner of speaking, timber structures
have had a universal application, reached a very high level, and played an impotant role
in people’s daily life.
Fig.1. Yingxian Wooden Pagoda Fig.2. Foguang Temple
609
At the end of the 18th century, as the introduction of science and technology from
western countries, chinese ancient post-and-beam system had been gradually replaced
by timber trusses on masonry walls. At the beginning of liberation, because of the ease
of obtaining raw material locally and easily manufacturing, brick-timber structure took
up a large proportion, even up to 46 percent in the 1950s.
In recent history, due to fast speed of urban construction and the clear cutting, the
forestry recourse was almost used up. In the 1980s, steel structure and reinforced
concrete structure replaced the original timber structure as a result of structural wood
resources shortage. And timber structure had been almost at a standstill for 20 years.
Recently, with better and better understanding of wood as an environmental building
material, development of design and processing technology, establishment of relevant
laws and regulations for timber structures, modern timber structures met its new
challenges and opportunities.
3. Modern timber structures in China
Modern timber structure is a new structural type with traditional building material and
modern advanced processing and construction technology. The main material for
modern timber structures is not only the solid sawn wood material, but also lots of
engineered wood products, such as glued laminated timber, laminated veneer lumber,
wood I-Joists, metal plate connected wood trusses, etc. Main structural styles of timber
structure include light wood frame construction and post and beam construction. Light
wood frame construction is a statically indeterminate system constructed by dimension
lumbers with smaller section, and it is usually used in residential buildings. While, post
and beam construction is a method of construction which make use of large memebers
spaced far apart in non load sharing arrangemengts, and it is usually found in large
public buildings and commercial buildings[3].
3.1 Progress of structural wood material and connections

According to the wood processing way, the main structural material types of modern
timber structures include logs, sawn timbers, and glulam.
Log is the main tree trunk without bark, which can derectly serve as the main structural
members for timber structures. To be structural members requires logs with longer
length, less change for diameter, better appearance and fewer flaws. Therefore, the cost
of such construction is very high, and timber material could not be took advantage of
completely. Log was usually applied in historical construction as column, and last
century residential houses[4] as beam in China.
Sawn timbers is another type of structural material that the main tree trunk without bark
is cut into specific length and cross section. According to the dimension of cross section,
sawn timbers can be divided into square lumber, plank lumber and dimansion lumber.
With the development of wood processing technology, the automation level in the
production process is improved gradually. Computer’s control makes us achieve the
optimal partition of the cross section, do our best to make use of raw materials, and
610
produce various sections of sawn timber and improve production efficiency of raw
materials.
Glued-laminated timber, or glulam, is basically what one obtains by stacking a number
of borads or lamitations on top of each other and gluing them together, so that they form
a beam cross-section of the shape desired. Because the raw material of glulam is usually
smaller than others, natural defects in the wood are dispersed, glulam has been used as a
material with enhanced performance as compared with solid wood. Among the most
often cited advanteges of using glulam are improved strength and stiffness properties,
freedom in choice of geometrical shapes, improved accuracy of dimensions and stability
of shape during exposure to moisture. Structural glued timber, veneer plywood and
glued laminated timber are usually used in timber structures.
Wood is easily drilled or shaped to facilitate a connection. A wide range of connectors
and connection methods is available. Today, more and more metal connectors are used
to connect one member with another in modern timber structures instead of mortise and
tenon in China. To name some of them: common nails, screws, bolts, metal plates[5][6],
hold-down devices and joist hangers et al. These connections usually can not reduce the
section size of wood components, and the operation is easier. The use of metal
connectors can reasonably bear composite force, and reduce timber cracking caused by
distortion. In addition, the match of connectors’ module and structural components’
module can ensure the speed of installation, quality and industrialization.
3.2 Progress and application of light wood frame construction

Light wood frame construction, using smaller members spaced closely together in load
sharing arrangements, offers economy, strength, and flexibility. The main structural
elements (structural frame) and the secondary structural elements (wall panels, floor
panels and roof) can work together to subject to various loads, and finally transfer loads
to the foundations. Light wood frame construction can be applied to not only residential
housing and landscape architecture but also large commercial buildings when
provisions are made for longer spans and larger loads. This terminology means that the
members used are small in cross section rather than the light weight and low capacity.
The light wood frame constructions have a lot of advantages. To name some of them:
less earthquake action, simplicity and ease of erection, economy, heat preservation and
insulation, environment and ecosystem etc. Therefore, light wood frame construction
has become a widely used form in modern timber structures, and it is widely used in the
construction of villa, public buildings and rural houses[7]. Currently, modern light
wood frame houses and wooden urban landscape architectures are arising in many
major cities in China, especially in Shanghai, light wood trusses are also involved in the
re-roof project[8] (Fig.3). Roof adopts light wood trusses made of dimension lumbers
connected by metal plates, and the truss is connected with the original concrete roof by
bolts.
611
Fig.3 Light wood trusses used in re-roof project

Light wood villa, as shown in Fig.4, is designed and built by Suzhou Crownhomes Co. ,
Ltd. It belongs to light wood frame construction with exterior wood siding, which could
create a fresh style close to nature. Its floorage area is 870 square meters. Dormitory of
Xiang'e school (Fig.5), located in Sichuan Province and finished in 2009, is designed by
Tongji University[9]. It is a three-storey light wood frame construction with light timber
trusses connected by metal plate as roof truss, dimension lumber as studs, laminated
veneer lumber(LVL) as part of beams, and OSB as floor and roof sheathings. Its
floorage area is about 1200 quare meters.
Fig.4: Light wood villa
Fig.5: Dormitory of Xiang'e school
612
3.3 Progress and application of post and beam construction

Post and beam construction is a traditional structural style for us. It is a method of
construction which make use of larger span beams and columns as the structural
members spaced apart in non load sharing arrangements. All the loads acting on the
construction are borne by the beams and posts, and finally transferred to the foundation.
The members of post and beam construction are mainly made of solid wood, glued-
laminated timber and parallel strand lumber. Large span can be made of large sectional
beams, trusses and arches, which can make the construction interior layout become
more flexible.
When designing post and beam construction, designers usually combine the unique
beauty of wood with the architectural features, the dramatic architectural effect can be
put into practice by the rhythm and flexible layout of post and beam construction.
Therefore, the post and beam constructions are widely used in religious buildings,
residential houses, industrial and commercial buildings, school, sports or entertainment
buildings, garage and other buildings. Chinese traditional timber structures are mainly
post and beam constructions.
Many exhibition halls in 2010 Shanghai World Expo are post and beam constructions.
Norway Pavilion (Fig.6), 3000 square meters, consists of fifteen assembled ’trees’.
These trees are of various heights from 5meters to 15 meters. Each “tree” structure
within the pavilion possesses has its own trunk (as posts) and roots, and four branches
(as beams) constructed of laminated timber, all topped with a canopy made of fabric.
The “tree” structure allows each component to be autonomous or combinatory. After the
Expo each of the trees in the exhibition can be easily dismantled and relocated and
become part of a new landscape elsewhere.
a. Design sketch
b. Fifteen “trees” c. Flexible installation
613
Fig.6: World Expo Building- Norway Pavilion

Swedish Pavilion (Fig.7) for Expo 2010 is a 3,000 square-meter structure made up of
four cube-like parts that are arranged to form a cross-like space between them — a
shape much like Sweden's flag when seen from above. Three cubes are reinforced
concrete structure, and another cube as the entrance is post and beam construction made
of glued-laminated timber. The columns and beams, supportting four 20-meter-high
steel walls, have the characteristic of large cross section and flexible arrangement,
which may make visitors feel lively, fresh and friendly. This kind of glued-laminated
timber has much higher strength and better fire resistance ability, which fully reflects
timber is environmental protection material that can be used in large-span building.
a. Entrance cube b. Interior of post and ceam construction entrance

Fig.7: World Expo Building- Swedish Pavilion
Post and beam construction can also be found in the entertainment buildings constructed
these years. One application is the entrance corridor of Chengdu Happy Valley (Fig.8),
a large-span laminated timber structure, covered with glass curtain wall. Many metal
connectors were used to connect different timber component in this project. The overall
of this structure will give people a sense of shock. Another important application is
Shanghai timber Roller coaster, located in Songjiang Happy Valley (Fig.9). It is 1200
meters length. Except for steel support structure, its track and other parts of the structure
are the U.S. southern pine wood. Different from the traditional steel roller coaster, this
wooden roller coaster could give tourists more intense sensory stimulation, which is the
most shocking entertainment in the theme park.
614
Fig.8: Entrance of Chengdu Happy Valley Fig.9: Shanghai Roller coaster

It can be seen from this that modern post and beam constructions, with glued-laminated
timber as structural members, have fully demonstrated the development of modern
wood technology. The glued-laminated timber can be applied in long-span construction
because of its well quality, high strength, stable performance, beautiful appearance, and
process ability[10].
3.4 Progress and application of other timber structures

In addition to the light wood frame construction and post and beam construction, there
are heavy wood trusses, portal frame, arch, dome structure and other timber structural
system. According to architecture, functionality and other requirements, we can produce
some new combination structural types, such as wood-concrete hybrid structures and
wood-steel hybrid structures.
Timber hybrid structures are also used in some exhibition halls in 2010 Shanghai World
Expo. One example is Vancouver Pavilion (Fig.10), located at the Urban Best Practices
Area. It is a three-story wooden-concrete hybrid building, with plane size 21meteres by
21.5 metres. The first floor is reinforced concrete frame-shear wall structure and the
second to third floor is timber structure. The spherical part is post and beam structure
with glass curtain wall. The beams is made of glued-laminated timber, columns is of
grade Ⅰ douglas fir-Larch (D. Fir-L). The cube part is light wood frame construction
constructed by grade Ⅲ c dimension lumber. The wood floor adopts I-joist and all the
wall panels, roof and floor panels are Canadian wood-based structural panels. Wood’s
superior thermal insulation and excellent seismic stability demonstrate that wood can be
extensively used in public buildings in the city.
Fig.10. World Expo Building- Vancouver Pavilion

Another important example is United Kingdom Pavilion (Fig.11). Its main structure is a
structural box, 15meters in length and wideth while 10.4 metres in height. The upper
part of the square box is wood-steel hybrid structure, its roof and wall are made of
glued-laminated timber, while its floor is supported by bidirectional steel trusses system.
The structural timber mainly inclued plywood made of at least seven layers timber
(degree C27 or higher) and glulam whose degree is C24.
615
a. Overall Model
b. Assembly of wood-steel Structural Box c. Assembly of timber structural elements

Fig.11: World Expo Building- United Kingdom Pavilion
Apart from this, timber structure could be used as auxiliary structure, such as the filler
walls of concrete or steel constructions can be made of timber structure. For example,
some timber hybrid structural villa, designed and built by Suzhou Crown homes Co.,
Ltd, adopts concrete frame and light timber partition wall, which could take full
advantage of heat insulation and energy saving features of timber wall.
4. Prospect
With the fast development of Chinese economic, the construction industry is developing
at an unprecedented speed. However, energy-saving and emission-reduction in the
development of construction industry can not be ignored[11], and it’s necessary to take
measures to save energy and reduce emission at all stages of construction. Obviously,
wood is a good choice as building materials, but wood can only be used in two or three-
story buildings[12], and building-land saving is also very important for large population
in China. Timber-hybrid construction will become a prospective development trend of
timber structure in China, instead of low-density timber structure in foreign countries.
There are many types of timber-hybrid structures. To name some of them: hybrid
structures with wood panels as external walls, hybrid structures with light timber
structures on concrete structures and hybrid structures with light timber partition wall or
floor inside and steel or reinforced concrete structure as the main supporting structure.
Compared with traditional reinforced concrete structures, the timber-hybrid structures
616
have many excellent features, such as light self-weight, good anti-seismic performance,
lower cost, less time of construction and less wet construction and so on.
The development and re-utilization of timber structures in China after 20 years not only
means the identification for traditional material and techniques, but also is an advanced
practice in accordance with the social development. We should focus on the inheritance
of traditional construction system, as well as develop modern wood frame construction
in keeping with local conditions, make design and construction more reasonable. The
use of composite materials and the change to timber-hybrid structure will be one
development trend of prospective timber structures.
Ac knowledgements
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support given by Ministry of Science and
Technology to the National Technology R&D Program in the 11th Five-year Plan of
China numbered 2008BAJ08B06.
References
[1] He Minjuan, Frank LAM, Yang Jun et al. Timber engineering. China Architecture
& Building Press, 2008.
[2] Li Tieying, Wei Jianwei, Zhang Shanyuan et al. Appraisal on the structure of the
Yingxian wooden tower. China civil engineering journal 2005, 38(2)
38(2):51-58.
[3] Shi Yuting. The application mode and development prospect of modern wood
structure. Nanjing Forestry University, 2006.
[4] He Minjuan, Chen Junling, Liu Huiqun. Development prospect of wood frame
housing in rural China. Architecture Technology, 2009,40(10)
40(10)
40(10):940-942.
[5] Huang Hao, He Minjuan. Experimental Study on Light- frame Wood Truss
Assemblies. Journal of Jiamusi University (Natural Science Edition), 2009, 27(4)
27(4):
481-485.
[6] He Minjuan, He Guirong, Ni Jun et al. Experimental and Statistical Analysis on
Load Carrying Capacity of Metal Plate with Orthogonal Oriented Teeth in Light
Wood Frame Construction. Journal of Tongji University (Natural Science),
37(12)
2009,37(12)
37(12):1581-1585.
[7] Zhang Shixing. The adoption of North America’s lightweight timber frame
structures in Chinese housing industry. Building Science, 2009,25(4)
25(4)
25(4):96-98.
[8] Xiong Haibei, Xu Shuo. Wood truss re-roofing project. Structural Engineers, 2008,
24(4)
24(4):115-120,136.
[9] He Minjuan, Zhou Nannan, Sun Yongliang. Design and construction of a light
wood-frame structure in Xiang’e primary school in Dujiangyan. Construction
Technology, 2010, 39(3)
39(3):88-92.
[10] Ji Yingnian, Zhou Feng. The application in large-span constructions of timber
structure. The 6th national conference on modern structure engineering conference,
2006.
617
[11] Wang Xiaohuan, Fei Benhua, Zhao Rongjun et al. development and research status
of energy-efficiency of wood construction. Building energy efficiency 2008, 36
(205): 24-28.
(205)
[12] Ministry of Construction of People’s Republic of China. GB 50005-2003 Code for
design of timber structures. China Architecture & Building Press, 2003.
618
Variation of Size Effect of Wood Strength Properties

Xiaobin SONG1*, Frank LAM2, Minjuan HE3
1*
Tongji University
1239 Siping Road, Shanghai, China, 200092
xiaobins@tongji.edu.cn
2
University of British Columbia
2424 Main Mall, Vancouver, Canada, V6T 1Z4
frank.lam@ubc.ca
3
Tongji University
hemj@tongji.edu.cn
Abstract
The strength properties of wood can be affected by the specimen sizes and the
distributions of the stresses. The phenomena are normally referred to as the size and
stress distribution effects, which are mostly caused by the inhomogeneity of wood
material, attributable to the natural characteristic of wood and the circumstances in
which the trees grew. For this reason, wood strength properties must be adjusted
appropriately before they can be used in structural analysis and failure identification.
This paper presents the results of an experimental study on the variation of the size
effect of compressive and tensile strengths of machine stress graded dimension lumber.
Spruce-Pine-Fir lumber of two material grades was tested in different sizes. The size
effect factor was evaluated based on Weibull’s weakest link theory using different
ranges of the test results, namely the 5th percentile, mean and 95th percentile, based on
which the variation of the size effect factor was evaluated. The generated knowledge
can be used as reference in structural analysis and development of wood strength
properties in design codes for wood constructions.
Keywords: Variation, size effect, wood strength properties, weibull’s weakest link theory.
1 Introduction
The strength properties of wood can be affected by the specimen sizes and the
distributions of the stresses. The phenomena are normally referred to as the size and
stress distribution effects, which are mostly caused by the inhomogeneity of wood
material, attributable to the natural characteristic of wood and the circumstances in
which the trees grew. For visually graded lumber, the grading rule also brings up certain
size effects [1].
Wood failures mostly occur in the vicinity of local defects, such as knots, cracks and the
slope of grain. Normally failures, especially those caused by tensile stresses, are abrupt
and brittle. The brittle fracture theory, also known as the weakest link theory, has been
619
used extensively to quantify the size and stress distribution effects. It was originated by
Pierce [2], who applied it to cotton yarn. Major contributions were made by Weibull [3].
By using an exponential distribution function, Weibull showed that the strength
depended on the stressed volume of a test specimen, assuming all specimens consisted
of statistically independent but similar elements.
The classic weakest link theory was first applied to wood products under flexural
loading by Bohannan [4]. Its application in wood and timber structure strengths has
been summarized by Barrett [5], Buchanan [1], Madsen [6], Lam [7], and Lau [8]. The
formulation of the size effect will be discussed first and the following content of this
paper will be focused on the evaluation of the size effect factors and their variation.
2 Evaluation of size effect

Assume the strength of a wood specimen of unit volume is fitted to the two-parameter
Weibull distribution as:
k
F ( x) = 1 − e − ( x / m) (1)
where F(x) is the cumulative distribution function, x is the strength, and k and m are the
shape and scale parameters of the Weibull two-parameter distribution, respectively. The
failure probability, Pf , of a specimen subjected to a uniformly distributed stress, σ, can
be calculated by
1 σ
∫V
( ) k dV
V0 m
Pf = 1 − e (2)
where V0 is a reference volume and V is the stressed volume.
Consider the strengths of two groups of wood specimens evaluated under different
stressed volumes at a common probability of failure, Pf, their stresses at failure (σ1 and
σ2) can be related by:
1 σ 1 σ
∫V
( 1 ) k dV ∫V 2
( 2 ) k dV
V0 1 m V0 m
1− e = 1− e (3)
As the stresses are uniformly distributed, σ1 and σ2 are constant over the stressed
volumes and therefore can be removed from the integrations. Striking out the common
factors and rearranging Eq. (3) yields:
1
σ 1 ⎛ V2 ⎞ k
=⎜ ⎟ (4)
σ 2 ⎜⎝ V1 ⎟⎠
where the shape parameter, k, is normally considered as a factor of the size effect.
Knowing the strength values of two groups of wood specimens tested in different sizes
and evaluated at a common probability of failure, Eq. (4) can be rearranged to evaluate
the size effect factor by:
⎛V ⎞ ⎛σ ⎞
k = ln⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ ln⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ (5)
⎝ V1 ⎠ ⎝σ 2 ⎠
In case the stressed areas of the two groups of specimens differ only in the length, i.e.,
the cross-sectional dimensions are the same, k is also called the factor of the length
620
effect. Similarly, k is called the factor of the width effect if the only difference between
the stressed areas is the cross-sectional width.
3 Parallel-to-wood-grain compression and tension tests

From previous discussion it can be seen that the size effect can be evaluated based on
the strengths of two groups of specimens tested in different stressed volumes. In this
study, parallel-to-wood-grain compression and tension tests of dimensional lumber were
conducted to establish the data base. The tests were carried out in conformance with the
ASTM standard D 198-05a “Methods of Static Tests of Timber in Structural Sizes” [9].
Three specimen sizes, each with 30 replicates, were used for the compression and
tension tests. The specimens were kept in a room conditioned at 65% relative humidity
and 20°C, until the equilibrium moisture content was reached. Before loading, each
specimen was measured for the net cross-sectional dimensions (at three positions),
specimen length and moisture content. Details of the specimens are listed in Table 1.
Table 1: Specimens of parallel-to-wood-grain compression and tension tests
Test Lumber grade Specimen Group No. Specimen size1 (mm3) Replication
1 (4) 38 × 89 × 304.8 30
MSR1650f-1.5E2
Compression 2 (5) 38 × 89 × 457.2 30
(MSR2400f-2.0E)
3 (6) 38 × 139 × 457.2 30
7 (10) 38 × 89 × 2133 30
MSR1650f-1.5E
Tension 8 (11) 38 × 89 × 3048 30
(MSR2400f-2.0E)
9 (12) 38 × 139 × 3048 30
Note: 1 gross sizes are shown in the table
2
machine stress rated lumber is graded in conformance with the National Lumber Grades
Authority Special Product Standard 2 of Canada, SPS 2
The parallel-to-wood-grain compression tests were conducted on a Sintech® machine

with a capacity of 245 kN (55 kips) under displacement control. The loading rate was
constant at an equivalent strain rate of 0.001 mm/mm per minute. The compression
displacements were measured by two linear variable differential transducers (LVDTs)
with a gauge length of 254 mm (10 in.), the readings from which were averaged to
eliminate the influence of flexural deformation. The test setup is shown in figure 1.
The parallel-to-wood-grain tension tests were conducted on a Metriguard® tension
machine. All specimens were pulled to failure within 5 to 10 minutes. Each specimen
was tightly fixed by a pair of tension grips of 1219 mm (4 feet) in length. The maximum
tension loads were recorded and used to calculate the tensile strengths based on the net
cross-sectional area of the specimens. The test setup is shown in figure 2. More details
about the tests can be found in the author’s thesis [10].
621
Fig. 1: Test setup for parallel-to-wood-grain compression tests
Fig. 2: Test setup for parallel-to-wood-grain tension tests
4 Test results
The test results of the strength of each specimen groups were pooled and fitted
separately to two-parameter Weibull’s distribution. The fitting was done by using the
maximum likelihood method. The comparison of the test results and the distribution
model fitting results are shown in figure 3.
622
1 1
0.8 0.8
38x89x304.8-test 38x89x304.8-test
0.6 0.6
38x89x457.2-test 38x89x457.2-test
0.4 38x139x457.2-test 0.4 38x139x457.2-test
38x89x304.8-model 38x89x304.8-model
0.2 38x89x457.2-model 0.2 38x89x457.2-model
38x139x457.2-model 38x139x457.2-model
0 0
C u m u al v
ti e d si b
rt
i u ot
i n uf n c ot
i n
C u m u al v
ti e d si b
rt
i u ot
i n uf n c ot
i n
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
MSR1650 Compression strength (MPa) MSR2400 Compression strength (MPa)
1 1
0.8 0.8
38x89x2133-test
0.6 38x89x3048-test 0.6 38x89x2133-test
38x139x3048-test 38x89x3048-test
0.4 0.4 38x139x3048-test
38x89x2133-model
38x89x2133-model
0.2 38x89x3048-model 0.2 38x89x3048-model
38x139x3048-model 38x139x3048-model
0 0
C u m u al v
ti e d si b
rt
i u ot
i n uf n c ot
i n
C u m u al v
ti e d si b
rt
i u ot
i n uf n c ot
i n
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
MSR 1650 Tension strength (MPa) MSR 2400 Tension strength (MPa)
Fig. 3: Distribution of the parallel-to-wood-grain compression and tension test results
The distribution parameters and the mean values and standard deviations of the
strength values of each specimen group are listed Tables 3 and 4.
Table 2: Parallel-to-wood-grain compression tests results
MSR1650f-1.5E (MPa) MSR2400f-2.0E (MPa)

Dimension (mm)
Shape1 Scale Mean St.d. Shape Scale Mean St.d.
38 × 89 × 304.8 7.18 24.47 23.15 4.27 8.82 32.44 30.83 4.34
38 × 89 × 457.2 6.83 20.18 19.0 3.49 7.61 31.61 29.76 4.26
38 × 139 × 457.2 5.41 25.04 23.18 4.48 10.6 29.66 28.36 3.26
Note: 1Shape parameter is dimensionless
Table 3: Parallel-to-wood-grain tension tests results
MSR1650f-1.5E (MPa) MSR2400f-2.0E (MPa)

Dimension (mm)
Shape1 Scale Mean St.d. Shape Scale Mean St.d.
38 × 89 × 2133 2.52 32.76 30.0 14.6 6.01 50.98 47.54 9.33
38 × 89 × 3048 4.2 32.1 29.41 7.95 5.81 46.0 42.82 8.6
38 × 139 × 3048 5.28 29.62 27.66 6.73 4.14 42.86 39.05 10.29
Note: 1the specimen’s length includes the gripping length of 1219.2 mm (4 feet)
2
shape parameters are dimensionless
5 Size effect factors and their variation

As discussed in previous sections, the factor, k, of the size effect (including the length
and width effects) can be evaluated using two different methods. In the first method the
test results of the wood strength properties are fitted to Weibull’s two-parameter
623
distribution, of which the shape parameter, k, can be directly used as the factor of the
corresponding size effect. Alternatively, knowing the strength values and stressed
volumes of two groups of specimens, the factor, k, can also be evaluated using Eq. (5).
In this study, both methods were used to evaluate the k factor. The so-obtained factor, k,
for length and width effect is listed in Tables 4 and 5.
Table 4: Variation of size effect factor of wood compression strength
Size Compression strength

Grade
effect 5% Error % Mean Error % 95% Error % Reference*
MSR1650 1.90 -71 2.05 -68 2.19 -66 6.47
Length
MSR2400 5.10 -43 11.48 27 66.04 633 9.01
MSR1650 -4.39 -168 -2.24 -135 -1.73 -127 6.47
Width
MSR2400 -9.60 -207 9.25 3 4.27 -53 9.01
*
Note: mean value of the shape parameters in Tables 2 and 3 for each material grade
Table 5: Variation of size effect factor of wood tension strength
Size Tension strength

Grade
effect 5% Error % mean Error % 95% Error % Reference*
MSR1650 -0.79 -120 17.97 349 1.84 -54 4.00
Length
MSR2400 2.98 -44 3.41 -36 3.70 -30 5.32
MSR1650 -6.94 -274 7.27 82 3.33 -17 4.00
Width
MSR2400 1.61 -70 4.84 -9 -81.4 -1630 5.32
Note: *mean value of the shape parameters in Tables 2 and 3 for each material grade
In order to study the variation of the k factors obtained using different method, the mean
values of the shape parameter, k, of Weibull’s two-parameter distribution fitting to the
strength results of each material grade were used as reference values, as listed in the
ninth column of Tables 4 and 5. The k factors evaluated using Eq. (5) based on the
results of certain two specimen groups (for example, Specimen Groups 1 and 2 are used
to evaluate the k factor of length effect for compression strength of MSR1650f-1.5E
lumber) were then compared to the reference values, based on which a error was
evaluated to identify the variation.
6 Discussion
It can be seen from Tables 4 and 5 that the factors of the length and width effects exhibit
significant variation for specimens of different material grades, loading pattern
(compressive and tensile loading) and stressed volumes, especially when the strengths
were extracted at difference percentiles of the cumulative distribution of the results. A
few understandings were made based on the observation of the results in the two tables.
First, compared with the factors evaluated using Eq. (5), the shape parameters of the
Weibull’s two-parameter distribution fitted to the strength results exhibited less
variation. This is mainly because the fitting was based on all test data of each specimen
624
group while the factors calculated using Eq. (5) were based on specific percentiles of
the fitted distribution of the results. The latter could have been affected more by the
quality of the specimens and other unexpected factors during the testing.
Secondly, comparing the results corresponding to the three percentiles implies that the
factors evaluated based on the 95th percentile are the closest to the reference values (as
highlighted in the tables). This is mainly due to the fact that the 95th percentile reflects
more of the performance of the specimens of high quality and therefore is subjected to
less variation.
For the factors evaluated at the mean values of the strength properties, which are most
frequently used in numerical modelling studies, those corresponding to MSR2400f-2.0E
are closer to the reference values than those of MSR1650f-1.5E. This is because the
specimens made of MSR2400 f-2.0E lumber are generally of better quality and
therefore the test results of the strength are less scattered than those tested from lumber
of lower quality.
Finally, many of the size effect factors in Tables 4 and 5 were found to be negative,
which is not correct according to Weibull’s weakest link theory: the negative factors
coming from the specimens having higher strength values when stressed in larger area.
This mistake is mainly caused by the variation of the test results. Due to limited
research resources, this study only considered 30 replications for each combination of
material grades and loading pattern. Further experimental study with more replications
is in need to achieve more meaningful conclusions.
7 Conclusion
The paper presented the results of an experimental study of the size effects and their
variation of wood compressive and tensile strengths of machine graded lumber. The
results indicated that significant variation exists in the length and width effects factors,
which were evaluated using Weibull’s weakest link theory considering different
percentiles of the distribution of the strength test results. It was also found that
compared to the 5th percentile and mean values, the length and width effects factors
evaluated at the 95th percentile of the test results are more consistent with the shape
parameters evaluated by fitting the Weibull’s two-parameter distribution to the test
results. Besides, for the length and width effects factors calculated at the mean values of
the test results, it was found that specimens made of lumber of better quality might lead
to more consistent results.
Acknowledgements
This research work is sponsored by Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council
of Canada (grants CRDP J 315282), Canadian Wood Council, Western Wood Truss
Association, Jager Building Systems, Alpine Systems Corp, and Miteck.
625
References
[1] Buchanan, AH. Strength model and design methods for bending and axial load
interaction in timber members. Ph.D. thesis, UBC, Department of Civil Engineering,
1984.
[2] Pierce, FT. Tensile tests for cotton yarns. Jo. Text. Inst. 1926; 17
17: 355-368.
[3] Weibull, W. A statistical theory of the strength of materials. Proc. Royal Swed. Inst.
Eng. Res. 1939; 151
151: 45.
[4] Bohanan, B. Effect of size on bending strength of wood members. Res. Paper FPL
56, USDA Forest Service, Forest Product Lab., Madison, Wisc. 1966.
[5] Barrett, JD. Effect of size on tension perpendicular-to-grain strength of Douglas-fir.
Wood and Fiber. Wood and Fiber Science 1974; 6(2) 6(2): 126-143.
[6] Madsen, B. Structural behaviour of timber. Timber Engineering Ltd., North
Vancouver, B.C., Canada 1992; 237.
[7] Lam F. Length effect on the tensile strength of truss chord members. Can. J. Civil.
Eng. 1999; 27
27: 481-489.
[8] Lau, WWS. Strength model and FEM analysis of wood beam columns in truss
application. Ph.D. thesis, Department of Wood Science, University of British
Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., 2000.
[9] ASTM Standard D198-05a. Standard Test Methods of Static Tests of Lumber in
Structural Sizes. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.
[10]Song, XB. Stability and reliability analysis of metal plate connected wood truss
assemblies. PhD thesis, Department of Wood Science, University of British
Columbia, Vancouver, Canada, 2009.
626
Evaluation of Racking Performance of Wood Portal Frames

with Different Wall Configurations and Construction Details
Songlai CHEN 1*, Chun NI 2
1*
College of Civil Engineering, Tongji university
1239 Siping Road, Shanghai, P.R. China
csllhy@163.com
2
FPInnovations, Vancouver, B.C., Canada
Abstract
The performance of four different types of portal frame walls was studied using
a finite element model that was verified with results from tests of full-size portal frame
walls. Parameters such as wall height, metal strip types and locations, bottom plates,
sheathing and nailing patter were investigated. Results indicate that for all the wall
types, the lateral load capacities and stiffness are greatly reduced with the increase of
wall height. Among the different metal strip types and locations, the tensile strength of
metal strips has the greatest impact on the lateral load capacities and stiffness of portal
frame walls. The walls with metal strips installed placed directly on framing members
outperformed the walls with metal strips placed over the sheathing. For walls with
double bottom plates and two rows of nails fastened to the bottom plate, the stiffness
and lateral load capacities are slightly increased compared to the walls with single
bottom plate. For walls with sheathings joined at the middle of wall height and
unblocked, the lateral load capacities are the same as the walls with continuous
sheathings running from the bottom to the top of the walls. The stiffness is slightly
lower.
Keywords: racking performance; portal frame wall; finite element model
1 Introduction
Lateral load resistance of wood frame buildings is generally provided by shearwalls
sheathed with wood-based panels. From an architectural perspective the requirement for
shearwall may lead to problems with respective to space usage in a building and prevent
building plans with open concept, which is favoured by consumers, to be adopted. This
issue is compounded when the storey height limit is raised. There is a need to provide
alternative bracing solutions that will provide the required lateral resistance but still
allow for open space buildings. Wood portal frame systems have been identified by
engineers and builders as a viable option to meet this need. An on-going project at
FPInnovations is developing construction details for such a portal frame that can be
integrated into a wood frame structure containing wood shearwalls. The portal frame
details currently being evaluated are based on a system proposed by APA [1].
In this study, commercially available finite element software is used to investigate the
performance of portal frame walls. Four different configurations of portal frame walls
627
were studied. Parameters such as wall height, metal strip types and locations, bottom
plates, sheathing and nailing patter were evaluated. The results of the portal frame walls
with different parameters are summarized and the effect of these parameters on the
performance of the portal frame walls is discussed.
2 Numerical modelling
2.1 Description of the finite element modelling
By using SAP2000, a non-linear finite element model was developed to study the
racking performance of portal frame walls. In the model, the framing members of the
wall segments were represented by beam element, the header and the OSB sheathings
were represented by shall element. The sheathing-to-framing and framing-to-framing
nail joints, metal strip joints and hold-downs were modelled with link elements. For
framing-to-framing joint in compression, a contact element was introduced. For the
framing members and header, linear elastic behaviour was assumed and the average
modulus of elasticity from Canadian timber design code CSA O86 [2] was used. For
sheathing-to-framing nail joints and metal strip joints, the actual load-slip properties of
the joints from the tests were used. The input material properties used in the models are
listed in Table 1.
Table 1: Input data for the finite element model
Construction Member Finite Element Material Property

Framing Beam element E = 9000 MPa
Header Shell element E = 12000 MPa
Sheathing Shell element Test data shown in Table 2
Sheathing-to-framing Connection Link element Test data shown in Figure 1
Metal strip Link element Test data shown in Figure 3
Framing members in contact Link element U = 40 kN/mm (open = 0 mm)
Hold-down Link element U = 5 kN/mm,
Note: U – spring stiffness, E – the modulus of elasticity
Figure 1 shows the average load-slip curves of the sheathing-to-framing joints. For each
sheathing-to-framing joint, it is modelled by a 2D link element, with component 1
representing joint loaded parallel to the grain of the framing member and component 2
representing joint loaded perpendicular to the grain of the framing member (Fig. 2).
Figure 3 shows the average load-slip curves of the metal strip joints. A one-dimensional
link element is used to represent the metal strip joint. The one-dimensional link element
is also sued to model the hold-downs connections.
In order to be able to accurately predict the rupture of the sheathings, the material
properties of OSB sheathings were determined by tests conducted in accordance with
ASTM D3500 [3] and D2719 [4]. Orthotropic shell properties were assumed for OSB
sheathing, and the main properties used in the numerical analysis are provided in Table
2. The strength of OSB in compression are taken from paper [5]. They are 14.1 MPa
628
parallel to surface strand orientation and 12.62 MPa Parallel to surface strand
orientation.
1800 2250
1600 2000
1400 1750
1200 1500
load (N)
1000 1250
load (N)
800 1000
600 750
400 500
200 Force parellel to the grain of SPF framing 250 Force parellel to surface grain of LSL header
Force perpendicular to the grain SPF framing Force perpendicular to surface grain LSL header
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
slip (mm) slip (mm)
a) Sheathing- to-framing (SPF) b) Sheathing- to-header (LSL)

Fig. 1: Load-slip curves of sheathing-to-framing joints
12000
Joint j 10000
8000
Shear(U3)
Load (N)
6000
Shear(U2) 4000
Joint i 2000
SPF-to-SPF metal strip connection
Fig.2: Sheathing-to-frame connection 0
LSL-to-SPF metal strip connection
0 2 4 6 8 10
Slip (mm)
Fig. 3: Load-slip curves of metal strip

connections
Table 2: Properties of OSB sheathing
Parallel to surface strand orientation, MPa Perpendicular to surface strand orientation, MPa
MOE MOR G v MOE MOR G v
5390 12.2 1360 8.3 3360 8.9 1400 8.2
Note: G is the through-thickness modulus of rigidity of panel. v is the ultimate shear stress of panel.
For metal strips that are placed over wall sheathings, as sheathing rupture occurs at very
small deformation and gaps exist between the nails and holes of the metal strip, it is
assumed in the finite element model that the metal strips are not engaged before the
sheathing is ruptured and start to contribute to the joint stiffness and capacity after the
629
sheathing is ruptured. After the sheathing is ruptured, the load-slip curves of the metal
strip joints over wall sheathing are the same as those of the joints that are placed
directly on framing members.
Because of the different behaviour of metal strip joints before and after sheathing
rupture, the numerical modelling was carried out in two steps. The first step is to predict
the load-displacement responses of the portal frame walls before sheathing rupture. The
second step is to predict the ultimate lateral load-carrying capacity of the portal frame
walls after sheathing rupture. Effort was made to simulate the progress of sheathing
rupture with the increase of applied load. Since SAP2000 does not have the function to
automatically remove the elements once they reach the ultimate tensile stress, they were
manually removed once the ultimate tensile stress is reached. This process is repeated
until the failure of metal strips.
Where the predicted ultimate lateral load-carrying capacity obtained in the second step
is lower than that obtained in the first step, it indicates that the metal strip joints would
break immediately after sheathing rupture. In this case, the predicted lateral load-
carrying capacity obtained in the first step is the ultimate lateral load-carrying capacity
of the portal frame wall.
The finite element model of portal frame wall is shown in Figure 4. The lateral load is
applied at the middle of the header. In the analysis, the out of wall plane deformations
due to wall frames, header, and the torsions of wall frames were restricted.
d) Corner details of connections

c) 3D view of FE model of portal frame
Fig. 4: FE model of protal frame
2.2 Verification of the modelling

In order to validate the finite element model, comparisons were made between the
model predictions and the results from full-scale portal frame wall tests, which were
carried out at FPInnovations wood products laboratory in Vancouver, BC. A summary
of the tested braced walls is provided in Table 3.
The portal frame walls were 3.66 m in length and 2.44 m in height, with 406 mm wall
segment at each end of the portal frame. The wall framing was constructed with 38 mm
× 89 mm NLGA No.2 and better Spruce-Pine-Fir lumber. The average moisture content
630
of the lumber was 13% at the time of fabrication and testing and the average specific
gravity of the lumber was 0.43. The header was built up using two pieces of 45 mm ×
302 mm (1.75 inch × 11.875 inch) 1.5E laminated strand lumber (LSL). CSA O325
oriented strand board (OSB), with a thickness of 12.5 mm and a span rating of 2R32,
was used as sheathing panels. The 8d common nails (3.3 mm in diameter and 63.5 mm
in length) were used to attach sheathings to framing members, spaced at 75 mm on
centres. The 10d common nails (3.8 mm in diameter and 76 mm in length) were used to
connect the double end studs, spaced at 300 mm on centres. Details of nailing pattern
are also provided in Table 3.
Table 3: Test matrix of portal frame walls
Connection details at
Wall No. Sheathing Header Hold-down Load protocol
wall corners
1 One side 2×12 LSL No C1 Monotonic
1
2 One side 2×12 LSL HTT 16 C1 Monotonic
1
5 One side 2×12 LSL HTT 16 C3 Cyclic
9 Both sides 2×12 LSL HTT 161 C6 Cyclic
Note: 1, Hold-down installed at both ends of portal frame.
Configuration C1 Configuration C3
Configuration C6
In some of the tests, the Simpson Strong Tie HTT 16 hold-down devices were used at
the ends of the portal frames. A Simpson Strong Tie LSTA 21 metal strap (31.8 mm
wide and 533 mm long, 20-gage steel) was used in the portal frame walls to provide
vertical continuity and resistance to moment at the corners of the portal frame walls.
The load-displacement responses of the tests and the numerical modelling are provided
in Figure 5. As can be seen from the Figure, the predicted load-displacement curves are
631
in reasonable agreement with the test results in the ascending portion of the curves.
While there are differences in initial stiffness and displacement at ultimate load in some
cases, the predicted ultimate lateral load-carrying capacities are very close to the test
results in all the cases. Because of the difficulty to model the behaviour of portal frame
walls after ultimate lateral load-carrying capacities, in this study only ascending portion
of the load-displacement curves were studied.
a) Wall No.1 b) Wall No.2
c) Wall No.5 d) Wall No.9

Fig. 5: Comparison of the load-displacement responses between tests and modelling
3 Parameter studies
Four basic portal frame walls were selected as the reference walls in this study. The
walls are 3.66 m in length and 2.44 m in height, with 406 mm wall segment at each end
of the portal frame.
Walls Types 1 and 2 have the panels sheathed only on one side of the framing. Walls
Types 3 and 4 have the panels sheathed on both sides of the framing. Figure 6 shows the
details of nailing pattern of the walls. For Walls Types 1 and 3, hold-downs were
installed at the ends of portal frame walls. No hold-downs were used in Walls Types 2
and 4. The materials used for framing members, sheathings, nails and metal strips are
632
the same as those in the tested walls conducted in FPInnovations wood products
laboratory.
a) Walls Type1 and 2 b) Walls Type3 and 4

Fig. 6: Nailing details of portal frame walls
Five parameters were studied for each wall type. The first parameter is the height of
portal frame wall. In this study 3.05 m (10 ft) high portal frame walls were studied. The
second parameter is the metal strip types and locations. Table 4 lists the detailed types
and locations of metal strips. For metal strip in configurations C1 and C2, Simpson
Strong Tie LSTA 21 metal strap is used. Although the locations of metal strips in
configuration C2 and C3 are the same, the tensile strength of the metal strips in C3 is
twice the tensile strength of Simpson Strong Tie LSTA 21.
The third parameter is double bottom plates. In this case, two rows of nails spaced at 75
mm on centres were used in bottom plates. The forth parameter is unblocked sheathings
that were joined at the middle of wall height. The last parameter is different nailing
pattern, in which a single row of nails is used in end studs.
In order to compare the effect of these parameters on the performance of portal frame
walls, each individual parameter was studied with the reference walls without change of
other parameters.
Table 4: Types and locations of metal strips
Walls Types 1 and 2 Wall Types 3 and 4

Configuration Side 1 Side 2a Configuration Side 1 Side 2
1 None C2
2 None C3
3 C1b C1 1 C1b C1b
b
4 C2 C2 2 C2b C2b
b
5 C3 C3 3 C3b C3b
6 C1c C1 4 C1c C1c
c
7 C2 C2 5 C2c C2c
c
8 C3 C3 6 C3c C3c
a
Note: Metal strip is placed on framing members.
b
Metal strip is placed over wall sheathing.
c
Metal strip is placed underneath wall sheathing.
633
C1 C2 C3
4 Discussion and analysis

4.1 Height of the wall
The stiffness, ultimate lateral load-carrying capacities and design shear resistances of
reference walls and 3.05 m high walls are summarized in Table 5. The load-
displacement responses of the 2.44 m (8 feet) and 3.05 m (10 feet) high Wall Type 1 are
shown in Figure 6.
Results show that wall height has significant impact on the performance of portal frame
walls. For 3.05 m high walls, the ultimate lateral load capacities and design shear
resistances are approximately 20% and 25% lower respectively than those of the
corresponding 2.44 m high walls. The stiffness of the 3.05 m high walls is about 20 -
40% lower than that of the corresponding 2.44 m high walls.
Table 5: Summary of results of 2.44 m and 3.05 m high walls
Wall Type 1 Wall Type 2 Wall Type 3 Wall Type 4
2.44 m 3.05 m 2.44 m 3.05 m 2.44 m 3.05 m 2.44 m 3.05 m
k (N/mm)a 526.3 312.5 442.2 357.1 710.3 420.5 617.9 360.4
Fdesign (kN)b 7 5.2 5.6 4.2 9.3 6.9 7.8 5.8
Fmax (kN)c 15 12 11 9 19 15 15 12
Note: a k is the secant stiffness between 0 and 40% of the ultimate lateral load.
b
Fdesign is the design shear resistance determined in accordance with AC 130 [6], which is the lesser of
50% ultimate lateral load and the load corresponding to displacement at 1/180 wall height.
c
Fmax is the ultimate lateral load.
Fig. 6: Load-displacement responses of 2.44 m and 3.05 high Wall Type 1
634
4.2 Types and locations of metal strips

The stiffness, ultimate lateral load-carrying capacities and design shear resistances of
portal frame walls with different types and locations of metal strips are listed in Tables
6 and 7.
For wall configurations 5 and 8 of Wall Type 2, the lateral load capacities were
achieved when sheathing-to-framing joints failed at the bottom plate. For walls with
metal strips placed over sheathing (except wall configuration 3 of Wall Type 1), the
lateral load capacity continued to increase until metal strips broke after sheathing
rupture. For the rest of the walls, the lateral load capacities were achieved at the time of
sheathing rupture.
Based on the results, the following observations are made:
1. The walls with sheathings attached on both sides of the framing have
approximately 30% higher lateral load capacities and stiffness than the walls
with sheathings attached on one side of the framing.
2. The use of high strength metal strips (twice the tensile strength of Simpson
Strong Tie LSAT 21) can greatly increase the lateral load capacities and
stiffness of portal frame walls.
3. The walls with metal strips installed on the both ends of the studs (Configuration
C2) have higher lateral load capacities and stiffness than the walls with metal
strips installed at inner corner of the walls (Configuration C1).
4. The lateral load capacities and stiffness can be further increased for walls with
metal strips installed underneath the sheathing (directly on framing member).
5. For walls with hold-downs installed at the ends of portal frame walls (Wall
Types 1 and 3), the lateral load capacities and stiffness are respectively 30 –
70% and 10 - 20% higher than the walls without hold-downs (Wall Types 2 and
4).
Table 6: Summary of results of Wall Types 1 and 2 with different types and locations of
metal strips
Wall Type 1 Wall Type 2

Configuration
k (N/mm) Fdesign (kN) Fmax (kN) k (N/mm) Fdesign (kN) Fmax (kN)
Reference 526.7 7.0 15 441.3 5.5 11
1 550.7 7.3 16 464.6 6.0 12
2 594.7 8.1 20 509.5 6.7 15
3 530.6 7.1 16.8 455.5 5.5 11
4 575.8 7.7 18.5 495.0 6.4 13
5 622.6 8.8 27 556.6 7.3 16
6 547.8 7.5 19 463.8 6.2 14
7 594.7 8.1 20 509.5 6.7 15
8 634.1 8.9 27 573.5 7.6 16
635
Table 7: Summary of results of Wall Types 3 and 4 with different types and locations of
metal strips
Model 3 Model 4
Configuration
k (N/mm) Fdesign (kN) Fmax (kN) k (N/mm) Fdesign (kN) Fmax (kN)
Reference 710.5 9.2 19 617.7 7.5 15
1 746.9 9.0 18 654.0 7.0 14
2 764.2 10.2 23 683.7 8.0 16
3 783.3 10.8 30 688.6 9.2 22
4 750.6 10.2 26 661.9 8.7 20
5 800.3 10.8 27 708.6 9.4 21
6 834.8 11.8 35 743.9 10.3 28
a) Series A comparison b) Series B comparison

Fig. 8: Load-displacement responses of Wall Type 1 with different types and locations of
metal strips
4.3 Other parameters

Portal frame walls with parameters of double bottom plates, unblocked sheathing at the
middle of wall height and different nailing pattern parameters are studied. The stiffness,
ultimate lateral load-carrying capacities and design shear resistances of portal frame
walls with these parameters are provided in Tables 8, 9 and 10. Figure 9 shows the load-
displacement responses of Wall Type 1 with these parameters.
Based on the results, it is noticed that for portal frame walls with double bottom plates,
both stiffness and lateral load capacities are slightly higher than those of the
corresponding reference walls. For walls where unblocked sheathings were joined at the
middle of wall height, though the lateral load capacity is the same as those of the
corresponding reference walls, the stiffness is slightly lower than those of the
corresponding reference walls. For walls where a single row of nails is used in end studs,
while the lateral load capacity is slightly higher, the stiffness is slightly lower than those
of the corresponding reference walls.
636
Table 8: Comparison of results of reference walls (Wall R) and walls with double
bottom plates (Wall P)

Wall R Wall P Wall R Wall P Wall R Wall P Wall R Wall P
k (N/mm)a 526.7 549.8 441.3 471 710.5 773.1 617.7 693.3
Fdesign (kN)b 7 7.3 5.5 6 9.2 10 7.5 8.7
Fmax (kN)c 15 16 11 12 19 20 15 16
Table 9: Comparison of results of reference walls (Wall R) and walls with unblocked
sheathing at the middle of wall height (Wall P)

k (N/mm)a 526.7 487.4 441.3 412.4 710.5 673.4 617.7 587.3
Fdesign (kN)b 7 6.5 5.5 5.4 9.2 8.9 7.5 7.5
Fmax (kN)c 15 15 11 11 19 19 15 15
Table 10: Comparison of results of reference walls (Wall R) and walls with different
nailing pattern (Wall P)

k (N/mm)a 526.7 462.2 441.3 378.1 710.5 619.2 617.7 531.5
Fdesign (kN)b 7 6.3 5.5 5.1 9.2 8.4 7.5 7
Fmax (kN)c 15 16 11 12 19 21 15 16
Fig. 9: Load-displacement responses of Wall Type 1 with other parameters
637
5 Conclusions
The finite element program SAP2000 was used to study the effect of different
parameters on the performance of portal frame walls. Based on the results, the following
observations are made:
1) The wall height has significant impact on the performance of portal frame walls.
With the same wall configurations, the lateral load capacities and stiffness of
3.05 m high walls are approximately 20% and 20 - 40% lower respectively than
that of the corresponding 2.44 m high walls.
2) For walls with different types and locations of metal strips, it is found that the
tensile strength of metal strips has the highest impact on the lateral load
capacities and stiffness of portal frame walls.
3) The walls with sheathings attached on both sides of the framing have
approximately 30% higher lateral load capacities and stiffness than the walls
with sheathings attached on one side of the framing.
4) It is most efficiency if metal strips are placed directly on framing members. The
efficiency is reduced if the metal strips are placed over the sheathing.
5) The contribution of double bottom plates is insignificant. For walls with double
bottom plates and two rows of nails fastened to the bottom plate, the stiffness
and lateral load capacities are slightly increased compared to the walls with
single bottom plate.
6) For walls with sheathings joined at the middle of wall height and unblocked, the
lateral load capacities are the same as the walls with continuous sheathings
running from the bottom to the top of the walls. The stiffness is slightly lower.
7) The two rows of nails along end studs do not affect the lateral load capacity of
the portal frame walls. However, they do increase the stiffness of the walls.
References
[1] CSA. 2005. Engineering Design in Wood. CSA O86-01, Canadian Standards
Association, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
[2] APA. 2008. A Portal frame with hold downs for engineered applications. Technical
Note TT-100C. APA - The Engineered Wood Association, Tacoma, WA.
[3] ASTM. 2002. Standard Test Methods for Structural Panels in Tension. ASTM
D3500. American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.
[4] ASTM. 2002. Standard Test Methods for Structural Panels in Shear Through-the-
Thickness. ASTM D2719. American Society for Testing and Materials, West
Conshohocken, PA.
[5] Zhu EC, Guan ZW, Rodd PD and Rope DJ. 2005. Finite element modeling of OSB
webbed timber I-beams with interactions between openings. Advances in
Engineering Software, 36: 797-805.
[6] ICC. 2009. Acceptance Criteria for Prefabricated Wood Shear Panels. ICC
Evaluation Report AC130. www.icc-es.org.
638
2.5 WG 13 Compuational Morphogenesis
639
Shell surface with curve fold lines

Rohamezan ROHIM1*, Kok Keong CHOONG2, J.Y.KIM3 and Ka Waing KEW4
1*, 2 , 4
Universiti Sains Malaysia
School of Civil Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Seri
Ampangan, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Seberang Perai Selatan, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
mei_zan@yahoo.co.uk
3
Hyupsung University
Department of Architectural Engineering, Hwasung-shi, Korea
Abstract
Novel idea for structural form for shell and spatial structure inspired by art of
origami is presented. The idea originates from origami object created by Huffman [1].
The presented idea of structural form has the unique feature of curved fold lines on shell
surface. Such structural form has been called shell surface with curved fold lines
(SSCFL). SSCFL possesses the advantage of folds which might help to enhance the
load carrying capacity. At the same time, the existence of curved fold lines on shell
surface adds aesthetic value to the surface due to formation of pattern on the surface. In
this paper, the parameters which will affect the plan configuration of the curved fold
lines are identified. Effects of various combinations of such parameters on the plan
configuration are studied. A generally applicable CAD-based systematic procedure for
fast generation of SSCFL is also proposed. The availability of such generation
procedures is crucial for the subsequent structural investigation.
Keywords: Shell, folded shell, origami, curved fold line, plate
1 Introduction
The capability of supporting high loadings with respect to the span-to-rise or span-to –
thickness ratio, makes shell structures as the best selections for the roofing system. The
governing effect of bending depends on the ratio of the thickness from very thick shells
to very thin shells. Very often these “special structures” [2] became landmarks
providing evidence to the achievement of the structural engineering. Similar principle
applies to folded plate structure. Loads carrying capacity of a flat and thin structure are
enhanced if the surface is folded. The stiffness and strength increased when the span-to-
depth ratio is increased as well as the load carrying capacity. That is the reason why
many types of folded plate have been studied, analysed and built [3]. Folded plates are
commonly used as roof structures, concrete stairs, folded lampshades and lanterns,
corrugated sheet pile and others. Ideas and their subsequent application to shell and
folded plate structures could originate from origami. One specific idea from origami
which could possibly be explored is origami with curved folding geometry. When the
vertexes of the folding paper joining at several folds, amazing and beautiful art of
folding paper could be realized[4].
640
Intensive research studies on folded plate have been carried out since 1920s. It can be
seen in the works by Buri and Weinard [5] and Haasis and Weinard [6], where they
proposed methods to rapidly generate folded plate structure using glued timber panel
and build up a prototype to develop and analyse variety of feasible design of origami. A
pioneer study on folded shell surface found in nature has been conducted by A.Razzack
[7]. MD Resadi [8] has constructed a small-scale physical model of SSCFL in order to
study the aspect of constructability where measurement data by Harun [9] has been used.
Recently, Ng [10] studied the effect of folds on structural behaviour of origami by
changing the curvature of the model.
Ketchum [11] in his work emphasized that shell structure gets their strength not by the
strength of the material used, but by the shape applied to the structure. With that
statement, shell surface with curve fold lines inspired from origami could provide an
attractive alternative structural form. The object created by Huffman [1] seems to have
the combination of shell surface with curve fold lines, thus becoming the main interest
of study in this paper. Such structural form has been termed as shell surface with curve
fold lines (SSCFL) in this study. Huffman also outlined the fundamental behaviour of
zero-curvature surfaces near the crease of a cone surface [12].
Before SSCFL can be considered for structural application, its structural behaviour must
be first understood. This study has been carried out with the objective of proposing a
systematic procedure for the generation of SSCFL. The availability of such generation
tool will enable different variation of SSCFL to be speedily generated for the purpose of
structural behaviour by means of computational analysis.
2 Shell surface with curve fold lines(SSCFL)

Shell surface with curve fold lines can be seen mostly in the art of origami. Some of the
SSCFL work from the previous artist and researchers has been compiled by Demaine
[13]. The above study also explored more twisting variation on concentric circle
sculpture that is able to make a twist of more than 360°, which was popularized by
Thoki Yenn in late 1980’s. These interesting characteristics may have application to
deployable structures.
A beautiful and unique concentric Circular Tower, has been created by Huffman in
which circles are caused to remain roughly concentric after folding [14] as can be seen
Fig. 1: Concentric Circle Fig. 2: Concentric Circle

Tower-by Huffman Tower-by Sternberg
641
in Figure 1. In order to see the effect of corrugation due to mountain and valley folds,
Sternberg [15] reproduced the work carried out by Huffman. It is found that when the
concentric circular is unwinded, the corrugation gets weaker due to fact that the
mountain and valley folds get shallower as shown in Figure 2.
2.1 Uniqueness of Huffman’s folded curve surface
As mentioned earlier, the origami object developed by Huffman is the interest in this
study. He developed surfaces with curved folds, which are in contrast from traditional
origami, where all folds are straight. Huffman also explored structures composed of
repeating three-dimensional units - chains of cubes and rhomboids, and complex
tessellations of triangular, pentagonal and star-shaped blocks [14]. Figure 3 shows some
of the Huffman’s model. Model in Figure 3(a) has been selected as a study object. The
systematic generation of model in Figure 3(c) has been previously been studied by
Rohim[16].
2.2 Basic Principle Governing the Generation process of SSCFL
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 3: Curved lines with folds: a) 4 parabolic curved fold through center, b) A
tower like paper structure, c) 4 parabolic curved folds meet at center square
In order to produce models of SSCFL as shown in Figure 3(a), parameters affecting the
surface configuration as shown in Figure 4 have to be identified. The systematic
procedures of generation of SSCFL presented in this study covers only data in x-y plane.
The object of SSCFL by Huffman seems to have an ellipse plan shape. The main
generation procedures involved the two horns as shown in Figure 4. Layout of the
horns has significant influence on the appearance of SSCFL. As can be seen in Figures
4 and 5, each horn is formed by a pair of curved fold lines. Figure 5 shows an example
of curved fold lines VH1 and RH1 forming a horn. VH1 and RH1 are curved fold lines
forming valley and ridge on the model of SSCFL. The main problem to be overcome
in generation of SSCFL is the generation of data for these two curved fold lines.
As indicated in Figures 4 and 5, generation of VH1 and RH1 is governed by imaginary
lines L1 or L2, the ratio R1 or R2 which denotes the sag ratio relative to length of L1 or
L2. Ratios of R1 or R2 have direct effect on the curvature of the VH1 or RH1. The
orientation of L1 and L2 relative to axis of the elliptical plan is specified by means of
642
the angle θ and θ+Δθ. Figure 5 shows the schematic diagram of x-y plane to construct
the first horn. The first horn is assumed to be located in quadrant II, QII. The first horn
RH1
VH1 L2 R2
QI a
L1
Horn
Major axis
R2 R1
L2
QII
R1 θ Δθ (0,0)
L1
Δθ
θ QIII QIV
y x y b
Minor axis
x
Fig. 4: Identified parameters to Fig. 5: Schematic diagram to create first
create the horn horn
is bounded by VH1 (valley for first horn) and RH1 (ridge for first horn ) and the tips of
the curve started from the centre of the elliptical plan shape.
2.3 Systematic procedures of generation of SSCFL
2.3.1 Construction of the first horn
First, an ellipse with major axis a and minor axis b is drawn by using general equation
 x  h 2  y  k 2
 1 (1)
a2 b2
h and k was taken as (0,0) at the origin x1,y1 as in Figure 6 (a). Then the length of
imaginary line L1 is measured from point of origin x1, y1 to point x3, y3. The length of
L1 is chosen arbitrary. In this study, the length has been limited to a maximum of 3
QIII
x1’,y1’
x3,y3 θ x3’,y3’
VH1 QIV x0’,y0’ L1
x2,y2 R1
R1 QI
L1 VH1
x2’,y2’
x0,y0 y’
QII QI QII
x’
y QIII θ x1,y1
x y
x QIV
(a) (b)
Fig.6 : Construction of the first curve of VH1. a) in global coordinate x
and y b) transformation to local coordinate x’ and y’.
643
times major axis a. The mid length of imaginary line L1 at point x0, y0 is then used to
determine the point x2, y2. Point x2, y2 is the peak of the parabolic curve of VH1.
Coordinates x2, y2 are determined using the sag ratio R1. Knowing the starting point x1,
y1, peak points x2, y2 and end point x3, y3, parabolic curve VH1 is then calculated by
using equation y=ax2+bx+c. Before the parabolic curve of VH1 is calculated, all those
three points are transformed into a local coordinate system as in Figure 6 (b) with
respect to angle θ.
After the transformations, points x1’, y1’, x2’, y2’, and x3’, y3’ are used to calculate the
parabolic curve of VH1. All points on the parabolic curve of VH1 are then transformed
back into the global coordinate to complete the first curve. The parabolic curve VH1 is
terminated at the intersection with the elliptical edge of the plan shape.
The second parabolic curve of RH1 is constructed using the same steps and equations as
for the first parabolic curve VH1. However the angle used to construct the imaginary
line L2 is taken as Δθ from the imaginary line L1. Figure 7(a) shows the completed
shape of the first horn.
2.3.2 Construction of the second horn
The construction of the second horn is done by duplicating the first horn and rotating at
the angle 180°around the origin as shown in the figure 7(b). Figure 7(c) shows that both
horns can be translated along the x and y axis, in order to give more choices to create
RH1 RH1
VH1
VH1 RH1
VH1
Horn 1 Horn 1 ±Δx
180° ±Δy Horn 1
Horn 2
Horn 2 VH2
VH2
RH2 RH2
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 7: a) Construction of the first horn, b) duplication and rotation to construct the
second horn, c) the horns is free to translate along ± Δx and ±Δy
different types of layout of horn on SSCFL.
2.3.3 Folding process of SSCFL
For the folding process, few variations of parameter have been selected and examined.
The ellipse size is varied from small, medium to large size by changing the value for
minor axis b from 50%, 65% and 80% of major axis a. The angle θ is varied from 45°,
58°and 70°clockwise from the x-axis, whereas, the angle Δθ is varied from 15°, 23°
644
and 30°from the imaginary line L1. The lengths of imaginary line L1 and L2 are taken
to be the same as that major axis a. The ratio R for both curves is taken as 10%, 13%
and 15% with respect to imaginary line L1 or L2. The combinations of the parameters
used to construct various shape of SSCFL are shown in Table1.
A few models have been folded in order to examine theirs appearances. The aspects of
foldability and the aesthetical value play an important role. The model must follow
closely as the model created by Huffman and the folded curve must cover most of the
surface of the ellipse shape. On the x-y plane, medium size ellipse seems to be the best
choice. This is due to the reason that the distribution of the horn seems to totally fill up
the area within the ellipse.
Table 1 Variations of parameter used to construct SSCFL
Small size ellipse Medium size ellipse Large size ellipse

L1 = L2 = a
a = constant a = constant a = constant
b = 50% a b = 65% a b = 80% a
Angle Angle Ratio, Angle Angle Ratio, Angle Angle Ratio,
θ° Δθ° R % θ° Δθ° R % θ° Δθ° R %
45 15 10 45 15 10 45 15 10
45 23 10 45 23 10 45 23 10
45 30 10 45 30 10 45 30 10
58 15 13 58 15 13 58 15 13
58 23 13 58 23 13 58 23 13
58 30 13 58 30 13 58 30 13
70 15 15 70 15 15 70 15 15
70 23 15 70 23 15 70 23 15
70 30 15 70 30 15 70 30 15
The combination of parameter used are θ=70°, Δθ= 30° and R=15%. Large size ellipse
looks more like a circle, whereas small size of ellipse looks very elongated in shape.
Figure 8 shows two different models that are used for folding processes. Figure 8(a)
shows the model where the tip of both horns has been translated with the same amount
of Δx and Δy; whereas Figure 8 (b) shows that the tip of both horns has been translated
at the same amount along the minor axis of the ellipse.
It can be seen clearly that the SSCFL model with the tip of the horn translated with the
same amount of Δx and Δy gave a curve with higher aesthetical value. The shadow on
the SSCFL makes the shape of the horn clearly visible and it covers most of the surface
of the model. However, the SSCFL model with the tip of the horn translated along the
minor axis of the ellipse does not give a very a good appearance in comparison with the
one shown in Figure 8(a). The area covered by the horn over the surface of the model is
relatively small.
645
(a) (b)
Fig. 8: Sample of SSCFL after folding. (a) the tip of the horn lies at incline angle
from x- axis, (b) tip of the model lies along the minor axis of the ellipse itself.
2.4 Discussion
From the procedures of SSCFL folding process, some parameters and limitation have
been identified. Parameter such as angle θ to control the orientation of imaginary line
L1 from x-axis, angle Δθ to control the orientation of line L2 from line L1 and ratio R to
control the curvature of the valley(VH) and ridge(RH) curves The construction of the
second horn is carried out by duplicating the first horn and rotating at angle 180°around
the origin of the elliptical plan shape of SSCFL. After rotation, the horns are then
translated according to the specified Δx and Δy in major and minor axis direction,
respectively.
Small, medium and large sizes of the ellipse with variaous combination of parameters
have been used. The medium size of ellipse with θ=70°, Δθ=30° and the ratio R=15%,
are found to be the best combination to construct SSCFL model in terms of appearance
of SSCFL. After construction of SSCFL model, the model with the tip of the horn,
which has been translated at the same amount of Δx and Δy is found to be the best
folding model of SSCFL. The sharpness of the fold and interplay of shadow gave the
SSCFL high aesthetic value in terms of prominence of curved folds lying on a shell
surface. The horns are seen to covered most of the ellipse surface and resemble closely
the model first created by Huffman.
The proposed generation procedures could be used as basis for further generation
surface height variation which is needed to complete the analysis model for structural
analysis.
646
2.5 Conclusions
A novel idea of structural form inspired by origami created by Huffman which features
of curved fold lines on shell surface has been introduced. Systematic procedures for
fast generation of such surface with elliptical plan shape and two sets of curved folds in
the shape of parabola have been presented. Parameters and limitations governing the
construction of SSCFL are also described.
Acknowledgements
Support provided by Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia to the first author and
funding from Universiti Sains Malaysia for the purpose of this research is highly
appreciated.
References
[1] Huffman, D.A. Geometric paper folding: Dr. David Huffman. 1996
http://www.graficaobscura.com/ Huffman/ (Accessed: 22 February 2010.)
[2] Bradshaw, R., Campbell, D., Gargari, M., Mirmiran, A., and Tripeny, P. Special
structure: past, present and future. Journal of Structural Engineering 2002; Vol.
128, No. 6, pp.691-709.
[3] Ketchum M.S. Concrete Shell Structures - Design, Analysis, & Construction 1997
http://www.ketchum.org/ shells.html (accessed 2 January 2008).
[4] Miura, K. A note on intrinsic geometry origami. First International Meeting of
Origami Science and Technology, Ferrara, Italy. 1989.
[5] Buri, H. and Weinard, Y. ORIGAMI - Folded Plate Structures, Architecture, 10th
World Conference on Timber Engineering, Miyazaki, Japan. 2008
[6] Haasis, M. and Weinard, Y. ORIGAMI–Folded Plate Structures, Engineering, 10th
World Conference on Timber Engineering, Miyazaki, Japan. 2008
[7] A.Razzack SA. A computational study on a nature inspired novel folded shell
structure form. PhD Dissertation, School of Civil Engineering, Universiti Sains
Malaysia, 2008
[8] MD Resadi MKA. Shell surface with folds based on idea from paper folding art. B
Eng. Dissertation, School of Civil Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 2007.
[9] Harun MH. Analysis of shell surface with fold based on the idea from paper
folding art. B Eng., School of Civil Engineering, Dissertation. Universiti Sains
Malaysia, 2006
[10] Ng, W.K. Effect of folds on structural behaviour of origami inspired folded shell
structure. M.Sc. Dissertation, School of Civil Engineering Universiti Sains
Malaysia, 2010.
[11] Ketchum, M.S. Some basic concepts for shell structures 1997.
http://www.ketchum.org/-milo/concept.html. (Accessed 2 January 2008).
647
[12] Huffman, D.A. Curvature and Creases: A Primer on paper. IEEE Transactions on
Computers 1976, Vol. C-25, No. 10, pp-1010-1019.
[13] Demaine, E.D. and Demaine, M.L. History of curved origami sculpture 2008.
http://erikdemaine. org/curved/history/, (Accessed: 5 January 2010).
[14] Wartheim, M. (2004), Cones, Curves, Shells, Towers: He Made Paper Jump to Life
The New York Times. Published http://www.nytimes.com/2004/06/22/science/22
orig.html (Accessed: 2 January 2010)
[15] Sternberg, S. (2009). Origami, Aesthetic and Natural History, http://origami-
aesthetics.blogspot.com/(Accessed: 18 October 2009)
[16] Rohim, R., Choong, K.K., Kim, J.Y. Shell surface with curved fold lines inspired
by paper folding art. 6th International Conference on Computation of Shell and
Spatial Structures IASS-IACM 2008, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA 2008
648
NetworkedDesign, next generation infrastructure for

computational structural design
Jeroen COENDERS1*
1*
Arup and Delft University of Technology
Naritaweg 118, 1043 CA Amsterdam, The Netherlands
jeroen.coenders@arup.com
Abstract
The author has been engaged in research and development of supporting structural
design and engineering by making use of computational methods for the past 6 years.
This research has assumed that (1) increased use of advanced computational methods in
structural design and engineering is desirable and can provide our profession with new
opportunity and quality, and (2) there is a gap between what design and engineering
desires and what computational methods can deliver.
To integrate computational tools further in our profession and its processes, design and
engineering should be empowered by the tools, not by force, but by seduction under the
assumption that ease of use, powerful features and a close relationship to the key values
in design will seduce the user to use these methods. Therefore, the research has
focussed on identification of key characteristics and values in structural design and
engineering which the author attempts to link to computational technology to improve
the adaptation process of computation in design under the assumption that computation
will aid the structural engineer with tasks which humans are less capable in, such as
controlling and managing large datasets, quick assessment of large and complex
problems, etc.
This research has led to the investigation of various technologies, such parametric and
associative design, building information modelling and algorithmic design, arriving at
the conclusion that these systems can be improved so that they enable the designing
engineer better.
In order to obtain this improvement the author focussed on the level of infrastructure,
rather than the level of individual design tools or the level of design tool frameworks or
toolboxes, and proposed a series of concepts for a new computational infrastructure.
This paper will cover several key concepts and features which are part of the novel
computational infrastructure, under the working title of NetworkedDesign. The paper
will describe and illustrate these features and will present their underlying concepts by
making use of a computational prototype system which the author has developed from
the ground up.
Keywords: Computational design, structural design
649
1 Introduction
For about the last 40 years engineers, amongst them structural engineers, have adopted
computational techniques as a tool to aid them in their work. Initially, this mainly
focussed on automating calculations from which numerical techniques, like the Finite
Element Method (FEM), grew. In parallel CAD was slowly adopted by the building
industry. CAD stands for Computation Aided Design, but in honesty Computer Aided
Drafting had been a better term, because they just aided design by drafting. These
systems evolved into (a) more advanced geometrical systems, initially mainly in other
industries which had an earlier requirement for advanced geometry, surface and solid
modelling, and (b) Building Information Modelling (BIM) [1] systems.
Three observations stand out in this development:
1. Although almost all systems were aimed to support the design process to conceive
building designs, all systems only focus on support one or a few particular activities
in the process of design and lack a clear overarching strategy to support the design
process itself. Examples of these activities are for instance analysing a model or
producing a drawing;
2. Although many of the technologies have evolved to very advanced systems, such as
non-linear finite element systems, computational fluid dynamics, building
information modelling systems, optimisation algorithms, etc., adoption of the
advanced versions these technologies has been slow and not employed on a large
scale; This in contrast to other industries, which seem to have adopted these
technologies faster and more widely spread. The author assumes here that adoption
of these technologies is desirable, because they can bring many benefits to the
quality of building in the widest sense (the value-side and the cost-side throughout
the entire lifecycle of buildings) as well as opportunities for the future, but that there
must be barriers for the adoption in the building industry;
3. Although advanced technology is available and has evolved in all industries related
to the design and engineering disciplines and although computation for many
decades was the sole domain of the engineer, it seems that with the rise of the
internet the rest of the world has quickly adopted this technology and has overtaken
the engineers in pioneering this technology;
The author aims to research and develop strategies and technology which will help the
designers and engineers to catch up with the rest of the word and potentially putting
them back in the position where their technological background, methods and processes
can help to innovate new (computation) technology and benefits for society as a whole.
This needs to be started by making adoption of the advanced technology possible
without damaging the qualities implicit in the design process. The author has assumed
that adoption is, amongst others, not taking place, because there is a discrepancy
between what inherit qualities the designers and engineers seek in their tool(box) and
what is available to them. The assumption is that currently designers and engineers are
only finding the above mentioned tools which aid one or a few specific activities in the
process, rather than finding the quality they seek to adopt these tools. This paper will
not focus on finding the reasons for these discrepancies or listing all qualities implicit in
650
the design process, but will focus on a small number of qualities and concepts which
will relate to the proposed infrastructural concepts.
To integrate computational tools further in our profession and its processes, design and
engineering should be empowered by the tools, not by force, but by seduction under the
assumption that ease of use, powerful features and a close relationship to the key values
in design will seduce the user to use these methods. Therefore, the research has
focussed on identification of key characteristics and values in structural design and
engineering of which the authors attempts to link them to computational technology to
improve the adaptation process of computation in design under the assumption that
computation will aid the structural engineer with tasks which humans are less capable in,
such as controlling and managing large datasets, quick assessment of large and complex
problems, etc.
This research has led to the investigation of various technologies, such parametric and
associative design, building information modelling and algorithmic design, arriving at
the conclusion that these systems can be improved so that they enable the designing
engineer better.
In order to obtain this improvement the author focussed on the level of infrastructure,
rather than the level of individual design tools or the level of design tool frameworks or
toolboxes, and proposed a series of concepts for a new computational infrastructure.
This paper will cover several key features which are part of the novel computational
infrastructure, under the working title of NetworkedDesign. The paper will describe and
illustrate these features and will present their underlying concepts by making use of a
novel computational system which the author has developed from the ground up.
2 NetworkedDesign
NetworkedDesign is a conceptual infrastructure for a next generation of design systems.
Although the design has originated from a research into adoption of computational tools
for structural design and engineering, its concepts can be employed in other industries,
as these are largely generalised and focused on logic rather than domain-specific
implementation.
Although NetworkedDesign includes many features which are also common in
parametric and associative design systems, this paper aims to demonstrate that its design
concepts include parametric and associative concepts, but also provide more generalised
concepts. In other words, when a subset of the NetworkedDesign concepts are being
utilised the system can operate as a parametric and associative system
Assumption to the design of the infrastructure has been that adoption of software
technology cannot be enforced on people and people will only adopt and adjust their
workflow if they see value in the technological solution and find a minimal set of key
concepts which gives them trust in the solution.
Below a selection for these concepts has been presented, which have been published in
more extensive form by the author in 2007 [2].
651
2.1 Confidence, insight, control and trust
Confidence and trust are among the most important concepts which need to be satisfied
by a technology to be adopted by designers and engineers. If the designer does not trust
or has confidence in his means, he will not adopt them. Insight and control are two
derived aspects of confidence as having insight in the solution or having control over
the solution are an important sources for building confidence.
2.2 Personalisation
Personalisation is another important concept following from the individualistic

characteristic of design. Every building, every project, every company, every team,
every person has unique processes leading to a truly unique process for each project.
Related, it has been observed by the author that for technology to be adopted it plays a
large role that individuals seem to seek certain “hand-holds” in their technology to
support their personal process. Personalisation follows from the adaptability of the
solution as well as its customisation abilities.
2.3 Effectiveness: Expression, ease of use and reusability
Another important concept for adoption of a technology is its effectiveness. The more
effective the solution is, the more likely it is that is adopted. Important derivatives are
the power to (a) express, (b) ease of use and (c) reusability of earlier specified
information. The power of express follows from the amount of information which can
be expressed with the minimum amount of energy. The higher this expression power,
the more powerful and suitable the technology is and the more likely its adoption. Ease
of use follows from a minimal amount of energy the user needs to put in to use the
technology to follow the process the technology provides over an idealised process
which the user understands and feels comfortable with. Reusability is a derivative of
ease of use, but specifically focussed on reuse of earlier specified information. The less
energy the user needs to put in to reuse a piece of information, the more reusable the
technology is.
2.4 Change
Change is an important aspect of design which needs to be supported. Design changes

by nature, since it is a process to come to a solution, zooming in from high level aspects
towards detailed design solutions. Technology should be able to adapt to these changes.
652
3 System design and implementation

The section below will discuss various starting points for the design of the system
concepts, which will be further discussed in Section 4. Due to the fact that the full
description of the complete system design will become too extensive, the discussion
will be limited to the discussion of these starting points.
To demonstrate the design concepts of the infrastructure, a prototype system has been
developed by the author to prove the workings of the concepts, as well as experiment
with their interrelated use. This prototype has been implemented in C# based on
the .NET Framework (Microsoft, http://www.microsoft.com/net/).
Please note that although the implemented prototype is a system, its concepts can easily
be abstracted to the level of infrastructure.
3.1 Change propagation
Changes propagate through the system based on a directed graph consisting of

properties (parameters), objects and relationships (associations) describing a generative
logic, similar to parametric and associative design systems.
By implementing this concept NetworkedDesign satisfies the need for insight, control,
change, ease of use and reusability.
3.2 Replication
Replication is the ability to propagate cardinality logic through the update logic. In
other words logic can be expressed for one object, but when multiple objects are fed
into the logic, the logic is applied to each of input objects, leading to multiple outputs.
Like other modern systems, such as GenerativeComponents (Bentley systems,
http://www.bentley.com/nl-NL/Products/GenerativeComponents) and Grasshopper
(McNeel, http://www.grasshopper3d.com), NetworkedDesign has also implemented this
concept as a powerful means for expression of cardinality logic.
3.3 Plugability
The prototype system is fully plugable by design, which implies that it provides an
extensive API (Application Programming Interface) to extend the system with entities
developed by the user.
NetworkedDesign satisfies the need for adaptability and customisation by implementing
this concept; the user is able to develop his own entities with their own logic. Also the
user interface and attached modelling systems can be customised through this extension
mechanism.
3.4 Interoperability
Interoperability (the ability of systems to exchange information with each other) is

experienced as one of the most important problems for computational systems in
653
practice. The author would like to propose that this problem is a problem of (the lack of)
standardisation or the lack of agreement on standardisation.
Different from other system, NetworkDesign system follows a route by design to attack
the interoperability issue by including open objects and a number of mechanisms for the
user to define his or her own standards, or to use a pre-defined standard. Open objects
will be further discussed in Section 4.1.
3.5 Solvers
NetworkedDesign is by design solver-indifferent. This means that the system contains a

data model of the various entities in the model (further discussed in Section 4), but does
not contain a pre-described method to resolve changes in the system based on changes
of properties of the objects.
The system however contains a change propagation process, which can derive from the
logic what needs to change. The system can also propose solution methods based on the
relationship types in the model.
This allows for various types of change propagation processes: parametric (single-
directional graph parsing), optimisation algorithms, symbolic computation, constraint
solving, etc. Further information on the solver object and the currently implemented
solver types will be discussed in Section 4.
Because NetworkedDesign is solver-indifferent, it can express logic (and solve the
expressions) in many ways, leading to more powerful forms for expression and more
close related to the nature of the problem and the domain.
3.7 Exceptions
Parametric systems are good at producing collections of objects following the same
logic, for instance by the concept of replication. Systems based on manual input, such as
most the traditional CAD systems and several of the current BIM solutions, do not deal
well with complicated logic and usually stop at arraying to instantiate collections of
objects.
In design however exceptions in this logic often occur. Systems based on manual input
by definition deal well with these problems, because they do not contain any logic
between the objects which can be broken by an exception. Parametric systems usually
do not deal well with exceptions without extensive work.
To deal with exceptions NetworkedDesign includes the design concepts described in an
earlier paper by the author [3] which proposed a language to express exceptions on
definition and rule-processing to deal with exceptions in the model. The language has
currently not yet been implemented, but could be added by design in the input parser.
Rule-processing has been implemented and will be discussed in Section 4.
654
4 System concepts
The section below will describe the key system concepts of NetworkedDesign. These
concepts will be at times referred to as entities.
4.1 Objects
Objects are the key data containers in the system. These containers can carry
information by the addition of properties. Properties will be further explained below.
By design objects are empty in the system, meaning that objects do not have pre-
specified properties and need to gain these from methods, which will be further
discussed in Section 4.3.
The advantages of empty objects are that (a) they are computationally lightweight,
because they do not contain any unnecessary overhead in memory or clock cycles, and
(b) they are open to user-specified definition. Open objects means that the user can
build his own interoperability standard. It needs to be noted that this does not mean the
user is not able to use a predefined standard in the system. Because the user is able to
use any standard over just a single standard, combined with the fact that
NetworkedDesign has the power to express many types of logic, the interoperability
problem is significantly reduced.
4.2 Relationships
Relationships or associations specify how objects relate to each other and to methods.
The design supports two relationship types:
a. Property relationships: These relationships relate objects or methods to properties.
b. Rule relationships: These relationships relate rules to objects, which will be further
explained in Section 4.6.
Relationships can be employed both early and late binding, meaning that the
relationship can be added by definition (early) or as the result of an update or rule
process (late). Relationships are marked with the solver they relate to, but can be used
by multiple solvers.
4.3 Methods
Methods specify process information on objects. There are different types of methods,
each with their own design. By design any object can have any number of non-
conflicting methods, meaning that the methods should not (re)define the same property.
In cases where a conflicting method is bound to occur, the user is able to define meta-
objects to specify e.g. solver priorities for resolution.
Methods are constrained to valid object types, meaning that they can only be used on
objects which can also be influence by this logic. For example, a point object cannot be
defined by a ByLength definition method, because a point does not have a length.
Methods can have an unlimited amount of valid object types, for example a
655
DefinitionByCartesianCoordinates can be used to defined points, coordinate systems,

nodes, vertices, etc.
4.3.1 Definition methods

Definition methods are the most common methods in the system. These methods
specify how an object is defined by adding properties to the object. These properties are
queried to the user, which can enter value, an object reference or property reference.
These inputs can be replicated as discussed in Section 3.
For example, a DefinitionByCartesianCoordinates definition method adds x, y an z
coordinates to a point object.
4.3.2 Calculation methods

Calculation methods also add one or more properties to an object, but do not query the
user for input. Instead the property value is determined based on a predefined
calculation procedure. This procedure can be single-directional, but also bi-directional.
The system can test for the required properties for the calculation procedure. If these are
not present, the resolution and change propagation fails.
A typical example for a calculation method is the calculation of the length of a line.
4.3.3 Transformation methods

Transformation methods can be used to transform the definition of an object, for
example when a point originally defined by Cartesian coordinates needs redefinition in
spherical coordinates. Transformation methods can query for new information, take
existing properties from the object, test if the correct properties are available and can
transform these to new properties by making use of single- or bi-directional calculation
procedures.
4.3.4 Update methods

Update methods have been designed for more efficient change propagation procedures.
When the object has update methods, these can be called instead of recalling definition,
calculation or transformation procedures. This can for instance be used when delta-
logic provides faster calculation than complete recalculation.
4.4 Properties
Properties are used to contain the data on objects. Properties are added to objects by
methods. Properties are given a value, which can be either a primitive data-type, a
reference to an object or a reference to a property on an object or rule. Properties can be
replicated.
4.5 Declarations
Declarations provide additional information on an object or property. This additional

information can be employed by other entities to determine a course of action. For
instance various classes of problems (see Section 4.10) employ declarations to
656
determine if a property is a variable or a goal. Declarations can also be used to

categorise, tag, or classify objects.
4.6 Rules
Rules have been designed according to the proposal by the author in an earlier
publication [4] to deal with expression of alternative rule-based logic. Rules express
logic in the form of a rule which can take information from the entire graph instead of
just a number of by the user pre-selected objects. Rule relationships are late bound to
objects based on matched objects in the rule.
4.7 Assemblies
Assemblies consist of predefined objects, relationships, rules, etc. and are placed in a
single action in the model, mainly from the viewpoint of ease of use to limit actions to
instantiate objects, but also to provide a mechanism to in one action place an entire
constellation of logic which can later by queried for its internals. Assemblies can query
property values which can be used as parameters. By design assemblies can be
collapsed to a single object or expanded to expose their internal logic, however this has
not been implemented in the prototype system yet.
4.8 Solvers
As discussed in Section 3.5, NetworkedDesign is indifferent to the solver type. This

system therefore contains a special concept, called a Solver, which can be used to
inherit specific solver types from and attach these to the system through the plug-in
programming interface. Current implemented solvers include: brute force solver,
genetic algorithm solver and a parametric and associative solver, but can include any
other solver.
4.9 Paths
Paths consist of an alternating sequence of objects and relationships describing a single,

non-cyclic path through the graph. Current implementation allows the user to manually
defining a path by selecting a alternating selection of objects and relationships, or to
search for a path based on a begin and end point. In the last case the system can be its
internal route finding algorithms on the graph to find the path, e.g. through a
complicated model.
4.10 Problems
Problems consist of a set of objects, relationships, paths and declarations to form a

pattern which the system can use to search for solutions to this problem. The user can
use the problem definition to solve problems patterns to which he/she does not know the
solution. Another use case for problems could be common reoccurring patterns in a
model to which a number of predefined pieces of knowledge and logic can be applied.
657
4.11 Solutions
Solutions define the solution to a problem. The system contains a library of predefined
solutions, which can either be stored by modelling (not implemented) or pre-
programming them as library extensions. These solutions can be search for by the
system based on the problem patterns. Solutions implement a predefined set of logic.
This set can consist of objects, relationships, etc. which directly provide the solution to
a problem by placing new entities in the model, but can also include a solver definition
to solve the problem for instance numerically.
When modelling, the user might not always know the solution to every problem he or
she encounters. For this case NetworkedDesign has included in its design concepts
problem and solution definitions. The user can specify a problem definition which the
system can use to search a database of predefined patterns which are connected to
potential solutions.
5 Applications
The section below describe two cases to demonstrate several design concepts which are
native to NetworkedDesign and are more difficult to model in other systems.
5.1 Converting a parametric geometry into a structural analysis model
A common problem in structural engineering is to create a structural analysis model

from (a selection of) another model. This model usually contains geometry, but can also
contain more information in the form of object-definitions and properties (such as BIM
models), structural properties (in the case of an analysis BIM model or another
structural model) and/or parametric logic. In the last case often objects are scattered
through the model logic.
Rule-based logic can be employed here for powerful expression in the form of “Select
all points in the model, filter them to satisfy z-coordinate > 0 and use these points as
coordinates for a set of nodes”. By using a set of similar rules a parametric geometrical
model can be turned into a parametric structural model without direct dependency on
the logic of the geometrical model. Figure 1 shows an example of this case in the
prototype system.
This leads to important increased ease of use to perform this conversation in an
automated manner.
658
Fig 1. Logic of the tower model on the left, showing the parametric geometrical
definition on the left side of the logic and the rule based logic on the right side of the
logic connected by the rule relationships in blue.
5.2 Building advanced hybrid modellers with algorithmic solver

interaction
For some projects no modelling solutions are available in the software market. In this
case the author is involved in developing custom solutions which often includes
building solvers of all kinds to numerically solve the problem. In some cases it is
desirable to build a hybrid system, which allows for user interactivity as well as solver.
A good case for this are the meshing tools that the author has build for a concrete shell
like structure with a complex geometry. No tools were available in the market to
interactively design high quality calculation meshes based on the models provided by
the architect and the required design interactivity required by the engineers. To solve
this problem, the author has implemented a hybrid modeller based on a cable-net
analogy which allows parametric and associative interaction combined with continuous
solving for desirable mesh geometry.
In normal parametric systems it would be very difficult to include this type of solver in
a flexible manner without building extensive and error-prone work-arounds.
NetworkedDesign by design allows the user to build solvers.
Figure 2 shows the hybrid meshing system applied to a complex geometrical project.
659
Fig 2. Hybrid modeller results on a complex geometrical project
Discussion
Although the design concepts of NetworkedDesign has been based on a studies in
(abstracted) user requirements, it remains hard to prove that the concepts will provide
aid adoption of computation tools, since this might be dependent on many non-technical
aspects. However, NetworkedDesign aims to demonstrate concepts which hopefully
will improve existing modelling systems as well as inspire development of new systems.
Conclusions
This paper has presented a novel prototype system for a computational infrastructure
which aims to support structural design and engineering with a new combination of
technological concepts. These concepts have been selected and developed to satisfy
concepts from the design world to hopefully increase the chance of adoption of more
advanced computational methods in the engineering world.
References
[1] Eastman CM. Building Product Models: Computer Environments Supporting
Design and Construction. CRC Press, 1999.
[2] Coenders JL. Barriers in Computational Structural Design. Journal of The
International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures, 2007; 48:51-62.
[3] Coenders JL. Exceptions as a rule in computational design. In Domingo A and
Lazaro C. Evolution and Trends in Design, Analysis and Construction of Shell and
Spatial Structures, IASS Symposium 2009, Valencia, 2009; 166-167.
[4] Coenders JL. Rule-processing as a cross-cutting concern in parametric associative
design system. In Oliva Salinas JG. IASS-SLTE 2008 simposium Acapulco Mexico,
New materials and technologies, new design and innovations – a sustainable
approach to architectural and structural design, Acapulco, Mexico, 2008; 87-88.
660
Configuration optimization of clamping members of

frame-supported membrane structures
Taku NAKAJIMA1, Makoto OHSAKI2*, Jun FUJIWARA3, Fumiyoshi TAKEDA3
1
Dept. of Architecture and Architectural Engineering, Kyoto University, Japan
2*
Dept. of Architecture, Hiroshima University,
1-4-1, Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-8527, Japan
ohsaki@hiroshima-u.ac.jp
3
Technical Research Center, Taiyo Kogyo Corporation, Japan
Abstract
A method is presented for configuration optimization of frames that have specified
properties on nodal displacements, stresses, and reaction forces against static loads. The
conventional ground structure approach is first used for topology optimization. An
optimal topology with a small number of members is obtained by assigning artificially
small upper-bound displacement. The nodal locations and cross-sectional areas are next
optimized under stress constraints. The proposed method is applied to design of self-
fastening clamping members for membrane structures modeled using frame elements.
An optimization result is also presented for a clamping member that adjusts deformation
of membrane by applying a clamping force with a vertically attached bolt.
Keywords: Membrane structure, Clamping member, Configuration optimization,

Stress constraints
1 Introduction
There are many researches on simultaneous optimization of shape and topology, which
is called configuration optimization, of trusses and frames [1-4]. Optimal topologies of
trusses under constraints on global properties such as compliance and displacements can
be easily obtained using the standard ground structure approach, where unnecessary
members are removed through optimization from a highly-connected ground structure.
However, there still exist several difficulties in problems under stress constraints [5-7],
which are categorized as local constraints [8] that lead to existence of many thin
members or elements; i.e., the number of members cannot be reduced effectively by
simple application of the ground structure approach. In the most widely used SIMP
(solid isotropic microstructure with penalty or solid isotropic material with penalization)
approach [9,10] to topology optimization of continua, an intermediate value of material
density is penalized by assigning artificially small stiffness.
Membrane structures are generally connected to the boundary frames with clamping
members as illustrated in Figure 1. Since such devices are mass-products and have large
portion of the total weight of the membrane structure, it is possible that the total
661
production cost can be reduced by optimizing shapes and cross-sectional properties of

the members. Furthermore, when external loads such as wind loads are applied to the
membrane, its tensile force increases and the membrane sheet may detach from the
clamping member prior to the fracture of membrane material. Therefore, the load
resistance capacity of the membrane structure can be improved by optimizing the
clamping members so that the clamping force increases as a result of the increase of
tensile force of the membrane.
In this study, we present a method for design of clamping members of frame supported
membrane structures. The clamping members are modeled using frame elements. The
objective function is the total structural volume, which is to be minimized, and the
constraint is given for the clamping force against the membrane to obtain a self-
fastening member. We also present an optimization result of a clamping member that
enables us to adjust deformation of membrane by applying a clamping force through a
vertically attached bolt.
Fig. 1: Illustration of a clamping member of a frame-supported membrane structure
2 Overview of tensioning process and clamping member of a frame-

supported membrane structure
We first describe overview of tensioning process as illustrated in Figure 2. In this
process, temporary supports are attached first to the structural boundary members along
the boundary of the membrane sheet. To obtain reaction force from the boundary frames
through the temporary support, the membrane is pulled (tensioned) by using a tool until
the preassigned holes of the membrane are located on the bolt holes of the boundary
frame. Finally, the membrane is pressed to the frame using the clamping member and
bolts. However, in this process, there exist the following difficulties:
1. Adjustment of tensile force of membrane is very difficult because the holes are
preassigned in the factory.
2. Temporary supports for obtaining reaction force through tensioning tools are
needed in addition to the boundary frame.
In the following, optimization approaches are presented to overcome these difficulties.
The section of the clamping member is modeled as a frame with small elastic
deformation.
662
Fig. 2: Construction process of a frame-supported membrane structure
3 Topology optimization of a self-fastening clamping member

3.1 Problem formulations
Optimization of topology, cross-sectional areas of members, and nodal locations, which
is simply called configuration optimization, is carried out for a frame subjected to static
loads. The standard ground structure approach is used at the first step; i.e., unnecessary
nodes and members are removed through optimization from the highly connected initial
ground structure. The design variables are the cross-sectional areas A = ( A1 ,K , Am )T of
members, where m is the number of members in the ground structure. The cross-
sectional properties such as the second moment of inertia and the section modulus are
assumed to be functions of the cross-sectional area.
A constraint is given so that the maximum absolute value σ i ( A) among the stresses at
the two edges of two ends of the ith member is less than the specified upper bound σ U .
A lower bound R L is also given for the reaction force R( A) at the specified direction
of a support. Then the optimization problem for minimizing the total structural volume
V ( A) is formulated as
P1: minimize V ( A) (1a)
U
subject to σ i ( A) ≤ σ (i = 1,K , m) (1b)
R( A) ≥ R L (1c)
AL ≤ A ≤ AU (1d)
where A L = ( A1L ,K , AmL )T and AU = ( A1U ,K , AmU )T are the lower and upper bounds for
A . Note that a small positive value is given for the lower-bound cross-sectional area to
prevent instability of the frame during optimization process, and the member with
Ai = AiL is removed after optimization.
An optimal topology satisfying constraints on stresses and a reaction force may be
found by solving Problem P1, which is a standard nonlinear programming (NLP)
problem. It is well known in truss topology optimization that the number of members
663
cannot be successfully reduced by using a conventional ground structure approach with

an NLP algorithm if stress constraints are considered [6,7]. Therefore, we first carry out
optimization, as follows, with a displacement constraint and without stress constraint:
U
subject to U ( A) ≤ U (i = 1,K , m) (2b)
R( A) ≥ R L (2c)
AL ≤ A ≤ AU (2d)
where U U is the upper bound for the absolute value of a specified displacement
component U. Problem P2 is first solved to obtain a topology with a small number of
members. Then Problem P1 is solved starting with the optimal solution of Problem P2
to obtain an approximate optimal topology under constraints on stresses and a reaction
force.
Finally, the nodal locations as well as the cross-sectional areas are optimized to obtain
the optimal configuration under constraints on stresses and a reaction force. Optimal
solution of Problem P2 can be used as the ground structure with reduced number of
members. Suppose we use Problem P2, and, consequently, A and m denote the cross-
sectional areas and the number of members of the ground structure with a reduced size.
Let X denote the vector consisting of the variable components of the nodal coordinates.
Then the optimization problem is formulated as
P3: minimize V ( A, X) (5a)
U
subject to σ i ( A, X ) ≤ σ (i = 1,K , m) (5b)
R ( A, X ) ≥ R L (5c)
AL ≤ A ≤ AU (5d)
XL ≤ X ≤ X U (5e)
where XL and X U are the lower and upper bounds for X, respectively.
In the following examples, optimization is carried out using the software library SNOPT
Ver. 7.2 [11] utilizing sequential quadratic programming. The sensitivity coefficients
are computed by using a finite difference approach. The best solution from ten different
initial solutions is taken as an approximate optimal solution.
Fig. 3: A frame model (Type 1)
664
3.2 Numerical examples

We first find the overall configuration of the device that automatically clamps the
membrane as the result of introducing tensile force to the membrane sheet. Consider a
frame (Type 1) as shown in Figure 3 as the ground structure, where the intersecting
diagonal members are rigidly connected at the centers. The frame is supported with
roller at support 1 and fixed at supports 2 and 3. The member is supposed to have solid
rectangular section with the fixed width b = 10 mm. A load P = 500 N is applied in the
negative x-direction at support 1. Problem P1 is first solved for finding an optimal
topology, where R represents the vertical (positive y-directional) reaction force at
support 1; i.e., the device clamps the membrane if R is positive.
Fig. 4: Optimal configuration of Type 1 with stress constraints
The elastic modulus of the members is 2.0 ×105 N/mm. The lower bound R L for
reaction force is 200 N. The cross-sectional areas of all the 42 members are independent
variables with lower bound AiL = 0.1 mm 2 , whereas different values of AiU are used for
the optimization problems below. The upper-bound stress is σ iU = 200 N/mm 2 . In the
following, the units of length and force are mm and N if they are not explicitly specified.
A uniform random number 0 ≤ ri < 1 is generated to obtain the initial value of Ai as
50ri + 1.0 .
Problem P1 is solved with the upper-bound cross-sectional area AiU = 200 ; i.e., the
maximum height is 200 /10 = 20 . The optimization result after removing the members
with Ai = AiL is shown in Figure 4, where the height of each member is drawn with real
scale. Note that the reaction constraint is active as R L = 200 , and the objective function
value is V = 1.1018 × 104 . If all cross-sectional areas have the same value 100, then
R = −141.11 ; i.e., the device should be pulled downward by the membrane sheet at
support 1, which is not realistic; therefore, the direction of reaction force has been
successfully reversed through optimization.
As is seen from Figure 4, the number of members is not drastically reduced, because
stress constraints should be satisfied in all members including very thin members.
Therefore, Problem P2 is next solved to obtain a topology with smaller number of
members. A large upper bound AiU = 1000 is given to allow the existence of thick
members. The upper bound U U = 0.1 is given for the absolute value of the horizontal
displacement of support 1. The optimal topology is shown in Figure. 5(d), where the
665
height of each member is scaled by 1/5. The optimal objective value is V = 1.6781×10 4 .
As is seen from Figure. 5(d), there still exist many members that seem to be
unnecessary.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 5: Optimal topology of Type 1 for various values of U U ; (a) U U = 0.01 , (b)
U U = 0.02 , (c) U U = 0.04 , (d) U U = 0.1
Table 1: Total structural volume V and number of members n opt of optimal topology of
Type 1 for various values of U U
UU V n opt
0.1 16782 30
0.09 18513 30
0.08 23396 27
0.07 23516 30
0.06 27289 30
0.05 32310 28
0.04 38090 28
0.03 46826 29
0.02 50352 12
0.01 67593 7
Therefore, we assign smaller upper-bound displacement to allow larger structural

volume and cross-sectional areas. The optimal solution for U U = 0.01 is shown in
Figure 5(a), where V = 6.7593 × 104 and the height of each member is scaled by 1/5.
The solutions for U U = 0.02 and 0.04 are also shown in Figures 5(b) and (c),
respectively. We can confirm from Figures 5(a)-(d) that the number of members
666
decreases and the heights of existing members increase as the displacement constraint
becomes tight.
The total structural volume V and number of members nopt of optimal topology for
various values of U U are listed in Table 1. We can confirm that an optimal solution
with smaller number of members and larger V is obtained as U U is decreased. However,
the maximum height of the members in Figure 5(a) for U U = 0.01 is 56.439, which is
unrealistic in comparison to the dimension of the frame. Furthermore, stress constraints
should be satisfied for practical application. Hence, the displacement bound is
conceived as an artificial parameter for controlling the number of members in an
appropriate optimal topology.
We next solve Problem P3 using the solution in Figure 5(a) as the initial ground
structure with reduced number of members. The optimal solution in Figure 5(a) is
discretized to shorter members to obtain a smoothly curved frame. The vertical
coordinates of nodes except the supports are also considered as design variables. Let Yi 0
denote the y-coordinate of the ith node of the frame in Figure 5(a). The upper and lower
bounds for Yi are given as Yi 0 + 5 and Yi 0 − 5 , respectively. Note that rather strict
bounds are given to avoid an optimal shape with small height, because the endrope for
the membrane sheet should be contained in the clamping member.
(a) (b)
Fig. 6: Optimal solution of Type 1 under stress constraints with variable nodal
locations; (a) undeformed shape, (b) deformed shape
Fig. 7: Illustration of a self-fastening clamping member
Figure 6(a) shows the optimal shape with real scale, where V = 1.7082 × 104 . Figure
6(b) shows the deformed shape with magnification factor 20. As is seen, only the nodes
near support 1 moves in the horizontal direction; thus, a vertical compressive force is
applied from the frame to the support, and, accordingly, the clamping force increases as
the tensile force of the membrane sheet increases. From this result, we can construct a
self-fastening clamping member as illustrated in Figure 7.
667
4 Topology optimization of a clamping member with a tension

adjustment bolt
4.1 Problem formulations
In Section 3, we presented a method for generating a clamping member that can
automatically fasten the membrane sheet as the tensile force is increased. However, for
application to the practical design of membrane structures, it is more desirable if the
tensile force can be adjusted through additional forces to the clamping member as
illustrated in Figure 8. Therefore, we next consider a problem with two loading
conditions; i.e., the first load P1 is applied by the vertical bolt to pull the membrane for
adjustment of the tensile force, and the second load P2 represents the tensile force of the
membrane sheet.
Fig. 8: Illustration a clamping member with tension adjustment bolt
Fig. 9: A frame model (Type 2)
Let U (1) and U (2) denote the x-directional displacements of node (support) 1 in Figure 9
under specified static loads P1 and P2 , respectively. We first minimize the total
structural volume V without stress constraints to obtain a frame with small number of
members. The lower bound U (1)L (> 0) is given to ensure capacity of adjustment by the
bolt, and the lower bound U (2)L (< 0) is given for generating a frame with enough
stiffness. A lower bound R L is also given for the vertical (y-directional) reaction force
R1(2) ( A) at support 1.
Then the optimization problem is formulated as follows:
668

(1) (1)L
subject to U ( A) ≥ U
1 (6b)
U1(2) ( A) ≥ U (2)L (6c)
(2) L
R ( A) ≥ R
1 (6d)
L U
A ≤A≤A (6e)
The optimal solution of Problem P4 is used as the new ground structure with small
number of members. Since the number of members need not be reduced anymore, the
displacement U1(1) against P1 can be directly maximized to obtain a good capacity of
adjustment of membrane forces. Hence, we assign the stress constraints for both the
states under P1 only and under simultaneous application of P1 and P2 , and solve the
following problem adding the nodal coordinates X as variables.
P5: minimize V ( A, X) (7a)
(1) (1)L
subject to U ( A , X) ≥ U
1 (7b)
σ i(1) ( A, X) ≤ σ U (i = 1,K , m) (7c)
σ i(1) ( A, X) + σ i(2) ( A, X) ≤ σ U (i = 1,K , m) (7d)
AL ≤ A ≤ AU (7e)
XL ≤ X ≤ X U (7f)
where σ i(1) and σ i(2) are the stresses of member i against P1 and P2 , respectively.
Fig. 10: Optimal solution of Type 2 under displacement constraint
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 11: Optimal solution of Type 2 under stress constraints; (a) undeformed shape, (b)
deformed shape magnified by 10 after application of P1 ; dotted line: undeformed shape,
(c) deformed shape magnified by 10 after application of P1 and P2
669
Fig. 12: Relation between upper-bound stress and displacement

Consider a frame as shown in Figure 9. The load P1 = 300 is first applied in the vertical
direction at node 2. Then the y-directional displacement is fixed at node 2, and the load
P2 = 300 is applied in negative x-direction at support 1. Initial solutions are generated in
the same manner as the examples in Sec. 3.
The solution of Problem P4 scaled by 1/5 for U (1)L = 0.1 , U (2)L = −0.01 , R L = 200 , and
AiU = 200 for all members is shown in Figure 10, which has sufficiently small number
of members. Problem P5 is next solved after subdivision of members, where the y-
coordinates of nodes except the supports are also chosen as design variables, and their
initial values and bounds are given in the same manner as the examples in Sec. 3.
The optimal solution is shown in Figure 11(a) with the real scale for the heights of
members. The deformed shape against P1 is shown in Figure 11(b). We can see from
Figure 11(b) that the distance between the two supports decreases as the center node is
displaced downward. Figure 11(c) shows the state after application of both P1 and P2
for the frame with fixed vertical displacement at node 2. As is seen, the roller support
moves to the left, and, consequently, the diagonal member presses the support to
increase the vertical reaction force.
Figure 12 shows the relation between the upper-bound stress σ U and the displacement
U (1)L which is to be maximized. It can be confirmed from Figure 13 that we can have
larger deformation if the stress constraints are relaxed.
5 Conclusions
A two-stage approach has been presented for configuration optimization of frames
under stress constraints against static loads. It has been shown that an approximate
optimal topology that has many members is obtained if stress constraints are assigned to
all members. This result is similar to the truss topology optimization under stress
constraints. Therefore, an approximate optimal topology with small number of members
is obtained by relaxing the stress constraints and assigning an artificial displacement
670
constraint. The optimal topology can be further optimized under stress constraints after
sub-division of members, where the vertical coordinates of nodes are also considered as
design variables.
It has been confirmed in the numerical examples that an optimal topology with a small
number of members is obtained by assigning artificially small displacement constraint.
This way, the well-known difficulty in topology optimization under stress constraints is
successfully avoided.
Configuration optimization has been carried out to obtain self-fastening clamping
members of membrane structures. The total structural volume is minimized under
constraint on the reaction so that the clamping force increases as the result of increasing
membrane tensile force. A shape of the device that pulls the membrane efficiently by
applying vertical force through a bolt can also be found by optimization. This way, the
total weight of a frame-supported membrane structure can be reduced, and the clamping
force and the tension force can be maintained through optimization.
Acknowledgement
Financial support by Nohmura Foundation for Membrane Structure's Technology is

gratefully acknowledged.
References
[1] Rahamia H, Kavehb A, and Gholipoura Y. Sizing, geometry and topology

optimization of trusses via force method and genetic algorithm. Eng. Struct. 2008;
30: 2360-2369.
[2] Fredricson H, Johansen T, Klarbring A, and Petersson J. Topology optimization of
frame structures with flexible joints. Struct. Multidisc. Optim. 2003; 25: 199-214.
[3] Saka MP. Optimum topological design of geometrically nonlinear single layer
latticed domes using coupled genetic algorithm. Comput. Struct. 2007; 85: 1635-
1646.
[4] Ohsaki M. Optimization of Finite Dimensional Structures. CRC Press, Boca Raton,
FL, 2010.
[5] Stolpe M and Svanberg K. A note on stress-constrained truss topology optimization.
Struct. Multidisc. Optim. 2003; 25: 62-64.
[6] Ohsaki M and Katoh N. Topology optimization of trusses with stress and local
constraints on nodal stability and member intersection. Struct. Multidisc. Optim.
2005; 29:190-197.
[7] Cheng G and Guo X. ε-relaxed approach in structural topology optimization, Struct.
Opt. 1997; 13:258-266.
[8] Duysinx P and Bendsøe MP. Topology optimization of continuum structures with
local stress constraints. Int. J. Numer. Methods Eng. 1998; 43:1453-1478.
[9] Bendsøe MP. Optimal shape design as a material distribution problem. Struct. Opt.
1989; 1:193–202.
671
[10] Rozvany GIN, Zhou M, and Birker T. Generalized shape optimization without
homogenization, Struct. Opt., 1992; 4:250-252.
[11] Gill PE, Murray W, and Saunders MA. SNOPT: An SQP algorithm for large-scale
constrained optimization. SIAM J. Optim. 2002; 12:979-1006.
672
Continuum shape optimization of clamping members of

membrane structures under stress constraints
Jun FUJIWARA1*, Taku NAKAJIMA2, Makoto OHSAKI3, Fumiyoshi TAKEDA1
1*
Technical Research Center, Taiyo Kogyo Corporation
3-20, Shodai-tajika, Hirakata, Osaka, Japan
fj003177@mb.taiyokogyo.co.jp
2
Dept. of Architecture and Architectural Eng., Kyoto University, Japan
3
Dept. of Architecture, Hiroshima University, Japan
Abstract
A method is presented for shape optimization of clamping members under stress
constraints. The cross-section of clamping member is modeled and discretized by plane-
strain two-dimensional finite elements. The cross-section has specified topology with
fixed number of holes. The shapes of exterior boundary and holes are described by line
segments and spline curves. The design variables are the locations of control points, and
the objective function is the total structural volume that is to be minimized. Constraints
are given for the von Mises equivalent stresses of each element, where the stresses due
to bending of the clamping members are added. In order to reduce the number of
constraints, the maximum stress among all the elements is approximated by the p-norm.
A general purpose finite element solver called ABAQUS is used for analysis. And a
nonlinear programming library called SNOPT is used for finding a feasible solution,
and a local search is used for optimization. For this purpose, an interface program is
developed using a script language called Python. It is shown in the numerical examples
that the total volume is effectively decreased by using the proposed method. The
validity of two-dimensional model is also investigated through analysis of the three-
dimensional model.
Keywords: Membrane structure, Clamping member, Shape optimization, Stress

constraints
1 Introduction
In the field of architectural engineering, PTFE-coated glass fiber fabric, which is simply
called membrane material, is widely used for lightweight roofs of long-span structures
such as domes, stadiums, and gymnasiums. Since membrane materials can transmit only
in-plane tensile forces, a membrane roof is stabilized and shaped into three-dimensional
curved surface by pre-tensioning. As illustrated in Figure 1, A membrane roof is
generally connected to boundary steel frames with clamping members called fasteners,
which are usually made of aluminum alloy manufactured by extrusion molding. Since
such aluminum clamping members are mass-products, total production cost of a
673
membrane roof can be significantly reduced by optimizing the cross-sectional shape and
topology of those members.
Fig. 1: Clamping a membrane to a steel frame
It is known that the shape and topology of a continuum can be effectively optimized
using the well-developed methods such as solid isotropic material with penalization
(SIMP) approach, homogenization method, and level-set approach. However, most of
the practical applications are concerned with global structural performances such as
compliance and eigenvalues of vibration. Therefore, optimization under local stress
constraints is still difficult for large complex continuum structures. The third author
presented a method to find shapes of beam flanges for maximizing the plastic energy
dissipation under cyclic deformation [1,2] as a first attempt of optimizing performances
of mass-produced structural parts in the field of civil and architectural engineering.
In this study, we present a method for shape optimization of clamping members under
constraints on von Mises equivalent stress. The cross-section of center span of the
member supported by two bolts is discretized by two-dimensional finite elements with
plane strains. The cross-section has specified topology with a hole. The shapes of
boundary and hole are represented by line segments and spline curves. The design
variables are the locations of control points. The objective function is the total structural
volume that is to be minimized. The stresses due to bending moment under distributed
membrane tensile force are added for evaluating the equivalent stress. In order to reduce
the number of constraints, the maximum stress among all the elements is approximated
by the p-norm.
In the optimization process, we first find the feasible solution, which minimize the
maximum stress under a volume constraint using a nonlinear programming (NLP)
approach. Then the shape is modified to reduce the total structural volume by using a
local search which is classified as a heuristic method.
A general purpose finite element solver called ABAQUS [3] is used for analysis, and a
nonlinear programming library called SNOPT [4] is used for optimization. Two
programs are connected by an interface developed using a script language called Python.
From the results of numerical examples, it is shown that the total volume is effectively
674
decreased by using the proposed method. The validity of two-dimensional model is also
verified through analysis of the three-dimensional model.
Fig. 2: Section of clamping member
2 Optimization problem
The optimal shape is found for the clamping member as shown in Figure 1. Since it is
difficult to optimize the clamping using three-dimensional analysis, the clamping is first
modeled as a two-dimensional finite element model and optimized. The clamping
member is subjected to the tensile force of membrane, and supported by two bolts at the
ends of the clamping member. Therefore, based on symmetry of the structure, boundary
condition, and loading condition, one of the half parts is optimized. Moreover, we first
assume that the bolt is distributed throughout the clamping, and optimize the section
supported by a bolt as shown in Figure 2, where the boundary 1 is pin-supported, and
the boundaries 2 and 3 are supported by and x-directional roller. The tensile force of
membrane is transmitted to the clamping through the contact between clamping and
rope. We assume the frictionless contact between the rope and clamping.
The shapes of boundary and hole are defined using spline curves and line segments. Let
X denote the vector of variable locations of the control points indicated by circles in
Figure 2. The upper and lower bounds for the components of X are given as ± 2 mm or
± 1 mm of the initial locations in Figure 2.
The tensile force of the membrane material is defined as the load P as shown in Figure 2.
2.1 Stress constraints

The clamping member modeled by two-dimensional finite elements is supported by a
distributed bolt. However, in the practical model, the clamping is supported by two
anchor bolts, and the bending stress has the maximum value at the center of the
clamping. Therefore, the bending stress σ b due to the tensile force of membrane is
675
added to the out-of-plane stress σ zz of the plate model to optimize the section at the
center of clamping member as
F b
σ ′zz = σ zz + σ (1)
Fu
where F and Fu are the nominal and tensile strengths of clamping, respectively. Then
the equivalent stress σ e is computed as
σe =
1
2
{
(σ xx − σ yy )2 + (σ yy − σ ′zz )2 + (σ ′zz − σ xx )2 + 6 ⋅ σ xy2 } (2)
In Eq. (2), the equivalent stresses at the integration points as well as their coordinates
and covering areas are extracted from the output file of ABAQUS using a Python script.
Then, the area and the second moment of inertia of the section can be easily computed
to find the bending stress at each integration point.
In addition of the effect of bending, since the tensile force of membrane is transmitted
to the supporting bolts, the transmitted force is concentrated around the bolts.
Considering this concentration of force, the stresses in Region S, where x-directional
coordinate x satisfies x l ≤ x ≤ x u as shown in Figure 2, are factored by α , and
evaluated. Let σ 3 D and σ 2 D denote the maximum stresses in Region S computed by
three- and two-dimensional analyses for the original clamping shape. α is given as the
ratio of σ 3 D to σ 2 D : α = σ 3 D σ 2 D .
Since the point at which the stress takes the maximum value varies with the shape
variation, the constraint is not smooth with respect to the design variables X. In order to
reduce nonsmoothness of the constraint, we approximate the maximum stress using the
p-norm. The maximum stress σ max ( X ) is calculated for the two largest stresses σ max1
and σ max 2 as [5]
( )
1
σ max ( X ) = σ max
p
1 + σ max 2
p p (3)
with p = 10 in the following example. Figure 3 shows the distribution of σ max ( X ) for
p = 5 and 10, when σ max1 and σ max 2 varies between 100 and 200.
Fig. 3: Smoothing using p-norm
676
2.2 NLP for finding feasible shape

The optimization consists of two stages. In the first stage, the shape is found for
minimizing the maximum stress σ max ( X ) under the volume constraint. Let V ( X ) and
V denote the total structural volume and the upper bound of volume, respectively. The
optimization problem in the first stage is formulated as:
Minimize σ max ( X ) (4)
Subject to V (X ) ≤ V (5)
XL ≤ X ≤ XU (6)
A nonlinear programming software package SNOPT Ver. 7.2 is used for optimization in
conjunction with the analysis program package ABAQUS. The algorithm for solving
Eqns. (4)-(6) is summarized as follows:
1. Assign the number of search n1 . The index of cycle i ← 0 , and the feasible
objective function value σ feas ← ∞ .
2. Assign the initial values for the design variables X , randomly.
3. Call a Python script from SNOPT to automatically generate FE-meshes and input
file to ABAQUS, and execute ABAQUS for structural analysis.
4. Compute the values of objective and constraint functions.
5. Update design variables in accordance with the optimization algorithm of SNOPT.
6. Go to 3 if not converged.
7. If σ max ( X ) < σ feas , σ feas ← σ max ( X ) and the feasible design variables X feas ← X .
8. If i < n1 , i ← i + 1 and go to 2; Otherwise, finish the optimization.
2.3 Optimization by local search

In the next stage of the optimization, the obtained feasible solution is improved for
minimizing the total structural volume V ( X ) by a heuristic approach. The optimization
problem of the second stage is formulated as:
Minimize V (X ) (7)
Subject to σ (X ) ≤ F
max
(8)
XL ≤ X ≤ XU (9)
To solve (7)-(9), the design variables are randomly modified, first. If the modified
solution is feasible and the objective function value is decreased, the modification is
accepted. In the case when the modified solution is not feasible, if the penalized
objective function V ′ is improved, the design variables are updated. V ′ is defined as:
σ max ( X ) 
2
V′ = V + β ⋅ − 1 (10)
 F 
where β is a penalty parameter. The algorithm of local search is summarized as:
677
1. Assign the number of search n2 , penalty parameter β and increment of the design
variables ∆X . The index of cycle i ← 0 , the optimum objective function value
V opt ← ∞ , and the optimum penalized objective function value V ′opt ← ∞ .
2. Choose j th component of design variable vector X j , randomly. X j ← X j + ∆X
or X j ← X j − ∆X .
3. Automatically generate FE-meshes, and execute ABAQUS for structural analysis.
4. Compute the values of objective and constraint functions.
5. If the stress constraint (8) is satisfied and V ( X ) < V opt , V opt ← V ( X ) and the
optimum design variables X opt ← X . If (8) is not satisfied and V ′ < V ′opt ,
V ′opt ← V ′ and X opt ← X .
6. If i < n2 , i ← i + 1 and go to 2. If not, finish the optimization.
3 Numerical example
We optimize the model shown in Figure 2. The quadrilateral plane-strain element
CPE4R with reduced integration is used for discretization of the section of clamping,
bolt and rope. The thickness of plate is 1 mm, and the FE-mesh is automatically
generated with the nominal length 1 mm; hence, the numbers of elements and degrees
of freedom are 2119 and 4648, respectively. Analysis is carried out using a finite-
emenent analysis software called ABAQUS Ver 6.5.3.
The material of the clamping member is an aluminum alloy categorized as AS-type.
Type AS210 with nominal strength F = 210 N/mm2, tensile strength Fu = 265 N/mm2,
elastic moduls 7.0 × 104 N/mm2 and Poisson's ratio 0.3 are used for the example. The
elastic moduli of the bolt and rope are ten times and 1/10 as large as that of the
clamping.
The membrane is assumed to be a PTFE-coated glass fiber fabric. The membrane
tensile force P is 134.3 kN/m and applied to the rope as show in Figure 2.
The smoothing parameter p in Eq. (3) is 10. x l = 24.0 , x u = 34.0 , and Region S is
defined as shown in Figure 2.
3.1 Preliminary analysis of original shape

Two-dimensional analysis of the original shape is carried out, preliminarily. The stress
distribution and deformation of original shape are shown in Figures 4 and 5,
respectively. Note that the stress due to bending σ b is not considered in Figure 4. The
maximum stress σ max ( X ) is 212.7 N/mm2, and its value before smoothing is 198.5
N/mm2. Therefore, from Eq. (3) and p = 10 , σ max1 and σ max 2 are almost the same. The
maximum stress in Region S σ 2 D is 129.1 N/mm2.
The horizontal and vertical displacements at node B are 0.09 and 0.10 mm, respectively,
and the vertical contact force is 121.7. The total structural volume is 1237 mm3.
678
Fig. 4: Stress distribution of original shape
Fig. 5: Deformation of original shape (scale: 30)
Fig. 6: Assemblage of parts for three-dimensional analysis
Next, three-dimensional analysis for the original shape is performed. The type of bolt is
M16, and the contact area between the clamping and bolt is 129.6 mm2 for each bolt.
The material of bolt is steel with elastic modulus 2.05 × 105 N/mm2 and Poisson's ratio
0.3. Other material parameters are same as the two-dimensional model.
The eight node hexagonal solid element C3D8R with linear interpolation and reduced
integration is used. Automatic mesh generation is used with 5 mm nominal size. The
whole structure without considering symmetry condition is analyzed. The distance
between the bolts is 450 mm. The clamping, rope and bolts are assembled as shown in
Figure 6. The total numbers of elements and degrees of freedom are 23312 and 92952,
respectively. All the translational and rotational displacements are fixed at the ends of
the bolts. Only z-directional displacements are fixed at the both ends of the rope.
679
Section A: Center of clamping Section B: Supported point

Fig. 7: Stress distribution of original shape
The stress distribution of the original shape is shown in Figure 7. The maximum stress
of two-dimensional analysis is 198.5 N/mm2. The maximum stresses in Section A is
195.5 N/mm2 and almost the same as that of two-dimensional analysis. As shown in
Section B of Figure 7, however, large stress is observed at the contact point between the
clamping and bolt. Because rotational displacement of the bolt caused by bending is
unrealistically constrained due to the fixed supports, the contact area is decreased and
the large stresses at the contact point are occurred. Therefore, the rotation around the
support should be allowed. The maximum stress in Region S σ 3 D is 157.9 N/mm2.
3.2 Optimization result

The feasible shape is first found by the algorism detailed in Section 2.2. The upper
bound of total structural volume V = 1270 mm3 , and the number of cycle n1 = 10 . From
the analysis of the original shape, the factor α for stresses in Region S is given as
α = σ 3D σ 2D = 157.9 129.1 = 1.22 .
The stress distribution and deformation of the feasible shape are plotted in Figures 8 and
9, respectively. The total structural volume decreased to 1235 mm3. The horizontal and
vertical displacements at node B are 0.09 and 0.10 mm, respectively, which are
sufficiently small. The maximum stress after smoothing is 204.9 N/mm2, which is
smaller than the upper bound (210 N/mm2). The actual maximum stress is 192.2 N/mm2.
680
Fig. 8: Stress distribution of feasible shape
Fig. 9: Deformation of feasible shape (scale: 30)
Fig. 10: Stress distribution of optimal shape
Fig. 11: Deformation of optimal shape (scale: 30)
Then we modify the feasible shape for minimizing the total structural volume. The
algorism proposed in Section 2.3 is done for optimization, where the number of search
n2 = 300 , penalty parameter β = 1.0 × 10 6 . The increment of design variables is given
as 1/40 of the difference between the upper and lower bounds; i.e., for the design
variables of which the upper and lower bounds are ± 2 mm, ∆X = 0.1 mm .
The optimal shape and stress distribution are shown in Figure 10. After the optimization,
the total structural volume is reduced to 1127 mm3. Since the original volume is 1237
mm3, the total structural volume is decreased to 91 % of the original value. The
maximum stress is 206.6 N/mm2, and the stress constraints are satisfied. The
deformation of optimal shape is plotted in Figure 11. The horizontal and vertical
displacements at node B are 0.11 and 0.12 mm, respectively. The results of optimization
are summarized in Table 1.
681
Table 1: Optimization results
Total Smoothed Displacement of Vertical

Maximum Node A
Shape structural maximum reaction
stress
volume stress x-dir. y-dir. on rope
Original 1237 198.5 212.7 0.09 -0.10 121.7

Feasible 1235 192.2 204.9 0.09 -0.10 104.5
Optimal 1127 206.6 --- 0.11 ,-0.12 104.0
Section A: Center of clamping Section B: Supported point

Fig. 12: Stress distribution of optimal shape
4 Three-dimensional analysis
Three-dimensional analysis is carried out for the optimal solution, and the stress
distributions of two- and three-dimensional analyses are compared. The boundary and
loading conditions, and material properties are the same as the analysis in Section 3.1.
The stress distributions of Sections A and B are shown in Figure 12. The maximum
stress in Section A is 203.8 N/mm2 and the location, where the maximum stress is
observed, is indicated in Figure 12. The value and location of maximum stress
correspond to those of the two-dimensional analysis.
In Section B, it is observed that stresses at the contact point exceed the upper bound.
Similarly to the original shape, it is supposed that the boundary condition at bolt end
causes exceeding stresses.
In Region S, the stresses, which are factored in the optimization process, are smaller
than the upper bound. The maximum value is 137.6 N/mm2.
682
5 Conclusion
Shape optimization has been carried out for clampings of membrane structures. The
total structural volume is minimized under constraints on von Mises equivalent stress.
The cross-section of the clamping member is discretized by two-dimensional finite
elements with plane strains. The shape of boundary is represented by line segments and
spline curves, and locations of some control points are considered as design variables.
The stresses due to bending moment under distributed membrane tensile force are added
for evaluating the equivalent stress. The maximum stress among all the elements is
approximated by the p-norm in order to reduce the number of constraints and
nonsmoothness of the constraint function.
The optimization consists of two stages. In the first stage of optimization, a feasible
solution is found for minimizing the maximum stress by using a nonlinear programming.
In the second stage, the total structural volume is minimized by a local search.
It has been shown in the numerical example that the structural volume is reduced to
about 90 % of the original volume by optimization.
In addition, three-dimensional analysis is carried out for the optimal solution to verify
applicability of two-dimensional model for optimization. The clamping member, two
bolts, and the rope are discretized by three-dimensional solid elements.
From the result of three-dimensional analysis, it has been shown that the stress
distribution at the central section of clamping member corresponds to that of two-
dimensional analysis. At the contact point between the clamping and bolt, however,
stresses exceeding the admissible stress have been observed. It is supposed that a
correct boundary condition at the bolt end may reduce stresses around the contact point.
Acknowledgement
Financial support by Nohmura Foundation for Membrane Structure's Technology is
gratefully acknowledged.
References
[1] P. Pan, M. Ohsaki and H. Tagawa. Shape optimization of H-beam flange for
maximum plastic energy dissipation. J. Struct. Eng. 2007; 133(8):1176-1179,.
[2] M. Ohsaki, H. Tagawa and P. Pan. Shape optimization of reduced beam section for
maximum plastic energy dissipation under cyclic loads. J. Constructional Steel
Research 2009; 65:1511-1519.
[3] ABAQUS Ver. 6.5.3 Documentation, ABAQUS Inc., 2006.
[4] P. E. Gill, W. Murray and M. A. Saunders. SNOPT: An SQP algorithm for large-
scale constrained optimization. SIAM J. Optim. 2002; 12: 979-1006.
[5] P. Duysinx and M. P. Bendsøe. Topology optimization of continuum structures
with local stress constraints. Int. J. Numer. Methods Eng. 1998; 43:1453-1478.
683
Life Cycle Design Method for Building Structures

- Multiple Relation of Repair Terms among Structural
Members -
Hideki YOSHIDA1*, Satoshi NAKATA2, Hiroshi OHMORI 3
1*, 2
Nagoya University, Graduate School of Environmental Studies ( Graduate Student ).
Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, JAPAN
hyoshida@dali.nuac.nagoya-u.ac.jp
3
Nagoya University, Graduate School of Environmental Studies ( Dr. Eng, Prof. ).
Abstract
Present paper proposes the way of a life cycle optimization for building
structures from the viewpoint of the structural system as well as the structural material
in consideration of a hierarchy by ranks of building construction systems, where genetic
algorithm is utilized to pursue the optimum solutions with respect to both environmental
impact and economy factors for evaluations. However, there are some uncertainties in
the method of life cycle design. Thus, in this paper, some lifecycle evaluation methods
with consideration of multiple relationships among the repair terms of variable are
proposed.
Keywords: Multi-objective optimization, Genetic algorithm, Life cycle design,

Multiple relation
1 Introduction
It is important not only to design the structures at the initial stage but also to pay
attention to the behaviors of the structures during all stages of their life cycles (LC). As
an absolutely different concept from the conventional design methodology, the life
cycle design (LCD) is becoming an essential idea for realizing sustainable structures.
Recently, it is required that the environmental impact should be explicitly taken into
consideration in a life cycle design of the structures in the same way as the initial
economical efficiency which has been ordinarily required.
On the other hand, LCD requires some optimal solutions which satisfy economical
efficiency as well as minimization of environmental impact. However, it should be
noted that these factors generally have a trade-off relationship in each other. It is
generally difficult to find a theoretical solution that satisfies these requirement evenly as
well as simultaneously. Moreover, when the evaluation indices have trade-off
relationship with each other, it is usually impossible to get only one optimal solution,
such as a perfect optimum. In the conventionally used scalar methods, we cannot avoid
arbitrariness in the way of prediction of the weights of each objectives. In the other
recent papers, the multi-objective genetic algorithm (SPEA2) is utilized, which enables
us to obtain Pareto solutions through usage of genetic algorithms (GA).
684
However, there are some uncertainties in the method of LCD. For example, the
strictness of formulated analysis method in genetic algorithm, if the method has
sufficient strictness towards each variable in the case of a single optimization problem,
it may result in a better solution in a multi-objective optimization involving all variables.
Thus, present research aims at proposing some LC evaluation methods with
consideration of multiple relationships among the repair periods of variable.
Furthermore, the proposed method is also planed to be combined with other
optimization methods instead of genetic algorithm.
2 Life Cycle Evaluation
2.1 Initial Evaluation

The initial CO2 E0 ,i of member i is calculated with its material j , weigh Wij , and unit
CO2 e j .
E0 ,i = ∑ (Wij ⋅ e j ) (1)
j
where e j is the unit CO2 of production and circulation of material j . As the selection
of material j is expressed as parameter in space, we can evaluate the influence of
selected structure elements.
2.2 Running Evaluation

The CO2 of k -th repair of a member i is calculated with repair ratio rik* at time t .
E0 ,i
Eik = ⋅ γ q ⋅ rik* (2)
(1 + ν ) t
where ν is discount rate and a parameter γ q represents relationship between repair

ratio and costs respectively. There are to define initial CO2 is k = 0 times repair,
namely repair ratio ri*0 = 1, then the repair ratio at the k -th repair of member i , namely
the repair at time t = k ⋅ t p ,i , rik* is defined as next equation with the repair ratio ri (t ) of
member i .
k −1
rik* = 1 − ∑ rin* {1 − ri (t ) |t = ( k − n )⋅t p ,i } (3)
n=0
On the other hand, it is necessary to consider hierarchy for method of construction. It is
the concept of ranking of members that construct building structures, in other words, the
order for making structures or the ranking of difficulty with repairs. The running cost
illustrated Eq.2 does not consider supporting members repair from the point of view that
the ranking of members constructing building structures. However, the supported
members subject to the repair of supporting members. In particular, the scenario of
supported member generally must subject to repair of supporting members. To
represent LC with accuracy, it is required that the phenomenon of removing the
supported members when the supporting members are repaired. In this paper, it defines
685
the supporting members as the upper layer of hierarchy and the supported members as
lower layer, respectively. In addition, Figure.1 illustrates a behavior at subjection to
layering by hierarchy of construction.
Fig.1: Scenario considered the hierarchy of members
At a time t up −,i1 from a repair to the next repair, the CO2 Eiu:u −1 of the rank number u and
member i is calculated to use Eq.2.
niu:u −1
E u:u −1
i = ∑E
k =0
ik (4)
where the repair number niu:u −1 is calculated with

 t u −1 
niu:u −1 =  pu,i  − 1 (5)
 t p ,i 
where ⋅ is meaning Ceiling function.
For the life time t 1p ,i = tl of building structures, the running cost of rank number u and
member i is calculated by Eq.6.
 tx   u −3 u − 3   t z  n stopover ,i
u −1:z +1 u −1:1
u −2 n stopover ,i
Ei = E u :1
= ∏   xp+, i1  − 1 Eiu :u −1 + ∑∏   zp+, i1  − 1 ∑ Eik + ∑ Eik − E0, i (6)
i

x =1   t p , i 
 
y =1 z = y   t p , i 
 k =0
  k =0
where repair number nia:b , nstopover

a:b
,i (a > b) are calculated as Eq.7 and Eq.8.
a:b
 t bp ,i 
n i =  a  −1 (7)
 t p ,i 
   t bp ,i   a 
 t p ,i −   a  − 1 ⋅ t p ,i 
b
  t p ,i   
a:b
=  
nstopover ,i  −1 (8)
 t up ,i 
 
 
686
Therefore the cumulative running CO2 E r for the general building structure is
calculated as Eq.9.
E r = ∑ Ei (9)
i
2.3 Life Cycle Evaluation

The LC CO2 (LCCO2) Elc of the building structure is defined with initial CO2 E0 added
to the cumulative running CO2 at the time axis.
Elc = E0 + E r (10)
To compare the designs these have difference life time, the LC repeat during the
evaluation time, and it is required that evaluating to use extended LCCO2. Evaluation
time is defined as t eval = t 0p ,i and Eq.10 is extended
 u −2   t px ,i   u −3 u −3   t z  nstopover ,i
u −1: z +1 u −1:0
nstopover ,i 
= ∑ ∏   x +1  − 1 Ei + ∑∏   z +1  − 1 ∑ Eik + ∑ Eik 
: −1 ,
Eeval u u p i
(11)

i  x =0   t p ,i 
 
y =0 z = y   t p ,i 
 k =0 
   k =0
When it uses unit price at the above equation, it is able to evaluate to LCC.
3 Life Cycle Design Method Considering Multiple Relation of Repair

Terms
3.1 Hand modification to result obtained by Genetic Algorithm; Method 1

Since there is a great variability in repair term of materials of optimal result obtained
from a LCCO2 single objective optimization using GA, it is possible to artificially
modify the result for less LCCO2. This method aims at the target by minimizing repair
times.
3.2 Considering multiple relationship to cut down choices of repair cycle;

Method 2
The fact that we can get a better result by using Method 1 means a high probability of
existence of better results than traditional analysis results. One of the reasons is the vast
search space. Thus, in this method, we extract choices having the probability of
optimum solution from choices in each design variable of input data.
We divide this method into Step 1 and Step 2, illustrated in Figure.2. In Step 1, if there
are some choices of materials in same repair term of a structural member, the material
with minimum LCCO2 is extracted as the only choice. Next, in Step 2, considering
multiple relationships of repair terms among structural members, we extract repair
cycles having the probability of optimum solution.
687
Fig.2: Method 2
3.3 Original method considering multiple relationship; Method 3

This method aims at getting optimum solution considering multiple relationships of
repair terms among structural members without genetic algorithm. It makes use of the
original mean called derivation method by tournament, illustrated in Figure.3.
Fig.3: Derivation method by tournament
688
3.4 Evaluation Method considering the long life-span

The traditional LC analysis is usually carried out with a life time pre-established for the
building. However, it is not clear that the optimum solution of such analysis will still be
the optimal one if usage has passed that life time. Therefore, in this method, a single
LCCO2 objective optimization is carried out for different structures and their results are
compared under a long life-span to investigate the effective of proposed methods in
above sections.
4 Life Cycle Design Considering Multiple Relation of Repair Terms
4.1 Single-objective optimization formulation

The objective function is LCCO2 considering the life time. Thus, the single-objective
optimization problem, regarded as a combination problem of refusal and scenario of
structural members, can be formulated as follows
minimize f i (c, t ) (16)
subject to gj ≤ 0
f i : i th Evaluation function
c : Spatial design variable (The kind of the member and a combination)
t : Time design variable (building life and a repair period)
g j : j th Limitation condition
4.2 Analysis Model

A house as shown in Figure.4 is adopted as a numerical model. This model is designed
design variables of component parts and scenarios. Table.1 shows the parameter of GA
to for use.
Fig.4: Analysis Model
689
Table.1: GA parameter
Population 100
Elite 2
Generation 1000
Prob. of Crossover 0.8
Prob. of Mutation 0.01
4.3 Analysis result of Method 1 and Method 2

The life time is set 73 years. Table.2 shows that method 1 using hand modification has
a less LCCO2 value than the traditional method, and method 2 in step 1, if plus step 2,
gets much less LCCO2 values, showing its effectiveness. Moreover, it is noted that a
much better value can be obtained by combination of method 1 and method 2. Therefore,
the combination can be regarded as the best one.
Table.2: LCCO2
LCCO2 [kg-CO2]
Traditional method 63661.1
Method 1 63494.3
Method 2 Step 1 63227.1
Method 2 Step 1, 2 63185.2
Method 1, 2 62968.2
4.4 Analysis result of Method supposing the long life-span

A wooden frame with life time of 70 years, called 70 years wooden frame latter, is
solved by traditional analysis. And, a wooden frame with life time of 50 years called 50
years wooden frame, a steel frame with life time of 60 years, a RC frame with lifetime
of 100 years, are solved by proposed method which considers the multiple relationship
of repair terms. Their LCCO2 value variations during a long life-span of 350 years are
illustrated in Figure.5 respectively, in which we can see that the LCCO2 value of steel
frame and RC frame are much larger than values of others and the value of the 50 years
wooden frame is about 10% lower than the value of 70 years wooden frame. Figure.6
shows the detailed comparison between the 50 years wooden frame and the 70 years
wooden frame. Therefore, it can be said that, for the frame with less value of LCCO2,
analysis method with consideration on multiple relationship of repair terms under the
setting of longest durable years as its life time, would locate a better optimal solution
than other methods.
690
Fig.5: LCCO2 (70 years, wooden frame, steel frame, RC frame)
Fig.6: LCCO2 (70 years, wooden frame)
5 Conclusion
In this study, a single objective optimization problem with the value of LCCO2 as
objective function is carried out to investigate the proposed LC evaluation method
considering multiple relationships of repair terms. It is found that the proposed
evaluation method shows effectiveness on the improvement of analysis accuracy.
However, its versatility in different models needs to be investigated.
References
[1] Hiroshi OHMORI and Ken NODA, Life cycle design for building structures based
on genetic algorithms. JORNAL OF STRUCTURAL AND CONSTRUCTION
ENGINEERING 2006; 601:181-188.
691
Development of Optimal Section Proposing System for

Aluminium Extrusion Members through Global-Local
Optimization Technique
Masaomi KAWASAKI1*, Hiroshi OHMORI 2
1*
Graduate Student, Department of Environmental Engineering and Architecture
Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya University
Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku,Nagoya 464-8603, JAPAN
Email:kawasaki@dali.nuac.nagoya-u.ac.jp
2
Professor, Department of Environmental Engineering and Architecture Graduate
School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya University
Abstract
Present paper aims at developing an efficient method for the design of cross
section of aluminium. Aluminium structures have been paid attention in past decades
because of their advantage in recycling. However, aluminium structures are still under
popularization due to their high cost as well as no standardization of components. In this
research, the optimization method for the cross section of aluminium structural rods are
presented where the Genetic Algorithm (GA) is combined with the sequential quadratic
programming method (SQP) in order to pursue the optimum result in the large. Through
usage of the proposed method, a reduction about 12% in cross sectional area is observed
during the optimization history.
Keywords: Genetic Algorithm, Sequential quadratic programming method, Multimodal function,
Aluminium extrusion, Single objective optimizations
1 Introduction
Aluminium structures have been getting a great focus for their good efficiency of
recycling in the sustainable society. It could also bring many possibilities to structural
design because of the possibility of production of arbitrary shape of cross section,
though there are some limitations in extrusion of aluminium. However, compared with
steel structures, it has some obstacles in structural design due to the high cost of
aluminium and no standardization of cross sections, leading to its un-popularization so
far. Therefore, it is necessary to form standardized cross section types so as to reduce
the production cost of aluminium extrusion such that aluminium structures can be
popularized.
On the other hand, in the optimization problem of actual design, there are usually many
local optimal solutions for an objective function, and the best one among those local
optimal ones is called global optimal solution. In this study, the global-local
optimization method proposed by Tanabe [1] is employed for finding the global optimal
solution in the extrusion of aluminium components with internal boundaries.
692
2 Global-local optimization method

Global-local optimization method used in this study is that, at first, searching for some
points near the local optimal solution in the objective function by Genetic Algorithm
(GA) is done. Next, taking these points as the initial solutions, the sequential quadratic
programming method (SQP) is used to get the local optimal solutions for each initial
value. It might be possible to obtain the global optimum solution among those solutions.
Through a simple comparison of the values of the objective function, we will at least be
able to obtain the moderately good solution, which might be sufficient from the
viewpoint of engineering.
(a) Genetic Algorithm (b)Sequential Quadratic Programming

Figure 1: Concept
3 Formulation of optimization problem

In this section, the optimization on the shape of cross section with the object of
minimizing cross sectional area is to be formulated. It should be emphasized that the
two optimization methods (GA and SQP) aim at treating the same optimization problem,
namely the optimization on the shape of cross section, though they are different from
one another in their optimization way.
The cross sectional area and cross sectional capacity is discretized by Delaunay
Triangulation[2] as discrete variables. With the assumption of the number of the points
on boundaries (points of External and Internal boundary) being denoted by N, the
number of the subject conditions by m, and node coordinate on the boundaries by ri =
[xi, yi] ∊ R2, (i = 1,…,N), the shape of cross section can be expressed by node coordinate
rx = [x1…xN], ry = [y1…yN], rp = [rx⊤ ry⊤]⊤. Therefore, optimization problem can be
formulated as follows
minimize f ( rp ) (1)
subject to g (rp ) ≤ 0
where f(rp) is the objective function of area of the section, and g(rp) is the constraint
condition related to the shape and capacity of cross section.
693
3.1 Optimization using Genetic Algorithm (GA)
Constraint condition of g(rp)≤0 in optimization problem of Eq.(1) can be described as

the following equation when using optimization method of GA,
 I x0 − I x ≤ 0
 I −I ≤0
 y0 y
 i x0 − i x ≤ 0
g ( rp ) ≤ 0 ⇔  (2)
 0i y − i y ≤ 0
 Z x0 − Z x ≤ 0

 Z y0 − Z y ≤ 0
where Ix and Iy are geometrical moment of inertia; Ix0 and Iy0 are the required
geometrical moment of inertia; ix and iy are radius-of-gyrations of area; ix0 and iy0 are
the required radius-of-gyrations of area; Zx and Zy are section modulus; Zx0 and Zy0 are
the required section modulus.
The constraint condition for the shape is decided by a grid of the initial available area,
in which the coordinate of points can be changed within the area and therefore can act
as design variables. Since the objective function is cross sectional area, the reverse of
which multiplied by a penalty function is chosen as the fitness function, defined as
follows,
1 6
fitness = ∏γ j
f (rp ) j =1
(3)
 1
 cross sec tional performance ≥ required capacity
γj =
cross sec tional performance
 cross sec tional performance ≤ required capacity
 required capacity
where γj is penalty function related to the j-th constraint condition.
3.2 Optimization using Sequential Quadratic Programming Method (SQP)
Sequential quadratic programming method can provide the optimal solution through
solving quadratic programming problem obtained from quadratic approximation of the
objective function and sequential linear approximation of the constraint condition,
where Hessian matrix approximation in applied on Lagrangian function. Suppose the
point rpk is obtained as a solution at the k-th iteration stage, the optimization problem in
Eq. (1) can be therefore expressed as the quadratic programming problem as shown in
Eq. (4), which is derived from quadratic approximation of the objective function and
linear approximation of constraint condition at each iteration point.
1
minimize ∇ rp f ( rpk ) Τ d + d Τ B k d
2
subject to g (rp ) + ∇ rp g (rpk ) Τ d ≤ 0
k
(4)
694
3.2.1Constraint condition on point coordinate
The shape of cross section is discretized for the evaluation of capacity of cross section
during optimization. The Delaunay Triangulation is adopted so that each point should
not be too close with each other, and of an un-reasonable relationship in position as
shown in Figure 2(b).
(a)Right Loop (b)Wrong Loop

Figure 2: Input Automatic Division of Elements
3.2.2 Constraint condition on thickness
In the actual design requirement it is required that thickness of the region should satisfy
a minimum thickness requirement. Therefore, we set a constraint condition on the
coordinate of points during the optimization for the requirement of minimum thickness.
For example, as can been in Figure 3, the rectangle bounded by broken lines ‘MAX_X’,
‘MAX_Y’, ‘MIN_X’, ‘MIN_Y’ is the feasible region within which points can exist, and
the small rectangle in circle bounded by ‘upper_x’, ‘upper_y’, ‘lower_x’, ‘lower_y’ is
the feasible region in which each point can move.
Figure 3: Constraint on region thickness
695
4 Numerical example
4.1 Numerical model
Figure 4 shows the initial by given shape of cross section and its cross sectional
capacity is as shown in Table1. For the constraint condition, the outside boundary of
that cross section is unable to be changed; a minimum thickness of 1.0 mm is needed
against local buckling; moment of inertia both in X and Y axis are required to be larger
than 15.25 cm4 which is the capacity of the original section.
Table 1: Initial Performance
Area 7.81cm2
Ix 15.25cm4
Iy 15.25cm4
ix 1.40cm
iy 1.40cm
Zx 6.78cm3
Zy 6.78cm3
Figure 4: Analysis Object

Numerical model is shown in Figure 5, which is the quarter part of initial shape,
precisely one eighth of initial shape, because both of bilateral and X-Y axis
symmetricity are considered. 51 points (Figure 5) are used for the optimization in which
points of No.1~34 are those unmovable ones, and the left points in a rectangular box,
except No.35 and 40, are those movable ones available in the painted area. Points No.35
and 40 can only move along X axis and Y axis respectively, securing the requirement of
the minimum thickness of 1.0 mm. GA parameter are as shown in Table 2.
Table 2: GA parameter
Algorithm SGA
Members 50
Generation 100
Elite 2
Probability of 0.60
Crossover
Probability of 1/ Length of Gene
Mutation
Figure 5: Analysis model and initial points.
696
4.2 Numerical Result
4.2.1 Result by Genetic Algorithm
Figure 6: History of Fitness evolution Figure 7: Hhistory of cross sectional area
Figure 6 shows the fitness history, and Figure 7 shows the corresponding history of the
cross sectional area for the four elite solutions. In order to avoid to converging into
unique solution, GA calculation is carried put within a small generation number, only
100. The obtained 4 elite solutions are used as the initial ones hor SQP analysis in the
next step.
4.2.2 Result by Sequential Quadratic Programming Method

As depicted in the above section, the 4 elite solutions obtained by GA are used for SQP
analysis as the initial solutions, aiming to obtain the in solutions with more decrease a
value in cross sectional area. Figures 8 and 9 show the best solution obtained by SQP
and its corresponding elite solution in GA, respectively. The SQP analysis processes for
19 iterations, which is shown in Figure10 in which X axis corresponds to times of
iteration and Y axis are for the ratios of cross sectional capacities to their corresponding
constraint condition.
Focusing on Figure 9, we can see that the moment of inertia and the section modulus are
almost unchanged, while cross sectional area is gradually decreased until the 6th
iteration. Concerning the shape, the solution obtained by Genetic Algorithm has a
smooth circle around the center, but its radius is increased through the analysis of SQP
method and optimal solution has a distorted circle including the movable area. And four
internal areas become depressed and approach to the origin. The optimal solution is
12% less than initial shape in cross sectional area with all constraint condition being
well satisfied.
697
Figure 8: Elite Cross section in GA Figure 9: History of Convergence of SQP
Table 3: Optimal Performance
Area 6.852cm2
Ix 15.26cm4
Iy 15.27cm4
Ix 1.492cm
Iy 1.493cm
Zx 6.784cm3
Zy 6.785cm3
Figure 10: Optimal cross section
5 Conclusion
The Global-Local Optimization Method with combination of Genetic Algorithm (GA)
and Sequential Quadratic Programming (SQP) is investigated from the viewpoint of the
effectiveness for use in optimization of aluminium structural element. Optimization is
successfully carried out to decrease cross sectional area by 12% compared to the given
initial shape, which can be a considerable fruit as only a few percent of decrease in
sectional area would bring a great economical profit. Consequently, it is confirmed that
Global-Local Optimization Method is very effective in dealing with optimization
problem having multimodal objective function as well as in finding local optimal
solutions accurately. Besides, it is also confirmed that the proposed optimization
method has a great effectiveness in finding local optimal solution for the optimization
698
problem with extremely strict constraint conditions such as the problem solved in the
present paper.
References
[1]Tanabe. M. , Development of Global-Local Structural Optimization Method

- Application to Aluminium Extrusion - , Master Thesis, Nagoya University, 2008
[2]Taniguchi. T. , Automatic Meshing for FEM - utilization of Delaunay Triangulation -
, Morikita Publishing Co., Ltd., 1992
699
Computational Morphogenesis of Shells

with Free Curved Surface through Optimization of Shape,
Thickness and Topology
Ayako MAENE1*, Toshiaki KIMURA2 , Hiroshi OHMORI3
1*
Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8603, JAPAN
Email: maene@dali.nuac.nagoya-u.ac.jp
2
Sasaki Structural Consultants
3
Abstract
A new method of computational morphogenesis for the shell structures with free
curved surface is proposed, where not only the shape of shell surface but also the
topology of the curved surface can be obtained at the same time. For the topology
optimization, the optimization process for the shell thickness is used, where the
topology of the curved surface with a multi-connecting surface is dealt with as a limit in
which the shell thickness vanishes. For mathematical expression for the shape of the
shells, NURBS (Non Uniform Rational B-Spline) is used, by which the number of
unknowns can be effectively controlled while the high degree of freedom for the
expression of the shape of shell surface as well as the shell thickness are kept. This
paper shows the fundamental formulation of the proposed method for the optimization
problem for both the shape and the topology of the free-form shell, followed by
numerical examples in which the effectiveness of the proposed scheme is investigated
through the application to several shell structures.
Keywords: shell thickness, NURBS, shape optimization, topology optimization, strain

energy
1 Introduction
As for the shell structures, various dynamic designs can be realized because an
architectural form and a structural configuration are closely related with each other. In
addition, forming the opening area by operating the topology invents the space over
which the soft light pours down from a top light, which gives us architectural degree of
freedom. However, the mechanical behavior of the shell structures with free curved
surface is complicated. It is difficult to resolve the best curved surface shape and to
optimize the area of shell thickness and the apertural area at the same time. However,
complex free-form structure can be constructed even if it does not have structural
rationality owing to the recent improvement of the computer, the construction
technology and the material science. Therefore, a new method of computational
morphogenesis for the shell structures with free curved surface is requested, by which
700
structurally rational shell form can be realized starting from the original shell given by
architects or engineers.
Recently, we proposed the scheme of computational morphogenesis in which the shape,
the thickness as well as the topology of the free-form shells can be obtained at the same
time [9]. The purpose of the present study is to demonstrate effectiveness as well as
usefulness of the proposed method through several numerical examples and to
investigate the mechanical properties of those structures which are resulted from the
proposed optimization process.
2 Optimization with Respect to Shape, Thickness and Topology

In this proposed scheme, the strain energy of the structures has been adopted as the
quantitative scale for the mechanical measurement. For mathematical expression for the
shape of the shells, NURBS (Non Uniform Rational B-Spline) is used, by which the
number of unknowns can be effectively controlled while the high degree of freedom for
the expression of the shape of shell surface as well as the shell thickness are maintained.
Shape, thickness and structural topology can be simultaneously optimized by
introducing a method in which both the deletion and the addition of the domain
according to the shell thickness are continuously carried out in the optimization process.
2.1 Formulation of Optimization Problem

In the present method, an optimization problem with respect to shape, thickness and
topology of the curved surface for the shell structures is dealt with as a strain energy
minimization problem. When the control point coordinates of decision vector φ and
NURBS control point of thickness qh is adopted as the design variable, the nonlinear
programming problem in question can be expressed as the following form;
1 Τ
minimize f (w ) = d (w ) K (w ) d (w )
2
Lw ≤ hu (1)
subject to h ∈ Ω, Ω = {h ε ≤ h }
ΔV l ≤ ΔV (w ) ≤ ΔV u
where L = [0 B ]∈ R 3n×6 n , B represent a constant matrix connecting the coordinates of

the control point with the nodal coordinates of the finite elements. d ∈ R 6 n and
K ∈ R 6 n×6 n represent the nodal displacement vector and the total stiffness matrix,
respectively. hu ∈ R n and ε ∈ R n represent the vector of the upper boundary with
respect to the shell thickness and the criterion value for the topological optimization,
respectively. Ω represents the class which satisfies Ω = {h|ε ≤ h}. ΔV(w) represents
h
the increment size of the total volume. ΔV u and ΔV l represent the maximum
increasing and decreasing amount of the total volume, respectively. In the method of
701
this problem, Sequential Quadratic Programming (SQP) is adopted to solve the posed
problem.
3 Numerical Examples
Several shell structures are adopted as numerical examples in order to investigate its
effectiveness.
3.1 Spherical Shell with Square Plan
3.1.1 Numerical Model
The first numerical example is the spherical shell with a square plan having 20 m sides,
being pin-supported at the four corners. 7×7 NURBS control points with respect to the
shape and the shell thickness are evenly arranged on the x-y plane as shown in Fig. 1.
Modification of the curved surface is made only in the vertical direction and the shell
thickness is modified through the optimization. The static and linear finite element
analysis has been carried out in which the planar shell element with a constant strain is
adopted for in-plane analysis, non-compatibility formulation is used for the out-plane
deformation. Symmetric condition being utilized, one-fourth region is adopted for the
analysis, where 127 elements have been used. At the four corners, two nodes are
arranged to avoid undesirable stress concentration by truncating the edge corner. As the
external load, the own weight of 24 kN/m3 and the snow load with the distributed
vertical load of 1 kN/m2 have been adopted and the Young's modulus and the Poisson's
ratio are given as 21GPa and 0.17, respectively. The initial shell thickness is given as
uniformly 0.1m. The apex point of the shell is treated as the fixed point throughout the
modification process of the shape. Consequently, the plan of the shell structure, that is,
a square shape and the position of the apex point are to be unchanged throughout the
shape modification process. As the inequality constraint conditions, the upper boundary
with respect to the shell thickness is given as 0.12m, the criterion minimum value for
the topological optimization is given as 0.02m, the upper and lower boundary with
respect to the total structural volume are given as ±0.109×10-2m3 (0.1 percent of that of
the initial shell), respectively.
3.1.2 Numerical Result
In Fig. 2, the shapes of the shell obtained through the proposed optimization process are
depicted, where the isometric view is shown and f (w) represents the magnitude of the
strain energy. In Fig. 2, the diagram of distribution of the shell thickness are shown,
where the thickness distribution is shown by using the contour lines which has been
shown by dividing 30 levels between the maximum value and the minimum value of the
shell thickness throughout all steps. Moreover, the grayed contour lines represent the
thickness thinner than initial one, the blacked ones represent the thickness thicker than
initial one. Heavy black lines represent the maximum value of the shell thickness and
702
Fig. 1: Numerical Example (1) Spherical Shell with Square Plan
heavy gray lines show the minimum value of the shell thickness. In Fig. 3, the
membrane stress and the bending stress distribution on the shell surface are depicted.
Continuous lines and dotted lines show the compressive stress and the tensile stress at
the center of the element, respectively, and the length of the lines show the magnitude
of the principal stress. In these figures, σ t and σ c represent the maximum tension and
compression stress over the whole surface and σ b represents the maximum bending
stress, respectively. In addition, wmax shows the maximum value of the vertical
displacement over all nodes on the shell surface. Fig. 4 shows the transition of strain
energy that is the target function during the numerical calculation, where the horizontal
axis shows the number of steps and the vertical axis corresponds to the strain energy.
Fig. 5 shows the transition of various mechanical quantities, where the horizontal axis
shows the numbers of steps, the left vertical axis presents the maximum principal stress,
and the right vertical axis corresponds to the displacement.
In Fig. 2, it can be observed that the shape of the free edge is transformed into catenary
arch as the strain energy becomes small, and combined with modification of the shape,
the shell thickness at the vicinity of the supporting points and the free edge gradually
become thick. Moreover, it can be confirmed that the hole at the vicinity of the apex is
generated while the reduction of the strain energy is observed through the process of the
modification of the shape and the shell thickness. In Fig. 3, it can be observed that a
compression ring is generated at the vicinity of the apex point of the optimal shape
which resists against the external loads mainly through the membrane stress, while the
bending stress gradually vanishes according to the modification process. In Fig. 4, it
can be observed that the strain energy greatly decreases as the numerical calculation
703
advances. In Fig. 5, one can see that a large amount of the bending stress and the tensile
stress have been generated at the step where the topology has changed.
Fig. 2: Shape and Distribution of Shell Thickness in Optimization Process
Fig. 3: Distribution of Principal Stress
Fig. 4: Iteration History of Objective Function
704
Fig. 5: Iteration History of Mechanical Quantities
3.2 Tachira Club
3.2.1 Numerical Model
The second numerical example is taken from the proposal for Tachira Club which is
well known as an unrealized project designed by Eduardo Torroja.
The original shape is as shown in Fig. 6 (a) and (c), and the NURBS control points are
arranged on the x-y plane as shown in Fig. 6 (b), which realize the original curved
surface including the edge curved lines as well as the supporting conditions. Thickness
of the shell is assumed to be uniformly 0.1 m and the fixed point throughout the
modification process of the shape is set to the supporting points as well as the specific
points as shown in Fig. 1 (a). As the external load, the own weight of 24 kN/m3 and the
live load of 1 kN/m2 have been adopted and Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio are
assumed as 21 GPa and 0.17, respectively. Modification of the curved surface is made
only on the vertical direction and the vector φ from which z-coordinate of the position
vector of the objective surface is obtained is taken as the unknowns. As the inequality
constraint conditions, the upper boundary with respect to the shell thickness is given as
0.12m, the criterion minimum value for the topological optimization is given as 0.02m,
the upper and lower boundary with respect to the total structural volume are given as
±0.21m3 (0.1 percent of that of the initial shell), respectively.
3.1.2 Numerical Result
In Fig. 7, the shapes of the shell obtained through the proposed optimization process are
depicted, where the isometric view is shown and f (w) represents the magnitude of the
strain energy. In Fig. 7, the diagram of distribution of the shell thickness are shown,
where the thickness distribution is shown by using the contour lines which has been
shown by dividing 30 levels between the maximum value and the minimum value of the
705
Fig. 6: Numerical Example (1) Tchira Club
shell thickness throughout all steps. Moreover, the grayed contour lines represent the
thickness thinner than the initial one, the blacked ones represent the thickness thicker
than the initial one. Heavy black lines represent the maximum value of the shell
thickness and heavy gray lines show the minimum value of the shell thickness. In Fig.
8, the membrane stress and the bending stress distribution over the shell surface are
depicted. Continuous lines and dotted lines show the compressive stress and the tensile
stress at the center of the element, respectively, and the length of the lines show the
magnitude of the principal stress. In these figures, σ t and σ c represent the maximum
tension and compression stress over the whole surface and σ b represents the maximum
bending stress, respectively. In addition, wmax shows the maximum value of the vertical
displacement over all nodes on the shell surface. Fig. 9 shows the transition of strain
energy that is the target function during the numerical calculation, where the horizontal
axis shows the number of steps and the vertical axis corresponds to the strain energy.
Fig. 10 shows the transition of various mechanical quantities, where the horizontal axis
shows the numbers of steps, the left vertical axis presents the principal stress, and the
right vertical axis corresponds to the displacement.
In Fig. 7, it can be observed that the shape of the free edge transforms into catenary arch
through optimization process, and the edge with high rise appears. In Fig. 7, it is
possible to confirm that the shell thickness at the vicinity of the supporting points
gradually become thick. Moreover, it can be also confirmed that the hole is generated,
which shows that a new topology can be obtained through the proposed approach. Fig.
8 shows that all principal stresses have become small in the optimal shape. In addition,
one can also observe that a large amount of the bending moment at the vicinity of
supporting points of the initial shape of shell has become small in the optimal shape. It
shows that the proposed optimization process suppresses an increase of the bending
stress which is an inefficient way in transmitting the stress especially in the shell. In Fig.
706
9, it can be observed that the strain energy greatly decreases as the numerical
calculation advances. In Fig. 10, one can see that a large amount of the bending stress
and the tensile stress have been generated at the step where the topology has changed.
Fig. 7: Shape and Distribution of Shell Thickness in Optimization Process
707
Fig. 8: Distribution of Principal Stress
Fig. 9: Iteration History of Objective Function
708
Fig. 10: Iteration History of Mechanical Quantities
4 Conclusion
In the present paper, the effectiveness of the computational morphogenesis of shells
with free curved surface through the simultaneous optimization of shape, thickness and
structural topology has been confirmed. Through the numerical analysis of the models
adopted from well-known shells such as spherical shell with square plan and Tachira
Club, the optimization of those shells based upon strain energy minimization leads the
shells which can resist against the external loads mainly through membrane resultants.
Additionally, we have confirmed that topology optimization can be realized through the
appropriate control of the shell thickness, which implies that shape and topology
optimization of shells can be effectively carried out by taking two fundamental
parameters such as shape and thickness of shells.
References
[1] E. Hinton, N. V. R. Rao, Structural Shape Optimization of Shells and Folded Plates
using Two-noded Finite Strips, Computers and Structures 1993; 46:1055-2072.
[2] E. Ramm, Shape Finding Methods of Shells, Bulletin of the International
Association for Shell and Spatial Structures 1992; 33:89-99.
[3] H. Ohmori and K. Yamamoto, Shape Optimization of Shell and Spatial Structures
for Specified Stress Distribution (Part 1: Shell Analysis), Journal of IASS 1998;
39:3-13.
[4] H. Ohmori and K. Yamamoto, Shape Optimization of Shell and Spatial Structures
for Specified Stress Distribution (Part 2: Space Frame Analysis), Journal of IASS,
Vol. 39. No. 3, pp. 147-157, 1998.
[5] H. Ohmori and H. Hamada, Computational Morphogenesis of Shells with Free
Curved Surface Considering both Designer's Preference and Structural Rationality,
Proceedings of IASS - APCS 2006, Beijing, pp. 512 - 513, 2006.
709
[6] J. I. Barbosa, C. M. Soares, Sensitivity Analysis and Shape Optimal Design of

Axisymmetric Shell Structures, Computing Systems in Engineering 1991; 2:525-
533.
[7] L. Younsheng, Sensitivity Analysis in Shape Optimization Design for a Pressure
Vessel, Int. J. Pres. Vessel and Piping 1992; 49:387-397.
[8] P. Trompette, J. L. Mercelin, On the Choice of the Objectives in Shape
Optimization, Engineering Optimization 1987. 11:92-109.
[9] T. Kimura and H. Ohmori, Computational Morphogenesis of Free Form Shells,
Proceedings of International Symposium on Shell and Spatial Structures, New
Materials and Technologies, New Designs and Innovations -A Sustainable
Approach to Architectural and Structural Design- , Abstracts pp. 149-150,
Acapulco, 2008.
[10] T. Kimura, H. Ohmori, H. Hamada, Computational Morphogenesis of Free Form
Shells Considering both Designer's Preference and Structural Rationality,
Proceedings of IASS2007, Vennice, CD-ROM Abstract : pp. 199-200, 2007.
710
Development of Supporting Scheme for Structural Design of

Steel Frame Structures
— Optimization of Basement —
Shinichi KODAMA1*, Hiroshi OHMORI2
1*
Nagoya Univ, Graduate School of Environmental Studies
Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya , JAPAN
Email : kodama@dali.nuac.nagoya-u.ac.jp
2
Nagoya Univ, Graduate School of Environmental Studies
Abstract
The process of design of structures is composed of a number of repetitive
processes in which trial and error between assumptions at each stage and results on the
structural systems are done toward the final solutions. It can be said that most engineers
are not so sure that they could insist what they finally chose is the best structural design
among the other possible solutions. Therefore, it would be the long-awaited tools if we
could have some definite solutions even to a certain extent by using those devices, by
which we could not only save time but also concentrate our ability only on the essential
design processes such as planning or aesthetic investigation. In the present research, it is
the final goal to develop the structural optimization software system which can draw out
the essential ability of structural engineers by processing obviously troublesome routine
processes rapidly as well as surely through the mathematical optimization scheme.
Keywords: Steel structure, Footing beams, Optimization, Genetic algorithm, Structural

design support
1 Introduction
Most of building structures are composed of the standardized members produced at the
factory. In order to take such situation into the process of structural optimization, we
have to deal with the discrete variables. However, it is not only difficult to
mathematically treat those discrete variables but also inevitable to accept the
enormously large calculation load as the number of the design variables increase.
In the present paper, Genetic Algorithm (GA) is effectively utilized for treating the
optimization problem of steel structures composed of discrete variables with several
devices to adjust the requirements posed in each process of structural design, such as in
the very beginning stage of structural design, in the detailed process of decision of the
member section and so on. Through the investigation of the steel buildings which have
been actually built by the structural engineers of the design office in Japan, it has been
clearly shown that we can obtain other alternative design solutions with lower cost by
using proposed structural optimization scheme.
In this paper, optimization of basements of steel structures is newly introduced, where
expansion from those software which the authors have developed for steel structures
711
with braces. While the basement design is one of the most important parts in the design
procedure of the steel frame structure, it is often treated secondarily after the design of
columns and beams. Simultaneous consideration of optimization for columns and beams
as well as for the basements is expected to give us much more optimized solutions for
steel structures.
2 Method for Analysis
2.1 Multi-Objective Genetic Algorithm

The multi-objective optimization is an operation that searches for the solution that
satisfies the constraint condition while considering plural number of criterions at the
same time. It aims to obtain the Pareto optimal solution set that is a set of solution in
which one has to lower at least one evaluation value to improve a certain evaluation
value. A multi-objective genetic algorithm (MOGA) is considered to be the most
effective tool as a technique to solve the problem. MOGA is a heuristic method in
which the selection operation is done by using the genetic algorithm based on the
dominance relation of the solution, and approximation of Pareto optimum solution is
realized. Through the usage of MOGA, structural engineers can confirm the existence
of a lot of design solutions that satisfy given design conditions according to this method
because one obtains a lot of solutions in a single search. SPEA2 (Strength Pareto
Evolutionary Algorithm 2) which is devised by Zitzler[1], and especially excellent in
search performance of the Pareto best solution set, is adopted as a method of the
multipurpose genetic algorithm in the present paper.
2.2 Problem Formulation

In this paper, multi-objective optimal design for the structure of building is achieved
with not only expecting to satisfy the both of the code of allowable stress design and the
practical design method, but also considering the both of economical efficiency and the
performance of deformation in the design of structures. In the formulation of multi-
objective optimal design, the cost of steel members and the maximum drift angle on the
allowable stress of building are dealt with as the objective function, the problem of
multi-objective can be expressed as follows;
 C (x, y )
 f1 (x, y ) =
 ∏j γ j

minimize f (x, y ) = 
max ( Rk (x, y ))
 f ( x, y ) = k
(1)
 2
 ∏j γ j
C : Structural cost
Rk : Story drift angle at k − th layer
x : Cross sections of components
y : Layouts of components
γ j : Penalty coefficien t for j − th constraint
712
3 Constraints for Footing Beam

The footing beam is imposed as the different constraints of allowable bending moment
and shearing force unlike the superstructure, because it usually composes the different
material of reinforced concrete from the superstructure. In this study, the formulas
which are published in Structural Calculation Standard of Reinforced Concrete
Construction edited by the Architectural Institute of Japan will be quoted.
3.1 Allowable Bending Moment

With reference to Fig. 1, the formulas for calculating allowable bending moment of the
rectangular reinforced concrete beam are shown from Eqs. (2) to (4). Eq. 3 expresses
the case that the compression edge of the concrete was yielded earlier than tensile rebar
in the beam, and Eq. 4 represents opposite case. The smaller one from among these C1
and C2 in the Eq. (3) and (4) would be assumed as C in Eq. (2), i.e. it can be described
that the allowable bending moment of RC beam is cross-sectional force when either of
compression edge of the concrete or the tensile rebar is yielded.
M = Cbd 2 (2)
where
np t f c   d  d 
C1 = × (1 − x n1 )(3 − x n1 ) − γ  x n1 − c  3 c − x n1  (3)
3 x n1   d  d 
  d  d 
× (1 − xn1 )(3 − xn1 ) − γ  xn1 − c  3 c − xn1 
pt f t
C2 = (4)
3(1 − xn1 )   d  d 
M : Allowable bending moment

n : Ratio of Young ' s modulus
p t : Ratio of tensile rebar ( = a t bd )
f c : Allowable compressiv e stress of
concrete ( kN m 2 )
ft : Allowable tensile stress of
rebar ( kN m 2 )
x n1 : Ratio of neutral axis ( = x n d )
γ : Double reinforcement ratio ( = a c a t )
φ : Curvature
E c : Young ' s modulus of concrete
Fig. 1 : Cross section of footing beam Et : Young ' s modulus of rebar
713
3.2 Allowable Shearing Moment

Allowable shearing force for rectangular beam is shown in Eq. (5). The first term
represents the shearing force that is endured by concrete, and the second term shows the
shearing force that is endured by stirrups.
Q A = bj{αf s + 0.5 w f t ( p w − 0.002)} (5)

where
4
α= and 1 ≤ α ≤ 2 (6)
M
+1
Qd
Q A :Allowable shearing force
j :Distance between the center of compressiv e concrete
and that of tensile rebar ( = 7 8 d)
α :Extra coefficien t by the shear span ratio of beam ( = M Qd )
fs :Allowable shearing force of concrete ( = F 30 )
w f t :Allowable tensile stress of rebar ( kN m 2 )
p w :Ratio of stirrups ( = a w bx )
a w :Cross section of one set of stirrups
x :Distance between stirrups
M :The greatest bending moment of the beam in the design
Q :The greatest shearing force of the beam in the design
4.1 Numerical Model
The numerical model is taken from the 3 stories steel structure having 3 spans and 1
span in Y and X directions as shown in Fig. 2. The model is set as a complete rigid-
frame without additional components to exclude the effect of other components, such as
braces, except of basement in the result. Long-term structural and short-term loads are
set as adopted loads in the analysis. The earthquake load as short-term load is calculated
according to the base shear coefficient, which is a ratio of the horizontal load to the total
weight of buildings. It is considered that the force of earthquake based on the Ai
distribution interact at the center of the weight of every floor in X and Y directions. The
numerical model is designed with reinforced concrete footing beam as lower structure,
and upper steel structure such as columns and beams. The boundary condition is
assumed as the pinned support, and the joint condition between footing beam and the
basement of column on the first floor would be assumed as the fixed support.
714
Fig. 2: Numerical model
4.2 Design Variable

Fig. 3 shows the grouping of the members and the constitution of the chromosomes for
analysis. The grouping for footing beam is indicated in the same condition with other
beams of upper structure. In this figure, the chromosomes hold the information
respectively, i.e. the chromosomes from ‘C1’ to ‘By6’ have the information of the cross
section of each member, chromosomes from ‘FB1’ to ‘FB4’ have the information of
height of footing beam. The members are classified into 22 groups consisting 6 groups
for column, beam for X direction and beam for Y directions, respectively, and 4 groups
for footing beam. Columns and beams for upper structure are chosen from the standard
products. On the other hand, only the height of footing beam is supposed to influence in
the process of optimization as design variable. The height has been chosen so as to
range from 250 mm to 4000 mm, being divided by the lengths of 250 mm. Moreover,
several factors needed in design of footing beam, such as beam width, amount of rebar,
covering depth of concrete for rebar and so on, would be dependently decided by the
height of the footing beam.
715
Fig. 3: Grouping
4.3 Analysis Condition

The explicit constraints are listed on Table 1. The ‘Detail constraint’ on Table 1 is
added to avoid sudden change in the cross section of connected columns between the
adjacent two layers. In this study, because it should be satisfied both of the rationalities
of mechanical and construction in the design of building, constraint conditions as shown
Table 1 are considered. Table 2 indicates the GA parameters for optimization.
Tables 3 and 4 show the numerical condition. In this paper, the optimization is carried
out with the conditions of A to C which are fixed at the position of the footing beam and
D condition which has an existence of the footing beam as a design variable in the plan
as shown Fig. 4. In addition, it is assumed that ground reaction don’t influence on the
footing beam when the footing beam was chosen independent footings to compare the
results which are obtained by analysis with different conditions. Numerical analysis is
carried out with the condition in which 0.4% of the ratio of tensile rebar and 0.2% of the
ratio of the stirrup are arranged as the minimum quantity required by the Japanese
standard, and also the aspect ratio of the section of footing beam is fixed on 2:1. Total
cost consists of all cost of steel in upper structure and both of concrete and rebar, except
formwork and digging charges in the low structure.
716
Table 1: Constraint conditions Table 2: MOGA parameter
Degree of allowable stress ≤ 1.0 Algorithm SPEA2

Drift angle ≤ 1/200 Number of variables 20
Story stiffness ratio ≥ 0.6 Population size 50
Modulus of eccentricity ≤ 0.15 Generation 5000
Ratio of deflection in span ≤ 1/250 Number of elites 2
Detail constraint on Crossover ratio 0.80
Mutation ratio 0.05
Table 3: Analysis conditions
A Nonexistence of footing beam

B Only in the Y direction
C Both direction
D existence of footing beam is design variable
Fig. 4: Basement plan of each analysis condition
4.4 Result of Numerical Analysis

Figs. 5 to 8 show the set of Pareto-optimal on each analysis condition. It is obvious that
the designed optimization problem is successfully carried out, because a trade-off
relationship is shown between the cost and maximum drift angles in the figures. From
these figures, it can be confirmed that the position of Pareto Front changed according to
the existence of footing beam. Under the analysis condition A or B in which at least one
side of structure has no footing beam, it is confirmed that the maximum drift angle is
lowered around the value of 0.00175(1/571), because the basement of column on the
first floor can’t endure to the bending moment on the absence of footing beam. On the
other hand, under condition C whenever the footing beam is in existence condition, the
maximum drift angle can be smaller around 0.000615(1/1626). In addition, distribution
of Pareto solutions under condition D which has existence of footing beams as a design
variable is shown to be similar to those obtained under the condition C. Because the
condition D includes the condition A, B and C, Pareto Front under Condition D should
appear in such a way that three Pareto Fronts are overlapped in one layer. However, the
result obtained by analysis has some difference in its usual results. For the reason, it is
717
thought that the analysis is carried out in the lack of number of generation and the
limited area for exploration of solution.
Table 4 shows the breakdown of the cost. From Table 4, it is known that footing beam
cost of the results having smaller Pareto number is around 10% of total structural cost,
so it can be observed to be appropriate. However, the cost of footing beam occupy more
than 20% when the Pareto Number is large, the balance of the cost between footing
beam and upper structure has been broken. This is because SPEA2 work to extend the
area of solution.
The heights of footing beam of representative Pareto solutions under condition D are
shown in Table 5. From Table 5, it is known that the stiffness is given by setting the
footing beam in at least one place of the X-axis or the Y-axis. So, in the case of this
model, it is required to design structure in the basement of column to share bending
moment of first floor, through the set of footing beam. However, in the case of this
model how designer plans a footing beam has not much influence for the relation
between cost and maximum drift angle, because results under conditions C and D are
not so different in each other.
Fig. 5: Pareto solutions of condition A Fig. 6: Pareto solutions of condition B
Fig. 7: Pareto solutions of condition C Fig. 8: Pareto solutions of condition D
718
Table 4: The breakdown of the cost of representative Pareto solutions under condition D
Pareto Frame Footing Total Cost Maximum

No. Cost Beam (Yen) Drift
1 (Yen)
2,624,820 Cost
28,2490 2,907,310 Angle
0.00267
10 3,187340 36,5010 3,552,350 0.00155
20 4,052,540 471,100 4,523,640 0.000958
30 5,705,920 568,820 6,272,740 0.000648
40 6,664,660 2,511,750 9,176,410 0.0006156
50 6,664,620 6,682,700 13,347,320 0.0006151
Table 5: The height of Footing beam of representative Pareto solutions under condition D
Pareto FB1 FB2 FB3 FB4

No. (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
1 0 (Yen)
1000 750 Angle
0
10 0 1000 1000 250
20 1000 1000 750 250
30 1000 1250 750 0
40 2250 2500 1000 1750
50 3250 3500 3750 500
5 Conclusion
The system of supporting scheme for steel structures which can design all of columns,
beams and footing beams simultaneously through multi-optimization method is
proposed. Through numerical example, it is confirmed that multi-objective genetic
algorithm makes it possible to obtain the simultaneously optimized solutions of columns,
beams of upper structure as well as footing beams of lower structure. Furthermore those
solutions are clearly shown to satisfy the requirements posed by the allowable stress
design method as constraint condition and the both of cost of steel members and
maximum drift angle as the objective function.
719
References
[1] E. Zitzler，M. Laumanns，and L. Thiele. SPEA2: Improving the Performance of

the Strength Pareto Evolutionary Algorithm. Technical Report 103 ， Computer
Engineering and Communication Networks Lab, (TIK), 2001.
[2] T. Ishiyama, N. Tamura, and H. Ohmori. Research for the Optimal Design of Steel
Structures by using Genetic Algorithm (part1-2). Summaries of Technical Papers
of Annual Meeting Architectural Institute of JAPAN (Kinki) STRUCTURES
I .pp.355-358，2005.
[3] T. Ito, T, Ishida, H. Ohmori, T. Iijima, and K. Kamimura. Supporting Scheme for
Structural Design by using Multi-Objective Optimization Method (part3-4).
Summaries of Technical Papers of Annual Meeting Architectural Institute of
JAPAN (Chugoku) STRUCTURES I .pp.419-422，2008.
720
Life Cycle Design Method for Building Structures

Considering Seismic Hazard
Satoshi NAKATA1*, Hideki YOSHIDA 2, Hiroshi OHMORI 3
1*, 2
Nagoya University, Graduate School of Environmental Studies ( Graduate Student ).
Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, JAPAN
nakata@dali.nuac.nagoya-u.ac.jp
3
Nagoya University, Graduate School of Environmental Studies ( Dr. Eng, Prof. ).
Abstract
Present paper proposes the way of a life cycle optimization for building
structures from the viewpoint of the structural system as well as the structural material
in consideration of a hierarchy by ranks of building construction systems, where genetic
algorithm is utilized to pursue the optimum solutions with respect to both environmental
impact and economy factors for evaluations. In this paper, the design scheme which
can propose the building structural system as Pareto optimal solutions with which plural
requirements are satisfied through usage of multi-objective genetic algorithm is
proposed and the effectiveness of the proposed scheme is shown through the example of
housing building structures.
Keywords: Multi-objective optimization, Genetic algorithm, Life cycle design, Seismic
hazard
1 Introduction
It is important not only to design the structures satisfying the requirements at the initial
stage but also to pay attention to the behaviors of the structures during all stages of their
life cycles (LC). As an absolutely different concept from the conventional design
methodology, the life cycle design (LCD) is becoming an essential idea for realizing
sustainable structures. Recently, it is required that the environmental impact should be
explicitly taken into consideration in a life cycle design of the structures in the same
way as the initial economical efficiency which has been ordinarily required.
On the other hand, LCD requires some optimal solutions which satisfy economical
efficiency as well as minimization of environmental impact. However, it should be
noted that these factors generally have a trade-off relationship in each other. It is
generally difficult to find a theoretical solution that satisfies these requirements evenly
as well as simultaneously. Moreover, when the evaluation indices have trade-off
relationship with each other, it is usually impossible to get only one optimal solution,
such as a perfect optimum. In the conventionally used scalar methods, we cannot avoid
arbitrariness in the way of prediction of the weights of each objective. In the present
paper, the multi-objective genetic algorithm (SPEA2) is utilized, which enables us to
obtain Pareto solutions through usage of genetic algorithms (GA).
In life cycle process of building structures, there are a lot of stages such as construction,
operation, mending, reuse, recycle and disposal processes, all of which should be taken
721
into account for Life Cycle Design of those buildings. But because a lot of them are
events in the future, we can't evaluate them absolutely. On the other hand, the
earthquake is one of the external uncertainties in Japan to influence life cycle process of
building structures. When building structures become long-lived, the probability that
earthquakes occur during the LC period may increase. So it is important point for the
decision-maker what earthquakes influence the LC evaluation of building structures.
In this study, the LCD method considering seismic hazard as one of uncertainties that
have an influence on the LC evaluation is proposed. Through comparison with the
result obtained by the determinate LCD method, the necessity of the considering
seismic hazard is examined.
2 Life Cycle Evaluation
2.1 Initial Evaluation

The initial amount of CO2 emissions of the member i , E0,i , is calculated with its
material j , weight Wij , and specific CO2 consumption e j .
E0 ,i = ∑ (Wij ⋅ e j ) (1)
j
where e j is the specific CO2 consumption of material j . As the selection of material

j is expressed as parameter in space, we can evaluate the influence of selected structure
elements.
2.2 Running Evaluation

The amount of CO2 emission in the k -th repair of the member i is calculated with
repair ratio rik* at time t as follows,
E0 ,i
Eik = ⋅ γ q ⋅ rik* (2)
(1 + ν ) t
where ν is a discount rate and the parameter γ q represents relationship between repair
ratio and costs. The initial CO2 is discharged in the k = 0th repair, the repair ratio ri*0 at
the initial stage is equal to 1. The repair ratio at the k -th repair of member i at time t
can be represented as k ⋅ t p ,i , then repair ratio rik* is defined with the repair ratio ri (t ) of
member i as follows,
k −1
rik* = 1 − ∑ rin* {1 − ri (t ) |t = ( k − n )⋅t p ,i } (3)
n=0
On the other hand, it is necessary to consider the constructional hierarchy. It is the
concept of ranking of members that construct building structures, in other words, the
order for making structures or the ranking of difficulty with repairs. The running cost
illustrated in Eq.2 does not consider the repair of supporting members from the point of
view of the ranking of members constructing building structures. In particular, the
scenario of supported member is generally influenced by the repair scenario of the
722
supporting members. To represent the amount of the quantities of LC with accuracy, it

is required to take into account the phenomenon of removing the supported members
when the supporting members are repaired. In this paper, the supporting members are
dealt with as the upper layer of hierarchy and the supported members as lower layer,
respectively. Figure 1 illustrates the scenario in which the behavior of each
construction layer is taken into account.
Fig.1: Scenario considered the hierarchy of members
At the time t up −,i1 from the former repair, the amount of CO2 emissions of the rank
number u of member i , Eiu:u −1 , is calculated through Eq.2 as follows,
niu:u −1
E u:u −1
i = ∑E
k =0
ik (4)
where the repair number niu:u −1 is calculated as

u :u −1
 t up ,−i1 
n i =  u  −1 (5)
 t p ,i 
where ⋅ stands for the Ceiling function.
At the life time t 1p ,i = tl of building structures, the running cost of rank number u of
member i is calculated as follows,
  t px , i   u :u −1 u − 3 u − 3   t pz , i  n stopover ,i
u −1:z +1 u −1:1
u −2 n stopover ,i
Ei = E u :1
= ∏  x +1  − 1 Ei
  + ∑∏  z +1  − 1 ∑ Eik + ∑ Eik − E0, i
  (6)
i

x =1   t p , i 
 
y =1 z = y   t p , i 
 k =0
  k =0
where the repair number nia:b , nstopover

a:b
,i (a > b) are calculated as following equations.
t b, 
nia:b =  pa i  − 1 (7)
 t p ,i 
723
  tb   
 t bp ,i −   pa ,i  − 1 ⋅ t ap ,i 
   t p ,i   
a:b
=  
nstopover ,i  u  −1 (8)
 t p ,i 
 
 
Consequently the cumulative running amount of CO2 emissions, E r for the general
building structure is calculated as follows,
E r = ∑ Ei (9)
i
2.3 Life Cycle Evaluation

The amount of life cycle CO2 (LCCO2) of the building structure, Elc , is defined with
initial amount of CO2, E0 , with the addition of the cumulative running amount of CO2 ,
Er , as follows,
Elc = E0 + E r (10)
Furthermore, it is required to take into account the effect of the difference of time in
teval between each repair in order to evaluate the amount of CO2 over the period
including several repairs within itself. Defining the i -th evaluation period as t 0p ,i , the
total amount of evaluation can be represented as an extension of Eq.10 as following
equation.
 u −2   t px ,i   u −3 u −3   t z  nstopover ,i
u −1: z +1 u −1:0
nstopover ,i 
Eeval = ∑ ∏  x +1  − 1 Ei + ∑∏  z +1  − 1 ∑ Eik + ∑ Eik 
  u:u −1  p ,i  (11)

i  x =0   t p ,i 
 
0 z = y   t p ,i 
 k =0 
  y =  k = 0

By simply replacing the specific value of consumption of CO2 with that of cost, we can
evaluate those for LCC exactly in the same manner.
3 Life Cycle Design Method Considering Seismic Hazard

Figure 2 shows the flow of LC evaluation considering seismic hazard. By using the
earthquake information published in Japan, the earthquake vibration strength in the site
where the construction of the structure is planned and the outbreak probability of the
considered earthquake can be found. In addition, the load effect on the building
structure from the earthquake vibration strength in the site can be estimated. We can
evaluate the response level of the building structure and the damage of the building with
the damage rate function from which we can calculate the required amount of mending.
The amount of mending added to the running evaluation value with the initial
evaluation one is the final evaluation value of LC when the earthquake occurs. The
expectation of LC evaluation can be estimated as a total value that is obtained by
multiplying the Earthquake outbreak probability with LC evaluation value in each
earthquake outbreak scenario. The earthquake can be statistically modeled by data
724
issued form the Headquarters for Earthquake Research Promotion in Japan. As a model
of the earthquake outbreak process, BPT (Brownian Passage Time) distribution and
Poisson process are used. The maximum acceleration and the maximum speed in the
site are estimated by the scale of the earthquake and the distance from the seismic center
to the site. In this study, we use the empirical attenuation relation adopted by the
Earthquake Research Committee. The load effect is calculated by the earthquake based
on building load indicator. Finite Element Method is used for the estimation for only
the static reply for the load. In addition, elastic stress analysis by the 3-dimensional
analysis for a framework structure is performed.
Fig.2: Flow of the LC evaluation considering Seismic Hazard
3.1 Change of the repair rate

In general, the earthquake easily influences the low-ranking materials of hierarchy for
method of construction among other materials that compose the building structure. We
presume which hierarchy of construction is influenced by the earthquake and how much
amount of mending for the structure. The definite deterioration function of each
material is used.
Describing the remaining performance value at the time t of material i as Pi (t ) , the
amount of mending ri (t ) can be expressed as follows,
ri (t ) = 1 − Pi (t ) (12)
Figure 3 shows the deterioration function. When the earthquake occurs at the time
t = Th , the remaining performance can be estimated as Pi (Th ) . The performance of
material i decreases γ i (Th ) by the influence of the earthquake, the amount of mending
ri (Th ) can be estimated as follows,
ri (Th ) = 1 − Pi (Th ) + γ i (Th ) (13)
725
Figure 4 shows the deterioration function in this case. In this study, γ i (t ) is estimated
as follows,
γ i (t ) = γ i + G ( Pi (t )) (14)
where γ i is the constant damage rate that does not depend on deterioration degree of
member i and G ( Pi (t )) is for the heaviness of the damage rate which varies with
deterioration degree of member i .
γ i (t ) is decided by the response level of the building structure for the earthquake
vibration. Generalizing Eq.13 gives the amount of mending rate for the case in which
the earthquake occurs at the time t = Th as following equation,
ri (t ) = 1 − Pi (t ) + γ i (t ) ⋅ δ (t − Th ) (15)
where δ (t ) represents the delta function. Through Eq.15, we can evaluate the LC
values of the damaged members paying attention to the damage rate of the member at
the outbreak time of the earthquake.
Fig.3 : Deterioration function Fig.4 : At the time of earthquake outbreak
3.2 Damage rate function

In this study, the influence of the amounts of the earthquake is assumed to be estimated
on the structural damage based on Maximum Drift Angle as shown in Table 1.
Additionally, the lognormality distribution function is assumed for the damage rate
function γ i (t ) by the earthquake of the member i . The parameter λ corresponding to
the logarithm mean of the lognormality distribution function is determined based on
documents. In addition, the parameter corresponding to the logarithm standard
deviation is assumed 0.4 [5].
Table 1: Repair rate and the damage relations of each member of the skeleton
Drift Angle Damage layer
1/75 < Drift Angle Frame
1/100 < Drift Angle ≦1/75 Exterior Wall
1/150 < Drift Angle ≦1/100 Finishing of Roof
Furring of Ceiling
Furring of Floor
Furring of Exterior Wall
Furring of Interior Wall (Outside)
Furring of Interior Wall (Inside)
1/200 < Drift Angle ≦1/150 Furring of Interior Wall (Outside)
Furring of Interior Wall (Inside)
726
3.3 Change of the repair scenario

In the present study, when the damaged member is updated, the repair scenario from the
time after the earthquake outbreak is changed as typically shown in Figure 5.
Fig.5: Change of the repair scenario by the earthquake
Describing the next repair time for the case in which the earthquake occurs at the time
t = Th of rank number u of material i as Th + t up ,i , and when the earthquake occurs at
the time t = Th for the repair period t up−,i1 of rank number u − 1 , the repair number niu:u −1
of rank number u of material i is calculated as following equation.
 T     t up−,i1 − Th  
nu:u −1
=  u  −1 +1+  u
 h   − 1 (16)
i
 t p ,i   t
     p ,i  
 T   t up−,i1 − Th 
=  uh  +  u  −1
 t p ,i   t p ,i 
4 Life Cycle Design Considering Seismic Hazard
4.1 Multi-objective optimization

In this study, we suggest the structural characteristics needed by multi-objective
optimization. 2-objective optimization of Maximum Drift Angle and LCCO2 when the
earthquake occurs in service period of 70th year is performed. For comparison, the
evaluation of 2-objective optimization of Maximum Drift Angle and LCCO2 when the
earthquake doesn’t occur has been also done. By 2-objective optimization considering
seismic hazard, Nagoya is taken as the site, Tonankai Earthquake is assumed to occur
once in service period of 70th year. The service period is set 70th year. Because the
damage with the earthquake in service period of 70th year affects more LC evaluation
value than the damage with the earthquake in service period of another year. The
combination of non-structure materials, the bend of structure materials and the detail of
the column joint are adopted as constraint conditions. Consequently, the multi-
727
objective optimization problem is formulated as follows,

 f1 (c, t p ) = max k ( Rk (c, t p ))γ
minimize f (c, t p ) =  (17)
 f 2 (c, t p ) = Eeval (c, t p )γ
subject to gj ≤ 0
Rk : drift angle of k -th layer

Eeval : life cycle amount of CO2 emission
c : spatial design variable (kinds of members and their combination)
t p : time design variable (building life and the repair period)
g j : constraint condition of the j joint
γ : penalty parameter
4.2 Numerical Model

A house as shown in Figure 6 is adopted as a numerical model. The design variables
are component parts and scenarios. Figure 7 shows the grouping of each member and
the constitution of the chromosome. Table 2 shows the parameter of GA used. SPEA2
(Strength Pareto Evolutionary Algorithm 2) is used for multi-optimization.
Fig.6: Numerical Model
728
Fig.7: Constitution of Grouping and Chromosome
Table 2: SPEA2 Parameter

Population 100
Elite 20
Generation 500
Prob. of Crossover 0.8
Prob. of Mutation 0.01
4.3 Multi-objective Minimization

Figure 8 shows the distribution of the Pareto solutions of each 2-objective optimization.
We take out both ends of the Pareto solutions among the solutions of 2-objective
optimization of Maximum Drift Angle and LCCO2 when Tonankai earthquake doesn’t
occur (No Earthquake in Figure 8), and the solutions of 2-objective optimization of
Maximum Drift Angle and LCCO2 when Tonankai earthquake occur in service period
of 70th year (Earthquake (70) in Figure 8). We consider each component of the
solutions and LC evaluation value. Table 3 shows the solution numbers and the LC
evaluation values of a provided solution when Tonankai earthquake doesn’t occur.
Table 4 shows the solution numbers and the LC evaluation values when Tonankai
earthquake occurs in service period of 70th year. In addition, Table 5 and Table 6 show
the list of the structural members from which GA selection process is carried out.
Figure 9 shows the chosen structural members among the member list provided. The
distribution of the Pareto solutions of No Earthquake is more open than the ones of
Earthquake (70). Because the structure of No Earthquake isn’t influenced by the
earthquake, and CO2 discharges doesn’t increase. Therefore, the structural members are
chosen from the thin members, and the solutions having more than 0.2 as Maximum
729
Drift Angle are provided. From the result of 2-objective optimization for Earthquake
(70) in Table 4, Maximum Drift Angle of the Pareto solutions of Earthquake (70) are
shown to be less than 0.01(1/100), because it is the constraint condition that the outer
walls are damaged and CO2 discharges increase by their repairs. In this analysis, it can
be said the structure holding the structural characteristics that suppress the lower
damage in the outer walls is little damaged by Tonankai Earthquake. It shows structure
characteristics that should be held for Tonankai Earthquake. This analysis shows the
significance of evaluation of structure characteristics for LCD. It can be said that the
proposed method is effective as a tool of structural design considering the effect of
environmental impact of the materials for construction in which the influence of
earthquake damage in also taken into account.
Table 3: LC Evaluation without Earthquake Table 4: LC Evaluation with Earthquake

（Independent house, Nagoya） (70)（Independent house, Nagoya）
Solution Number Max Drift Angle LCCO2(kg-CO2)
Solution Number Max Drift Angle LCCO2(kg-CO2)
No. 1 0.001094 569368
No. 1 0.001094 569368
No. 4 0.062486 463216
No. 4 0.062486 463216
No. 5 0.218325 457457
Table 5: List of H Rolling Steel Members Table 6: List of Corner Rolling Steel Pipe
Members
No. H B t1 t2 A(cm2) Ix(cm4) Z(cm3) No. H B t r A(cm2) Ix(cm4) Z(cm3)
101 100 50 5 7 12 187 15 801 150 150 6 12 34 1145 18437
110 300 150 6.5 9 47 7209 99 806 200 200 12 24 87 4983 83441
121 500 200 10 16 114 47846 702 810 250 250 16 32 143 12751 215299
220 700 300 13 24 235 201489 3242 815 300 300 19 64 196 24262 440275
H:Height, B:Width, t:Thickness, A:Area 820 350 350 22 77 264 44377 809155
I:Second section moment(A stong axis), Z:Section coefficient826 400 400 25 100 337 73071 1360752
H:Height, B:Width, t:Thickness, A:Area
I:Second section moment(A stong axis), Z:Section coefficient
Fig.8: Maximum Drift Angle - LCCO2
730
No.1 Structure No.2 Structure No.3 Structure
No.4 Structure No.5 Structure
Fig.9: Structural Property of 2-objective Optimization of Maximum Drift Angle and

LCCO2
5 Conclusion
In the present paper, evaluation method for the amount of LC emissions of building
structures is examined from the viewpoint of multi-objective optimization. As the
multi-objective, Maximum Drift Angle of the structure and the amount of LC emissions
of CO2 (LCCO2) are adopted as the structural characteristics and the environmental one,
respectively. For the evaluation of structural characteristics, the effect of earthquake is
introduced as the cause of the drift angle of the structure, where probabilistic property
of earthquake has been also taken into account. Through the comparison between
deterministic and stochastic treatment on the earthquake, it is shown that the
probabilistic character of breaking–out of earthquake has to be taken into account for
realistic treatment of life cycle assessment. The earthquake is assumed to occur in
service period of 70th year. But the maximum LC value when the earthquake occurs in
service period of another year may be necessary for the decision-maker. Additionally, it
is necessary to show in detail, as the earthquake vibration strength, the earthquake
outbreak probability.
References
[1] Eckart Zitzler, Marco Laumanns and Lothar Thiele, SPEA2: Improving the
Performance of the Strength Pareto Evolutionary Algorithm. Technical Report 103,
Computer Engineering and Communication Networks, 2001
[2] Toshio YADA, Junzo MUNEMOTO, Tetsu YOSHIDA and Shungo TAKANO,
Multi Objective Problem Reducing LCC, LCCO2, Final Waste in Selecting
Materials for Detached House. The Study on of an Application of Genetic
Algorithms to the Estimation System in Selecting Materials for Detached House.
Journal of Architecture and Planning 1999; 524: 77-84.
[3] Junzo MUNEMOTO, Shuichi HOKOI, Kazuyoshi HARIMOTO, Tetsu YOSHIDA
731
and Shungo TAKANO, Multi-objective Problem Reducing LCC, LCCO2, Final

Waste in Selecting Materials for Detached House No.2. The System which Select a
Combination of Building Materials and Construction Methods to ”The Standard
Building Model ”with GA. Journal of Architecture and Planning 2002; 551:85-92,.
[4] Hiroshi OHMORI and Ken NODA, Life Cycle Design for Building Structures
Based on Genetic Algorithms. Journal of Structural and Construction Engineering
2006; 601:181-188.
[5] Masako NAITO, Hiroshi OHMORI and Masakatsu HACHISUKA, Life Cycle
Design for Building Structures -Consideration of Seismic Hazard-. Journal of
Structural and Construction Engineering 2010; 647:121-128.
732
Shape optimisation for a tensegrity system

Pei-Shan CHEN1*
1*
Professor Dr.-Eng,
Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture & Graduate School
Hachinohe Institute of Technology
Oobiraki 88-1, Myo, Hachinohe City, Aomori 013-8501, Japan
E-mail: chen@hi-tech.ac.jp
Abstract
The present paper introduces two methods of shape optimisation for maximum
overall stiffness of a Tensegric system, which are strategies to minimise the deformation
against a certain load set. The first optimisation method adopts Gradient Projection
Method with a general inverse matrix and nonlinear structural analysis. While, the
second method adopts General Reduced Gradient method dominated with a linear
equilibrium equation. Furthermore, a tensegric dome is taken as the numerical example
to demonstrate the present optimisation, and the results show that the nodal
displacements of the example decreases 20%–30% compared to that of the initial shape.
Keywords: Tensegrity, Tensile structure, Cable dome, Minimum displacement,

Maximum stiffness, overall stiffness
1 Introduction
A tensile structure stabilized by prestressing is known as a flexible structure, especially
when it is deformed against asymmetrical loads as well as wind loads. In the present
paper, the author targets on shape optimisation for maximum overall stiffness of a
tensile structure through a mathematical programming method, and that has been the
subjects of several former studies by the author[1-4].
Researches concerned with evaluating the overall stiffness have been issued by several
researchers. In 1993, the author and the co-authors have promoted a method to
maximize the structural stiffness by minimizing the nodal displacements [1,2]. In 1999,
S.Wang, H. Moon and S.Ki promoted an optimisation method for seeking the minimum
displacement of a continuum shell by using the work done by the applied loads [5], and
a same method was demonstrated by R. Ansola and his co-authors for the topology
optimisation of a shell [6]. In the former issue of reference [4], the author compared
these methods of evaluating the overall structural stiffness of a tensegric structure, and
found that the evaluation method by minimizing the nodal displacements is efficient one.
Therefore, in the present paper, the author adopts such a method to define the objective
function in the Gradient Projection Method and General Reduced Gradient respectively
for the shape optimisation of a tensegric system.
733
2 Formulation of the optimisation
2.1 The objective function and constraints

To maximize the overall stiffness of a tensegric structure is an equivalent formulation to
minimize its nodal displacements caused by a given load sets, which is the evaluation
method promoted by the author and co-authors in the past researches [1-4]. To
minimize the nodal displacements is easily associated with to minimize the magnitude
of the displacement vector, which is known as the sum of the squares of all vector
elements of displacements. For a tensegric structure with n degrees of freedom, the
objective function F1 for minimizing the nodal displacements can be expressed as the
following equations.
n
f j = ∑ Di2 for loading case j (1)
i =1
F1 = w1 f 1 + w2 f 2 + K + wl f l , (2)
where D={Di} indicates the disp1acement vector, w j ( j = 1, K , l ) indicates the weighting

factors for the loading cases, which satisfy ∑ w j = 1 , and l is the number of the
l
j =1
loading cases to be considered. While, the objective function for the structural volume is
expressed in equation below,
m
F2 = ∑ Lk Ak = LT A (3)
k =1
where L = {Lk } indicates the lengths of the members, A = {Ak } the member section
areas and m the number of members. Then, the analysis of the present optimisation can
be formulated as a multi-criteria one for maximum stiffness and small structural
material,
F =WF +W F
minimize 1 1 2 2 (4)
 subject to :
 h ( X, A, P ) = 0 ; ( j = 1,..., s) (5)

j
 g ( X, A, P ) ≤ 0 , (k = 1,..., t )
k (6)
where X = {x i } is the vector of nodal coordinates, P = {Pk } the prestressed forces

introduced in the members, and W1 and W2 the weighting factors for the objective
functions of F1 and F2 respectively. Here, (X, A , P ) are the design variables to be
determined by the optimisation.
Eq.(5) and (6) indicate the equality and inequality constraints respectively, which are
given by the designer to satisfy the geometrical and/or mechanical requirements. Many
734
algorithm techniques are developed for the mathematical treatment of constrain

conditions in an optimisation [7-9].
However, shape finding and structural analysis of a tensegric system depend on its
construction method, and usually performed in three different stages: (1) to determine
the shape before prestressing, (2) the deformation and changes in member forces during
prestressing, and (3) the structural analysis deal with additional loading. In the present
optimisation, X represents the nodal coordinates of the shape after the introducing of the
prestress P , and the displacement D is that due to the loads applying onto the structure
after the prestressing. Therefore, the erection shape before the prestressing can be found
inversely from the optimum shape determined by the present optimisation. Because the
present optimisation can find the optima in the vicinity of the initial design variables,
the author believes that it is possible to find the erection shape inversely from the
optimum shape.
2.2 The domain equation

The relationship between the objective function F1 and the design variables (X, A , P ) is
referred to as the domain equation, which is the equilibrium of the structural analysis,
and derives some important mathematic functions for the optimisation. However, the
present paper focuses on the shape optimisation and not demonstrates structural
analyses. For a tensegritic frame with m members and n degrees of freedom, via the
composite method [10], an implicit function of the equilibrium is in form below.
m
∂δ k
∑ ∂D N k − Qi = 0 , (i = 1,2,K , n ) (7)
k =1 i
E k Ak
Nk = δ k + Pk , (k = 1,.2,K m) , (8)
Lk
where {Ek } is the Young's modulus, {N k } the member forces, {Qi} the nodal loads.
Hence, {δ k } is the changes in lengths of the members, which is represented as
∑ x s2 − Lk , x s = ( x J − x I )s + (D J − DI )s , where the index s = 1,2 ,3 indicate

3
δk = s =1
the coordinate components in X ,Y , Z directions respectively. Consequently, {∂δ k ∂Di }

in Eq.(7) can be found easily.
3 Gradient Projection Method with general inverse matrix

The final purpose of this analysis is to search the optimum design variables at which the
objective function, Eq.(4), is minimized. The first strategy to be introduced in the
present paper is Gradient Projection Method (GPM) [11], which is not convenient to
find the global optimum. In the GPM, the descent direction of the objective function is
required, and it is defined by the derivatives of the objective function with respect to the
735
design variables. By modifying the design variables along the descent direction, the
objective function can be decreased step by step until an optimum is reached.
3.1 The descent direction of the objective function
3.1.1 Preparing for the differentiating
In order to find the descent direction of the objective function, some differentiating
should be carried out first. Here, the changes in the member lengths {δ k } are regarded
as the function of the design variables and the nodal displacements, such as
δ k = δ k (xi , Ar , Ps , D j ) . Furthermore, the displacement vector D is regarded as a function
depend on the design variables, Di = Di (xi , Ar , Ps ) . Based on these mathematic
relationships, differentiating with respect to the design variables can be found easily as
the following equations.
(1) Derivates with respect to the coordinates:
∂D
∂
(δ k ) = ∂δ k + ∑ ∂δ k q ; ( j = 1,2,K , n; k = 1,2,K m )
n
(9)
∂x j ∂x j q=1 ∂Dq ∂x j
∂N k Ek Ak  ∂δ k n
∂δ ∂Dq  Ek Ak ∂Lk
= 
 ∂x
+∑ k −
 L2 k ∂x k
δ ; ( j =1,2 ,K,n; k =1,2 ,K,m ) (10)
∂x j Lk  j q =1 ∂Dq ∂x j  j
∂  ∂δ k  ∂ 2δ k n
∂ 2δ k ∂Dq
  = +∑ ; (i , j = 1,2 ,K , n; k = 1,2 ,K , m ) (11)
∂x j  ∂Di  ∂Di∂x j q =1 ∂Di∂Dq ∂x j
(2) Derivates with respect to the member section areas :
∂ n
∂δ ∂Dq
δk = ∑ k ; (l , k = 1,2 ,K m ) (12)
∂Al q =1 ∂Dq ∂Al
∂N k Ek E A n
∂δ k ∂Dq
= δk + k k ∑ ∂D ; ( k , l =1,2 ,K,m ) (13)
∂Al Lk Lk q =1 q ∂Al
(3) Derivates with respect to the prestressed forces:

∂ n
∂δ ∂Dq
δk = ∑ k ; (l , k = 1,2 ,K , m ) (14)
∂Pl q =1 ∂Dq ∂Pl
∂N k Ek E A n
∂δ k ∂Dq
= δk + k k ∑ ∂D ; ( k , l =1,2 ,K,m ) (15)
∂Pl Lk Lk q =1 q ∂Pl
3.1.2 Differentiating with respect to the coordinates
By differentiating the domain equation, the derivates of the nodal displacements with
respect to the design variables can be found as following equations.
736
m  ∂  ∂δ k  ∂δ ∂N k  ∂Qi
∑ ∂x   N k + k − = 0 ; (i , j = 1,2,K , n ) (16)
k =1  j  ∂Di  ∂Di ∂x j  ∂x j
Substituting Eq.(9)-(11) into the last equation, the following equation can be obtained.
n  ∂Dq 
∑T   + Cij = 0 ; (i , j = 1,2 ,K , n ) (17)
iq  ∂x 
q =1  j 
where
 E k Ak ∂δ k ∂δ k
m
∂ 2δ 
Tiq = ∑  + Nk  , (18)

k =1  Lk ∂Di ∂Dq ∂Di ∂Dq 

m 
E A ∂δ k  ∂δ k δ k ∂Lk  ∂ 2δ  ∂Qi
C ij = ∑  k k − + Nk − (19)
∂  ∂x ∂  ∂ ∂
k =1  Lk
 D i  j L k x j  D i x  ∂x j
j 
are determined values in the iteration steps of the optimisation. Hence, the
differentiating {∂Dq ∂x j } can be found by solving the linear equations (17).
3.1.3 Differentiating with respect to the member section areas
In order to find the descent direction of the objective function, differentiating of the
nodal displacements with respect to the member section areas are required. By
differentiating the domain equation below
m  ∂  ∂δ k  ∂δ k ∂N k 
∑ ∂A  ∂D  N +  = 0 ; (i = 1,2 ,K , n ; k = 1,2 ,K , m ) , (20)
∂Di ∂Al 
k
k =1  l  i 
and substituting Eq.(12) and (13) into the last equation, the equation below can be
obtained.
n
 ∂Dq 
∑T   + H it = 0 ; (i = 1,2,K , n ) (21)
 ∂At
iq
q =1 
where Tiq is determined by equation (18) and H it are expressed as
∂δ t Et
H it = δt ; (i = 1,2,K , ; t = 1,2 ,K , m ) . (22)
∂Di Lt
Hence, the differentiating {∂Dq ∂At } can be found by solving the linear equations (21).
737
3.1.4 Differentiating with respect to the prestressed forces
By the same method demonstrated in the former sections, differentiating the domain
equation with respect to the prestressed forces, and substituting Eq.(14) and (15) into
the analysis procedure, the following equations can be obtained.
m  ∂  ∂δ k  ∂δ ∂N k 
∑ ∂P  ∂D  N k + k  =0 ; (i = 1,2,K , n ; k = 1,2,K , m ) , (23)
k =1  l  i  ∂Di ∂Pl 
n
 ∂Dq 
∑T   + Rir = 0 ; (i = 1,2,K , n ) (24)
 ∂Pr
iq
q =1 
where
∂δ r
Rir = . (25)
∂Di
Consequently, the differentiating {∂Dq ∂Pr } can be obtained by solving the linear
equations (24).
3.1.5 Descent direction of objective function
For mathematical convenience, all the design variables {xi , Ar , Ps } can be noted as
{ }
{X s }, and it is easy to get know that ∂Di ∂X s are determined by Eq.(17), (21) and
(24) respectively, which can be represented in matrix form below.
 
& =  ∂Di
D  = −T [C, H , R ]
−1
(26)
 ∂X j 
[ ] [ ]
where T = Tiq , C = Cij , H = [H it ] , R = [Rir ] . Hence, the descent direction of the
objective function (2) is represented as following equation.
l
∇F1 = −2∑ w j DTj D
&
j
(27)
j =1
T
 ∂ ∂ 
Here, ∇ =   indicates the differentiating operator. Furthermore, the
 ∂X ,K , ∂X
 1 n +2 m 
descent direction of second objective function (3) is in form,
( & .
∇F2 = − L& T A + LT A ) (28)
Finally, the descent direction of the objective function (4) can be represented as,
Δ = ∇F = W1∇F1 + W2 ∇F2 . (29)
738
3.2 Constrain Space

The equality constraints, Eq.(5), may be linear and/or nonlinear ones, which make a
constrain space ℑ for the design variables X = {X i } , such as
{ }
ℑ = X = {X i } ⊂ ℜ n+ 2 m g i (x ) ≤ 0 , h j (x ) = 0 ; i = 1,2 ,K t , j = 1,2 ,K s < n . However, at
the step k of the iteration of the optimisation, where a point X k = {X i }k is reached,
equality constraints can be developed by Taylor expansion as following equation.
( ) ( )
hi X k +1 ≈ hi X k + ∇ hi
k
(X k +1
)
− X k = 0 ; i = 1,2,K s < n . (30)
( )
Because of X k ∈ ℑ ⇒ hi X k = 0 , then the last equation can be rewritten as
{ }
B X k +1 − X k = 0 , (31)
where B = (∇h1 ,K , ∇hs )T , which makes a tangential space Ω = { y By = 0} (a supper

plan) of the constrain space ℑ at point X k . Hence, an arbitrary vector may be projected
on to this supper plan Ω by a projection operator below.
P = I − B-B (32)
where B - is the generalised inverse of matrix B [11,12]. Thus the projection of the
descent direction onto the space Ω is given by the following equation.
η = PΔ ∈ Ω (33)
If the geometric dominate dimensions, such as radii and rises etc., are taken as the
design variables, the derivatives with respect to these geometric dominate dimensions
can be transformed by a suitable Jacobian [3,13]. Hence, the design variables can be
modified along this direction and then other point X k +1 ∈ Ω can be obtained.
X k +1 = X k + αη ∈ Ω , (34)
However, this point X k +1 is out of the real constrain space ℑ , and a special procedure
must be devised to make it return to the constrain space ℑ . There are many methods,
Newton's method for example, may be chosen for this procedure, and then the feasible
point in the constrain space X k +1 ∈ ℑ can be found. Thus, F k +1 < F k < F k −1 should be
expected for every step of the optimisation, so that the displacements can become
smaller and smaller until optimum design variables are reached. However, suitable
iteration step lengthα should be chosen, and the Kuhn and Tucker condition should be
checked for whether an optimum point is reached[9].
In the present analysis, it is assumed that the constraints are non-degeneracy during the
iteration of the optimisation. Consequently, mathematic procedure is required to deal
with the inequality constraints, and many strategies are developed for the mathematic
treatments.
739
4 Optimisation theory with General Reduced Gradient (GRG)

The optimisation method introduced in the former sections, which adopt nonlinear
structural analysis and general inverse matrix, appear a complex mathematical
procedure. Then, the author promotes another optimisation method with linear structural
analysis and simple mathematical treatments in this section.
In cases where the loads are sufficiently small, the domain equation can be represented
as linear equilibrium,
KD = Q (35)
where K is the stiffness matrix in which a geometric stiffness matrix due to the
prestressed forces is included. In the present paper, the General Reduced Gradient
(GRG) method is adopted to search the optima [4,9]. However, GRG is not convenient
to find the global optima, but it is very efficient to find the local optima near the initial
design variables. In GRG the descent direction of the objective function is defined by
the derivative of the objective function with respect to the design variables, which can
be found by differentiating the domain equation (35).
K& D + KD& =Q& , (36)

& = K −1 Q
D (
& −K&D , ) (37)
f&i = 2D T D
& for load case i . (38)
Here, a dot over a vector or matrix notes the derivatives with respect to the design
variables. Then, the descent direction of the objective function F1 and F2 and F,
therefore, can be expressed as Eq.(27)-(29). Then, modify the design variables along the
objective function, the optima can be reached. As mentioned above, mathematic
procedure is required to deal with the constraints. If the geometric dominate dimensions,
such as radii and rises etc., are taken as the design parameters, the derivatives can be
transformed from coordinates system into dominate dimensions by a suitable Jacobian.
5 NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
5.1 The analysis example

A cable dome is taken as the numerical example to demonstrate the optimisation
method of GRG introduced in the last section, which is in an elliptic plan measuring
about 240m×190 m, and assumed to be roofed with membrane[4]. The plan of the
cable dome consists of a combination of two arcs with deferent radii, as shown in
Fig.1(c). The cables are assumed to be structural stranded ropes, and the posts are steel
pipes. During the numerical analysis, the allowable stresses of the structural members
were used as constraints. A distributed load of 300 kN/m2 was assumed to be the dead
load applying at the top of the roof, and a design velocity load of 2.52 kN/m2 and a wind
force coefficient (for entire roof surface, upward) of C=0.8 were assumed. The
740
weighting factors are 0.5 for dead load and 0.5 for wind load case. Table 1 shows the
cross sections in which a representative combination of cables and posts are used. Fig.2
shows the distribution of axial forces in diagonal cables and their allowable forces. 12
shape parameters, which are the radii and the ring heights of the dome shown in
Fig.1(d), are taken as design variables for the optimisation.
26.2
41.8
15.5
(b) Cross section
(a) Bird's eye view

RA1
RA2
RA3
190.3
CONST. HA2
HA3
HB3 HA1
HB2 HB1
RB3
RB2
RB1 91.7 56.0 91.7
CONST. CONST. 239.4
(d) Geometrical design variables (c) Plan of combined arcs
Fig.1: The analytic model
Table 1: Materials of major members

ridgeridge
cable
cable central
central trusstruss diagonal cable
R4 diagonal cable
R3
R2 P3 D4
R1 H3 D3
P2
P1 post
post
H2 D2
D1
H1
hoop cable
hoop cable
Symbols Material symbols Material

R1 2-φ88 + 2-φ53 + 2-φ50 D1 2-φ67 + 1-φ60
R2 2-φ53 + 4-φ50 D2 2-φ88
R3 2-φ53 + 2-φ50 D3 2-φ50
R4 4-φ50 D4 4-φ50
H1 5-φ100 P1 φ-609.6×22.0
H2 2-φ88 + 6-φ100 P2 φ-711.2×22.0
H3 4-φ88 P3 φ-508.0×22.0
741
800 short term allow erable force Forces

プロット方向in cables
D1
long-term allow erable force
Tension in cables (10kN)

D2
5.2 Analytical results 700
force due to dead loads D3
Fig.3 shows the optimum shape 600 force due to w ind load
D2
D4
obtained by the optimisation. Fig.4 500

)
N
k
0
makes a comparison between the D1 (1
n
400 io
displacements of initial and s
n
e
D4
T For ces in cables
optimum shapes. As shown in Fig.4, 300
the vertical displacement in the area

D3
200
along the minor axis, which is 100

usually big and difficult to be
0
reduced for such an cable dome, was Fig. 2: Prestresses in diagonal cables
reduced 25-35%.
60
Displacements (cm)
50 V1 V2
40
V3
Optimum shape 30
Initial shape
20
(a) The optimum shape with constraints 10

0
optimum shape
-10
initial shape (prestressed case 3)
V1
V2
Opti mum shape Plot position V3
I ni ti al shape
(b) The optimum shape without constraints

constraints Fig. 4: The displacement
Fig. 3: The optimum shape due to wind load
6 Conclusion
The present paper introduced two optimisation methods for maximum overall stiffness
of a tensegric system, one is Gradient Projection Method with a general inverse matrix
and nonlinear structural analysis, and the other is General Reduced Gradient method
with linear structural analysis. The mathematical procedure of the first method is
complex, while the second one is simple and effective. Consequently, the numerical
analysis results show that the vertical displacements decreased 20-30% comparing to
that of its initial shape. The present optimisation can determine the member sections and
distribution of prestressed forces automatically and out put more information for design
decisions. However, comparison of the two methods remains as further research topics.
742
References
[1] Chen, P.S., Abe, M. and Kawaguchi, M., Shape of Tensegrity Frames with an
Optimum Rigidity, 4th Conference on Space Structures, University of Surrey, UK.,
Sep. 5-10, 1993. pp1017-1026.
[2] Chen, P.S and Kawaguchi, M., Minimum-Deformation-Shape of Tension
Structures, Journal of Structural and Construction Engineering 1995; 468: 101-108.
[3] Chen, P.S., and Kawaguchi, M., Minimum Deformation Shape of Prestressed Bar
Structures, Seiken-IASS Symposium on Nonlinear Analysis and Design for Shell
and Spatial Structures, Tokyo, Japan, Oct. 1993.
[4] Chen,P-S., Overall stiffness evaluation and shape optimisation of a tensegric
structure, International. Journal of Structural Engineering 2010; 1:241-254.
[5] Wang, S., Moon, H. and Ki, S., Topology Optimisation of Automobile
Reinforcement, CIK-OSM1 Xian Chian, 1999, pp94-100.
[6] Ansola, R., Canales, Tarrago, J.A. and Rasmussen, J., On Simultaneous Shape and
Material Layout Optimisation of Shell Structures, Struct Multidisc Optim 2002;
175-184.
[7] Wolfram Stadier: Multicriteria Optimisation in Engineering and in the Sciences,
Plenum Press, 1988.
[8] Adeli, H., Advances in Design Optimisation, Chapman & Hall, 1994.
[9] Minoux, M., “Mathematical Programming (Theory and Algorithms)”, John Wiley
and Sons, 1983
[10] Nagara E, Kunita J and Kawamata S, Analysis of cable nets in mixed formulation,
Part II, Rigorous solution of the geometrically non-linear problems, Journal of
Structural and Construction Engineering 1974; 220:35-45.
[11] Rosen, J.B., The Gradient Projection Method For Nonlinear Programming, Part 2,
Nonlinear Constraints, Journal S.J.A.M. , 9, 1961.
[12] Penrose, R., A Generalized Inverse for Matrices, Proc.Cambridge Philos, Soc. 51
(1955), pp.406-416
[13] Chen, P. S. and Kawaguchi, M., Optimisation for Maximum Buckling Load of a
Lattice Space Frame With Nonlinear Sensitivity Analysis, International Journal of
Space Structures 2006; 21:111-118.
743
2.6 WG 15 Structural Morphology
744
Parametric model of 3D shear force and bending moment

diagrams for out-off-plane loaded plates.
Michiel OOSTERHUIS2, Andrew BORGART1*
1*
Faculty of Architecture, Delft University of Technology
Julianalaan 134, 2628 BL Delft, The Netherlands
a.borgart@tudelft.nl
2
Faculty of Architecture, Delft University of Technology
Abstract
This paper introduces a parametric structural design tool to calculate and visualize these
results for thin plates loaded out-off plane. The is done by using the membrane analogy
for the split part of the classic 4th order partial differential equation for thin plates
expressed in the reduced sum of the bending moments ( M ) and the “rain flow analogy”
for the shear force flow on the M − hill . This method is developed to increase the
quantitative insight of thin plates.
Keywords: thin plates loaded out-off plane, membrane analogy, rain flow analogy,
force density discretization of membrane surface, parametric structural design tool.
1 Introduction
The mechanical behaviour of thin plates loaded out-off-plane is governed by the classic
4th order partial differential equation. Solving this equation analytically by means of
mathematics is only possible in a few cases for plates with simple geometries, such as
rectangular and round plates. These mathematical solutions usually involve the use of
series and for standard boundary conditions the solution of the differential equation can
be found in tables [1].
For solving the differential equation of thin plates with other than the aforementioned
simple geometries alternative solution procedures had to be developed because of the
impossibility to solve these problems mathematically. The most notably alternative has
been the development of the stiffness method, with continuum problems, such as plates,
being solved by finite-difference or finite-element methods [2].
The latter method has now become the standard for calculating structures in most
engineering practices all over the world. Because the finite-element method is now so
common place the downsides of this method are not part of any discussion in the
engineering community. The finite-element method has, next to its powerful application
and use, three disadvantages. Firstly its solution is always discrete as is the result of the
discrete nature of the mathematical formulation which is at the basis of this method.
Commercial FEM programmes usually discard this by giving as output of the
calculation colourful continuous contour plots. For an untrained or indifferent engineer
745
this can be the cause of an erroneous interpretation of the results [3]. Secondly because
by nature the finite-element method does not solve the differential equation analytically
the solution is no longer expressed in terms of parameters, but merely numerical. Thus
the solution is only quantitative on no longer qualitative [4]. This has an adverse
influence on the insight of the mechanical behaviour of the structure. Thirdly the finite-
element is not associative parametric. This means that for each variance in geometry a
new FEM model has to be build for calculation, which can be very time consuming. An
associative parametric calculation tool would not only cut time but also partially make
up for the lack of insight, as a result of no longer being able to attain an analytic
solution with parameters, by being able to vary the geometry and immediately receiving
the (visual) output as a result of [5].
The in this paper proposed method aims to give a first step in developing an associative
parametric structural design tool as an answer to the three aforementioned
disadvantages of the finite-element method, without loosing the accuracy provided by
the finite-element method. This first step is in follow-up research to be extended with
thin plates loaded in-plane and thin shell structures.
2 Basic principles of method

The classis 4th order partial differential equation for thin plates loaded out-off plane is:
 ∂4w ∂4w ∂4w 

−D ⋅  4 + 2 ⋅ 2 2 + 4  = p (1)
 ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y 
with the plate stiffness D:
E ⋅ t3
D= (2)
12 ⋅ (1 − υ 2 )
The 4th order partial differential equation can be split into two 2nd order partial
differential equations:
M ∂2 w ∂2 w (3)
− = 2+ 2
D ∂x ∂y
∂2 M ∂2 M (4)
−p = +
∂x2 ∂y2
with the reduced sum of the bending moments M (which is invariant):
m xx + m yy
M = = − D ⋅ ∆w
1+υ (5)
746
For equation (3) there is an analogy with the 2nd order partial differential equation for
an inflated membrane (fig. 1-3):
∂ 2 wm ∂ 2 wm p
2
+ 2 =− (6)
∂x ∂y T
Fig.1. Elementary membrane part Fig.2. Vertical equilibrium along section A-A Fig.3. Physical membrane shape
This analogy only holds for small curvatures of the membrane, thus
and .
By using this analogy we can determine that the reduced sum of the bending moments,
the M − hill , is equivalent to the surface of the deformed membrane, for the case the
plate stiffness and the distributed membrane force T are both equal to 1.
∂2 wm ∂2 wm (7)
M≡ 2 + 2 for : D = 1 and T = 1
∂x ∂y
By using the force density method [6] to generate, with the correct boundary conditions
and the condition as mentioned above concerning the distributed membrane force, a
(discretized) membrane surface the vertical deformation of that surface in arbitrary
points is equal to value of the reduced bending moments. The correct boundary
condition of the generated membrane depends on the boundary condition of the
equivalent thin plat. For the generation of the membrane surface the condition regarding
the membrane force has to be incorporated in the initial value regarding the force
density q (S = force in grid branch of discretized surface network, ln = length of grid
branch, bn = spacing between grid branch):
S T ⋅ bn (8)
q= with : S = T ⋅ bn ⇒ q = and T = 1
ln ln
The shear forces can be found be taking the second derivative of the reduced sum of the
moments in respect to the x and y axis:
∂ ∂ (9)
vx = ⋅ M and v y = ⋅M
∂x ∂y
747
From this the shear force can be calculated in any arbitrary direction under angle α in
respect to the x and y axis:
vn = vx cos α + v y sin α (10)
vt = −vx sin α + v y cos α
The principle shear force vn in the principle direction β is:

vy ∂
vn,max = vx 2 + v y 2 for : tan β = ⇒ vn = ⋅ M and vt = 0 (11)
vx ∂n
This is an interesting conclusion as can be seen that the principle shear force can be
determined by taking in a point on the M − hill the slope along the steepest descent, the
“rain flow analogy” [7], much like rain flows on a surface along its steepest descent.
The above described principles form the basis of the developed parametric structural
design tool.
3 Parametric Structural Design Tool

The method was implemented [8] using the parametric design application Grasshopper
running within the 3D modelling computer programme Rhinoceros, for the solution of
the matrices Mapack was used. The graphic output is also generated by Rhinoceros.
The results and output of the parametric structural design tool are:
- Shear forces ( )
- Bending and torsional moments ( )
- Concentrated shear forces ( )
- Principle moments ( )
- Displacements ( )
The first step of the tool is to generate a grid of points (mesh). This mesh is used to
generate a discretized membrane surface network by using the force density method
according to the method described previously (fig. 4-6). The next step is to turn the
discretized surface into a continuous one by using surface interpolation (NURBS
surface), resulting in a M − hill which will form the basis of the further result (fig. 7)
All the following results concern an example of a thin plate with a uniform distributed
load and simply supported. The proceeding example has the next values:
- distributed load , plate stiffness
748
Once the M − hill has been generated in each point on the surface the slope or gradient
with de steepest descent can be calculated and drawn which represent the principle
shear force as is given by (11) and can be represented as vector fields (fig. 8-12).
∂
vn = ⋅M (11)
∂n
Fig.4. Initial grid with uniform distributed Fig.5. Equilibrium position of points Fig.6. Generated Mesh
load
Fig.7. Surface interpolation resulting in: Fig.8. Steepest descent vectors on sum of Fig.9. Vector field with directions of
M − hill bending moments surface ( M − hill ) principle shear forces
Fig.10. Principle shear force represented as Fig.11. Shear force in x-direction Fig.12. Shear force in y-direction
scaled arrows by the magnitude of the force represented as scaled represented as scaled arrows
749
The results taken from the M − hill of the shear forces can also be represented in a 3D
graph (fig. 13-15).
Fig.13. Principle shear force represented as Fig.14. Shear forces in x-direction Fig.15. Shear forces in y-direction
3D graph represented as 3D graph represented as 3D graph
With the method of steepest descent, also called the gradient

descent method, trajectories on the M − hill can be generated
along which the principle forces flow (“rain flow analogy”).
The gradient descent algorithm (see picture right) starts from a

predefined starting point and iteratively determines the steepest
descent vector on the considered surface and defines the next
point by translating the start point over a (very small) distance in
this direction. The sequence is repeated until a local (or global)
minimum is reached or a predefined stopping condition is met.
With the “rain flow analogy” the flow of shear forces becomes very insightful, even for
plates with complex geometries (fig. 18-19). The principle shear forces can also be
calculated be integrating the area between two trajectories (fig. 20). The trajectories
always end perpendicular on the plates boundary edges, thus resulting in the support
reactions (not including the concentrated shear force).
Fig.16. Rain flow trajectories plotted on sum of bending Fig.17. Corresponding contour plot of sum of bending moments
moment s surface with rain flow trajectories
750
Fig.18. Rain flow trajectories (plate simply Fig.19. Sum of bending moment surface Fig.20. Summation of shear forces in sections
supported along edges plus uniform (plate simply supported along edges plus between trajectories
distributed load) uniform distributed load)
Also from the M − hill the deformations of the plate can be derived. This is done by
using the finite-difference method [7].The expression for the M − hill can be
discretized (12), according to the finite-difference method (see picture right).
∂2w ∂2w
M= + for : D = 1
∂x 2 ∂y 2
1
M = ⋅ ( −4 ⋅ wi , j + wi −1, j + wi +1, j + wi , j −1 + wi , j +1 )
λ2 (12)
From the deformations all the internal forces (shear forces, bending moment, torsional
moment, principle moment and concentred shear force) can be directly calculated
because they all are derivatives of the displacement field (fig. 21). In this case this is
done also by using the finite-difference method [7]. The results can be visually shown
by 3D graphs (fig. 22-29) or by contour plots (fig. 30-38). Concerning the accuracy of
these results compared to the analytical solution [1] for this case is for the principle
shear forces a difference of maximum 6% compared to 14% with a FEM calculation.
The maximum difference with the analytical solution for all the other results is 4,5%,
this also very satisfactory compared to FEM calculations.
Fig.21. Displacement field Fig.22. Bending moments in x-direction Fig.23. Bending moments in y-direction
751
Fig.24. Shear forces in x-direction Fig.25. Shear forces in y-direction Fig.26. Torsional moments
Fig.27. Minimum Principle moments Fig.28. Maximum Principle moments Fig.29. Concentrated shear forces
Fig.30. Displacement field Fig.31. Bending moments in x-direction Fig.32. Bending moments in y-direction
752
Fig.33. Shear forces in x-direction Fig.34. Shear forces in y-direction Fig.35. Principle shear forces
Fig.37. Maximum Principle moments Fig.38. Minimum Principle moments

Fig.36. Torsional moments
4 Sand hill models and Voronoi tessellations
An educational and simple physical experiment (like the inflated membrane, but easer
to conduct) to represent the flow of the principle shear forces is the Sand Hill method
(fig. 39). The experiment is also used to investigate yield lines for plates (fig. 40). In the
yield line the plastic bending moment is maximum and the shear forces zero, as they
can not be transferred in hinges which form the yield lines. Dry sand grains rolls along a
hill of sand under an angle of 45%. If the sand can flow over an edge (like in a drain)
than this edge is able to carry loads, for edges that can not carry loads (such as free
edges) the sides should be closed so no sand can flow towards that edge (fig. 41).
This physical experiment can also be numerically simulated with

a parametric tool (fig. 42-44) to investigate the influence of
different boundary conditions (fig. 45-48). The parametric tool
gives good results compared to the physical experiment (fig 49-
50). Because the dry sand grains roll to the closest drain under an
angle of 45% the sand hills patterns they form are like Voronoi
tessellations (see picture right). The sand hill results are in fact
discretizations of the results gained from “rain flow analogy” (fig.
51-55).
753
Fig.39. Physical sand hill Fig.40. Yield lines of structure
Fig.41. Sand hill models for horizontal and inclined flat surfaces
Fig.42. Generation procedure for sand hill Fig.43. Sand hill model represented by Fig.44. Sand hill model represented by 3D
model dense grid mesh
Fig.45. Parametric sand hill Fig.46. Parametric sand hill Fig.47. Parametric sand hill Fig.48. Parametric sand hill
model: 2 edge supports model: 4 corner supports model: edge supports and 1 free model: 2 edge- and 2 point
edge supports
754
Fig.49. Parametric sand hill model: Fig.50. Parametric sand hill model:
configuration of point- and line configuration of point- and line
supports & physical sand hill model supports & physical sand hill model
Fig.51. Flow paths sand grains Fig.52. Voronoi tessellation Fig.53. Principle shear force trajectories
Fig.54. Discrete trajctories and magnitude of principle shear forces Fig.55. Trajctories and magnitude of principle shear forces along the
along the plate edges plate edges
755
5 Conclusion
The presented methods give the engineer or architect the necessary insight to be able to
understand the mechanical behaviour of thin plates and the parametric associative
option gives the opportunity to be able to design these types of structures in an effective
manner. The first method presented also gives the necessary degree of accuracy
required for calculation purposes, comparable to analytic and numeric solutions. This
method needs further investigation, there are many unanswered questions remaining.
There is the issue of thin plates with different geometries, such as circular plates, or
plates with arbitrary geometries. Or different boundary conditions, such as fully
clamped, unsupported edges, point support etc. Another point of research is it is
possible to derive the bending and torsional moments directly from the M − hill itself
without needing the finite-difference method to extract this information. There was
partial success in deriving directly the bending moments from the M − hill , but not for
the torsional and thus principle moments. This issue would need further investigation,
as is would make the method more expeditious.
The presented method also holds promise for thin plates loaded in-plane and thin shell
structures.
References
[1] Czerny, F. Tafeln Für Hydrostatische Belastete Rechteckplatten, Ernst und Sohn,
1959
[2] Samuelsson, A. and Zienkiewicz, O.C. History of the stiffness method.
International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering 2006; 67:149-157.
[3] Blaauwendraad, J. Plates and FEM: Surprises and Pitfalls. Springer, 2010
[4] Borgart, A., Hoogenboom, P., & De Leeuw, M. The relationship of form and force
in (irregular) curved surfaces. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on
Compuation of Shell and Spatial Structures. Salzburg: IASS, 2005
[5] Coenders, J. Interfacing between parametric associative and structural software.
Innovations in structural engineering and construction (pp. 63-68). London, UK:
Taylor & Francis, 2007
[6] Schek, H.-J. The Force Density Method for Form Finding and Computation of
General Networks. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering
1974; 3:115-134
[7] Beranek, W. Bereking van Platen. Delft University of Technology. Delft, 1976
[8] Oosterhuis, M. A parametric structural design tool for plate structures. Delft
University of Technology. Delft, 2010
756
The New Structuralism

Rivka OXMAN
Faculty of Architecture and T.P
Technion ITT Israel
rivkao@gmail.com
Abstract
The paper presents a set of important developments in design theory and
methodology that we have termed, The New Structuralism. The interpretation of the
phenomena of New Structuralism presented in this paper is a first attempt to define this
emerging paradigm. A theoretical research presents how the structuring, encoding, and
fabricating of material systems are contributing to a new material practice which
demands a theoretical foundation comprehensive enough to integrate emerging theories,
digital methods and computational technologies in design.
Keywords: Digital Design, Digital Tectonics, Structuralism, Complex Shape, Material,
Fabrication
1 The new structuralism

The current shift in design and production technologies requires a seamless design
approach that supports the interdependence of form, structure and material from design
to fabrication. The traditional designation of the interaction between the architect and
engineer has been one of post-rationalization. No longer is this relationship a posteriori.
The design engineer is now up-front at the earliest generative stage along with the
design content of materialization. It is clear that these characteristics of the cutting edge
of contemporary design engineering practice have been influenced by new capabilities
and concepts of digital media. Emerging digital technologies are mitigating between
optimization of structural designs and the enhancement of the architectural concepts.
The interpretation of the phenomena of New Structuralism presented in this paper is a
first attempt to define this emerging paradigm. With the rapidly emerging technologies
of fabrication, the current impact of material structure upon architectural form has
become one of the prominent influences in architectural design. Fabrication promises to
be not just a prototyping technique, but a revolution in the making of architecture. The
paper presents a new approach to integrated design termed, New Structuralism, (Oxman
and Oxman, 2010) and reviews concepts and principles that demonstrate a new
relationship between the formal models of the architect and the materializing processes
of the engineer.
New Structuralism focuses upon the potential of novel design processes to return
architecture to its material sources. It presents a series of novel representational and
757
process models in which form, structure and material are integrated as one entity in a
single mode of design.
Processes of design in both the conceptual and the materialization stages can be
considered as a single continuous process. In the following sections we investigate
various design models in which form, structure and material play an equal role. We
present how the structuring, encoding, and fabricating of material systems are
contributing to a new material practice which demands a theoretical foundation
comprehensive enough to integrate emerging theories, digital methods and new
technologies in design.
2 The new structuralism and the digital tectonic

Tectonics is a seminal concept that defines the nature of the relationship between
architectural design and its structural properties. In different historical periods
throughout history, tectonic discourse has continually redefined the elements of the
tectonic relationship as well as their prioritizing. The origins of tectonic expression
appear to reside in vernacular building traditions which achieve an integration of form,
material, structure and construction. Vernacular architecture represents the essence of
structural and material relationships in being a direct statement of constructional and
material potential expressed structurally.
The term tectonics was derived from the Greek word, tekton, meaning carpenter or
builder. The tekton later became the archi-tecton, and later, a master builder (Frampton,
1995). Gottfried Semper (1803-1879) referred to tectonics as a phenomenon that
defined the use of different materials in architecture as a cultural phenomenon thus
introducing an early cultural interpretation of tectonics. He was referring to an explicit
reordering of the physical relationships of structure, and material. According to
Frampton, (Frampton, 1995) the ordering of architecture, structure, material and
construction evolved from aesthetic and cultural interpretations of expressive qualities.
The term digital tectonics was interpreted by William Mitchell (Mitchell, 1998) as a
means related to the virtual world. In contrast to Frampton, he postulated a virtual
computational space that completely eliminates the ‘earthwork’ that Gotfried Semper
has identified as one of the four elements of architecture. New Structuralism relocates
digital tectonics at the epicenter of a new materiality in design. It is the representation
and operative manipulability of digital tectonics that makes the New Structuralism
possible. This, by the way, also reconciles the arguments of Mitchell, Frampton and
Semper.
In the last decade the theories and methods of digital design have contributed new
meaning to the term digital tectonics which profoundly changed this concept. The
changing definition of the symbiotic relationship between structural engineering and
architectural design may be considered one of the formative influences in the evolution
of this concept. New Structuralism views digital tectonics as cultural turn away from
formalism towards a material practice open to ecological potential. Digital tectonics in
this view transforms in a revolutionary way the ontology of structure from a logic of
order and aesthetics to structuring processes and behavioral models of form, structure
758
and material. It is this conceptual transformation of the relationship (from descriptive to

procedural) that can be supported by the ‘digital’. New Structuralism focuses upon the
exploration of novel design processes to return architecture to its material sources. This
novel paradigm of design is motivated by a priori structural and material concepts. It is
the synthesis of the architect, engineer and the fabricator that control rationalization
processes of complex geometries, digital representations, structuring, and
manufacturing.
In the following sections we review and assess selected research works that demonstrate
concepts, principles and digital tools that supports shared geometrical, structural and
manufacturing representations and processes which are relevant to the New
Structuralism.
3 Rationalization processes of complex geometry
3.1 Introducing rationalization processes in architectural geometry (AG)

Computational Geometry (CG) is a new field that contributes significant theoretical
concepts to the New Structuralism. The theoretical basis of Computational Architectural
Geometry shares interdisciplinary knowledge in mathematics, computation, structural
engineering and construction. Novel models and tools that support information flow,
that integrate the formal, structural and the materialization phases are currently
recognized as a new area of research. This process has been formulated and defined as
a“rationalization process” (Pottmann, 2010).
Geometric knowledge has traditionally been a class of architectural knowledge.
However today, due to the availability of complex shapes and free forms, from the car
and aviation industries, concepts such as blobs or curvature surfaces could not be
represented without having new software tools and modelling techniques such as Rhino;
CATIA; NURBS-based modellers, etc. The transformation of geometrical shapes to
structural components was based on the development of skill and knowledge of
computational geometric rationalization processes. Furthermore, the knowledge of
shape and form and their geometrical representation had to be shared b and to support
structuring and manufacturing processes in an integrated manner.
In the computational rationalization process as defined by Pottmann, the geometry of
the original shape design is re-computed by re-considering structural and fabrication
properties and formal constraints such as panel types, smoothness of the skin, panel
layout, cost of production and other aspects. Ultimately, from a mathematical
perspective, rationalization relies on the development of efficient optimization
algorithms and user-friendly rationalization models that are currently recognized as
research issues in AG (Pottmann, 2010). New rationalization methodologies, principles
and concepts that provide a shared representation to form, structure and material are
presented below.
To conclude, deep knowledge of complex geometry has become essential in
representing the integrated relationship between form, structure and fabrication.
Furthermore, in order to support integrated processes and seamless workflow,
759
geometrical modelling must incorporate considerations of structural constraints,

material properties and manufacturing technologies. Digital tectonics encapsulates the
knowledge of computational geometry as the source of this profound reintegration of
form, structure and material production.
3.1.1 From shape to structure - free form
The process of rationalization of a given free-form surface in architectural projects such

as the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao (1991-1997), the Experience Music Project in
Seattle (1999-2000) and the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles (1989-2004) by
Frank Gehry Developable surfaces known as single-curved surfaces characterized by
straight lines, were materialized by the development of a (construction-aware)
modelling technique of subdivision and optimization.
3.1.2 From structure to manufacturing - ruled surfaces
Ruled surfaces formed by straight lines have significant advantages in fabrication.

Software for performing this task has recently been developed by Evolute and applied in
the Cagliari Contemporary Arts Centre in Cagliari designed by Zaha Hadid Architects
(2007).
3.1.3 From structures to manufacturing - curved metal panels
Doubly curved metal panels are suitable for large-scale freeform metal façades.
Employing parametric modeling techniques leads to freeform surfaces that are replaced
by simple parametric solutions at an early stage. Recent research has treated arbitrary
freeform surfaces by parametrizing the panel layouts themselves. This novel technology
was recently demonstrated at the Skipper Library by Formtexx (Pottmann, 2010).
3.1.4 Summary
Architectural Geometry and rationalization processes constitute today a new and active
research area which aims at “providing construction-aware design tools and enabling a
completely digital work flow from design to manufacturing, especially for highly
complex geometries” (Pottmann, 2010). Most digital tools that address complex
geometry today are related to surfaces. It is expected that novel applications to both
surface and spatial structures will be the next step.
To conclude, complex geometry and rationalization processes in architectural, structural
and manufacturing processes are significant to the theory of the New Structuralism.
760
4 Categorization of complex shapes in structural design
4.1 Introducing structuring processes

Historically, structuring is derivative of theory which provides a cultural designation of
tectonics. Beyond the theoretical content, the New Structuring provides the
mathematical/geometric, syntactic, and formal logic which is necessary for digital
tectonics.
Tectonic structuring and its digital representation provide the basis for a shared
representation upon which both the architect and engineer collaborate (Oxman and
Oxman, 2010). Digital tools are driving the correspondence between form and structure
in digital tectonics employing various strategies such as form-finding procedures of the
structural engineer. Classic examples of this professional correspondence may be found
in process descriptions of the Serpentine Pavilion, 2002 of Toyo Ito and Balmond and
the collaboration of Ito and Mutsuro Sasaki on the Kakamigahara Crematorium, 2006.
Structuring can be considered as a rationalization process which formalizes the tectonic
order of structural systems. As a source of design knowledge, this work generally
attempts to experimentally explore the representational structure, behavioural properties
and architectural potential of two and three-dimensional classes of complex forms and
formal principles.
In order to guide a structuring process of geometrically complex forms there is a need to
coordinate various domain specific principles of form, structure and fabrication
employing digital tools. Mangelsdorf of Buro Happold has developed a classification
system of four different categories and discusses how digital processes of coordination
can guide structuring processes of geometrically complex forms (Mangelsdorf , 2010).
In the following section we discuss the implications of their research work for the
theory of New Structuralism.
4.1.1 Form finding – experimental models employing generative techniques
This category refers to structuring processes which employ generative techniques of

complex surfaces by specifying the internal and external forces and the boundary
conditions of a given surface. In the Khan Shatyr Entertainment Centre, Kazakhstan, by
Foster and Partners and Buro Happold demonstrate traditional form-finding
investigating the behaviour of a final shape of a cable net by testing a series of hanging
models (Mangelsdorf , 2010).
4.1.2 Mathematical models
This category refers to complex geometries that are based on mathematical formulations
of basic geometries such as: sphere, cylinder, torus, line, circle, and ellipse. The
structure is dependent on the shape and often related to systems of doubly curved lattice
surfaces with predominantly planar forces and a minor element of bending. In a new
exhibition centre in Milan, Grimshaw Architects and Buro Happold developed the
envelope using parallel zinc clad strips based on a simple structural and geometrical
761
concept. A parametric modelling approach integrated with the structural analysis of the
strips allowing the aesthetics and the engineering of the surface to be investigated in an
iterative development (Mangelsdorf, 2010).
4.1.3 Free form - shared logic systems
Free form is developed as a form independent from any physical constraints or

mathematically formulated geometries. Its coordination with the geometry requires an
intelligent concept that can vary in every instance. In this case form and structure must
share the same system logic in a unified system. The Glasgow Museum of Transport is
an example where a free form could be elegantly used as a structure, by seeing and
understanding the opportunities the architectural shape offered. In this case, the
tectonic order is a structural interpretation of the architectural form.
4.1.4 Hybrid integrating experimental, mathematical models, and system logic.
Hybrid approaches brings together aspects of all three methods. Form generation
integrates concepts based on force and physics, mathematical description and
fabrication. Any solution based on this approach will have a conceptual integrity that
unifies architectural form, engineering and manufacturing solution. The roof structure
for Mediacité in Liege (Ron Arad Associates) a physical form-finding and a
mathematical model of the structural elements were employed in order to achieve
optimised geometry.
4.1.5 Summary
The above categories of models of free-form design, mathematical models and hybrid
solutions have demonstrated how structuring strategies and rationalization processes of
three-dimensional complex shapes and structural solutions can be integrated in
employing all four categories. This demonstrates an example of the structural
engineering contribution to the use of digital tectonics in non-traditional structures as a
common design language of integrated design.
5 Generative strategies in structural design
5.1 Introducing evolutionary processes in structural design

The approach to New Structuralism is today changing the logic of computational
systems in structural design. Digital logic of complex systems such as evolutionary
systems (Klaus Bollinger, Manfred Grohmann, Oliver Tessmann, 2010) should be
reflected in the formal and structural properties of material systems and the construction
process. Emergence of new digital processes in which structural designs evolve and
adapt to specific design conditions are driven by evolutionary processes of integrating
synthesis, analysis and evaluation. Structural solutions which are driven by evolutionary
762
digital techniques in both conceptual design and construction processes can be

considered as unique in structural design.
5.1.1 Component-based evolutionary system
In the evolutionary approach described by Klaus Bollinger, Manfred Grohmann and

Oliver Tessmann, complex systems composed of design components may have certain
design logic. This logic emerges from given structural and formal relationships of
individual components in a bottom-up strategy. The evaluation criteria that characterize
the logic of the system originate from the formal and structural relationships of the
particular system. By running an optimization iterative process, best solutions of
previous generation are selected. The individual components are reconfigured by
mutation processes generating new iterations of satisfied solutions until architectural
and structural criteria are satisfied.
In the LAVA's, VOxEL, extension for the Hochschule für Technik in Stuttgart, (Klaus
Bollinger, Manfred Grohmann and Oliver Tessmann, 2009) an initial population of
random configurations gradually evolves until a predefined architectural configuration
was generated by Evolutionary Algorithm. The VOxEL project illustrates both the
structural and the organizational principles in a conceptual model of square-edged
sponge configuration. A finite-element-method analyzed the structural behaviour was
based on the logic of interconnected elements that presented a new typology. This logic
can potentially be rationalized as a driver in fabrication processes. For example, the
steel structure of the Hungerburgbahn stations by Zaha Hadid, a double-curved glazed
skin, was automatically derived from a 3d model by software developed by
DesignToProduction.
5.1.2 Summary
Highly interactive evolutionary processes of form generation and negotiation processes

between form and structure that may be linked to fabrication process, can be considered
as an important principle of New Structuralism. Furthermore, as we have seen such
generative algorithms may support a unique rationalization processes between form,
structure and fabrication.
6 Robotic construction
6.1 Large scale customization

Today the emphasis on customization considers the performance of industrial robots as
a contribution to the production of non-standard assemblies using normative
construction materials. Robotic fabrication extends the scale of conventional
construction methods and current craft-based fabrication methods, while performing
complex and large scale customized tasks.
763
6.1.1 Robotic code as a generative driver
Fabricators are also beginning to deploy industrial robots. Controlling the many arms
and moveable elements of a robotic manipulator involves challenging issues of collision
avoidance, singularities, payload restrictions and repeatability tolerances. The
development of newly efficient, automated programming strategies becomes crucial.
The complexity of non-standard parts is addressed by automating the generation of
robotic code directly from parametric design models, thus eliminating intermediate
software environments. A radically different approach to addressing the complexity of
design and robotic fabrication systems are bottom-up approaches that rely on local
processing and local control.
The post-tensioned marble shell with individually shaped and perforated marble panels
constructed by Martin Bechtold, demonstrates an early prototype of this approach.
Prototypes for a highly variable sheet metal surface, currently under development,
successfully demonstrated the ability to automate the programming of a prototypical
robotic sheet metal environment. The highly individualized sheet metal components
were cut on a robotic water jet.
6.1.2 Summary
Robotic fabrication and digital fabrication extend the scale of conventional

construction methods and current craft-based fabrication methods, performing complex
and large scale customized tasks. Automatic generative code changes the mode of
design from top-down to bottom-up processes.
7. Digital fabrication
7.1 Encoding material

Fabrication production and manufacturing may be also integrated directly in a design
process. In this case it provides seamless integration of fabrication processes and design
by facilitating generative process of shape and form related to structure and material
controlled by machining data. Fabrication becomes an interface between architecture,
structural design and manufacturing. Manufacturing is enabled by design negotiation
between the architect and the manufacturer simultaneously. This process is based on the
ability to convert architectural and design representations into an explicit machining
code (Gramazio & Kohler, 2008). These novel production means may now negotiate
between performance requirements, and component-based design systems which
manipulate material design systems.
Material based components such as bricks which have certain geometrical attributes are
being displayed by the machine according to a specific logic of any particular material
system. These are designed according to their unique assembly-logic that represents
shape and material of desired organizational pattern. Digital design code of complex
instructions can now drive physical and material design products (Gramazio & Kohler,
764
2008). Furthermore, building scale elements can be designed as material systems that
behave and adapt according to any specific materials and assembly logics.
7.1.1 Industrial robots
The Industrial Robot is a generic tool that is not specialized for any specific action. This
manufacturing machine integrates the specific material logic and can execute any
combination of newly defined actions. Such robots have a universal arm that can reach
any point in three-dimensional space. End-effectors define the material machining
process that is attached to the end of a kinematic chain. The manufacturing process
consists of the data required to control the robot and the respective properties of the tool
that is being used. The design of custom end-effectors enables the designer to control
and conceptualize the material processes.
7.1.2 CNC production tools and numerical control as design machine

CNC provides seamless integration of fabrication processes and design by facilitating
generative process controlled by machining data. Fabrication becomes an interface
between architecture and manufacturing. Manufacturing is enabled by design
negotiation of control data of the CNC machines by the architect and the manufacturer
simultaneously. This process is based on the ability to convert architectural and design
representations into an explicit machining code (Gramazio & Kohler, 2008). These
novel production means may now negotiate between performance requirements, and
component-based design systems which manipulate material design systems. It also
means that a coded (and potentially performative) relationship can potentially be
developed between a digital tectonics of material and the fabrication process.
The “West Fest Pavilion” employs standard wooden battens forming columns that are
transformed into large cantilevers that support a roof. The robotic fabrication allows
modifying the dimensions of individual battens during the production process. The
columns constitute the spatial layout as well as the carrying structure of the pavilion that
satisfied the architectural organization, the structural performance and the assembly
process. The coding of the assembly logic is essential in this approach.
The Sequential Wall project presents a similar fabrication process. In this case
performance requirements of an exterior wall meet weather conditions and thermal
insulation. The physical conditions defined the arrangement and modes of variations
generated by design algorithms.
7.1.3 Summary
Digital fabrication and computational programming of production data integrates design

with the materialization process. This process shapes both the design of structural and
material elements and in encoded formal design process. In this case the construction
process is controlled. This defines fabrication as a generative process. Material
765
conditions and assembly logic are now integrated and used as the basis for design
generation
8 Integrating Construction Scales
8.1 Timberfabric
Timberfabric (Yves Weinand and Markus Hudert, 2010) is an interdisciplinary
approach which integrates architecture, structural engineering and timber construction.
This body of leading experiments is intended to explore and to demonstrate how textile
principles can be applied to construction scales.
8.1.1 Timber
Timber is classified as a soft and viscous material, with suppleness as one of its
properties. Both wood and fabrics can be seen as fibre-based tissues. The analogy of
micro-scale fibre structures and timber scale structures can be integrated, since timber
has the dual capacities to be formed and to retain a given form. The application of
textile principles in the context of timber construction demonstrates intrinsic contrasting
physical conditions. Traditionally, building structures have striven for rigidity whereas
textiles embody the properties of elasticity and suppleness (Yves Weinand and Markus
Hudert, 2010). When exposed to an increasing load, the elasticity of the wood enabled
deformation instead of destruction. The ability of a structure to adapt to a load is a
highly significant property.
8.1.2 Textile
It is obvious that the basic unit of the repeating structure is essential for the
development of structural timber fabric. Here, the research currently focuses on the
application of the Textile Module. Two planar interbreeding timber panels and the usage
of particular techniques of assembly related to given material properties, have produced
a structurally efficient construct by employing digital processes. This process is generic
and can be applied to other materials and applications. Software that simulates material
behaviour such as elastic deformation has been developed to integrate a textile module
with digital design and production. In this pilot study of prototypes, particular structural
behaviours have been observed, such as an increase of the rigidity of a given woven
section while applying a load. The section’s inertia increased during the loading process
because of the structures’ capacity to be deformed. Such observations open new
perspectives for structural optimization processes.
8.1.3 Experimentation
The study of this topic involves an experimentation in which the behaviour across the
different scales is observed. The behaviour of the structural timber fabric indicates
766
change in different scales. In order to study this impact a methodology of systematic

observations that compare the initial structure and the deformed structure for various
structural or geometric conditions is currently under development.
8.1.4 Summary
Integrated tectonic qualities demonstrated by timber construction contribute to novel

topologies and unique tectonic properties. It is an interdisciplinary approach which turns
architecture from traditional design to novel material practice.
9 Material fabrication
9.1Material-based design fabrication

Material-based design fabrication is inspired by nature and biological materials (Oxman,
N., 2010) where the shape generation of the material is informed by environmental
forces which are acting upon it. In nature, such structural bio-materials form micro-
structures engineered to adapt external constraints during continuous growth throughout
their life span. This is similar to bone structures that are re-modelled under structural or
mechanical load. Nature’s ability to distribute material properties by way of locally
optimizing regions of varied external requirements, such as the bone’s ability to
remodel under altering mechanical loads or wood’s capacity to modify its shape by way
of containing moisture, is facilitated, fundamentally, by its ability to simultaneously
model, simulate, and fabricate material structuring.
9.1.2 Fabrication model
In most cases, structural strategies are addressed by way of post-rationalization in

support of the building’s utility captured by spatial properties emphasizing the
hierarchical nature of the design process with form being the first, structure second and
material third (Oxman, 2008). Gehry’s architecture provides examples of a “form first”
approach. Work of leading structural engineers such as ARUP and Buro Happold,
employ an alternative schema where the function of structure is the main driver of
formal expression. Material has traditionally been regarded as a feature of form, but not
its originator.
In nature, the sequence form-structure-material is inverted bottom-up. For example, in
bones and cellular structures the shape is directly informed by the materials from which
they are made. In nature, in most cases, material comes first. In her work Oxman Neri
(Oxman, N. 2010) has been exploring how a “material first” approach will advance the
possibility that nature’s strategies can be accommodated by design.
9.1.3 Material structuring
The following project illustrates an implementation of ‘material structuring’ in the

design of a furniture product integrating the components of modelling, analysis and
767
fabrication. In the Chaise-Performative (Boston Museum of Science, 2009) a single

continuous surface acting both as structure and skin is locally modulated to provide for
both support and comfort. The design of a chaise lounge corresponds to structural,
environmental, and performance criteria by adapting its thickness, pattern density, and
stiffness to load, curvature, and skin-pressured areas respectively.
Material-based Fabrication (Oxman Neri, 2010) aims at introducing a novel material
deposition 3-D printing technology which offers gradation control of multiple materials
within one print to save weight and material quantity while reducing energy inputs. The
result is a continuous gradient material structure, highly optimized to fit its structural
performance with an efficient use of materials, reduction of waste, and the production of
highly customized features with added functionality.
9.1.4 Summary
Fabrication of digital materials with heterogeneous properties across a wide array of

scales and applications has significant impact on the future of design. In such processes
form, structure and material play equal agencies. They promote the application of
material subsequent to the generation of form. This principle calls for a shift from a
geometric-centric design to a material-based design.
10 Summary and conclusions

The new structuralism is a theoretical manifestation which demonstrates how the
structuring, encoding, and fabricating of material systems are contributing to a new
material practice which integrates digital methods and computational technologies in
design. In this research we have identified various rationalization and structuring
processes in form, structure, and manufacturing which contribute to the theory of the
New Structuralism.
These are presented below:
- Rationalization processes (Pottmann) today constitute a new and active research
area which aims at “providing construction-aware design tools and enabling a
completely digital work flow from design to manufacturing, especially for highly
complex geometries”
- Categorization of shape models of free-form design, mathematical models and
hybrid solutions (Mangelsdorf and Buro Happold) have demonstrated how structuring
strategies and rationalization processes of three-dimensional complex shapes and
structural solutions can be integrated in employing all four categories. This
demonstrates an example of the structural engineering contribution to shape-structure
rationalization
- Interactive evolutionary processes of design (Bollinger, Grohmann and
Tessmann) and negotiation processes between form and structure that may be linked to
fabrication process, can be considered as an important principle of New Structuralism.
768
Furthermore, as we have seen such generative algorithms may support a unique

rationalization processes between form, structure and fabrication.
- Robotic fabrication and digital fabrication extends the scale of conventional
construction methods and current craft-based fabrication methods, performing complex
and large scale customized tasks. Digital fabrication and computational programming of
production data integrates design with the materialization process (Bechtold; Gramazio
and Kohler). This process shapes both the design of structural and material elements in
an encoded formal design process. In this case, the construction process is controlled.
This defines fabrication as a generative process. Material conditions and assembly logic
are now integrated and used as the basis for design generation.
- Integrating construction scales demonstrated by the Timberfabric project
(Weinand and Hudert) contributes to novel topologies and unique tectonic properties. It
is such a unique interdisciplinary approach which turns architecture from traditional
design to novel material practice.
- Fabrication of digital materials (Neri Oxman) with heterogeneous properties
across a wide array of scales and applications has significant impact on the future of
design. In such processes form, structure, and material play equal roles. They promote
the application of material subsequent to the generation of form. This principle calls for
a shift from a geometric-centric design to a material-based design fabrication.
To conclude, rationalization and structuring processes in form, structure and

manufacturing contribute to the theory of the New Structuralism. This set of design
phenomena may be seen as an emerging paradigm of design which should now be in the
forefront of design research.
References
[1] Bechtold M. The Return of the Future: a Second Go at Robotic Construction In The
New Structuralism, Oxman and Oxman (eds.) Architectural Design, John Wiley &
Sons. 2010.
[2] Bollinger K, Grohmann M, Tessmann O. Structured Becoming: Evolutionary
Processes in Design Engineering. In The New Structuralism, Oxman and Oxman
(eds.) Architectural Design, John Wiley & Sons. 2010.
[3] Gramazio F. and Kohler M. Digital Materiality in Architecture, Lars Müller
Publishers. 2008.
[4] Frampton K., Studies in Tectonic Culture: The Poetics of Construction in
Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Architecture, MIT Press.
[5] Mangelsdorf W. Structuring Strategies for Complex Geometries. In The New
Structuralism, Oxman and Oxman (eds.) Architectural Design, John Wiley & Sons.
2010.
[6] Mitchell W. J Antitectonics: The Poetics of Virtuality. In Beckmann J. (ed.) The
Virtual Dimension, Princeton Architectural Press NY, 1998; 205-217.
769
[7] Oesterle S. Gramazio F. Matthias K. Encoding Material. In The New

2010.
[8] Oxman R E. and Oxman R M. The New Structuralism: Design, Engineering and
Architectural Technologies. In The New Structuralism, Architectural Design, John
Wiley & Sons. 2010.
[9] Oxman Rivka。 Theory and Design in the First Digital Age”, Design Studies, vol.
27, no. 3, 2006, p. 229-266.
[10] Oxman Rivka. Morphogenesis in the Theory and Methodology of Digital Tectonics.
In René Motro. (ed.) Special issue of the IASS Journal. September 2010
[11] Oxman Neri, Material-based Computation. PhD Thesis Dissertation, Dept. of
Architecture. MIT, Cambridge, 2010.
[12] Pottmann H, Asperl A, Hofer M, Kilian A. Architectural Geometry, Bentley
Institute Press. 2003.
[13] Pottmann H. Architectural Geometry as Design Knowledge. In The New
2010.
[14] Weinand Y and Hudert M. Timberfabric: Structural Timber Fabric: Creating a New
Generation of Timber Structures by Applying Textile Principles on Building Scale”.
In The New Structuralism. Oxman and Oxman (eds.) Architectural Design, John
Wiley & Sons. 2010.
770
Spatial Structures — Permanent and Temporary
Geometric Considerations
for the Design of Rigid Origami Structures
Tomohiro TACHI∗
* The University of Tokyo

3-8-1 Komaba, Meguro-Ku, Tokyo 153-8092, Japan
tachi@idea.c.u-tokyo.ac.jp
Abstract
Transformable polyhedral surfaces with rigid facets, i.e., rigid origami, is useful for de-
signing kinetic and deployable structures. In order to apply rigid origami to various ar-
chitectural and other engineering design purposes, it is essential to consider the geometry
of origami in kinetic motion and provide sufficiently generalized methods to produce
controlled variations of shapes that suit the given design conditions. In this paper, we in-
troduce the author’s recent studies and their extensions on the geometry of rigid origami
for designing transformable and deployable structures.
Keywords: origami, deployable structure, transformable polyhedron, kinematics, form finding
1 Introduction
Rigid-foldable origami, or rigid origami, is a piecewise linear developable surface that can
realize a deployment mechanism if its facets and foldlines are substituted with rigid pan-
els and hinges, respectively. Designing such a deployment mechanism has a significant
meaning in an engineering context, particularly in architecture in the following reasons:
1. The structure based on a watertight surface is suitable for constructing an envelope

of a space, a roof, or a facade.
2. Purely geometric mechanism that does not rely on the elasticity of materials can
realize robust kinetic structure in a larger scale under gravity.
3. The transformation of the configuration is controlled by smaller number of degrees
of freedom. This enables a semi-automatic deployment of the structure.
Several designs of rigid-origami structures have been proposed from around 1970’s. For
example, the developable double corrugation surface, or Miura-ori [7], is a well-known
rigid origami structure utilized in the packaging of deployable solar panels for use in space
or in the folding of maps (Figure 1). This provides a one-DOF mechanism from a devel-
oped state to a flat-folded state. Resch and Christiansen [8] have proposed a kinetic plate
mechanism that forms a three-dimensional dome that folds out of a sheet of a panel and
771
Figure 1: Miura-ori Figure 2: Ron Resch’s pattern
folds into another three-dimensional state without curvature (Figure 2). Hoberman pro-
posed several rigid-foldable surfaces based on symmetric operations, e.g., [6], although
he does clearly distinguish rigid and non-rigid foldable patterns.
In spite of these proposals, freely applying rigid origami to actual designs of architectural
space has been unachieved thus far, the reason of which includes the lack of designability
in the existing methods. Since rigid origami transforms in a synchronized motion based
on multiple non-linear constraints, the design of rigid origami is not a trivial problem
given by an arbitrary design approach without geometric considerations. However, start-
ing from a known pattern of origami and just applying them to architectural purposes
does not work either because the model cannot sufficiently adapt functional and environ-
mental conditions required by an actual design context. Therefore it is important to show
a general geometric methods to find forms based on the kinetic properties of origami,
while enabling flexible design variations that preserve that properties, rather than relying
on trial-and-error based approach. The objective of this study is to show basic considera-
tions on the geometry of rigid origami and introduce novel methods to obtain the design
variations based on them. In this paper, we will show the kinematics of rigid origami, the
design methods to allow folding motion, and the design examples. Note that we limit our
considerations to geometric ones and do not intend to analyze elastic and plastic behavior
of the structure with specific materials.
2 Kinematics of Rigid Origami
2.1 Model
The kinematics of origami can be represented by the unstable truss model or the rotational
hinges model. The former represents the configuration of the structure by the positions
of vertices. The change in the configuration is constrained by length preserving rigid
bars along edges (creases and foldlines) and diagonals of facets (2(k − 3) bars for a
planar k-gonal facet); this model is used by Resch and Christiansen [8], and it is suitable
for directly using the points positions in a non-singular state. The latter represents the
configuration by the rotational angles of edges and asserts the constraints so that closed
loops cannot separate; this model gives comparatively robust simulation method such as
Rigid Origami Simulator [12].
Here, we use the latter model for understanding the concept of rigid foldability. As de-
772
scribed, the configuration is represented by their folding angles ρ, which are constrained
by any closed strip of facets being not separated by the folding motion. If we assume that
a surface is a disk, the closure of any loop can be reduced to the combination of local
constraints around interior vertices. For each interior vertex, we can use an (altered) form
of the rotational matrix condition introduced by Belcastro and Hull [1]. For each interior
vertex and its incident foldlines of fold angles ρ1 , · · · , ρn ,
R (ρ1 , · · · , ρn ) = χ1 · · · χn−1 χn = I (1)
where 3 × 3 matrices χ1 , · · · , χn represent rotation by fold lines; each of them is repre-

sented as ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
1 0 0 cos θi − sin θi 0
χi = ⎣0 cos ρi − sin ρi ⎦ ⎣ sin θi cos θi 0⎦ ,
0 sin ρi cos ρi 0 0 1
where θi is the sector angle between the foldlines i and i + 1 (Figure 3 Left). Since χi
is a rotational matrix, this fundamentally reduces to 3 scaler equations by using elements
R(2, 3), R(3, 1), R(1, 2). The constraints for the global model with NVi interior vertices
can be represented by a 3NVi -vector equation F = 0. Therefore, the infinitesimal motion
can be represented by the solution space of the Jacobian matrix, which is a 3NVi × NEi
matrix where NEi is the number of foldlines (or interior edges).
Note that in a general case of orientable manifold with (possibly multiple) boundary, we
can have different number of constraints. If the surface has NL hole(s), we obtain extra
NL loop constraints to preserve the connectivity of the loops. (We additionally suggest
that in the case of arbitrary manifold, these loops are the cycles that form a homology
basis of the manifold.) Each loop constraint is comprised of 6 equations derived from 3
equations of rotational matrix and 3 equations of transition along the rotated edges. The
additional 3 equations can be represented as, for a loop of n facets around the hole,
k
n
χi dk = 0, (2)
k=1 i=1
where χi and vi represent the rotation matrix of the i-th facet orientation and the vector
representing the difference of i-th and j-th origins in a local coordinates (Figure 3 Right).
Therefore the number of constraints is 3NVi + 6NL .
ρi
χi yi+1 xi+1
ρi zi+1
θi y i zi
di
di=0 θi xi
Figure 3: Constraints around loops and vertices.
773
2.2 Rigid Foldability

Infinitesimal Rigid Foldability The kinetic property of origami can be considered from
the viewpoints of stability. By using the Jacobian matrix, we can investigate rigid fold-
ability based on numerically analyzing infinitesimal motion. If the matrix is not singular,
the constraint gives under-constrained system with NEi − 3NVi − 6NL dimensional solu-
tion space. In general, if the nullity of the Jacobian matrix, i.e., the number of redundant
constraints, is NS , the solution space has NEi − 3NVi − 6NL + NS dimensions. The kinetic
motion is given by solving the Jacobian as,

∂F + ∂F
Δρ = INEi − Δρ0 , (3)
∂ρ ∂ρ
+
where ∂F
∂ρ
is the Moore-Penrose generalized inverse, or pseudo-inverse of Jacobian ma-
trix. Here, ρ0 represents an arbitrary infinitesimal folding motion, and the equation solves
the solution ρ closest to ρ0 . In order to simulate the folding motion of rigid origami, we
can apply Euler integration of this infinitesimal motion while eliminating the residuals
using Newton-Raphson method.
As described, surface attains additional infinitesimal DOFs when the Jacobian matrix is
singular. It is known that the constraint vector of one vertex is the direction cosines
of crease line incident to the vertex [12] [14]. This indicates that the Jacobian matrix
becomes singular when all the vectors are co-planar, which happens in flat states. In fact,
every vertex of origami can infinitesimally transform arbitrarily along the normal of the
surface in the developed state, although such a transformation is not valid in a finite sense
and cannot be applied for structural designs.
Finite Rigid Foldability Here, in order to use the kinetic behavior for a transforma-
tion mechanism, we require that the transformation is finite, i.e., not shaky. The finite
folding motion is ensured by keeping the degrees of freedom of the mechanism possitive
throughout the transformation. If any part of panels is not touching each other, the de-
grees of freedom is only given by the Jacobean matrix: DOF = NEi − 3NVi − 6NL + NS .
Here, note that in the discussion of finite foldability, the singularity must be independent
of folding configuration and be preserved through the transformation, thus we cannot use
singularity coming from co-planarity of edges. If we use Euler’s polyhedral formula, this
can be written as,

DOF = NEo − 3NL − 3 + NS − (k − 3){num of k-gon facet},
k=4
where NEo is the number of edges on the boundary.

From this consideration, we can understand that the flexibility of rigid origami mainly
comes from the flexibility of the boundary of the surface. Therefore, a closed triangulated
polyhedron is normally not foldable, since its DOF is NS (its kinetic behavior is equivalent
to that of a disk of NEo = 3). Examples of rigid foldable closed polyhedra [3, 5] are
774
known to have volume preserving singularity as conjectured as the bellows conjecture by

Connelly et al. [4].
3 Triangle Based Design
The most flexible design comes from a triangular mesh. If we assume no singularity, the
degrees of freedom is represented as
DOF = NEo − 3NL − 3.
In this case, the kinetic motion of a mesh is totally controlled by the boundary configura-
tion. For example, a design of a triangular mesh shell with 6 boundary edges and 3 pin
hinged legs — let us call this structure triangulated tripod — can be useful. The total
degrees of freedom of the structure is 9 because the structure has 6 degrees of rigid body
motion and 3 degrees of transformation mechanism. Since the structure is pinned at their
legs, it constrains 3 × 3 degrees of freedom, which makes the overall structure statically
determinate. Therefore the structure transforms according to the positions of the legs as
shown in Figure 4, and it becomes a static structure once the legs are fixed.
Figure 4: A triangulated tripod with different configurations.
We can design the variations of triangulated tripods in a comparatively easy way since the
basic property of the structure is ensured by the number of boundary elements (Figure 5).
However, the global behavior such as the possible range of folding and the existence of a
path from a state to aother is determined by the configuration space of the structure. This
is only understood through examining the infinitesimal behavior at every possible state of
the specific model through exploring the configuration space with simulational methods.
In order to simulate the kinematics of the structure with pin constraints, we can use either
the unstable truss model or rotational hinges model with inverse kinematics.
4 Quadrilateral Based Design
Another approach for designing a rigid-foldable structure is to use a quadrilateral mesh

such as Miura-ori. A quadrilateral mesh origami is normally not rigid-foldable since the
degrees of freedom is given as
DOF = NEo − 3NL − Nfacets − 3 + NS .
775
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 5: Examples of triangulated tripods. Quadrilateral panels are all triangulated.
Here, the number of facets Nfacets basically increases proportional to the square of NEo for
a normal two dimensional mesh. Therefore, a rigid-foldable quadrilateral mesh origami
must rely on the singularity. Such a structure has an engineering advantage as follows:
1. The mechanism has exactly 1 degree of freedom; thus the transformation can be
controlled by one actuator independent of the complexity of the overall surface.
2. The structure is redundant; this enables a robust mechanism that works even when
we remove several elements from the surface.
Finding the singularity that works throughout the finite transformation is not a trivial
problem, especially when designing a freeform. A general condition for this singularity
is not yet been revealed so far. Therefore, we propose a design approach to generalize
a pattern known to rigid fold while keeping its intrinsic symmetry. Typical examples
of rigid-foldable quadrilateral mesh surfaces are Miura-ori and the “eggbox” pattern [2].
These patterns are known to be generalizable to some extent: the rigid-foldability of the
generalized form of the former is investigated by Tachi [10] as a flat-foldable 4-valent
mesh origami and the latter by Schief et al. [9] as a discrete Voss surface. The mech-
anisms of the vertices of these rigid-foldable structures are essentially identical, and we
can produce a hybrid rigid-foldable surface that is general enough to produce a freeform.
4-Valent Mesh Origami The condition 1 0 ρ1

for the rigid-foldability of quadrilateral θ0
θ3
mesh flat-foldable origami is invetsigated 3 ρ0
θ1 θ2 ρ3
[10]. This is written in a general way:
a polyhedral surface homeomorphic to a
2 ρ2
disk composed of planar facets connected
by 4-valency developable and flat-foldable Figure 6: Folding motion of a single vertex
vertices is rigid-foldable if and only if
there exits a valid state where every foldline is simi-folded (not 0 or ±π). In other words,
in this type of structure, the existence of a continuous transformation is equivalent to the
776
existence of an intermediate state. This leads to the design method based on obtaining
one valid intermediate state that satisfies the following:
1. Every vertex is developable.

2. Every vertex is flat-foldable.
3. Every facet is planar.
The former two conditions can be represented as:
θ 0 = π − θ2 and θ 1 = π − θ3 , (4)
where θi (i = 0, 1, 2, 3) are the sector angles incident to the vertex.

If we obtain one valid configuration represented by folding angles {ρ0i }, the continuous
transformation is represented by,

ρi (t) ρ0i tan 2t
tan = tan , (5)
2 2 tan t20
where t (0 ≤ t ≤ π) is the parameter that defines the folding amount (t = 0 t = t0 , and

t = π indicate developed, the intermediate, and flat-folded states, respectively).
Discrete Voss Surface Discrete Voss θ0

1 0 ρ1
surface is a planar quadrilateral mesh sur- ρ3
face composed of degree-4 vertices each of θ3
3
which satisfies θ1 θ2
ρ0
ρ2
θ0 = θ2 and θ1 = θ3 . (6) 2
The rigid-foldability of the discrete Voss Figure 7: Folding motion of a single vertex
surface is proved by Schief et al. [9]. Here,
notice the similarity to (4). In fact, discrete Voss vertex and flat-foldable vertex are es-
sentially identical in a local sense, and we can construct rigid-foldable hybrid surfaces
by combining them. Figure 8 shows an example design of hybrid surface obtained by
solving the combined conditions of discrete Voss and flat-foldable origami vertices via
the perturbation-based method as used in [10].
4.1 Cylindrical Structure: Topological Extension

The rigid-folding motion of a disk surface is ensured by the existence of angle configura-
tion that satisfies the local conditions around each vertex. However, a non-disk surface,
such as a cylinder, cannot always rigid fold because of the conditions along the loop
around each hole. The exact condition for rigid-foldable loop is not yet revealed in a
general way. We thus start from obtaining a valid rigid-foldable cylinder based on sym-
metry, and then generalize them using the symmetry operations as proposed in [11]. In
this proposition of rigid-foldable cylinders, repeating symmetry is used to construct a
777
Figure 8: Rigid folding motion of a generalized hybrid of miura-ori and eggbox pattern
cylinder from a modular loop. However, we have recently found that a more generalized
rigid-foldable cylindrical forms can be created using the fact that the rigid folding condi-
tion is represented by the combination of local conditions and the loop conditions (Figure
9). The design process is as follows: first, we produce a repeating form of cylinder using
the isotropic type proposed in [11], which is composed of flat-foldable origami and dis-
crete Voss vertices; then we fix one of the modules to construct a valid loop; finally, we
transform the other part of the pattern under the constraints used to build the rigid-foldable
quadrilateral mesh disk.
Symmetric Generalized
Figure 9: Rigid foldable cylinders.
5 Design Example
The objective of our study is to generalize the geomet-

ric conditions required for kinetic structures, thereby en-
abling a system that a designer can find forms that suf- 16m
ficiently adapt the design context and required function-

alities at the same time. We show a hypothetical design height: 4.0m
example of kinetic architectural space based on gener- height: 3.6m
alized degree-4 vertex origami to demonstrate how our

approach can potentially useful for architectural design.
Consider building a foldable space by connecting the
openings of existing two separate buildings having dif- Figure 10: Layout
ferent sizes and orientations as in Figure 10. Also, the
778
distance between two buildings and the height of the openings are too large for the fold-
able structure to be made of flexible materials. Therefore, the static form of the structure
must flexibly adapt the existing environment (the openings and the ground) while the
structure must follow a rigid mechanism (rigid-foldable and flat-foldable).
We solve this problem using the generalized rigid-foldable 4-valent origami. In this
method, the problem is translated to a problem of obtaining a valid mesh represented
by vertex coordinates x that satisfies

1. developable: for each vertex, 3i=0 θi = 2π.

2. flat-foldable: for each vertex, 3i=0 (−1)i θi = 0.
3. planar: for each non-foldline edge, ρ = 0.
4. fixed boundary: for each vertex on the openings, (x, y, z) = (xtarget , ytarget , ztarget ).
5. ground: for each vertex on the boundary, z = 0.
Let us represent these conditions as a non-linear vector equation c(x) = 0. We start from
a known regular form of origami vault with 68 vertices as shown in Figure 11 (a), which
is not a valid form (c = 0). Then we modify this shape so that it satisfies the above
conditions by optimization based approach (Newton-Raphson method) (Figure 11 (b)).
From this valid solution, we can modify the form based on perturbation along the kernel
of the Jacobian matrix. The method for obtaining an infinitesimal transformation is the
same as the simulation method, however we allow the pattern itself to be changed in this
case.

∂c + ∂c
Δx = I3NV − Δx0 (7)
∂x ∂x
In this design example, the configuration is represented by 68 × 3 = 204 variables, while
the developability, flat-foldability, and planarity conditions give 30 + 30 + 48 = 108
equations, and the fixed boundary and ground conditions give 24 + 30 = 54 equations.
Therefore, the design space is 42-dimensional, and we can explore the design variations
within this space. By specifying Δx0 via a graphical user interface, we obtained vari-
ational shapes that follows the designer’s preference, in this example we have chosen
design (c).
The structure can be manufactured from double layered panels of con-
stant thickness by sufficiently offsetting the boundary shape such that
t δ
the panels do not colide each other by the folding motion (Figure 12)
as presented in [13]. The cutting pattern of the panels is shown in t cot(δ/2)
Figure 13. The folding motion of the resulting structure is as shown
in Figure 14. Figure 12: Thick-
ening idea.
6 Conclusion and Future Works
In this paper, we presented geometric problems and their solutions for freely designing
rigid-foldable structures. Based on the consideration on rigid-foldability, we presented
two basic approaches: using triangles and quadrilaterals mesh.
779
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 11: Design Process. (a) Initial regular pattern that does not connect the openings
of two buildings shown in red. (b) Transformed pattern that fit the the openings. The
boundary points shown in blue are placed on xy-plane. (c) Variational design that satisfies
the conditions.
combined pattern outer pannel layout inner panel layout
Figure 13: Panel layouts.
1. Triangular patterns produce kinetic structures whose degrees of freedom are deter-
mined by the number of elements on the boundary; using this fact we proposed the
design concept of triangulated tripod.
2. Quadrilateral patterns can produce one-DOF kinetic motion based on redundant
constraints. Design of such a structure take advantage of the singularity of the
pattern. We have shown an approach based on flat-foldable origami and discrete
Voss vertices, which can sufficiently generalize flat-foldable disk and cylindrical
surfaces.
3. A design example using quadrilateral-based rigid origami is shown to demonstrate
the high flexibility of the design method.
At the same time, our study indicates many future studies necessary for making rigid
origami structures more designable and realizable. The following shows some of the
examples of such studies.
1. The global kinetic behavior of the structures is not fully investigated. In particular,
understanding the transformability from one state to the other is very important
when applying rigid origami to engineering purposes.
2. Extracting exact rigid-foldability of quadrilateral mesh is expected to improve the
designabilty of rigid origami.
780
Figure 14: Folding motion of the structure.
3. Investigating rigid-foldability condition around a loop can topologically extend the

concept of origami.
4. Enabling kinetic constraints to work with rigid origami structures can contribute to
the design of rigid origami combined with different mechanical systems.
References
[1] Belcastro, S.-M. and Hull, T., A mathematical model for non-flat origami, In
Origami3: Proceedings of the 3rd International Meeting of Origami Mathematics,
Science, and Education (2002), pp. 39–51
[2] Brunner, A., Expansible surface structure. United States Patent 3,362,118, 1965
[3] Connelly, R., A flexible sphere, The Mathematical Intelligencer, 1978, Vol.1, No.3,
130–131
781
[4] Connelly, R., Sabitov, I. and Walz, A., The bellows conjecture, Contributions to
Algebra and Geometry, 1997, Vol.38, No.1, 1–10
[5] Cromwell, P. R., (1997). Polyhedra, Cambridge University Press
[6] Hoberman, C., Curved pleated sheet structures. United States Patent No. 5,234,727,
1993
[7] Miura, K., Proposition of pseudo-cylindrical concave polyhedral shells, In Proceed-
ings of IASS Symposium on Folded Plates and Prismatic Structures (1970)
[8] Resch, R. D. and Christiansen, H., The design and analysis of kinematic folded
plate systems, In Proceedings of IASS Symposium on Folded Plates and Prismatic
Structures (1970)
[9] Schief, W. K., Bobenko, A. I. and Hoffmann, T., On the integrability of infinitesi-
mal and finite deformations of polyhedral surfaces, In Discrete Differntial Geometry
(Oberwolfach Proceedings) (2007), pp. 67–93
[10] Tachi, T., Generalization of rigid-foldable quadrilateral-mesh origami, Journal of the

International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures, December 2009, Vol.50,
No.3, 173–179
[11] Tachi, T., One-DOF cylindrical deployable structures with rigid quadrilateral panels,
In Proceedings of the IASS Symposium 2009 (2009), pp. 2295–2306
[12] Tachi, T., Simulation of rigid origami, In Origami4 : The Fourth International Con-
ference on Origami in Science, Mathematics, and Education (2009), R. Lang, Ed.,
A K Peters, pp. 175–187
[13] Tachi, T., Rigid-foldable thick origami, In Proceedings of the 5th International Con-
ference on Origami in Science, Mathematics and Education (5OSME) (2010), (to
appear)
[14] Watanabe, N. and Kawaguchi, K., The method for judging rigid foldability, In
Origami4 : The Fourth International Conference on Origami in Science, Mathemat-
ics, and Education (2009), R. Lang, Ed., A K Peters, pp. 165–174
782
Energy absorption of thin-walled tubes with origami patterns

Zhong YOU1*, Jiayao MA2
1*
University of Oxford
Department of Engineering Science, Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3PJ, U. K.
Zhong.you@eng.ox.ac.uk
2
University of Oxford
Abstract
There exist a family of thin-walled cylinders that are required to undergo large shape
change when functioning. Typical examples include deployable cylinders such as
bellows in the traditional cameras and inflatable space booms, and energy absorption
components like crash boxes in vehicles. Identification of a suitable folding mechanism
or crashing mode and understanding the strain energy variation associated to it are the
most important factors in designing such structures. For deployable cylinders, the
folding mechanism should have minimum strain energy variation during deployment,
whereas for the energy absorption component, the strain energy variation needs to be
maximised during crashing.
In this paper, we propose to use pre-fabricated origami folds to the surface of a cylinder
to activate certain folding/crashing mode to meet the design requirement. The focus of
the paper is on cylinders with hexagonal sections. A number of origami patterns have
been considered. It has been found that use of suitably selected origami patterns can
indeed alter both the initial buckling force and post-buckling behaviour of the cylinder
when it is subjected to axial compression. Moreover, the folding/crashing mode can be
very different from failure mode of a conventional cylinder. The pre-fabricated origami
folds are capable of guiding the cylinder towards the designated mode.
The underlining design principle can be applied to cylinders with polygonal sections.
Keywords: Thin-walled cylinder, Origami pattern, strain energy, failure mode.
1 Introduction
Thin-walled cylinders are widely used in engineering applications. Among them, there
exist a family of cylinders that are required to undergo large shape change when
functioning. Typical examples include deployable cylinders such as bellows in the
traditional cameras, inflatable space booms and a type of intrusive medical devices
called stent grafts, as well as energy absorption components like crash boxes in vehicles.
According to the bellows conjecture by Connelly et. al. [1], the variation in shape
during folding or crashing of the cylinder also must also alter the strain level in the
structure should the cylinder be concealed while changing shape. The design then
becomes an exercise of reducing or increasing the overall strain energy variation based
on requirements. At one end of the spectrum, deployable cylinders must be able to
783
expand or contract with minimum efforts, implying that small variation in strain energy
is highly desirable. On the other hand, crash boxes, a type of devices mounted between
the front bumper and the main frame of a vehicle designed to absorb as much kinetic
energy as possible during a low speed collision in order to prevent damage to the main
frame, are required to have large strain energy input when they crash.
The standard approach in designing deployable thin-walled cylinders is to engineer a
crease pattern on a cylinder with the intention to guide the deployment. Nojima [2] filed
a few patents based on his research into foldable cylinders and cones. Kuribayashi and
You [3] developed a novel foldable tubular medical device called the origami stentgraft
which utilised a family of particular origami patterns enabling a tube being folded both
radially and longitudinally. More recently, Tsunoda and Senbokuya [4] applied folding
patterns to the packaging of inflatable booms. In terms of detailed deployment strain
analysis, the most relevant work was done by Guest [5-7] on cylinders with helical
folding patterns and Sogame, A. and Furuya [8] who proposed a type of star shaped
cylinders that deploy in both the axial and radial directions. You and Cole [9] carried
out a geometric analysis on cylinders with symmetrical crease patterns and proposed a
number of by-stable booms that involved little strain energy variation during
deployment.
Much more research work has been done for the design of energy absorption
components such as crash boxes in comparison with deployable cylinders. Typically a
crash box is a thin-walled cylinder and it buckles when the axial compressive force
exceeds a limit in a collision. The energy absorption capability is due to the plastic
deformation when the box buckles following certain failure pattern. A good crash box
should have, first of all, low critical buckling force so that no excessive force is
transmitted to the main frame that it is designed to protect, secondly, high energy
absorption ability, and finally low manufacturing cost as it gets destroyed during a
collision.
Crash boxes with square, rectangular or hexagonal sections are commercially available.
Some are slightly taped so it can be suitably joined with the adjacent structures. Dents,
also called buckling initiator, are also added to the surface of the cylinder to act as a
trigger to induce the intended buckling mode and to reduce critical buckling force [10,
11]. Figure 1 shows two typical designs.
Despite that the crash boxes come in various shapes and sizes, they all fail in the
symmetrical mode which is typical to the polygonal sections and has been thoroughly
investigated [12, 13].
In general thin-walled cylinders with circular section absorb more energy during axial
crashing than those with polygonal sections. However, they also have higher critical
buckling force, which is why most existing crash boxes adopt polygonal sections
instead. Zhang, et. al. [14] introduced a set of pre-formed pyramid patterns on the
surface of a square thin-walled tube and discovered numerically that the patterns can
alter the failure mode of the tube. Instead of the symmetrical mode associated to
conventional square tubes, the tube with patterns failed in the “octagonal mode” which
required more energy. However, experimental results revealed that the tube with
pyramid patterns was very imperfection sensitive and the desired failure mode was quite
784
difficult to trigger [15]. Moreover, the pyramid patterns are non-developable and hence
hard to manufacture.
In this paper, we attempt to unify the approaches in designing deployable cylinders and
cylinders with high energy absorption capability. The common theme is to apply
origami patterns to both designs to provide guidance to the deformation of the cylinders.
It is well known to structural engineers that alteration of structural profiles can vary
structural properties. For example, a “T” section will exhibit different bending stiffness
from that of an “O” section. Here we pre-fabricate origami folds onto the surface of
thin-walled cylinders with the objective of altering the buckling and post-buckling
behaviors of the cylinders. We have found that features such as high energy absorption
capability under axial compression or nearly strain-free deployment can be achieved by
doing so.
The scope of this paper is limited to cylinders with hexagonal section only though the
principle in designing cylinders with pre-fabricated origami folds can be applied to
cylinders with other polygonal sections.
The layout of the paper is as follows. First, we introduce the geometric feature of
cylinders in section 2. It is then followed in section 3 by the construction of a number of
model cylinders using the patterns. The analysis results of the models are given in
section 4. Finally a summary of the design principles in section 5 concludes the paper.
(a) (b)
Fig. 1: (a) The crash box for Land Rover.
(b) A crash box proposed by Thyssen Krupp AG.
2 Pattern and geometry
2.1 Patterns
Six crease patterns for hexagonal cylinders, namely P1 to P6, which include three
existing ones and three new ones, are presented in Fig. 2. Note that in the diagrams the
solid lines stand for mountain folds and the dashed ones for valley folds. It can be seen
that all the patterns consist of many identical modules, which is a very useful feature as
cylinders of other dimensions can be constructed by having more or fewer modules.
785
P1 [16] is composed of identical triangles which are so combined that the corresponding
cylinder will not undergo any end rotation when shortened. The geometry of the pattern
can be defined by the side length b and the two angles α and β. P2 is a modification of
P1 by imposing the constraint that β = α. So the side length b and angle α are sufficient
to define the geometry of the pattern. P3 is simply a combination of P1 and P2. Four
geometric parameters, i.e., the side length b and the three angles α, β, and γ, are needed
to determine the geometry of the pattern.
P4 [9] comprises of both triangles and trapezoids. The specially designed folds in the
corner areas ensure that the deformation of the cylinder walls is very small during the
folding process. The side length b, the height of the corner rhomboid h, and the two
angles α and β fully determine the geometry of the pattern. P5 [17] is also composed of
triangles and trapezoids. The crease organisation in the corner area is relatively simple
compared with that of P4. The geometry of the pattern is determined by the side length
b, the height of the corner rhomboid h, and the angle α. P6 is the pattern design for a
high performance energy absorber. It was initially inspired by the diamond collapse
mode of circular tubes. Although P6 looks similar to P5, it will be shown later that there
is fundamental distinction between the two, which accounts for their energy absorption
difference.
2.2 Geometry
Gradually folding a sheet with one of the given crease patterns shown in Fig. 2 will lead
an arc like structure. When the left and right edges meet, we bond them together to form
a cylinder. All of the patterns described above allow rigid folding, i.e., the sheet can be
folded without deformation other than rotation around crease lines. It is therefore
important to make sure that the left and right edges meet and match in order to make the
cylinder. This latter requirement is called the closure condition.
In all of the patterns given in Fig. 1, the closure condition is automatically satisfied due
to symmetrical nature of the patterns. However, it is interesting to note that for P1, if
π
α= (1)
6
The pattern not only meets the closure condition, but also geometrically compatible
when the cylinder collapses completely, i.e., it is strain free when fully collapsed.
Similar condition can be found for other patterns. For example, the conditions for P2
and P5 are identical to (1), whereas for P4,
π
β −α = (2)
6
For P6, the value of angle α is often deliberately chosen to be much larger than π/6 so
that, unlike P5, it has only one strain-free configuration which is when the cylinder is
constructed. We shall show that this specially designed crease pattern helps to induce
the “diamond failure mode”, which is typical of circular cylinders, in a hexagonal
cylinder, thus increasing the energy absorption of the cylinder.
786
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
Fig. 2: Origami Patterns (a) Pattern1, (b) Pattern2,
(c) Pattern3, (d) Pattern4, (e) Pattern5, and (f) Pattern6
3 Models
Seven hexagonal cylinder models, including six cylinders with pre-fabricated origami
folds based on the crease patterns given in Fig. 2 and a conventional hexagonal cylinder
with smooth surfaces, were built and analysed. All the patterned cylinders were strain-
free initially. The side length b of all the models was chosen as 40 mm and the wall
thickness t was set to 1 mm.
Models based on patterns P1, P2, P3 and P4 had the same overall length L. They were
intended for deployable cylinders. The configurations of these models are listed in
Table 1. Models based on P5 and P6 as well as the conventional hexagonal cylinder had
787
the same surface area S. They were intended for energy-absorbing cylinders. The
configurations of these three models are listed in Table 2.
The axial crushing process of the cylinders was simulated using the FEA software
package Abaqus/Explicit. Quasi-static analysis was conducted so that the complicated
dynamic effects on the response of the cylinders could be neglected. The loading
scenario was modelled as: the cylinder stood still on a fixed rigid panel, and a moving
rigid panel went downward to crumple the cylinder. For models with plane symmetry,
only a half cylinder was built to save computation efforts, while the whole cylinder was
analyzed for P1, P2 and P3 which had no symmetric plane. Quadrilateral elements with
element type S4R were primarily employed to mesh the cylinders, whereas a few
triangular elements were also used to avoid excessively small or distorted elements.
Clamped boundary conditions were applied to both ends of the cylinders, and for those
cylinders with plane symmetry the two longitudinal edges of the half cylinders were
subject to symmetric constraints. The fixed rigid panel was completed constrained in
space, while all the degrees of freedom of the moving rigid panel were fixed except for
the transitional one in the axial direction of the cylinder. Prescribed velocity boundary
condition of 1 m / s downward was applied to the unconstrained degree of freedom of
the moving rigid panel to control the loading rate. The contact among different parts of
a cylinder was simulated by the self-contact, and the contacts between the cylinder and
the two rigid panels respectively were modelled by the surface-to-surface contact.
Friction was also considered in the analysis with friction coefficient μ = 0.25. To trigger
progressive and stable collapse mode for the conventional hexagonal cylinder,
indentation was introduced below the upper end of the model.
Mild steel was chosen as the material for the numerical simulation. The material
properties are listed as follows: density ρ = 7800 kg / m3, Young’s modulus
E = 210 GPa, yield stress σy = 200 MPa, tensile strength σu = 400 MPa,
elongation 20.0%, Poisson’s ratio ν = 0.3, and power law exponent n = 0.34.
4 Results
4.1 Axial crushing of the conventional hexagonal cylinder

The axial crushing of conventional hexagonal cylinders has already been studied
experimentally and theoretically by previous researchers and a theoretical formula is
available to estimate the mean crush force [13]. So the conventional hexagonal cylinder
was analyzed here to validate the finite element modelling approach and be compared
with the patterned cylinders to evaluate their energy absorption. The axial crushing
process of the conventional hexagonal cylinder is presented in Fig. 3(a). It can be seen
that the conventional hexagonal cylinder collapses progressively into the symmetric
mode, which agrees with the experiment results given by [13].
It is found out that the numerically obtained mean crush force 19.37kN is reasonably
close to the theoretical prediction 21.62kN. So it can be concluded that the currently
adopted finite element modelling approach is capable of yielding reliable results.
788
4.2 Axial crushing of deployable cylinders

The numerical results show that the mean crush forces of models P1 – P4 are well
below that of the conventional hexagonal cylinder, so they can be categorised as the
deployable cylinders. The axial crushing process of models P1 and P4 are given in
Fig. 3(b) and (c). The force-displacement curves of all the models are plotted in Fig. 4.
As can be seen from Fig. 3(b), the folding of model P1 first appeared in the middle of
the cylinder and then extended to both ends. The arrangement of folds was such that no
end rotation occurred. The folding processes of models P2 and P3 were similar to that
of model P1. Two observations can be made from the force-displacement curves of the
three models. A. the force-displacement curves of models P1 and P2 are relatively
smooth without severe fluctuation, but the reaction force level of P2 is higher than that
of P1; and B. the reaction force of model P3 first stays at the same level with that of P1,
and then jump to level that of P2 in the middle the folding process. This was due to the
fact that P2 was only strain-free initially whereas P1 has two strain-free configurations.
However, we also do not see a drop in force when models P1 approached the fully
folded configuration. This was due to the physical thickness of the walls which were
folded one on top of the other.
Model P3 was a combination of P1 and P2. Hence the stiffness was not even across the
cylinder. The relatively weak upper part corresponding to P1 was first folded at a low
force level, and then the relatively strong lower part corresponding to P2 was folded at a
high force level, resulting in the jump of the reaction force. This indicates that it is
possible to combine the patterns to create a cylinder with step-shaped force-
displacement curve like that of P3. This kind of cylinder can be useful in practice
because the crushing sequence of the cylinder and the reactive force can be passively
adjusted according to the external load.
Model P4 was designed with minimum wall distortion [9]. It also had a progressive and
stable crushing process; see Fig. 3(c). But the force-displacement curve, unlike those of
the three triangulated cylinders, contained oscillations of larger magnitude, suggesting
that severe local buckling happened. Despite that the mean crush force of P4 was much
lower than that of the conventional hexagonal cylinder, it was quite high compared with
P1 – P3. Why this was the case warrants further investigation.
By observing the crushing process of P1 – P4 shown in Fig. 3, it was noticed that the
plastic hinge lines formed and then remained stationary at where the folds of the crease
pattern located. The flat panels bounded by folds were not severely distorted. Hence the
plastic deformation of the cylinders mainly concentrated on the stationary plastic hinges,
the mean crush force of the cylinder can be estimated as the total plastic energy
dissipated by the stationary plastic hinges dividing the effective crushing distance, i.e.
Pm,t = ∑ M p li θi δ (3)
i
in which Pm,t is the theoretical estimation of the mean crush force, δ is the effective
crushing distance, li and θi are the length and folding angle of the ith stationary plastic
hinges respectively, and Mp is the equivalent plastic moment per unit length which can
be calculated by the following equation:
789
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Fig. 3: Axial crushing process of selective cylinder models
(a) Conventional, (b) C1, (c) C4, (d) C5, and (e) C6
790
M p = σ 0t 2 4 (4)
Pm,t of the four cylinder models are listed in Table 1. It can be seen that there is a
reasonably good agreement between the numerical values and theoretical estimates,
especially for P1 which has two strain-free configurations. The difference between the
numerical value and the theoretical estimate can be attributed to the deformation of the
panels bounded by folds.
16
P1
14
P2
12 P3
P4
10
Force (kN)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Displacement (mm)
Fig. 4: Force-displacement curves of cylinders P1, P2, P3, and P4
60
Conventional
50 P5
P6
40
Force (kN)
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Displacement (mm)
Fig. 5: Force-displacement curves of cylinders Conventional, P5, and P6
791
4.2 Axial crushing of energy-absorbing cylinders

Models based on P5 and P6 were considered as candidates of energy-absorbing
cylinders since their configurations resemble the diamond buckling mode typical of
circular cylinders. The objective was to see whether the diamond buckling mode could
be trigged in hexagonal cylinders given that the cylinders were pre-folded to that mode.
Moreover, if such a mode was trigged, we would like to see whether the higher amount
energy was absorbed during axial crashing.
The crushing process of models P5 and P6 are presented in Fig. 3(d) and (e). And the
force-displacement curves of models P5, P6 and the conventional hexagonal cylinder
are plotted in Fig. 5.
It was observed from the crushing process of P5 that the plastic hinges were mainly
stationary as in the case of P1 – P4, but the panels bounded by folds were noticeably
distorted. The crushing process of P6 was different in that two types of plastic hinges
formed: the circumferential plastic hinges which were stationary, and the inclined
plastic hinges which did not remain at their original locations but travelled through the
panels and deformed them throughout the crushing process. With the formation of
travelling plastic hinges and associated the large scale deformation in panels, no simple
formula such as Eq. (3) can be used to estimate the mean crush force of the cylinder.
Detailed analysis can be found in [18].
Numerical results show that the mean crush force of P5 was close to that of the
conventional hexagonal cylinder, so the introduction of the crease pattern provided no
advantage from the viewpoint of energy absorption in this case. The mean crush force
of P6, however, was significantly larger than those of P5 and the conventional
hexagonal cylinder, indicating that P6 is a promising energy-absorbing cylinder design.
The high energy absorption of cylinder P6 lies in that the diamond failure mode is
induced for the hexagonal cylinder. It is well known that the diamond failure mode of
circular cylinders is more energy-absorbing efficient than the symmetric failure mode of
polygonal cylinders [19]. As can be seen from Fig. 3(e), by pre-fabricating the specially
designed crease pattern, the rhomboid lobes characteristic of the diamond failure mode
were formed and developed in the corner areas. During the development of the lobes,
the panels bounded by folds were bent and unbent again when the travelling plastic
hinges swept through, which accounted for the high energy absorption. For cylinder P5
however, α was chosen as π/6, and thus the cylinder had two strain-free configurations.
Although the rhomboid lobes were pre-formed in the corner areas, there was little room
for the inclined plastic hinges to travel during the crushing process, resulting in less
energy dissipation than that of cylinder P6.
5. Conclusions
Thin-walled cylinders that require large deformation when functioning can be designed
with respect to their strain energy level during deformation. One of the effective
methods is to have pre-fabricated origami folds to the cylinder to guide its deformation
in order to achieve higher or lower strain energy variation. We have applied this
approach to six thin-walled cylinders with hexagonal section and obtained encouraging
results. Deployable cylinders which could be compressed at very low axial loading level
792
were obtained. At the same time, we also found the energy-absorbing cylinders which
on the contrary have much higher energy absorption than the conventional hexagonal
cylinders of the same surface area when subject to axial impact. All of the crease
patterns that we investigated here are rigidly foldable, implying that the cylinders can be
manufactured precisely without having uneven thickness reduction often associated
with stamping process.
Some valuable insights into the design of deployable and energy-absorbing cylinders
have been gained from the present study. First of all, to design a deployable cylinder, it
is advantageous to keep the crease pattern simple so that the total length of the folds on
the cylinder surface is small. And those folds should largely remain stationary. Eq. (6) is
a useful tool to give a reasonable estimate of the energy absorption of a cylinder whose
failure modes involves only stationary plastic hinges and negligible distortion in panels
bounded by folds. Secondly, multiple strain-free configurations help to reduce strain
energy variation during crashing. On the contrary, deliberately avoiding multiple strain-
free configurations increases overall energy required to crash the cylinder. Finally,
when designing an energy-absorbing cylinder, an effective approach is to use pre-
fabricated folds to induce a failure mode which is efficient in terms of energy
absorption. A failure mode involving a large number of travelling plastic hinges is
particularly more useful than one with only stationary plastic hinges.
Table 1: Configurations of cylinders P1, P2, P3 and P4 and the numerical results
Model/ h L δ Pm Pm ,t
α (rad) β (rad) γ (rad) S (mm2)
Pattern (mm) (mm) (mm) (kN) (kN)
P1 π/6 0.578 - - 97.7 37.4*103 70 3.73 3.55
P2 0.539 - - - 97.7 33.8*103 70 4.68 3.98
P3 π/6 0.578 0.539 - 97.7 35.6*103 70 4.16 3.77
P4 π/3 π/2 - 30 97.7 28.8*103 65 9.33 8.33
Table 2: Configurations of cylinders Conventional, P5 and P6 and the numerical results
α h L δ Pm
Model/Pattern S (mm2)
(rad) (mm) (mm) (mm) (kN)
Conventional - - 120 28.8*103 90 19.37
P5 π/6 20 106.3 28.8*103 65 18.92
P6 0.927 40 117.6 28.8*103 90 27.95
References
[1] Connelly, R., Sabitov, I., and Walz, A. The Bellows Conjecture. Beiträge zur
Algebra und Geometrie 1997; 38(1): 1-10.
793
[2] Nojima, T. Modelling of Folding Patterns in Flat Membranes and Cylinders by

using Origami (in Japanese). JSME 1999; 66(643): 354-359.
[3] Kuribayashi, K. and You, Z. Development of A Novel Type of Oesophageal Stent
Based on Deployable Tubular Structures. The 4th World Congress of Biomechanics
2002. Calgary, Canada.
[4] Tsunoda, H. and Senbokuya, Y. Rigidizable membranes for space inflatable
structures. 43rd AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics, and
Materials Conference 2002. Denver, Colorado, USA.
[5] Guest, S.D. and Pellegrino, S. The Folding of Triangulated Cylinders, Part I:
Geometric Considerations. ASME Journal of Applied Mechanics 1994; 61: 773-777.
[6] Guest, S.D. and Pellegrino, S. The Folding of Triangulated Cylinders, Part II: The
Folding Process. ASME Journal of Applied Mechanics 1994; 61: 777-783.
[7] Guest, S.D. and Pellegrino, S. The Folding of Triangulated Cylinders, Part III:
Experiments. ASME Journal of Applied Mechanics 1996; 63: 77-83.
[8] Sogame, A. and Furuya, H. Conceptual Study on Cylindrical Deployable Space
Structures. IUTAM-IASS Symposium on Deployable Structures: Theory and
Applications 1998. Cambridge, U.K.
[9] You, Z. and Cole, N. Self-locking Bi-stable Deployable Booms. 47th
AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials
Conference 2006. Newport, Rhode Island.
[10] Hosseinipour, S.J. and Daneshi, G.H. Energy Absorption and Mean Crushing Load
of Thin-Walled Grooved Tubes Under Axial Compression. Thin-Walled Structures
2003; 41(1): 31-46.
[11] Lee, S., Hahn, C., Rhee, M., and Oh, J.-E. Effect of Triggering on the Energy
Absorption Capacity of Axially Compressed Aluminum Tubes. Materials &
Design 1999; 20(1): 31-40.
[12] Wierzbicki, T. and Abramowicz, W. On the Crushing Mechanics of Thin-Walled
Structures. Journal of Applied Mechanics 1983; 50(4): 727-734.
[13] Abramowicz, W. and Wierzbicki, T. Axial Crushing of Multicorner Sheet Metal
Columns. Journal of Applied Mechanics 1989; 56(1): 113-120.
[14] Zhang, X., Cheng, G., You, Z., and Zhang, H. Energy Absorption of Axially
Compressed Thin-Walled Square Tubes with Patterns. Thin-Walled Structures
2007; 45(9): 737-746.
[15] Ma, J., Le, Y., and You, Z. Axial Crushing Tests of Thin-walled Steel Square
Tubes with Pyramid Patterns 51st AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures,
Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conference 2010. Orlando, FL, USA.
[16] Wu, Z., Hagiwara, I., and Tao, X. Optimisation of crush characteristics of the
cylindrical origami structure. International Journal of Vehicle Design 2007; 43(1):
66-81.
[17] Nojima, T. Modelling of Folding Patterns in Flat Membranes and Cylinders by
Origami. JSME International Journal Series C 2002; 45(1): 364-370.
[18] Ma, J. and You, Z. A Novel Thin-walled Tube with Origami Patterns as Energy
Absorption Device. ASME International Mechanical Engineering Congress and
Exposition 2010. Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, IMECE2010-37708.
794
[19] Lu, G. and Yu, T.X. Energy Absorption of Structures and Materials. Cambridge,
2003.
795
A State-of-the-art of Deployable Scissor Structures for

Architectural Applications
Niels DE TEMMERMAN, Lara ALEGRIA MIRA, Marijke MOLLAERT, Lars DE
LAET, Tom VAN MELE
Æ-lab (Research Group for Architectural Engineering),
Department of Architectural Engineering,
Vrije Universiteit Brussel,
Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussel, Belgium
email: niels.de.temmerman@vub.ac.be
Abstract
In this paper the main contributors to the field of deployable structures are discussed. A
review is given of existing deployable scissor structures (or pantograph structures) for
architectural applications. Firstly, the characteristics of translational and polar units are
discussed. Secondly, the geometric deployability constraint, to which a scissor linkage
has to obey in order to guarantee deployability, is explained. Further, angulated
elements, which are used to form closed loop structures, are discussed. These are
characterised by a radial deployment allowing the structure to retract towards its
perimeter. This paper is intended to provide the reader with a representative selection of
typologies and applications from the built environment, showing concepts as well as
realisations, serving as a basis for further reading.
Keywords: Deployable structures, scissor structures, adaptable structures, geometric

design, state-of-the-art
1 Introduction
Scissor units, otherwise called scissor-like elements (SLE’s) or pantographic elements,
consist of two straight bars connected through a revolute joint, called the intermediate
hinge, allowing the bars to pivot about an axis perpendicular to their common plane
(Figure 1). By interconnecting such SLE’s at their end nodes using revolute joints, a
two-dimensional transformable linkage is formed, as shown in Figure 2. Altering the
location of the intermediate hinge or the shape of the bars gives rise to three distinct
basic unit types: translational, polar and angulated units.
2 Translational units
The upper and lower end nodes of a scissor unit are connected by unit lines. For a
translational unit, these unit lines are parallel and remain so during deployment. In
Figure 1 a plane and a curved translational unit are shown, the plane unit being the
simplest translational unit having identical bars. When these units are linked, a well-
796
known transformable single-degree-of-freedom mechanism is formed, called a lazy-tong,

shown in Figure 2.
Intermediate
hinge
Unit End
line node
θ
θ
Plane unit Curved unit
Figure 1 : Translational units
The curved unit – named such because it is commonly used for curved linkages – has
bars of different length. When the latter is linked by its end nodes, a curved linkage is
formed, pictured in Figure 3.
By varying the deployment angle θ a linkage is transformed from its most compact
configuration (a compact bundle) to its fully deployed position, as shown in Figure 2
and Figure 3.
Figure 2: The simplest plane translational scissor linkage, called a

‘lazy-tong’
Figure 3: A curved translational linkage in its deployed and

undeployed position
797
3 Polar units
When in a plane translational unit the intermediate hinge is moved away from the centre
of the bar, a polar unit is formed with unequal semi-bars a and b (Figure 4). It is this
eccentricity of the intermediate hinge which generates curvature during deployment.
The unit lines intersect at an angle γ. This angle varies strongly as the unit deploys and
the intersection point moves closer to the unit as the curvature increases. In Figure 5 a
polar linkage is shown in its undeployed and deployed configuration.
b
θ
Figure 4: Polar unit
Figure 5: A polar linkage in its undeployed and deployed position
4 Deployability constraint
Crucial to the design of deployable scissor structures is the deployability constraint.
This is a formula derived by Escrig [1985] which states that in order to be deployable,
the sum of the semi-lengths a and b of a scissor unit has to equal the sum of the semi-
lengths c and d of the adjoining unit. This translates theoretically into the ability of the
bars to coincide in the compact state. Practically, this means that the scissor linkage is
foldable into a compact bundle of bars. For the linkage in Figure 6, the deployability
constraint is written as:
a+b=c+d (1)
798
a
d
Figure 6: The deployability constraint in terms of the semi-lengths a,

b, c and d of two adjoining scissor units in three consecutive
deployment stages
It should be noted that scissor linkages which do not comply with Equation 1 can still
be partially foldable: one unit might be fully compacted, while the adjoining unit might
still be partially deployed. However, since this dissertation is concerned with the design
of compactly foldable scissor structures, the deployability constraint is treated as a
minimum requirement.
5 Structures based on translational and polar units

In the early 1960’s, Spanish architect Emilio Perez Piñero [1961, 1962] pioneered the
use of scissor mechanism to make deployable structures. He was among the first in
modern times to employ the principle of the pantograph for use in deployable
architectural structures, such as his moveable theatre (Figure 7). This particular model
consisted of rigid bars and wire cables, which would become tensioned to provide the
structure with the necessary stabilisation. The members remain unstressed in the
compact, bundled configuration and the deployed state, except for their own dead
weight. Furthermore, the structure is stress-free during the deployment, effectively
behaving like a mechanism. Piñero was very productive in the field of deployable
scissor structures, until all this was brought to an end by his tragic death in 1972.
Another Spanish architect became one of the most prolific researchers on the subject.
Felix Escrig [1984, 1985] presented the geometric condition for deployability and
demonstrated how three-dimensional structures could be obtained by placing scissor
units in multiple directions on a grid. Further, it was shown how curvature could be
introduced in such a grid by varying the location of the intermediate hinge of the scissor
units.
799
Figure 7: Piñero demonstrates his prototype of a deployable

shell [Robbin, 1996]
Escrig has also investigated, in collaboration with J. Sanchez and J.P. Valcarcel,
spherical two-way scissor structures based on the subdivision of the surface of a sphere.
These two-way grids require measures, such as cross-bars or cables, to stabilise the
structure in its deployed configuration, due to in-plane instability caused by non-
triangulation.
A myriad of geometric models has been proposed by Escrig [1985,1987] based on two-
way and three-way grids with no curvature, single curvature or double curvature. An
example of each category is given in Figures 8 to 12.
Figure 8: Planar two-way grid with translational units and cylindrical

barrel vault with polar units [Escrig, 1985]
800
Figure 9: Top view and side elevation of a two-way spherical grid

with identical polar units [Escrig, 1987]
Figure 10: Top view and side elevation of a three-way spherical grid
with polar units [Escrig, 1987]
Figure 11: Top view and side elevation of a geodesic dome with polar
units [Escrig, 1987]
Figure 12: Top view and side elevation of a lamella dome with
identical polar units [Escrig, 1987]
801
Besides constructing several models, Escrig has also designed a cover for a swimming
pool in Seville. The design consists of two identical rhomboid grid structures with
spherical curvature. The subdivision of the spherical surface is executed in such a way,
that straight edges emerge, allowing several structures to be mutually connected along
these edges (Figure 13).
Figure 13: Deployable cover for a swimming pool in Seville designed

by Escrig & Sanchez (© Performance SL)
Some of the proposed geometric configurations for three-dimensional grid structures

demonstrate a ‘snap-through’ effect during the deployment. This means that they do not
deploy as mechanisms and are no longer stress-free during expansion (apart from their
own dead weight). This ‘snap-through’ effect is caused by geometric incompatibilities
between the member lengths associated with the way they are contained within the grid.
Because they are in a stress-free state before and after deployment, but go through an
intermediate stage with deployment induced stresses, they are called bi-stable
deployable structures. Figure 14 illustrates the snap-through effect on a square module
with diagonal units. The diagonal units (marked in red) are subject to elastic
deformation in the intermediate deployment stage, while the undeployed and fully
deployed configuration are stress-free.
Figure 14: Bi-stable structure before, during and after deployment
802
Figure 15: Collapsible dome and a single unit, as proposed by Zeigler

[1976]
Zeigler [1981, 1984] was the first to exploit this phenomenon as a self-locking effect,
effectively making extra stabilisation after deployment (which is necessary for stress-
free deployable structures) obsolete. He proposed, on these grounds, a partial
triangulated spherical dome as shown in Figure 15.
Charis Gantes [1996, 2001] has thoroughly investigated bi-stable deployable structures
and has developed a geometric design approach for flat grids, curved grids and
structures with arbitrary geometry. Also, he has researched the structural response
during deployment, which is characterized by geometric non-linearities. Simulation of
the deployment process is, therefore, an important part of the analysis requiring
sophisticated finite element modelling. The material behavior, however, must remain
linearly elastic, so that no residual stresses reduce the load bearing capacity under
service loads. Two of his proposals for bi-stable structures, an elliptical arch and a
geodesic dome, are depicted in Figure 16.
Figure 16: Bi-stable structures: elliptical arch and geodesic dome

[Gantes, 2004]
A geometric and kinematic analysis of single curvature and double curvature structures
has been performed by Travis Langbecker [1999, 2001]. He has used translational units
to design several models of positive (Figure 17) and negative (Figure 18) curvature
structures. By using compatible translational units and by keeping the structural
thickness (unit thickness) constant throughout the whole structure, these configurations
are always stress-free deployable. At the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Niels De
Temmerman [2007] proposed in his PhD several concepts for mobile architectural
803
applications based on polar and translational units, all behaving as single-degree-of-

freedom mechanisms during deployment.
Figure 17: Positive curvature structure with translational units in two

deployment stages [Langbecker, 2001]
Figure 18: Negative curvature structure with translational units in two

deployment stages [Langbecker, 2001]
Pantographic deployable columns are linear deployable structures composed of

translational or polar units and were researched by Raskin [1996, 1998]. His work
focussed on pantographs behaving as mechanisms during deployment, which are to be
stabilised in the deployed configuration by additional boundary conditions. First, plane
linkages were investigated, which were subsequently used to form prismatic columns
(Figure 19). Expanding his findings, deployable pantographic slabs that can be
packaged in different arrangements were proposed. Figure 20 shows two variations of
such a deployable slab, consisting either of prismatic modules or an arrangement of
prismatic columns.
804
Figure 19: Plane and spatial pantographic columns by Raskin [1998]
Figure 20: Pantographic slabs by Raskin [1998]
Under the guidance of Sergio Pellegrino, a research group called the Deployable
Structures Laboratory, emerged at the Cambridge University in 1990 as a driving force
in the field of deployable structure research. One of their proposals constituted a
deployable pantographic ring structure developed as the edge beam of a deployable
antenna. Together with Zhong You, the conditions for strain-free deployment of such a
structure were derived [You & Pellegrino, 1993]. Structures of this type consist of
translational linkages on the perimeter ring and inner ring, mutually connected by
radially placed polar units. As an example, Figure 21 shows a structure based on a
twelve-sided polygon.
Figure 21: Deployable ring structure [You & Pellegrino, 1993]
805
6 Angulated units
Unlike common pantograph units with straight bars, angulated units consist of two
rigidly connected semi-bars of length a that form a central kink of amplitude β. Because
they were invented by Hoberman [1990] they are commonly denoted as hoberman’s
units. The major advantage is that, as opposed to polar units, angulated units subtend a
constant angle γ during deployment (Figure 22). For this to occur, the bar geometry has
to be such that α= γ/2. This implies that angulated elements can be used for radially
deploying closed loop structures, capable of retracting to their own perimeter, which is
impossible to accomplish with translational or polar units, which demonstrate a linear
deployment. (Figure 23) shows a circular linkage with angulated elements in its
undeployed and deployed configuration.
a
β
θ a
α
γ α = γ/2
Figure 22: Angulated unit or hoberman’s unit
Figure 23: A radially deployable linkage consisting of angulated (or

hoberman’s) units in three stages of the deployment
The structure shown in Figure 23 is formed by two layers of identical angulated

elements, of which one layer is formed by elements in clockwise direction (marked in
gray), while the other is arranged in counter-clockwise direction (marked in red). As the
structure deploys, each layer undergoes a rotation, equal in magnitude but opposite to
each other.
806
7 Closed loop structures based on angulated elements

You & Pellegrino [1996, 1997] extended the previous concept to multi-angulated
elements, which are elements with more than one kink angle, as can be seen in Figure
24. They found that two or more such retractable structures can be joined together
through the scissor hinges at the element ends. Two angulated elements from layers that
turn in the same direction of two such interconnected structures, were found to maintain
a constant angle and could therefore be rigidly connected, thus forming a multi-
angulated element. The deployment of such a structure, composed of two layers of
twelve identical multi-angulated elements with three kinks, is depicted in Figure 25.
α α
α
γ/2 γ/2 α = γ/2

γ/2
Figure 24: Multi-angulated element
Figure 25: A radially deployable linkage consisting of multi-

angulated elements in three stages of the deployment
This concept was extended by You & Pellegrino [1996, 1997] to include generalised
angulated elements (GAE) which allow non-circular structures to be generated.
807
Depending on which type of GAE is used, such structures form patterns of either
rhombuses of parallelograms.
By providing this type of structure with cover elements, Kassabian et al. [1997, 1999]
has shown it possible to employ them as a retractable roof (Figure 26). The cover
elements provide, both in the open and closed position a gap-free, weatherproof surface.
Figure 26: Multi-angulated structure with cover elements in an

intermediate deployment position [Jensen, 2004]
Jensen [2004] has found that, instead of covering a bar structure with plates, it is
possible to remove the angulated elements and connect the plates directly by means of
scissor hinges at exactly the same locations as in the original bar structure. Thus, the
kinematic behaviour of the expandable structure remains unchanged. He has developed
general methods and the conditions for connecting expandable structures of any plan
shape (Figure 27), leading to the possibility of creating plane or stacked assemblies
composed of individual expandable structures. This has led to the development of
transformable free-form or ‘blob’-structures, as shown in Figure 28 [Jensen &
Pellegrino, 2004].
Figure 27: Model of a non-circular structure where all boundaries

and plates are unique [Jensen, 2004]
808
Figure 28: Computer model of an expandable blob structure [Jensen

& Pellegrino, 2004]
Several other types of closed loop structures have been developed by Escrig et al.
[1996], Chilton et al. [1998], Wohlhart [2000], You [2000] and Rodriguez & Chilton
[2003]. Retractable reciprocal plate structures have been developed by Chilton et al.
[1998], of which an example is shown in Figure 29. The structure shown consists of six
triangular rigid plate elements which each slide against each other as the structure is
retracted, hence providing a continuous surface throughout the deployment process.
Figure 29: Reciprocal plate structure [Rodriguez & Chilton 2003]
Rodriguez & Chilton [2003] have proposed a novel retractable structure called the
swivel diaphragm. It forms a ring of congruent parallelograms between angulated
elements by using the fixed points of the structure together with straight bars. In Figure
30 a swivel diaphragm is shown in several stages of the deployment. As opposed to the
multi-angulated elements proposed by Kassabian et al., the support points can always
be directly connected to the angulated elements, which allows the angulated elements to
swivel around the fixed points. The angulated elements can be replaced by rigid plate
elements to form a continuous surface in both the open and closed position. Rodriguez
et al. [2004] has also developed methods for interconnecting several individual swivel
diaphragms to form larger retractable assemblies.
809
Figure 30: Swivel diaphragm in consecutive stages of deployment

[Jensen, 2004]
Several researchers have proposed dome shaped structures that can retract towards their
perimeter. Piñero pioneered a diaphragm retractable dome with a number of wedge-
shaped plates which are able to rotate about an axis normal to the sphere [Escrig, 1993].
When the plates are rotated, an aperture is created at the centre of the dome. During
opening and closing, all plates show an overlap, except in the fully closed position
where the plates form a gap-free spherical cap. To create a single-degree-of-freedom
mechanism, pairs of adjacent plates are mutually connected through a revolute joint at
the apex of one plate. This joint is then run along a certain path on the other plate, as
illustrated in Figure 31.
Figure 31: Reciprocal dome proposed by Piñero [Escrig, 1993]
Angulated elements connected by scissor hinges not only subtend a constant angle in a
plane surface, but also on a conical surface. This was discovered by Hoberman [1991],
who has proposed the Iris Dome shown in Figure 32. The structures consists of five
concentric rings of angulated elements, connected with axes of rotation tangential to the
circular plan of the rings, and thus a retractable dome is formed. The dome uses rigid
plates as cladding material, attached to the individual angulated elements. When the
dome is closed, a continuous surface is formed, while in the open configuration the
plates are stacked upon each other. Hoberman exhibited a model for a dome, which was
continuously retracted by an actuator, at the Expo 2000 in Hannover. In 2002 he
designed and built a semi-circular retractable mechanical curtain for ceremonial
purposes at the Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City. Both structures are shown in Figure
33.
810
Figure 32: Iris dome by Hoberman [Kassabian et al, 1999]
Figure 33: Retractable dome on Expo Hannover (courtesy of M.

Mollaert) – Mechanical curtain Winter Olympics Salt Lake City 2002
[Hoberman, 2007]
Extending his work on two-dimensional retractable plate structures, Jensen [2004] has
proposed an elegant solution for a retractable dome structure, using only plate elements,
instead of a combination of multi-angulated elements and cover plates. One of his
proposals is a novel type of retractable dome, described as a self-supporting reciprocal
mechanism, similar to that proposed by Piñero [Escrig, 1993]. Unlike the concept
developed by Piñero, the current structure does not have any overlaps, and hence
friction between neighbouring plates is removed, which makes it better suited for large
scale applications. Other advantages are the possibilities of modifying the plate
boundaries and the location of the fixed points about which the plates rotate. Figure 34
shows a retractable dome with plates having fixed points of rotation. The plates provide
a gap-free surface in the open and closed position. Figure 35 shows a retractable dome
with modified boundaries.
Figure 34: Retractable roof made from spherical plates with fixed
points of rotation [Jensen, 2004]
811
Figure 35: Novel retractable dome with spherical plates with modified
boundaries [Jensen, 2004]
References
[1] Chilton JC, Choo BS and Wilkinson D. A parametric analysis of the geometry of
retractable reciprocal frame structures. In Proceedings of the LSA98 Conference
“Lightweight Structures in Architecture Engineering and Construction”, Vol.1, 547-555,
Sydney, Australia, 1998.
[2] De Temmerman N. Design and analysis of deployable bar structures for mobile
architectural applications. PhD dissertation, Department of Architectural Engineering,
Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium, 2007.
[3] Escrig F. Expandable space frame structures. Proceedings of the 3rd International
Conference on Space Structures, ed: Nooshin, H., University of Surrey, Guildford, UK,
Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, London, pp.845-850, 1984.
[4] Escrig F. Expandable space structures. Space Structures Journal 1985; 1:79-91,
[5] Escrig F and Valcarcel, JP. Curved expandable space grids. Proceedings of the
international Conference on the Design and Construction of Non-Conventional
Structures, England, pp.157-168, 1987.
[6] Escrig F and Valcarcel, JP. Geometry of Expandable Space Structures. International
Journal of Space Structures 1993; 8:127–134
[7] Escrig F, Sanchez J and Valcarcel, JP. Two-way deployable spherical grids.
International Journal of Space Structures 1996; 1 & 2:257-274.
[8] Escrig, F. General survey of deployability in architecture, In Escrig & Brebbia
pp.3–22,1996.
[9] Escrig F and Brebbia CA. eds. Mobile and rapidly assembled structures.
Proceedings of MARAS ’96, the 2nd International Conference on Mobile and Rapidly
Assembled Structures, Seville, Computational Mechanics Publications, Southampton,
1996.
[10] Gantes CJ. Analytical predictions of the snap-trough characteristics of deployable
structures. Proceedings of MARAS ’96, the 2nd International Conference on Mobile
and Rapidly Assembled Structures, Seville, Spain, 1996.
[11] Gantes CJ. Deployable Structures: Analysis and Design. WIT Press, Southampton,
UK, 2001.
812
[12] Gantes CJ and Konitopoulou E. Geometric design of arbitrarily curved bi-stable

deployable arches with discrete joint size. International Journal of Solids and Structures
2004; 41:5517-5540.
[13] Hoberman C. Reversibly Expandable Doubly-Curved Truss Structure. United
States Patent No. 4, 700-942, 1990.
[14] Jensen FV. Concepts for retractable roof structures. Dissertation submitted to the
University of Cambridge for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Cambridge, 2004.
[15] Jensen, F.V. & Pellegrino, S. Expandable “blob” structures, extended abstract. In
Motro [2004], 44-45, (paper on cd-rom), 2004.
[16] Kassabian PE, You Z and Pellegrino S. Retractable Structures based on Multi-
Angulated Elements. IASS Colloquium of Structural Morphology, 1997.
[17] Kassabian PE, You Z and Pellegrino S. Retractable Roof Structures. Proceedings
of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Structures & Buildings 1999; 134:45-56.
[18] Langbecker T. Kinematic Analysis of Deployable Scissor Structures. International
Journal of Space Structures 1999; 14 (1):1-16.
[19] Langbecker T and Albermani F. Kinematic and Non-Linear Analysis of Foldable
Barrel Vaults. Engineering Structures 2001; 23:158-171.
[20] Piñero EP. Project for a mobile theatre. Architectural Design 1961; 12:570.
[21] Piñero EP. Expandable space framing. Progressive Architecture 1962; 12:154-155
[22] Piñero EP (filed November 15, 1961). Three-dimensional reticular structure, US
Patent No. 3,185,164, 1965.
[23] Raskin I and Roorda J. Buckling force for deployable pantographic columns.
Proceedings of MARAS ’96, the 2nd International Conference on Mobile and Rapidly
Assembled Structures, Seville, Spain, 1996.
[24] Raskin I. Stiffness and stability of deployable pantographic columns, Ph.D. Thesis,
Civil Engineering Department, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada,
1998.
[25] Robbin T. Engineering a New Architecture, Yale University Press New Haven and
London, 1996.
[26] Rodriguez C and Chilton JC. Swivel Diaphragm – A New Alternative for
Retractable Ring Structures. Journal of The International Association for Shell and
Spatial Structures 2003; 44: 181-188.
[27] Wohlhart K. Double-chain mechanisms. In Pellegrino & guest, pp. 457-466, 2000.
[28] You Z and Pellegrino S. Foldable ring structures, Proceedings of the 4th
International Conference on Space Structures, Surrey, UK, eds Parke, G.A.R. and
Howard, C.M., Thomas Telford, London, 1993.
[29] You Z. and Pellegrino S. New solutions for foldable roof structures. In Escrig &
Brebbia.pp. 35-44, 1996.
[30] You Z and Pellegrino S. Foldable bar structures. International Journal of Solids
and Structures 1997. 34:1825-1847.
[31] You Z. A new approach to design of retractable roofs. In Pellegrino & Guest, 477-
483, 2000.
[32] Zeigler TR. (filed November 6, 1976), Collapsable self-supporting structures, US
Patent No. 3, 808-968, 1976.
813
[33] Zeigler TR. Collapsible self-supporting structures and panels and hub therefore.
United States Patent No. 4, 290-244, 1981.
[34] Zeigler TR. Collapsible self-supporting structures. United States Patent No. 4,437-
275, 1984.
814
Design and Analysis of a Universal Scissor Component for

Mobile Architectural Applications
Lara ALEGRIA MIRA, Niels DE TEMMERMAN
Æ-lab (Research Group for Architectural Engineering),

Department of Architectural Engineering,
Vrije Universiteit Brussel,
Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussel, Belgium
email: niels.de.temmerman@vub.ac.be
Abstract
“Uniformity generating diversity” – A. Lobel
Deployable scissor structures consist of beam elements connected by hinges,

allowing them to be folded into a compact bundle for storage or transport. Subsequently,
they are deployed, demonstrating a huge volume expansion. In this final state they fulfil
their architectural function, which is generally providing shelter for all kinds of
activities: emergency shelters, exhibition and recreational structures, transportable
maintenance facilities, etc. The deployment process can be reversed, allowing
subsequent re-use.
The purpose of this paper is to explore the design and analysis of an innovative
multi-configurational Universal Scissor Component (USC) for use in mobile
architectural applications. A preliminary feasibility study is conducted to investigate the
scissor component for these multiple deployable configurations according to
geometrical, kinematic and structural implications. A journal paper is in preparation and
a prototype will be built.
Keywords: Deployable structures, scissor structures, adaptable structures, geometric

design, structural analysis
1 Introduction
1.1 Deployable structures
Nowadays most constructions are static and are designed to fulfil a unique and
predestined purpose during their lifetime. But in an era where nearly everything
proceeds dynamically, it is interesting to explore non-static structures.
A large group of structures have the ability to transform themselves from a small, closed
or stowed configuration to a much larger, open or deployed configuration. The obtained
structures are generally referred to as deployable structures [1].
Deployables are characterized by their dual functionality as load-bearing structures or
mechanisms. As load-bearing structures they transfer live and dead loads. As
mechanisms they provide for the reversible alteration of their form [2]. They provide
the built environment with structures which can adapt to changing circumstances and
815
requirements.
Although the research subject of deployable structures is relatively young, the principle
of transformable objects and spaces has been applied throughout history (the Mongolian
yurt, the pantographic weightlifting crane of Leonardo da Vinci…). Nowadays, the
main application areas are the aerospace industry, requiring highly compactable,
lightweight payload (solar arrays), and architecture, requiring either fixed-location
retractable roofs for sports arenas (Wimbledon) or mobile, lightweight temporary
shelters (emergency tents and recreational structures).
Generally, mobile deployable structures consist of a weather protecting membrane
supported by some form of erectable structure, which is capable of easily being moved
in the course of normal use and can be assembled at high speed, on unprepared sites.
For this purpose, scissor structures are most effective: besides being transportable, they
have the great advantage of speed and ease of erection and dismantling, while offering a
huge volume expansion [3].
1.2 Aims and scope of research

Despite the advantages scissor structures (or pantograph structures) can offer, few have
successfully been realized. The design process is complex: a scissor structure requires a
thorough understanding of the specific 2D and 3D configurations which will give rise to
a fully deployable geometry. Moreover, structural implications must be considered.
Flexure in the beams remains a major feature that detracts from structural efficiency [4].
The key element is that there is a direct and mutual relationship between the geometry,
the kinematics and structural response of the scissor system [5].
The purpose of the research lies in designing and analyzing a new multi-configurational
Universal Scissor Component (USC). While current designs of scissor systems give an
‘ad hoc’ solution, this research can provide a methodology for designing a scissor
component resulting in generic structures. The designed scissor component can be used
in different geometrical structure configurations (domes and barrel vaults) and can thus
be re-used meeting changing requirements.
For this preliminary feasibility study a combination was chosen of: (1) modelling
scissor systems in the software Rhinoceros [6] and Grasshopper [7] and (2)
designing and analyzing scissor structures in SCIA ESA-PT [8]. The method is
implemented for the deployed state in which the deployable mechanisms act as
constructions demonstrating a structural behaviour and a maximal loading.
2 Scissor Units
Scissor units, also called scissor-like elements (SLE’s) consist of two beams connected
through a revolute joint, the intermediate hinge, allowing a relative rotation, but at the
same time introducing bending moments in the beams. By connecting such SLE’s at
their end nodes by hinges, a grid structure is formed, which can be transformed from a
compact bundle of elements to a fully deployed configuration. Finally, by adding
constraints, the mechanism goes from the deployment phase to the service phase, in
which it can bear loads.
816
Depending on the location of the intermediate joint and the shape of the beams, three
main unit types can be distinguished: translational, polar and angulated units (Figure 1,
2 and 3).
Fig. 1: Translational linkage [9] Fig. 2: Scissor structure of polar units [9]
Fig. 3: A radially deployable linkage consisting of angulated scissors with kinked

beams [9]
3 Design of the Universal Scissor Component (USC)

3.1 Configurations of the structures
To determine the geometrical dimensions of the USC, a closer look has to be taken
which configurations of structures to consider. Deployable structures with a function of
a temporary shelter have to form a three-dimensional space [10, 11].
3.1.1 Barrel vaults

To perform an architectural function (providing weather protection) a barrel vault is a
simple, but effective typology. Barrel vaults or cylindrical grids are monoclastic shapes.
- direction X, or transverse direction,

contains rows of identical polar units in
arch formation
- direction Y, or longitudinal direction,
contains parallel rows of identical
translational units connecting the polar
arches
Fig. 4: Perspective view of a barrel vault [9]
817
They can be obtained by curving one direction of an orthogonal two-way grid.

Using polar units is an effective way of introducing single curvature in an orthogonal
grid as shown in Figure 4.
3.1.2 Domes
Besides the simple but effective barrel vaults, also dome geometries are considered in
this research. Domes are not only architectural and structural viable structures, they can
also serve as a geometric transition to more exotic and interesting shapes thanks to
angulated elements.
To minimize distortion of two- or three-way grids over a sphere, polyhedra can be used.
A selection is made of polyhedra with an equal edge length, because an identical USC
in the whole global structure is the starting point. The selection results in a multitude of
different geometries for the investigated architectural dome structures. The following
polyhedra are considered: icosahedron, dodecahedron, icosidodecahedron, ‘buckyball’
(truncated icosahedron) and an adjusted rhombic triacontahedron.
A dome structure, independent from the considered polyhedron, is made deployable by
substituting every edge of the polyhedron by scissor elements. For this purpose
angulated scissors are implemented because of their beneficial properties, such as the
ability to develop a more stabile deployment process for shapes capable of retracting
towards their proper perimeter. Figure 5 shows how the adjusted rhombic
triacontahedron forms the basis of a deployable dome using angulated scissors.
Fig. 5: The adjusted rhombic triacontahedron - deployable dome structure with scissor
elements – detail of edge replacement by angulated units [9]
3.2 Geometrical dimensions
A USC will be designed with the ability to configure both barrel vaults as domes. To
reach this possibility, the USC must be able to function as the three standard scissor
units: translational, polar and angulated, depending on the desired end configuration.
Because hinge displacements have a dramatic influence on the structure shape, in this
section decisions will be made concerning the different geometrical dimensions based
on possible hinge positions. These are the dominating aspect for the geometry: because
all the components are identical, i.e. the USC, the only difference between the
configurations is the position of the pivot hinge.
818
3.2.1 Angulated part of the component

The angulated element is determined by the different geometrical polyhedra to form
radially deployable domes. Because of the fixed geometry of the polyhedra, also the
angulated part of the USC is relatively
fixed. If the length of the kinked beam
of an angulated scissor unit is
considered as a parameter, the height is
determined for a certain polyhedron
Fig. 6: Parameters of an angulated beam (Figure 6).
A length of 2m is chosen because of the resulting range from low to high spans for
multifunctional deployable structures. Moreover, a length of 2m seems to still be
manageable manually. A 2m length results for each considered polyhedron in a certain
height. Further, a selection is made between these different height values. The decision
is based on the feasibility of the distance between the angulated intermediate hinge
positions. For that reason the icosidodecahedron is excluded. Figure 7 presents the
ultimate geometric dimensions for the angulated part of the USC for which six different
dome structures can be built geometrically.
Hinge position [cm] Dome polyhedron Elements/edge Span Dome [m]
1 10,2 Buckyball Double 16,9

2 16,4 Adjusted rhombic triacontahedron Double 12,2
3 20,6 Buckyball Single 8,5
4 28,4 Icosahedron Double 6,2
5 33,8 Adjusted rhombic triacontahedron Single 6,1
6 38,2 Dodecahedron Single 5,2
Fig. 7: Ultimate geometric dimensions for the angulated part of the USC [9]
3.2.2 Translational/polar part of the component
Compared to the relative fixed geometry of the angulated elements in the domes, the
polar and translational units allow a bigger freedom in geometry choice.
A polar unit is simply obtained by moving the intermediate hinge of a translational unit
away from the middle of the beams. This eccentricity of the revolute joint creates
curvature when the units become deployed. A beam from a translational and polar unit
can thus simply be combined into one beam with several hinge positions (Figure 8).
819
The length of the translational or polar beam is fixed on 2m as determined in the

previous section. The parameters on which can be anticipated are the number of units
and the eccentricity of the polar hinges. Configurations are investigated with a number
of units from 4 to 16 to obtain a wide range of barrel vault spans and eccentricities are
considered with a minimum distances of 5cm because of practical reasons.
The result is that only the eccentricities of 5cm, 10cm and 16cm have to be regard to
form thirteen barrel vaults differing in span and shape (Figure 8).
Hinge position Number of polar units in arch of Span Barrel vault

[cm] Barrel vault [m]
1 5 U=7 8,3
U=8 9,4
U=9 10,5
U=10 11,6
U=11 12,6
U=12 13,6
U=13 14,6
U=14 15,5
U=15 16,4
U=16 17,3
2 10 U=5 5,6
U=6 6,5
3 16 U=4 4,1
1 2 3
L = 2m
Fig. 8: Ultimate geometric dimensions for the translational/polar part of the USC [9]
3.3 Geometrical shape
In the previous section the geometrical dimensions were determined. The positions of
the intermediate pivot hinges are found with the ability to compose them in such way
that nineteen different architectural structures can be formed. A simple shape, easy to
manufacture, is formed by connecting the hinge positions with beams. Figure 9
illustrates the designed Universal Scissor Component with the different elements.
Fig. 9: Universal Scissor Component [9]

3.4 Deployment
Not only do the hinge positions determine the ultimate shape of the deployable structure,
they also have an impact on the deployment behaviour which differs between barrel
820
vaults and domes. In case of the barrel vaults, the deployment has a 2D character: the
transformation proceeds automatically in the transversal and longitudinal direction, as
shown in Figure 10. For the domes, the deployment transforms radially. While
deploying the geometrical shape stays constant, only a variation in span in noticed
(Figure 11).
Fig. 10: Barrel vault with USC’s in four deployment configurations [9]
Fig. 11: Deployable dome based on the adjusted rhombic triacontahedron from a fully
closed to an open configuration [9]
4 Structural analysis
Besides the geometrical properties, a feasibility study is completed if the structural
implications are also investigated. In this chapter a global configuration, consisting of
the designed Universal Scissor Component (USC), is analysed structurally. Two
situations should be considered when designing a deployable structure: the first during
the deployment and the second in the service phase. Since in this research, during
deployment no additional stresses are induced in the proposed foldable structures and
the imposed loads and span are usually less than those for the fully deployed state, the
structural part will concentrate on the analysis in the fully deployed configuration, as in
the service phase [12].
In a larger construction the loads increase and the global instability becomes significant
due to the scale-effect. Therefore, the calculation of the largest structure is assumed to
result in a scissor component that satisfies the structural requirements in all system
configurations. As mentioned before two types of configurations can be built with the
designed USC: domes and barrel vaults. Due to a preference for global instability which
is not the case in dome configurations, a total detailed calculation is preformed on the
largest barrel vault (17m x 17m).
821
The structure is calculated using the Eurocode standards. Beside self-weight, also
climate loads (transverse and longitudinal wind and snow) are considered. Two case
studies of the barrel vault configuration are examined structurally: (1) the global
structure and (2) the global structure with passive and active cable segments.
4.1 Case study 1

The numerical results of the barrel vault (Figure 12) are displayed in Table 1. The
obtained maximal section diameter is approximate 5cm, which can be considered as a
feasible section compared to the enclosing area of 308m2. It can be noticed that the
bending moments are very small, near zero. This means that the structure with the
designed scissor component behaves structurally efficient, minimizing bending
moments. The displacements values (max 35mm) seem acceptable for this type of
structure and these will not degrade the serviceability of the structure.
Fig. 12: Barrel vault structure of case study 1 [9]
Table 1: Numerical results of case study 1

Wtot Total weight [kg] 10301,1
wa Weight/area [kg/m2] 33,5
wUSC Weight of one Universal Scissor Component [kg] 15,4
Maximal internal forces
Section [mm] NEd [kN] My,Ed [kNm] Mz,Ed [kNm]
Mast 51.0x2.9mm -12,63 0,00 0,16
Oblique beam 51.0x3.2mm -24,30 0,21 0,25
Strut 21.3x2.3mm -8,46 0,00 0,10
Maximal reactions
Rx [kN] Ry [kN] Rz [kN]
-13,37 -32,07 62,76
Maximal displacements
Ux [mm] Uy [mm] Uz [mm]
34,00 -30,20 -34,70
822
4.2 Case study 2
This second case study will examine the effects of introducing passive and active cables,
which in reality contribute to the deployment and the overall structural performance [3].
The numerical results are displayed in Table 2.
Fig. 13: Detail view of the active (left) and passive

(right) cable segments (red) [9]
Table 2: Numerical results of case study 2

Wtot Total weight [kg] 9024,6
wa Weight/area [kg/m2] 29,3
wUSC Weight of one Universal Scissor Component [kg] 12,5
Maximal internal forces
Section [mm] NEd [kN] My,Ed [kNm] Mz,Ed [kNm]
Mast 42.4x2.6mm -20,28 0,00 0,29
Oblique beam 33.7x4.5mm -20,56 0,15 -0,01
Strut 21.3x2.3mm -5,02 0,00 -0,03
Passive cable d12mm 23,84 - -
Active cable d8mm 10,48 - -
Maximal reactions
Rx [kN] Ry [kN] Rz [kN]
-13,86 -24,96 45,11
Maximal displacements
Ux [mm] Uy [mm] Uz [mm]
27,10 -25,10 -27,80
An active cable runs through the mechanism, connecting upper and lower nodes along
its path. After deployment it is locked to stiffen the structure. Passive cables are upper
cables connecting the upper nodes and lower cables are connecting the lower nodes. As
the active cable fulfils the deployment, the passive cables become tensioned, adding an
823
extra stiffness to the structure and avoiding that the structure deploys too far. The
passive and active cables are modelled in discrete cable segments (Figure 13).
When considering Table 1 (without cables) and Table 2 (with cables), a noticeable
difference is observed in the reaction forces and the displacements. The effect of
incorporating a cable is an alteration of the stiffness, resulting in a redistribution of
forces and a decrease in peak displacement values. It can be considered as a self-
stabilised structure where the forces are dealt with internally. The structure with cables
has a lower total weight and results in lower reaction forces, which mean a smaller
impact on the site (lightweight anchors). This is an important aspect focussing on the
durability of mobile constructions.
5 Conclusions
The aim of the work was to develop a Universal Scissor Component (USC) for
deployable structures and to propose different concepts leading to architecturally and
structurally viable solutions for mobile applications.
Based on different configurations of structures – barrel vaults and domes - decisions
were made about the geometrical dimensions and the shape of the component.
Considering feasible hinge positions, the design process resulted in a USC capable of
configuring nineteen different architectural structures with specific deployment
behaviour (Figure 14). The USC is the unique component in all the proposed
configurations, the only difference is the position of the pivot hinge. This concept
makes re-use and adaptability possible: it is well equipped to meet the demands of a
rapidly changing society while embracing the concept of sustainable design.
Fig. 14: Selection of the possible deployable structures composed of the Universal
Scissor Component
824
Based on a structural analysis, relative small sections have been found (maximum
51mm), compared to the covered area, proving the preliminary feasibility of these types
of constructions. The conclusion can be drawn that introducing cables not only helps
developing a stable process of deployment, it also improves the structural performance
and ultimately leads to a reduction in weight.
In previous research [4], it is stated that traditional scissor elements show a low to
medium structural efficiency due to existing bending moments. In this section it has
been proven that the designed USC rather excludes bending moments, increasing the
structural efficiency of the structure.
It can be expected that nearly all of the USC beams are over-dimensioned, because the
optimisation process focused on the maximal loaded beam in the whole structure. In
addition, the structural analysis is done on the largest barrel vault. The sections resulting
from the structural design are again over-dimensioned in case of the alternative smaller
geometrical configurations. And finally it can be concluded that even the total weight is
significant (although acceptable) compared to other mobile constructions. But the main
goal of this thesis has been to design and analyse the feasibility of a new type of scissor
component, which is identical in multiple architectural structures, creating a generic
design solution.
Deployable structures have become increasingly popular, but few have been realised
successfully. Further work can consist of a better understanding of the design
parameters and the related allowable tolerances and imperfections, in order to respect
the architectural function of the structure and to guarantee a successful deployment and
folding. Their further development calls for research into fundamental issues regarding
the shape of the constitutive elements, the connections, the membrane, the deployment
behaviour, and the structural performance, both during and after the transformation
process. This would allow spreading such structures worldwide, implying a green and
sustainable impact on the environment.
Acknowledgements
The advice of Thomas Vandenbergh, Patrick De Wilde, Johan Blom of the Vrije
Universiteit Brussel and Thierry Massart, Peter Berke, Rajan Coelho of the Université
Libre de Bruxelles concerning the structural analysis is greatly appreciated.
References
[1] Jensen FV. Concepts for retractable roof structures. PhD Dissertation University of
Cambridge. Cambridge, 2004.
[2] Rückert GC. Wandelbare hybride Konstruktionen Von der morphologischen Studie
zum Prototyp. PhD Dissertation Technischen Hochschule Zürich. Zürich, 2000.
[3] De Temmerman N. Design and Analysis of Deployable Bar Structures for Mobile
Architectural Applications. PhD Dissertation Vrije Universiteit Brussel. Brussels,
2007.
825
[4] Hanaor A and Levy R. Evaluations of Deployable Structures for Space Enclosures.
International Journal of Space Structures 2001; 16(4): 211-229.
[5] Gantes CJ. Deployable structures: Analysis and Design. WIT Press 2001.
Southampton.
[6] Rhinoceros, User’s Guide Version 4.0. Robert McNeel & Associates, 2008
[7] Grasshopper, The Grasshopper Primer, Second Edition for version 0.6.0007
Andrew Payne & Rajaa Issa, 2009.
[8] SCIA Manuel SCIA Engineering Structural Applications Professional Technology.
Nemetschek Scia, 2007.
[9] Alegria Mira L. Design and Analysis of a Universal Scissor Component for Mobile
Architectural Applications. Master’s Dissertation Vrije Universiteit Brussel,
Brussels, 2010.
[10] Escrig F. Expandable space structures. Space Structures Journal 1985; 1(2): 79-91.
[11] Escrig F and Valcarel JP. Geometry of Expandable Space Structures. International
Journal of Space Structures 1993; 8(1&2): 71-84.
[12] Langbecker T and Albermani F. Kinematic and non-linear analysis of foldable
barrel vaults. Engineering Structures 2001; 23: 158–171.
826
The evolution of temporary and permanent kinetic

architectural structures
Carolina M. STEVENSON*
*
Lecturer, School of Architecture
University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK, L69 7ZN
bernal@liverpool.ac.uk
Abstract
This paper analyses key stages in the evolution of kinetic architectural structures
that have instigated changes in the way in which they have been conceived and
designed throughout history.
Keywords: kinetic, deployable, adaptable, transformable, mobile, retractable.
1 Introduction
The term kinetic derives from the Greek word κίνησις (kinesis) which indicates motion,
movement or the act of moving. Within this generic spectrum, kinetic architectural
structures relate to structures that involve a particular degree of motion. However, the
affiliation between architectural structures and movement can be explored from a
variety of perspectives. It can be argued that many types of structures in architecture
entail motion at various levels. The scope of this paper, however, is only on kinetic
structures where physical movement is an integral part of the primary functional and
formal nature of the architecture.
Although, examples of architecture that may perhaps be described as kinetic can be
traced back many centuries, academic research on kinetic architecture as a distinct
subject is fairly recent. Therefore, there is no concluding definition of the area of study
or a clear classification of the different archetypes in question. William Zuk and Roger
Clark were amongst the first academics to describe kinetic architecture as ‘one that has
the capability of adapting to change through kinetics’, within their book titled Kinetic
Architecture, published in 1970 [1]. Many buildings that fit the above definition have
also been classified with terms such as dynamic, deployable, transformable, adaptable,
flexible, collapsible, retractable, foldable or portable. The intention of the present work
is not to reclassify these buildings, but to investigate their historical roots and
understand the key social, political and cultural aspects that have had an influence on
their development, their current relevance and potential future horizons.
Historically, architectural structures that incorporated motion have been of great
enthralment for engineers, architects and designers. For centuries, kinetic devices have
been repeatedly used as architectural components; from traditional hinged windows,
sliding doors and shutters to innovative fully portable dwellings, folding bridges and
entirely adaptable structures. The evolution of kinetic architecture has by no means been
linear or straightforward. It has advanced, accustomed and matured over time as a result
of complex social-cultural circumstances, progress in technology and changes in
827
physical environments and human biological needs. A persistently steering factor in this
process has been a marked tendency for kinetic architectural structures to develop set
within a constant shift between temporary and permanent conditions. Hence, arising
innovations in kinetics technology have been utilized either towards achieving
transportation or towards creating transformation in architecture. A number of
identifiable stages in the evolution of kinetic architecture are underlined in the
following sections. Some stages have developed consecutively and others have emerged
concurrently, making the timeline more in the shape of a bifurcated tree rather than a
serial progression (see table 1).
2 From nomadism to sedentism
The fundamental need of regular migration influenced all aspects of ancient nomadic
cultures, from their social and political makeup to their traditions and the nature of their
dwellings. Travelling in search of pastures and water resources very often meant
shifting through difficult environments and extreme climates. Nomadic shelters, such as
the North American tepees, Mongolian yurts and African Berber tents may be
recognized as the earliest historical precedents of kinetic architectural structures. Many
shelter assemblies explored a variety of configurations of small, lightweight and
compact timber framed structures covered with textiles that could be easily compacted
and quickly erected in a simple few steps. Initial tepee-like designs evolved into a more
complex variety of yurts tailored and developed according to cultural traditions, the
necessities of the different environments, the means of transportation and storage and
the availability of constructional materials and technology. Mongolian yurts were the
first to utilize a fully collapsible and self-supporting scissor-like structure that was
easily packed into small volumes for storage and quick to erect in simple stages. It can
be argued that this was the first architectural structure where kinetic mechanisms played
a crucial and central role.
The eventual formation of sedentary communities represented not only a fundamental
political change but also a drastic shift of lifestyle that led to concepts of property that
were rare in previous foraging societies. The evolution of temporary kinetic
architectural structures, such as the yurts, had a dramatic turn with the shift to sedentism,
the creation of settlements and the population growth. Nomadic architecture was not
built to physically last, it often had to be repaired and replaced. However, the skills and
techniques for their construction were passed, advanced and refined from generation to
generation. Contrarily, sedentary architecture by definition took the roll to be permanent,
to serve a purpose over an indefinite period of time and to eternally freeze an isolated
fragment of history [1]. The transition from nomadism to sedentism produced a mosaic
of lifestyles that deeply influenced kinetic architectural structures branching off its
evolution into three main directions. Firstly, transportable structures continued to be
used and fine-tuned by remaining nomadic societies or as transient shelters for specific
religious, cultural or political celebrations, commerce and military activities. At the
same time, kinetic devices developed as subsidiary features of permanent buildings,
allowing them to perform additional tasks or serve further purposes. Furthermore,
828
kinetic tools and machines were invented to aid the construction of complex and
challenging permanent structures.
3 Subsidiary kinetic devices

Subsidiary kinetic structures embedded within buildings primarily serve functions that
permanent features cannot satisfy. Their use can be traced back many centuries; a
historic remarkable example was the roman vela, velarium or velum, which purpose was
to provide temporary sun-shade for spectators at theatres. Velariums were retractable
textiles, commonly made from canvas, linen or cotton, attached to spokes of rope that
could be extended or retracted with pulleys according to the position of the sun. It is
believed that they first appeared in Rome in 78 BC and became central attractions with
their use being expressly advertised during hot days. Celebrated examples of
particularly large kinetic structures of this type were built for the Theatre of Pompey
and the Roman Coliseum [2].
As more complex permanent architecture proliferated subsidiary kinetic structures, such
as doors, windows and shutters, emerged as common features within buildings. The
origins of doors and windows that have a certain degree of motion or adaptation can be
placed as far back as the Stone Age when humans covered cave or hut opening with
movable stones and animal skins. These eventually developed into primitive timber
panels with early versions of hinges and over time into the now recognizable swing
door and window designs. Meanwhile, a tradition of folding and sliding screens was
developing in Japanese architecture, employed not only as protection from the outside
but also to redefine interior rooms and create versatile layouts allowing architectural
space to become mutable and adaptable.
During the industrial revolution of the 19th century, the widespread use of kinetic
subsidiary devices embedded within permanent buildings became commercially popular
for domestic and industrial use. Apart from the conventional hinged windows and doors,
other innovations and variations of gadgets such as rolling blinds, louvers, foldable
shutters, revolving partitions, foldable canopies, collapsible parasols and compactable
clothes racks appeared. These proved to be very successful, to such an extent, that
modern versions of most of them are still in daily use. As buildings with two or more
stories proliferated, the demand for different types of vertical circulation to lift people
and loads between floors increased; resulting in the invention of a range of kinetic
subsidiary devices operated by mechanical means. Until the mid 19th century
prevailing mechanical elevation systems were primarily based on the principle of the
counterweight, however, they had height limitations, were extremely slow and relatively
unsafe. In 1853 Elisha Otis (1811–1861) revolutionized elevation technology by
revealing the first modern, fail-safe passenger lift at the New York World's Fair, which
had a bow-shaped wagon spring device to control speed and break. Later on, the first
design of a steam driven escalator-like machine was patented in 1859 in Massachusetts.
Over the years, lift and escalator technology evolved rapidly towards gearless traction,
electric multi-speed motors, electromagnetic breaking and push-button controls,
allowing significantly taller structures to become possible and thus stimulating the
bloom of the skyscraper era [3].
829
4 Kinetic tools, machinery and infrastructure

The flourishing of increasingly elaborated architectural styles has been, historically, a
chief driving force for the inventions of novel kinetic tools, equipment and machinery
employed to build ever emerging engineering, military and industrial challenges.
Machines by definition involve moving or kinetic parts designed to perform a
determined operation. Earlier machines designed as a progression of tools date back
many centuries, perhaps along with the invention of the wheel. More elaborated
machines used for engineering purposes can be found during the ancient Greek and
Roman eras and later during the European Renaissance of the 15th and 16th centuries.
Remarkable renaissance architects such as Filippo Brunelleschi (1377 –1446) conceived
sophisticated cranes to lift and move building materials that made possible the
construction of testing structures such as the enormous brick dome to cover the central
space of the Florence's cathedral. Other prominent inventors of that era such as Mariano
di Jacopo (1382 - 1453), Francesco di Giorgio Martini (1439 – 1502), Leonardo Da
Vinci (1452-1519), Agostino Ramelli (1531-1600) and Domenico Fontana (1543 –
1607), who filled their notebooks with sketches of exceptional possible and impossible
machines to be used within the building industry, military operations and industry.
The 19th century industrial revolution again marked a major turning point in human
history towards a machine-based world; almost every aspect of daily life was eventually
influenced by kinetic engineering in some way. New, more intricate machines had the
ability to rapidly perform various simultaneous or sequential tasks, minimizing
manufacturing methods and allowing the mass-production of inexpensive items. Many
new or improved stronger, lightweight, mass-produced and inexpensive materials that
were later crucial for the development of kinetic architectural structures (e.g. cast iron,
steel, Portland cement, sheet glass and innovative textiles), were conceived during this
time. Machines had a huge impact in the economic growth, initially in United Kingdom,
subsequently spreading throughout Europe, North America, and eventually the world.
City infrastructure had to be constantly updated to cope with the increases in road traffic,
construction of factories, housing for workers, canal networks and railways, which in
turn created great kinetic engineering challenges. There was a proliferation in the
construction of canal locks, canal inclined planes and canal lifts for transporting boats
between water at two different elevations. Furthermore, an extensive range of movable
bridges that used different mechanisms to achieve motion were built. Street cars and
cable cars were also invented in order to transport masses of people over steep
roadways in cities such as San Francisco, where the first cable car was patented in 1871.
Subsequently, the advancement in kinetic mechanisms was boundlessly boosted by the
First and Second World Wars, when they were primary used with military purposes in
the design of weaponry, armed forces vehicles and equipment. Although, technically
speaking, kinetic tools, machinery and infrastructure are not categorized beneath the
umbrella of architecture, the innovations in this field have directly fed advancements in
kinetic architectural structures. A very recent example is the work of Mamoru
Kawaguchi who developed an erection system named Pantadome to minimise costs and
improve safety in the construction of large space grids. This system has been
830
extensively used for large projects including the roof of the Sant Jordi Sports Palace
(1992), the Namihaya Dome (1997), The Nara Convention Hall (1998) and the Xativa
Bullring (2008).
5 The utopia of the modern nomad

Modernism in design and architecture emerged in the aftermath of the First World War
within an atmosphere fuelled with rejection against established ideologies of the 19th-
century that were thought to hinder the progress of humankind. Alongside the functional
concerns characteristic of modern architecture, there were other concurrent architectural
trends that were deeply connected with mystical and aspiring dreams of a new world
free of conflict, repressive political structures and conspicuous social inequalities. This
period witnessed the emergence of visionary minds who believed design and technology
could transform society and save the world from itself. They, in particular, had a great
impact in moulding kinetic architecture as a defined trend. Early work of architects such
as Bruno Taut (1880-1938), Hermann Finsterlin (1887- 1973), Frederick Kiesler (1890
–1965) and Richard Buckminster Fuller (1895 –1983) was largely conceptual and
experimental, bursting with utopian fervour. A harsh economic climate forced architects
to concentrate on small projects, such as scenography for theatre and films and
ephemeral exhibition buildings, which provided an outlet for experimentation and
convention defiance [4]. By the 1920s, economic conditions improved in Europe and
new materials, technologies, standardization and mass production became more
accessible. In turn, ideas started to materialize from the sketchbook into real projects
and to spread to a wider audience through international exhibitions and media, allowing
the new utopia to adopt physical shape.
Architectural identity during the 1930s and 1940s in Europe was strongly redefined by
the volatile politic mood of the time. Prevailing official nationalist and socialist
architecture followed a monumental symmetrical neoclassic language with heavy stone
facades and reinforced concrete structures, which intended to give an impression of
eternity and permanence and to represent a symbol of power. The horrors and atrocities
of the Second World War and the tensions of the Cold war and other international
conflicts that followed in the 1950s made society more determined to fight in favour of
a world liberated from brutality and violence. Several architects, particularly in
Germany, rejected with fervour any Nazi whispers of eternity and power represented in
buildings. Their work was intended to show the world a changed Germany with its
transparent and lightweight architecture distinguished by its reticence, modesty and the
refined simplicity. Frei Otto was one of those architects who developed a
comprehensive anti-war and society-related idea of architecture. Otto’s early work
(tinted with his motto ‘with lightness against brutality’) rejected previous heavy,
symbolic or prestigious architecture responding with lightweight structures that
represented adaptability, changeability and thus ephemerally [5].
The 1960s was a period full of exciting, radical, and subversive cultural and political
events that sparked a social revolution throughout much of the western world. Scholars
831
of the time pursued with even more fervour their visionary ideals of a better future lead
by the application of technology towards social causes. The world witnessed the
beginnings of space exploration, satellite broadcasting, computer systems, early
experiments with internet and many other technological inventions. Architecture of this
period aimed to harmoniously and creatively integrate human happiness, mobility and
environment. Under this perfect theoretical atmosphere, the ‘utopia of the modern
nomad’ reached its pinnacle with the European radical Avant-Garde movement of the
1960s and 1970s. Kinetic architecture was once again strongly veering towards
temporality and transportability (as experienced in early nomadic times) although in this
instance adaptability, transformability and sustainability was greatly embraced. The
idealistic work of groups such as Archigram, Utopie Group, Haus-Rucker Co., Super
Studio and Archizoom unleashed the intellectual discussion behind the dynamism and
freedom of the new world. The radical Avant-Garde movement lit a bonfire in the
collective imagination of the world and planted the seeds for many trends of
unconventional architecture that pursued mobility and freedom of the mind and body
within its architecture experimenting with kinetic, expendable, inflatable, pneumatic,
transportable, adaptable and movable structures [6].
6 Post-modern trends in kinetic temporary and permanent

architecture
Alternative trends in kinetic temporary and permanent architecture started to take shape
in the second half of the 20th century, avidly swayed by material experimentation. Two
noticeable main routes emerged during this period, directly related to core physical
properties of the material used for the kinetic structure design. These can be described
as: deformable kinetic structures and rigid kinetic structures. In deformable kinetic
structures, flexible materials (e.g. fabrics, membranes and cables) transmit or stimulate
movement whilst in rigid kinetic structures this role is played by stiff components (e.g.
bars and plates) linked by articulated joints.
6.1 Deformable kinetic structures
The use of fabrics in architecture has an exceptionally long history; it can be argued that
the origins of our contemporary tensile structures technology are mainly to be found in
the 1950s and 1960s during the shaping of the ‘utopia of the modern nomad’. A tensile
structure building that led the way was the 1952 J.S. Dorton Arena in Raleigh, which
displayed two primary features of the contemporary tension structure: the anticlastic
shape (double curvature) and the inner balance between compressive and tensile forces.
Many tensile buildings subsequently adopted these principals throughout Europe,
Russia, China as well as North and South America. Frei Otto was one of the first to
undertake systematic academic research on tensile, cable-net and pneumatic
architectural structures. His early projects allowed him to experiment with form finding
methods, stressing techniques, material types and construction detailing. He also carried
out extensive research in deformable kinetic structures (mainly for applications within
convertible roofs) formulating a basic taxonomy that grouped typologies according to
832
the direction and type of movement of the driving system. This work set the foundations
for further research in the field.
The development of pneumatic architecture grew in parallel with cable-nets and tensile
structures. International events such as the IASS Pneumatic Colloquium at the
University of Stuttgart in1967, the exhibition Structures Gonflables at Musée d'art
Moderne in Paris in 1968 and the Air Art exhibition at the Contemporary Art Centre in
Cincinnati also in 1968 raised great interest on inflatable structures amongst
international architects, engineers and designers. The appetite for pneumatic
architecture intensely transpired during the 1970 World’s Fair in Osaka, where a wide
range of air-supported structures were used within pavilions [7]. Amongst the most
noteworthy projects were the US Pavilion engineered by David Geiger (1935-1989), the
roof of Festival Plaza designed by Kenzo Tange (1913 –2005) and the Fuji Pavilion
and the Floating Theatre both designed by Yutaka Murata and engineered by Mamoru
Kawaguchi. The Floating Theatre, formed by three inflated tubes highly pressurized
connected by a single layer membrane and supported by buoyancy bags that were
automatically adjusted to respond to audience load and movements, could be considered
as one of the earliest kinetic pneumatic architectural structures. Furthermore, the Mush-
balloon Shade Shelter by Tenero Oki Architects and Shigeru Aoki Research Office also
managed to skilfully combine pneumatics with kinetics. The inverted cone shaped
balloon formed an inverted umbrella-type structure gracefully opened and closed like a
blooming flower when air was blown into the balloon or vented it out of it.
Kinetic pneumatic structures and kinetic tensile structures were, until 1970, used
primarily for temporary projects due to the short life of the fabrics in which they were
built. However, the development of innovative materials and coatings (e.g. Teflon-
coated fibreglass) marked a new era in this field. Sophisticated deformable kinetic
structures used for temporary buildings or as subsidiary structures for permanent
projects became more popular. A new emerging typology was kinetic textile roofs,
where the fabric hangs suspended from slides that can be moved over cables normally
by an electric-powered system. An experimental proposal of this kind (which inspired
many others in spite of its technical constrains) was the textile roof for the Olympic
Stadium in Montreal, conceived in 1976 but actually installed and put into service in
1988 [8]. Similar subsequent examples include the 1990 cover for the Bullfighting Ring
Arena in Zaragoza, the kinetic roof over the centre court in Hamburg Rothenbaum, built
in 1999 the theatre cover built the same year at The Robinson Club in Fuerteventura. A
well celebrated recent project of this type is the 113x 78m kinetic textile roof for the
Commerzbank-Arena in Frankfurt (arguably the largest structure of this type in the
world).
The commonly known architectural umbrella was another prevalent type of subsidiary
kinetic structure that came into sight. Although, umbrellas are a very old invention with
a long history; their broad application in architecture has its roots in the 1950´s when
Frei Otto experimented with preliminary designs of funnel shaped umbrellas as part of
temporary and permanent architectural projects. For the Cologne Garden Exhibition in
1971 Bodo Rasch realized the first collapsible architectural umbrellas with a diameter
of 19 meters, inspired by the work of Otto [9]. Rasch later established a reputation as a
pioneer in the construction of collapsible architectural umbrellas and other types of
833
kinetic textile structures within his firm SL-Rasch GmbH. His first representative
umbrella designs included 5x5m prototypes of solar powered umbrellas erected at the
coast of the Red Sea in1987 and 7.3x7.3m umbrellas built in 1994 for the courtyard of
the Castle Wasseralfingen in Germany. These served as precedents for two later larger
projects: the 17x18m large automatically controlled convertible umbrellas shading the
two large courts of the Prophet`s Holy Mosque in Madinah in 1992, and the 16x16m
umbrellas for the front of Al Hussein Mosque in 2000. As familiarity with deformable
kinetic structures increased, they became more often employed for their architectural
forms by contemporary firms of designers and engineers such as Buro Happold, Festo,
Architects of Air, FTL Design & Engineering Studio and Inflate amongst others.
6.2 Rigid kinetic structures
The roots of rigid kinetic structures can be placed along with the invention of
mechanisms; however, contemporary versions may have their origins with Fuller’s
work on the dynamic aspects of geometry. With a geometric model that he named
Jitterbug (figure 1), he illustrated that by inducing instability into a structure, in a
controlled manner, the forces that act inside it would naturally tend to find further states
of equilibrium, which would make the structure adaptable and movable. Applying his
concept of deployability, he designed the first known unfolding geodesic dome for the
USA Army in 1958 [10]. This simple idea set important foundations for future research
on rigid kinetic structures in architecture.
Figure 1. Process of deployment of the Jitterbug [10]
By the 1950s and 1960s research on motionless space grids was relatively advanced and
popularly used thanks to the introduction of the MERO system [11]. In the early 1960s
Emilio Perez Piñero (1935-1972), one of Fuller's students, managed to successfully
combine deployability with the existing knowledge of space grids. During his short
career, Perez Piñero became a pioneer in the construction of automatic deployable
domes and different types of foldable grids formed from scissor-units or pantographs.
He patented many of his inventions and won several prizes for his work. In 1972 he
was awarded the eminent Auguste Perret Prize for his outstanding contribution to the
application of technology in architecture, sadly he tragically died the same year leaving
many projects unfinished. His work, however, was the inspiration of a number of
contemporary architects and engineers that followed.
834
Santiago Calatrava, for example, conducted his doctoral thesis on the study of folding
structures similar to those of Perez Piñero. He is renowned for using kinetic elements,
where movement plays a very symbolic and figurative role, within his work. Further on,
Félix Escrig with the collaboration of Jose Sanchez and Juan Perez Valcarcel, produced
important research in the area of scissor-like structures. Amongst his major projects are
the deployable cover for San Pablo Olympic swimming pool in Sevilla (1994) and the
foldable cover for the Jaen Auditorium (1998). In 1990 Charles Hoberman founded
Hoberman Associates, company specialized in the design of diverse artefacts based on
the scissors mechanism. Some of his folding toys use an innovative mechanism named
angulated-scissors, which is a variation of the straight-scissor used within pantographic
structures. Employing the angulated-scissor as module, Hoberman has proposed various
rigid kinetic structures including a retractable dome for the World’s Fair in Hanover in
2000 and the Hoberman Arch, for the 2002 Winter Olympic Games in Salt Lake City.
Also in 1990 Sergio Pellegrino founded the Deployable Structures Laboratory at the
University of Cambridge, UK, with the aim of studying the structural behaviour of
deployable structures. This institution has been active in many engineering fields related
to kinetic architectural structures and the Aerospace Industry.
Extensive scientific research around the topic of rigid and deformable kinetic structures
has been accumulated over the last two decades, particularly within research units at
academic institutions. Some of the most recognized are: the Motion Structures at the
University of Oxford, UK, the Kinetic Design Group at MIT, USA, the Transportable
and Adaptable Architecture Research Unit at the University of Liverpool, UK, and AE-
Lab at Vrije Universiteit Brussels. Academic institutions have provided a fertile field
for experimentation with unconventional kinetic architectural structures that combine a
variety of elements such as: foldable reciprocal grids, expandable structures based on
the Bennett linkage, deployable tensegrity and tensairity and foldable plates inspired by
origami techniques, amongst other.
835
Table 1: Evolution of temporary and permanent kinetic architectural structures timeline

Manually-operated Modern cranes
lifting devices
Pantodome system
Permanent Architecture
Kinetic tools, machinery and

infrastructure Street and cable cars
Canal locks and lifts
Movable bridges
Counterweight Modern elevation

elevation systems systems
Subsidiary kinetic
devices
Door, windows, Kinetic environmental-
shutters, folding and control facades
sliding screens
Art and media facades
Roman velarium Retractable roofs

Nomadism - Sedentism Kinetic textile roofs
Tensile Deformable
structures kinetic structures Kinetic pneumatic
structures
Architectural umbrellas
Deployable tensegrity
and tensearity
Utopia of the
Temporary Architecture
modern nomad Foldable plates
With swivel diaphragm
With straight-scissors
Deployable
space grids With angulated-scissors
Jitterbug
With Bennet linkage
North American tepees, With reciprocal frames

Mongolian yurts, African Berber tents Modern tents
Nomadic Sedentary Industrial Modernism Contemporary times

cultures cultures Revolution 19th C 20th Century 21th Century
836
7 Future horizons and discussion

This paper has presented up to this point a brief summary of the key stages in the
development of kinetic architectural structures, in order to understand the context in
where we are today and the reasons behind the advancements that are being made.
Present times offer an exciting panorama of opportunities for remarkable architectural
projects that include dominant kinetic structures. Their demand is currently on the
increase, as a result of a continuous reformulation of the three steering factors that have
constantly accompanied the evolution of kinetic architectural structures: technological
innovation, variations of functional needs and renewed social and cultural challenges.
Intrinsically tied advances in embedded computation and cutting edge materials have
triggered alternative proposals that were only possible to dream of in the past.
Embedded computational systems, in the context of kinetic architecture, act as the brain
of the building with the ability to gather information, process it and use it to
automatically control movement [12]. Furthermore, with fusions between
nanotechnology and biomimicry, highly efficient and evolution-optimized systems
found in nature can be replicated within the composition of smart or intelligent
materials. These have the extraordinary ability to change their properties (e.g.
mechanical, electrical, appearance, etc.), their structure or composition, and/or their
functions in a controlled manner to suit desirable behaviours.
With the current growing awareness of climate change and global warming, there has
been, once more, a revived interest amongst architects and clients for 'environmentally
friendly buildings' that can efficiently adapt to diverse and changing weather conditions.
This tendency has prompted the establishment of new companies such as the Adaptive
Building Initiative, Co-Founded by Hoberman alongside Buro Happold in 2008, which
has the aim of developing a variety of subsidiary kinetic devices such as retractable
facades, responsive shading and ventilation, operable roofs, and canopies for the built
environment. In contrast to the ‘environment-controlling machines’ envisaged by Fuller
and others at the beginning of the 20th century, current design of kinetic enclosures
employ superior systems able to successfully regulate internal climate conditions in
unison with external environmental changes, thus reducing the energy consumption for
heating and cooling.
Raising economic pressures to use sport and entertainment venues to their full potential
have urged the construction of more and larger kinetic roofs to cover spaces where a
variety of outdoor and indoor activities can be performed. They also are used to reduce
costs of installation and maintenance of natural grass playing fields by creating optimal
conditions for their growth. As with Roman velariums, kinetic roofs still attract a great
deal of spectators who are curious to see these structures in operation. Not limited to
sports venues, kinetic roofs are also becoming popular in residences, commercial
buildings, swim centres, and other places with overhead enclosures.
New generations of kinetic building skins that perform a purely aesthetic, artistic or
communicational purpose are extremely popular and have utterly transformed the urban
landscape. Many examples of kinetic art facades, such as those by Ned Kahn or media
facades, such as the famous example of the Allianz Arena in Munich by Herzog & de
Meuron, can be found worldwide. In comparison to the utopic proposals of the radical
837
Avant-Garde movement (1960s - 1970s), in contemporary versions art work is fully

integrated with the design and technical realization of the building, generating a real
interface between the city inhabitants, the digital world, architecture and the urban
space.
More than absolute conclusions, this paper offers remarks that aim to instigate a critical
discussion around the theoretical and technical frameworks that have and continue to
surround kinetic structures within the context of temporary and permanent architecture.
References
[1] Zuk, W. and Clark, R. Kinetic Architecture. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York,
1970.
[2] Sear, F. Roman Theatres: An Architectural Study. Oxford University Press, 2006.
[3] Gavois, J. Going Up: An Informal History of the Elevator from the Pyramids to the
Present. Otis Elevator Co, New York, 1983.
[4] Wolfgang, P. Expressionist Architecture. Thames and Hudson, 1973.
[5] Nerdinger, W. Frei Otto, Complete Works: Lightweight Construction - Natural
Design. Birkhauser Verlag AG, 2005.
[6] Hejduk, R. A Generation on the Move: The Emancipatory Function of Architecture
in The Radical Avant-garde 1960-1972. Transportable Environments 3, Taylor and
Francis, 2006. 40-52.
[7] Chi, J and Pauletti, R. An Outline of the Evolution of Pneumatic Structures.
Conference proceedings of the II Latin-American Symposium of Tensile Structures,
Caracas - Venezuela, 2005.
[8] Barnes, M. and Dickson, M. Widespan Roof Structures. Thomas Telford, 2000.
[9] Vortrag von, M. Convertible Roofs, 2006.Available at:
http://www.st.bv.tum.de/content/teaching/ferienakademie/handouts/14_walter_han
dout.pdf
[10] Edmonson, A. Fuller Explanation. The Synergetic geometry of Buckminster Fuller,
Birkhäuser Boston, USA, 1987.
[11] Chilton, J. Space Grid Structures, Architectural Press,1999.
[12] Fox, M. and Kemp, M. Interactive Architecture. Princeton Architectural Press,
2009.
838
General survey of deployable structures with articulated bars.

Escrig1*, Félix. Sánchez, José 2
1*
Professor of Architecture in the University of Seville.
Avda. Reina Mercedes 2 41012. Seville. Spain.
felix@us.es www.performance-starbooks.com
2
Professor of Architecture in the University of Seville josess@us.es
Abstract
The paper deals with the state of the art of deployable structures based in the
behaviour of groups of bars connected between them at their ends but also at
intermediate points. There are several systems accepted as capable of configuring
different dynamic positions statically determined. We introduce a general view of some
of the most used systems that we identify as umbrellas, bundles, scissors, rings,
polyhedron, flat panels and curved bars systems.
Keywords: deployable structures, umbrellas, scissors, foldable polyhedra, foldable

rings, articulated bars.
1 Introduction
There are structures that are based on the mobility of ensembles of bars united by means
of articulated joints (Figures 1 and 2).
Fig. 1: Arp Player Summer. Fig. 2: Senefer tomb of Amenofis II Fig. 3: Hunter chair
They pass from an initial folded very compact and another one extended on a plane or
on a curved surface. The system of covering, when existing, will usually be flexible
(Figure 3). Only exceptionally it will be rigid.
The fundamental systems are: Umbrellas, bundles, rings, polyhedra, planes and coupled
arches.
839
2 Umbrellas.
They were the most ancient foldable structures and they are documented in Middle East
bas-reliefs and also in a lot of drawings (Figure 5). They were usually conceived in
small pieces but for great size even Leonardo planned a proposal carefully represented
with the probable intention of being built.
Fig. 4: Black obelisk of king Salmanasar III. Fig. 5: Assurbanipal king stone (British
Museum.) Fig. 6: Madrid I Notebook by Leonardo da Vinci
Fig. 7: Convertible Umbrellas at the Bundesgartenschau, Cologne, Germany 1971

(together with B. Rasch, H. Isler.)
840
Nowadays the main umbrella designers come from the Frei Otto School and they
planned to place the flexible roof below the foldable structure with difference respect to
traditional umbrellas (Figure 7).
Bodo Rasch is the designer who proposed the most developed constructions and they
are his famous great umbrellas for covering mosques (Figure 8 and 9) and other mobile
application powered with photovoltaic energy (Figure 10).
Fig. 8: Convertible Umbrellas in the inner court of the Prophet's Mosque in Medina,
Saudi Arabia, 1971 (Bodo Rasch )
Fig. 9: Umbrella design by Frei Otto

Fig. 10: (Jurgen Bradatsch) Stage umbrellas for a concert tour of the group Pink Floyd,
1978 (together with B. Rasch and Office Happold
841
Fig. 9: Solar convertible Umbrellas 5x5 m. Makkah and Obhur, Saudi Arabia.
3. Bundles.
The word bundle means here that our structure is compact with all its elements aligned
in a parcel when folded and which deploys in two directions as a spider web. We can
distinguish between three main types: With joints only at the end of bars (Figure 10),
with lockable joints in the intermediate points and with intermediate joints with
continuous bars.
Fig. 10 Flying Seedpod model by Buckmister Fuller in 1953
842
Looking for deployability, Buckmister Fuller patented several systems that, once
deployed, were hardly foldable. These designs have been successfully used in aerospace
applications because it is not necessary to recover space panels. The lockable meshes
are included in this type.
Fig. 11. Models designed at the Surrey Laboratory of Space Structures 1985.
In 1970 Emilio Pérez Piñero proposed an experimental design very awarded at his time
and which took the attention of Candela and Fuller (Figures 12 and 13) . They
encouraged the young architect to build at a full scale this kind of solution and the
results where a few masterpieces which are shown in the figures 12 to 14 all of them
realized with modulus of three bars.
Figure 12. Deployable dome winner the UIA Competition in 1961 by Emilio Pérez
Piñero. It consisted in a itinerant theater.
843
Figure 13. Itinerant theater not built by Emilio Pérez Piñero.
Figure 14. Two layer dome by Emilio Pérez Piñero.
With a solution of modulus composed of four bars he built an itinerant exhibition

pavilion shown in the figure 15. Unfortunately the author was dead in a car crash in
1972 at 36 years old.
844
Figure 15. Itinerant exhibition pavilion made with modulus of four bars. 1964
Pérez Piñero based his designs in modulus of three or four bars instead of simple
scissors that lead to more realizable solutions like shown in the figures 16 and 17.
Fig. 16. Leonardo lifting mechanism. Fig 17. War ladder made to scale walls.
845
The utility of this kind of scissor combination was understood very early as seen in the
figure 17. In architecture the first proposals came from Escrig and Sánchez who built
the Seville swimming Pool with spherical segments as shown in the figure 18.
Fig 19. San Pablo swimming pool in Seville in 1994. Arch. Escrig and Sanchez
Fig. 18. 19th Century elevator.
With posteriority a lot of designs with a lesser scale have been realized. The most
interesting by Masao Saito (Figure 20) or Carlos Henrique Hernández in cilindrical
surfaces (Figure 21) and Luis Sánchez Cuenca for spherical domes (Figure 22).
846
Fig. 20. Cylindrical deployable grid by Masao Saito 2005.
Fig. 21. Cylindrical deployable grid by Carlos Henrique Hernandez. Caracas.

Venezuela 1990.
Fig. 22.Spherical Shell like by Luis Sánchez Cuenca. Gerona. Spain. 2007.
847
4. Rings.
Bundles fold in a compact parcel in a central point and they are not useful to cover
circular areas where it is preferable to fold the structure around the border. In this case
we can also use scissor systems. The cleverest idea is the proposed by Chuck Hoberman
in which the tree hinges of each piece of scissors are not aligned. Hoberman checked
that it was possible to fold and extend the ensemble with practically no displacements al
the exterior hinges (Figure 23) Other proposals based in the same idea are
extraordinarily suggestive (Figure 24).
Fig.23. Iris dome at the MOMA NY. by Chuck Hoberman in the folding process.1991.
Fig. 24. Arch at the Winter Olimpics Salt Lake City 2002. Chuck Hoberman.
848
5. Polyhedra.
Blade mechanisms can also concentrate on

spatial arrangements to create spongy
bodies that expand from a central position.
Hoberman sphere is the best known one of
all around the world although the main
application so far has only been a toy.
Fig. 25. Deployable spherical toy by Chuck

Hoberman. 1995.
Fig. 26. Expanding Geodesic Dome by Chuck Hoberman in New Jersey Liberty State
Park. 1991.
Fig. 27. Deployable icosahedron by Escrig 1985.
849
6. Planes.
They are flat sets of pinned bars which mobility makes them take spatial configurations.
Santiago Calatrava is one of the great masters of this type of solution, using it on large
scale (Figures 28 and 29). But we have also precedents for this solution in the
leonardo´s Notebooks in the figure 33 shown at the end of this paper.
Fig. 28. Foldig door for Ernsting Coestfeld-Letle store .Germany. Santiago Calatrava.
1983.
Fif 29. Pfalzkeller Gallery in St. Gallen. Switzerland. Santiago Calatrava.1988.
7. Coupled arches.
Another very special solution is to create blades with curved bars and multiple joints
through a system like one shown in the figure 30 with interesting applications such as
those described in figures 31 and 32.
850
Fig. 30. Coupled arch basic model by Felix Escrig. 1998.
Fig. 31. Mobile roof for a swimming pool with coupled arches spanning 20 m. by
Escrig and Sánchez. 1999.
Fig. 32. Mobile roof for an auditory with coupled arches spanning 42 m. by Escrig
and Sánchez. 1999.
851
8. Epilogue.
The possibilities of deployment of the meshes of bars are huge and we have realized an
overview of current achievements. However, theoretical studies go much further and
hopefully many of them will turn into innovative proposals and applications. We have
forgotten to mention many designers who have made significant progress in the field of
the paragraphs exposed and we apologize for it. We have selected specific built
examples and a longer version of this exhibition will be proposed in an extended
version of this paper.
Fig 33. Flying machine by Leonardo da Vinci with mobile articulated arms
References
[1] Candela F, Pérez Piñero E, Calatrava S, Escrig, F and Pérez Valcárcel J.

Arquitectura Transformable. Textos de Arquitectura. Escuela de Arquitectura de
Sevilla.1993. ISBN 84-600-8583-X.
[2] Escrig F. Sánchez J. Mobile and Rapidly assembled architecture. STAR Structural
Architecture n1. University of Seville. 1996. ISSN
[3] Gantes Ch.J. Deployable structures. WIT Press ISBN: 978-1-85312-660-4 2001.
[4] Pellegrino S. Deployable Structures. Springer. 2001 ISBN 3-211.83685.3.
852
The production of free formed concrete elements in

a flexible mould
Arno Pronk1, Maurice Dominicus2, Dave ten Hoope3
1
Assistant Professor, Faculty of building Technology, Eindhoven University of
Technology, A.D.C.Pronk@Tue.nl
2
PhD candidate, Faculty of building Technology, Eindhoven University of Technology,
M.m.t.dominicus@gmail.com
3
Student, Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning, Eindhoven University of
Technology, info@davetenhoope.com
Abstract
The evolution of biological structures like bones has led to an optimized morphology
and material. During its life cycle, the bone structurally adapts to the stress in the
material. This results in a structural optima forma with a maximum load-bearing
capacity and a minimal use of material. The paper will give two applications of this
principle within the field of structural mechanics and architecture. The focus of this
research is on the generation of bone-like structures and the inherent fabrication process
of the elements. In this research the structures have been generated by scripting, based
on visual basic. The generated computer models find their application in a façade
element and a dome-like structure. The bone-like elements have been made by using
membrane moulds.
Keywords: Structural morphology, Bone Structure, Fiber reinforced concrete, flexible moulds, free
form architecture, Scripting, membranes, membrane moulds, new production methods.
1 Introduction
Due to the growing interest in fluid architecture new production technologies and
processes are required in order to make fluid surfaces. Traditional production
technologies are often not suitable to realize the forms demanded. Since many years the
benefits of membrane moulds are known for the realization of cupolas (Neff, Binni,
Monolithic Domes etc.) and for decoration. (Mark West, Kenzo Unno, etc.) In doing so
it is possible to create highly organic concrete elements with a reusable mould. In order
to reproduce and calculate organic shapes it is necessary to make a thorough simulation.
By means of scripting the design and engineering process can be optimized. In this way
it is possible to change and compare the shape and meshing to come to a more accurate
result.
The optima forma is comparable to the optimization process of mechanical
engineering by G.Rosvany and N.Oldhoff. They describe how to optimize structures in
different load cases. The structures of the final models have a strong resemblance with
bone structures given a similar load case. This paper describes the development of bone-
like structures by embedded scripting and the construction of a dome with the help of a
textile mould.
853
2 Human bone
Bone is a self-repairing material, able to adapt its mass, shape and properties in order to
cope with varying load cases. The bone tissue is divided into 2 types: the Cortical bone,
which is located in the outer layer of the bone, has a high density, also known as ‘dense
bone’. The second type is located in the inner core and is called Trabecular bone, which
is characterized by an open structure. Because of the low density it is often referred to
as ‘Cancellous bone’ or ‘spongy bone’. The former is four times as dense as the latter,
even though it is metabolically less active and has less surface area. The cortical bone is
subject to bending and torsion forces as well as compressive loading.[3]
1: Cancellous bone, 2: Femur Head, 3: Cortical bone [2] Structure of Femur head on microscopic level.[4]
Fig. 1: The femur head in detail [2]
Open cell structures are often referred to as cellular structures. They function as an ideal
starting point for remodeling the bone structure. Open cell structures are often organic
structures of which the mass is formed around the cells. The mass itself is the structure.
Both structures have several similarities; one of them is an identical primary load
(mostly compression), the other consists out of similarity in elements (struts and plates).
The only difference between the two is the number of connections to the individual
struts. Frei Otto states in his diktat IL35, “(…) a bone sample consists out of 4-legged
or 3-legged nodes.”[11] However, when 3D models, generated by CT-scans, are
compared to the initial configuration of a remodeled bone structure it is possible to
determine the bone structures with a maximum of six and a minimum of three
connections depending on the stress on the bone and its position). Moreover, Ronald
Ruimerman mentioned in his dissertation that it is possible to have configurations of six
connections. (figure 2).
Initial config. Strut after iteration process
Fig. 2: Remodelling process with initial configuration [5]
854
2.1 Human bone and load cases
According to Frei Otto, living bone remains a pneu as long as it is alive as opposed to
dead bone [11]. In purely structural terms living bone consists out of membranes which
have tensile strength and envelop it on all internal and external surfaces. We can
differentiate the load cases of bone into three different categories: external pressure,
eccentric- and diagonal loading (figure three).
External pressure Displacement Eccentric pressure
Fig. 3: Forces on bone structure [11]
2.
2.22 Optimisation
Fibres are nature’s solution for adapting bone material properties to mechanical
constraints that the bone has to cope with during its lifetime. In this sense the bone
structure is optimised. The functional strength of bone can be defined as the ability to
function effectively under a given load, depending on the bone’s material composition
and the distribution of bone material in space Mattheck states that bone should be
formed only at points with the highest stresses.[9] Bone therefore should not be formed
in regions of low stresses, as this adds little structural benefits and in effect wastes bony
material. The relationship between bone keeping volume and load value is one of the
factors for the bone topology optimisation process.
The whole as well as the local structure of the bone is optimised under the
naturally biomechanical boundary condition, based on its intrinsic gene and genetic
transcription factors. The metabolism of bone by osteoblast and osteoclast, is the main
factor of bone reconstruction processes. By the process of metabolism, the bone
optimises its shape and structure under naturally dynamic loading conditions. In this
way, bone ceaselessly makes its optimised shape to adapt to its natural environment. [3]
According to Rozvany it is possible to optimise a structure by three types of

optimisation: size, shape and topological. They address different aspects of the
structural design problem, e.g. the goal may be to find the optimal thickness distribution
of a linearly elastic plate or the optimal member areas in a truss structure. The aim of
shape optimisation is to find the optimum shape of its domain. Topology optimisation
aims at finding the optimal lay-out of a structure within a specific region. Structural
optimisation seeks to achieve the best performance for a structure while satisfying
various constraints such as a given amount of material. [7]
855
Size optimisation
Shape optimisation
Topological optimisation
Fig. 4: Optimisation process [7]
The model as depicted in figure 5b consists out of a beam bearing a compressive force
which is subsequently optimized. The resulting shape of this optimization is quite
similar to bone structures, given the same load case, e.g. With textile moulds it is
possible to make trusses that come close to the optimal structures. Please have a look at
the membrane mould trusses by Mark West figure 5a.
When bent, loads are applied to the structure in a way that causes the structure to bend
around an axis. (figure 5c). Bones are subjected to a combination of tension and
compression. These combined with the asymmetrical shape of the bone, will cause
unequally distributed stresses.
Concrete truss
Fig. 5a: Truss by Mark.West Fig. 5b: Structural optimization of beam[5] Fig. 5c:
Bending problem in human bones[12]
The information provided by the process of optimisation can be used for

simulating prosthetics. Figure 6 presents a 2d optimisation of a cross section of the hip
stem (based on loading and boundary condition). Application of structural optimisation
in direct metal fabrication reduces material weight by as much as ten to twenty per cent.
The structure has many similarities with figure 1, the cross-section of a femur head.
856
Fig. 6: Structural optimization hip [13]
2.3 Resembling structures.
Open cell structures are fairly common in nature and often occur in many industrial
foams and sponge-like materials as shown in figure 7b. By studying the similarity
between bone- and the open cell structure, the obtained information can be used to
create final structures. Polymer- and (open structured) metal foams consist out of a
similar microscopic construction as bone. These foams are made of regular polyhedra
which in turn are formed by platonic solids. The tuncrated octahedron is an often used
platonic solid specifically in the simulating or reconstructing of metal- and polymer
foams. The platonic solids gives accurate representation of the characteristics of foams.
Fig. 7a: Platonic solids Fig. 7b: truncated Octahedron
The mechanical properties of aluminium foams are set by the microstructure of

the matrix metal and the distribution of that matrix metal within the foam, often referred
to as the meso-structure. Metal foams offer significant performance gains in light, stiff
structures, for the efficient absorption of energy. The properties of these foams and
other cellular metal structures depend on the properties of the metal, the relative density
and cell topology, e.g. open or closed cell, cell size etc. [10]
The structure of metallic foams is often non-uniform, especially in the case of

complex 3D parts. It should be mentioned that a uniform structure is not necessary for
obtaining acceptable and reproducible properties. Anisotropic or gradient pore
structures allow the distribution of load bearing material according to load conditions
(simulating the optimum bone like structure) without a need to increase the overall
weight or volume of the component. [15]
857
Fig. 8: Microscopic level of aluminum [15]
2. 3.1 Polymer foams

2.3.1
Polymers are formed by injecting gas bubbles into the liquid monomer of hot polymer,
allowing the bubbles to grow and stabilise, to achieve equilibrium. Foams owe their
stability to the morphology of the struts, the so called ‘Plateau-borders’. (figure 9)
Plateau border
Fig. 9: Overview Young’s modulus of open cell structures, image of polyurethane

[14]
2. 3.2 Titanium structures

2.3.2
Open-cell titanium foams are often used for bone implants (figure 10). Titanium has
excellent biocompatibility and is already widely used in orthopaedic implants. It is well
known that porous titanium coatings on implants induce bone in growth. These foams
offer the possibility of matching the stiffness of the foam with that of bone. [16]
Fig. 10: Titanium foam for bone replacement and Aluminium foam [16]
858
2.
2.33.3 Voronoi-algorithm
For generating a representative model of a bone structure we made use of a Voronoi-

algorithm. This algorithm was modified, which resulted in continuous surfaces in the
final model
2.
2.33.4 Generation of irregular polyhedra
A Voronoi-algorithm can be described as a ‘nearest neighbour’ application. Within this

application the shortest distance or the most similar object is valid within a database of
coordinates. By using this algorithm both two- and three dimensionally diagrams can be
generated (figure 11). [17].
Fig. 11: 2D and 3D diagrams generated by using the Voronoi-algorithm [17]
The open-cell Voronoi tessellations have a microstructure similar to that observed in

foams. Low density trabecular bone resembles open cell foam. High density trabecular
bone has a more plate like structure with perforations through the plates. Because of the
variation in trabecular architecture there is more variation in the stiffness and strength of
trabecular bone than in many other types of cellular materials.
859
In this research a script was written to generate a bone-like structure. The script is
generating 3D structures based on the Voronoi-algorithm. The algorithm behaves like a
lattice algorithm, save for the surface which is instead continuous. The script is able, by
varying the input, to create a denser or less dense structure. The amount of points can
also be varied. The objective of the script is generating a continuous surface suitable for
analysis. Application of the script allows the user to quickly generate a surface with a
bone like structure and manipulate it.
Random 150 points, with different thicknesses
Points
Scripting process
Fig. 12: Generated bone-structures(VBS script) with different properties[17]
2.
2.55 Modeling and remodeling bone tissue
In the medical discipline CT or MRI-data is used to make a 3D model. The slices of the
CT-scan can be combined in mathematical program and generate a surface between the
slices. In this research this method is used to give more insight information in the bone
structure. The researchers imported the CT-data to Mathematica and used the Marching-
cube algorithm to generate a continues surface. Some modifications in Meshlab in the
Mathematica-model where made, to make a continuous mesh without any holes or gaps.
The Meshlab-data is exported to a 3ds file, which is suitable for almost all 3D programs.
In 3ds Max we manipulated the model, so we could project the structure to a façade
panel. The output from 3ds Max can be used for the construction of the bone structure
on architectural scale.
860
Marching cubes algorithm
3d bone structure[17]
Fig. 13: Bone structure remodelled with CT-data by using the marching-cubes
algorithm[17][18][19]
2.
2.44 Membranes and open cell structures
The standard mould techniques are not suitable for complex free formed (concrete)
elements, therefore research is necessary to develop new mould techniques. Rapid
prototyping with Polystyrene is an option but this method has a lot of disadvantages e.g.
sustainability and the high costs. Using membranes as mould can give us a whole new
range of possibilities. Membranes in combination with concrete reacts like natural
membranes, the dead weight of concrete causes ,with the elasticity of the membrane,
fluid organic shapes. By manipulating the membrane with tension forces, it is able to
control the deformation of the final concrete shape. Besides the advantages in the
producing process, the membranes are reusable and therefore more sustainable than the
traditional mould techniques.
The elasticity and size of the membrane define the result of the final model. More
elasticity in the membranes causes deformation problems. In this research used several
membranes have been used in combination with wooden disks (see figure 14) and filled
it with concrete. Because of the size of the membrane at the struts, we get more material
(mass) at this places. This phenomena is often seen in nature.
The initial project is to remodel a bone structure with membranes by using concrete as
filling. The final mock-up was a façade element 1.5 meters wide and a height of 1.5
meter. The façade element was build up from 2 layers, that were connected together in
later stadium. By using EPDM rubber foil as membrane technique and pinching the
membranes on several locations (by disks) a flexible mould was made.
Fig. 14:Façade-element based on bone structures, produced with EPDM rubber[6]
861
2.
2.66 Dome with `bone
`bone’’ elements.
Inspired by the `polyhedral architecture’ of R.Buckmister Fuller and the concrete-pod of

Kazuya Morita(fig.15), a dome with a one layer bone structure was designed. The dome
consists of 30 triangles, produced with membrane moulds filled with concrete(fig.15).
The shape of the elements is produced by using a script. All elements are individually
produced and connected to each other. Compared to the Kazuya Morita dome the
membrane moulding technique is more suitable for these kind of structures, the labor
costs are less, and several models can be made with the same mould.
Fig. 15: Geodesic domes with 30 triangular elements/concrete-pod[20]
In this project 30 elements where used to create a dome. If more triangulation-

iterations, where used a far smoother and more sphere like result will be reached. By
using triangular elements, which are stable of their own it is possible to make a geodesic
dome without further construction.
Fig. 16: Geodesic domes with higher degree of triangulations[24]
The script projected a bone structure on the dome. The projected structure could be
subdivided in triangles. Imperfections are fixed in Rhinoceros, so each element can be
connected very precisely to the other.
862
Fig. 17: Production
process of geodesic dome with bone-structure technology[22]
Fig. 18: Production process of triangular elements, fabricated with textile

membrane[22]
Figure 19 show us the final result of the dome with the bone like triangles (elements). In
this case we used pen-in-hole connections to assemble the elements, we have to fill up
the gaps between the element by using concrete.
Fig. 19: Production process of triangular elements, fabricated with textile

membrane[22]
863
2.7 Discussion, Conclusions and Acknowledgements

2.7
The aim of this research was to develop and refine new production techniques for
producing concrete elements. Experiences with textile membranes stimulate us to do
more research about fluid architecture based on form active molding.
In this research scripting is used as a generating tool for bone-like structures. By the use
of scripting it is possible to generate a continuous surface (mesh). Further research is
focused on the generating of shapes and structures, with scripting in combination with
specific load cases and the production possibilities of membrane moulds.
The experiments have been executed thanks to the contribution of Maxit BV and the
students and structural laboratory of the Eindhoven University of Technology.
864
2.8 References
2.8
Referencess
Reference
[1] C.M.Langton, C.F.Njeh, The physical measurement of bone, Taylor & Francis
December 1, 2003
[2] Urban, Schwarzenberg, Bone section and radiograph of dried proximal end of
femur. Cell and tissue biology, a textbook of histology, MD, 1988
[3] S.C.Cowin, bone mechanics handbook, CRC press, 2001
[4] Hughes TJR. The Finite Element Method: Linear Static and Dynamic Finite
Element Analysis (2nd edn). Dover, 2000.
[5] Ronald Ruimerman, Modeling and remodeling in bone tissue, TU/e, 2001
[6] M.Dominicus, A.Pronk, J.Ketelaars, P.v.Laerhoven, Production of free formed
concrete elements in a flexible mould, TU/e, 2008
[7] M.P.Bendsoe, O.sigmund, Topology optimization: theory, methods, and
applications, springer-verlag, 2003
[9] C.H.Turner, Bone strength: Current concepts, Orthopaedic research laboratories and
biomechanics and biomaterials research center, Indiana Univiersity Purdue
University at Indianapolis,2006
[10] M.F.Ashby, A.Evans, N.A.Fleck, L.J.Gibson, J.W.Hutchinson, H.N.G. Wadley,
Metal foams: a design guide, Elsevier sience, 2000
[11] Frei Otto, IL 35; Pneu und knochen, Institut fur leichte flachentragwerke, 1995
[12] www.fighttimes.com, 20 june 2010
[13] O.Cansizoglu, O.L.A. Harrysson, A.Harvey West II, D.R. Cormier, T.Mahale,
Applications of structural optimization in direct metal fabrication.
[14] M.Scheffler,P.Colombo,cellular Ceramics, Wiley – VCH verlag, 2005
[15] J.Banhart, Metallic foams: challenges and opportunities,
Fraunhofer-Institute for Advanced Materials, Bremen, Germany
[16] L.J.Gibson, Journal of biomechanics 38/2005/377-399
[17] M.M.T.Dominicus, Open cell structures in architectures, Graduation report TU/e,
2009, Commission: Prof.dr.Ir.Lichtenberg, Ir.A.Pronk, Dr.J.Beetz
[18] www.cb.nu.se/~hamid/vobi/f ig2.jpg,4 oktober 2009
[19] www.scv.bu.edu,4 oktober 2009
[20] Dome concrete pod, van Kazuya Morita, www.morita-arch.com
[21]www.kyrene.org/staff/sreed/AMSITECH/activities/geodome/geodome.htm,
4 oktober 201
[22] W.Schuurmans, R.Hermens, C.Claus, J.Wanders, Master project 1 TU/e-A.Pronk,
`Bones and domes’
865
[23] L.D. Ten Hoope, Master project 1 TU/e-B.Colenbrander, Exhibiting technology,

www.davetenhoope.com/Exhibiting_technology.html
[24] www.plunk.org/.../geodesic_domes/dome.10v.png, 1 july 2010
866
Textile Techniques and Tectonics in Architectures

Vrouwe Ivo1* Pronk Arno Feijen Mark 2
Sint-Lucas department Architecture
Paleizenstraat 65-67
1030 Brussels
ivo.vrouwe@architectuur.sintlucas.wenk.be
2
Eindhoven University
i-Saac
Abstract
This paper discusses the various strategies for micro techniques and tectonics
with macro variants to design and construct ephemeral architectures. As a starting point
the work of Gottfried Semper is revisited to reveal the different qualities and
characteristics of textile techniques and tectonics. To create an oversight of this content
a matrix is used. From there, this diagram is evolved; state-of-the-art techniques and
applications are added to create a contemporary overview. As part of the research
several studies and case scenarios have been executed by the authors with a focus on the
following topics.
To make ephemeral use of the architectural skin possible, second-skin facades are
created by using textile techniques. Just as men change apparel from time to time,
within a certain interval, the architectural dress or skin can be changed as well. By
separating the art-form and the core-form, architectural facades can adapt to the change
of use, fashion and trends without harming its structural body.
To provide sculptures with an appropriate structure, volume patterning techniques are
developed. Unlike surface patterning, volume patterning is placed perpendicular to its
virtual surface. By generating extruded ribs the structures are materialized.
1 Introduction
New techniques bring new architectural possibilities and new architectural possibilities
bring new techniques. Of course this is nothing new and maybe too obvious to mention
in the context of many symposia on advanced architectures, but in the line of
architectural research it can be helpful and refreshing to open this vicious circle by
providing new insights.
In his essay “What is a thing”, Heidegger(1968) mentioned that it takes more than a
change of position for one thing to come to us as a thing. Trapped in boundaries related
to a certain profession a change of position doesn’t leave the field itself. In this respect a
step back from the chosen standpoint be the answer. By leaving a point of view at first,
subjectivity makes way for objective thinking which may open or stretch the boundaries
of the specific field. In an educational system which sets for specialization this isn’t
easy. Studying a profession for many years can narrow outlooks. This is why things
don’t come to us as things. We keep objects on a distance by re-membering ancient
objects that perhaps were becoming things or had become one [1].
867
In this respect, rethinking a certain matter in the same context can never reach further
than its boundaries because it’s limited to the same framework. This way a certain
matter is trapped in subjective judgment and predictive thinking. Heidegger(1962) calls
a part of this phenomenon enframing. Like more abstract philosophical compound
words, enframing can not directly be translated. In this context enframing has nothing to
do with a structural framework. It is not an activity nor is it in itself something
technological. It’s meaning consists of all ways having to do with things which let
things show themselves in some way. But the thing with matter that let things show is
that they don’t show themselves and are thus hard to pin down.
Taking the theory of enframing into account and architectural techniques for example
we can conclude the following. By “deframing” or disconnecting architectural
techniques from its current background and enframe or implement it into another
framework or field it is subject to a different context or set of rules. The subject is
somehow freed from predictive thinking in which it can develop on different soil.
Few researchers in architectural design and geometry intentionally or unintentionally
already work following a similar model. Papers and publications in this field take place
in a different framework than architecture itself. Ranging from origami and paperwork
to nature and morphology, researches try to implement a certain subject into an
unfamiliar framework to stretch the boundaries of the architectural one. The framework
used in this research is the one of Textile Techniques and Tectonics.
2 Possibilities of textile techniques in architecture

For arts like architecture and sculptural arts which traditionally need a notion of eternity
to exist, fashion and temporality are natural enemies. Nevertheless the lean of general
design towards commercial fashion and retail purposes resulted in a shift from eternal
quality to a form of temporal satisfaction. Adapting to brands, fashion and retail design,
these forms of design forced some interesting developments and settled in the crowd
easily due to recognition and adaptability. “Sub-cultural relativism” leaves little space
for discussion on the quality of these designs, but it can be useful to adapt some of its
characteristics instead.
One of the characteristics in contemporary design is the acceleration in styles and trends.
Where it took a style like baroque and the gothic more than 150 years to be followed up
by the next, it took more contemporary styles like pop-art about ten years. Since the
acceleration to a great extend has to do with developments in transportation and
communication, it is not very likely this increasing speed comes to a hold soon. With
people being part of several physical and digital networks today, trends change style
and taste rapidly. [2]
Architecture as well as fashion are non-verbal media. Both communicate in an own
language and a different vocabulary. Compared to fashion, architecture communicates
much more subtle. Certain ornaments used in a trend or fashion would be absurd or
even grotesque to be used in architecture. Scaling up these ornaments to an architectural
scale can result in a non-satisfying results. Apart from commercials, architecture leaves
little space for the use of print and figurative design.
Secondly for a language to communicate it has virtually to become a cliché. People
have to recognize it in comparison to other likewise structures with likewise atmosphere
868
and communication. With contemporary architecture being fragmented and widely

spread and architectural magazines having a circulation of nearly one percent of its
fashion counterparts, for common people clichés are hard to recognize. As a result the
architect’s vocabulary to communicate with isn’t as accessible as the one used by
fashion designers and design which narrows it’s interacting audience to a small group of
enthusiasts and critics. [3]
The rapidly changing style and taste together with the need to changing apparel with the
trends to come, demands adaptability of both the designer, the product and its user.
With architecture being a classical media, its lifespan endures several trends. When it
can’t compete it is to be demolished. Inspiration from fashion, textile techniques and
textile formwork can force some change. Separating architecture’s core-form from its
art-form like posed in “Style in the Technical and Tectonic Art” by Gottfried Semper
leaves space for adaptability through time.
It’s needless to say that changing apparel through seasons and trends is far more easier
than replacing a part of a building. Still, the characteristics like the lightweight
characteristics and broad variety of textile techniques fit well in a tendency like
mentioned. By the use of textile techniques, the vocabulary of architecture can be
enlarged and more accessible by a broader audience. The use of lightweight Textile
tectonics can enforce a more ephemeral use of architecture.
3 Discussion textile tectonics and textile techniques

In reaction to the late modernist architecture the discussion on Tectonics revived by the
end of last century with, among others, the work of Kenneth Frampton. In the center of
all discussion on the use of tectonic and first of all the meaning of it, is the work of
Gottfried Semper. In his works “Der Stil” and “Die vier Elemente der Baukunst” he
gives rise to the technical arts of textiles, ceramics, carpentry and masonry with which
he tries to unfold art-form to its origin.
For Semper, Tectonic is the art of assembling stiff, planklike elements into a rigid
system. This rigid system is, as he said, indisputably the most important art for the
theory of monumental style. [4] In Der Mythos der Konstruktion und das
Architektonische, Kollhoff reacts to this notion by posing Tectonic as a unity of the, at
first sight, opposite pairs of construction and representation, art and technique. [5]
Frampton related this distinction to the representational and the ontological (the
symbolical and technical) aspects of tectonic form. [6]
Through this discussion and different interpretations, the definition of “Tectonics” has
become as diffuse as the definition “Design”. Discussing these definitions will become
a paper in itself. To make things for this paper more clear a logic of Techniques and
Tectonics is set. In the tectonic discussion the material itself, the way it is handled and
the craftsmanship in the joining of parts has to be in balance. This is why in this paper a
distinction of Tectonics and Techniques has been made. Textile Tectonics are ways to
make the material itself. Textile Techniques are ways to process the Textile Tectonics.
Revering to the education of textile formwork a distinction between fabrication,
processing and application is used. Translated to architecture, the fabrication of textiles
is the Tectonic aspect of materials. In other words, Textile Tectonics are certain
assemblies of small elements to fabricate textile building material. Textile Techniques
869
on the other hand are ways to process the Textile Tectonics. Using Textile Tectonics or
other materials, the use of Textile Techniques in architecture result in building
components. Finally an application of Textile Techniques can result into Architectures.
A framework of Textile Techniques and Textile Tectonics relevant to

architecture
As a result of the distinction of Textile Techniques, Textile Tectonics and its
subdivisions, a framework is created and presented through a matrix. The model
embodies a research and educational guideline for techniques and tectonics applicable
for architecture and structural use. The matrix can grow horizontally to give a broader
view, it can grow vertically to give more depth in a certain subject.
Like mentioned a separation between Textile Tectonics and Textile Techniques is made
at first. Both subjects are vertically separated into main groups. As a pad for Tectonics,
the separation in treatment of materials as stated in “Der Stil” by Gottfried Semper is
used. [4] A translation to architectural use is made by a subdivision in direction and one
in structural and non-structural use.
For a pad for Textile Techniques, not much technical and philosophical material is
available. In “Le pli” by Deleuze a broad field of folding is discussed. Technical use is
discussed more in mathematical use than in a technical one. Therefore the subjects on
Textile Techniques is lifted form technical books on Textile Formwork in general. In
contrast to the Tectonics, division in techniques is mostly made horizontally, only
patterning has a division vertically.
Fig. 1: Matrix Textile Techniques and Tectonics
Textile Tectonics and Textile Techniques are placed in horizontal order. In the matrix
870
the two are not connected, in application most Tectonics can be processed by Textile
Techniques. These main groups are placed in first division, respectively “1” and “A”.
From here a division into subdivision is made. This way every subject in the same
subdivision refers to a likewise evolution in a different field.
The first subdivision and the most visual one used in the diagram of Textile Tectonics is
that of direction. Considering all Textile Tectonics, three directional groups stand out
the most. Consecutive the Single-Directional, the Multi-Directional and the Amorph.
Single-Directional Tectonics result in a line-like product or a positioning of threads
parallel to each other. All Single-Directional Techniques are situated in an X or a Y
direction and don’t interfere.
Multi-Directional Techniques result in a surface or volume assembled by Single-
Directional elements in multiple directions. By interlocking line-like elements in a
certain way, Multi-Directional Textile Tectonics are produced.
Amorphous Tectonics don’t have a assignable direction. By a illogical interlocking of
elements, the material is produced.
The second subdivision is structural use. With this quality not often used in everyday
fashion, it is of great importance to Architectural and Structural use. Non-structural
Textile Tectonics result in cladding material. With a structural frame as a Core-Form,
the dress together with the frame encloses the inner space. Structural Textile Tectonics
can exist structurally without any framework. By its materialization and geometry, it is
able to stand by itself.
Cutting patterns have a long history in clothing and fashion. Carefully formed and fitted
round a body, the patterns are placed in line of the contour its covering. Unless well
designed structurally, surface patterning needs pretension or rigidization to be scaled up
to architectural scale. To stay in line with patterning, a body has to be applied by
volume patterning.
Fig. 2: Grid, Surface-Patterning, Volume-Patterning

In patterning a subdivision into two main groups is made. The first group represents the
group of surface patterning. The group of surface patterning contains all patterning
techniques that form a surface in line of its outline or contour. The axial, bi-axial and
radial pattern direction posed in Division D all form the surface in line of the surface
itself, only the direction itself differs.
871
Volume patterning is a surface structure describing its surface by patterning on an angle

to it. In contrast to surface patterning, volume patterning describes a surface incidentally.
The pattern isn’t situated in line of the contour but perpendicular or angled to it.
According to surface patterning, three divisions can be made. The first division contains
all axial patterning. This division holds all pattering parallel to one another. The second
division contains all radial patterning. This division holds all patterning with a form
generation from a centre point. The third division holds all biaxial patterning. This
division holds all form generation by patching, tiling and panelization.
According to volume patterning, also three divisions can be juxtaposed. Like surface
patterning the first two divisions hold all axial and radial patterning. These forms of
patterning start from patterns placed vertically, describing de surface in a radial or axial
direction. The third one contains all tangent patterning. Tangent volume patterning is
subject to the surface it’s projected to. The patterns are placed perpendicular to the
surface’s tangent. This results in a sum of axial and radial patterning.
4 Textile Techniques and Tectonics; geometry and application

To describe the way Textile Techniques and Textile Tectonics can be used in
architectural practice, a case study is used. The study represent a sculptural use
conceptually designed by Maarten de Reus. Structural design and engineering of the
Puma is done by Mark Feijen (i-Saac) and and Ivo Vrouwe (WorkShop IV).
The Beacon, a sculpure by artist Maarten de Reus, is placed in the Noordoostpolder, the
Netherlands. The sculpture serves as a landmark and marks the boundary of a landfill.
The concept of the design is based on the ancient fire beacons that used to stand in this
area. The structure itself is not one of temporal nature. It is used as a case study because
of several textile techniques used to form and construct it. Parallel Volume Patterning is
used to construct the body, bi-axial weaving is used to create its infill.
The overall shape of the structure is formed by lofted surfaces between doubly curved
border lines. A precondition was the generation the surface by a mesh of steel elements.
This way the underlying structure remains visible. During engineering the challenge
was to keep a balance in both structural behaviour and the expected sculptural form.
Fig. 3: Surface Sectioning
872
After considering several alternatives a structure of steel plate work was chosen. By
cutting the global form in orthogonal sections the outlines for the surface-patterning was
created.
Fig. 4: Volume Patterning
Fig. 5: Sloped Sectioning

The main structure consists of vertical closed framework which are interlocked by a
horizontal one. To break up the orthogonal sectioning the horizontal sections became
sloped. With a combined secant on a 15 meter distance a 45 degree was filled evenly.
Fig. 6: FEM Analysis
873
The structure outlines, formed by tubing, is guided by the steel plate work. Next to the
outline of the lofted surface-patterning, the tubing provides the structures torsion
stability. Because of the absence of information about the surface mesh, the surface
stiffness of this material wasn’t taken into account during calculation.
The structural analysis is performed by importing the Rhino geometry in the FEM
Software ABAQUS. All loads are applied and the stress distribution and the
deformation are analysed.
Fig. 7: Segmentation per level
Fig. 8: Segmentation Structure

Due to the size of the structure, a second segmentation had to be carried out. Every
segment should be build, transported and constructed separately to make realisation
possible logistically.
874
Fig. 9: Pipe Segmentation

Steel strips ranging from 200 to 500 mm width, are cut and numbered directly from a
RhinoScipt output. Every strip containing a segment and a component number could be
constructed to a whole by corresponding drawing. The outer tubing geometry consisted
of splines. Having difficulties bending the spline geometry, all were converted into arc
segments an numbered digitally. Connecting all in strict order under right angles
resulted in a flaming outline.
Fig. 10: Construction Structure
875
Fig. 11: Result Structure
5 Conclusion
Textile Techniques and Tectonics can be of great importance to Contemporary
Architecture and Structural Design. Not only by its structural and dressing qualities it
opens a new spectrum of possibilities but also by providing new medial capacity and a
different framework to work with.
Several case studies attest to the fact that progressive use of these techniques can result
in remarkable structures. The challenge through this research remains the evolution of
Textile Techniques and Tectonics from a micro scale to a macro variant without
harming its original nature.
References
[1] Heidegger H. Over, denken, bouwen, wonen. Uitgeverij SUN. Nijmegen, 1991.
[2] Vejlgaard H. Anatomy of a Trend. McGraw-Hill. New York, 2008.
[3] Barnard M. Fashion as Communication. Routeledge. Abingdon, 1996.
[4] Semper G. Style in the Technical en Tectonic Arts. Getty Publications, 2004.
[5] Kollhoff H. De mythe van de constructive en het architectonische. Oase 47, 1997
[6] Frampton K. Studies in Tectonic Cultures. The MIT Press, 2001
876
Computational models of the Austrian Pavilion for the Expo

2010
Jeroen COENDERS1*, Matias DEL CAMPO2, Roel VAN DE STRAAT1
1*
Arup and Delft University of Technology
Naritaweg 118, 1043 CA Amsterdam, The Netherlands
jeroen.coenders@arup.com
roel.van-de-straat@arup.com
2
SPAN, Architecture & Design,
Neubaugasse 10/4, A-1060 Vienna, Austria
mdc@span-arch.com
Abstract
In 2008, the Austrian government opened a competition for the Austrian
Pavilion for the Expo 2010 in Shanghai, China. The architectural team SPAN (Matias
del Campo, Sandra Manninger) & Zeytinoglu, supported by the engineering team of
Arup in Amsterdam, has entered and won the competition with an iconic design.
The architecture of the project is based on ideas of continuity, on smooth surfaces and
seamless connections between spaces, providing a concept for the development of a
continuous flow within the pavilion as well as of a subtle connection between interior
and exterior space. This motive of smooth transitions and curvilinear trajectories is not
only reflected in the basic form of the pavilion; this concept is rigorously applied
additionally within the gradient coloration of the facade, the design of bars and desks,
the conceptual design of the media contents, the teething of ceiling and floor on the
upper floor, and, last but not least, even by means of the details such as, for example,
the ceiling spots. This all provides for the basic quality of the pavilion. This is also
reflected in the facade. More than 10 Million porcelain tiles create a continuous shell.
The main challenge of the building was to make it constructible against a limited budget
and design development time. Both the architect and the structural engineer employed
computational techniques to explore and assess the design as well as to zoom in on the
main construction issues. The paper will present both the architectural and structural
computational strategies and techniques used for the design of the Austrian Pavilion at
competition stage. These strategies and techniques were used to quickly assess several
options, gather information on the design and demonstrate to the client that an iconic
design which looks complicated in shape does not necessarily have to lead to a
complicated and expensive structure.
Keywords: complex geometry, parametric modelling, computational design
877
1 Introduction
This paper focuses on the relation between the architectural design and the conceptual
structural design of the Austrian Pavilion for the Expo 2010 EXPO in Shanghai and
their relation to computational models and design processes. For the design competition
for the pavilion, SPAN & Zeytinoglu teamed up with engineers from the Amsterdam
office of Arup who focused on the development of the load bearing structure.
Fig. 1: Rendering of the competition entry
The main aim of the exhibition is to create two specifically separated conditions. On
one side an immersive space is created that enables the visitor to experience Austria on
an emotional, nonverbal level. The other main component of the exhibition encircles
Austrian economy in a more informative and didactic way. The walk through the
pavilion starts on top of the Austrian Alps. Simultaneously this area also marks the
highest point of the exhibition area, beneath this point the entire exhibition circles
downwards.
Fig. 2: Photograph of the Austrian Pavilion from the south-east side
878
The elegant, continuously sweeping trajectories of the curvilinear body generates a

smooth organic flow of the visitors within the exhibition area. Pumping animation
creates a constant flow of visitors along the entrance area, through the main space and to
the exit along the shop area. By reducing orthogonal forms, the quality of sound within
the space is significantly increased.
The design is conceptually based on continuity, seamless surfaces and smooth
transitions between the spaces, where the outside and inside are subtly blended. In
essence, the main qualities for the project formed the global topological surface
description. As such, the surface description is related to the field in mathematics which
is concerned with spatial properties which are preserved under continuous deformations
of objects which provides that spaces can unfurl and unroll, while creating openings and
providing for circulation.
By adopting the concept topological surface descriptions as an important feature in the

design process, the resulting complex surface geometry asked for a multidisciplinary
approach in which computational modelling and other digital techniques are embedded.
In the process of quick and direct communication with the architects and the
possibilities to quickly adapt the structural model to architectural design changes, a
number of working methods were adopted by presenting clear, conceptual hand
sketches and the generation of a digital parametric and associative 3D model. With this
digital model it was possible to analyse design alternatives of the overall structure and
of individual structural components and to transfer these alternatives directly to analysis
software. On the basis of these working methods and the so-called BIM++ strategy, the
design of the structure was accompanied with the estimation of quantities and
suggestions for building methods, ultimately leading to a clear layout of the load
bearing elements which was conform to the complex geometry without having to be
labelled as complex itself.
2 Architectural design: the topology of sound

2.1 Sonic body, music and skin
The main driving force behind the design of the Austrian Pavilion can be described as
acoustic forces, or more accurately as music. Music as a concept that reflects continuity
in terms of architectural articulation that seamlessly connects the various spaces within
the program. The space unfurls from within the topological body, from the main space
to the exterior epidermis. This process creates pockets, pouches that include the rest of
the program such as a shop, restaurant, office, VIP Area and so forth. Each one of those
programmatic areas includes qualities associated with the quality of living within
Austrian conurbations: Music, Culture, Culinary expertise, urban scapes, lavish foliages,
etc.
879
Fig. 3: Acoustic simulation of the central performance area
The embodiment of the sonic conditions within the space manifests the architecture of
the pavilion, which resonates to the rhythm of the Video Jockeys (VJs) performance,
Figure 3. They are the conductors of the atmospheres within the main space. The skin of
the main space is planed as the main canvas for the VJ. It is a 300m2 projection surface,
reflecting simultaneously, becoming an animated ceiling. The projections make full use
of the topological quality of this curvilinear space, creating a seamless projection, which
helps to focus on the specific imagery. This continuous condition is additionally
reflected in the cladding of the outside skin that is executed in porcelain tiling and that
additionally bears subtle gradient colorations between red and white, Figure 4.
Fig. 4: The porcelain façade comprised of 10 Million hexagons.
880
About 10 Million hexagonal components cover the outside skin of the pavilion, creating
a seamless appearance despite its opposite nature. In fact more than 60 Million
individual joints fuse the skin.
2.2 Topologic design process
The software output describing the topological surface geometry consisted of an

extensive array of subtly varying surface conditions. According to their performative
behaviour, the population of over one hundred individual entities were examined in
Autodesk Maya for their fitness according to different criteria, such as the potential to
fulfil the program, the performance as structural entity and the affect generated by its
appearance. This process reduced potential candidates to a very small number. Finally
these candidates ran through a series of algorithms (various remeshings (Figure 5),
subdivisions, optimising the size of the spatial pockets etc.) which eliminated all
candidates but one. This technique can be described as an evolutionary process driven
by a series of intensive forces.
Fig. 5: Topological body explored in TopMod, using Pythonscripting for the remeshing
Intensities such as solar radiation and the behaviour of acoustics in space were
extensively simulated in Autodesk Ecotect to create a form-finding process triggered by
the simulations results. One of the results of investigations into the nature of topological
bodies was a series of models only dedicated to seamless, continuous circulations within
architectural bodies and apertures in complex curved geometries. The prevailing
methods of transition between compartments and material exchange within openings,
which is to violently perforate the skin of an enclosure, is abandoned for a technique
based on the mathematics of topology. This design approach allows for a continuous
881
transition between interior and exterior as well as in between the areas of the building,
seamlessly connecting the various programmatic elements such as the exhibition, the
shop area, the restaurant and so forth.
The technique is rigorously applied in the various scales of the project, meaning that
also interior design elements follow the rules of topological bodies. The bars and
information desks, the shop furniture as well as the connections between ceiling and
floor, all follow the same regulations of continuous gestures, unveiling an underlying
performative quality of this mode of formation. Additionally, a series of stress analyses
demonstrated the increased performance in terms of material strength and consumption.
The concept of topological surfaces was rigorously applied throughout the design of the
pavilion, including the same process in the design of interior elements such as the
restaurant and VIP-bar, information desk and sales desk as well as the illumination
nozzles in the ceiling.
The application of topological forms as a mode of material organisation is a widespread
phenomena in nature, enhancing the stability of the form whilst simultaneously
reducing the consumption of material. This phenomenon is widely adopted within the
design of the Austrian Pavilion in order to operate on a significant level of sustainability.
In nature material is expensive. Form on the other hand is complimentary. The
application of these ideas in an architectural scale has become feasible by the use of
CNC routers, industrial robots, laser cutters and computer controlled bending machines.
All of these components serve to create a building that simultaneously engages visitors
in a spatial experience as well as serving the owner as a stage for the conversation
between Austria and the guests to the Austrian Pavilion.
3 Structural design concept: structural simplification of complex

geometry
During the competition stage, the main challenge was to meet the requirements
following from the complexity of the geometrical design on one hand, and the
limitations in budget and design development time on the other hand. Main focal point
was that the structural design would prove that the building was constructible within
these prerequisites. The working method during the first phase of the competition
focussed on the development of quick design sketches based on 3D models and 2D
extractions that were communicated with the architect. During this phase, the global
layout of the main load-bearing structural elements was determined. After the first
selection procedure, a parametric and associative model was created for quick
assessment of design options.
3.1 Layout of the structure
The three open façades on the north, east and south side, the large opening in the roof
structure for the roof garden and the cantilevering building section on the south-west
side of the building are important characteristics of the design imposing constraints on
the possibilities in the structural design. Together with the fact that the vertical load
882
takedown, following from the many double curved surfaces, is rather complex, this led
to a structurally challenging design.
Following initial design reviews sketches were made that presented the main stabilising
elements; the vertical concrete walls, a steel tripod over the entrance and a cantilevering
truss with a height of 10m arranging for the 18m long cantilever in the east façade.
Together with this truss, a castellated beam in the west façade and a box girder denoted
as the spine over the midsection of the structure provided the support for the roof
structure, Figure 6.
The first floor and roof structure were designed consisting of steel profiled beams
spanning in east-west direction. Their layout and support location played an important
role in the overall structural design. The soil conditions of the building site forced the
layout of the first floor and roof beams to be in such a way that the downward load on
the cantilevering part was minimised and to maximise the load on the non-cantilevering
part in order to avoid tensile forces in the foundation. The tuning of the downward
counter loads from the first floor and roof structure with the upward loading from the
rotational moment on the cantilever was matter of constantly changing the number and
location of the floor beams as well as their support locations which determined the floor
loads that were transferred to the backside of the truss. In order to determine the
overturning moment on the truss and thereby the vertical loads on the foundations,
different topologies of the truss itself and of the beam layout were investigated. In order
to speed up this process, a parametric model was generated.
Fig. 6: Four main load bearing steel structural elements.

3.2 Parametric approach for modelling and analysis of the structural elements
Using a parametric approach for modelling and analysis of a structure preserves the
design logic of the structural layout in the model while allowing for regeneration of
structural elements by changing parameters or associations. By adopting this approach
883
in the structural design process, the design benefits from the ability to explore design
spaces while maintaining inherent logic.
3.2.1 The Arup BIM++ approach
Usually, the design in a BIM process is described in a digital model containing objects,
such as walls, columns and beams, to which besides purely geometrical characteristics,
also specific information is assigned to. Ideally, a more detailed planning for
construction activities can be made and it is possible to estimate and analyse the costs of
a project in more detail. However, the practice has proven to be refractory in allowing
for the full development of the vision. Additionally, a competition phase generally does
not lend itself for a detailed setup and management of BIM models.
Although the BIM vision is supported, the structural design process of the Austrian
Pavilion followed what is called the Arup BIM++ strategy; incorporating as much as
possible from the general BIM approach, combined with practical methods and
processes based on strategies that incorporate BIM tools, non-BIM tools and custom
developed tools. Computational methods and technologies are added to digital models
in order to provide them with additional information. Based on this approach, the
parametric structural model played an important role in setting up the modelling of the
structural objects – the concrete walls and steel elements –, making it possible to
quickly create structural design layout alternatives and providing the estimation of
quantities and suggestions for building methods.
3.2.2 The parametric structural model
It proved to be difficult to capture the initial design in 2D structural sketches. Therefore,

during the second stage of the competition design for the Austrian Pavilion, possible
locations for structural elements were extracted from the 3D architectural model. The
initial structural layout was then set up as a 3D parametric model in Bentley’s
GenerativeComponents, Figure 7. This model allowed for the exploration of structural
design possibilities finally showing that the individual structural elements would
function within the general structural design concept. As such, a number of key
structural elements could be analysed individually, but also were associated into the
overall parametric model that could be communicated with the architects.
Fig. 7: Left: The parametric model of the structural elements. Middle: The rendered
structural model including the profile sections. Right: The architectural image render of
the competition entry.
884
As described in Section 3.1, almost all individual structural elements themselves were
designed as standard elements. With the limited timeframe and budget in mind, this was
a deliberate design choice. Ultimately, the parametric model demonstrated that a
complex architectural model could be simplified to a fairly straightforward structure,
consisting of mainly standard elements convincing the jury of the buildability of the
project within the given boundary conditions.
3.2.3 Design for construction
The stringent time frame was a driving force to employ a design process that could be
followed by a straightforward manufacturing and construction sequence. Employing the
parametric approach to model and analyse structural elements based on structural
parameters allowed for the quick setup of the structural design and a proposed building
sequence. This proved to be an important aspect related to the structural design in
winning the competition. The parametric model and the proposed building sequence
(Figure 8) derived from it presented a feasible design in relation to structural analysis,
but also with respect to the constructability within the given timeframe and budget.
Fig. 8: The proposed building sequence of the main structural elements.
Construction of the Austrian Pavilion started in July 2009, only nine months after the
first structural design sketches were made and seven months after the start of the second
stage of the design competition. Although the structural final design phase was not in
the hands of Arup, the built steel structure shows high resemblance to the proposed
layout which followed from the computational models of the competition phase, Figure
9.
885
Fig. 9: Photograph of the construction site.
Discussion
In general, the last decades show a trend towards increasing complexity of the
geometric surface descriptions of building designs. Often, this is acted upon by a
similarly complex structural design, for instance by incorporating digitally fabricated
structural elements. Although possibilities for NC fabrication of structural elements are
increasing and simultaneously costs are decreasing, reducing the complexity of the
structural design usually provides more efficient solutions in relation to time and costs.
Frequently, digital processes are used to deal with complexity and to come to solutions,
architecturally and structurally, which are appealing in a sense of aesthetics and
experience of a design and in relation to optimisation. The topological surface definition
approaches adopted in the architectural design show an example of how digital
processes lead to interesting design characteristics, visually appealing shapes and
fluently connected spaces. The presented structural design approach on the other hand,
shows that the relatively complex surface geometry does not necessarily have to be
followed by a complex structural layout. With a tendency to optimise for time and
budget, the structural digital approaches, amongst which parametric modelling, were
used to look for possible simple structural layouts fitted within the boundaries of the
architectural design. As a result, the computational models used for both the
architectural design and the structural design for the Austrian Pavilion show the potency
of digitally driven design strategies and present a strong mixture of complexity in
surface description and simplification in structural modelling.
886
Conclusions
For the competition for the Austrian Pavilion for the Expo 2010 EXPO in Shanghai an
iconic building was designed, incorporating many of Austria’s key features. Based on
the conceptual ideas of continuity, seamless surfaces and smooth transitions between
the spaces, a topological design process was adopted to define the surface geometry. A
complex digital model focused on the performative quality, related to amongst others
audio-visual characteristics.
Since time and budget constraints were stringent, the complexity of the architectural
design was counteracted upon by structural computational design strategies aimed at
finding a relatively easy to build and low cost layout of structural elements. A
parametric approach allowed the geometric design to be altered without having serious
time consequences. As such, the structural design could be updated, without losing time
by manually remodelling the layout of structural elements, showing what consequences
following from changing design parameters. Following the BIM++ approach, quantities
and cost estimates could be communicated with the client and a proposed building
sequence showed the feasibility of construction within the limited time frame.
887
2.7 WG 18 Environmentally Compatible Structures
888
Post-utilization: As demolition works lead to recycling of the

generated waste
Andreea-Terezia MIRCEA1*
1*
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Civil Engineering
Department of Management and Building Technology
15, C. Daicoviciu Street, 400020 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
E-mail: Andreea.Mircea@bmt.utcluj.ro
Abstract
Resource efficiency and the implication of waste management and recycling
techniques is addressing to all issues surrounding sustainability and environmental
impact of the built object, for its entire life-cycle. The paper presents aspects of
recycling activities during the demolition of the municipal football stadium in Cluj-
Napoca (Figure 1), throughout 2008 and 2009, enabling the construction of a new, and
modern sport arena - our Technical University being partner in this project.
Keywords: demolition, waste management, recycling techniques, environmental benefits
1 Introduction
Beside the environmental benefits, recycling of the generated waste during demolition
works has economic benefits by reducing the materials’ transport and disposal costs, as
well as by diminishing the extraction of raw materials and the amount of waste deposed
at landfill sites [1]. Moreover, achieving new materials with high recycled content
supports further these objectives.
Fig. 1: Demolition of the municipal football stadium in Cluj-Napoca
889
2 Recycling and Reuse of Waste Materials

One of the main environmental concerns is the amount of waste generated when a
construction is demolished (Figure 2). But recycled materials produced from demolition
works are a practical and cost-effective way of maximising the value and sustainability
of the building project.
Each demolition project is unique so a site specific health and safety plan, and a
workplan, along with an engineering survey must be developed in order to carry out
properly the required activities. For that reason pre-demolition investigations have to
take place, identifying the types and volumes of the involved materials. From these
investigations, detailed site waste management plans have to be developed, which will
include specific targets for the reuse and recycling of materials, as well as plans for the
effective management of any contaminated waste. Usually demolition waste includes
large amounts of recyclable materials like: timber, glass, bricks, metals, plastics, paper
and concrete. The main separation techniques involve:
- Pre-sorting of coarse wood, metals and rubber;
- Selective separation of non-ferrous metals (aluminium, copper etc.), finishing and
non-metallic materials (timber, plastics etc.), using different containers for storage;
- Magnetic belt separation of ferrous metals;
- On-site separation of steel from the reinforced concrete and from general demolition
waste, while concrete and masonry debris are crushed to size, by using special equipped
machinery.
Across all building materials metals have consistent levels of recycled content. They are
melted down and reformed in new products. Achieving higher recycled content in
comparison to available alternatives of the same specification does not influence the
design process.
Fig. 2: Debris at the demolition site
890
2.1 Recycling concrete at the demolition site
Recycling concrete from demolition projects can result in considerable savings since it
saves the costs of transporting concrete debris to the landfill, and eliminates the cost of
disposal. Processing of recycled concrete at the demolition site is relatively simple, but
requires heavy-duty equipment (as crushing plants, and several pieces of mobile
equipment, mostly excavators with concrete breakers or pulverizing attachments,
loaders and bulldozers).
The processing equipment must be versatile and efficient for handling materials of
different size and/ or composition (Figure 3). Machine-mounted breakers may use: a
telescoping boom for easy reach and manoeuvrability, remote control operation,
underwater demolition capabilities. Some of its limitations include: the generation of
noise, dust and vibration.
The technology basically involves crushing, sizing, and blending in order to meet the
required specifications. The crushed material can be easily compacted and used as
onsite backfill (in excavated areas or low spots), or be transported for offsite recycling.
Much demolition debris concrete contains metal and waste materials that must be
detected and removed at the start of processing by manual or magnetic separation. In
order to control dust, fire hoses (operate by workers, secured in fixed location, or
attached to lifts, to gain elevation) may be used to maintain a wet demolition. Once
concrete is crushed and the reinforcement bars are removed, the remained materials
along with masonry debris are screened for size. The amount of work accomplished
using these methods depend on the strength of concrete, on the amount of steel
reinforcing used in the concrete, and on the working conditions.
With appropriate environmental policies and effective quality management systems in
place, the recycled aggregates are fully integrated into material specifications for many
applications, like for instance in highways works as road sub-base, general fill, drainage
material, capping or as pavement aggregates. Recycled aggregates from demolished
concrete structures significantly save energy compared to mining, processing and
transporting of new aggregates.
Fig. 3: Recycling works at the demolition site
891
2.2 Waste materials and industrial by-products used in concrete
Some waste materials and industrial by-products can be used as raw materials in the
cement clinker, admixture or aggregate in concrete fabrication [2]. Considering the
important economical benefits many products can be successfully added as active
admixtures in concrete, in order to reduce the cement content and/or improve its
properties. Some of these are presented in following:
- Silica fume is produced from the condensing gases from the furnace of a ferrosilicon
or silicon metal, during the manufacturing process in the metallurgic industry. It is well
documented that the use of silica fume as a mineral admixture in concrete, and in a
same time as a partial replacement for cement, in combination with high-range water-
reducing admixtures, results in a significant improvement in the strength of concrete.
- Polystyrene granules can be used as aggregate in lightweight concrete, improving its
thermal insulation performance.
- Blast furnace slag is a by-product of the steel making process that can be used in the
manufacture of concretes where its low permeability and great resistance to chlorides
and sulphates helps to reduce corrosive action and deterioration of the construction. The
slag may be processed in several ways, as for example:
- Through a slow cooling in the air, obtaining a crystalline and dense material
known as air-cooled slag;
- By using a fast treatment method with water jets, is resulting a lightweight
material known as foamed slag;
- Chilling rapidly the molten blast furnace slag by water immersion, is resulting
a glassy granular material like sand, known as granulated blast furnace slag; if dried and
ground into a very fine powder, it becomes a cementious material, called ground
granulated blast furnace slag.
- Fly ash is one of many by-products generated in the coal-combustion process that has
become an increasing concern in recent years due to escalating landfill costs and current
interest in sustainable development. The small particles entrained upwards by the flue
gases which in the past were simply dispersed into the atmosphere are collected
nowadays, being subjected to electrostatic precipitation or through other techniques.
These particles are called fly ash or pulverized fuel ash and are used to supplement
Portland cement in concrete production. The replacement of certain amount of cement
by fly ash could significantly diminish carbon emissions associated with construction,
as long as the comparison takes the production of fly ash as a given.
- Mineral admixtures with latent hydraulic properties have a limited use specified by the
“Code of practice for the execution of prefabricated elements made of plain concrete,
reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete” (NE 013-2002) [3]. Thus, the quantity of
silica fume is restricted to 7-12 % of the total quantity of binder in reinforced concrete
and prestressed concrete elements. The fly ash is allowed only in the case of reinforced
concrete elements within 8-15 % of the total binder.
- Refused glass collected from manufacturers of glass products can be used as a special
aggregate for decorative concrete. Glass aggregates for decorative finishes can be sorted
by colour or it can have colour added. It can be exposed in numerous ways, the most
utilized techniques being:
892
- Glass aggregates integrally mixed into the concrete;

- Glass aggregates broadcast onto the surface of fresh concrete.
Silica fume, slag and fly ash can be used as cementious materials, reducing the cement
content. They can be added as a last step in the cement production, or when the fresh
concrete is made.
3 Final Remarks and Conclusions

Due to construction tradition there are large regional differences on waste generation.
Many countries [4] do estimate their construction and demolition waste and recycling
activities - a significant proportion of which is being attributed to concrete. Most
recycled concrete is used as aggregate (Figure 4) for road base, pavement and sub-base.
Until recently, in spite of the existing legislation on waste management [5], Romanian
construction companies have been more concerned with costs then with environmental
issues, so that landfill has been considered a cheap option for large amounts of
construction and demolition waste, and recycling has usually been perceived as an
expensive one. Nowadays we assist to a major effort in favour of the increasing use of
waste materials and industrial by-products in the fabrication of building materials, thus
recycled materials are particularly important for the construction industry, being a great
contribution to resource efficiency. Consequently, the use of recycled materials
encourages the preservation of natural resources, helping to improve the sustainability
of the building projects.
Portugal
Turkey
Spain
Finland
Slovakia
Ireland
Italy
Sweden
Romania
France
Austria
Poland
Czech Republic
Germany
Switzerland
Belgium
Netherland
United Kingdom
5 10 15 20 25
% Recycled aggregate of total aggregate use
[source: UEPG 2005 and 2006 statistics published in 2008]
Fig. 4: Recycled aggregate use in Europe
893
References
[1] Mircea AT.: Resource efficiency, a priority for the construction sector. International
Conference eRA 4 & SynEnergy Forum 2. Spetses Island, Greece, 2009.
[2] Szilagyi H., Mircea AT., Kiss Z.: The use of waste materials and by-products in
lightweight concrete. The 6th International Congress: Global Construction:
Ultimate Concrete Opportunities, Volume “Cement Combinations for Durable
Concrete”, Dundee, UK, 2005.
[3] * * * NE 013-2002. Code of practice for the execution of prefabricated elements
made of plain concrete, reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete, 2002.
[4] * * * WBCSD - World Business Council for Sustainable Development. Recycling
Concrete. Executive summary, 2009.
[5] * * * H.G. 766/1997. Regulations regarding quality in construction: Regulations
related to post-utilization of constructions. M.O. 352/1997.
894
SUSTAINABLE DESIGN-BUILD AS A TEACHING TOOL
Edgar STACH1*, James ROSE1, and Amy HOWARD1

1
*UTZero and Institute for Smart Structures, College of Architecture and Design,
University of Tennessee,
Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
ABSTRACT
Architecture has evolved into a profession where practice is centered on
teamwork, shortened schedules, and the integration of performance, all the while
maintaining the traditions of “firmness, commodity and delight” (Rowland, 1999). This
transformation is reflective of technological advancements, increased accountability and
responsibility of practitioners, the need to coordinate increasingly complex systems, and
international awareness of the negative impacts of climate change and the role of the
construction industry in overall energy consumption. This transformation has
significantly altered the way in which architects, engineers, planners and constructors
practice today. In light of industry changes, it is now necessary for universities to
expand educational programs related to the building industry in order to prepare
students for their future roles as professionals. The School of Architecture at the
University of Tennessee has developed pedagogical methods in which students
participate in research, development, construction and performance evaluation as part of
a multi-level, multi-discipline team. Students are taught to balance aesthetics, energy
efficiency, structural integrity and overall building performance. As a result, students
are exposed to real world scenarios of multi-disciplinary design coordination and
communication, hierarchical responsibility, and construction methods ranging from
assembly to sequencing. Through this program, future architects will be educated as
integrators of disciplines, systems, and design criteria, rather than acting solely as a
stylist or aesthetician.
1. INTRODUCTION
In November 2006, the Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture adopted a set

of core values that should underlie architectural education (ACSA, 2010). These values
include the ability of graduates to “design technical and creative aspects of building
projects in appropriate media”, to “lead interdisciplinary design projects ethically,
collaboratively and responsibly”, to “be active stewards of the environment”, and to
“think and act critically” (ACSA, 2010). Many of these values, coupled with the needs
of a changing industry, are met by the development of courses that utilize the principles
of sustainability, meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs, and design-build methods as teaching tools
within the framework of higher education (United Nations, 1987). The course and
project discussed herein aim to meet the architectural objectives of aesthetics, energy
895
efficiency and structural integrity while providing students with an opportunity to

further develop their competitive technical and professional capabilities.
Four key pedagogical objectives were identified at the onset of course development that
would be most beneficial in preparing students for their future roles as professionals:
• to provide an environment in which students work in multi-level,
multi-disciplinary teams,
• to provide an opportunity for students to further develop
leadership skills,
• to demonstrate the relationship of design drawings to
construction, and
• to familiarize students with construction methods and practices,
particularly relating to sustainable design.
The objectives were satisfied utilizing various teaching methods within the platform of
UT Zero and the UT Zero Energy House Prototype project.
2. UT ZERO
UT Zero is an organization conceived to meet the needs of the changing needs of the
construction industry by bringing together researchers and designers from a variety of
educational, cultural, and professional backgrounds to work collaboratively on
sustainable solutions for the future. The primary goal of UT Zero is to promote zero net
energy consumption and zero carbon emissions through education, design, product
development and construction. UT Zero facilitates cross-disciplinary projects in which
students, faculty, and professionals from the fields of Architecture, Electrical
Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Landscape Architecture,
Interior Design, Art, and Business work in partnership to research and develop
innovative solutions to a global problem.
3. UT ZERO ENERGY HOUSE PROTOTYPE
The UT Zero Energy House Prototype was the first project to be completed under the
UT Zero team. The unit showcases innovation in the areas of building materials, solar
energy, energy efficiency and home design to demonstrate opportunities and methods
for using sustainable energy resources. The completed project serves as a platform for
performance evaluation, material testing, and continued research. The Prototype will
also perform as an educational tool to inform the University, community and region
about the benefits of sustainable practices, energy efficiency, and clean energy
consumption.
The main objective is the innovative design and construction of a zero net energy and
zero carbon footprint prototype housing unit. A main ambition of the UT Zero
organization is to participate in the development of new ways to build zero energy
houses through active and passive systems, material research and methods of
construction. Additional design criteria include affordability, building performance,
896
social sustainability and the development of pedagogical tactics for the continued
success of the organization. To effectively meet the objectives, it was essential for the
cross-discipline design team to make use of well-known products and techniques, as
well as to develop new, innovative solutions to the problems presented by the project.
The rich timeline of developments in climatic design and energy research within the
State of Tennessee have been a primary source of inspiration. Through our analysis we
have developed a four-part hierarchy for integrating passive and active systems:
• Basic Building Design (siting, orientation, massing, and space planning)
• Passive Design (daylighting, natural ventilation, cooling, and heat gain)
• High Performance Building (efficient hvac, active envelope, building
sensoring)
• Green Power (decentralized and grid-tied systems of solar, wind, etc.)
Our intent is to define the appropriate level of design; to begin with simple strategies
and add complexity as necessary.
3.1 Basic Building Design

The design of the UT Zero Energy House Prototype relies on basic design principles to
ensure in meeting the goal of zero net energy. The first is the design of an airtight
envelope that utilizes material combinations that result in highly insulated components.
The proper construction of an airtight envelope and use of highly insulated materials
allows the team to take advantage of passive design strategies to control and maintain
the indoor environment with minimal technological intervention.
Figure 1: SIPS under construction

Site selection and building orientation also greatly impact the overall performance of
the Prototype. Since the Prototype relies on solar access for its power, lighting design,
and thermal comfort strategies, choosing a site with minimal obstruction from the sun
and orienting the building on the site to allow for maximum utilization of the sun’s
energy is imperative.
3.2 Passive Design

Passive Strategies in architectural design involve the use of natural conditions to
minimize energy expenditure. By taking advantage of these free resources, such as
daylighting, natural ventilation and solar heat gain, the designer can curtail fiscal and
897
environmental costs associated with energy consumption. The early consideration and
integration of these strategies allows designers to produce environments with a greater
connection to their natural surrounding and with superior level comfort for the end user.
The lighting design for the Prototype relies on the sun as the illumination source during
the daytime occupation hours. The use of transparent and translucent materials along
three facades provides an opportunity to employ natural lighting techniques year-round.
The use of translucent material along the east and west facades reduces negative aspects
of natural lighting, such as glare, by acting as a filter to diffuse the light entering the
living space.
Figure 2: Horizontal shading and glazed southern façade

The team designed a winter garden space along the southern façade of the project as
part of a passive approach to heating and cooling the space. During summer months, the
winter garden acts as a buffer between the indoor and outdoor environmental conditions.
The space collects heat that is then exhausted out of the building through the effect of
stack ventilation created by intake vents in the floor and exhaust ducts through the
ceiling structure. The space performs much the same in winter months, however rather
than exhausting the heated air, it is exchanged with cooler air in the living space.
Due to the increased altitude of the sun that coincides with the hot summer conditions, a
horizontal shading element was integrated into the design of the southern façade to
block radiant heat gain and aid in cooling spaces during hot, humid summer months
without interfering with the positive effects of solar heat gain in the cold winter months.
3.3 High Performance Building

An efficient and effective mechanical system was designed to augment the passive
heating and cooling strategies previously discussed. The mechanical system in the
Prototype consists of a Fujitsu mini split heat pump system, a Broan Energy Recovery
Ventilator, and a custom fan system to regulate airflow from the winter garden
space. The Fujitsu heat pump is one of the most energy efficient heat pump systems
available with a Seasonal Energy Efficiency Rating (SEER) of 26. With a maximum
cooling capacity of 9,000 Btu/hr and maximum heating capacity of 12,000 Btu/hr, the
heat pump easily heats or cools the 192 sq. ft living space in minutes.
898
The Broan Energy Recover Ventilator supplies fresh air to the space at up to 90 cubic
feet per minute providing for 3.5 air changes per hour through 6 and 4 inch supply ducts
on the back wall and hidden above the ceiling. The return vent, located on the back
wall, allows for proper air circulation within the living space and feeds the ERV to
preheat or pre cool the fresh outside air. The ERV supplies the proper amount of fresh
air and helps to reduce the heating or cooling load in the living space. To enhance the
passive ventilation design of the winter garden, a custom fan system was designed to aid
in expediting air exchange. The forced air system runs at 50 cubic feet per minute
giving 6 air changes per hour in the winter garden space allowing for proper ventilation.
Figure 3: Mechanical and electrical systems

The lighting design makes use of Osram flexible circuit light-emitting diode (LED)
lamps to supplement the daylight design and for nighttime occupation. The LED lamps
are low wattage and require much less energy to operate than other lamps. The lamp
placement in troughs along the east and west edges of the finished floor allow for light
to reflect off of the translucent wall panels and fabric ceiling surfaces to maximize
illumination from a single source. The unrealized conceptual system design was to
make use of monitoring devices to determine daylight lumen levels in order to provide
artificial illumination to maintain an overall lighting quality within the space.
The custom designed glazing system incorporates several high performance materials in
order to fabricate an energy-efficient envelope. The system was designed and fabricated
by the UT Zero team and installed with the assistance of a local glazing specialist. The
structural component of the system makes use of FinnForest laminated veneer lumber.
The use of laminated veneer lumber allowed the team to achieve the same structural
capacity as traditional storefront systems with less weight and also replaces traditional
materials with a product that relies on rapidly renewable resources. Another factor
contributing to the selection of FinnForest lumber is the high quality interior finish. The
use of aluminum glazing caps with the lumber structural components of the system
provided an additional thermal break to minimize heat transfer through the system.
899
Figure 4: Glazing systems

The glass panels for the system were sourced locally which provided an opportunity to
build a relationship with the local manufacturer, AGC, and allowed students the
advantage of visiting the manufacturing facility to see the process. The selection of a
high-performance glass is essential to the overall performance of the Prototype. The
vertical glass panes have a low-e titanium coating and an argon-gas infill between the
two layers. Glass panes with a darker tint were used for the horizontal glazing
component above the winter garden to reduce the radiant heat gain from above.
The choice of materials also plays a key role in the effectiveness and efficiency of all
designed systems. Specifically the physical characteristics, thermal capabilities and life-
span of the material were of consideration in material selection. For instance, the use
Duo-Guard cellular polycarbonate panels filled with Cabots Nanogel along the east and
west facades are known to have high light transmission and low thermal conductivity,
and effectively reduce solar heat gain and noise transmittance.
The rear wall of the interior design demonstrates the integrative effort that took place on
this project. The technology wall houses mechanical and electrical equipment and
monitoring devices. The coordination of equipment placement was complex, as they are
interdependent, and required the involvement of all disciplines from engineering to
interior design. The design of the technology wall allows for future system changes,
testing of products and alternative equipment configurations.
The design for the Zero Energy House Prototype included an aluminum roof rack. The
roof rack integrates horizontal shading and solar energy collection. The overhanging
edges of the roof rack provide support for the cedar shading canopy. The center portion
of the design accommodates the solar panels. The design includes the ability to adjust
the angle of the panels for the three seasonal positions and lifts the bi-facial panels off
of the roof deck to improve the efficiency of the panels. The modular design and simple
connections allow for easy fabrication and installation, as well as adaptation in future
projects.
3.3 Green Power
900
The entire source of power for the Zero Energy House Prototype is the energy
harnessed and stored from the sun. The electrical design includes the use of twelve
Sanyo HIT-Double 200 bifacial photovoltaic panels. The bifacial panels are installed at
a fixed angle of 20 degrees above a white EPDM roof membrane to increase efficiency
by allowing maximum energy gain from direct and reflected exposure for a total
operative capacity of 2.4 kilowatts.
The panels are tied into a grid-interactive power system (inverter and charger) and the
excess gains are stored on four 12V/138Ah batteries. The system supports indoor and
outdoor light, electrical outlets, and all mechanical systems.
Figure 5: Photovoltaic array
4. TEACHING METHODS
In order to meet the pedagogical objectives of the course, several teaching methods
were used to instill teamwork and leadership, to demonstrate the relationship between
drawings and construction, and to familiarize students with construction.
4.1 Teamwork
The ability to work within a team is an important characteristic for all professionals, but
is especially important in the building industry. Possessing the ability to coordinate
multi-disciplinary design projects and communicate with team members ensures much
greater project success. The organization of the course was based on teamwork,
cooperation, collaboration, and communication. The UT Zero Prototype project
provided opportunities for students to work in teams made up of students from different
disciplines and with different levels of experience. This organization broadened the
impact of the multidisciplinary aspect of the course to include full system integration
and instilled an appreciation for other trades and backgrounds.
901
Figure 6: Members of the deck team fabricating components

Each team was assigned a discrete component or element of the design (roof, envelope,
interiors, etc) and was responsible for design, product research, documentation
(construction and shop drawings), fabrication, and installation of their components.
While the component teams were advised by faculty and student leaders, it was the
responsibility of the students to fulfill the duties assigned to the team. This required
team members to divide tasks while maintaining communication and collaboration
amongst team members and other system teams to ensure successful integration of all
discrete systems. The organization of teams horizontally across disciplines by
component rather than in vertical discipline silos has greatly contributed to the success
of the project and the educational objectives of the courses.
This team organization provided students the occasion to further develop their own
knowledge through collaboration with other trades and students with different
educational backgrounds. The information exchange between disciplines was of utmost
importance as this coordination and knowledge sharing occurs on a daily basis in
professional work. The inclusion of a variety of education levels within teams provided
opportunities for mentorship while also building the confidence of inexperienced
students in a group setting, as they participated in design discussions and were asked to
offer alternative ideas and solutions. Students learned the importance of respecting one
another’s opinions and viewpoints, and the value of having a wide range of alternative
solutions to the same problem in order to select the best option.
4.2 Leadership
Leadership is vital in the building industry and is essential in the successful completion
of a project. In an industry where trades are interdependent, all team members must
have confidence in their counterparts’ expertise. Due to the number of trades and the
significant number of components and systems involved in even the smallest of projects,
individuals and small groups must assume responsibility for individual tasks.
902
Figure 7: Students meeting on site
Within the design teams, a hierarchy was created as individual and small group
responsibility was assumed. As team members were assigned individual tasks, they
often had to rely on other team members to complete tasks, which is truly reflective of
successful design and construction projects. Students gained a true understanding of the
hierarchical structure as they filled various positions within the structure based on the
task at hand. For instance, a student may be assigned the full responsibility of
coordinating others for one task and be part of a team reporting to another student on
the next task.
Having flexibility in project leadership structure is ever important as individual team
members express different strengths and represent areas of expertise. This was most
apparent as the project progressed. Each of the phases of the project required a different
skill set for effective teamwork. The skills, experience and abilities of students varied
from initial design and research to detailing and construction.
4.2 Relationship of Drawings to Construction

The UT Zero Energy House Prototype project provided students with an understanding
of the relationship of drawings to construction. Each team, being responsible for their
discrete system from design to installation, was tasked with designing their system,
researching products and construction methods, completing detailed construction and
shop drawings, component fabrication and system installation. The team continuity
from design to installation insured that students gained an understanding of the
significance of clarity in representation of detailed systems. Students worked with team
members to design connections, detail individual elements for fabrication, and estimate
number and type fasteners required.
The difference in drawing and construction tolerances was a major point of education
for students. With computer aided design programs, especially those more advanced
software packages, allows for a level of precision that is not common in fabrication and
construction. For instance, the design and fabrication of the roof rack system required
students to develop a concept for the design and determine the lengths of individual
parts of the system and connection locations. The students then fabricated individual
parts and constructed the component based on their drawings. They quickly found that
the tolerances of fabrication and construction are different from those of drawing,
especially for inexperienced workers.
903
An additional layer of complexity existed outside of the teams as not only are there
tolerances to be met within a discrete system but tolerances that must be met when
integrating the individual systems into the whole. The envelope system has to meet
certain performance requirements to enclose the space and relies on the structure of the
building, which must have the capacity to support the envelope and also be
dimensionally compatible with the overall design. Similarly, the coordination of
mechanical and electrical systems with architectural and interior design concepts is of
utmost importance as all systems must be accommodated and arranged in appropriate
manners with access and clearances requirements.
"My experience on the Zero Energy House was very educational and
rewarding. It offered a lot of insight to the connection between the construction
documents and the final built product. It is an extremely satisfying experience to
stand in the space that only existed as drawings one semester earlier."
Tyler Carter, Fifth Year
Architecture
4.3 Familiarization with Construction

The opportunity for students to see all phases of a project is very rare as most internship
opportunities occur in small blocks of time which typically only expose students to one
or two phases. The UT Zero Energy House Prototype served to demonstrate the role of
the practitioner throughout the project, the importance of clear communication, and the
level of complexity that exists in coordinating disciplines and systems. Students were
exposed to the intricacy of scheduling and sequencing tasks throughout design and
construction.
Figure 8: Students working on site

In addition to the methods and practices of design and construction, students were
exposed to cutting edge technologies and methods, as well as traditional construction
practices. In light of the growing importance of sustainable practices in the building
industry, it is fundamental for students to not only be exposed to new materials, systems
904
and methods of construction, but to gain the knowledge of how to research new
opportunities. The ability to explore technologies of the future and to pursue
implementation of new concepts in traditional practice is a sought after characteristics
and will be a mandatory skill in the future of the building industry.
"Participating in the UT Zero Energy House fabrication
was one of the most rewarding experiences as an
Architecture student. It gave me hands-on experience that
just cannot be taught through lecture. This enriching
experience illuminated the truth in architecture: how
things go together, system integration, as well as the
necessity for teamwork and communication."
Amanda Gann, Third Year
Architecture
5. CONCLUSION
The result of offering a course such as the UT Zero Energy House Prototype is the
edification of future professionals who possess the ability to work effectively in a team
setting and assume project leadership roles, and who have been exposed to many
aspects of project construction. Students who have been exposed to multi-disciplinary
projects will demonstrate the ability to communicate, coordinate and collaborate with
other disciplines and will be an asset to the industry. They will also contribute to the
expansion and furthering of the current knowledge base in regard to sustainable
practices and efficient construction methods. They will supply the industry with fresh
concepts and the ability to pursue new opportunities for innovation in design and
construction. Educational programs such as UT Zero and the UT Zero Energy House
Prototype are essential to the future of an industry where recent transformations have
revamped the way architects, engineers and constructors think about architecture and
the responsibility to provide for the current generation without negatively impacting
future generations and to protect the natural environment and resources.
The project has gained University and community support for sustainable research,
design and construction. The project has resulted in the development of long-term
relationships between the University and individual students with local and regional
corporations. Local professionals supplied students with design assistance, product
information and manufacturing facility visits throughout the project. The connections
made for the University and students will prove to be an asset for future collaborations.
The Prototype, sited on the University of Tennessee campus in Knoxville, has also
opened up opportunities for UT Zero to educate students outside of the organization and
the community at large about sustainability, energy efficiency and technological
advancements in the building industry. It raised the profile of the University as a leader
in sustainable research, and has provided departments with an opportunity to gain
expertise in sustainability, which will prove to be an important marketing tool to future
students and will aid in continued support for prospective research projects.
The many of achievements of the implementation of new teaching methods for
sustainable and design-build practices have made a lasting impact on both students and
905
faculty throughout the University. The inclusion of courses that integrate all aspects of
the building industry, from design to construction, in one course provides students with
the opportunity to experience the actuality of the industry. Most importantly, the newly
developed courses and the Prototype project demonstrate that when architects and
engineers work collaboratively to design buildings of and for the future, there emerges a
unique opportunity to exceed existing expectations and set new standards of
performance, sustainability and aesthetic quality.
REFERENCES
[1] "ACSA 3.0: ABOUT." ACSA 3.0: Home. Web. 30 Jan. 2010. <https://www.acsa-
arch.org/about/naabhome.aspx>.
[2] D. Rowland - T.N. Howe: Vitruvius. Ten Books on Architecture. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 1999.
[3] United Nations General Assembly. Report of the World Commission on Environment and
Development: Our Common Future. Transmitted to the General Assembly as an Annex to document
A/42/427 - Development and International Co-operation: Environment. Retrieved on: 2009-02-15, 1987.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The successes of the Sustainable Design-Build course and the UT Zero Energy House
Prototype would not have been realized without the support of the administration,
faculty, and students of the College of Engineering and the School of Architecture at the
University of Tennessee. The support of the professionals and corporations who
donated time, recourses, and material is greatly appreciated.
906
Designing for sustainability in space structures

Dimitra TZOURMAKLIOTOU1*, Anaxagoras ELENAS 2
1*
Assistant Professor Democritus University of Thrace
12 Vas., Sofias Str., 67100 Xanthi, Greece
E-mail: dimitratz@gmail.com
2
Associate Professor Democritus University of Thrace
Abstract
Space structures are more than inanimate hunks of metal, glass and fabric. Every
space structure that we design as structural engineers is like a child—a child that is
conceived with a passionate vision of its form, structure and purpose; nurtured through
the schematic design phase and the development of construction documents; and cared
for during the labor pains of plan check corrections, requests for information, shop
drawing review, and construction observation. Like children, our space structures
mature, perform necessary functions during their lives, and eventually, grow old and die.
The sustainable design approach presented in this paper supports an increased
commitment to environmental stewardship and conservation, and results in an optimal
balance of cost, environmental, societal, and human benefits while meeting the mission
and function of the intended space structure. The aim of this paper is to develop the
guidelines that could be applied in the design of a space structure in order to achieve the
optimal overall lifetime performance of the space structure.
Keywords: Sustainable design, integrated life cycle design, space structures
1 Introduction
Technology innovations, population growth, evolving ecology problems, changing
economies and life styles are imposing new requirements on a built environment. This
influence considerably the way we ought to design and build in the future. The most
important issue regarding the space structure today is related to the increase of its
environmental efficiency which can be achieved by creating the potentials for closed
loop material cycling of building products. One of crucial problems of today’s space
structure construction is that space structures are made in such a way that many
alterations lead to demolition of their parts or even whole structure. The main reason for
this is the fact that different functions and materials comprising a building system are
integrated in one closed and dependent structure which does not allow alterations. This
is one of reasons for immense waste accumulation. In order to improve environmental
efficiency of the space structure we need to change our perception of the space
structure’s design and its technical composition.
The importance of approaching each space structure holistically from the outset cannot
be understated. From the space structure’s inception, architectural teams must work
closely with structural and Mechanical, Electrical and Plumbing (MEP) engineers,
907
landscape designers, urban planners and the entire project team to ensure that each
element of a space structure’s design complements and supports the performance of
other elements and building systems. This is especially critical from the standpoint of
sustainability [1]. To achieve maximum energy independence, support healthier
lifestyles and respond to the changing needs of the planet, space structures must be
designed with a strong understanding of their environmental context. If they can achieve
a symbiotic relationship with their environmental context, they can make the best latent
value of their site and take steps towards generating natural, environmentally friendly
energy [2].
Unfortunately, the typical design process, as practiced with current codes, is incapable
of providing the vehicle with which architects, engineers, and building owners can
consider a space structure’s true life-span and control the performance that the space
structure experiences during its existence. Building codes arbitrarily assign a design life
of 50 years to space structures — a life span that is clearly insufficient for most space
structures. In addition, current structural design practice does not allow for the future
structural modifications that are required to provide buildings with the ability to grow in
a changing world and adapt to advances in technology and our improved understanding.
As a result, the space structures we design today could become extinct during our
lifetimes and turn into behemoths of a past age that are incapable of meeting the future
needs of our communities. In order to respond effectively the entire design process
should be altered.
2 Design
During the design phase of a space structure, the structural engineer can affect the
sustainability of a project through
a) the choice of locally available resources,

b) the recyclability and reusability of materials and systems,
c) the efficiency of structural systems, and
d) informed choices about demolition and preservation.
Resource location is a determining factor in material choice. Local resources minimize

the use of fossil fuels in truck transportation and potentially increase the efficiency of
the building process. The structural engineer should be aware of locally available
materials, and make efforts to design using these materials. These materials would
ideally be both harvested and manufactured in the local area. During construction, using
local materials can result in shorter lead times, which can simplify logistics and speed
up the construction process.
Choices concerning labor resources should be made similarly, though in fact the
structural engineer often has little influence in contractor selection. For many of the
same reasons as with material selection, a project’s overall sustainability will benefit
when contractors and labor pools are in close proximity to the project location. Similar
908
to procuring materials from manufacturers within a local radius, a goal should be also
made to work with contractors and subcontractors within a certain radius. Advantages
of this include expertise on the local climate of the labor market, knowledge of local
suppliers and manufacturers, and minimization of fossil fuels in daily transportation to
the site. All these decisions about local materials and labor must be balanced with
decisions of availability, cost, scheduling and appropriateness for the project as a whole
[3].
The choice of the structural system during the design phase is another factor that affects
the sustainability of a project. For both the gravity and lateral force resisting systems,
the engineer has a choice of materials, which include steel, fabric, glass, wood, and
concrete. Often, the use of different materials to optimize the performance of each is the
best solution. For example, steel cables can be extremely efficient tension members of a
wood truss. Wood truss members can be supported by concrete walls and open web
steel joists can be supported by wood shear walls. Taking advantage of the inherent
properties of the material can result in a reduction of the amount of material. Lateral
force-resisting systems have similar concerns. Various systems are appropriate for
different scales, loads, functions, architectural requirements, and seismic performance
levels. The efficiency and sustainability of the material chosen for the system, the
various types of systems available for a given material, and the desired performance
level must be determined. Some factors that affect material choice include weight per
square meter, reusability, recyclability, deconstruction, and CO2 emissions associated
with the production and installation of the material, as well as all the traditional factors
such as cost and performance. A lateral system designed for a higher level than basic
code requirements may cost more initially. However, during a seismic event, the
structure will likely perform better and could save materials and labor by minimizing
repairs, or in the worse case, avoiding demolition. In addition, time and cost savings can
also be achieved since the space structure will be less disrupted for repair or rebuilding
after an earthquake. In order to fully consider sustainability in the design process,
options other than demolition at the end of a space structure’s useful life should be
considered in design. Though an owner or architect would primarily make this decision,
the engineer can facilitate this process by providing options for adaptability of the
structure for other uses or deconstruction. The condition of the structure is often not the
determining factor for when a space structure is no longer useful. Adapting a space
structure for other uses will conserve resources associated with demolition and
reconstruction and also eliminate construction waste. To ensure that a structure can last
into future space structure uses, it must to be designed for durability in a seismic
environment or any other natural hazards to which it may be subjected [4].
The structural engineer’s choice of structural systems during the design phase also
affects how a space structure can be adapted for a future use. Space structures may
change use over their lifetime, and therefore require reconfiguration of its elements.
Deliberate placement of structure can integrate with the mechanical systems, openings
for light and natural ventilation, all which allow for an energy efficient space structure
even with changes of occupants and uses over time. In seismic regions, a space structure
may not be readily adaptable due to seismic deficiencies. However, the benefits of
adaptability are the same as those associated with seismic rehabilitation of a structure.
909
When adaptability is not an option, deconstruction is the next best alternative to

demolition. The goals of deconstruction are not only to design for ease of disassembling
the structure but also for the members to be reused in other structures. Modifying and
reusing members consumes less energy than recycling. Lastly, recycling is still an
option if the space structure or its members cannot be reused [5].
3 Benefits of sustainable design

Sustainable design strategies bring many benefits, which are often the result of applying
common sense to a particular situation [6]:
a) Astute site selection and appropriate structures minimize intrusion on

ecologically sensitive terrain such as wetlands, agricultural lands, flood plains,
wildlife habitats, or green spaces.
b) Passive design creates a space structure envelope that uses natural systems in
place of mechanical equipment. For example, sunlight and wind patterns are
used to improve internal illumination and ventilation for occupants while
reducing energy consumption.
c) Computerized space structure models help designers predict and compare the
interactions and performances of alternative designs and systems, informing
their equipment choices and leading to an integration of technologies with
natural systems to create a high-performance space structure.
d) Space structure owners save costs. Reduced reliance on mechanical systems
lowers capital costs, while reduced water and energy consumption cut utility
bills. Often, a better designed envelope does not cost more than conventional
designs, and any increase is almost always more than compensated for by
operational savings over the lifetime of the building – a lifetime that is extended
by design choices that maximize durability and adaptability.
e) Space structure occupants breathe fresher, cleaner air, and work in spaces that
are well lit and very adjustable to their personal preferences.
f) The surrounding community benefits from less loading of municipal
transportation, electricity, sewerage, and solid waste infrastructure, as well as
from a site development that preserves ecologically sensitive areas and sets out
to be a harmonious neighbor in every way.
4 The 3R’s reduce reuse recycle

Reduce, reuse and recycle are the three essential principles of sustainable design. They
refer to practices that conserve primary resources, reduce waste, and, if incorporated in
the space structure design, reduce the overall environmental impacts of a space structure.
They also encourage economic connections and opportunities in the community [7].
The three principles are presented in order of their effectiveness in theory: it is better to
use less of something than to deal with the byproducts; it is better to reuse something in
its original form than to require it to be processed by recycling.
910
4.1 Reduce
The first principle is the easiest to understand because it simply means to conserve, to
use less to begin with. When brought into practice, the reduce principle can cut waste,
hauling and disposal fees, and project capital costs. There are several ways design
professionals can apply the reduce principle to design and construction practices:
a) Carefully calculate the quantity of materials required for a project. This simple
step can reduce the amount of materials purchased and wasted on site.
b) Avoid selecting products that have excessive packaging. Designers can ask
suppliers to minimize product packaging or to take back packaging for recycling,
reducing on-site waste.
c) Select more durable materials which will need repair and replacement less often.
d) Ensure proper on-site storage and protection of materials. This practice can
minimize damage to material and reduce the need to purchase more materials.
4.2 Reuse
The reuse principle mandates that materials be utilized again in their original form
wherever possible, making more intensive use of existing materials. By reusing
materials, designers extend the useful life of a material and reduce the amount of waste
generated on-site and sent to local landfills. This is particularly important for the
construction and demolition industries, which generate large waste streams that are
typically composed of reusable materials.
Designers can increase a material or product's lifespan by designing for its disassembly.
This technique facilitates the maintenance and repair of materials, the reuse of parts and
components, and the recovery of reusable building materials. Salvaging material also
helps preserve high quality workmanship or historical or cultural materials that are
difficult to replicate or hard to find. This principle is applied in sustainable design and
construction practices by:
a) Reusing building materials on construction and renovation sites.

b) Salvaging materials prior to demolition for reuse on-site or resale to used
building material stores.
c) Retrofitting an existing space structures instead of constructing a new space
structure.
d) Relocating an entire space structure that would otherwise be demolished.
e) Designing space structures to be disassembled, encouraging material salvage and
reuse. This focuses attention on making materials easy to unfasten or disconnect.
Moreover, there are three different scenarios that can be found in the reuse principle as
are referred below.
4.2.1 Whole space structure reuse
The first scenario is that of relocation or reuse of an entire space structure. This may
occur where a space structure is needed for a limited time period but can later be reused
911
elsewhere for the same or similar purpose. A good example of this is the Crystal Palace
of 1851. This modular exhibition building designed by Joseph Paxton was based on a
simple system of prefabricated structural and cladding units that could be easily joined
together. These factory produced elements allowed for the quick assembly and
disassembly of the building, and its eventual relocation and reuse after the exhibition [8].
4.2.2 Component Reuse
The second scenario is the reuse of components in a new building or elsewhere on the
same building. This may include components such as cladding element or internal fit-
out elements that are of a standard design. This scenario of reuse saves on resources,
waste disposal, and energy use during material processing as well as energy use during
component manufacture and transport.
4.2.3 Material Reuse
The third scenario that of reprocessing of materials into new components, will involve
materials or products still in good condition being used in the manufacture of new space
structure components. A good example of this is the re-milling of steel. In most parts of
the world that use steel as a building material there is a strong vernacular tradition of
constructing space structures so that members may be removed and reused or re-
processed into smaller members.
4.3 Recycle
When used material is recovered and reprocessed into a new usable form, it is diverted
from landfills to become a feedstock for new products. Recycled-content building
materials, which contain postconsumer and/or post-industrial feedstock, make more
efficient use of existing materials. Sustainable design practices also encourage the
diversion and recycling of demolition, land-clearing, and construction debris. Though
the energy expenditure associated with recycling makes it the third choice among the
three strategies, it is greatly preferable to waste disposal [9]. Design professionals apply
the recycle principle by:
a) Selecting recycled-content building materials and products to help encourage

this emerging environment-friendly industry.
b) Implementing a job-site recycling plan that separates recyclable materials from
non-recyclable materials. For example, clean wood, scrap metal, cardboard,
glass, asphalt, concrete and land-clearing waste generated on construction or
demolition sites can be easily be separated for recycling.
c) Designing a storage and collection area for recyclables materials that will be
collected during the occupancy of a space structure.
The 3Rs principles, when established at the beginning of a project, help project teams
purchase accurate supplies of materials and reduce the amount of construction and
912
demolition waste generated. The result saves costs and reduces environmental impacts.
It also sets an example for conserving natural resources and reducing the broader
environmental impacts associated with the extraction, manufacturing, and transportation
of building materials. Sustainable design principles and strategies depend on the quality
of the components available and the systems assembled to implement them. Designs are
realized by creating systems of components that work together to satisfy occupants
while minimizing environmental impacts and resource use.
5 Construction
Decisions that the structural engineer makes during the design phase affect resource
conservation during the construction process and the end of a space structure’s useful
life. In order to be better informed about the decisions affecting sustainability, the
structural engineer and the entire design team can benefit from a contractor’s input and
owner involvement during the design process. The contractor is often more informed of
material availability and recyclability than the rest of the design team. The contractor
can inform the design team of typical dimensions and size of materials that can affect
design decisions. This may add an additional upfront cost, but over the duration of the
project can provide a more streamlined process and end result, and therefore minimize
cost.
Another factor that affects the construction process is the use of prefabricated elements,
and the efficiency is even greater if a single unit type can be used repetitively in a
project. Because prefabrication is typically done offsite in a shop under controlled
conditions, it is easier to obtain more precise elements and a therefore a more efficient
use of materials. Cost and material efficiencies are often found through mass production.
Also, by producing the elements in a shop’s controlled atmosphere, material waste can
be better and more easily controlled. Conditions can be established to control dust, noise
and air pollution, and therefore minimize it on the construction site. These factors likely
decrease the overall cost as well.
6 Performance based engineering

The investment of design effort and thoughtfulness in the implementation of sustainable
systems of a space structure deserves a corresponding amount of thoughtful design
effort and owner investment in the structural system of the space structure. If the
conscientious intent of sustainable design includes conserving operating costs and
resources in the space structure and maintaining and prolonging the useful life of the
space structure, then the design approach should extend beyond the space structure shell
to the space structure contents as well. The space structure and its contents together
comprise the sustainable design system. The consequences of the structural performance
on the space structure contents and systems should be considered because the building
performance can protect and prolong the benefits of the sustainable systems and of the
other investments that the owner has committed to. The selection of a structural system
for a space structure has direct consequences when that system is tested during an
earthquake. The performance of the structural system is manifest in the level of damage
913
after the earthquake. With the constant cyclic development of our engineering
knowledge that incorporates observed damage from earthquakes and the
implementation into practice, there is typically a predictable damage scenario that can
be portrayed if the structural system, space structure type, contents, and cladding system
are known. The intent of the code is to provide “life-safety”, and does not preclude
damage. The damage has a cost associated with it. If the damage is to be repaired, the
repair effort uses resources in the form of labor, raw materials, and business resources
that are suspended or redirected. If the damage is extensive enough that repair is not
pursued, then resources are used to dismantle the space structure, and the space
structure components are hauled away to landfill.
There is a negative financial impact with damage. If there is damage to the space
structure and its contents, then the owner can lose initial advantages of any sustainable
design decisions if there is significant value of earthquake damage. Other losses are in
the downtime of the business, as well as in the efforts afterwards to recoup damage,
such as creating duplicate functions to cover the losses until the damaged portion is
repaired. The recovery efforts have physical and time components: repair and recovery
of the physical plant as well as recovery of the interruption of business.
In order to avoid these negative cost and time scenarios, structural systems can be
selected using a performance based design method, as informed by interaction with site
characteristics. In the evaluation of different systems, the interaction of the site, space
structure shell, and space structure contents should be considered. Life cycle cost
implications should also be evaluated [10]. The initial cost of implementing a structural
system should be considered with respect to the value of the sustainable design
components, the savings in operating costs, damage prevention, and the prolonged life
of the space structure.
Performance considerations of a structural system can have different criteria, depending
on the function and objectives set out for the space structures. Good performance can be
one where damage to the space structures shell and contents is minimized if the intent of
the design is to have the space structure as intact and functioning soon after a seismic
event. For another type of space structures and set of objectives, a measure of
acceptable performance may be more extensive damage, but the damage is controlled.
Evaluating and choosing a structural system for either scenario involves the same
process of evaluating and balancing considerations in a probabilistic risk and cost
analysis that includes performance metrics, performance for different seismic levels,
initial first cost, cost of repair or reengagement of the space structure system.
7 Conclusions
In order to design truly sustainable space structures, it is necessary that all members of
the design team work in a fully integrated fashion and that the space structure be viewed
as an integrated whole. Individual space structure systems no longer exist independent
of each other but are increasingly heavily linked across disciplines. The structural
elements are required to form both architectural, mechanical heating and cooling
functions, and lighting.
914
This makes the design of a sustainable space structure a much more challenging and
cross-disciplinary process than in the past. Changes or problems in one discipline
cannot be readily rectified or instituted without impacting the other disciplines, which
are now linked together in ways never before undertaken in space structure design. New
computer design tools such as energy modeling and building information modeling will
provide even more incentive and the capability to work in fully integrated design teams
to create more environmentally sound, high performance space structures.
References
[1] Sarja A. Integrated Life Cycle Design of Structures: Spoon Press, 2002.
[2] Brand S. How Buildings Learn: What Happens After They’re Built. Penguin Group,
1994.
[3] Durmisevic E and Brouwer J. Design Aspects of Decomposable Building
Structures. Proceedings of CIB 272, TG 39, Germany, 2002: 81-103.
[4] Doyle F. Design for Deconstruction, Architectural Review Australia, 1994;
Autumn:86-90.
[5] Crowther P. Developing Guidelines for Design for Deconstruction, Proc. of the
Deconstruction - Closing the Loop conference, BRE, Watford, UK, 2000.
[6] Guy B. Building Deconstruction Assessment Tool Proc. of the Deconstruction and
Materials Reuse: Technology, Economic, and Policy. 2001; CIB 266:125-136.
[7] Fletcher SL, Popovic O and Plank R. Designing for Future Reuse and Recycling,
Proc. of the Deconstruction - Closing the Loop Conference, BRE, Watford, UK;
2000.
[8] Peters, T. F. Building the Nineteenth Century, MIT Press, Cambridge, 1996.
[9] Addis W and Schouten, J. Principles of Design for Deconstruction to Facilitate
Reuse and Recycling, CIRIA; 2004
[10] Fletcher SL, Popovic O and Plank R. Layered Life Cycle Approach to Building
Design, in Steemers, K. and Yanos, S. (eds) Architecture City Environment: Proc.
of PLEA, Cambridge, UK, 2000:725-730.
915
Target lifespan and limiting energy use

in new and existing structures
Petr VEGH1*
1*
TROW Associates Inc.
1595 Clark Boulevard, Brampton, Ontario, Canada L6T 4V1
petr.vegh@trow.com
Abstract
During the life cycle of buildings, energy is directly or indirectly consumed at
different times in various forms. It includes not only the energy required to operate the
building but also the energy associated with production, preparation and handling of the
construction materials, the actual erection of the structure, its maintenance and repairs,
restorations, and finally with its demolition, together with disposal and recycling of the
construction waste.
For a typical building with a lifespan of several decades the sum of all energy required
to operate it is significantly larger than its embodied and demolition energy combined.
This is because the operational energy adds up over the many years of the structure’s
lifespan, while the amount of the embodied plus demolition energy stays more or less
constant with the exception of the changes to it that occur during renovations.
Spreading the sum of the embodied plus demolition energy over the many years of the
structure’s lifespan yields a yearly portion of this energy, which typically is not overly
significant as compared to the yearly operational energy. If, however, the building’s
lifespan is somehow shortened the embodied and the demolition component becomes
much more significant.
The paper discusses the importance of considering and using the full lifespan of
structures and their components for limiting the energy use spread over time, both in
new structures as well as in existing ones . Unnecessary shortening of the lifespan of
structures leads to energy use that could have been prevented or delayed. Some
strategies that can help improve this practice are suggested.
Keywords: Embodied and operational energy, environmental compatibility
1 Introduction
All new and existing structures directly or indirectly consume energy in various forms.
It is used for building, operating, maintaining and disposing of these structures. The
energy production and its subsequent use has a significant negative impact on the
environment. While energy consumption is not the only factor determining the
environmental compatibility of a structure it is certainly a very significant one. By
limiting it, better environmental compatibility of these structures can be achieved
through the energy use reduction [1].
916
Buildings generally represent a large component of the country’s capital wealth. Their
operation and maintenance as well as the production of new ones require a significant
amount of resources and energy.
One strategy for achieving the decrease in energy use for buildings and other structures
over time is to fully utilize the energy that was used to build the structure – the
embodied energy while at the same time minimizing the energy used to operate them –
the operational energy. This means not only making the structures last longer, that is
making them durable, but also trying to ensure that structures are not demolished before
at least reaching a desirable target life span and that they are efficient in their operation.
Preventing structures from premature deterioration or premature partial or full
demolition saves energy use that would otherwise be used for demolition and disposal
of the old structure and possibly for building and supplying a new one.
An attempt to address issues of durability of buildings has been made in the CSA
Standard S478-95, Guideline on Durability in Buildings [2]. The Guideline addresses
the durability and premature deterioration issues throughout the life of the building,
including the necessary maintenance procedures which should be anticipated.
2 Energy Consumption in Buildings

During the life cycle of buildings, energy is directly or indirectly consumed at different
times in various forms. It includes not only the energy required to operate the building
but also the energy associated with production, preparation and handling of the
construction materials, the actual erection of the structure, its maintenance and repairs,
restorations, and finally with its demolition, together with disposal and recycling of the
construction waste.
The energy required for the production of materials or building components is referred
to as embodied energy and is usually given per unit weight of the particular material or
building component. By summing up the energy required for all the materials within
the building structure together with the energy required for the erection of the building
we obtain the embodied energy of the whole building, meaning the energy required to
“produce” the whole building.
Figure 1 schematically illustrates how energy is consumed during a typical lifecycle of a
building [3]. Starting with the embodied energy EE which is required to “produce” it,
the building then begins to consume operational energy OE.. Over its lifecycle the
building is likely to undergo some renovations, which will require energy (for partial
demolitions, new building components, new finishes etc.) and thus will increase the
embodied energy of the building. However, assuming that the renovation is carried out
in an environmentally responsible manner, it is reasonable to expect that the operational
energy consumption (per unit time period) after the renovation will be lower than prior
to the renovation. At the end of the lifecycle the building again requires demolition
energy DE for its demolition and the disposal and recycling of the construction waste.
917
Fig. 1: Energy consumption during a lifecycle of a typical building.
Considering the above the following ratio can be defined:
N = (∑EE + ∑DE) / ∑OE (1),
Where: ∑EE is the sum of all embodied energy. It includes the initial
embodied energy and all embodied energy that has been
added during the renovations;
∑DE is the sum of all the energy required for demolition,
disposal and recycling of the construction waste;
∑OE is the sum of all operating energy during the lifespan of
the structure.
In general the goal should be to have N << 1 while minimizing the term ∑OE. For
future use it would likely be beneficial to study the value of the ratio N for certain
typical structures with respect to different design life-spans as it could be a useful tool
for designers.
For a typical building with a lifespan of several decades the operational energy
component ∑OE of the overall energy consumption is usually substantially larger than
the embodied and demolition energy component (∑EE + ∑DE). This is because the
operational energy component adds up over the many years of the structure’s lifespan,
918
while the embodied and the demolition component stays more or less constant with the
exception of the changes to it that occur during renovations. If, however, the building’s
lifespan is somehow shortened the embodied and the demolition component becomes
much more significant as it is not spread out over as many years, therefore the
“consumption per one year” of the embodied and demolition energy is greater and the
ratio N is larger.
2.1 Limits for Energy Use in Buildings
For simplification let us assume that the operational energy, saved as a result of the
improvements to the structure implemented during renovations, is equal to the
embodied energy added during these renovations. Let us further assume, that the rate of
consumption of the operational energy is, on average, constant over the lifecycle of the
structure. We can then express operational energy OEi consumed during one year as a
fraction of the initial total embodied energy of the structure:
OEi = r x EE (2),
Where r is as a coefficient of appropriate value that will satisfy Equation 2 for various
types of structures.
If we consider a certain limit of energy eLi that a structure can consume per unit of its
enclosed volume during one year of its operation and the lifecycle of the same structure
as t years we can express the following relationship:
t x eL ≥ EE + r x t x EE (3),
where eL is the energy limit per year for the whole volume Vs of the structure enclosed
by the outside surface of the building envelope:
eL = Vs x eLi. (4)
From Equation 3 we obtain a relationship between the coefficient r and the lifespan t of
the structure:
r ≤ eL / EE - 1/t (5)
This relationship is plotted in Figure2. The hyperbolic curve for t ≥ EE/eL shows the
maximum value of the coefficient r for a corresponding minimum number of years the
structure has to be in service to satisfy the set energy limit eL. In other words, it shows
the importance of considering the minimum lifespan of structures when assessing their
environmental compatibility in terms of overall energy use. The part of the hyperbolic
curve for 0 > t < EE/eL can be valid for structures which would actually produce usable
energy instead of consuming it for their operation. While this may be possible, it is not
typical.
919
Fig. 2: Value of coefficient r related to the number years t the structure is in service.
The concept of having a set energy limit can have certain advantages. For example it
can provide means of comparing the environmental compatibility of structures with
different lifespans with respect to their overall energy usage. Using this comparison,
environmental compatibility of structures with initial higher value of embodied energy
but a long lifespan can be justified. On the other hand it can also show the level of
environmental compatibility of short lifespan - temporary structures with low embodied
energy but high operational energy.
2.2 Target Lifespan

Many structures are demolished long before the load bearing structural system is at or
close to the end of its service life. There are often many good practical reasons for this,
however, from the point of view of energy, this leads to energy use that could have been
prevented or delayed.
One way to ensure that the energy that was used to build a structure is properly utilized
is by setting a meaningful target lifespan T for it that would be tied to an energy limit.
It may further be advantageous to distinguish between a target lifespan for the main
primary structure, which should last the whole lifespan of the structure to its final
demolition, and target lifespans for secondary structural parts, that may be renovated,
modified or replaced several times during the lifespan of the whole structure and which
may by certain groups have different lifespans.
A certain type of structure with a minimum target lifespan would be built to last a
certain minimum number of years T. Based on the initial embodied energy of the
920
structure and the minimum lifespan T a “maximum limit value of embodied energy per
year” eLE for that type of structure would be set as:
eLE = ∑EE / T , (6)
where T is the “Targeted Lifespan” of the particular type of structure.

For a structure that would be demolished before the end of the Targeted Lifespan certain
“energy compensation” can be required for the portion of the “unused residual”
embodied energy given as:
EEResidual = (T – tactual) x ∑EE / T (7)
where tactual is the actual lifespan of the demolished structure.
2.3 Some Strategies for Limiting the Energy Use
Setting meaningful values for target lifespans and energy use limits is a difficult task. It
means, to a certain degree, predicting the future. Some reasonable values, however, can
be obtained for certain types of structures, which have been used in the construction
industry for a while and for which the required data already exists or can be calculated
based on their history of use and track record. Setting these values would be the first
step for trying the above concept in practice.
The lifecycle of a structure typically ends with a demolition, together with disposal and
recycling of the construction waste. In the authors own experience with demolitions,
however, many structures are demolished long before the load bearing structural system
is at or close to the end of its service life. It is also not unusual that structural members
from these demolitions, that are still in good condition, are discarded rather that reused.
Changing this practice would certainly help reduce the use of new materials and energy,
as well as reduce construction waste.
The energy required for renovations and rehabilitations is a part of the overall energy
consumed during the life cycle of the structure. The quality of these renovations and
rehabilitations (in terms of environmental compatibility) can substantially influence the
operational energy from the time the renovations and rehabilitations are finished and
also the embodied energy of the structure. The overall goal should be that the
operational energy of the updated structure will be lower than before the renovations
and rehabilitations and that any increase in embodied energy as a result of a renovation
or rehabilitation will be, as a minimum, balanced by the operational energy saving
achieved until the next renovation or rehabilitation.
A renovation or rehabilitation also typically extends the lifecycle of an existing structure.
An indirect result of that is that it saves materials and other resources that would
otherwise be necessary for building a new structure and reduces the possible impact on
the environment resulting from the disposal of the demolition waste and manufacturing
and handling of the new construction materials.
921
An important factor that needs to be considered during the conceptual design stage of a
new structure, as it will effect future renovations and rehabilitations from the point of
view of environmental compatibility is the ratio between the so called primary structure
and secondary structure [4].
By “primary” structural parts or “primary structure” (P) we understand the basic
fundamental system of parts, which form the main load bearing system of a structure
(e.g. the main steel framing or reinforced concrete skeleton of a building). It is assumed
that this main load bearing system will not undergo major renovations/changes through
the lifetime of a structure. The “secondary” structural parts (S) (e.g. non load bearing
partitions, parts of the building envelope, finishes etc.), on the other hand, may be
rehabilitated/changed several times over the lifetime of the structure. Typically certain
groups of the secondary structural parts are being rehabilitated/changed at the same time.
It is important that the structural parts in each group, that is likely to be
rehabilitated/changed at one time, have a similar lifespan, so as to avoid “wasting”
embodied energy, that could still have been used.
For different structural types, materials and finishes the ration of the embodied energy
of (P) to the embodied energy of (S) can vary substantially. It has been shown that the
embodied energy of (S) can be equal to or more than the embodied energy of (P).
During renovations or rehabilitations it is typically the secondary structural parts (S)
that are being rehabilitated or replaced.
With the use of modern materials and technologies it is possible to produce new
structural components with reduced embodied energy. We can assume, that the trend of
producing more energy efficient structural parts, both in terms of their embodied energy
as well as in terms of their performance, will continue in the future. That means that
more efficient structural components and materials should be available for future
renovations and rehabilitations.
It is therefore important, that structures be designed and built in a way which enables
the parts, that are not vitally important to the main structural system, but can greatly
influence the energy effectiveness of the structure (by definition typically the secondary
structural parts), to be replaced by more efficient ones when required. The primary
structure’s main contributions in terms of environmental compatibility are, on the other
hand, that it ensures the actual existence of the structure, enables possibly several
renovations and replacements of the secondary structural parts and lasts the whole
lifecycle of the structure (without any significant modifications), thus conserving energy
and materials that would otherwise be needed for a new replacement structure.
Ideally in summary, (P) should last as long as possible while offering the greatest
possible variability for modifications and improvements through, moving, repairing or
replacing of selected secondary structural parts. Also, during a renovation, the
minimum of (S) should be replaced while at the same time achieving the greatest
possible increase in energy efficiency.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
922
Compensations for “environmental damage” caused by construction activities are

already not uncommon for the construction industry, however, the presented approach is
just a theoretical concept that would need to be carefully studied and evaluated before
being put into practical trial.
Setting meaningful values for the targeted lifespans and embodied energy limits, which
may be different for different geographic areas, however, will have to involve, aside
from other considerations, assessing and evaluating energy consumption values for
different kinds of typical structures.
Referencess
Reference
[1] Vegh L and Vegh P. Environmentally Compatible Shell and Spatial Structures and
Structural Materials (ECS) Journal of the IASS 2000; 41
41: 59–64.
[2] CSA Standard S478-95 Guideline on Durability in Buildings, Canadian Standards
Association, Canada, December 1995。
[3] Vegh P. Environmentally Compatible Structures - Limiting Energy Use in New
and Existing Structures Proceedings of the International IASS Symposium,
Acapulco, Mexico, 2008.
[4] Vegh P. Improving Environmentally Compatibility of Three Common Structural
Systems Used in Canada Proceedings of the International IASS Symposium,
Valencia, Spain, 2009.
923
2.8 WG 19 Temporary Structures
924
Draft structural design guideline for temporary spatial

structures
Tatsuo MUROTA1*
1*
Housing Loan Promotion Association (Foundation)
Sekiguchi 1-24-2, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 112-0014 Japan
murota@mips.ne.jp
Abstract
WG19 has been drawing up a guideline for the structural design of temporary spatial
structures. In the WG 19 organized session draft of the guideline will be presented and
discussed. This keynote lecture will introduce draft of the structural design guideline for
temporary spatial structures.
Keywords: temporary spatial structure, structural design guideline, safety control
system, safety control subsystem, design working life
1 Introduction
WG19 has been drawing up a guideline for the structural design of temporary spatial
structures as shown in [1] & [2]. In this organized session draft of the guideline will be
presented and discussed.
This keynote lecture will introduce draft of the structural design guideline for temporary
spatial structures. Temporary spatial structures to be designed according to this
guideline are supposed to satisfy the following conditions:
(1) Periods of their use are definite and, on expiry, they are disassembled or removed;
(2) When they include structural elements which have been designed to be replaced at a
certain time interval, the elements are replaced as scheduled;
(3) They equip safety control systems for the purpose of fulfilling the required structural
performances and the systems are operated to work adequately during their working
lives.
Major differences between temporary spatial structures and so-called permanent spatial
structures are:
a. Structural performances of temporary spatial structures will be recognized more
precisely by owners;
b. Temporary spatial structures will fulfil the performances, with higher degrees of
reliability, with the help of safety control subsystems through their working lives.
Some temporary spatial structures have been expected as a field for trial use of
materials or structural systems, performance of which are difficult to be determined
with an appropriate accuracy by ordinary test methods. In such cases properties of those
materials or structural systems are necessary to be determined by means of the on-site
925
full-scale testing. If the temporary spatial structure includes such materials or structural
systems and on-site full-scale testing, this guideline requests to pay special attentions on
the following matters:
― safety control subsystems related to those materials or structural systems should
be designed adequately taking their unexpected behaviour into consideration;
― the safety control system should refer to the damage inspection and emergency
activity during and after hazardous actions.
2 Draft structural design guideline for temporary spatial structures

The draft structural design guideline for temporary spatial structures will be shown in
the Annex.
References
[1] Murota T., Structural design of temporary spatial structures. Proceeding of the
IASS Symposium 2009, Valencia
[2] Okada H., Structural design loads on temporary spatial structures. Proceeding of
the IASS Symposium 2009, Valencia
926
Annex: Draft structural design guideline for temporary spatial

structures
Contents
1. Scope
2. Definition of terms
3. Requirements and methods of achievement
3.1 Fundamental requirements
3.2 Degrees of reliability
3.3 Methods of achievement
3.3.1 General
3.3.2 Safety control system
4. Principles of limit states design
4.1 Limit states
4.1.1 General
4.1.2 Serviceability limit states
4.1.3 Structural limit states
4.1.4 Social inconvenience limit states
4.2 Description of limit states
5. Principles of structural design
5.1 Design situations
5.2 Performance requirements
5.3 Classification of actions according to predictability
5.4 Environmental influences
5.5 Properties of materials and structural systems
5.6 Design of safety control systems
5.6.1 General
5.6.2 Safety control manual
5.6.3 Safety control subsystems for actions of category 1
5.6.3.1 Monitoring of actions
5.6.3.2 Design of preventive measures
5.6.4.1 General
5.6.4.2 Preventive measures
Annex A: Application of the guideline in compliance with existing building regulations
A.1 Objectives
A.2 Reconfirmation of limit states specified in existing regulations
A.3 Modification of design situations
A.4 Modification of performance requirements
927
Draft Structural Design Guideline for Temporary Spatial Structures

1. Scope
This guideline specifies general principles for the structural design of temporary spatial
structures used for a limited period of time.
The general principles are applicable to the design of complete structures and structural
elements of temporary spatial structures.
In case that construction of temporary spatial structures is regulated by legislation, the
regulation has an advantage over this guideline. A recommendation on applying this
guideline to the case will be shown in Annex A.
Temporary spatial structures to be designed according to this guideline are supposed to
satisfy the following conditions:
(1) Periods of their use are definite and, on expiry, they are disassembled or removed;
(2) When they include structural elements which have been designed to be replaced at a
certain time interval, the elements are replaced as scheduled;
(3) They equip safety control systems for the purpose of fulfilling the required structural
performances and the systems are operated to work adequately during their working
lives.
NOTE ― Some temporary structures are requested to have a certain level of
performance related to fire. Owners of temporary spatial structures are
recommended to make use of the safety control systems also on fires.
2．Definition of terms
structure: Organized combination of connected parts designed to provide some
measure of rigidity and strength.
structural element: Part of a structure.
structural system: Load-bearing elements of a temporary spatial structure and
the way in which these elements function together.
safety control system: Set of preventive measures and personal organizations
equipped for a structural system to satisfy the structural performance required to it.
design situation: Set of physical conditions representing a certain time interval
for which the design demonstrates that relevant limit states are not exceeded.
serviceability: Ability of a structure or structural element to perform adequately
for normal use under all expected actions.
failure: Insufficient load-bearing capacity or inadequate serviceability of a
structure or structural element.
reliability: Ability of a structure or structural element to fulfill the specified
requirements, including the working life, for which it has been designed.
structural limit: Mechanical singular points, which a structure or structural
element experiences when it is subject to loading.
NOTE ― “Mechanical singular point” includes failure, yield point, elastic limit,
proportional limit, bearing capacity, allowable strength, etc.
928
social inconvenience: Dangerous environments caused outdoors by the collapse

or failure of a structure or structural element which happened to occur at
nonhazardous weather condition or earthquake.
NOTE ― Typical causes of “dangerous environments” are removal of roofing in a
mild wind and scattering of broken window glass on a road at the event of minor
earthquakes.
limit state: A state beyond which the structure no longer satisfies the design
performance requirements.
serviceability limit state: A state which corresponds to conditions beyond
which specified service requirements for a structure or structural element are no
longer met.
structural limit state: A state which corresponds to conditions beyond which
the structure no longer satisfies the structural limit state requirements.
social inconvenience limit state: A state which corresponds to conditions
beyond which the specified public nuisance requirements for a structure, structural
element or exterior finishing are no longer met.
design working life: Assumed period for which a structure or structural element
is to be used for its intended purpose without major repair being necessary.
maintenance: Total set of activities performed during the design working life of a
structure to enable it to fulfill the requirements for reliability.
protective measure: Measures that can be taken to protect failures predicted to
occur in a structure or structural element under an action.
action:
1) An assembly of concentrated or distributed mechanical forces acting on a
structure.
2) The cause of deformations imposed on the structure or constrained in it.
environmental influence: Mechanical physical, chemical or biological influence
which may cause deterioration of materials constituting a structure, which in turn
may affect its serviceability and safety in an unfavorable way.
3. Requirements and methods of achievement

3.1 Fundamental requirements
Structures and structural elements of temporary spatial structures shall be designed,
constructed or maintained in such a way that they are suited for their use during the
design working life.
In particular they shall, with appropriate degrees of reliability, fulfill the following
requirements:
― they shall perform adequately under all expected actions (serviceability limit state
requirement)
― they shall withstand actions assumed to occur during the design working life
(structural limit state requirement)
929
― they shall not cause social inconvenience at events of storms and earthquakes which
are not so severe to make many parts of social and economic human activities stop
(social inconvenience limit state requirement)
NOTE ― “Social inconvenience” includes;
― collapse of structures
― breaking-off and scattering of cladding, roofing or structural elements
― scattering of window glass over public roads
― fall-down of curtain walls over public roads
3.2 Degrees of reliability

The expression “with appropriate degrees of reliability” used in 3.1 means that the
degree of reliability should be adopted taking account of:
― the cause and mode of failure implying that a structure or structural element which
would be likely to collapse suddenly without warning should be designed for a
higher degree of reliability than one for which a collapse is preceded by some kind
of warning in such a way that measures can be taken to limit the consequences;
― the possible consequences of failure in terms of risk to life, injury, potential
economic losses and the level of social inconveniences;
― the expense, level of effort and procedures necessary to reduce the risk of failure;
― the period, expense, level of effort and procedures necessary for the restoration;
― the social and environmental conditions in the construction site.
3.3 Methods of achievement

3.3.1 General
The required reliability may be achieved by suitable combinations of the following two
measures:
1) Design a structure or structural element to have an appropriate level of structural
performance;
2) Design and equip an appropriate safety control system for the purpose of making a
structure or structural element fulfill the required reliability.
3.3.2 Safety control system

A safety control system is composed of protective measures and relevant personal teams.
A set of a protective measure and relevant personal team is called a safety control
subsystem.
A subsystem shall be designed and operated adequately to achieve a relevant limit state
requirement.
“Protective measures” include:
― regulation of loads or actions;
― change or regulation of structural shapes;
― selection or regulation of failure mode;
― regulation of structural characteristics.
930
4. Principles of limit states design

4.1 Limit states
4.1.1 General
The structural performance of a whole structure or part of it of a temporary spatial
structure should generally be described with reference to a specified set of limit states
which separate desired states of the structure from undesired states.
The limit states are divided into the following three categories:
a) serviceability limit states, which concern the normal use;
b) structural limit states, which correspond to the mechanical singular points of a
structure or structural element, such as elastic limit, allowable stress or deformation;
c) social inconvenience limit states, which concern dangerous environments caused
outdoors by the collapse or failure of a structure or structural element which
happened to occur at nonhazardous weather condition or earthquake.
The limit states, in principle, shall be specified by the owner according to the purpose of
the temporary spatial structure. It will be noted that, in some cases, special attention
should be paid on explicit or implicit social requirements on the limit states.
4.1.2 Serviceability limit states

Serviceability limit states include:
a) local damage (including cracking) which may reduce the working life of the
structure or affect the efficiency or appearance of structural or non-structural
elements;
b) unacceptable deformation which affect the efficient use or appearance of structural
or non-structural elements or the functioning of equipment;
c) excessive vibrations which cause discomfort to people or affect non-structural
elements or the functioning of equipment.
4.1.3 Structural limit states

Structural limit states include:
a) loss of equilibrium of the structure or a part of the structure, considered as a
rigid body (e.g. overturning);
b) attainment of the elastic limit strength of structural elements, connections or
excessive deformations;
c) transformation of the structure or part of it into a mechanism;
d) instability of the structure or part of it.
4.1.4 Social inconvenience limit states

Social inconvenience limit states include:
a) collapse of structures;
b) removal and scattering of structural elements exterior finishing;
c) failure and fall of structural elements or cladding (including window glass).
931
It should be noted that they are limited to those that happen to occur at nonhazardous
weather condition or earthquake and do not include similar phenomena observed at the
event of accidental actions, such as a violent storm, strong earthquake, etc.
The social inconvenience limit states shall be specified according to the social
requirements.
4.2 Description of limit states

A limit state specified in the structural design shall be described at least with reference
to the following items:
1) name and level of the action to be supposed (design situation)
2) requirement of performance for the design situation (performance requirement)
3) method to achieve the performance requirement (safety control subsystem)
5. Principles of structural design

5.1 Design situations
A design situation shall be supposed taking the following items into consideration:
― the occurrence probability of the action in the design working life;
― records of the disasters occurred in the area in the past.
The design load supposed in a design situation corresponds mostly to a single action.
But when necessary, it shall be supposed based on the simultaneous influence of
different actions. In the latter case each of the design levels for the combined actions
shall be specified.
5.2 Performance requirements

Contents of performance requirements shall be described clearly including the criterion
of the satisfaction.
5.3 Classification of actions according to predictability

The safety control subsystem shall be designed according to the category of the
predictability of relevant action shown below;
Category 1: Actions, the occurrence time of which can be predicted beforehand and
allow enough time to complete preparation required in the safety
control subsystem, such as wind snow, etc.
Category 2: Actions, the occurrence time of which can not be predicted beforehand,
or actions, the occurrence time of which can be predicted beforehand
but do not allow enough time to complete preparation required in
safety control subsystem, such as earthquake, etc.
5.4 Environmental influences
932
Environmental influences may have a mechanical, physical, chemical or biological

character and may deteriorate the material of a structure which, in turn, may affect
safety and serviceability in an unfavorable way.
Structures or structural elements subject to environmental influences shall be designed
adequately taking them into account.
In the design of structures or structural elements made of ice, temperature or
temperature variation of air shall not be neglected, but shall be assumed as a major
action.
5.5 Properties of materials and structural systems

Properties of materials and structural systems used in the temporary spatial structures
should be described by measurable physical quantities and should correspond to the
properties considered in the calculation model. Generally the properties and their
variation should be determined from tests on appropriate test specimens.
Properties of some materials or structural systems are difficult to be determined with an

appropriate accuracy by those test methods. In such cases properties of those materials
or structural systems are necessary to be determined by means of the on-site full-scale
testing. If the temporary spatial structure includes such materials or structural systems
and on-site full-scale testing, special attentions should be paid on the following matters:
― safety control subsystems related to those materials or structural systems should be
designed adequately taking their unexpected behavior into consideration;
― the safety control system should refer to the damage inspection and emergency
activity during and after hazardous actions.
5.6 Design of safety control systems

5.6.1 General
A safety control system consists of preventive measures and groups of people who
operate the preventive measures, and it must work at any time when needed. Therefore,
it must be designed with high reliability so as not to stop working effectively during the
This system can be revised in the design working life, but the temporary spatial
structure should continue to fulfill the performances supposed at the initial stage.
5.6.2 Safety control manual

All the operation procedures contained in a safety control system shall be described in
the safety control manual and the manual shall be supplied for the operation staff to read
at any time.

5.6.3.1 Monitoring of actions
933
A safety control system for actions of category 1 should contain a system for
monitoring the actions.
In the design of the monitoring system, the following information shall be presented;
(1) quantitative relation between the monitored physical quantity and the effect of
action on a structure or structural element
(2) accuracy of the relation
Methods of monitoring include:

― to monitor the data published or provided by a meteorological station or similar
agencies;
― to observe some appropriate physical quantities at a point or points near to the
structure
― to measure the response of a structural element which has the known relation with
an action
5.6.3.2 Design of preventive measures

A preventive measure shall be designed to fulfill a required performance with high
reliability. The scheme for mobilizing the relevant support team shall also be designed
carefully in order to avoid the following failures:
― failures caused by the late start of preventive measure preparation;
― failures caused by the too-early withdrawal of the preventive measure.
Preventive measures used for actions of the category 1 include:
(1) Regulation of loads or actions;
Based on the prediction of date and time of the attack of a hazardous action, a
designated support team prepares and implements these measures so as to keep the
load caused by the action lower than a certain level. The following measures are
classified in this type:
― removal activity of snowdrift
― operation of snow-melting apparatus
(2) Change or regulation of structural shapes;
Based on the prediction of date and time of the attack of a hazardous action, a
designated support team prepares and implements these measures so as to prevent
the failure of the structure or structural element. The following measures are
classified in this type:
―temporary addition of extra structural elements to the original structure
―temporary reinforcement of structural elements of the original structures
―to disassemble the whole structure temporarily
―to rotate the whole structure against winds so as to decrease the wind pressure
(3) Regulation of failure mode;
On being predicted a severest action which is sure to cause failure, a designated
support team regulates the structure to fail slowly so as to keep the evacuation time
long enough. The following measure is classified in this type:
934
―forced breakage of membrane of cable-dome type membrane structures at a

heavy snowfall.
(4) Regulation of structural characteristics;
This can be applied to those structures that values of the load on a structure or
structural element change according to the mechanical property of the structure or
structural element. When a hazardous action is predicted, a support team regulates
the mechanical property of the structure or structural element so as to keep the load
under a certain level. The following measure is classified in this type:
―regulation of internal pressure for pneumatic structures.

5.6.4.1 General
If the structure or structural element is designed so as to fulfill all required
performances by itself, there is no need to contain a system for monitoring the actions in
safety control systems.
5.6.4.2 Preventive measures

Preventive measures used for actions of the category 2 include:
(1) Selection of an appropriate failure mode;
This preventive measure can be adopted when the failure of a structure or structural
element can be acceptable and it fails slowly enough for evacuating everyone inside.
The following measure is classified in this type:
―equipment of passive mass damper.
(2) Regulation of structural characteristics;
This preventive measure regulates the mechanical property of a structure or
structural element automatically in order to prevent excessive loads. The following
measure is classified in this type:
―equipment of active mass damper
935
Annex A: Application of the guideline in compliance with existing

building regulations
A.1 Objectives
The objective of this annex is to provide a general guidance to apply this guideline to
the design of temporary spatial structures to be constructed in areas regulated by
legislation on the building design.
A.2 Reconfirmation of limit states required in existing regulations

First of all, required limit states in the building regulations shall be examined and
compared with those in your design, corresponding to the three limit states described in
4.1.
If the social inconvenience limit state is not required clearly in the regulations, it must
be inferred by adequate methods. The methods include:
― to ask building officials,
― to infer the requirement from the result of investigation on the strength of roofing
and cladding against winds of existing buildings near the construction site.
A.3 Modification of design situations

In case that the design situation specified in building regulations is expressed in
probabilistic terms, the corresponding design situation for the temporary spatial
structure can be modified so as to have the equivalent probability during the design
working life of the structure.
On the contrary, when it is expressed in definitive terms, following measures shall be
taken:
― to assume the same design situation as the regulations,
― to consult building officials on the adequate modification corresponding to the
A.4 Modification of performance requirements

In case that the performance requirement is expressed in general terms, the requirement
shall be applied to the temporary spatial structure in principle.
When it is expressed in technical terms and in addition it does not apply or correspond
to the temporary spatial structure, it is recommended to modify the requirement
adequately. The modification shall be made taking the following points into
consideration, and also consulting building officials:
― mechanical characteristics of the temporary spatial structure;
― equipment of a safety control system.
936
Draft structural design guideline

for temporary spatial structures; commentary
Hisashi OKADA1*
1*
Japan Housing and Wood Technology Center
Shinsuna 3-4-2, Koto-ku, Tokyo, 136-0075, Japan
h-okada@howtec.or.jp
Abstract
This paper provides complementary information to the Draft Structural Design
Guidelines for Temporary Spatial Structures. Major subjects taken here are; structural
performance requirements, methods to fulfil required structural performances, limit
state requirements, safety control systems and application of guideline in compliance
with existing regulations. And in addition some ideas for the safety control systems are
introduced.
Keywords: temporary spatial structure, structural performance requirement, limit states,

safety control system
1 Introduction
Aim of the Working Group 19 is to prepare recommendations for the structural design
and construction of temporary spatial structures. Draft Structural Design Guideline for
Temporary Spatial Structures (hereafter “draft guideline”) [3] is a tentative result of the
working in the last few years. The draft guideline proposes a conceptual outline as a
basis for the final recommendations. This paper provides practical commentary on the
conceptual outline and thereby complements the draft guideline.
2 Requirements and methods of achievement

2.1 Structural Performance Requirements
Structures and structural elements of temporary spatial structures have to be designed to
fulfil structural requirements with appropriate degrees of reliability. It will be noted here
that the term “structural elements” includes all building elements that may suffer
damage under actions of storms, earthquakes, etc. and therefore that are included in the
target objects of the structural design. Cladding and roofing of buildings are examples
of the structural elements. Hereafter the term “structure” may sometimes represent both
“structure” and “structural element”.
In order to fulfil structural requirements, structures or structural elements should not be
exposed through their design working lives to any states beyond the limit states
supposed in the structural design. The draft guideline has proposed three limit states to
be assumed in the structural design. They shall be referred to in Chapter 3.
937
The draft guideline does not contain any special comments on the loading actions to be
supposed in the structural design, because those will be the same as in the ordinary
structural design: dead loads, live loads, loads due to earthquake, wind and snow,
environmental loads due to temperature, etc.
The degrees of reliability can be expressed with non-exceedance probability of limit
states during their design working lives. Limit states to be supposed on structures can be
expressed by displacements, stresses, amplitudes of vibrations and the like. Resistant
capacity of structures such as stiffness and strength are called as “strength” here. And
physical actions are called as “loads”. Generally speaking, both strength and loads are
random valuables. Whether a structure reaches to a limit state or not can be expressed
by the following function of strength and load,
Z = fn (R , S ) for example, Z = R − S (1)
where Z = index showing states of structures, R = strength and S = load.

Index Z or value of the function is also random valuable. In structural design, it must be
confirmed that the index does not exceed its limit value with a certain reliability as
shown in equation (2);
Pf (Z ≤ Z cr ) > Pd (2)
where Pf ( ) = occurrence probability of events in parentheses, Zcr = limit value of Z and

Pd = probability corresponding to the appropriate reliability.
Degree of the appropriate reliability shall be decided based on the discussion on the
following subjects; risk to human lives, economic losses, impact on community, etc.
Characteristics of structures related to failure mode, construction cost, repairing cost, etc.
will also be discussed to decide appropriate reliability levels. Major factors related to
the degree of the appropriate reliability levels will be shown below.
2.1.1 Economic loss and loss of priceless possessions
Damage to temporary spatial structures (TSS) can be classified into two: 1) economic
loss and 2) loss of priceless possessions [2]. Mostly it is impossible to regain priceless
possessions. Loss of human lives is sometimes classified in the latter one. Even in the
case of economic loss, it will be difficult to recover the loss when the amount of its
value is enormous and also when it takes a very long period to restore the loss.
When the damage to TSS would cause such serious loss as mentioned above, the TSS
has to be designed as strong as possible with higher reliability.
2.1.2 Safety control subsystem
The draft guideline allows for TSS to satisfy limit state requirements by utilizing safety
control subsystems. The safety control subsystem is supposed to consists of a preventive
measure and a support team. The subsystem can be utilized only when a phenomenon
938
which causes loading actions is predicted beforehand and the prediction allows enough
time for the owner of TSS to complete preparation of the relevant preventive measure.
This concept means that the strength R in equation (1) can be written as equation (3);
R = Ro + Re (3)
where, Ro=strength of a structure itself without a safety control subsystem,

Re=quasi-strength of a safety control subsystem.
So the reliability of TSS with safety control subsystems depends not only on the
reliability of structures but also on the reliability of each safety control subsystem.
2.1.3 Maintenance
Mechanical, physical, chemical or biological influence causes deterioration of the

reliability of TSS. In the structural design of TSS, maintenance activities to be carried
out during the working life of TSS have to be decided and its effects on the
deterioration of reliability should be taken into consideration.
When TSS includes structural elements which have been designed to be replaced at a
certain interval, the elements should be replaced as scheduled.
2.1.4 Length of working life
If the loss that occurs to TSS can be purchased back economically, we can discuss the
relation between reliability and length of working life as shown below.
NOTE: In general, it is difficult to evaluate the loss of priceless possessions. So the

discussion below does not apply to priceless possession loss.
The period of one year is usually taken as a unit length when treating extreme values
of natural phenomena, where we can consider one year as one trial for getting one
extreme value. Relationship between the number of trials n and the probability Pf that
one of the out-picked extreme values Z1, Z2, Z3, ----, Zn exceeds a critical value Zcr can
be expressed by the following equation;
Pf (Z > Z cr ) = 1 − f n (4)
where, f = probability of Zi≦Zcr for one trial (i-th trial).

Equation (4) is illustrated in Fig. 1 for f= 0.99 and 0.995. The figure shows that at a
constant excess probability Pf , the decrease of working life (n) leads the decrease of
non-exceedance probability f (see arrow). The decrease of non-exceedance probability
means the decrease of design loads. So, supposing temporary spatial structures of the
same excess probability, the shorter is the working life, the smaller design loads can be
assumed.
939
0.6
Exceedance probability ( Pf ) 0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
f=0.99
0.1 f=0.995
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Number of trial (n)

Fig.1 Relation of exceedance probability and trial number
2.1.5 Social inconvenience
In this draft guideline the term “social inconvenience” is defined as dangerous

environments caused outdoors by the collapse or failure of structures or structural
elements of TSS which happened to occur at nonhazardous weather condition or
earthquake. Prevention of such social inconvenience is required by local communities in
the surrounding area regardless of the length of TSS’s working life. So the social
inconvenience requirements have to be fulfilled with appropriate reliability as much as
one expected for ordinary spatial structures.
2.2 Methods for achieving target structural performance
In ordinary structural design it is usual to increase strength in order to satisfy

performance requirements. The draft guideline has proposed another method called
“safety control system”. Safety control system is defined as “set of preventive measures
and personal organizations equipped for a structural system to satisfy the structural
performance required to it”. It will be useful to diminish the amount of structural
strength necessary for TSS when it is designed by the ordinary method.
The major aims of safety control systems will be divided into two types; temporary
reinforcement and load control. Temporary reinforcement aims at temporary increase of
structural strength and load control aims at load reduction.
2.2.1 Temporary reinforcement
Typical example of temporary reinforcement is provision of extra structural members

into original structures as shown in Fig. 2. In case when pneumatic structures are
940
exposed to severe storms, internal pressure is to be raised to resist the wind. This
increase of air pressure will be classified into the temporary reinforcement.
extra shore extra rope
load
load
(a) Extra shore (b) Extra rope
Fig.2 Typical examples of temporary reinforcement
2.2.2 Load control
There can be a number of ideas for load control. Fig.3 shows only two types among
them. Fig.3 (a) shows a most primitive method for snowdrift reduction. Roof-snow
melting system utilizing room heating is a modernized version of Fig.3 (a). Shape
changing by knocking down shown in Fig. 3 (b) can be considered as one of the load
control if the down-knocked parts of the TSS can be safely protected during the hazard.
Pitch control of wind turbine is also of this type of load control.
original shape
snow
knocking down
(a) Snowdrift control (b) Shape changing by knocking down
Fig.3 Examples of the load control
3 Limit states
Limit state is a state beyond which the structure no longer satisfies the design
performance requirements. The draft guideline has proposed three categories of limit
states to be supposed in the structural design of TSS:
1) Serviceability limit state is related to the normal use of TSS and includes;
a) local damage which may reduce the working life of the structure or affect the
efficient use or appearance of structural or non-structural elements;
b) unacceptable deformation which affect the efficient use or appearance of
structural or non-structural elements or the functioning of equipment;
941
c) excessive vibrations which cause discomfort to people or affect non-structural

elements or the functioning of equipment.
2) Structural limit state is related to mechanical singular points, which structures or
structural elements of TSS may experience during the working life and includes;
a) loss of equilibrium of the structure or a part of the structure (e.g. overturning)
b) attainment of the elastic limit strength of structural elements and connections or
excessive deformations;
c) transformation of the structure or part of it into a mechanism;
d) instability of the structure or part of it.
3) Social inconvenience limit state is related to some structural failure happened to
TSS under non-hazardous environments and includes;
a) collapse of structures;
b) removal and scattering of structural elements, cladding and roofing;
c) failure and fall-down of structural elements or cladding (including window
glass).
NOTE: Items mentioned above are limited to those that happen to occur at no
severe weather condition or earthquake that is thought to cause no hazard by
almost all people. Similar damage observed at the event of accidental actions,
such as violent storms, strong earthquakes, etc. of which strength are beyond
imagination of almost all people is allowed widely in the world.
Fig. 4 shows typical load-displacement relationships of structural frames, single

structural members and non-structural elements. In the figure, some mechanical singular
points mentioned above are shown. Point A’s correspond to ultimate strength and the
points have generally close relations with structural limit state requirements and social
inconvenience limit state requirements. Point B’s correspond to elastic limit and the
points are closely related to serviceability limit state requirements.
TSS
Structural member
B Member of cladding
B
Load
A A
B A
(breakage, falling off,
scattering) (collapse,
overturning)
Displacement
Fig.4 Load-deformation relationships of structural frames, single structural members and non-structural
elements
942
4 Design of safety control system

TSS’s safety control system must work properly at any time when needed through its
working life. A safety control system is composed of a plural number of safety control
subsystems, which are in general composed of the following three components:
(1) load monitoring system
(2) protective measure
(3) support team relevant to the subsystem
So, each of those subsystems has to be designed appropriately so as to meet its purposes.
In the following sections some key points of the subsystem design will be introduced.
4.1 Temporary reinforcement type subsystem

In temporary reinforcement type subsystems, extra structural members are provided to
TSS temporary as mentioned in 2.2.1. Fig.5 shows time variation of strength and load
for TSS with a temporary reinforcement type subsystem.
In the figure, installation work of extra members starts at t0 and ends at t1. Removal
work starts at t2 and ends at t3. According to these works, TSS’s strength increases from
LA to LB and decreases from LB to LA. As a result the load on TSS does not exceed TSS’s
strength at all times.
Important points to be examined carefully in the design of this type of subsystems are as
follows:
a) Difference ∆ between L1 and LA should be designed appropriately; too small ∆ will
cause load to excess LA during the installation works.
b) Difference ∆ between L1 and LB should also be designed appropriately; too small ∆
will also cause load to excess LA during the removal works.
c) Extra structural members are installed or removed mostly in a little severe weather
condition. So every connection detail of extra members has to be designed so the
installation and removal works complete in a short time.
LB
Load
Strenght of TSS
Load , Strenght
LA LA
L1 L2
t0 t1 t3 t4
Time (t)
Fig.5 Time variation of strength and load of TSS with a temporary reinforcement type
subsystem
943
4.2 Load control type subsystem

4.2.1 Snowdrift control
Fig.6 shows time variation of roof snow load on buildings, where dotted line shows
snow load of ordinary buildings having no snowdrift control system and solid line
shows snow load of TSS with a manual snowdrift control subsystem. Removal work of
snowdrift starts when the depth of snowdrift reaches a designated level L1. In Fig.6
snowdrift is removed twice at t1 and t2. As a result the roof snow load remains below
TSS’s strength LA at all times.
Key points to be examined carefully in the design of this type of subsystems are as
follows:
a) Difference ∆ between L1 and LA should be designed appropriately taking the
snowdrift intensity at the construction site into consideration; too small ∆ will cause
load to excess LA during the snowdrift removal works.
NOTE: snowdrift intensity = increment of snowdrift per day
b) It is not easy to monitor the depth of roof snowdrift directly. In most cases they
monitor the ground snowdrift as an alternative. In such cases the relation between
roof snowdrift and ground snowdrift has to be examined.
c) Reliable prediction of snowfall is essential for the design of load control type
subsystems; weather forecast of meteorological agencies shall be utilized besides the
on-site snowdrift monitoring.
snow load without

snow removal LA
snow load
with snow removal
Load
L1
snow removal
snow removal
t1 t2
Time of day
Fig.6 Time variation of roof snow load on TSS with a manual snow drift control
subsystem
4.2.2 Shape changing
Some spatial structures can change their shapes, thereby reducing loads which they are
subject to. A large number of methods for shape changing are possible. Supposing a
temporary spatial structure the height of which can be decreased in high winds as shown
in Fig.3 (b), wind load will change with time as shown in Fig.7. As shown in the figure
the shape changing starts at t0 when the wind load is going up to L1 and the shape
944
returns to the original one at t1 when wind load has decreased to L2. As a result the
maximum wind load on this TSS is L1 and it is less than the allowable strength LA.
Key points to be examined carefully in the design of this type of subsystems are as
follows:
a) Difference ∆ between L1 and LA should be designed appropriately taking the speed
or time of shape changing into consideration.
b) Trigger level L1 of the shape changing should be decided appropriately so as not to
reduce the service time of TSS too much.
c) Reliable prediction of loading action; weather forecast of meteorological agencies
shall be utilized besides the on-site monitoring of loading action.
d) Loads on the changed shapes shall be examined to detail.
Changing shape
LA
to insensitive
one on load
Load on TSS
Load
L1 enabled to change
L2
its shape
t0 t1 Returning shape
to original one
Time
Fig.7 Time variation of wind load on a TSS with a shape changing type subsystem
5 Compliance with existing regulations

Annex A of this guideline provides a general guidance to apply this guideline to the
design of temporary spatial structures to be constructed in areas regulated by legislation
on the building design.
A3 of the Annex provides that in case that the design situation specified in building
regulations is expressed in probabilistic terms, the corresponding design situation for
the temporary spatial structure can be modified so as to have the equivalent probability
during the design working life of the structure. A method of the modification will be
shown below.
NOTE: This is available only when the working life of TSS is longer than one year.
Non-exceedance probability of a design load for TSS can be expressed by the following
equation.
Pf (L < Ld ) = (1 − f t ) (5)
m
where, ft = occurrence probability of a load supposed in the design of TSS

m= working life of TSS (year)
945
Assuming this probability is equal to one for ordinary spatial structures (OSS), the
following equation can be derived.
f t = 1 − (1 − f o )
n
m (6)
where, fo = occurrence probability of the corresponding design load for OSS
n = working life of OSS (year)
This equation will be useful for the modification stated above. Fig.8 shows a schematic
example of equation (6), where f0 and n for OSS are supposed to be 1/500 and 100,
respectively.
0.2
Occurence probability for TSS
0.15
design load
0.1
0.05
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
m (year )
Fig.8 Relation between working life and allowable occurrence probability of design
load
References
[1] Murota T., Structural design of temporary spatial structures, Proceeding of the
IASS Symposium 2009, Valencia
[2] Okada H., Structural design loads on temporary spatial structures. Proceeding of
the IASS Symposium 2009, Valencia
[3] Murota T., Draft structural design guideline for temporary spatial structures,
Proceeding of the IASS Symposium 2010, Shanghai
946
Some examples of safety control subsystems designed for

temporary spatial structures
Masami SAKAI1*
1*
UPCON Corporation
Sakado 3-2-1, Takatsu-ku, Kawasaki, 213-0012 Japan
msakai@green.ocn.ne.jp
Abstract
This paper will introduce some examples of safety control subsystems specified in
section 5.6 of the draft structural design guideline for temporary spatial structures,
which have ever been used in Japan.
Keywords: Temporary spatial structure, design guideline, safety control system, safety
control subsystem
1 Introduction
The draft structural design guideline for temporary spatial structures （ hereafter “draft
TSS guideline” ） refers to the safety control system in section 5.6. A safety control
system is composed of a number of safety control subsystems. This paper will show
some examples of safety control subsystems, which have ever been used in Japan.
They are
(1) Low-cost temporary air-domes;
(2) Drift control of roof snow;
(3) Extra structural members;
(4) Other example.
2 Low-cost temporary air-domes

This air-dome was originally designed to cover a 25m long open-air swimming pool for
high school students during the cold season (Photo. 1 and 2). Fluorine resin sheets of
0.8mm thickness and 68% translucent rate are used as roof membrane. The roof
membrane is covered all over by 125mm pitch net of 5mm diameter ropes. Ends of the
net ropes are bound to anchor points.
The inflation process of the dome is as follows;
1) To develop the folded sheet and net on swimming pool using manpower (Photo. 3).
2) To blow air by fans to increase inner pressure up to 6mmAq.
3) To continue blowing to keep the inner pressure.
Final size of this dome will be 21.7m (B) x 36.6m (L) x 6m (H).
947
Administrator of this dome must monitor wind and snow on dome site and in addition
he/she must deflate the dome when wind of more than 30m/s or snowdrift deeper than
15cm is predicted.
Time necessary for deflating the dome is about 60min. In an emergency deflated roof
membrane is laid flat on the water in order to prevent scattering.
Similar type of air-dome is also used for 50m long swimming pools, tennis courts or
greenhouses for agricultural production.
Photo.1: Outside view of the dome Photo.2: Poolside view of the dome
Photo.3: The dome in deflated condition
3 Drift control of roof snow

A snowdrift control system in a deep-snow region along the Japan Sea coast and also a
snow-drift warning system in a non-deep-snow region around Tokyo will be introduced
here (See draft TSS guideline 5.6.3.2(2)).
In the deep-snow region of Japan, ground snowdrift in winter often reaches to 2 to 3m.
So snowdrift on roofs has been removed periodically as a custom in this region. This
work is very dangerous and needs much manpower. However, in the last half century,
outflow of younger generations caused a severe manpower shortage in this region. As a
result authorities of building regulation have come to call building owners to remember
the duty of roof snowdrift removal. The right side panel in Photo.4 is nailed on a wall
very near to the main entrance of this building in order to let building owner pay
attention to it. Information written here is the specification of snow-resistant design;
depth of snowdrift = 200cm, snow load = 4.12 kN/m2 and density = 29.4N/cm/m2.
On the other hand, in most of southern Japan, design snowdrift is supposed as 30cm.
However, snow has caused damage to structures such as light-weight roofs frequently
948
in winter. Photo.5 is an example of cantilever-type aluminum roof for car parking.

Many of those car-sheds are sold with warning notice on the snow drift removal.
Photo.4: Information board on snow- Photo.5: An example of car-shed

resistant design
4 Effect of adding extra structural members

In order to get information on the effect of adding extra structural members, we set the
following assumptions here;
a) Structure: a roof supported by steel simple beams with low rise of 1/20 (Fig.1)
b) Safety control subsystem: Case 1; no safety control subsystem. Case 2; extra guy
cables are equipped when wind speed of more than 30m/s is predicted. (Table 1)
c) Structural limit state requirements for Case 1 and Case 2: Table 1.
Fig. 1: Simple roof model supposed

Assuming the dimension of the roof, value of dead load and wind load as shown in
Table 2, bending moments of beams due to dead load and wind load were calculated
for the two cases stated above. Cross sections of beams and guy cables required for
these stress were calculated and compared. Details of the calculation are shown in
the following sections.
949
Table 1: Safety control subsystem and structural limit state requirements

Safety control subsystem Structural limit state requirements
Case 1: No Bending stress of beams shall not exceed yield stress
at wind speed 60m/s.
Case 2: Yes; Extra guy cable (1) Bending stress of beams shall not exceed yield
at wind speed > 30m/s stress at wind speed 30m/s.
(2) Bending stress of beams shall not exceed yield
stress at wind speed 60m/s.
(3) Tension of guy cables shall not exceed the
allowable tensile strength at wind speed 60m/s.
Table 2: Specifications for calculation

Structure Load
Beam span; L=40m Dead load; G=245N/m2
Beam interval; Si=4m Wind load;
Height; h=8m W=qU2Cf/2
Beam; Modulus of elasticity Eb=20,580kN/cm2 q: air density 1.225Ns2/m4
Moment of inertia Ib U: wind speed (m/s)
Guy cable; Modulus of elasticity Et Cf: shape factor -0.5
Cross sectional area At
4.1 Case 1
(1) Design for dead load:
Dead load ; Wg = 245×4 = 980N/m
Maximum bending moment; Mg = Wg×L2/8 = 196kN- m
Allowable bending stress; fbt = 15.68kN/cm2
Required section modulus; Zg = Mg/fbt = 1,250cm3
(2) Design for wind speed U2 = 60m/s:
Wind load; Wu2 = －4.41kN/m
Maximum bending moment; Mu2 = (Wu2+Wg)L2/8 = －686kN-m
Allowable bending stress; fb = 23.5kN/cm2
Required section modulus; Zu2 = Mu2 / fb = 2,917cm3 ＞ Zg
∴Adopt steel beam size H-606×201×12×20
(Z = 2,980cm3, I = 90,400cm4, Unit weight = 120kg/m)
4.2 Case 2
(1) Design for dead load: see Case 1, (1)
Required section modulus; Zg = 1,250cm3
950
∴Assume steel beam size; H-446×199×8×12

(Z = 1,290cm3, I = 28,700cm4, Unit weight = 66.2kg/m)
(2) Design for wind speed U1 = 30m/s:
Wind load; Wu1 = －1.10kN/m
Maximum bending moment; Mu1 = (Wu1+Wg)L2/8 = －25.5kN-m
Allowable bending stress; fb = 23.5kN/cm2
Required section modulus; Zu1 = Mu1/fb = 109cm3 ＜ Zg
(3) Design for wind speed U2 = 60m/s: see stress diagram Fig. 2
Assume guy cable; 7×7, 16mmφ
(At = 1.25cm2, Et = 13,720kN/cm2, Allowable strength = 90.65kN)
Wind load; W = Wu2 + Wg = －3.43kN/m
Tensile stress of guy cable; N = 5W×L 2/ [8+(384×Eb×Ib×h／Et×At×L3)]
=83.89kN ＜ 90.65kN OK
Maximum bending moment; Mu2 = 152.9kN-m ＞ Me = 95.1kN-m
Necessary beam section modulus; Zu2 = Mu2 / fb = 650cm3 ＜ Zb
∴Steel beam size is satisfactory.
Fig. 2: Stress diagram of Case 2
4.3 Effect of guy cables

Required beam sections for Case 1 and 2 are H-606x201x12x20 and H-446x199x8x12,
respectively. Unit weights of these beams are 120kg/m and 66.2kg/m and weight of the
latter is 55% of the former. It means that the safety control subsystem in Case 2 has an
effect of decreasing beam weight drastically.
5 Other example
Tokyo Dome is a sports stadium constructed in 1988 in central Tokyo (Photo. 6). The
structural design of the dome was very special because the dome was of pneumatic
structure that was not supposed in the Building Standard Law of Japan at that time.
Finally the construction of the dome was permitted under the condition that the inner
951
pressure of the dome should be controlled appropriately based on wind and snow data
monitored at the dome site. This inner pressure control system is quite similar to the
safety control subsystem of TSS and has been effectively working to date.
Tokyo Dome’s monitoring system has various sensing devices such as anemometers for
wind speed, snow-depth meters for snowdrift and displacement-meters for roof
deformation. When these devices detect a certain set of values shown in Table 3, fans
start automaticaly to control inner pressure of the dome. In an emergency, support teams
guide people outside. The design snow load of the dome is 588N/m2 and when being
detected a load more than that, warm-air is blown into the space between roof
membrane and ceiling sheets in order to melt the snow.
Photo. 6: Tokyo Dome (courtesy Takenaka Corporation)
Table 3: Target values for inner pressure control at Tokyo Dome ( mm/Aq) [3]
Weather condition
State of stadium occupation
Normal (*1) Storm (*2) Snow (*3)
Closed or not rented 30 35－90 35－90
Rented (during events) 30 35－60 35－40
Rented (before or after events) 30 35－45 35－40
Evacuation in an emergency 30 30 30
(*1) average wind speed < 11.5m/s and no snowfall and snowdrift
(*2) average wind speed ≧ 11.5m/s and no snowfall and snowdrift
952
(*3) snowfall or snowdrift on roof surface
In this paper some examples of safety control subsystems were introduced in relation to
the proposals in the draft TSS guideline. They suggest significance of safety control
subsystems as follows:
a) Safety control subsystems may contribute to decrease the construction cost;
b) Safety control subsystems may contribute to let owners of structures have full-
understanding of structural performance of their structures;
c) Safety control subsystems may contribute to maintain structural performance of
structures appropriately through their working lives.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Mr. Tadao Takashima, Takashima Architectural Design
Office, for providing information on the low-cost air-domes stated in Chapter 2.
Referencess
Reference
[1] Murota T. Structural design of temporary spatial structures. Proceedings of the IASS
Symposium 2009, Valencia.
[2] Building Standard Law of Japan.
[3] Kihara S, Ikaga T, Tanno Y and Takai H. Snow proof design and maintenance
system of large pneumatic structure; in case of Tokyo dome. Journal of Snow
Engineering, No.5, Dec.1987. (in Japanese)
953
Design of the Giant Rugby Ball developed for promotion of

the Rugby World Cup 2011
Warwick BELL1* and Taketomo SASAKI 2*
1*
Fabric Structure System
PO Box 106677, Auckland City, Auckland, New Zealand
warwick@fabricstructure.co.nz
2*
Taiyo Kogyo Corporation
Abstract
A giant inflatable rugby ball was created as a promotional venue for the Rugby World
Cup 2011, New Zealand. This air-dome type spatial structure has been carried from one
country to another and used for a short time at each country. This paper describes the
design concept of this temporary spatial structure.
Keywords: Pneumatic structure, temporary spatial structure, deployable structure
1 The Giant Rugby Ball

The Giant Rugby Ball was created as a promotional venue for the Rugby World Cup
2011, New Zealand and “100% Pure New Zealand” campaign. Inside the venue the
internal surface of the ball is used as a 360-degree projection surface to promote New
Zealand as a destination. The Ball will be open to the public and with the 360-degree
surround imaginary and the Ball’s particular acoustics, will give visitors a totally unique
and “Kiwi” experience.
Visitors enter the Ball via an air-lock door which was designed specially to maintain the
internal pressure of the ball. Specialised monitoring equipment maintains a constant air
pressure and quality in the ball, by controlling two large fans that are concealed under
the floor of the ball and air-conditioning plant.
Photo.1 The Giant Rugby Ball in Paris Photo. 2 360-degree projection surface
954
The Ball’s outer skin is held in placed by a large oval ring frame secured to the ground
by a large water ballast sausage. Inside the Ball, with its 12m stud and large mezzanine
floor, 220 people can be accommodated. The interior comprises a stage, bar, toilets,
storage, control room and seating areas.
All the components of the Ball were fabricated and fully tested in New Zealand prior to
leaving for destinations. The Giant Rugby Ball is a proven deployable spatial structure
with successful outings to Paris, London, Tokyo and Sydney.
2 Description of structure
Concept development,
Warwick Bell and Fabric Structure Systems, Ltd
design & fabrication:
Function: Deployable promotional venue
Structure type: Single membrane pneumatic structure
Size: 25m long, 17m wide, 12m high
Fabric type: Ferrari 502 Blackout PVC
Plan : Fig. 1
Elevation and Cross Section: Fig. 2
Anchoring & fabric connection: Fig. 3
Main Floor Plan
Mezzanine Floor Plan
Fig. 1 Plan
955
Entrance revolving door side view Fore side view
Cross Section Mezzanine Floor
Fig. 2 Elevation and Cross Section
Photo,3 The Giant Rugby Ball in Tokyo
956
Anchoring Frame
(Outer Skin)
Water sausage ballast Fabric Connection
Fig. 3 Water sausage ballast support frame and fabric connection detail
957
3 Concept of structural design
3.1 General
The first step in the concept development was to prove the concept and its viability as a
safe structure.
The intent was to recreate an actual rugby ball in enormous scale, as a structure whose
main structural element is air.
Single membrane pneumatic structures have been in commercial usage for many years,
especially so in the USA. The technologies for large sporting field air dome covers are
well developed and proven, where the occupants are within the elevated pressure area of
the enveloping structure.
Therefore the design path of an air-supported structure in the shape of a rugby ball
appeared to be a possible.
The desire for the air structure to be truly deployable combined with the aesthetic and
visual appearance in the environment became the driving factors in the design
development.
The idea of a ball sitting on grassed playing field was the desired look. The position of
the truncating of the ball was driven by this desire. Whilst at the same time maximizing
the internal floor space was created by this truncation.
The ballasting and anchoring of the structure was once again driven by the aesthetic,
once the hold down tonnage required was calculated.
A typical proven air structure anchoring system is - fix directly to the ground with
stakes / bolt through a perimeter beam system - rejected as not suitable for a deployable
structure. A PVC fabric water filled ‘sausage' ballast perimeter ring - rejected as
visually unappealing. Movable concrete weights - rejected as to cumbersome and
unappealing.
With the rejection of these methods, the decision to build a raised platform utilizing
standard scaffold with custom pieces, incorporating a trough lined with plywood around
the perimeter was investigated. This trough carries the PVC water sausage ballast.
This raised floor gave not only a concealed ballast function, but also enabled the under
floor mounting of inflation fans and a keder strip perimeter beam with which the Ball
membrane was attached and air-sealed. Thus the floor platform is part of the structural
system of the Ball.
Utilizing the structural platform the indented mounting of air lock revolving doors and
emergency doors was achievable. The desire for a clean rugby ball look precluded the
mounting of protruding typical airlock door systems.
Much consideration was given to the functionality of the working venue. Relating to
220 packs and heat producing projectors, it was acknowledged that air-conditioning for
CO2 and heat should be considered in the overall stability of the Ball. So a sophisticated
building management system (BMF) was developed specifically to manage the inflation
fans in relation to human interaction and environmental factors.
All internal and furnishing equipment was in the manner of a typical building.
958
3.2 Supposed loading actions

In the structural design of the Ball, following loading actions were supposed besides
dead load and live load;
(1) Wind
(2) Snow
(3) Rain
(4) Earthquake
The safety measure against thunderbolt was to select a particular place protected from
thunderbolt.
The most critical action in the design was wind. The design wind speed was supposed
as 23.15 m/s (45 knots). The shape factors adopted in the design were supposed based
on wind tunnel test data collected in reference [1].
The inner pressure of the Ball was supposed 200 Pa for ordinary condition and 300 Pa
for stormy condition.
3.3 Anchorage of outer-skin to the ground

Drag and lift forces caused by the wind of 23.15 m/s were calculated as 53 kN and 36
kN, respectively. Hold down tonnage of the water ballast sausage was decided taking
these values and safety factor of more than 1.5 into consideration.
In Tokyo, the idea of water ballast sausage was rejected by building officials because
the Building Standard Law of Japan had not supposed water as a structural material. So,
steel plates were adopted as an equivalent of water ballast sausage.
3.4 Emergency measures against over-loading

Wind towers having a three-cup anemometer on each top have to be situated somewhere
in the site to observe the peak wind speed of approaching winds. In Tokyo, the
following emergency measures were decided to be taken against typhoons;
a. To cease any event and evacuate the people inside in the following situations;
(1) More than 15 m/s peak gusts may possibly be observed at wind towers.
(2) Japan Meteorological Agency issues a strong wind advisory.
b. When more than 20 m/s peak gusts are predicted, to deflate the Ball following the
processes below;
(1) Taking-out of AV and sound equipment (20 minutes)
(2) Deflation (10 minutes)
(3) Roping of outer-skin to mezzanine frame (10minutes. See Fig. X.)
Outer Skin Roping

Roping
Outer Skin
Fig. 4 : Image of the outer-skin roping
959
4 Concept of fire design

Adequate fire fighting equipment is situated in the ground floor and mezzanine floor. A
smoke alarm is situated in the fan compartment. The fire fighting equipment will be
used by stewards or others employed on the site as an emergency first measure.
The flooring above the fans has a fire protection system on the underside, which gives a
one hour fire rating.
The smoke alarm and digital readout monitor for the fan system is monitored
continuously by the AV and sound technicians who are on duty whenever the venue is
open.
All furnishings, fabric and materials comply with International Compliance Standards.
A fire risk assessment has been conducted for the event in addition to the main event
risk assessment.
In Tokyo, the building regulation authority required to equip smoke exhaust openings of
1/50 floor area on the top of the Ball based on the provision of article 126-2 and 126-3
of the Building Standard Law Enforcement Order. So an electric heating system was
specifically designed in order to make openings by melting the designated area of
membrane down when fire broke out.
Smoke exhaust opening
Smoke exhaust opening
Fig. 5 : System of Smoke exhaust opening
960
5 Hazard management and evacuation plan

This venue is managed like any other public venue in terms of safety and emergency
management. Extensive testing has shown that with all fans off, and all doors wide open,
it is eight to ten minutes before the outer skin is near to obstructing either exit.
At full capacity the venue can be emptied within two minutes. If the revolving door
alone is used for evacuation (as in the case of power failure to the fans for example),
evacuation would take between three and five minutes in an orderly fashion, but the
skin would stay semi-inflated for up to 30 minutes. Three diesel powered generators
supply the venue, minimising the risk of total power failure.
Emergency lighting is a twelve volt backup system which gives adequate light for
emergency evacuation. In addition, all bar areas are supplied with torches for staff to
use whilst the venue is in audio visual mode, or in the case of an emergency.
Acknowledgements
This project started when Tourism New Zealand commissioned Inside Out Productions
to build an inflatable rugby ball shaped venue. The concept for the project was
developed by the long time collaborators of Warwick Bell of FSS and Mike Mizrahi of
Inside Out Productions, and the consulting engineer was Lindstrand Technologies.
References
[1] Hoerner SF. Fluid Dynamic Drag. Published by the author. 1993.
961
The evaluation of temporary and demountable architecture as

post-earthquake shelter solutions
Junjie XI1*, Carolina STEVENSON2
1*
Ph.D. Student, School of Architecture, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7ZN
J.Xi@liverpool.ac.uk
2
Lecturer, School of Architecture, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7ZN
bernal@liverpool.ac.uk
Abstract
This paper investigates the way in which temporary and demountable
architecture has been used in post-earthquake shelter solutions, its history and some
recent examples. It also examines how designs are implemented to mitigate post-
disaster problems, with particular attention to earthquake situations. The potential
benefits of utilizing flexible architecture are identified and an evaluation method is
proposed to use as a guideline for professionals.
Keywords: Temporary, demountable, sustainable, social considerations, evaluation
1 Introduction
According to the International federation of Red Cross (IFRC), over recent years there
has been an increase worldwide in the number of disasters. The situation is aggravated
by evolving, complex threats such as climate change, demographic growth and new
patterns of marginalisation [1]. A disaster is a sudden, calamitous event that seriously
disrupts the functioning of a community or society and causes human, material, and
economic or environmental losses that exceed the community’s or society’s ability to
cope using its own resources. Though often caused by nature, disasters can have human
origins [2]. Usually, the form of disasters arise from three main types, natural disasters
such as the 2008 Sichuan Wenchuan earthquake and man-made disasters such as the
2010 Wangjialing coal mine flood and combined disasters (natural disasters caused by
human behaviour), such as global warming and acid rain. The impact of a disaster
normally depends on the vulnerability of the population affected and the management of
the potential risks. Disasters very often result in great losses of human lives and
infrastructure. Survivors have to deal with the risk of spreading diseases, displacement
shortages in food and services supplies, in addition to significant mental health distress.
In China for example, from 1950 to 1992, natural and man-made disasters cost
approximately 2.6 trillion RMB (approx. 380 billion USD) economic losses and caused
more than 600,000 people’s deaths. The amount of this loss equated to 5.09% of the
Gross National Product and 12% of the National Fiscal Revenue at the same period of
time [3].
962
Earthquakes differ from others disasters in various ways, which have an impact on the
type of shelter solution necessary. For example, destruction of infrastructure during
earthquakes makes access difficult; hence shelters need to be able to be transported by
several means. Very often numerous buildings collapse or suffer structural damage
which makes them inhabitable; as a result many survivors are left homeless needing
shelter immediately after the earthquake. Generally, different building typologies are
affected, therefore there is not only a need to provide shelters to use as dwellings but
also as provisional hospitals, morgues, community kitchens and schools. Furthermore,
large amounts of rubble need to be cleared before shelter assembly operations start, plus
aftershocks may disrupt this process and cause further damage.
Dismountable buildings have been widely used in the past to provide post-earthquake
shelter solutions. Dismountable buildings can be defined as “those that are transported
in a number of parts for assembly on site” [4]. These solutions are preferred by
governments and humanitarian agencies for satisfying urgent requirements of relief due
to their immediate availability, ease of transportation, storage and assembly. From a
functional point of view, post-earthquake shelter solutions can be divided into two main
types: those used as emergency solutions and those for temporary use. Emergency
solutions are applied straight after the event and often comprised lightweight fabric or
canvas tents since they can be more quickly made and transported. The immediate
aftershocks of earthquakes reduce in severity and frequency as time passes; however the
requirements for the living will grow, especially for disabled and impaired survivors.
This leads to the second stage in which transitional temporary shelters need to be
provided before re-building permanent dwellings. During this process, professionally
designed pre-fabricated temporary houses which were manufactured partly in advance
for post-earthquake mitigation can be used.
Earthquakes are a natural phenomenon that has affected human civilization from its
early beginnings. One of the earliest documented cases of a specific effort to provide
temporary shelter after a disaster was in response to the earthquake that affected Lisbon
in 1755 [5]. As Antonia Pereira de Figueiredo described “The general desire was to get
out of buildings into tents or huts, and to sleep in the garden rather than indoors, even if
one’s home still stood safe and sound, and for this reason the great camps on the high
and open places round the city were for a long time crowed communities” [6]. Post-
earthquake shelter response has significantly evolved throughout history according to
intricate changes in society. The most recent worldwide earthquakes have made the
needs of emergency housing solutions more critical and the study in this area
considerably urgent. The use of dismountable shelters rapidly changes the environment
in which they are placed, in order to fulfil basic human physiological needs of
protection from the environment and also aid to alleviate the psychological trauma
cause by material losses. However, research in disaster mitigation indicates that
externally determined and stand-alone responses often replace more appropriate locally
informed approaches [7].
There is a close correlation between disaster, social responsibility/consideration and
sustainability. The impacts of earthquakes last for generations and the vulnerability of
the affected population can be particularly shown in children’s lives. For example, the
Haiti Earthquake of 12th January 2010 caused 220,000 deaths, injuring 300,000 people
963
and causing up to 4,000 amputations. Now almost 1.3 million are living in temporary
shelters and more than 600,000 have moved to outlying areas; this includes 300,000
children who have lost their families and also their homes, schools and playgrounds [8].
The connection between destruction of the environment; forest, soil, wetlands, and
water sources and the disaster risk is significant. For example, soon after Indonesia
Yogyakarta Earthquake 2006, The UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR) cooperated with the
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) to
immediately provide transitional shelters for the survivors. They built the majority of
the shelters from bamboo because it was a local material which was relatively
accessible. Within this large-scale programme, 12,250 transitional shelters were built
using approximately 1.2 million culms of bamboo. The huge need for bamboo caused a
wide and profound impact on Java’s bamboo forests. Some areas will take 3-10 years
for the bamboo to grow back, some areas will never have them again [9].
Due to magnitude and complexity of this topic, this paper primarily examines post-
earthquake shelter response after three recent disasters: the 2008 Sichuan Wenchuan
earthquake, the 2010 Haiti earthquake and the 2010 Chilean earthquake. It concentrates
mainly on the study of shelters for temporary use, not for emergency use, since these
play a crucial transitional role between emergency and permanent housing solutions and
are more often designed by professionals.
2 Evaluation Strategy
This paper aims to aid architects and designers in the process of tackling evaluation of
post-earthquake shelter solutions from an architectural point of view. In so doing, it is
essential to firstly recognise the role of the design professional. Temporary and
demountable buildings for post-earthquake shelters are far more than just emergency
tents. Working for disaster relief as an architect or designer is relatively complex. To
achieve success, architects must shift themselves from being creative conceptual
designers towards professionals who can engage with urgent problems and apply their
technical knowledge effectively in order to solve functional, social and environmental
challenges with limited resources. They should also be aware of disaster management
and capable to work with local authorities and NGOs [10].
Ideally, post-earthquake shelter solutions should meet important and urgent needs of
those who occupy them. However, the meaning of shelter and the nature of its user
needs can be understood differently according to the source. In the dictionary, shelter is
explained as something that covers or affords physical protection. In disaster relief
projects, shelter design also aims to consider the victims’ rights and allow them to live
in safety and dignity. According to the Guidelines for the Evaluation of Post-Disaster
Programmes provided by UNCHS (United Nations Centre for Human Settlements),
there are certain components of the design that have a major impact on the programme’s
success. They are: responding to the local needs, understanding the situation dynamics,
misallocation of resources, short-termism, dependency vs. Capacity, accountability and
quality assessment. The evaluation director Anna Kajumulo Tibaijuka also emphasised
964
that it is very important to realise that evaluation is not the end of a project and it should
be considered as a part of the post-earthquake cycle [11].
Due to the complexity of the problem in hand, a universal evaluation of shelter solutions
that includes all the aspects mentioned above is very difficult to achieve, especially
when the evaluation is carried out in advance to the disaster. Moreover, specific needs
of shelter are very often difficult to establish immediately after the earthquake due to
difficulties of data collection and access to affected areas. As a result, the best approach
for professionals is to design for adaptability, pre-evaluate according to potential
scenarios and apply lessons learned from past project’s successes or failures. In order to
tackle the problem of evaluation of shelter solutions from the design perspective, this
paper proposes three key assessment stages: pre-evaluation, within–evaluation and post-
evaluation. This evaluation strategy is meant to be used by architects and designers and
comprises aspects solely related to the architectural features of the project. Other
aspects of disaster management, such disaster assessment procedures, application of
governments and agencies policies and long term disaster support strategies, are out of
the scope of this work.
The evaluation strategy proposed in this paper explores three main interrelated aspects
to take into consideration during the design’s pre-evaluation, within–evaluation and
post-evaluation. These are: architectural characteristics, environmental/ sustainable
responsibility and social considerations.
Architectural Technical characteristics

Functional characteristics Characteristics
Social
Considerations Environmental/
Sustainable Responsibility
Socio- environmental
Figure 1. Components of the evaluation strategy
2.1 Pre-evaluation
Pre-evaluation of post-earthquake shelter solutions is carried out during the design
process. This stage is to a certain extent empirical since very often the exact conditions
in which the shelter will operate are unknown. There are post-earthquake management
models that can help with the projects monitoring during this stage. For example,
HAZUS-MH is an authoritative risk assessment methodology provided by Federal
965
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) for analyzing potential losses from natural
disasters. Using this software, current scientific and engineering knowledge is coupled
with the latest geographic information systems (GIS) technology to produce estimates
of hazard-related damage before or after a disaster occurs. Officials can use estimates of
displaced households to gauge shelter requirements and quantities, potential locations
and to scale the mass-care mission [12]. Unfortunately, these tools are not widely
available especially in parts of the world which are more vulnerable to disasters.
Architectural characteristics include aspects of the design that relate to the purpose of
the building, its appearance and its technical features. The main characteristics to
consider within this area during the pre-evaluation are highlighted below. These
characteristics are not exclusive, for example, shelters for dwellings can be at the same
time repetitive/modular buildings or form part of building networks.
Functional characteristics:
• Use. Normally shelters are used for dwellings (e.i. family dwellings, old people’s
homes, orphanages) or for public and/or communal facilities (e.i. hospitals, morgues,
schools, prisons, public toilets, and communal kitchens).
• Adaptability. How adaptable is the shelter to changes in function?
Formal characteristics:
• Typology of the shelter (e.i. repetitive/modular buildings, individual/singular
buildings).
• Connectivity. Can the shelter be part of a networks or be used to form connections?
• Shape. Can the shape of the shelter be adapted to different environments?
• Layout. Can the layout of the shelter be extended or sectioned?
Technical characteristics:
• Materiality
• Constructional aspects. How is the building dismountable? What tools and
equipment are required? How long does it take?
• Lighting and ventilation
• Means of transportability
Environmental/ sustainable responsibility tackles elements of the shelter design that will
enable it to endure the pass of time and remain usable for the intended purpose or
adaptable to new requirements. This evaluation aspect also considers how the shelter
design attempts to reduce its potential environmental impact onto the surrounding
context and the overall environment. During this stage, questions such as those below
should be asked:
• What is the carbon footprint of the shelter design?
• Can the components or the overall building be reused or recycled?
• Does the shelter design consider means of natural lighting and ventilation?
• What are the environmental implications of transporting the shelter?
• What is the life expectancy of the shelter?
Social considerations include issues related to the way shelter users and the
organizations that implement them may interact or respond to the design. Since it
involves human judgment, this section of the pre-evaluation is more subjective than the
other two above and may require adjustment according to the specific characteristics of
966
the project. However, general considerations such as the ones listed below can be
explored:
• Did the design consider how the shelter solution may be managed or utilized by
disaster relief organizations?
• Could the design be tailored by its users or adapted to their cultural customs?
• Did the design consider disabled victims?
• Did the design consider requirements from children and elderly people?
2.2 Within-evaluation
Within-evaluation is the assessment stage carried out during the time between the
earthquake and the implementation of the shelter. This is perhaps the most difficult
phase of the shelter evaluation, since for obvious reasons it should be completed
without delay; however, it should be thorough enough to determine whether the solution
is sufficiently appropriate or relevant. In this research work, the aspects to consider for
the within-evaluation follow the guidelines proposed by UNCHS [13], which covers
design components thought to have a major impact on the programme’s success. The
proposed questions to be included in the within-evaluation are as follows:
Architectural characteristics:
• How adaptable is the shelter design to undertake modification of function or form
in order to suit the precise needs required?
• Could the technical features of the design (e.i. materials, constructional methods,
and means of transportation) be tailored to take advantage of available resources?
• How is the shelter solution responding to the local needs of protection against
specific weather conditions, physical hazards and other external dangers?
Environmental/ sustainable responsibility:
• Is the project economically sustainable for the particular disaster? Where are the
budgets obtained from?
• Are transportation means environmentally friendly?
• How long is the shelter supposed to be used for?
• Would the implementation of the shelter solution have a negative impact on the
local natural environment?
Social considerations:
• Would the shelter satisfy present needs without threatening future generations?
• Would the use of the shelter promote reconstruction or is there a danger for it to
become a permanent solution?
• Will the project contribute to restate or connect local communities?
2.2 Post-evaluation
Post-evaluation is as important as pre-evaluation and within-evaluation since it
facilitates the assessment of the real project’s impact. It also helps architects, designers
and local partners to learn from the project’s successes or failures. Although, there is a
967
wide range of dismountable building systems available and various guidelines for their
design and construction when used for disaster mitigation, there is a general lack of
systematic assessment of their immediate and long term pros and cons. The aspects
suggested for the post-evaluation are as follow:
Architectural characteristics:
• How well did the shelter adapt to the required functional needs?
• Were technical characteristics of the design modified to take advantage of available
resources?
• Were the formal aspects of the design easy to adjust to suit the necessary
configurations?
Environmental/ sustainable responsibility:
• For how long was the shelter usable?
• Was the shelter recycled or reused?
• What was the overall level of impact of the shelter solution on the local natural
environment?
Social considerations:
• How well did the shelter fulfil the expectations of its users?
• Did the shelter solution served as transition for the reconstruction of permanent
facilities?
• Did the shelter solution promote social interaction and the reinstatement of
community links?
3 Case studies overview

In order to test the three stages of the evaluation strategy proposed in this work (pre-
evaluation, within-evaluation and post-evaluation) a wide range of case studies from the
three chosen earthquake disasters (Sichuan Wenchuan 2008, Haiti 2010 and Chile 2010)
were considered. Information available for each case study was carefully collected and
catalogued using the same format in order to create a data base that could serve as
platform from where to begin the evaluation process. The standard case study format
introduced a brief description of the project, supported with illustrations and
photographs. The aspects to consider for each of the three evaluation phases were
summarized within tables and assessed with a mark. The mark had a letter component
that represented the aspect under scrutiny and a number component that represented the
level of consideration of the particular aspect within the shelter solution. A sample of a
case study is illustrated bellow.
Project: Chengdu Hualin Elementary School
Designed by: Shigeru Ban Architects
Location and date of implementation: Wenchuan Earthquake, Chengdu, China, 2008
Type of shelter: Public and/or communal facility
Resource: http://www.shigerubanarchitects.com/
968
Fig. 2: Chengdu Hualin Elementary School—Chengdu, China, 2008
Brief description, strengths and weaknesses:

The devastating earthquake that struck in Wenchuan, Sichuan Province on 12th May killed 69,000 and left
4.8 million people homeless. The most chilling symbol of the Wenchuan quake was the thousands of
schools that flattened like pancakes, crushing scores of children, as a result of shoddy construction.
Shortly after the earthquake, Japanese architect Shigeru Ban arrived in Sichuan to propose his school
design to the local government. Once approval came from education officials, Ban assembled a team of
students from his research centre Banlab, and the Hironori Matsubara Lab at Keio University, along with
volunteer teachers from around China, who were assigned by the country's education ministry. The aim of
this project was to erect temporary but resilient schools out of plywood and recycled cardboard tubes. Ban
has vast experience working with recycled paper, which has earned him a reputation as the paper
architect. He used paper tubes in the past to design shelters after earthquakes in India, Turkey and Kobe
[14]. One of the chief strengths of Ban’s design was that it employed relatively inexpensive and widely
available materials to achieve a structurally sound proposal.
Table key for assessment mark
A = aspect relevant to architectural characteristics
E = aspect relevant to environmental/ sustainable responsibility
S = aspect relevant to social considerations
0 = aspect not considered, 1 = aspect partly considered and 2 = aspect successfully
considered
Table 1: Pre-evaluation of the Chengdu Hualin Elementary School

Pre-evaluation Mark
Architectural Characteristics
• It is the first school to be made of a paper frame structure in mainland China.
• The project avoids the price of traditional construction materials going up after
the earthquakes.
• The design can be demounted and moved to other places after the new A1
permanent school is built.
• It supports architectural education by co-operating with students from Chengdu
universities. It offers new graduates an opportunity to put their knowledge into
real projects.
Environmental/ Sustainable Responsibility E2
• The resources are obtained from local sources therefore making the
969
transportation quick and easy.

• Translucent light windows in the roof make natural lighting possible.
Social Considerations
• This project can provide 8 temporary classrooms and 2 offices for more than
400 pupils and their teachers. In China, the pupils in elementary school are aged
from 6-11 years old. It is the most important time for them to build up their
S2
early life values. Lacking early education and an unhappy childhood could
bring serious social problems in the future.
• The construction budget was 580,000 RMB (approx. 84892 USD), not suitable
for wide spread implementation.
Table 2: Within-evaluation of the Chengdu Hualin Elementary School

Within-evaluation Mark
• The paper frame structure was helpful to lighten people’s anxieties from the
A1
terrifying earthquakes because of its lightness and warm surfaces.
Environmental/ Sustainable Responsibility

• The project funding was from the local government, Hualin Elementary School
and NGOs. The actual money used was over budget because some discussions
between the architects and the builders were not clear enough thus incurring in
extra costs. For example, some plans and specifications were sent by email and E2
were not possible to discuss within face-to-face meetings.
• The life of the project is estimated as at least 3-5 years, which is long enough
for the rebuilding of Chengdu Hualin Elementary School using conventional
materials.
• The first proposal made by Shigeru Ban was to build transitional housing for
the earthquake victims. But for many reasons such as lack of previous S2
experience in China using “paper” as a building material, it wasn’t achieved.
Instead it was decided to apply the idea to build temporary classrooms for the
Hualin Elementary School.
Table 3: Post-evaluation of the Chengdu Hualin Elementary School

Post-evaluation Mark
• According to the architect’s report, the pupils enjoy this “paper school” as it
provides them with the feeling of safety after the trauma they have been A1
through. It also satisfies the functional needs and offers a warm and friendly
environment at the same time.
Environmental/ Sustainable Responsibility
• The project was completed on the 11th September 2008. It has been E2
continuously used for almost 2 years now.
970
• Some parts of the construction, such as the joints between each paper column,
were not made from recyclable materials. According to Ban this was due to
pressures on applying the disaster relief quickly and efficiently.
• This project has increased the awareness of transitional shelter design.
• This project encouraged communication between the architects, architecture S2
students and the volunteers from Japan and China, thus being to learn from each
other and share experiences.
4 Conclusions
It is crucial that the design of contemporary post-earthquake shelters simultaneously
considers architectural, environmental and social aspects, in order to meet present needs
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own [15]. The
capacity of temporary shelters to transform, dismantle, move and reuse relies to a great
extent on a well-structured assessment. Hence, a comprehensive evaluation strategy is
required to support the multiple design and implementation stages.
The evaluation strategy (comprised by the pre-evaluation, within-evaluation and post-
evaluation stages) proposed in this paper aims to help towards the development of
temporary and demountable architecture based on a multidisciplinary efforts that
address issues of design, environmental impact and social responsibility. It also intends
to guide professionals when conducting comparative analysis of relevant case studies.
The application of this evaluation strategy within post-earthquake shelter solutions is
part of a PhD research which is currently in progress. Partial results of this exercise
have been drawn from the comparison of similar projects using tables such as table 4,
which compares shelters used as dwellings after the 2010 Haiti earthquake. Further data
from these and other case studies is been analysed currently in order to obtain more
conclusive and far-reaching outcomes.
Table 4: Case Studies of shelters / dwellings used after the 2010 Haiti earthquake.
AC = Architectural Characteristics
E/SR = Environmental/ Sustainable Responsibility
SC = Social Considerations
Mark
Project Pre-evaluation Within-evaluation Post-evaluation
AC E/SR SC AC E/SR SC AC E/SR SC
Shelters in
Haiti-Series A2 A2 S1 A2 E2 S2 A2 E2 S1
2100 (Haiti)
JAS Shelters
A2 A2 S1 A2 E2 S2 A2 E2 S1
(Haiti)
SEED Haiti
A1 A1 S1 A1 E2 S2 A1 E2 S2
(Haiti)
971
References
[1] International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. Shelter and
settlement plan 2010-2011a. Available at: http://www.ifrc.org. [Accessed
10/12/2009].
[2] International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. Disaster
Management. Available at http://www.ifrc.org/. [Accessed 26/04/2010].
[3] Lu, Xinzheng. Introduction for Disasters. Available at http://www.luxinzheng.net/.
[Accessed 20/04/2010].
[4] Kronenburg, R. Houses in Motion, (2nd edn). Wiley-Academy, 2002:9-10.
[5] Davis, Ian. Shelter after Disaster. Oxford Polytechnic Press, 1978:74.
[6] Pereira de Figueiredo, Antonio. Rerum lusitanarum ephemerides, Lisbon, 1761.
Diario dos successos de Lisboa,: desde o terremoto até o exterminio dos Jezuitas,
The Lisbon, 1766. Quated in Kendrick, The Lisbon Earthquake, ref. 56. pp50-2 as
cited in Davis, Ian. Shelter after Disaster. Oxford Polytechnic Press, 1978:74.
[7] International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. Shelter and
settlement plan 2010-2011b. Available at: http://www.ifrc.org. [Accessed
5/01/2010].
[8] Relief Web. Children of Haiti: Three Months after the Earthquake. Available at
http://www.reliefweb.int/. [Accessed 21/04/2010].
[9] Shelter Centre. IASC Emergency Shelter Cluster Shelter Projects 2008. Available
at http://www.sheltercentre.org/. [Accessed 20/12/2009].
[10] Cage Caroline, Hingorani Dipti, Jopling Sophie and Parker Elizabeth, Centre for
Development and Emergency Practice (CENDEP) at Oxford Brookes University
and the International Federation of the Red Cross (IFRC), 2009. Building relevance:
post-disaster shelter and the role of the building professional, 2009. Oxford
Brookes University, Oxford, U.K. 18th September 2009. Available at
http://www.brookes.ac.uk/ [Assessed 05/05/2010].
[11] UNCHS (Habitat), Risk and Disaster Management Unit, 2001a. Guidelines for the
Evaluation of Post Disaster Programmes, p3-p6 Available at
http://www.unhabitat.org/. [Accessed 02/01/2010].
[12] Federal Emergency Management Agency. HAZUS FEMA’s Methodology for
Estimating Potential Losses from Disasters. Available on http://www.fema.gov/.
[Accessed 12/04/2010].
[13] UNCHS (Habitat), Risk and Disaster Management Unit, 2001b. Guidelines for the
Evaluation of Post Disaster Programmes, p59-p66 Available at
http://www.unhabitat.org/. [Accessed 02/01/2010].
[14] Shigeru Ban Architects. Available at http://www.shigerubanarchitects.com/.
[Accessed 10/05/2010].
[15] World Commission on Environment and Development. (1987). Our common future.
Oxford paperbacks. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
972
3 Technical Sessions
3.1 Structures at EXPO2010
973
Buckling stability and collapse analysis to the Sun Valley for

Expo Axis project
Dongya AN1*, Chengming LI
1*
Technical Center of Shanghai Xian Dai Architectural Design (Group) Co., Ltd
20F, 258 Shimen Er Road, Shanghai, China. 200041
Dongya_an@xd-ad.com.cn
Abstract
The project Expo Axis is one of the landmark buildings of Expo Shanghai 2010,
and its structural safety depends largely on the security of the six Sun Valleys, which
are the important components of the Expo Axis. In this paper, as an example, No. 4 sun
valley’s seismic performance is studied through elasto-plastic dynamic analysis using
explicit integration method under rare earthquake. The results show that the sun valley
maintains elastic status under 7 degree rare earthquake and achieves the desired design
goals. On this basis, gradually increasing the acceleration peak until the structure comes
into unstable state even has an overall collapse, to discover the potential failure modes
and integrated seismic safety reserves. In the process the dynamic stability issue of the
bars is discussed, dynamic hysteresis curve of bar’s axial force to deformation is given,
and the order of bar buckling and its material yielding is studied, post-yield buckling
characteristics is described. All of the analysis is compared with static analysis and tell
the difference in bar’s failure mode determination. The results show that dynamic
analysis can reveal the structure’s real failure modes more accurately. In addition, the
Sun Valley’s capacity to withstand repeated earthquakes and its collapse process is
studied. This article provides reference for seismic performance evaluation method of
similar structures.
Keywords: Sun Valley; elastic-plastic; buckling; collapse
1. Introduction
The project Expo Axis is the landmark building of Expo Shanghai 2010, and its
structural safety depends largely on the security of the Sun Valley, which is the
important component of the Expo Axis. Sun valley[1] adopts a steel single-layer lattice
structure system composed of triangular grids. The lengths of the top and bottom major
axes of sun valley SV1-SV6 are about 90m、18m，60m、18m , 60m、18m ,
70m、16m , 60m、18m and 90m、21m. The bottom shape of SV4 is circular, while
that of others is elliptical. The upper part of six sun valleys looks like an elliptic “horn”.
The height of six sun valleys is 42.00m (from -7.00m to 35.00m). The grid system has a
complex shape and a large cantilever ranging from 21m to 40m. The grid system adopts
welded steel tubular members with rectangular hollow sections. Rectangular members
with solid sections are adopted at the top ring of the structure in order to enhance hoop
effect. The lengths of structural members range from 1.50m to 3.50m, with heights of
974
section ranging from 180mm to 500mm and width from 65mm to 120mm. Material of
members and hollow joints is Q345B steel, while that of solid joints (joints of mast foot,
pulling points of cables, membrane and top solid members) is G20Mn5 cast steel.
Figure 1.1: Effect drawing of Expo Axis. Figure 1.2: Effect drawing of Sun Valley.
2. Analysis method
Elasto-plastic dynamic time-history analysis[2,3] method is selected to simulate the Sun
Valley’s seismic response, considering material nonlinearity and geometric nonlinearity.
The FEM software Abaqus[4] is the main calculator, and it provides explicit integration
to solve two major problems of time-consuming and convergence in large-scale
computing. The FEM model is shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1: FEM model Figure 3.1: Plastic strain under 7 degree
rare earthquake action
3. Analysis process
3.1. 7 degrees earthquake response analysis
The whole structure does not meet the yield condition under 7 degree rare earthquake
action. As shown in figure3.1, the plastic strain of each bar is zero. This article will not
list all the detailed datum.
975
3.2. Collapse analysis under the increasing earthquake action
In order to have a comprehensive understanding of the yield mechanism of the structure

and determine the ultimate bearing capacity of seismic loading, in this section the
earthquake wave peak is adjusted continuously and several time-history analysis is
conducted. During this process a critical collapse earthquake will be discovered and the
bars’ plastic state in varying degrees of earthquake will be monitored. After a
spreadsheet, the finally determined seismic wave peak multiples of the 7 degree rare
earthquake are: 2, 3, 5, 8, 10, 12, 15, 20, etc..
6th s 8 th s 10 th s 12 th s
14 th s 16 th s 18 th s 20 th s
Figure 3.2: The structure deformation at different times under 12 times seismic action
（collapse process）
1.50E+00 4.00E+00
1.00E+00 10倍 2.00E+00 12倍

0.00E+00
5.00E-01
0 5 10 15 20 25
-2.00E+00
0.00E+00
U(m)
U(m)
0 5 10 15 20 25 -4.00E+00
-5.00E-01
-6.00E+00
-1.00E+00
-8.00E+00
-1.50E+00 -1.00E+01
-2.00E+00 -1.20E+01
time(s) time(s)
(a) The wave peak multiple is 10 (b) The wave peak multiple is 12
Figure 3.3: The displacement curve
Table 3.1: Comparative table of maximum response

Wave peak multiple
1.00 2.00 3.00 5.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 15.00 20.00
①
The maximum displacement（m） -0.10 -0.19 -0.25 0.30 0.58 -1.51 -9.59 75.47 53.77
Displacement amplification
1.00 1.89 2.42 2.92 5.69 14.89 94.35 742.90 529.28
②
976
Reduction factor of displacement amplification

1.00 0.95 0.81 0.58 0.71 1.49 7.86 49.53 26.46
②/①
Maximum shear force（kN） -4971 9610 9977 -13412 -18414 -16849 -14827 -17181 -34356
Shear force amplification③ 1.00 1.93 2.01 2.70 3.70 3.39 2.98 3.46 6.91
Reduction factor of shear force amplification
1.00 0.97 0.67 0.54 0.46 0.34 0.25 0.23 0.35
③/①
Collapse (Yes or no) No No No No No No Yes Yes Yes
Performance analysis:
(1) With the continuous increase of seismic wave peak, the seismic response is
gradually increased: When the wave peak amplification factor is equal to 10 times,
the structure has a obvious irreversible lateral deformation, but has not yet collapsed;
and if the amplification factor is 12 the final collapse occurred;
(2) For the displacement response, when increased the seismic force, if the structure has
not serious irreversible lateral deformation, the amplification of the maximum
displacement response is smaller than the multiple of the seismic input; in the other
hand, the amplification of the maximum displacement response is bigger than the
multiple of input;
(3) For the base shear, due to the stiffness decline after damage, the earthquake force
decreased, so the amplification of base shear is generally smaller than the
amplification of seismic input.
3.3. Dynamic buckling analysis under the earthquake action
When study the collapse mechanism of the Sun Valley structure, it is need to
considerate the material strength failure and the bars’ buckling failure under different
earthquake action. The dynamic buckling process is relatively difficult to grasp during
earthquake, this is because the law of dynamic stability is a very complex subject, in
theory there are still many difficult issues unresolved, and its use is also subject to many
restrictions.
Under 10 times seismic force, it is found that the vertical bars at the bottom have
obvious buckling phenomenon, as shown in figure3.4.
E0
Figure 3.4: Bottom bars buckling
977
1000 2500
2000
500
1500
1000
0
-0.004 -0.003 -0.002 -0.001 0.000 0.001 0.002
F(m)
F(m)
500
-500
0
-0.004 -0.002 0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006
-500
-1000
-1000
-1500 -1500
u(m) u(m)
(a) 1st s~3.2 th s (b) 1 st s~5.0 th s

3000 4000
3000
2000
2000
1000
F(m)
F(m)
1000
0
-0.005 0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0
-0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
-1000
-1000
-2000 -2000
u(m) u(m)
(c) 1 st s~5.5 th s (d) 1 st s~6.0 th s

4000 4000
3000 3000
2000 2000
1000 1000
F(m)
F(m)
0 0
-0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
-1000 -1000
-2000 -2000
-3000 -3000
u(m) u(m)
(e) 1 st s~10 th s (f) 1 st s~20 th s

Figure 3.5: Dynamic hysteretic curve of axial force and deformation
978
(a) 3.2 th s (b) 5.0 th s
(c) 5.5 th s (d) 5.9 th s

Figure 3.6: Plastic strain of Component E0 at different times
Buckling assessments and conclusions:

(1) The vertical bars at bottom showed obvious buckling deformation under 10 times
earthquake action;
(2) From the P-Δ curves of member E0, it can be seen clearly that the member has not
yet appeared buckling and there is linear relationship between the reaction force and
displacement of E0. At the time of 5.5th s the first buckling deformation occurred in
the member E0, and after that there are repeated occurrence of buckling at different
times, and the maximum buckling force is about 3000 kN occurred at 5.9th s time,
then force gradually reduced.
(3) The plastic strain of E0 is 0 at 3.2th s time and 1.5e-4 at 5.0th s time, which is minor
plastic deformation. When the member reached the first buckling state at 5.5th time,
the plastic strain is 3.1e-3, still in the normal range; when the second buckling
occurred at 5.9th s, the plastic strain increases rapidly to 1.17e-2, which shows that
979
the bar buckling and yielding coupled together: buckling speeds up the development
of plastic strain and plastic material development reduce the bar’s buckling load.
(4) From the above analysis it can be seen that through the elasto-plastic dynamic time-
history analysis we can get the dynamic buckling information of the structure and its
member, and P-Δ curve of single dynamic buckling is similar to the static buckling
P-Δ curve.
3.4. Performance evaluation under repeated earthquake action
In a real earthquake the main shock is often accompanied by several times different
degrees of aftershocks, and even appears twice considerable degree of earthquake. To
the building structure, if it is damaged in the first earthquake, its aseismic capacity in
the follow-up earthquake will inevitable have a loss. This section will address this issue
and do further analyses to the structure of the Sun Valley, then have performance
evaluation of the structure from quantitative perspective.
Suppose each earthquake duration 20s, there is a certain time interval between the two
successive earthquakes, and the structure has free decay vibration and back to the
quiescent state in the interval, in other words, the damaged structure begin vibrating
from a stationary state when the second earthquake occurred. In order to reduce the total
CPU time, it is need to reasonably determine the interval. After trying it can be seen that
the structure attenuate to the rest within 10 seconds after the first earthquake, so in this
article the input seismic acceleration is like this (as shown in Figure 3.7): in the first 20s
time comes the first earthquake, 20s ~ 30s the earthquake acceleration is 0, 30s ~ 50s
for the second earthquake (take the same input as the first time), 50s ~ 60s acceleration
is 0, the total calculation time is 60s.
Meanwhile, in order to compare the different impact of first damage degree to the
follow-up performance, a total of three different seismic wave peak is selected, and the
amplification coefficient of wave peak are: 1, 5, 10 (based on 7 degrees severe
earthquake).
250
200
150
100
50
acel(gal)
0
-50 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
-100
-150
-200
-250
time(s)
Figure 3.7: Two successive earthquake acceleration curve
980
1.00E-01 6000
8.00E-02
1倍 4000 1倍
6.00E-02
4.00E-02
2000
2.00E-02
0.00E+00
V(kN)
U(m)
0
-2.00E-02 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
-4.00E-02
-2000
-6.00E-02
-8.00E-02 -4000
-1.00E-01
-1.20E-01 -6000
time(s) time(s)
(a) Displacement curve（1 times） (b) Base shear curve（1 times）

4.00E-01 15000
3.00E-01 5倍 5倍
10000
2.00E-01
5000
1.00E-01
V(kN)
U(m)
0.00E+00 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
-1.00E-01
-5000
-2.00E-01
-10000
-3.00E-01
-4.00E-01 -15000
time(s) time(s)
(c) Displacement curve（5 times） (d) Base shear curve（5 times）

8.00E+01 15000
7.00E+01
2.00E+00 10倍 10000 10倍
6.00E+01
1.00E+00
5000
U(m)
5.00E+01
0.00E+00
-1.00E+00 0 5 10 15 20
4.00E+01 0
V(kN)
U(m)
-2.00E+00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
3.00E+01 time(s) -5000
2.00E+01
-10000
1.00E+01
-15000
0.00E+00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
-1.00E+01 -20000
time(s) time(s)
(e) Displacement curve（10 times） (f) Base shear curve（10 times）

Figure 3.8: Seismic response curves under different earthquake wave peak
Table 3.2: Maximum response comparison under different earthquake wave peak
1times 5 times 10 times
In first shock ① -0.102 -0.269 -1.524
displacement(m)In second shock ② -0.102 -0.330 72.600
Ratio ②/① 1.00 1.22 47.64
In first shock ① -4970 -13413 -16860
Base shear(kN) In second shock ② -4890 -10560 -11937
Ratio ②/① 0.98 0.79 0.71
Results evaluation:
981
(1) The structure remains elastic state in the 7 degrees earthquake (wave peak
amplification coefficient is 1.0) and have no damage, so the structure’s performance
dose not reduce in the follow-up earthquake. From the displacement and base shear
comparison curve it can be seen that the maximum response remain the same value.
(2) When the wave peak amplification coefficient is 5.0, in the first earthquake some
members come to yield state and the whole structure has a obvious irreversible
lateral deformation, and during the second earthquake the deformation and
displacement continue to increase, the total base shear reduced to some extent,
which shows that the structural plasticity have a further development and the
stiffness have more serious degradation.
(3) When the wave peak amplification coefficient is 10.0, the whole structure has
serious irreversible overall lateral deformation (1.0m), which is unable to resist the
second earthquake and the overall displacement rapidly increase, collapse occurred
finally.
4. Conclusions
Through multiple elasto-plastic dynamic time-history calculation and analysis to the
Sun Valley structure under different degrees earthquakes, we get the following
conclusions:
(1) The structure keeps elastic state under 7 degree rare earthquake.
(2) The explicit integration method can effectively simulate the collapse of the Sun
Valley.
(3) The whole structural collapse will happen if the seismic wave peak of 7 degree rare
earthquake is magnified 12 times.
(4) The dynamic buckling information of the structure and its member can be obtained
from the elasto-plastic dynamic time-history analysis, and it is indicated that the P-Δ
curve of single dynamic buckling is similar to the static buckling P-Δ curve.
(5) The structural damage gradually accumulated when withstanding repeated
earthquakes, and the collapse occurred earlier than in the single earthquake.
References
[1] Wang D.S., Gao C., Zhang W.Y., A brief introduction on structural design of
cable-membrane roof and sun valley steel structure for Expo Axis project. Spatial
Structures. 2009,1
[2] Abaqus, Inc, ABAQUS User Manual, V6.5.5, 2006.
[3] Fang E.F., Qian J.R., Some problems on seismic design of high-rise buildings in
China. China civil engineering journal. 1992,2
[4] Qing C.L., Zhang A.H., Nonlinear time history analysis based on section fiber
model. Journal of Zhe jiang university (Engineering Science), 2005,7
982
Introduction of Some Membrane Structures in Shanghai Expo

Cai Jing1*, Song Hao2
1*
Engineer, Shanghai Taiyo Kogyo Co., Ltd, Shanghai 200030, China
2
Senior Engineer, Shanghai Taiyo Kogyo Co., Ltd, Shanghai 200030, China
Email: cj@taiyokogyo.com.cn songhao@taiyokogyo.com.cn
Abstract
Membrane structures are used extensively in many projects of Shanghai EXPO
2010. Shanghai Taiyo Kogyo Co., Ltd took part in 18 EXPO projects and successfully
created these membrane structures for this world expo where new technologies are
introduced to the public. This paper provides a brief presentation of these projects,
introducing new materials and technologies used.
Keywords: Membrane structure, EXPO, PTFE, ETFE
1 Introduction
From May 1st to October 31st 2010, more than 50 international organizations and
representatives from more than 170 countries will gather in Shanghai 2010 World
EXPO. Membrane structures are used extensively in many projects of EXPO 2010.
Shanghai Taiyo Kogyo Co., Ltd took part in 18 EXPO projects, including mega-scale
suspension membrane structure “Expo Boulevard”, some country pavilions and
corporate pavilions. This paper provides a brief presentation of these projects,
introducing new membrane materials and technologies used.
2 Membrane Structures of Expo 2010 Projects that Shanghai Taiyo

Kogyo was Involved in
A summary of eighteen EXPO projects is presented in Table 1:
Table 1: Summary of 18 EXPO Projects
Fabric Area
ProjectName Purpose Features
Name (m2)
EXPO Transportation Sheerfill I 68,000 High-strength PTFE coated glass fiber fabric,
Boulevard axis Sheerfill I, is used for the membrane roof.
SCC200 10,372 TiO2 (titanium dioxide) photocatalytic membrane is
Pudong 1 Roof of the
used for a large-scale facility of approximately 10,000
Gate site's gate
m2
Jiangnan Roof of the SCC325 2,700 Suspension membrane structure with 2 giant truss
Square open-air stage masts
German Government's B3704 14,350
Using silver mesh to create a semi-transparent effect
Pavilion pavilion wall mesh
983
Italian Interior Wall ETFE 3,400 Interior wall using double-layer ETFE film. The color
Pavilion Panels of one layer is milky; the other is clear.
GORE 2,600 A soft and foldable fabric, GORE TENARA, is used
Roof of the TENARA for the first time in China. It is made from 100%
Norwegian
government's woven high strength expanded PTFE fibers. Light
Pavilion
pavilion transmission of the fabric is very high (approximately
30%).
Exterior/interior SCC325 & 1,377 +
Finland of the Mehler 2,232 Using TiO2 photocatalytic membrane for exterior and
Pavilion government's 7520 mesh fabric for interior ceilings and wallpanels
pavilion
Fabee 2,500 +
Belgian Interior High-elastic fabric, Air-tight Fabee Stretch, is used
Stretch & 200
Pavilion “Braincell” for the “braincell”.
SCC200
Roof of the ETFE 8,000
Japan ETFE film with Ti02 photocatalytic coating, with
government's
Pavilion flexible photovoltaic solar films attached.
pavilion
China Roof of the SCC200 5,300
Using TiO2 membrane for cloud-like curved surface
Aviation corporate
shape
Pavilion pavilion
Korea Wall of the SunDream 3,200
Semitransparent fabric, SunDream, is used in this
Business corporate
project.
Pavilion pavilion
Shelter/interior SCC200 & 2,800 +
Urban Dream Used TiO2 membrane for shading walkway along the
of the theme Mehler7526 1,500
Pavilion building, and stretch fabric for interior decoration.
pavilion
Roof of the ETFE 450
Wanke
corporate ETFE membrane roof which covers the atrium
Pavilion
pavilion
Roof of the Mehler8212 4,606
Puxi Gate Shading tents made of colourful PVC fabric
site's gate
Decoration of SCC200 618
Baosteel
the theatre A canopy using TiO2 photocatalytic membrane.
Stage
entrance
Madrid Air Roof of the Ferrari 256
Membrane roof with printed patterns
Tree outdoor facility 702/8103S
Swiss FE502 150 A linkway fabric roof made from TiO2 photocatalytic
Linkway
Pavilion membrane.
Waiting Area SC350 9,000 There are many waiting area linkways scattering in
of many Linkway the EXPO park. The fabric roofs of these linkways
pavilions are made from TiO2 photocatalytic membrane.
2.1 Mega-scale Suspension Membrane Structure for EXPO Boulevard
“Expo Boulevard” (Fig.1) is located in the center of Pudong EXPO park. It is a one-
kilometer long, 110-meter wide, north-south transportation axis extending from
984
Riverside EXPO park to Yaohua Road. As the main entrance to the EXPO’s main
pavilions, it has a critical traffic and transportation function.
EXPO Boulevard features an extended membrane structure roof attached to six steel
and glass “sun valleys”. The membrane roof and its supporting framework consist of
interconnected membrane, masts and cables. There are 31 external masts and 19 internal
masts connected by high tension cables. High-strength PTFE coated glass fiber fabric,
Sheerfill I, is used for the membrane roof. The total membrane roof area is
approximately 68,000 m2.
Fig. 1: EXPO Boulevard
2.2 Pudong Gate
The fabric roof of EXPO Pudong Gate is made from TiO2 (titanium dioxide)
photocatalytic membrane. The total area is approximately 10,000 m2.
Fig. 2: Pudong Gate
2.3 Jiangnan Square
It is a suspension membrane structure with 2 giant masts.
985
Fig. 3: Jiangnan Square
2.4 German Pavilion
The facades of German Pavilion are covered using silver mesh, in order to create a
semi-transparent effect. The shape of the steel structure is very complicated. There are
totally 181 fabric panels, each with different dimensions.
Fig. 4: German Pavilion
2.5 Italian Pavilion
Double-layer ETFE film is used to make the interior wall panels of Italian Pavilion. The
colour of one layer is milky; the other is clear.
986
Fig. 5: Italian Pavilion
2.6 Norwegian Pavilion
The Norwegian Pavilion is made up of 15 interconnected “trees”. A soft and foldable

fabric, GORE TENARA, is used to make the fabric roof that covers the wood structure.
It is the first time that this kind of foldable PTFE used in China. It is made from 100%
woven high strength expanded PTFE fibers. Light transmission of the fabric is very
high (approximately 30%). And it is very soft and flexible, so it can be folded
repeatedly without damaging the fabric.
Fig. 6: Norwegian Pavilion
2.7 Finland Pavilion
The atrium of this pavilion is covered by one piece of fabric roof made from TiO2
photocatalytic membrane. Force density method is used to generate the shape that the
architect wanted. Mesh fabric is used for the interior wall and ceiling panels. For the
ceilings, thousands of holes are punched in the fabric to make room for the lamps.
987
Fig. 7: Finland Pavilion (atrium)
Fig. 8: Finland Pavilion (interior ceiling and wall panels)
2.8 Belgian Pavilion
The neat lines of the Belgian pavilion with the Brain Cell at its centre give an
impression of transparency and light that attracts passers-by. High-elastic fabric Air-
tight Fabee Stretch is used for the “braincell”. The total area of the fabric “braincell” is
approximately 2,500 m2. Cables with flexible PVC-coating are used with the fabric to
achieve the desired shape. Laser-scan measurement approach is used to generate the 3d
988
model of existing steel structures, which provides an accurate basis for the design of the
fabric structure.
Fig. 9: Belgian Pavilion
2.9 Japan Pavilion
Japan Pavilion is a 24 meters high construction of double-layer ETFE cushions mounted

on a lightweight steel frams. With its approximately 6,000 m²plot It will be among the
largest of all foreign pavilions at Expo 2010 Shanghai China. ETFE cushions integrate
the world’s first built-in amorphous solar cells, capable of generating 20–30 kW. ETFE
film with Ti02 photocatalytic coating, with flexible photovoltaic solar films attached.
Fig. 10: Japan Pavilion
989
2.10 China Aviation Pavilion
China Aviation Pavilion looks like a huge and graceful white cloud with a smooth and
shiny surface. The pavilion uses grid structure as framework, covered by one layer of
TiO2–coated membrane. The shape of each fabric panel is different. There are more
than 1,000 types of fabric panels for this project. Electronic Total Station measurement
approach is used to generate the 3d model of existing steel structure, which provides an
accurate basis for the design of fabric structure.
Fig. 11: China Aviation Pavilion
2.11 Korea Business Pavilion
The revolving water wave shape of the pavilion gets its idea from the traditional Korean
Xiangmao Dance. This revolving shape symbolizes close ties and circulation among
human beings, environment and civilization. When it comes to nights, exterior walls of
the construction appear to be blue, red, yellow, white and black, alternately, as a
representative of the Asian idea of the five elements (namely metal, wood, water, fire
and earth). High-transparent (light transmission ratio 42%) fabric, SunDream, is used in
this project.
Fig. 12: ROK Business Pavilion
990
2.12 Urban Dreams Pavilion
TiO2 membrane is used for shading walkway along the building, and stretch fabric for
interior wall decoration.
Fig. 13: Urban Dream Pavilion
Fig.14: Urban Dream Pavilion
2.13 Wanke Pavilion
The atrium of this pavilion is covered by ETFE cushions.
991
Fig. 15: Wanke Pavilion
2.14 Puxi Gate
Fabric roofs of the Puxi EXPO park's gate is made of colourful PVC fabric.
Fig. 16: Puxi Gate
2.15 Baosteel Stage
The canopy of Baosteel Stage is made from TiO2 photocatalytic membrane.
992
Fig. 17: Baosteel Stage
2.16 Madrid Air Tree
PVC fabric, Ferrari 702T2, is used for the roof of “Air Tree”. And the fabric roof is
printed with patterns specified by the architect.
Fig. 18: Madrid Air Tree
2.16 Swiss Pavilion
A linkway fabric roof made from TiO2 photocatalytic membrane.
993
Fig. 19: Swiss Pavilion
2.17 Waiting area linkways of many pavilions
There are many waiting area linkways scattering in the EXPO park. The fabric roofs are
made from TiO2 photocatalytic.
Fig. 20: Waiting area linkways
3 Conclusion
Many kinds of state-of-the-art fabric materials, such as mesh, ETFE film, foldable
PTFE fabric, TiO2-coated fabric, are used in these EXPO projects. Some of them are
used in China for the first time. A lot of first-hand experiences are gained in these
projects.
994
The Design of the Expo Axis Roof

An East-West Experience
Jan Knippers1*, Thorsten Helbig2 , Florian Scheible2
1*
Knippers Helbig Advanced Engineering, Institute of Building Structures and
Structural Design, University Stuttgart
Tübinger Str. 12-16, 70179 Stuttgart, Germany
j.knippers@knippershelbig.com
2
Knippers Helbig Advanced Engineering, Stuttgart, New York
Abstract
The light and transparent structure of the EXPO AXIS roof serves as a friendly
entrance for the visitors of the EXPO site. With a total length of more than 800 m and a
width of nearly 100 m it is one of the largest roof structures in the world. The
combination of a wide spanning textile roof and glazed grid structures, the so called Sun
Valleys, leads to an innovative and unique design. The six Sun Valleys direct the
daylight to the lower levels of the axis, which contain various functions during and after
the EXPO.
Figure 1: Aerial view of Expo Axis. Picture KnippersHelbig
995
The Sun Valleys are single layered grid shells. The six different and asymmetric conical
geometries have a height of 40 m and diameters of ca. 18 m at the bottom and up to 85
m at the top. The members which have an average length of 2.20 m are hollow box
sections with a typical height of 180 mm only. The smooth and transparent grid
structures were only made possible by the latest computer controlled design and
fabrication tools.
The enormous span of the membrane pushes the boundaries of textile structures to new
limits. In some areas two layers of a very heavy PTFE coated glass fiber membrane
were necessary to carry the high stress. The deformations under wind loads were
checked very carefully. Extensive wind tunnel tests had to be carried out at Tongji
University. Large functional models were built by the Chinese colleagues to study the
structural behaviour and failure scenarios.
The challenging structure required a close Chinese-German collaboration from the very
beginning. The initial concept was the outcome of a competition, won by the Stuttgart
and Shanghai based architectural firm SBA. This scheme went through many steps of
development until the final concept for the roof structure was developed. During this
period many presentations to the client and numerous discussions with Chinese experts
were necessary until the roof could be erected by Chinese contractors.
In the presentation not only the conceptual design of completed roof structure will be
explained but also the process of design and the challenges of east-west communication.
It will be pointed out, that the design of the EXPO Axis can serve as a role model for a
future Chinese-European collaboration in advanced architecture and engineering.
Keywords: Expo Shanghai 2010, Large Span Membrane, Grid Shell, Steel/Glass
Structure, Collaboration
1 Introduction
The Expo site is located at the Huangpu River west of the town centre Pudong. The
Expo Boulevard and the main part of the Expo – national and theme-based pavilions, as
well as innovative urban concepts – Better City, Better Life – are based on the south
side of the river. In 2007, the concept of an open entrance and boulevard building,
embedded in the landscape, took the architecture firm SBA, Stuttgart / Shanghai into the
final round of the international competition for the entrance-building of the Expo 2010
in Shanghai.
The design concept comprises a compact structure to accommodate all required public
facilities, such as box office, security gate, restaurants, shops and central allocation
points. The 1,000m long and 100m wide axis is lowered by two thirds into the ground.
Spacious lateral slopes flood the floor levels with light and air. This creates a large-scale
terrace on the building, which was originally planned to be covered with a wide-span
roof comprising a glazed grid shell with triangle meshing
996
2 Design Development
Knippers Helbig Advanced Engineering supported SBA since August 2007 by
developing the structural system. Nine mega columns comprising a glass-steel
framework bear the main load while rows of slim pillars support the edge of the roof.
Approximately three months after the start of the planning stage, the client requested the
planning of a membrane roof instead of a glass structure.
Figure 2: Elevation. Drawing KnippersHelbig
Figure 3: Cross Section. Drawing KnippersHelbig
A decision was then made in favour of a solution retaining the Sun Valleys, which are
vital for the concept and featuring a spacious supplemental membrane roof. In the
following year 2007, the main planning period, the engineering practice had been
developing the structural system, providing the static calculations and determining all
constructive details and profile dimensions in order to prove the feasibility of the mega
project for the client. The execution design and realisation on site had then been taken
over by Chinese companies. The membrane roof obtained its current shape in three
fundamental steps of development:
The structuring of the large-scale triangles is not only taking static demands into
consideration, but also numerous constraints by streets, bridges and tram stations, which
had already been allocated in the layout. This overall planning also had a restrictive
impact on the height of the exterior columns and the steep back stays.
997
With their wind suction cables and hangers, the centre masts minimize the distortion of
the membrane under wind load and bear the major part of the vertical loads, as well as
uplifting loads. The inner connection rings and double layered membrane serve for load
distribution and reinforcement of the membrane at the load concentration of the inner
low points.
3 The Structure
3.1 Sun Valleys

3.1.1 Geometry
The six sun valleys each have a surface of approximately 5,000 sqm. The diameter at
the foot is approximately 16 m and at the upper edge 80 m. The surfaces were optimised
in several iteration stages according to static and design aspects. Generating the
triangular grid states an interpretation of the principles of dense packaging and
multifunctionality as Buckminster Fuller has applied to the US-Pavilion for the Expo
1967 featuring the geodesic dome. In this respect, the sun valleys follow the same
approach as the membrane, in terms of natural structures – minimal use of material.
Figure 4: Front View of Sun Valley. Picture KnippersHelbig
The triangular grid is the result of two basic considerations: For geometric reasons the
number of triangles has to increase significantly from bottom to top and the main line
layout has to follow-up the main force direction in order to achieve the most efficient
998
structure. Therefore, the lines at the foot are directed in a vertical direction and at the
upper edge in a circular way. To accomplish this, 5-way and 7-way nodes have been
inserted half way up to rotate the grid by 30 degrees. The number and positions have
been selected according to a homogenous grid spacing of approximately 2.20 m.
3.1.2 Calculation
Besides dead load, snow, wind and earth quakes, the loads of the membrane are of vital
importance for the sun valleys. The calculation of the dependencies between the steel
structure, the sun valleys and the membrane has been done in two steps. First, the spring
rigidity at the local load application points has been conveyed to the membrane
calculation by using reference loads. Then, the resulting membrane loads were
considered and validated in the calculation of the sun valleys.
Figure 5: Connection Membrane-Sun Valley. Picture Wilfried Dechau
As expected, it became clear that the sun valleys, being shells, are enormously rigid.
Thus, the rather high local loads from the membrane only reflect in local bending
moments; and therefore in deforming. This is the reason why only local expansions of
the framework structure were necessary. To do this, the members in the periphery of
four fields around the load application were continuously hunched. The standard cross-
section of 180 x 65 mm expands locally to 500 x 140 mm.
999
3.1.3 Construction
The members were assorted in groups and the cross-sections were adapted according to
the loads. Hence, approximately 48 cross-sections were developed and installed in an
optimised way. These are composition profiles made of longitudinal welded flat steels.
Grading the sheet thickness made a precise adaptation to the load situation possible and
the heights of the cross-sections could be minimised.
Figure 6: Welding of Sun Valley. Picture Wilfried Dechau
The optimisation went hand in hand with setting-up the member system. The vertical
main lines at the shaft and the circular main lines at the upper edge exactly mirror the
respective main directions of the normal force. Therefore, also solid profiles can be
efficiently used in suitable positions. The definition of permissible distortions was set
by Chinese Experts together with authors of the Chinese standard rules. In this process,
the distortion limits for glass were of major relevance.
3.2 Membrane
3.2.1 Structure
The membrane roof covers a surface of 65,000sqm, of which just under 5,000sqm
comprise two layers. The applied PTFE-glass-membrane is of the sturdiest type V and
1000
has a tensile strength of 8,000N/5cm, which is equivalent to 16 t relating to a strip of 1

m width. The minimal preload level was set to 2.5kN/m.
The static concept is mainly characterised by the combination of the exterior masts and
the inner low points between which the membrane spans. They are complemented by
wind suction cables in the plane of the membrane between the high and the low points
and the hangers, which are fixed to them to prevent the membrane from collapsing. The
head of the centre masts are linked to the exterior masts by safeguard cables.
The inner masts, which have a diameter of approximately 600mm, take a major part of
the vertical loads. They carry steel rings to which the main membrane and the wind
suction cables are fixed. Each connection ring is held in place by an outer staying of the
centre mast. 3 x 4 hanger cables and the three head cables meet at each mast head.
Figure 7: Structural Concept in Cross Section. Picture KnippersHelbig
Every exterior mast is anchored by two back stays with a diameter of up to 160 mm.
These dimensions are commonly used for bridge constructions. Gravitation foundations,
resting on poles, have a cube side length of up to 8m and provide sufficient mass to
anchor the tensile forces of the cables, which can partially be far beyond 1,000t. The
approximately 2m x 2m large bases of the back stay plates are fixed to anchor rods with
a diameter of 80mm, and can be readjusted during the first months, according to the
relaxation of the membrane. The space underneath the bases has been filled with
concrete just before the opening of the Expo.
There are up to nine main cables connected to the head of a mast. The membrane is
fixed to each Sun Valley at a couple of points in order to fit it tightly around the funnel
without an additional substructure.
3.2.2 Calculation
The reliable transition of the bearing loads at the back stays and at the foot of the masts
posed a particular challenge, because every modification of the geometry implies a
change in the distribution of forces within the membrane. The fact that the design of the
solid building and specifically the infrastructure underneath had already been setting the
1001
scene, made it feel like redeveloping an existing building – not an easy task concerning
such a complex roof.
Figure 8: EASY-modell. Picture KnippersHelbig
The static calculations put two matters at the centre of consideration; the cables and the
membrane. A failure of these two components, i.e. slacking, has to be precluded, also
under unfavourable wind loads. In this respect, the optimisation of the pretension in the
cables creates an important prerequisite in order to check the pretension in the
membrane too. And still, the calculations kept on showing individual members, which
fall below a critical force level. This has been solved by modifications of the geometry.
Figure 9: Erection Process. Picture KnippersHelbig
Particular attention was paid to the inner low point. The biggest loads and load peaks
are concentrated at this point, which necessitates a double-layer construction. “Excess
tensions” were systematically identified in analysis. On the architects request the
double-layered membrane was designed as a rosette, which comprises eight leaves in
most of the low points. Numerous geometry optimisations guarantee that the radial
1002
forces do not exceed the limit values and assure a minimal tension level in the direction
of the rings at all times to prevent draping.
3.2.3 Outer Edge
The heads of the masts are varying and were intensely assessed in 3D visualisation and
mock-ups. The connection plates are partially up to 2m long to avoid the collision of
fork connectors. The shaft of the mast head and the connection plate are made of one
cast to simplify the assembly of the masts. Particular importance was attached to the
transformation of the eccentricities resulting from the large connection plates in
combination with wind loads. These cause immense local moments in consequence of
cable and axis displacements, which were determined for every single mast head. The
detail design of the connections of the membrane to the sun valleys is geometrically
complex. Double-joint connections prevent the application of unscheduled moments
resulting from angle modifications due to wind load.
Figure 10: Outer Mast Head. Picture KnippersHelbig
3.2.4 Inner Mast
The roof structure basically drains the water to the inside and towards the inner masts.
While planning the details, great emphasis was set on achieving preferably slim and
reduced aesthetics to counteract a visual accumulation of components at this intricate
detail. The integration of the drainage in the mast has proven to be a condition for a
1003
proper design of the lower joints of the mast cable truss. The main membrane is fixed to
the inner ring. An additional membrane of the type II, which is significantly more
flexible, constitutes the link between the inner ring and the lower drainage point, the
feed hopper. Thus, the main membrane is more than four meters away from the visitors;
and backwater or packing of snow can not cause damage on the main membrane. Four
tubes with a diameter of 200 mm lead from the feed hopper to the output at the foot of
the mast. From there they are directed past the base plate to the solid building.
Figure 11: Inner Mast showing main and drainage membrane. Picture Thomas Ott
4. Cooperation
A close Chinese-German cooperation was necessary from the very beginning and in all
design stages of the Expo Boulevard. The initial design of the competition was further
developed in several steps until the final concept was drawn-up. During that time,
several meetings in Shanghai were necessary, not only to discuss the development of
the design with the client, but also to convince the Chinese consultants of the feasibility
of the structure.
As typhoons commonly visit Shanghai during summer months, discussions were always
focused on the stress and distortions under wind loads. Extensive tests in the wind
tunnel were therefore of particular importance. These tests were run at the Tongji
University to determine the wind loads and flow values. Beyond this, a more then 20 m
long mock-up of the roof structure has been built in China to asses the stress and
distortions of the structure under various loads by using load cells and displacement
transducers. At the same time, the failure of single back stay cables has been simulated
1004
to examine the behaviour of the system in such a case. The bearing capacity of highly
stressed detail points, such as edge clamps and membrane reinforcements has also been
verified in several big operational mock-ups. Additionally steel masts and steel nodes
were tested as well in especially designed testing facilities. These experimental case-
studies are surprisingly enriching for European Engineers, who usually rely to a large
extent on computer calculations.
The development of the project was passed on to Chinese hands when the general
geometry as well as the essential details of the roof structure were developed and the
feasibility had been verified by static calculations and accompanying tests. Finally the
structure has been realised almost as designed originally. The design and the realisation
of the roof are exemplary for a successful German-Chinese cooperation.
Client: Shanghai World EXPO Land Holding Co. Ltd., Shanghai
Urban Planning and Architecture: SBA GmbH; Stuttgart, Shanghai
Roof Structure: Knippers Helbig Advanced Engineering; Stuttgart, New York
Design Institute: ECADI; Shanghai
Wind Tunnel Test: Tongji University; Shanghai
Contractor Steel Structure Sun Valleys: China Jinggong Goup; Shaoxing
Contractor Membrane Roof: Shanghai Taiyo Kogyo Ltd., Co. ; Shanghai
1005
Design and Analysis of Grid Shell Structure of the Shanghai

World Expo Axis Project
Chengming LI 1*, Lianping YANG 2, Jiachun CUI 2
1*
Shanghai Xian Dai Architectural Design (Group) Co.,Ltd,
258 Shimen Er Road, Shanghai, China, 200041.
chengming_li@xd-ad.com.cn
2
Shanghai Xian Dai Architectural Design (Group) Co.,Ltd
Abstract
Shanghai World Expo Axis, 1045 meters in length and 80 meters in width, is
one of the essential components among Shanghai World Expo group buildings. It
composes a large span cable-membrane structure and steel grid shell structure. The steel
grid shell structure is described as Sun Valley for its different free grid shape. The
special structure of Sun Valley demandingly challenges the process of analysis and
design. The internal force calculations and stability analysis of Sun Valley NO.1 are
discussed in this paper expecting to provide valuable technical references for other
similar projects.
Keywords: Shanghai World Expo, free form, grid shell structure, stability analysis
1. Project introduction
Shanghai World Expo Axis Project is 1045m long from south to north, 80m wide from
east to west above ground, and 251,000m2 in architectural area. The roof of Expo Axis
is a combination of cable-membrane structure and six steel structures named ‘Sun
Valley’. Every Sun Valley has a unique geometry and provides three supporting points
for the cable-membrane structure. So Sun Valleys are the basis for the establishment of
cable-membrane structure. The Sun Valley No.1 locates at the end of the Expo Axis and
is the biggest in geometry. It is a good example to be introduced for design and overall
stability analysis of such free-form grid shell structures.
The geometry of Sun Valley No.1 is like a morning glory. Its bottom is an elliptic
closed curve with long axis 18.0m and short axis 12.0m; its top is a closed curve
consists of semi-circle and half ellipse with long axis 90.0m and short axis 70.0m; its
height is 41.0m. The geometric model and scene photograph are given in Figure 1 and 2.
Sun Valley No.1 is a single-layer grid shell system composed of many triangular grids.
Most of its members are hollow welded steel pipe section, and in order to strengthen the
whole stiffness rectangular section are used in top circle. The length of members is
between 1.5m and 3.5m, cross section height is between 180mm and 500mm, cross
section width is between 65mm and 120mm. The most of members have a
65mm×180mm outside section. Q345B is used for all steel members.
1006
The nodes in the bottom are fixed in the vertical direction and elastic constrained along
the surface tangent and normal direction, the elastic stiffness is 1.0×107kN/m and
2.5×106kN/m respectively.
The location connect with

membrane structure
(a) top (b) perspective

Figure 1: geometric model of Sun Valley No.1
Figure 2: scene photograph Figure 3: the definition of wind angles
2. Strength design
Load cases were concerned for Sun Valley No.1 as follows:
(1) Dead load (LC2): steel members weight 78.5kN/m3; glass weight 80kg/m2.
(2) Live load: 0.5kN/m2, considering all distributed LC3 and parting distributed in front,
back, left and right LC17, LC18, LC19, LC20.
(3) Snow load: 0.24kN/m2.
(4) Wind load: the data coming from wind tunnel test is used. Eight wind angles were
considered from 0°to 315° with increment of 45° (LC4,…, LC11). The definition of
wind angles are shown in Figure 3.
(5) Temperature load: elevate 40℃(LC12) and reduce 20℃(LC13).
(6) Seismic load: X, Y, Z directions (LC14, LC15, LC16).
Concentrated forces coming from cable-membrane structure were included in every
load case. These nineteen load cases generate 490 load combinations which were used
to check the strength and stability of steel members. Stability of single member was
1007
included in steel section design. Effective length factor is 1.6 in strong axis direction
and 0.9 in weak axis direction according to literature [5].
Stress ratio of Sun Valley No.1 is shown in Figure 4. As shown in the figure, the
maximum of stress ratio is 0.784 corresponding member is vertical member in bottom
of the Sun Valley.
upper part lower part

Figure 4: stress ratio of members
Statistical graph of stress ratio of steel members in Sun Valley No.1 is given in Figure 5.
As shown in the figure, 85.2% of the members stress ratio are less than 0.5, another
14.5% of the members stress ratio are at 0.5 to 0.7 and the remaining 0.3% of the
members stress ratio are greater than 0.7. Therefore, there is great surplus strength for
most of the members.
Figure 5: statistical graph of stress ratio Figure 6: the classification of stress ratio
For a grid shell structure, it is an ideal state for a member stress dominated by axial
force, which can make full use of material compressive strength, reduce section height
and material consumption. Classification of stress ratio is given in Figure 6. The first
part is the number of members with stress ratio dominated by axial force which is
accounting for 78% of the members; the second part is the number of members with
stress ratio dominated by bending moment which is accounting for 22% of the members.
These data indicate that while Sun Valley is a cantilevered structure most of the
members dominated by axial force. The structure is in the membrane stress state.
The classification of members is given in Figure 7. The red lines are members stress
ratio dominated by axial force while blue lines are members stress ratio dominated by
bending moment. We can find from Figure 7, the members stress ratio dominated by
bending moment locate in the areas connecting with cable-membrane structure. This is
1008
mainly because the directions of force coming from cable-membrane structure are
parallel to normal directions of the grid shell structure. It leads to large bending moment
for the members near the places force act.
Figure 7: classification of members Figure 8: numbers of control node for

displacement
3. Displacement design
Sun Valley No.1 is an irregular surface and the cantilever length is not the same in
different places, so unique cantilever length cannot be defined for the structure.
Cantilever length L is defined as minimum horizontal distance with bottom elliptic
curve for a point at the top, shown in Figure 8. Vertical displacement is controlled less
than L/125 for the points at the top of the structure.
Envelope pictures are shown in Figure 9. As shown in pictures, the maximum
displacement locate in the top of the structure, vertical displacement design is controlled
by nodes at the top circle of the structure, shown in Figure 8.
Vertical displacement of control nodes in every load cases are given in Table 1. We can
see from the table, displacement induced by wind load is greater than others, which
illustrates the displacement is dominated by wind load cases for the structure. The
structure is a wind-sensitive system.
The maximum displacement and ratio of displacement and cantilever length are given in
Table 2. With all standard load combinations considered, the maximum upward relative
vertical displacement is L/135, correspondingly absolute value is 267.7mm locating at
the node No.455; the maximum downward relative vertical displacement is L/149,
correspondingly absolute value is 260.7mm locating at the node No.365.
The displacement of all nodes meets the design requirements.
1009
upward direction downward direction

Figure 9: envelope vertical displacement of the structure (m)
Table 1: vertical displacement under every load case (mm)
ND LC2 LC3 LC4 LC5 LC6 LC7 LC8 LC9 LC10 LC11 LC12 LC13 LC14 LC15 LC16
484 26.8 7.2 -72.4 -68.5 -63.7 56.4 -45.8 67.2 88.5 145.4 19.9 -10.0 9.3 17.4 2.5
538 29.6 8.4 -88.7 -61.9 -66.7 41.2 -40.1 -37.8 -38.8 -100.6 20.0 -10.0 13.4 20.0 2.5
591 -17.6 -12.8 -64.8 -48.9 -54.0 -33.6 -37.6 -49.3 7.5 -73.4 18.3 -9.2 7.0 18.5 1.6
737 -18.7 -9.3 -56.5 -37.5 39.0 35.9 42.9 24.3 10.7 25.4 16.2 -8.1 16.6 12.5 2.4
753 6.5 14.1 -53.0 32.0 23.2 18.5 46.2 49.7 46.8 41.0 15.2 -7.6 20.4 1.8 3.0
1605 -20.6 -6.9 -53.2 -63.7 -12.5 2.5 22.1 34.0 10.1 34.9 16.1 -8.1 20.6 12.4 2.8
1459 -19.1 -12.2 -56.1 -54.9 -58.1 29.7 27.1 23.8 3.9 -55.6 18.2 -9.1 6.5 18.2 1.7
1406 28.3 6.8 -57.8 68.9 -10.2 63.8 33.3 -40.2 -37.1 -72.2 19.9 -10.0 11.1 20.7 2.4
1352 27.7 4.6 -117.9 -60.3 -30.9 106.7 59.7 -59.1 -57.1 -126.8 19.8 -9.9 8.0 17.0 2.4
1323 -15.4 -8.4 -183.6 -94.3 -66.3 119.5 -53.9 -77.4 -77.3 -167.0 19.1 -9.5 8.2 32.7 2.9
1233 -39.2 -10.0 -144.0 143.4 141.9 -52.2 -54.9 -66.2 -65.0 -139.3 18.9 -9.4 9.8 33.2 3.6
1218 -47.8 -9.3 -152.4 214.7 185.3 -80.8 -68.5 -71.2 -86.6 -183.0 18.1 -9.1 9.9 41.9 3.1
1031 -46.7 -9.0 152.8 158.5 136.4 -83.8 -55.2 -60.3 -91.1 -191.4 16.2 -8.1 15.8 40.5 3.0
967 -43.3 -8.9 200.4 125.2 83.4 -94.3 63.1 57.6 -102.9 -151.1 16.0 -8.0 14.5 28.0 3.8
104 -43.5 -9.6 228.8 -138.3 -135.7 -80.6 58.2 57.6 -93.0 196.5 15.9 -8.0 16.1 27.3 3.6
167 -47.5 -10.3 263.7 -141.3 -134.6 -88.3 -61.9 67.5 96.9 266.6 15.9 -8.0 12.6 40.8 2.7
350 -49.7 -9.9 116.8 -108.7 -92.2 -73.1 -70.1 63.4 94.6 172.4 17.8 -8.9 9.5 40.7 3.3
365 -41.4 -9.2 -196.3 -129.5 -120.3 -80.9 -91.1 92.0 142.3 236.0 18.7 -9.3 11.2 30.8 3.6
455 -17.4 -6.3 -163.9 -111.1 -114.4 -78.1 -79.3 93.3 142.7 254.0 19.1 -9.5 8.3 32.8 2.6
Table 2: maximum vertical displacement of control nodes (mm)
Cantilever upward downward

Node numbers length
(m) UZ UZ/L UZ UZ/L
1010
484 35.0 195.3 1/179 -53.2 1/658

538 35.7 104.3 1/342 -89.4 1/399
591 37.4 13.7 1/2731 -112.7 1/332
737 39.2 37.1 1/1057 -95.1 1/412
753 40.0 78.5 1/510 -51.8 1/772
1605 39.2 28.8 1/1362 -102.6 1/382
1459 37.4 23.3 1/1606 -98.6 1/379
1406 35.7 129.5 1/276 -63.0 1/567
1352 35.0 155.8 1/225 -107.9 1/324
1323 36.1 134.0 1/269 -223.4 1/161
1233 39.0 132.1 1/295 -206.9 1/188
1218 42.9 193.1 1/222 -254.1 1/169
1031 46.9 144.2 1/325 -269.0 1/174
967 49.6 182.7 1/272 -222.7 1/223
104 49.6 210.7 1/235 -211.0 1/235
167 46.9 250.6 1/187 -220.5 1/213
350 42.9 148.3 1/289 -181.5 1/237
365 39.0 223.3 1/174 -260.7 1/149
455 36.1 267.7 1/135 -204.1 1/177
4. Overall stability analysis

As mentioned above, Sun Valley is a grid shell structure in the state of membrane stress,
so it may be overall unstable under external loads. In order to study overall stability
bearing capacity of the structure, buckling analysis and non-linear overall stability
analysis are applied follow.
‘1.0dead+1.0live’, ‘1.0dead+0.7live+1.0wind’ and ‘1.0dead+1.0live+0.7wind’ are used
in the buckling analysis and the minimum load factor is 5.794 obtained under
‘LC2+0.7LC17+LC11’ with all standard load combinations considered. So
‘LC2+0.7LC17+LC11’ is control load combination for overall instability analysis. The
first three models under load combination ‘LC2+0.7LC17+LC11’ are shown in Figure
10.
1st 2nd 3rd

Fig.10 First three models under load LC2+0.7×LC17+LC11
1011
As the buckling analysis to predict the academic buckling strength of ideal linear
structure and often obtain non-conservative results, so the results can’t be directly
applied to practical engineering. Therefore, we must adopt a more comprehensive non-
linear ‘load-displacement’ tracking analysis technology to analyze the overall stability
of the structure. The results come from buckling analysis can provide reference for non-
linear stability analysis.
An overall non-linear stability analysis was carried on for the Sun Valley No.1 under
the load combination ‘LC2+0.7LC17+LC11’ with geometric nonlinearity and plastic
material considered. The distribution of initial imperfection is considered as same as the
first-order buckling mode, and different sizes of initial imperfection are included as also.
The results are shown in Figure 11 and Table 3.
4.5
3.5
3
Load factor
2.5
1.5
1 0 10 40 100
0.5 150 200 240 270
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Displacement UZ(m)
Figure 11: load-displacement curves of node No. 484
Table 3: critical load factors under different sizes initial imperfection
Maximum initial Maximum initial

imperfection Critical load factors imperfection Critical load factors
(mm) (mm)
0.0 4.18250 100.0 3.43588
10.0 4.11831 150.0 3.14398
40.0 3.98762 200.0 2.92705
50.0 3.92280 240.0 2.77165
60.0 3.84930 270.0 2.66658
It can be found from Table 3, the first critical load factor is 4.18 without initial
imperfection considered while it reduced to 3.84 and 2.67 corresponding to 60mm and
270mm maximum initial imperfection is considered respectively. Site monitoring data
showed the maximum geometric error is 65mm, so we can determine the stability
bearing capacity factor of the structure should be around 3.8. According to literature [5],
the overall stability coefficient of grid shell structures should be greater than 2.0 while
plastic material is considered. So the results meet the design requirements.
1012
It is worth noting, plastic strain was found in some bottom members when fist critical
load had been reached, that means the structure belongs to the problem of strength but
not instability.
5. Conclusions
The design and analysis of grid shell structure of the Shanghai World Expo Axis Project
is presented in the paper. According to the results above some conclusions can be
obtained below:
(1) The members stress ratio controlled by axial force covers 78% of overall. The
structure is in the state of membrane stress and has the typical characteristics of the shell
structure.
(2) The wind load cases are the control ones in process of displacement design. The
structure is sensitive to wind loads.
(3) The stability bearing factor is 2.67 in the condition of initial imperfection and plastic
material are considered, that meets the design requirements.
The results in the paper are expected to provide valuable technical references for other
similar projects.
References
[1] Jiachun CUI, Chengming LI, Lianping YANG, Wei TIAN. Stability Analysis of a
New Type Reticulated Shell. IASS Symposium, Valencia, Spain, 28 September – 2
October, 2009.
[2] WANG Da-sui, GAO Chao, ZHANG Wei-yu. A brief introduction on structural
design of cable-membrane roof and sun valley steel structure for Expo Axis project
[J]. SPATIAL STRUCTURES, 2009.15(1).
[3] GB 50009-2001. Load code for the design of building structures [M]. Beijing:
China Architecture & Building Press, 2002.
[4] GB 50017-2003. Code for design of steel structures [M]. Beijing: CHINA
PLANNING PRESS, 2003.
[5] JGJ 61-2003. Technical specification for latticed shells [M]. Beijing: China
Architecture & Building Press, 2003.
1013
Structural Health Monitoring System for the Central Axis of

2010 Shanghai Expo
Dalin LI1, Qilin ZHANG2
1*
Department of building engineering, Tongji University
School of Civil Engineering, Tongji University
1239 Siping Rd. Shanghai, China
lidalinmysn@126.com
2
Department of building engineering, Tongji University
Abstract:
Increasingly large and complex structures make it more complicated in analysis,
designing and construction, and through the amplification effect caused by the
interaction of various parts of the structure, any tiny error in any link could cause huge
damage to the building. However, the relative analysis theory and design method are not
consummate enough to access the influence of all kinds of errors. Under this
circumstance, structural health monitoring system is an important guarantee to ensure
the safety of the structures in both construction and operation stage, and at the same
time, contributes to make up for the deficiency of theory. The Expo Central Axis is a
permanent building of 2010 Shanghai Expo. The projection area of the cable-membrane
roof structure reaches to a size of 80*100 m2, and the computing displacement of the
membrane roof is close to 4m. In this paper, these entire component parts such as: (1)
steel structure surface strain and stress monitoring system; (2) cable stress monitoring
system; (3) membrane stress measuring units; (4) side masts movement measuring
system; (5) wind environment (wind speed and acceleration) monitoring system; (6)
video monitoring system for membrane roof vibration, as well as the network database
are introduced
Keywords: Expo Axis, health monitoring system, cable-membrane structures

1 Introduction
The increasingly large and complex structures make it more complicated in analysis,
designing and construction, and through the amplification effect caused by the
interaction of various parts of the structure, any tiny error in any link could cause huge
damage to the structure. However, the relative analysis theory and design method are
not consummate enough to assess the influence of all kinds of errors. Under this
circumstance, structural health monitoring system is an important guarantee to ensure
the safety of the structures in both construction and operation stage, and at the same
time contributes to make up for the deficiency of theory[1-2].
The Expo Axis is the central traffic landscape line in Expo site 2010 Shanghai. The
Axis line not only connect the four permanent pavilions in Expo site, that are Chinese
Pavilion, Theme Pavilion, Expo Center and the Performance Center, and the main
1014
access of Metro Line 7 and Metro Line 8, but also will be the main entrance and exit of
the Expo. The Expo Axis project is the largest single project in the Expo. The building
total area is approximately 130,000 square meters and total floor space is approximately
250,000 square meters, of approximately 180,000 square meters underground and
approximately 70,000 square meters above ground.This project has adopted a whole
new architecture form. The roof is designed as a super-giant light cable-membrane
structure about 1000 meters long and 80 meters wide. In the coverage of the whole
cable-membrane structure, 6 giant cones shape Sunshine Valley are set up from the
entrance to the central section of Expo Axis longitudinally. The whole cable-membrane
roof structure is supported by 19 central masts and 31 side masts with total 57
horizontal central cables (Φ70) and 62 oblique anchorage cables（Φ190）.
2 Strain and stress monitoring system of the sunshine valleys

In the coverage of the whole Expo Axis set up 6 giantism cones shape Sunshine Valley
from the entrance to the central section of Expo axis longitudinally. Sunshine valley
adopt steel structure form which function as introducing green and sunlight individual
spatial levels that may not only satisfy part underground light need but also be able to
embody environmental protection and hooverize exhibition ideas. However, the free-
form sunshine valley is difficult in structural analysis and assessment, and its stress of
different members is hard to be predicted under various environment conditions.
Sunshine valley adopts the single-layer triangle steel grid system. Of all the six sunshine
valleys, beside sunshine valley 4, of which the bottom members are arranged in the
shape of circle, the others are arranged in oval. The long axis at the top of the sunshine
valley is approximate 90m, and the cantilevered length of all these sunshine valleys are
from 21m to40m. most of the grid bars of the sunshine valley use rectangular cross-
section of hollow welded steel pipe, and in the top of the structure, in order to
strengthen the structure, solid bars are used as a hoop.
Instrumented electric strain gauge(shown in Fig.1) is adopted to monitor the stress value
of the steel members. Data acquisition system consists of for main composition: data
acquisition unit, transfer device, communication host and PC machine. All these parts
are wireless connected to and can meet the requirement of long distance and real-time
data transportation.
Fig.1: Instrumented electric strain gauge
1015
3 Cable force monitoring system

Considering the features of this project, EM sensory technology is adopted to measure
the cable stress. In order to realize real-time monitoring, an online monitoring system
with a net database is developed. So, the tensile force of the cable can be measured
automatically and the data will be written to the database automatically. Then, through
the developed net software, the real-time monitoring data can be checked both within
the LAN and through the WAN.
EM sensory technology can reliably monitor actual stress in steel tendons and cable
based on the fact that the permeability of ferromagnetic material is a function of magic
history and applied field (stress and temperature). The sensor can be applied to any
structure built with circular steel cables [3-5].
. The basis of this technology is the magnetic properties of ferromagnetic materials. The
magnetic domain theory can be used to describe the phenomenon. This theory
postulates that material is made up of local regions called ferromagnetic domains, each
magnetized to saturation but aligned according to the state of local magnetization.
Adjacent domains are separated by a highly localized magnetic transition region called
the domain wall. Even in the demagnetized state, all domains are still magnetized to
saturation, but the orientation of the individual domain magnetization vectors is random,
which results in a net magnetization of zero for a specimen. The application of a
magnetic field or a mechanical stress can change the configuration of the domains,
principally by wall movement [8]. Consequently, magnetic properties of the materials are
altered with the application of stress, but the extent of the change is a function of the
material itself. In order to magnetize a material and study it magnetic characteristics, we
need two solenoids, a primary coil and a second coil, and a core made of the material
whose magnetic characteristics are to be investigated. According the principle of
magnetic induction, if a DC current is applied across the primary coil A, as Fig.2 shows,
it produces a magnetic field and the magnetic flux density within the specimen, and then
induced current can be detected in second coil B, but the value of the induced current is
very small without the core. The existence of the central core enhanced the magnetic
flux density, and makes the induced current in coil B easier to measure. When the stress
of the inner core changes, the induced current intensity changes as well [6].
Fig.2: Principle of magnetic induction
1016
The EM sensor can be pre-fabricated or field fabricated. The pre-fabricated EM sensor

is a hollow cylinder which the steel cable passes, and it should be fixed onto the cable
element while the cable element is made. The sensor consists of primary, secondary and
compensating windings, mounted in a protective steel cover and sealed with an
insulating material. In this case, the EM sensor has no mechanical contact with the
measured element so it will not be overloaded; it is resistant to water and mechanical
injury. The EM sensor can work over 50 years. What’s more, the EM sensor can
directly measure the cables covered by thin walled steel tube or plastic tube without
need to remove them [7].
Fig.3: EM sensor schematic structure Fig.4: Measurement principle
The EM sensory system principle is designed as a compact system and user friendly
basic unit.
The original measurement system consists of three main components: the EM sensor,
the measuring unit and the calculating software. The computer aided cable
measurement system is made up of three subsystems: the sensor system, the
measurement system and the online monitoring system[6]. These three subsystems are
organized as the following diagram (Fig. 5)
Fig.5: Structures of the online monitoring system
1017
4 Membrane stress monitoring unit

Stress stiffing in pre-stressed membrane and stress superposition principle is the
theoretical basis of this method. As is shown in Fig, when external prestress T is
imposed on membrane, out of plane stiffness is consequently formed in the membrane.
if the local membrane subjects to out-of-plane load q , which is perpendicular to the
membrane plane, the out-of –plane displacement w and T can be formulated as the
following equation:
T  f (w, q, E) (1)
Where E means the mechanical parameters of the membrane material, especially the
elastic modulus. By measuring the out-of-plane displacement w and load q , T can be
calculated in accordance with equation mentioned above. During the derivation process
of formula (1), cable simulation method is proposed, which transforms the two-
dimensional membrane plane problem into a single dimensional pre-stressed cable
problem. Using this method, the stress of radial, weft and any other direction can be
measured independently without any interference. Meanwhile, by using the
mathematical tools, the interference of material properties, especially the elastic
modulus, can be ruled out so that this method is suitable for all kinds of membrane
materials.
Fig.6: Schematic of membrane stress measurement
According to the theory mentioned above, the membrane stress measuring unit is
invented by Tongji University (Fig.7). . By using a vacuum pump and laser
displacement meter, membrane out-plane displacements with their corresponding forces
can be measured, then the in-plane pre-stress value can be calculated based on the in-
plane stress vs. out-plane stiffness relation. This equipment has two parts—measuring
unit and controlling unit. The power, auto-control function as well as the data collecting,
processing, presentation is done automatically by the controlling unit.
1018
Fig.7: membrane stress measurement unit
5 Displacement monitoring system

Total station unit (Fig.8) is adopted to monitoring the mast displacement. In order to use
the same coordinate system to monitor all the monitoring points, a high level vertical
control network and horizontal control network is established. The monitoring
controlling network consists of 3 initial control points, 2 control points on Chinese
Pavilion roof and other 10 control points on or around the 10-meter platform (shown in
Fig 9 and the 3 initial control points are not marked)
Fig.8: SOKKIA NET05

automatic 3D total Fig.9: Layout of control point arrangment
station
1019
6 Wind environment monitoring system

The Expo Axis is very sensitive to wind, and because of the circular structural shape,
the actual wind effects and the wind tunnel test are of big difference which is due to the
Reynolds number vibration resulted from dimensional effect. Besides, the structural
wind-induced vibration analysis is usually done by imposing the time-history loads,
which is got from the pressure measurement test of rigid models, on the structure.
However, when such method is introduced to the structure with large displacement, it
will cause large errors. Considering this, the wind effect monitoring is advised to be
taken for the Axis. It consists of three main parts: surface wind pressure monitoring,
local wind speed monitoring and subsequently, structural wind-induced vibration
monitoring. Correspondingly, three different types of sensors are adopted to fulfill the
goal, they are Model 264/C264 minute pressure sensor (Fig.10) for wind pressure;
three-dimensional ultrasound wind anemometer (Fig.11) for wind speed; and DH201-50
Piezoelectric accelerometer (Fig.12) for wind-induced vibration.
Fig.10: Model 264/C264 minute pressure Fig.11: Three-dimensional ultrasound

sensor wind anemometer
Fig. 12: DH201-50 Piezoelectric accelerometer
1020
7 Structural monitoring database and monitoring software

Since the monitoring phase of this project includes the construction stage and the
operation with a large time-span, and the system will collect a large amount of data of
variable types, it requires establishing a sound database system. The database system
has a multi-level access authority to meet the demand of different stages and different
purpose, and ensure the maximum shearing of monitoring data under the premise of
monitoring system security. In addition, the information of the monitoring system
updates continuously, and the data updates and security assessment has high
requirements of real-timing. So it requires that all the historical data of all sensors are
preserved for the offline analysis, the original data should be kept for at least 45 days
and the analysis data should be kept for at least one year [9]. There should an external
memory to store the whole life data from the construction stage to the operation stage.
According to the system need for the mass data and the storage and manage of all these
data, Microsoft SQL Server is selected as the database management software to realize
unified management of geometric data, monitoring time sequence data, image and the
text information. SQL Server is relational database management system in line with
SQL language standard, so the system application system can use SQL structural query
language to view, analyze and manage the real-time data and the historical data in the
database. The database has the following functions:
 Organically, dynamically storing large amounts of associated data, and providing
multi-user accessing to realize the full- shearing and cross-visiting of the data. At
the same time, the database keeps a high degree of independence with the
application software to connect the field measuring system and the top-site
information management system.
 Speedily storing the dynamic real-time data. All the real-time data in the database
should be refreshed in accordance with the state changing of the monitored object,
which, as the key part, must be kept synchronized with the system to ensure the
data and real-time analysis result can be real-time display.
 To achieve the data transfer, exchange and shearing between different functional
modules.
 The database system should be connected to the Internet through the network server,
allowing remote users to query, browse, generate report and print the data in the
database via a web browser. The user interface is well illustrated and operation
friendly.
 In order to prevent vandalism and attacks on the database, the database should also
have firewalls and encryption measures and control the access by set permissions of
different access level.
 The database should have the online backup and recovery function without
interrupting the normal operation of the system.
 The database should have alarm system. When the data is about to reach the limit of
the system data storage capacity, the system should automatically trigger the
reminders to transfer the data or clean the outdated data.
1021
structural health
monitoring database
static database static database
numeric data
systemconfiguration
parameter
project general information original monitoring data
design files processed data
construction drawings
essessment report
construction schedule monitoring progress
monitoring schedule monitoring event log
monitoring system staged analysis report

configuration program
system operation log
other files
file data other files
Fig.13: Schematic structure of the database
7.1 Remote query and view interface

User-oriented interface is the connection of the health monitoring system and the user, it
automatically write a high visual report including the real-time monitoring data and the
assessment of the structure state, the maintenance program in accordance with the safety
factor, and the assessment result of the early warning system.
7.2 System functions:

 Activate the remote access to the database through the Internet network and support
the query of historical data and engineering data. The interface of the query is
shown in Fig.14
 Feedback the corresponding information to the user according to the user
authorization.
 Write the assessment result of the monitoring system into report regularly, and
automatically send the report to the relevant authorities and the owners through the
LAN, WAN or email to certain receivers.
 Generate a real-time report of the items under warning.
1022
Fig. 14: Remote query and view interface
8 Monitoring plan
After the project is completed and put into use, regular monitoring of the project is used
to ensure that the safety and reliability of structure. Stage of this project using a three-
year limit, since the completion of the project acceptance, the three years to conduct
regular monitoring, the first year of monthly monitoring time, the second three-year
1023
quarterly monitoring. In addition, the event of high winds or a typhoon warning, the
wind or a typhoon in the real-time monitoring of measurement points during the real-
time monitoring.
9 The Construction Period Monitoring Data Analysis

During the construction stage, the whole cables are divided into two sections, the north
section and the south section, and the cables in the two sections are tensioned separately.
the monitoring data shows that the values of the cable force changes a lot when all the
cables are tensioned, comparing to the data when only cables in separate sections are
tensioned. When the construction of cable tensioning is done, the membrane roof are
then fixed up and tensioned, which has an obvious effect of the cable force, as is shown
in Fig.15
Fig. 15: Cable force with and without the membrane structure
During the tensioning construction, there is a great degree of mutual influence. When
the force of a cable reaches to the design value, the tension of adjacent cable or cable of
adjacent mast can cause great change of the former cable force. Consequently, when the
tensioning construction of all the single cable is done, the cable force has different shifts
from the design value, and after times of re-tension, the cable force comes to stable. The
fixing of the membrane roof decreases the horizontal cables force and increases the
cable force of the side cables, however, the value changes are different.After all the
construction is done, the cable force overall meets the design requirements, the Axis
cable-membrane roof structure is safe.
10 Acknowledgments
This work was supported by Kwang-Hua Fund for College of Civil Engineering, Tongji
University and National High Technology Research and Development Program
（863,2009AA04Z420）. The writers would like to acknowledge above supports.
1024
References:
[1] Zhang Qilin. Cable and membrane structure. Shanghai: Tongji University
Press,2002.
[2] Teuffel, P.Smart structures and extreme events[A]: Structures and Extreme Events.
IABSE Symposium, 344-5, 2006.
[3] L. Chen. Theoretical and practical research of elastic project megnetic method in
tensile force measurement in spatial structure[D]. Shanghai: Tongji University,
2007.
[4] Wei Jiandong. Measurement technique in cable force measurement [J]. Journal of
China & Foreign Highway,2001,21(4):92-97.
[5] Long Yue, Deng Nianchun. Magniflux and its application in stress monitoring in
steel bridge[J]. Prestress Technology,2007,(2) :3-6
[6] L.Chen. Principle and method of measuring cable tension in a cable
structure[J].industrial construction,2006,36(Z):368-371
[7] Sunaryo Sumitro. Monitoring based maintenance utilizing actual stress sensory
technology[J].Smart Materials and Structure 2005,12.
[8] Sunaryo Sumitro. Sustainable structure health monitoring system[J].Structure
control and health monitoring 2005,12.
[9] Berndt, R.D. Schwesinger, P. New generation of the health monitoring system
SMS 2001[A].Proceedings of SPIE - The International Society for Optical
Engineering, 4337: 187-193, 2001.
1025
The Norwegian Pavilion at the Expo Shanghai 2010

Julian LIENHARD1*,3, Rune ABRAHAMSEN2, Stefan SCHOENE1,3, Mauricio
SOTO1,3, Jan KNIPPERS1
1*
Knippers Helbig Advanced Engineering khing gmbh,
Stuttgart, Germany
info@knippershelbig.com
2
Sweco Norge AS Lillehammer, Norway
3
Studio for Lightweight design, studioLD Stuttgart Germany
Abstract
The design of the Norwegian Pavilion by architects Helen & Hard places great
emphasis on its post-expo adaptability potential. The pavilion consists of 15 large glue-
laminated timber trees and a light membrane roof. After the Expo each of the trees can
be easily dismantled and erected at other locations serving as shaded park installations,
playground or social meeting places. This paper will describe the form-finding
approaches that were used to derive a tensile membrane roof that works both as a
continuum spanning over a rectangle of 15 trees, as well as in individual units for single
trees. Furthermore the coupled structural analysis of the timber and membrane structure
in finite elements and application of wind tunnel data is outlined. The Norwegian
Pavilion will be the first large scale tensile membrane structure which can be
reconfigured in an entirely different setup, yet using parts of the same manufactured
membrane roof.
Keywords: Expo Shanghai 2010, timber structure, membrane structure, form-finding
1 Introduction
The World Expo 2010 Shanghai with the slogan “Better City, Better Life” has taken
sustainable urban development as its theme. In this context the mostly temporary
pavilions were faced with the challenge of legitimising the extensive use of resources
and major investments which a World Fair involves. The concept of the Norwegian
pavilion “Norway, Powered by Nature” takes this challenge on board by developing a
construction that can serve both as a large enclosed space as well as being separated into
smaller units which may me relocated after the expo. The pavilion consists of 15 large
glue-laminated timber trees and a light membrane roof (Fig. 1 a). Each of the trees can
be easily dismantled and erected at other locations serving as shaded park installations,
playground or social meeting places (Fig. 1 b).
1026
This paper will focus on the engineering and design challenges that had to be worked
through due the given aim of developing a structure which can be relocated in smaller
units.
Fig. 1: Design sketches of the whole pavilion structure (a) and the separation into
individual trees (b), by architects Helen & Hard, Stavanger, Norway
2 Structural System
The pavilion consists of 15 large glue-laminated timber trees which were positioned in
three rows of 5 trees on a rectangular floor plan of 35 x 56m. Having to serve as
individual tree structures after the Expo, each individual tree had to be a statically
determinate system, consisting of a central stem with a fixed support and four
cantilevering arms. The fixed support was stiffened with 2 to 4 bracings, here referred to
as roots. The arms have a horizontal cantilever of approx. 8m, a span between the arm
tips of approx. 12m and reach a maximum height of approx.13m (Fig 2).
For the Pavilion configuration the arm tips of all neighbouring trees had to be connected
with double hinges in order to ensure that the arm ends of adjacent trees have the same
displacements at the connection point, in order to prevent local tearing of the membrane.
On the other hand this meant that the structural system of the pavilion is statically
indeterminate. This caused large bending stresses in the cantilevering arms for the
settlement load cases.
1027
All of the 15 trees are designed in such a way that they can be easily assembled and
dismantled. This is vital for the post-Expo relocation of the structure. Therefore the
connections of the cantilevering arms and roots to the stem were realized using slotted-
in steel plates and dowels. In the Chinese timber code however there are no rules that
handle this type of connections, and thus the Eurocode had to be applied.
a b
Fig. 2: Individual tree during test assembly at the Moelven factory, Norway (a).
Standard section showing the slotted-in steel plates and foundation sockets(b).
The roof of the pavilion was designed as a mechanically pre-stressed tensile membrane
roof. Each tree supports a minimal surface double curved 4-point sail which spans
between four boundary cables. Between neighbouring 4 point membranes an eyelet
membrane is added. At the corner points the membranes are attached to the tree arms.
The glass façade of the pavilion lines up with the outer tree stems, therefore some large
triangular spaces had to be closed with flap membranes that are linearly connected to
the curved soft edge of the roof membrane and the tree arms (Fig. 3 and 4).
Fig. 3: Three plane projection of the structural system for the FE simulation
1028
Fig. 4: Exploded assembly drawing of the structural system for the FE simulation
2.1 Analysis model
The structure, including all structural elements with their elastic properties and the pre-
stress forces of the membrane, was calculated according to non linear theory 3rd order
with the finite element program Sofistik. This is a Finite Element software with
particular emphasis on civil and structural engineering which was developed by the
Sofistik AG.
The static system was modelled with three-dimensional membrane, beam and cable
elements. The stress resultants and deformations were calculated with isotropic linear
elastic material properties. The eccentric attachment of the membranes to the beams,
and roots to the stem were realised with coupling elements. The tree structure was
approximated by the cross-sections taken from the CAD model, with system lines
running through the centroid of each section. The chamfered arms were linearly
interpolated between the cross sections of 8 sections along each arm. All of the 15 trees
were modelled and connected together with a double-hinged steel connection at the arm
ends. The structure was calculated as a coupled system of the tree structure and pre-
stressed membrane roof.
1029
3 Materials
The main structural materials for the pavilion are glue laminated Timber for the tree
structure and a PTFE membrane for the roof. Both materials and in particular their
combination raised questions concerning the fire rating.
The use of hardly inflammable membrane materials on timber structures is common,
even normally inflammable materials such as ETFE are used on timber structures in
Europe. The only non-combustible membrane material available is a specific type of
PTFE Glass (Type 1 and 2). These materials are commonly used for very large span
structures with long term use. Due to the relatively high young modulus and deficient
creep behaviour PTFE Glass membranes are pre-stressed with a minimum of 400kg/m.
The Norwegian expo pavilion is pre-stressed with 100Kg/m. The increase of pre-stress
has an effect on the support reactions of the membrane and hence the reaction forces in
the structure. Timber structures should therefore not be combined with PTFE Glass as
the reaction forces are usually too high for the timber. In Addition a flexible membrane
material had to be chosen in order to guarantee that the material is not harmed during
relocation after the expo.
3.1 Membrane and belts

In the case of the Norwegian pavilion a PTFE membrane with fluorpolymer coating
(TENARA Architectural membrane 4T20) was chosen. This material meets class A
(non combustible) flame spread rating and is overall rated as B1s1, d0 according to DIN
13501-1. The Tenara membrane offers high translucency (20-40%), is dirt repellent,
flexible and very long lasting.
For easier handling of the membrane when relocating after the expo, polyester belts
were used for the edge cables. They also have the advantage of a comparatively low
young modulus which leads to smaller reaction forces in the timber structure.
3.2 Timber
Timber is not a common building material in China. There is not much glue-laminated
timber being produced in China. In recent years a new innovative product has been
under development – GluBam®. This is a high strength glue-laminated timber made of
native Chinese bamboo. The intention was to use this as the primary structural timber in
the pavilion.
When starting the design process it soon became clear that GluBam® was not among
the timber types listed in the Chinese Timber Code [1]. To get the material formally
accepted, more testing and documentation had to be done, and unfortunately the project
could not wait for this. Therefore Norwegian certified glulam was chosen as the
pavilion’s structural timber. GluBam® was chosen for non-structural timber in the
pavilion, even though this does not justify its actual capabilities.
The structural timber used in the pavilion is Norwegian glulam type GL28c, produced
according to European standards (Eurocode 1995-1 [2] and corresponding codes).
1030
Coniferous wood of Nordic pine – also called Scotch pine (Pinus Sylvestris) - is used.
Glulam GL28c is not a legitimate material according to the Chinese Timber Code [1].
The equivalent Chinese material type is TC17B, and material data for this product was
applied in the calculations. The strength of TC17B is lower than GL28c. Higher grades
than TC17B could not be used with Nordic pine. Even though Norwegian glulam can be
produced with strength classes GL32c or GL36c, this could not be credited properly.
4 Loading
Shanghai is in an area frequently hit by typhoons. Surprisingly, the design wind load in
the Expo park is fairly moderate: W0= 0,55 kN/m2. The Chinese load code [3] was used
to apply relevant loads and factors. The roof of the Norwegian pavilion resembles that
of a shed roof. This load type is covered by the Chinese load code [4]. Shape factors
from this load type were utilised in the calculations.
4.1 Wind Tunnel tests

By March 2009 a complete structural analysis and design of the pavilion had been
carried out. The design group then handed in the project to Chinese experts for review.
The experts' approval is necessary to get the building permit. In previous meetings with
Chinese experts the design team had argued in favour of using the shape factors given in
the Chinese load code. During review the Chinese experts demanded that the structural
design had to be verified by doing a wind tunnel analysis. This set the project back by
several months. The German company Wacker Ingenieure was hired to perform a wind
tunnel analysis. A complete 3D model of the pavilion with surrounding buildings had to
be built in record time (Fig. 5)
Fig. 5: Scale 1:115 model of the Norwegian pavilion, alone standing (left) and together
with important surrounding buildings (right)
1031
The wind pressure coefficients are based on the design gust pressure at site in a height
of 13m above ground. The tests were done with the Norwegian Pavillon as an alone
standing building as well as together with important surrounding buildings. The
situation with surroundings led to an important new load case for the design of the roof.
For most wind directions however no important alterations of the wind loads for the
structural design were encountered.
5 Formfinding
The Membrane roof has a total surface area of approx. 2600m². This continuous surface
works as a patchwork of 15 4-point sails, 22 eyelet membranes, and 11 flap membranes.
In addition there are several other flap membranes which are not directly connected to
the main roof membrane. (see Fig. 4).
The challenge for the form-finding lay in the task to derive a tensile membrane roof that
works both as a continuum spanning over the rectangle of 15 trees, as well as in
individual units for single trees.
The shape of the membrane was evaluated by using the numerical soap film method. A
minimal surface with uniform tension under pre-stress load within the given boundaries
was generated. Here the form was first found with Rhino Membrane a finite element
based form-finding software. The form found mesh was then exported into the finite
element model for the structural calculations.
5.1 Pre-stress values Membrane

The strategy applied to find a geometry of the 4-point sails which works both with
attached eyelets and flap membranes as well as an alone standing sail was to vary the
pre-stress levels in a patchwork of individual membrane units. It could be shown that
the geometry of a 4-point sail is hardly influenced by the attached eyelet membranes if
their pre-stress level is dropped to half of the 4-point sail. Given the material properties
of the PTFE membrane with a high tendency to creep under constant high load and
having to reduce the forces acting on the cantilevering timber arms, the pre-stress level
for the 4-point sails was chosen at a relatively low level of 1kN/m. Consequentially the
eyelets and flaps were pre-stressed at 0.5kN/m.
5.2 Pre-stress values edge belts

The pre-stress of an edge cable is proportional to the membrane pre-stress and the
curvature of the edge. The curvature of the edge is either defined by the radius or the
sagging, their relation is given in Eq. (1) and Fig. 6. The cable forces in relation to the
membrane pre-stress and edge radius can be derived from the hoop stress formula,
shown in its simplified version in Eq. (2).
1032
Fig. 6: Forces and geometrical constraints of a soft membrane edge
l² f
r  (1)
8 f 2
r: Edge cable radius [m]; l: Span [m]; f: Sagging [m]
s  rP (2)
s: Edge cable force [kN]; r: Edge cable radius [m]; P: Membrane pre-stress
Edge cable foce for 1 kN/m membrane pre-stress
60
50
40
s [kN]
30
20
10
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
f/l [-]
Fig. 7: Edge cable force for 1 kN/m membrane pre-stress
If one plots the edge cable force for a given pre-stress against the span to sagging ratio it
becomes visible that an economical value for the edge cable curvature lies at 10%
1033
sagging (Fig. 7). Less curvature would lead to very high cable forces and more
curvature will only reduce the forces by a small amount.
Therefore the 4-point sail is calculated with an edge pre-stress value of 16 kN, with a
corresponding radius of 16m. In order to keep this radius constant for all 4-point sails
the edge cable pre-stress had to be adapted to the situation of an attaching eyelet or flap
membrane:
-For the edges bordering the eyelets the cable force is reduced because of the additional
pulling of the eyelet membrane in the opposite direction to the 4-point sail:
Edge pre-stress for 16m radius with 0.5kN/m: 16m x 0.5kN/m = 8 kN
-For the outer edges this value has to be increased because of the additional pulling of
the flaps in the same direction as the 4-point sail.
Edge pre-stress for 16m radius with 1.5kN/m: 16m x 1.5kN/m = 24 kN
This approach guaranties that the geometry of each 4-point sail remains the same. At the
same time the edge cables are usable as ridge cables for the continuous membrane
which gives the roof structure the stiffness needed to withstand snow and wind loads.
5.1 Cutting Pattern

Much effort was put into the design of an appropriate cutting pattern (Fig. 8). Using a
material like the Tenara Fabric with 20% translucency makes the welding lines
extremely visible in backlighting conditions and therefore a dominant design factor for
the roof. Here three main criteria had to be considered in the layout of the cutting lines:
- minimising the off cut, by finding a pattern that uses the maximum width of the raw
material for a maximum number of strips.
- guaranteeing maximal stiffness of the membrane, by positioning the warp direction of
the fabric and the welding seams between the high points.
- considering the architectural design. The pattern of the 4 point sail and eyelets must be
connected harmoniously and it must be guaranteed that the pattern lines meet perfectly
at the joints.
Fig. 8: Cantilever and its properties of cross section (cm)
1034
6 Conclusions
The approach of the architects to create a pavilion that can be separated into smaller
units after the expo had a strong influence on all design phases. The Norwegian Pavilion
will be the first large scale tensile membrane structure which can be reconfigured in an
entirely different setup, yet using parts of the same manufactured membrane roof. It has
been demonstrated that this can be achieved with a pre-stressed Membrane that works
as a patchwork of small membrane units with different pre-stress levels.
Finally, the construction of the Norwegian pavilion in Shanghai also proved that it is
possible to overcome Chinese regulations for structural timber and complete advanced
and modern timber structures. Hopefully this may inspire China to consider timber in
future building projects.
Fig. 9: Impression of the finished Pavilion (Photo: Patrick Wack)
1035
7 Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank all the people and companies that took part in the
design process of the Norwegian pavilion, and in particular:
·Helen & Hard as, Stavanger, Norway (Architects)

·SHZF Architectural Design Co., Shanghai, China
(Local Design Institute)
·Tonji University, Shanghai, China. (Expert review
by Prof Minger Wu and Prof Shengdong Zhang)
·Wacker Ingenieure, Birkenfeld, Germany (Wind
tunnel modeling)
·Moelven Limtre, Norway (Glulam manufacturer)
·Shanghai Taiyo Kogyo Co, Shanghai, China
(Membrane manufacturer)
The authors also gratefully acknowledge the client Innovation Norway for supporting
this exciting project.
References
[1] GB 50005-2003. National Standard of the People’s Republic of China. Code for
Design of Timber Structures. Jan 1st 2004. Including amendment of Mar 1st 2006.
[2] Eurocode 1995-1. Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures – Part 1-1: General –
Common rules and rules for buildings. Nov 2004
[3] Expo Shanghai 2010. Design Standard for Temporary Buildings and Structures of
The World Expo. (Special specifications of Structural Section)
[4] GB 50009-2001. National Standard of the People’s Republic of China. Load Code
for the Design of Building Structures. March 1st 2002
1036
Research of Expo-axis Sun Valley Rectangular Tube single-

layer grid Solid Modeling
Dan LU1*, Chenming LI, Wei TIAN
1*
Shanghai Xian Dai Architectural Design (Group) Co., Ltd，Shanghai，200041
E-mail: dan_lu@xd-ad.com.cn
Abstract:
Sun Valley Expo-axis single-layer grid of nodes in large quantities, the different
space angle bars, each bar height difference exists in the node with the wrong side,
leading to similar to each node is not the same characteristics. Deepening design of
highly manual and error is difficult to check and find errors. In this paper, the building
of the Expo Axis Sun Valley relies on a complex spatial structure of the glass curtain
wall for connection to single-layer structure and rectangular pipe grid conducted a study
of solid modelling. The "nodes together adjacent surface normal vector" principle put
forward the rectangular cross-section steel tube in free space positioning methods and
reasonable on the surface, and the method through the computer program to achieve
three-dimensional solid model of the automatic generation and evaluation capabilities,
thereby increasing the efficiency of the design to circumvent the plot error, for the
promotion and application of a similar structure to lay the theoretical and design basis.
On this basis, to simplify the model and refined model of the comparative analysis, sum
up their scope of application. Finally, the curtain wall of glass cutting was geometric
analysis and the preparation of auto-cutting process.
Keywords: rectangular steel tube, single-layer grid, solid modelling, deepening design
1 Introduction
The project Expo Axis for the Expo Shanghai 2010 is located at the center of the
Pudong Expo Park, starting from the Yaohua Road in the south to the Bingjiang
Celebration Park in the north. The Performing Center and the Chinese Pavilion are on
the east of the Expo Axis, while the Expo Center and the Theme Pavilion are on the
west, forming the Expo Park’s core center of four-pavilion and one-axis.
The Expo Axis is 1045m long from south to north, 99.5m~110.5m wide underground
and 80m wide on the ground from cast to west. As the main entrance of the Pudong
Expo Park, the Expo Axis contains two underground levels, one ground level and one
elevated walking level, the building elevation of the four levels are -6.500m, -1.000m,
4.500m and 10.5m respectively. The levels with elevations of -6.5m and 10.5m are
designed as the main areas for the arrival-waiting-security-check-in process.
The Expo Axis roof is formed by two different types of structures, tensile membrane
structure and 6 steel structures with unique architectural appearance named as ‘sun
valleys’. Fig.1 shows the air view of the structures, and Fig.2 shows the single-layer
steel lattice of the Sun Valley.
1037
5 pieces
node
8 pieces
node
Fig.1: air view of Shanghai Expo Axis Fig.2: Steel single-layer lattice of Sun
Valley
2 Node shape
Sun Valley adopts a steel single-layer lattice structure system composed of triangular
grids, which is currently a popular system in Europe. The lengths of the top and bottom
major axis of Sun Valley 1#~6# are about 90m, 18m. The bottom shape of No.4 Sun
Valley is circular, while that of other is elliptical. The upper part of six sun valleys
looks like an elliptic ‘horn’. The height of six Sun Valleys is 42.00m (from -7.00m to
35.00m). The grid system has a complex shape and a large cantilever ranging from 21m
to 40m. The grid system adopts welded steel tubular members with rectangular hollow
sections. Rectangular members with solid sections are adopted at the top ring of the
structure in order to enhance hoop effect. The lengths of structural members range from
1.50m to 3.50m, with heights of section ranging from 180mm to 500mm and width
from 65mm to 120mm. Material of members and hollow joints is Q345B steel, while
that of solid joints (joints of mast foot, pulling points of cables and membrane, and top
solid members) is G20Mn5 cast steel.
Steel structure of the Sun Valley adopts rectangular tube single-layer lattice and frame
glass curtain wall Forms, as shown in Fig.3. In order to reflect the specific architectural
effect of Sun Valley, architects proposed two requests, which ‘cross at one point’. First
of all, the glass is installed in the Sun Valley ‘horn-like’ inner surface. In order to
ensure seamless connection between the glass, architects required the intersecting lines
between triangular glasses should cross at one point of the nodes. Beside, the centrelines
of the one side surface of the beams also should cross the one point at nodes，as shown
in Fig.4. In this paper, a method of node modelling is introduced beginning with Seam
line model between glasses，and through certain rules gradually establishing a
rectangular steel beam structure [1,2,3]。
1038
Fig.3: Sun Valley glass curtain wall (a) The intersecting lines between glass cross
at one point
(b) The centrelines of the beam surface cross at one point
Fig.4: The two "cross at one point" requirements
2.1 Beam position

The model about Seam line between the glass is given by the architect, as shown in
Fig.2，We call it line model A. The next step is to establish the surface centrelines
model on the beam, which is called line model B. The establishment of lines Model B
as follows：
(1) Offsetting each nodes of the line model A to Sun Valley outer surface a distance.
Translational frame of the distance is for the production of glass curtain wall technology
required distance. The direction of offsetting is the vector and direction of the triangle
surface normal line around the each node in model A, as shown in Fig.5.
1039
Vector
synthesis
Surface
Surface normal
normal Surface
normal
Surface
normal Surface
normal
Surface
normal
Fig.5: Vector synthesis
（2）Connected nodes generated by the above step in turn, that is the line model B.
Using the angle bisector of the glass on the both sides of beams as direction vector of
the beam, and to consider the section properties of each beam. Done automatically by
the program, solid modelling. As shown in Fig.6.
（a）Computer solid model （b）In the scene photos
Fig.6: Computer models and scene photos
2.2 Affection of Eccentric component

2.2.1 Produce eccentric
Usually the truss model will be used in FEM analysis. Beam with a cross-section properties, pole were
reduced to one-dimensional line. The axis of the actual bar is often the representatives of these one-
dimensional lines. As noted above, because of the special architectural requirements for Sun Valley, the
axis of the actual rods do not cross at one point. If the rods axis is used for finite element model, the bar at
the node is bound to be eccentric. Coupled equations need to use these rods coupled together discrete, as
shown in Fig.7(a). Another modelling approach is using the surface centrelines of the beam that is
mention above the line model B to build finite element model. Although the rods at this time is not
eccentric, but it is different from the solid model, as shown in Fig.7(b).
1040
(a) Eccentric model (b) No Eccentric Simple model
Fig.7: Comparison of the two models
2.2.2 Error Analysis
According to the size of the internal forces these engineering using 22 kinds of beam
interface type, Distribution as shown in Fig.8. The dead load, live load, temperature
loads (temperature 400C) and wind load of the two models building above(Separation
model in which the axis between the rods of the Maximum eccentricity is 0.04m) were
calculation separately for four kinds of working condition, analysis the size of the error,
Table.1 is the calculation comparison of the two models.
Fig.8: rods type distribution
As can be seen from the data in the table：(1) The two models in the substrate reaction
force, vertical displacement and internality performance of the structure results are
consistent. In view of the relative complexity of eccentric modelling, Therefore, in the
preliminary design stage of the program Suggested that a simplified model for program
comparison and selection. (2) Although the project between the bar axis deviation is not
large, each rod for axial force, bending moment and other response, the two models
vary greatly. Carrying out structural design of the proposed deepening eccentric model
used to obtain high accuracy.
1041
Table 1: Comparison of two kinds of model calculation

Dead Live Temperatur Wind
Response
load load e load
Eccentric
Maximum -599 -173 -406 -237
Model
pressure
Simplification
（kN） -667 -156 -487 -245
Model
Bars Eccentric
-132 -60 -36 -109
correspond Model
to the most
stressful Simplification
moments -100 -50 -25 -93
Model
（kNm）
Eccentric
288 348 0 18
FX Reaction Model
（kN） Simplification
288 348 0 17
Model
Eccentric
59 -48 0 -22
FY Reaction Model
59 -48 0 -22
Model
Eccentric
12005 2199 1 -144
FZ Reaction Model
12479 2200 1 -145
Model
Eccentric
UZ -0.06 -0.02 0.02 0.03
Model
Displaceme
Simplification
nt（m） -0.08 -0.02 0.02 0.03
Model
3 Glass cutting
Frame of this project is adopted in the form of glass curtain wall. It is not a seamless
connection between the glasses. There is a certain size border, as shown in Fig.9. In
order to achieve paperless production, it should be determined by a computer for the
actual cut size of each piece of glass. All the three triangles of glass are determined by
the cutting edge. First, Intersection of each glass and its corresponding surface of the
center line of the beam are coplanar line, as shown in Fig.10. The glass cutting lines for
the beam to the surface of the center line of each triangle after the internal translation of
lines projected onto the glass surface, formed by the cutting line in this way ensures the
surface of the center line parallel with the beam, but also ensure the glass Synthesis of a
closed surface around the triangle. All the glass used for computer programming
information automatically calculates the completion. As shown in Fig.11。
1042
Beam surface centerline
Glass cross line
Cutting line parallel to the surface

of the center line of beam
Fig.9: framed glass Effect Fig.10: glass-cutting methods
Fig.11: the glass model with the formation of automatically cutting
4 Summary
Sun Valley Expo-axis single-layer grid of nodes in large quantities, the different space
angle bars, each bar height difference exists in the node with the wrong side, leading to
similar to each node is not the same characteristics. Deepening design of highly manual
and error is difficult to check and find errors. In this paper, the building of the Expo
Axis Sun Valley relies on a complex spatial structure of the glass curtain wall for
connection to single-layer structure and rectangular pipe grid conducted a study of solid
modelling. The "nodes together adjacent surface normal vector" principle put forward
the rectangular cross-section steel tube in free space positioning methods and reasonable
on the surface, and the method through the computer program to achieve three-
dimensional solid model of the automatic generation and evaluation capabilities,
thereby increasing the efficiency of the design to circumvent the plot error, for the
promotion and application of a similar structure to lay the theoretical and design basis.
On this basis, to simplify the model and refined model of the comparative analysis, sum
1043
up their scope of application. Finally, the curtain wall of glass cutting was geometric
analysis and the preparation of auto-cutting process.
References
[1] Wang Dasui, Gao Chao, Zhang Weiyu A brief introduction on structural design of
cable-membrane roof and sun valley steel structure for Expo Axis project [J]，
Spatial Structures 2005;15(1): 89~96.
[2] Yang Huizhu, Chang Zhiguo, Yang Zonglin Integrated CAD/CAM Information
System of Steel Structure for Sun Valley in Expo Axis [J] ， Construction
Technology 2009; 38(8):35~37.
[3] Sun Jiaguang ， Yang Changgui ， Computer Graphics[M] ， Bei Jin ： Tsinghua
University Press，1995.
1044
The design, fabrication and installation of the cable-

membrane structure of the EXPO Boulevard
Hao SONG 1* , Shuo SHI2 , Yunfeng Lu3, Chenjun HAO4, Lu CHEN5, Qilin ZHANG6
1*
Senior engineer, Design Department, Shanghai Taiyo Kogyo Co.Ltd.
Room3601,Kai-xuan Build,N0.2200,Kai-Xuan Rd., Shanghai,China
E-mail: songhao@taiyokogyo.com.cn
2
Engineer, Shanghai Institute of Architectural Design & Research Co.Ltd.
3
Engineer,Construction Department, Shanghai Taiyo Kogyo Co.Ltd.
4
Engineer, Shanghai Construction Co.,Ltd
5
Doctor,Department of Building Engineering ,Tongji University
6
Professor,Department of Building Engineering ,Tongji University
Abstract
The cable-membrane structure of the EXPO Boulevard is a kind of ultra-large
steel- cable-membrane structure system which is consisted of supporting system and
membrane surface system. High strength membrane material (PTFE-coated glass fiber
fabric SF-I) is adopted in this project. Because the single-layer membrane’s material
strength is not able to satisfy the design requirement at the region of cone bottom, large
area of double-layer membrane is adopted. To confirm the tensile strength of double
layer membrane, tensile tests are conducted with different kinds of samples. Destructive
tests are carried out to confirm the strength of double-layer membrane. Many tests
concerning joint details are carried out to solve the technical difficulty of this project.
The installation of membrane is done with both shape and stress in control. The safety
of the cable-membrane structure of the EXPO Boulevard is ensued by solving technical
problems of the structure through tests and improvements.
Keywords: membrane structure, double layer membrane, tensile tests,PTFE-coated

glass fiber fabric
1 Introduction
The Shanghai EXPO Boulevard is located in the center of Pudong EXPO Park. It is
1045m from north to south, 99.5-110.5 m from east to west below the ground, 80m
above the ground. EXPO Boulevard includes two different types of structure, cable-
membrane structure and 6 steel structures known as "sunshine valleys". The cable-
membrane structures are formed by continuous triangle cone elements and the
fabrication and installation are difficult. The supporting system are consisted of 31
external masts, 19 internal masts, horizontal stay cables and backstay cables with a total
weight of approximately 2600t. The membrane system is made up of membrane and
1045
cables on membrane surface, the total length of cable is about 840 meters and the largest
span about 97 meters with a total area of about 68000 m². The membrane boundary and
the internal are posted with edge cables, ridge cables and valley cables, which are the
major load transfer components from membrane to fulcrum. Ridge cables show a zigzag
on the membrane surface. Adjacent ridge cables form a triangle to define an element.
Each element is a reverse cone-shape whose boundary is high points while its center is
low points. When designing, the process of fabrication and installation should also be
taken into account, vice versa. Membranes are made by polyfluortetraethylene-coated
glass cloth，also known as SF1 membrane material. The unfolded area of membrane
unit is about 1830m2. Cable wires adopt semi-parallel wire strands totalling up to 817
with total length of 21046m, the longest of which is 110m and maximum diameter
Φ155. EXPO Boulevard was designed by East China Architectural Design & Research
Institute Co.,Ltd and Germany SBA. Shanghai Construction Co.,Ltd is in charge of the
overall project. Shanghai Taiyo Kogyo Co.,Ltd is responsible for the deepening design
of membrane structure, membrane processing and construction guidance.
Fig. 1: Membrane structure of EXPO Boulevard
Fig. 2: Composition of cable-membrane system
2 Engineering characteristics and difficulties

The construction of the EXPO Boulevard project involved many new engineering
difficulties and also advanced technologies, many of which were realized for the first
1046
time in China or even the world's first. Solving these problems reflects the wisdom and
efforts of all workers in this project, it also indicates the high-tech of the World Expo.
2.1 new material

The mechanical properties of membrane material is A-grade in the national standard
requirement, project using this material has not been applied in China before, also rare in the
world. The fabrication, transportation, installation, pretension of this kind of membrane differs
from those of the B-class membrane. Membranes used in this project are PTFE membranes
provided by the U.S. Saint-Gobain Performance Plastics Co., Ltd., also know as SF-I. The
tensile strengths in tensile and traverse directions are no less than 5200N/3cm and
4700N/3cm respectively with a guaranty ration of about 95%. Elasticity modulus is
1363kN/m in warp direction and 976kN/m in fill direction.
2.2 Large scale

Projection area of membranes in this project is 840m×100m, large scale also brings with
it problems as follows.
2.2.1 High prestress in the membrane and cable
The prestress on the membrane surface reaches 5kN/m, maximum pretension of valley
cable, edge cable, ridge cable and horizontal stay cables which link the tops of columns
respectively reaches 300kN, 400kN, 800kN, 800kN. The maximum tension of back
cable achieves 5000kN above.
2.2.2 Double reinforcement at the bottom of cones
Single membrane can not meet the design requirement at a large range at the bottom of
cones. Double layer membrane needs to be used there whose shape is petal-shaped as
designed by architects. The radius of projected plan of a petal is 5-8 meters, and the
total developed area of double membrane are 4,500 m².
1047
Area of double layer

membrane
Fig. 3: Double layer membrane at bottom of cones
2.2.3 Large size membrane
The largest single membrane unfolded area reaches 1717 m²with the maximum edge
length of 110 meters, which puts forward higher requirement of reduction, packaging,
transportation, installation and expansion.
2.3 Continuous Tension Structure

Membrane elements separated by ridge cable are flexibly connected to each other, so
tension is continuously transmitted to make a great interaction between the elements.
The earlier installed membrane element has to be with an even prestress to have a
certain resistance to load capacity during the relatively long construction period, so the
impact of tensioning construction on adjacent units should be studied.
2.4 Mutual constrains between sun valleys and membranes

Sun Valley is a rigid structure while membrane is flexible structure, they are connected
and interacted. From engineering perspective, the two kinds of structure should be
staggered when constructing, however, in terms of construction time limit, both of them
are required to be finished during the same time.
Overall, the essence of roof membrane construction is a tensioning process of large-
sized and irregular continuous surface with high prestress.
1048
3 Experimental study
3.1 Experiment on double layer membrane

Double layer membrane needs to be used at areas that single membrane can not meet
design requirement. To confirm the tensile strength of double layer membrane, tensile
tests should be conducted with different kinds of samples.
Fig. 4: Diagrammatic illustration of tensile test

Warp direction membrane and fill direction membrane is adopted as main membrane.
Reinforcement is added to the main membrane. There are 4 kinds of reinforcing
methods: membrane without reinforcement, membrane with warp reinforcement,
membrane with fill reinforcement, membrane with bias reinforcement. So there can be
eight comparison tests with both main membrane and reinforced membrane. The tests
were conducted in Hirakata factory located in Space Technology Institute of Taiyo Kogyo
Corporation. An uniaxial testing machine with the maximum load of 10t was used. Tensile
speed is 50mm/min.
Two conclusions can be drawn from the tests: first, bias reinforcement provides the least
strength. Reinforcement should be in the same direction with basic membrane; Second, when
reinforcement is in the same direction with main membrane, the detail has 1.8 times higher
strength than single layer membrane.
3.2 Destructive test of reduced-scale model

In terms of load transfer, two layers should be synchronized-loaded ideally, double layer
membrane’s uniaxial strength is 2 times higher than that of single layer membrane. However, in
biaxial load-carrying condition, whether the strength of double membrane can double that with
single layer membrane just as the same as in uniaxial test is unclear. Destructive tests are done
in order to check the tensile strength of double layer membrane.
3.2.1 Test instruction
The test chose part of the membrane surface of EXPO Boulevard with the same prestress as
exerted on real membrane. Test model is shown in Fig.5. Single layer and double layer
membrane are adopted respectively.
1049
Fig. 5: Diagrammatic illustration of steel frame for destructive test
Heaping sand method was adopted for loading. 30kg sandbag was evenly distributed to make
the membrane surface under uniform stress.
3.2.2 Experimental results
Since samples are sudden destructed, accurate load can not be calculated. Membrane structures
will be destroyed when the load reached 15t for single layer and around 31t for double
membrane. The main membrane at the tip ruptured in a sudden.
(a)Failure of Single layer membrane (15t) (b) Failure of Double layer membrane (31t)
Fig. 6: Failure of membrane
3.2.3 Result analysis

Results of destruction test indicated that samples failed by the rupture of membrane base cloth.
The joint design met the design requirements and could reach the strength of membrane. The
results showed that if properly constructed with eligible processing quality, the double
membrane structure could reach 2 times the strength of the single layer membrane. The load
1050
when failure happens is lower than analysis result. That is because the stiffness of membrane
changes with its stress level, and accurate analysis cannot be done to simulate the process to the
final failure of membrane.
3.3 Joint strength test
3.3.1 Membrane joint design and test verification

Membrane fixing details are in various forms, two basic fixing details are fastner and flat bar.
(a )fastner detail (b)flat bar detail

Fig.7: Fixing detail
Two basic fixing details of the same transfer mechanism of force, dotted circle shown in
Figure.7 are crucial points to undertake loads. To avoid membrane structural damage, strength
and reliability of fixing details should be consistent with the design and use requirements.
Strength tests are done in a variety of fixing details. Each fixing detail includes membrane types
of single layer and double layer. Tests concerning fixing details are entrusted to Shanghai
Tongji Construction Quality Inspection Station.
3.3.2 Fastner test

Fastner tests were carried out using 7 kinds of different fastners. Among which 3 kinds of
fastners labelled as F3, F6, F5 were selected in real project. F3 fastner was used in single layer
section, F6 used in dual-membrane of valley cable, F5 fastner used in double membrane section
located in the low ring which is pulled down to the ground.
(d)fastner-3 (e)fastner-4 (f)fastner-5

Fig. 8: Diagrammatic illustration of fastner type
1051
The main points to improve fixing details of fastner are listed as follow:
A: Diameter of edge rope had a great influence on breaking strength. By enlarging its diameter
from 14mm to 20mm while at the same time increasing the size of the cavity can improve the
detail strength of fastner efficiently.
B: Bolt spacing has an effective impact on the failure strength; by changing the bolt spacing
from 200mm to 100mm can effectively improve joint strength.
C: Distance between the openings at the tip of fastner also had a major impact on breaking
strength, small space openings can prevent the breaking mode that edge ropes slip off the
groove of fastner.
3.3.3 Flat bar test

Flat bat tests are done to confirm the detail strength of details that flat bar are adopted.
Fig. 9: Diagrammatic illustration of flat bar test
Fig. 10: Real diagrammatic illustration Fig. 11: Diagram of breaking mode
of oval holes
Circle holes are usually used at flat bar details by now. The tests proved that details using oval
holes are better than circle holes and should be used in details that high membrane stress occurs.
1052
3.4 Biaxial strength test

Since membrane is under biaxial load-carrying condition, a biaxial tensile test was carried out to
measure the strength-reduction of biaxial strength. Experimental data showed that in the state of
biaxial stress the breaking strength of membrane reduced by more than 40% compared with
uniaxial test. Strength under biaxial stress was only 40%~60% of that under uniaxial stress.
Tests showed that the effect of biaxial stress will lead to a greater strength reduction of
membrane. To guarantee the structural safety, in practical work more attention should be paid to
quality of materials, joint design and processing etc. and increase in safety of material and
production. The reduction degree of membrane varied due to different ratio between warp and
fill stress, in practical project care must be taken to the sensitivity of membrane surface stress
under the biaxial effect.
4 Form-finding with gravity, definition of compensation ratio and

fabrication of membrane
4.1 Form-finding with gravity

In the conventional-scale membrane structures, form-finding procedure doesn’t take gravity into
consideration. For one thing, first, as for small-scale membrane structure of the membrane to
find patterns and the difference between state of finding-form stage and dead load stage is not
significant. Second, the weightless form-finding is consistent with frequently-used uniform
compensation ratio. Form-finding with gravity needs to consider changing compensation ratio
at least theoretically. This process is also unprecedented, and there are still difficulties to
overcome with some experimental work. Again, form-finding module analysis with gravity has
a problem with convergence. Because of the large-scale of EXPO Boulevard, the weight of
cable is great and not negligible. Analysis showed that, when adopting weightlessly form-
finding, in the constant state the stress distribution of membrane was very uneven. The
membrane surface close to the cone bottom was almost relaxed, so it was necessary to consider
the form-finding with gravity to do form-finding with small elastic modulus method.
4.2 Definition of compensation ratio

Creep and relaxation are important characteristics of membrane, which needed to be taken into
consideration in cutting pattern analysis and membrane processing. Polyester filament fabric (or
PVC, PVDF membrane) will suffer a large loss of prestress due to creep after the finish of
construction. On the contrary, glass fiber fabrics (PTFE membrane) are more steady, but also
will lose prestress after the finish of construction. As the form-finding occurs in low-tension
state of the initial shape, to prevent the loss of stress caused by later loading is beneficial. In
view of that, a great amount of biaxial stress relaxation tests and biaxial creep test were
conducted to get the displacement needed to be introduced by secondary tension years later
should be considered in construction process. Specific method is: defining compensation rate
according to the membrane's biaxial test data and extra compensation rate caused by wind load,
putting those compensation rates together to get the compensation of membrane. In construction,
membrane is pulled in the front of design location and temporarily fixed for one day to let they
generate stress relaxation. The other day, membranes would be fixed permanently. In this way,
membrane stress and creep effect could be eliminated.
To decide compensation ratio, creep effect caused by external load was considered, which
meant the possibility of complex secondary tension could be reduced by adopting overstretch.
1053
After construction, design stress of membrane dropped rapidly, as for the technology used
above. When reaching a steady stress level, decrease of membrane's stress was slowed down.
When the curve of stress got parallel with the X coordinate axe the values kept essentially
unchanged. Fig. 12 is the diagram of membrane stress change with the elapse of time.
Fig. 12: diagram of membrane stress change with time

After construction, membrane couldn’t reach the ideal state with even stress. In the middle of
membrane, tension was distributed evenly. At membrane corners membrane is bigger than that
in the middle of membrane. Generally speaking, membrane structure can achieve a state with
evenly distributed stress after half a year.
4.3 Membrane fabrication

For our company, such a wide range of membrane reinforcement is the first attempt with still
some problems. Such as whether wrinkles will occur at the area of double layer membrane,
whether overdue reinforcement will cause stress concentration damaging membrane structure,
whether the joint strength can meet the design requirement and so on. Conclusions from tests
have been drawn from this project: 1. The direction of reinforced membrane needed to be
completely consistent with the main membrane in order to avoid wrinkles. 2. As complete
welding between two membranes needs plenty of time and the appearance of welding is not
good, only seam lines of two layer membrane are welded together. The safety of this method
can offer a reliable load transfer which is proved by destructive tests.
5 Construction process
The construction process is shown as follows:
5.1 Phase 1: Installation of fulcrum system on membrane surface

Step 1: Install and temporarily fix all internal and outer masts (internal and external anchor
wires and temporary backstays
Step 2: Connect all horizontal cables and backstays
Step 3: Adjust backstay cables and slide rings to designed positions.
Step 4: Install 11 temporary cable wires
Step 5: Tension 3 horizontal cables of each internal mast by using internal mast staging as work
platforms. Tensioning includes two steps of 70% and 100%. Temporary protections are
removed gradually during tensioning.
1054
5.2 Phase 2: Installation of membrane surface system

Step 6: Work platform for membrane surface cable installation and setup of temporary scaffold.
Step 7: Get membranes ready, protecting measures, developing, lifting.
Step 8: Gradually tension membranes in the order of short side first and then long sides, by
using tension machines (tighteners, screw adjustors) to final positions and replace with
permanent U clamps.
Attention should be paid that displacement of each fulcrum under supervision and stresses on
cable and membrane during each installation phase should be within tolerance.
With the scientific construction program and accurate construction analysis, the on-site
installation of membrane structure is basically smooth. Starting from the second zone, some
necessary adjustments were made to accommodate with installing condition on site. The first
adjustment is to avoid installing ring in pre-lift phase. Pre-lift didn’t reduce the difficulty of
stretching membrane; instead it caused some unnecessary problems. However, sliding joint
between rings and internal masts played an important role in adjustment phase. The second is to
adjust the membrane installation order which is installing membrane from the middle to the two
sides. On-site installation showed that this procedure couldn’t sustain a steady tension and add
to the risk of construction. Installation was changed to starting from one side to another. This
sequence does not increase the difficulty of tensioning because the membrane installed later is
relied, and is more rapid than former sequence.
6 Conclusion
1. Some areas of membrane structure should be welded with double reinforcement at areas
whose membrane stress exceeds the allowable membrane stress of single layer membrane.
However the performance of double layer membrane has not been referred in norms, nor
contained in the relevant literature, experimental verification needs to be done as for the
importance of this project. After solving joint problems, a series of single layer and double layer
membrane tests have been conducted, which turned out to satisfy the former assumption.
2. According to experimental data, the shape of fastner has been successfully improved and oval
holes is proved to be effective to strength increase of flat bar detail.
3. The method that welding only seam lines of two layer membrane can offer a reliable load
transfer which is proved by destructive tests.
References
[1] Qilin Zhang ： Cable and membrane structure,2002

[2] DG/TJ 8-2019-2007: Technical specification for inspection of membrane structures
[3] Brian Forester, Marijke Mollaert: European design guide for tensile surface
structures
[4] Hao Song., “The Design of Steel-Cable-Membrane Hybrid Structures”, Cinte
Tectextil China Symposium 2004
[5] Hao Song. “The design of membrane structure of SanYa Beauty Crown ” ，
Progress in Steel Building Structures,2004,Vol.6 No.1,P31-36
[6] Hao Song, Shuo SHI , Hai HUANG. “Introduction of Several Large Scale
Membrane Structures in China”，IASS-APCS 2006 BEIJING
1055
The Freeform Structure of the UAE Pavilion

at the Shanghai EXPO 2010
Soeren STEPHAN1*2*, Feng PAN 2*, Yongqiang HUANG3*
1*
Member of IASS, ASCE, AISC, VDI
2*
Novum Structures LLC
W126 W8585 Westbrook Crossing
Menomonee Falls, WI 53051, USA
 soeren.stephan@novumstructures.com
3*
ECADI East China Architectural Design and Research Institute Co. Ltd
151 Hankou Road, Shanghai, China
Keywords: UAE Pavilion, Freeform Structure, Semi-rigid Connection, Rotational Stiffness
1 Introduction
Organic building shapes with surfaces arbitrarily curved in two directions, also known
as freeform structures, have gained enormous popularity in the last decade due to the
emerging availability of Computer Aided Design software utilizing NURBS surfaces.
The majority of freeform building envelopes are featuring either double glazed units or
insulated metal panels and are therefore requiring the transition from smooth geometric
shapes to facetted shapes. The development of the facetted shape is a crucial step in the
design process as it is strongly influencing the visual appearance of the building as well
as the feasibility of the nodal connections of the freeform structure and the facet joints.
Therefore the design of freeform structures is requiring a very close cooperation of the
architect, the engineer and the contractor in order to address these integration issues in
the execution process as early as possible.
Nodal connections of freeform structures can be either bolted or welded. Welded node
connectors are easier to design due to the somewhat higher rigidity of the structure.
However the fabrication and installation of such welded structures is usually imprecise,
slow and labor intensive. Bolted node connectors are more challenging during the
design process due to the semi-rigid connection behavior with the related implications
on the global stability of the structure. The fabrication and installation process of bolted
structures is very fast, precise and efficient though. Therefore a proprietary bolted node
connector was used for the freeform portions of the pavilion structure.
The UAE pavilion for the Shanghai EXPO 2010 shown in Fig. 1 & 2 is a sustainable
temporary exhibit building designed by Foster + Partners, London. The pavilion will be
disassembled after the exhibition and reassembled on Saadiyat Island in the UAE.
The initial structural engineering of the pavilion was done by Halvorson & Partners,
Chicago. The local architect and engineer of record was ECADI - East China
1056
Architectural Design and Research Institute Co. Ltd. The general contractor wholly
responsible for this pavilion was CSCEC China Construction Industrial Equipment
Installation Co. Ltd Shanghai.
Fig. 1: UAE Pavilion, Dune Shapes Fig. 2: UAE Pavilion, Louver Wall
The general contractor appointed Novum Structures China for the final design of the
freeform structure, the complete fabrication and the supervision of the installation. The
engineering teams of Novum Structures GmbH & LLC engineered the structure in close
cooperation with ECADI and CSCES in China. The responsible project management
team of Novum Structures China executed the project within only 4 months from
contract award to installation finish.
2 Pavilion Structure
The pavilion structure shown in Fig. 3 has an almost circular footprint with a diameter
of about 65 m and is featuring three sand dunes, thus replicating natural formations
typical for desert biomes in the UAE. Two smaller dunes rising to a height of about 18
m occupy the northern half of the building. The other dune in the southern half has a
height of 20 m. The dune shapes replicate the distinct features of natural sand dunes
formed by steady desert winds: solemn curved windward sides, sharp ridges and almost
flat leeward sides.
The windward dune sides are framed as single layer freeform grid shell structures, the
leeward dune sides are made as louver structures with vertically inclined straight
I-beams braced by smaller horizontal members. The northern and southern dunes are
subdivided by a central spine structure. Crescent shaped cantilevered canopy structures
are covering the building entrances at the northern and southern building edges.
The lateral and vertical stiffness of the spine and the canopy structures is crucial for the
structural efficiency of the freeform grid shells as it significantly depends on the
stiffness of the grid shell edges.
Therefore the spine structure is made of stiff portal frames at 6 m intervals which are
connected by two arch shaped I-beams. These arches are densely braced among
themselves and their end points are fixed to the foundation.
1057
Fig. 3: Pavilion Structure
Both crescent shaped canopies are also featuring two arch shaped I-beams at their edges,
one of which is vertically supported by entrance wall columns. The two canopy arch
beams are interconnected by straight beams, which are moment connected to the
entrance wall columns where possible. The end points of the canopy arches are fixed to
the foundation as well, thus creating rigid tension ring belt supports for the dune
structures above. The dune ridges are made of curved, large diameter pipes.
The northern freeform grid shell is additionally supported by two spatially curved
I-beams at the inflection zone of the double dune shape. Each of those support beams is
spanning from the spine edge to two vertical columns underneath the northern ridge.
The portal posts and arch beams of the spine structure, the entrance wall columns and
the arch ring belt beams of the canopy structures and the eastern and western edges of
the freeform grid shell structures are supported by reinforced concrete stripe
foundations.
The initial structural design of the freeform grid shell structure by Halvorson & Partners
called for square tube members 200 x 200 x 6 mm. Since this would have lead to large
node connectors, the cross section of the freeform members were changed to rectangular
tubes 240 x 80 x 8 mm of steel grade Q345. The proprietary freeform node connector
shown in Fig. 4 typically consists of two forged steel discs of grade #45 with machined
faces which are precisely inclined toward each member end. All those machined faces
feature one threaded hole. Special precision cast steel adapters of grade GS-20Mn5V
are welded to each member end. Support nodes are made of weldable steel grade Q345.
The members are bolted to the machined faces of the top and bottom node discs using
grade 10.9 socket head bolts M24 or M27 inserted into the adapters via small
rectangular openings in the top chord of tubes and screwed into the threaded holes of
the node faces. All bolts are pretensioned with special proprietary tools. A mockup of
the grid shell structure with the roof cladding can be seen in Fig. 5.
1058
Fig. 4: Freeform Node Connector Fig. 5: Freeform Roof Built-Up Mockup
3 Grid Shell Geometry

There are two basic methods to develop a grid on a smooth freeform surface: the planar
grid projection method and the surface partitioning method. The planar grid projection
method is simply projecting a planar grid onto the smooth surface. Therefore this
method is only suitable for surfaces with small curvatures. Since the footprint of the
freeform surface is ignored during the projection, there are usually many problematic
nodes along the perimeter of the freeform grid. The problems at these nodes occur due
to too short member lengths for practical realisation or due to too tight angles between
grid and perimeter members. Fig. 6 shows the grid of the south freeform structure as
initially developed by the architect. The problematic nodes are marked with clouds.
Fig. 6: Planar Projection Grid Fig. 7: Surface Partitioning Grid
1059
The surface partitioning method is developing the grid from the perimeter. All perimeter
sections get subdivided into portions of similar length so that those subdivisions match
an "orthogonal" auxiliary grid directly on the freeform surface. One direction of this
auxiliary surface grid has to be selected to be directly used for the final grid. The grid
elements generated this way serve as base edges of the final grid triangles. All these
triangle base edges get subdivided by a constant ratio. The other two directions of the
final triangular grid are generated by connecting all these subdivision points with the
two end points of the corresponding adjacent triangle base edge. The use of this grid
generation method minimizes the amount of resulting problematic perimeter nodes.
Fig. 7 displays the grid of the southern freeform structure developed with the Surface
Partitioning method.
Unfortunately the very tight realisation schedule of the pavilion did not allow for a
re-development of the initial planar projection grid by using the surface partitioning
method. Instead all the problematic nodes of the initial grid were manually corrected.
4 Freeform Grid Shell Node Connector

Once the wireframe geometry of the pavilion structure representing member centerlines
was established, refined and coordinated, a comprehensive structural model including
all loads and load combinations required by the local building code had to be generated.
In order to adequately consider the semi-rigid connection behavior of the freeform grid
shell node connections in this structural model, a series of bending stiffness and
connection capacity tests had to be done beforehand.
4.1 Node Connection Bending Stiffness and Capacity Tests

These tests were performed using a 4-point bending test scheme as shown in Fig. 8.
The specimen was supported on the test machine base on a sliding and a fixed support.
A spreader beam on top of the specimen distributed the downward force of the test ram.
Fig. 8: 4-Point Bending Test Scheme Fig. 9: Test Setup in Laboratory
Three displacement gages were mounted underneath the load introduction points and at
the mid span of the specimen as shown in Fig. 9. By this arrangement the shear force
1060
was eliminated from the node connection and only determined bending moments were
introduced. The observed failure loads and displacements are shown in Fig. 10 & 11.
140
Test Failure Ram Load, Bending Moment,
120
# Mode at Failure at Failure
100 1 Bolt 127 kN 76.8 kNm
2 Bolt 128 kN 77.4 kNm
Load（ kN）
80
60
3 Bolt 129 kN 78.0 kNm
40
20 Displacement1
Displacement2
Displacement3
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Displacement（ mm）
Fig.10: Ram Load - Displacement Curves Fig. 11: Bending Test Results
4.2 Numerical Calculation of Node Connection Bending Capacity

The bending moment capacity of the node connection is apparently dependent on the
axial force transfered by this connection. A direct analytical structural calculation of the
node connection capacity is impossible due to the non-linear character of this bolted
connection. Therefore an iterative numerical analysis as described in [1] was performed
for 3 different limit state conditions - elastic limit, plastic limit and failure. The results
of the failure load calculation can be directly compared with the bending test results.
Fig. 12: Calculated Bending Moment Capacity vs. Axial Force
1061
The numerically calculated bending moment capacity of the node connection for
varying axial forces is shown in Fig. 12. The bending moment capacities observed in
the tests are apparently conservatively close to the estimated failure moments.
4.3 Analytical Calculation of Node Connection Stiffness

The measured load - displacement curves are the basis for determining the rotational
stiffness of the node connections, which is needed for the accurate structural analysis of
the freeform grid shell.
The measured mid span displacement is apparently caused by a linear combination of

the flexural deformation of the tube members and a rotational deformation of the node
connection. Thus the mid span deflection  Rot caused by the rotational deformation of
the node connection has to be determined by:
M l
 Rot  Total   Flex  (1)
2  K Rot
 Total - total measured mid span deflection, m
 Flex - flexural mid span deformation of the tube members, m
M - bending moment at node connection, Nm
l - span, distance from support to support
K Rot - rotational node connection stiffness of (Nm/rad)
The flexural mid span deformation of the tube members is calculated via:
 Flex 
M
24 EI

 3l 2  4a 2 (2)
2
E - modulus of elasticity of steel, N/m
I - moment of inertia of tube section, m4
a - distance of load introduction point from support, m
By combining and simplifying formula (1) and (2), the rotational node connection
stiffness can be derived as:
M l
K Rot  (3)
 3l 2  4a 2 
 M 
2  Total 
 24 EI 
The average measured mid span deflection was 18.5 mm for a test ram load of 100 kN,
which caused a node connection bending moment of 60.5 kNm. Using formula (3), the
corresponding rotational node connection stiffness can be calculated as 16110 kNm/rad.
4.4 Finite Element Analysis of Node Connection

As an additional verification a non-linear Finite Element analysis of the test specimen
was performed, using appropriate contact elements for the bolted connection.
1062
The Finite Element analysis for a test ram load of 100 kN resulted in a total mid span
deflection of 14.8 mm (0.582 in) as shown in Fig.13. This deflection is only 80% of the
measured average mid span deflection of 18.5 mm.
Fig. 13: Finite Element Model Displacements for 100 kN Test Ram Load
The reasons for this underestimated displacement are probably imperfections of the real
test specimen and the real node connections which cannot be considered in a Finite
Element model, like small initial gaps of the node connections or little initial
settlements due to uneven or rough contact surfaces etc.
This comparison of measured and directly calculated deflections was then utilized to
calibrate any other Finite Element model of the node connection used for the structural
calculation of the pavilion.
5 Structural Analysis
The original structural analysis of the pavilion done by Halvorson & Partners had to be
adopted considering local code requirements by ECADI - East China Architectural
Design and Research Institute Co. Ltd.
A major update of the structural design calculations became necessary in order to take
into account the modified cross section RHS 240 x 80 x 8 mm of the freeform members
instead of the previously assumed SHS 200 x 200 x 6 mm as well as the semi-rigid node
connection characteristics instead of the previously assumed fully rigid node connection
characteristics, which could have been achieved only with welded nodes.
Due to the complex behaviour of the pavilion structure with significant dependencies
between all portions, a meaningful structural model of the freeform portions would need
to include all other parts of the structure as well. Therefore ECADI and Novum agreed
to closely coordinate their structural models and perform the structural analysis
simultaneously - ECADI using the Finite Element software SAP2000 and Novum using
the FE software Dlubal RStab for it.
The experimentally determined rotational node connection stiffness was applied to each
freeform member end in the structural model. Load combinations for limit state design
1063
using factored loads as required by the Chinese building code were generated. Using
appropriate Finite Element analysis software, internal forces and moments, support
reactions as well as deflections for all those load combinations were calculated using
second order theory (static equilibrium at the deformed structure with small deflections).
The internal forces and moments at all node connections were compared to the
calculated & tested connection capacity (as described before under 4). Also the
conventional stability analysis and the stress analysis of individual structural members
as per the Chinese steel design code were performed. The analysis results did confirm
that the selected profiles and connection components had sufficient capacity. However,
due to the single layer configuration of the freeform grid shell structure, special
attention had to be paid to global stability issues.
5.1 Global Stability Analysis according to Chinese Building Code

ECADI established in their initial structural analysis that the governing load case for the
global stability of the south freeform grid shell is wind load in 45 degree direction. The
corresponding governing load combination 1.0*DL+1.0*WL45+0.7*LLR+0.7*TL(+),
which is a service load combination as required by code. For illustration refer to Fig. 14.
Fig. 14: Governing Wind Load Case for Global Stability
The Chinese Building Code Spec JGJ 61-2003 "Technical Specification for Lattice
Shells" as well as the project specific “UAE Pavilion Structural Design Specification”
require a critical load factor of at least 4.2 against the lowest elastic buckling load using
the governing load combination.
The elastic buckling analysis computes the critical load factor for a structure with
imperfections subjected to a particular set of applied loads. This critical load factor is
the ratio by which the axial forces in the structural members must be increased to cause
the structure to become unstable due to the flexural buckling of one or more members.
The elastic critical load factor of the structure is a function of the structural geometry,
the elastic properties of the structure and the loading pattern. Lateral torsional buckling
of individual members is not considered here. For the freeform grid shell structure this
is justified since only RHS tubes are used, which are not sensitive to lateral torsional
1064
buckling.
As per JGJ 61-2003 a global imperfection of L/300 has to be considered for the
computation of the critical load factor of the structure. Hereby L is the span of the
freeform grid shell structure. Initially the first buckling mode for the south grid shell
structure without any imperfections and regarding the governing load combination was
determined. The resulting buckling mode shown in Fig. 15 was then scaled to a
maximum imperfection value of L/300 = 66 mm in order to generate a modified
structural geometry of the south grid shell with imposed imperfections. Then the first
buckling mode was computed again for the imperfect structure.
Fig.15: First Global Buckling Mode of South Freeform Grid Shell
The first buckling mode of the imperfect south grid shell structure under the governing
load combination was established with a critical load factor of 4.6 which is meeting the
requirement of the Chinese building code.
5.2 Stability Analysis according to Eurocode

The computation of the critical buckling load factor is a linear elastic calculation which
is not considering nonlinear second order effects when increasing the axial loads.
Therefore the critical load factor cannot be interpreted as a safety factor against global
buckling, which will in fact happen at a lower load level than predicted by the critical
load factor. In order to assess the safety margin against global buckling a direct
buckling analysis according to Eurocode EN 1993-1-1 was done.
The global imperfection for the direct buckling analysis of the structure was determined
to L/300 according to EN 1993-1-1, table 5.1 "bow imperfections", buckling curve "a".
Due to the nature of the direct buckling analysis, the governing load combination had to
be changed to the limit state combination 1.2*DL+1.4*WL45+ 0.98*LLR+0.7*TL(+)
corresponding to the service load combination used for the elastic buckling analysis.
1065
The first buckling mode for the south grid shell structure without imperfections was
computed for this limit state load combination, scaled to a maximum imperfection value
of L/300 = 66 mm and the modified imperfect structural geometry of the south freeform
grid shell was generated. In addition to these global imperfections of the structure local
bow imperfections of individual members were imposed as per EN 1993-1-1 in order to
perform a simultaneous global and local buckling analysis. The modulus of elasticity of
the steel material was reduced to 90% of the nominal value. The resulting structural
model was analysed using second order theory. If the analysis is converging and the
member stress is below the design limits, then the global stability of the structure as
well as the local stability of the individual members can be confirmed.
This structural analysis was repeated with incrementally increased loads until the
analysis is not converging anymore. The last load step before this failure load is the
stability load limit. The ratio of this stability load limit to the limit state design loads is
apparently the true safety factor against buckling. For the south freeform grid shell this
true buckling safety factor was established with 2.3. Using the partial safety factor of
the wind load of 1.4 this gives us a total safety factor of 3.22 which is significantly
lower than the critical load factor of 4.6 found in the linear-elastic buckling analysis.
6 Fabrication and Installation

As described in [2] the node connector is the most important structural component of
any single layer freeform structure as it is directly and very significantly influencing the
geometric flexibility, the structural performance, the production and installation cost
and last but not least the visual appearance of the structure.
Fig. 16: Check of CNC Program Fig. 17: CNC Node Fabrication
The proprietary Novum grid shell design software program was used to generate the
fabrication data for all node connectors of the pavilion structure using only the
wireframe CAD model of the structure and the member profile and connection data
from the structural analysis. The generated fabrication data was then inserted into
specially prepared software programs which control the fabrication process of an
automated 5-axis CNC machining center. These special programs for each node were
1066
checked by virtual simulations in a CAM software as shown in Fig. 16 before the node
fabrication started which is illustrated in Fig. 17. The ready fabricated and numbered
nodes as shown in Fig. 18 were arranged in the installation sequence in batches, coated
and shipped to the site.
The fabrication data of the members was as well generated by the proprietary Novum
grid shell design software program. The member fabrication is a conventional steelwork
production process using parametric drawings together with the generated member data.
The length tolerances of those members need to be between +0 and -1 mm to ensure the
fit-up with the node faces which are machined with very high accuracy. The ready
fabricated and numbered members as shown in Fig. 19 were again arranged in the
installation sequence in batches, coated and shipped to the site.
Fig. 18: Fabricated Nodes Fig. 19: Fabricated Members
The installation process of a freeform structure typically starts at three building support
points which are preferably on a bigger distance to each other. Those supports have to
be kept floating until a sufficiently rigid preassembled grid shell "patch" connecting
those three supports is lifted into position. Then the three supports will be fixated by site
welding or bolting. After that the initial grid shell patch will be incrementally extended
at the outer edges toward the adjacent support points by adding clusters of 3 or 4
members which are preassembled to one node adjacent to the already assembled grid
shell portion.
This way the labour intensive and slow work of picking the right members connected to
a particular node out of the batch, orientating these members and the node correctly to
each other, inserting the correct bolts and tightening it etc. can be done on the ground at
special cluster preassembly points close to the storage area.
The output of those cluster preassembly points is naturally limited, but by having
several preassembly points which are parallel working in a coordinated way the
installation speed can be significantly increased, since the process of lifting
preassembled clusters to their final position and fixing the bolted node connections of
the free member ends is very fast.
1067
Fig. 20: South Freeform Structure Fig. 21: Pavilion Structure
This incremental installation process which is relying on the accuracy of the machined
node geometry and the rigidity of the pretensioned node connection has to be simulated
upfront in order to determine where temporary supports would be needed to avoid
significant deflections of the free patch edges under the dead weight of the structure.
This structural analysis of the installation process is also delivering the information
needed to design those temporary supports which can be scaffolding platforms or
individual scaffolding towers. The installed pavilion structure is shown in Fig 20 and 21.
References
[1] Soeren STEPHAN et al: General Method for the Design of Bolted Connections for
Space Frames, Space Structures 5, Telford Publishing, London 2002, p. 759-773
[2] Soeren STEPHAN et al: Reticulated Structures on Freeform Surfaces, Proceedings
of the IASS Symposium "Shell and Spatial Structures From Models to Realization",
Montpellier / France 20 Sep 2004 - 24 Sep 2004
[3] Kyung-Ju HWANG et al: Influence of various types node connectors on the
buckling load of grid shells, Proceedings of the IASS Symposium "Evolution and
Trends in Design, Analysis and Construction of Shell and Spatial Structures",
Valencia / Spain 28 Sep 2009 - 02 Oct 2009
[4] Catherine A CARDNO: Traveling Single-Layer Diagrid Structure to Be Built For
2010 World’s Fair, Civil Engineering Oct 2009, p. 21-22
[5] Lianjin BAO et al.: Design of Single Layer Lattice Shell with Semi-Rigid
Connections, Submitted to Journal of Building Structures (in Chinese)
[6] Stephen KENNETT: Sands of Time, Building UK 28 May 2010, pages 60-62
1068
3.2 Morphology and form-finding
1069
The generation of continuous membrane surfaces

Marco BAHR1, Toni KOTNIK2
1
ETH Zurich, Chair of Structural Design
Wolfgang-Pauli-Strasse 15, HIL E45.1, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland
marco.bahr@arch.ethz.ch
2
ETH Zurich, Chair of Structural Design
Abstract
Recent interest in freeform architecture has dramatically changed the type of
surfaces under consideration, from statically optimized shell structures to shapes that
have been determined by non-structural design decisions. Based on the theory of
plasticity a new method has been developed which allows the design engineer to control
the transfer of loads in any kind of surface structure. By this novel approach curved
stress fields are generated which can either be used to analyse a given structure or to
design shapes.
Keywords: surface structures, design, analysis, stress fields, equilibrium solutions, theory of plasticity
1 Introduction
Due to increasing use of digital design methods over past decades, the type of curved
surfaces used in architecture has changed dramatically: from being statically dominated
to an increasingly architecturally determined formal language [1, 2]. As a result, the
technical investment for realising these free-form structures at times has assumed
considerable dimensions. Hence, a method is required which is able to unify the
architectural freedom of design with the engineer’s pursuit of efficient structures.
Building on the principles of graphic statics and the theory of plasticity the proposed
method in this paper is a step towards such conciliation of physical necessity and
freedom of design.
2 Basic idea and procedure of the proposed method

For arch structures under given load conditions a thrust line can be found. Using a rigid-
plastic material model it can be stated that, as long as the thrust line stays within the
section of the arch, it is only loaded by internal compressive forces. However, if the
thrust line leaves the section additional internal flexural loads will occur. The area in
between the arch section and the thrust line coincides with the internal flexural load of
the arch. Corresponding to thrust lines for one-dimensional systems, we propose a
comparable approach for surface structures. In reference to membrane theory, which
describes a plane strain for curved surface structures, the extension of thrust lines to the
second dimension is denoted as membrane surface. Approaches, comparable concerning
the basic idea of the presented method, only deal with specific problems in connection
1070
with vaults or sails [3, 4], but do not yet give a generally applicable solution for
generating the form of surface structures.
The fundamental idea of the proposed method is strongly influenced by stress field
analysis [5, 6], which bases on the lower bound theorem of the theory of plasticity and a
rigid-plastic material model. The lower bound theorem of the theory of plasticity states
that any solution for load transfer is possible as long as the system is in equilibrium and
below yield [5, 7]. When using a rigid-plastic material model, elastic deformations are
neglected. This assumption is justified if sufficient ductility is assured [6], which
applies for most concrete structures, as long as several constructional rules are obeyed
[8]. The stress field method allows the design engineer to control load transfer in beams
and walls. Although stress field analysis is a powerful tool, it can, however, only be
used to describe the transfer of in-plane loads. In order to develop stress fields for
surface structures like plates, shells or folded plate structures the transfer of out of plane
loads must also be describable.
Fig. 1: a) wall element under in-plane load, b) wall element under additional out of
plane load, c) plate element under out of plane load
A wall element under in-plane load and a resulting stress field is shown in figure 1a.
When superposing the in-plane loads with out of plane loads, the stress field must curve
in order to assure equilibrium (fig. 1b). If the stress field leaves the solid as illustrated in
figure 1b, internal flexural load will occur in the wall element. A curved stress field can
also be used to describe load transfer of out of plane loads of a plate (fig. 1c). Since
supports of plates are in general not able to bear horizontal thrust, an additional tensile
stress field needs to be introduced to equilibrate the curved compressive stress field.
The two stress fields and the space in between describe the internal flexural loading of
the plate and coincide with the bending moment diagram of this particular example.
1071
This procedure to determine internal flexural loads by a curved compressive stress field
and a tensile stress field is the adaptation of a method used to describe internal flexural
loads of linear structural elements by means of arches and cables [9]. This approach for
linear structural elements has been a main inspiration to use membrane surfaces not
only to describe shells, but also for solely flexurally loaded structures like plates.
The presented method aims at developing curved stress fields for all kinds of load
transfer in any solid surface structure under consideration. Due to the immense statical
indeterminacy of solid surface structures, for a particular loading a wide range of
solutions can be found using the lower bound theorem of the theory of plasticity. In
contrast to stress fields describing in-plane load transfer, the form of curved stress fields
is not only unknown, but also even dependent to load transfer. In order to maintain the
principle of a highly controllable load transfer, an intermediate step is advantageous. A
projection surface, which represents a projection of the aspired membrane surface, is
introduced. By this means an initial surface is obtained to define load transfer. To use a
projection of the aspired system as an intermediate step to develop a form, which is free
of flexural loads, has also been proposed by Block [3].
Usually the term projection is used to describe a geometrical operation by which one of
the components of a vector is set to zero. From a curved surface a planar projection is
obtained. Within the scope of the proposed method, projection is defined wider. In
contrast to common comprehension, a projection surface does not have to be planar and
the direction of projection may vary at every point. Projection in terms of this method is
the movement of a point of the projection surface along an assigned projection vector.
Projection will thus base on two elements. The projection surface gives an initial
surface on which loads are applied and an initial state of stress is created. And
additionally to the projection surface a set of projection vectors is introduced, which
defines a specific direction of projection for every point of the projection surface. The
projection surface and the assigned projection vectors are chosen according to the
specific problem under consideration. Choosing a planar projection surface and using its
normal vectors as projection vectors is probably the easiest possible way to find a
solution and will also be suitable for a wide range of problems. However, in case of
closed surfaces like cylinders or hyperboloids or in case of a given structure, which has
to be analysed, more advanced projection surfaces and assigned projection vectors will
be necessary.
The load transfer on the aspired membrane surface is mainly controlled by the
arrangement of load transfer on the projection surface. A curved stress field can be seen
as an infinitely tight grid of interacting arches or cables bearing the applied loads. The
projection of this grid on the projection surface will be denoted as initial load paths.
A load bearing arch or cable will always cause horizontal thrust. If the horizontal thrust
was zero, these structures would not be able to bear loads. Obviously horizontal thrust is
necessary to activate this particular load bearing action. The same applies for shell
structures. Since a membrane surface describes the statically ideal form of a shell
structure under a particular load condition, forces comparable to horizontal thrust are
necessary to activate load transfer along a membrane surface. These forces will be
denoted as initial forces. These initial forces are assumed to be acting along the initial
load path curves on the projection surface. The magnitude of initial forces is a scaling
1072
factor for the membrane surface and must be different from zero if loads shall be
transferred along a particular load path curve on the membrane surface.
The final curved stress field, the shape of which is representing the membrane surface,
is obtained by superposition of the initial state of stress on the projection surface and the
applied external loads. From superposing initial forces with loads, a change of direction
of these forces results. To assure that these forces acting along initial load path curves
remain tangential, the curves have to deform. The distribution of loads to the particular
load path curves in turn has to be adapted such that a continuous surface results.
Since the membrane surface is describing the form of a curved stress field, it is not
necessarily coinciding with a real structure. The curved stress field is just describing an
equilibrium solution for the internal loads of a structure under a specific load condition.
Thus, it is not necessary that a membrane surface ends at the position of supports, but at
least at the projections of the supporting points. The distance between the membrane
surface and the real structure shows the existence of an internal flexural load. The same
applies for the membrane surface at its supports. If the boundaries of the membrane
surface do not lie within the real structure at its supporting points, clamped supports will
be necessary in oder to achieve the chosen load transfer.
3 Generation of continuous membrane surfaces

In this section a method to generate continuous membrane surfaces is presented. The
method has been developed in dependence on geometric flows in differential geometry
[10].
3.1 Projection
The projection surface as an initial surface is used to define initial load paths of choice
for the surface structure under consideration. The following mathematical definition
must therefor apply as a prerequisite.
A projection
 surface is defined as the map of a compact, simply connected subset A of
2 3
 into by a differentiable, injective function p.
Thus the position vector of every point on the projection surface is determined by the
vector function p. Although the symbol p represents the vector function it will also be
used to address the projection surface itself.
The direction of projection is defined by a differentiable vector field, which assigns a
projection vector np to every point on the projection surface p. Differentiability has to
be provided to obtain a differentiable membrane surface. As the further description of
the method will demonstrate projection has to be distinguished into two fundamentally
different cases, constant projection and varying projection. In case of constant
projection to every point on the projection surface the same projection vector is
assigned. In contrast varying projection means to assign a different projection vector to
every point on the projection surface. However the direction of projection is assumed, it
1073
has to be assured, that the projection vector np is not tangential to the projection surface
and thus not a linear combination of two tangent vectors to the projection surface.
3.2 Initial load paths

As the proposed method bases on the lower bound theorem of the theory of plasticity
there exists an infinite number of solutions for a particular problem. By defining load
paths, which can be imagined as a set of projections of arches or cables, load transfer in
the surface structure under consideration is consciously chosen. Since load paths define
the direction of load transfer, it also determines the directions of initial forces. In order
to describe any kind of in-plane state of stress two sets of load path curves need to be
chosen. Furthermore two load path curves have to be chosen as borderlines, across
which no load is transferred. The intersection point of these, for which applies that the
projected state of stress coincides with its preimage, is denoted as starting point. By the
position of borderlines the direction of load transfer across them is defined, as loads are
only transferred away from there to the supports.
Mathematically the choice of load paths means a reparametrisation of the vector
function defining the projection surface, such that its derivatives with respect to the
introduced parameters give two tangent vector fields, which describe the directions of
load transfer. It is advantageous to reparametrize the vector function p with the arc
lengths spj and spk, because its derivatives will directly give the necessary unit tangent
vector fields. The choice of borderlines means mathematically to create a two-
dimensional coordinate system with the starting point as origin and the borderlines as
axes. The direction of increasing arc lengths is defined by the direction of the tangent
vectors to the projection surface along the borderlines.
The unit tangent vectors at p describing the direction of load transfer are determined by:
 p(s pj , s pk )  p(s pj , s pk )
t pj (s pj , s pk )  t pk (s pj , s pk )  (1)
 s pj  s pk
or if the arc lengths spj and spk are not determinable:
 p(h j ,hk )  p(h j ,hk )  p(h j ,hk )  p(h j ,hk )

t pj (h j ,hk )  t pk (h j ,hk )  (2)
 hj  hj  hk  hk
with hj and hk as the introduced parameters.
3.3 Initial forces

Tangentially to initial load path curves act initial forces, which represent a projection of
the state of stress of the membrane surface. Since initial forces are internal forces and
have thus no defined direction, they are denoted by the scalars pj and pk for the
respective directions describing only their magnitude. As customary tensile forces are
1074
positive and compressive forces negative. The unit of initial forces is [N/m]. An initial
force vector is obtained by scalar multiplication with a unit speed tangent vector.
If a projection surface is not planar deviation forces are necessary in order to equilibrate
the initial forces acting tangentially to it. Deviation forces will be denoted by the vector
dp and are assumed to be scalings of the chosen projection vector np. Since initial forces
are projections of the state of stress of the membrane surface the projection of external
loads qpeffects the initial state of stress.
For a point on the projection surface the following relation of forces is given:
Fig. 2: form (left) and force diagram (right) for initial forces of a curved projection
surface in axonometrical view
From figure 2 follows:
( pj t pj ) ( pk t pk )
dp  qp   pj t pj    pj (t pj )   pk t pk    pk (t pk )  0 (3)
 s pj  s pk
which can be simplified to:
( pj t pj ) ( pk t pk )
d p  qp   0 (4)
 s pj  s pk
By integration with respect to the respective arc length the equations for initial forces
result in:
u u u
( pk t pk )
 pj t pj   pj 0 t pj0   qp ds pj   d p ds pj   ds pj (5a)
0 0 0
 s pk
v v v
( pj t pj )
 pk t pk   pk 0 t pk0   qp ds pk   d p ds pk   ds pk (5b)
0 0 0
 s pj
1075
Due to integration two integration constants occur in the equations of initial forces.
These can be interpreted as starting values for initial forces, which are assumed to
represent the initial forces of curves, where crossing a borderline, such that:
 pj0 t pj0   pj (0, s pk ) t pj (0, s pk ) and  pk0 t pk0   pk (s pj ,0) t pk (s pj ,0) (6)
The proceeding of the method bases on using stress resultants instead of stresses. This
provides the advantage that only two directions have to be considered for load transfer.
If using stresses not only axial stresses but also shear stresses would occur at least when
determining the state of stress within the membrane surface. However, to show the
relation of this method to common approaches the transformation from stress resultants
to stresses is shown in figure 3.
Fig. 3: Transformation of forces to stresses on an infinitesimal element
3.4 External loads

Mathematically external loads are represented by a continuous vector field. A load
vector is denoted by q. In order to avoid singularities the application of single loads is
not possible. However, single loads never occur in reality, as they are always just a
resultant of a distributed load. A load vector q is divided into a tangential component qp,
which is a linear combination of the tangent vectors tpj and tpk and is effecting the initial
state of stress, and a component qn in direction of the projection vector, which is
superposed with initial forces to determine the membrane surface.
3.5 Membrane surface

The membrane surface is the surface, which provides a reference surface for the
membrane forces, which are acting tangentially to it. Its shape is thus determined by the
run of these. The position vectors of the points of the membrane surface are determined
by the vector function m. The symbol m will also be used as a representation of the
membrane surface. The unit tangent vectors representing the direction of load transfer
on the membrane surface are defined as follows:
1076
m m
tm  (7)
 sp  sp
The derivative of a function of a curve with respect to its arc length gives a function
defining unit speed tangent vectors. Vice versa the function of a curve will be obtained,
if the unit speed tangent vector function and the arc length of the curve are given.
This method will be used to generate the membrane surface. As mentioned above,
membrane forces will always be tangent to the respective membrane surface. The initial
load paths on the projection surface represent projections of curves on the membrane
surface. However, the arc lengths of these curves on the membrane surface can only be
determined, if the function of the curves are known. Since these are unknown the arc
lengths of the initial load path curves can be used, if the unit speed vector is multiplied
with a scalar factor Fm. This correction factor will have to assure that the projection of
the tangent vector of the membrane surface will coincide with the unit tangent vector on
the projection surface tp. The relation of the unit tangent vector of the projection surface
tp and the unit tangent vector of the membrane surface tm multiplied with its correction
factor Fm is shown in figure 4.
Fig. 4: Relation of the unit tangent vector to the projection surface and the unit tangent
vector to the membrane surface multiplied with its correction factor
1077
 np  Fn
Fm t m  t p  Fn  np  tp
 sp  sp
 np  Fn 2
Fm t m  t p  1  Fn  tp  np  t p tp  tp  tp 1 (8)
 sp  sp
1   np  Fn 
Fm   1  Fn  t p  n  t
p p
tm  tp   sp  sp 
This applied to the equation of the derivative of m gives:
m m t   np  Fn 
 Fm t m   m  1  Fn  tp  np  t p  (9)
 sp  sp tm  tp   sp  sp 
3.6 Membrane forces

Membrane forces describe the actual state of stress along a membrane surface. They are
internal forces and as mentioned in section 3.3 the magnitude of internal forces is
described by scalars and a force vector is obtained by multiplication with a unit tangent
vector.
For a point on the membrane surface the following relation of forces is given:
Fig. 5: form (left) and force diagram (right) for membrane forces in axonometrical view
( mj t mj ) ( mk t mk )
 mj t mj    mj (t mj )   mk t mk    mk (t mk )  q  0 (10)
 s pj  s pk
1078
which can be simplified to:
( mj t mj ) ( mk t mk )
 q0 (11)
 s pj  s pk
By integration with respect to the respective arc length the equations for membrane
forces result in:
u u
( mk t mk )
 mj t pj   pj 0 t pj0   q ds pj   ds pj (12a)
0 0
 s pk
v v
( mj t mj )
 mk t pk   pk 0 t pk0   q ds pk   ds pk (12b)
0 0
 s pj
Due to integration two integration constants occur in the equations of membrane forces.
As defined in section 3.2 initial and membrane forces coincide where crossing a
borderline. Since the magnitude of initial forces crossing a borderline is defined to be
the starting value (see 3.3), the interpretation of the integration constants is the same as
for initial forces.
As equation (11) illustrates, membrane forces are dependent on the unit tangent vectors
to the membrane surface. Thus it is not possible in general to determine the membrane
forces without having the overall solution for the membrane surface.
3.7 Generation of membrane surfaces based on constant projection

As indicated in section 2 two types of projection are distinguished for the proposed
method. This distinction is caused by fundamentally different relations of initial and
membrane forces for either type of projection, as it will be discussed in section 4.
Constant projection means that to every point on the projection surface the same
projection vector np is assigned, such that:
 np
0 (13)
 sp
1079
Fig. 6: relation of initial and membrane forces in case of constant projection
From the relation of initial and membrane forces illustrated in figure 6 follows:
  Fn 
m tm   p  t p  np  (14)
  sp 
Due to (13) equation (9) simplifies and results enlarged with m in:
m m tm   Fn 
 1  np  t p  (15)
 sp m tm  tp   sp 
By substitution with (14) equation 15 leads to the following relation:
m
m tm  p (16)
 sp
Its derivative results in:
  m t m   m   p 2 m
  p (17)
 sp  s p  s p  s p2
The differential equation describing any kind of membrane surface based on constant
projection is obtained by applying (3.17) to (3.11):
 m   pj 2 m  m   pk 2 m
  pj    pk  q  0 (18)
 s pj  s pj  s pj 2  s pk  s pk  s pk 2
1080
3.7.1 Example
The following simple example is meant to illustrate the application of the generation of
membrane surfaces based on constant projection. Projection surface, initial load paths
and the constant projection vector field are assumed as indicated in figure 7 and only
vertical loads are applied to the projection surface. All points along the edges of the
projection surface are fixed. From the made assumptions follows:
 s pj   0  0
p   s pk  np   0 q 0 qz  const.
     
 0  1  q 
z
Since the chosen load paths are straight and loads are perpendicular to the projection
surface, from equations (5) follows that:
 pj   pj0 and  pk   pk0
Due to the made assumptions equation (18) simplifies to:
 0
2 m 2 m
    0  0
2 pk0 
 s pj 2 pj 0
 s pk 
 q 
z
As it is characteristic of partial differential equations there exist multiple solutions. Thus,
an additional assumption has to be made in order to choose one of the solutions. In this
example an equal load distribution into the both directions of load path curves is
assumed. The function for the membrane surface m results in:
 s pj 
 
m s pk 
q 4  s 2  q 4  s 2
 z pj 0 pj z pk 0 pk 
1081
Fig. 7: planar projection surface with indicated straight load paths and the resulting
membrane surface
3.8 Generation of membrane surfaces based on varying projection

The equation deduced in this section is generally applicable to develop a curved stress
field describing the state of stress of any kind of surface structure. Every other case
including section 3.7 can be deduced from this one. In contrast to constant projection no
relation between initial forces and projection forces can be found for the general
approach. Although the concept of varying projection vectors works for the projection
of points, it does not for forces.
Multiplying both sides of equation (9) with m gives the following equation for
membrane forces:
1
m   Fn 
m tm 
 sp

m tm  tp 1 
  sp

np  t p 

(19)
The respective derivative with respect to sp results in:
1
  m t m   2 m   Fn 
 sp

 s p2
 t  t
m m p 

1  
 sp
n p  t p

1
 m    m t   tp    Fn 
  tm  m m   tp  m tm   1  np  t p  (20)
 s p   s p  sp   s p    sp 

m

m tm  tp  

 2 Fn n p 
 tp 
 

 Fn n p  t p  
 1 
 Fn 
np  t p 
2
 sp   s p 2  sp  s p    sp 
1082
The general differential equation is obtained by applying (20) to (11):
   mj  t mj  
1  t mj   mj 
 pj 
t
2 m   Fn   m   s pj  s pj  
 s pj 2
 t  t
mj mj pj  1  
 s pj
n p  t pj  
 s pj  
    t   t pj 
 mj mj  s pj 
 

 1 
 Fn 
np  t pj 
1

m

 mj t mj  t pj  

 2 Fn np

t 
 

 Fn np  t pj 

pj
  s pj   s pj   s pj 2  s pj  s pj 
2 1
  Fn  2 m   Fn 
 1 
  s pj
np  t pj 


 s pk 2
mk t mk  t pk 

1 

 s pk
n p  t pk 

(21)
1
 m    mk t   t pk    Fn 
  t mk   mk mk   t pk   mk t mk    1  np  t pk 
 s pk   s pk  s pk   s pk    s pk 

m

 mk t mk  t pk  

 2 Fn np 
 t pk 
 

 Fn np  t pk  
 1 
 Fn 
np  t pk 
2
 s pk   s pk 2  s pk  s pk    s pk 
m m
 q0 with Fn  m  p  np and t m 
 sp  sp
4 Discussion
The aim to develop a method to determine continuous curved stress fields was achieved.
The found solution is based on differential geometry and the idea that forces along a
surface are represented by tangential vector fields. It has been deduced from equilibrium
conditions referring to points on membrane surfaces. In contrast to this approach
common considerations are based on equilibrium conditions of infinitesimal small
elements [4, 11] being a result from the description of internal forces with stresses. As
shown in section 3.3 internal forces can also be described by stress resultants, while
equilibrium is still guaranteed. The clear advantage of this concept of formulating an
equilibrium condition is that only two directions of forces instead of normal and shear
stresses have to be considered. Furthermore the equilibrium conditions are free from
geometrical descriptions, which have to be considered consequentially if using an
element of a surface.
The proposed method is based on the concept of creating a surface, which represents a
projection of the aspired membrane surface. This intermediate step is fundamental in
order to have a means to control the transfer of loads. Since the shape of the membrane
surface is still unknown load paths are designed on the projection surface instead, while
still being able to control load transfer on the membrane surface. These load paths
describe metaphorically speaking the flow of loads to the supports. Due to the defined
1083
relation of projection and membrane surface load paths define a projection of the actual
load transfer.
A membrane surface is obtained by superposition of an initial state of stress defined on
a projection surface and the actual loads. A quite obvious result from this basic
assumption is to define projection as a movement of points along the lines of
application of the applied loads. Although this might be a useful approach to a wide
range of examples, it can cause problems especially considering curved projection
surfaces, where the condition that a projection vector must not be tangential to a
projection surface is violated in the case of partially tangential loads (see 3.1). This
condition has been introduced to avoid the occurrence of tangential deviation forces,
since these are defined as scalar multiplications of the projection vector (see 3.3). And
this definition in turn was made in order to be able to deduce membrane forces from
initial forces as illustrated in figure 6.
The proposed method is based on the common idea of the lower-bound theorem of the
theory of plasticity. In contrast to that basic idea other approaches like the derivation of
load distribution according to the Biot-Savart law used in electro-magnetic theory have
been used [4]. Although the assumption that load distribution coincides with the
propagation of a magnetic field might lead to good results, it should not limit the
possibilities to transfer loads, since it is not theoretically justified with respect to static
considerations. However, this approach can be considered to be one of the infinite
possibilities to describe load transfer.
Two different types of projection have been distinguished in the proposed method,
constant (3.7) and varying projection (3.8). For either type of projection there exists a
counterpart for each point of the membrane surface on the projection surface. A
difference between these two approaches occurs considering the relation of initial and
membrane forces. In case of constant projection a direct relation between these two
forces was found as illustrated in figure 6. This has been possible due to the fact that the
integral of all load vectors in direction of projection qn with respect to an arc length is a
scalar multiplication of the projection vector. Regarding varying projection this does not
apply. Thus initial forces are no projections of membrane forces in this case. As a result
the determination of initial forces is omitted for the generation of membrane surfaces by
varying projection. However, the intermediate step of creating load paths on a
projection surface is maintained, since by this means still a control over load transfer is
achieved.
Major control over load transfer is achieved in case of constant projection by load paths
and initial forces. However, specific boundary conditions may be necessary in order to
choose one of the solutions of the partial differential equation, since in general
differential equations have multiple solutions. As stated before, initial forces cannot be
used in case of varying projection. However load transfer is at least geometrically
controlled by load paths and in comparison with constant projection an additional
approach for the magnitude of membrane forces specifically chosen for the particular
problem under consideration has to be made.
Both equations determining membrane surfaces in either case of projection are partial
differential equations of second order. Due to fundamental mathematical difficulties
1084
there is no possibility to find a general solution for these. Thus, the usability of the
continuous approach of the proposed method is limited.
To achieve a generally applicable method a numerical approach is aspired. However,
the proposed procedure as described in section 2 will be kept, instead of using a general
mathematical numerical approach like finite difference method [4]. An advantage of a
completly numerical approach is, that in contrast to a continuous approach
discontinuities of forces and loads are possible.
References
[1] Institut für Architektur und Raumplanung, Hochschule Liechtenstein, Ed. CAM of
Freeforms in Architecture, vol. 3 of Positionen Architektur. Michael Imhof Verlag,
2008.
[2] Laffranchi M. Ulrich Müther Schalenbauten. Verlag Niggli AG, 2008, ch.
Betonschalenbauten – Eine geschichtliche Persepktive, pp. 16-29.
[3] Block P. Thrust Network Analysis – Exploring Three-dimensional Equilibrium.
PhD thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2009.
[4] Williams C. The generation of a class of structural forms for vaults and sails. The
Structural Engineer 1990; 68: 231-235.
[5] Drucker DC. On structural concrete and the theorems of limit analysis.
International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering Publications 1961;
21: 49-59.
[6] Muttoni A, Schwartz J and Thürlimann B. Design of Concrete Structures with
Stress Fields. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, 1997.
[7] Prager W and Hodge PG. Theory of Perfectly Plastic Solids. John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., New York, 1951.
[8] Muttoni A. Die Anwendbarkeit der Plastizitätstheorie in der Bemessung von
Stahlbeton. PhD thesis, ETH Zurich, 1989.
[9] Muttoni A. L’art des structures. Presses polytechniques et universitaires romandes,
Lausanne, 2004.
[10] Cao H-D and Yau S-T, Eds. Geometric Flows, vol. XII of Surveys in Differential
Geometry. International Press, 2008.
[11] Timoshenko SP. Theory of plates and shells, first ed. McGraw-Hill, New York,
1940.
1085
Validating Thrust Network Analysis using 3D-printed,

structural models
Philippe BLOCK1*, Lorenz LACHAUER2, Matthias RIPPMANN2
1*
block@arch.ethz.ch
2
Research Assistant, Institute of Technology in Architecture, ETH Zurich
Abstract
Scale models can be used to understand the equilibrium of masonry systems –
and structural compression forms in general– as they stand not because of allowable
stresses, but because of their geometry. This paper demonstrates the use of 3D-printed,
structural models, and emphasizes their relevance, not only to assess the stability of
complex masonry vaults, but also to push the limits of new compression-only structures.
Thrust Network Analysis (TNA) is an innovative approach for exploring three-
dimensional funicular networks [1]. The TNA methodology was originally developed
for stability analysis of historic vaulted structures in unreinforced masonry, extending
graphic statics to fully 3-D problems. This framework is even more powerful as flexible
approach for finding structural compression forms. Through the control of reciprocal
force diagrams, which relate form and forces, new unexpected forms for compression-
only shells become possible.
This paper will show and discuss some surprising compression forms obtained with
TNA to demonstrate how the approach gives the designer the power to start exploiting
structurally indeterminacy of three-dimensional funicular systems. Thanks to recent
advances in TNA [2], which integrate the interactive structural form finding process
with geometric and fabrication constraints into a smooth digital chain, discrete 3D-
printed scale models can easily be produced. These unglued “masonry” scale models
serve as very convincing first validations of the capabilities of this novel approach.
Keywords: Structural scale models, form finding, rapid prototyping, masonry vaults,
funicular vs. freeform design
1 Introduction
Gothic cathedrals were built well before the introduction of structural theory [3]. The
old master builders counted on experience and exceptional intuition –but also a lot of
trial and error– to accomplish their stunning vaulted spaces in unreinforced masonry.
They were furthermore also helped by a specific property of masonry structures. Unlike
modern structures, not stress, but stability is of concern for this type of structures [4,5].
Because masonry has no (or very little) capacity to resist the induced tension due to
bending, it has to be shaped such that it acts in compression only. If an unreinforced
1086
masonry structure does not have a good structural form, it will collapse. “Masonry does
not lie”, and the stability of masonry structures is thus mainly a question of geometry,
and not of material failure. In general, the stresses are low in structures which follow the
flow of compressive forces, i.e. funicular structures, particularly when they are as bulky
as most historic structures in masonry.
That the behaviour of masonry structures is only a matter of geometry, and not of
stresses, makes their behaviour independent of scale. This powerful notion made it
possible for the master builders to push the limits of imagination over centuries of
evolution of form. They could use geometric rules (Fig. 1), which allowed them to copy
the geometry of successful precedents and to scale them up; and scale models, which
allowed them to check the stability of vaulted creations and to carefully balance them
where necessary by adding blocks on the extrados.
Fig. 1: Geometrical rules for stable arch-on-buttresses structures, and drawings of

displacement studies with plaster models [6].
The stability of masonry structures is best assessed with limit analysis [3,7]. Simply put,
an unreinforced masonry structure will be stable if within its section a compression-only
system of forces can be found in equilibrium with the applied loads [8,9]. The applied
loads are for masonry structures their dominant self weight. In order to be able to apply
an equilibrium analysis (i.e. limit analysis) for the safety assessment of masonry
structures, Heyman introduced three key assumptions [10]: masonry has no tensile
capacity, sliding does not occur at the interfaces of the separate voussoirs (blocks), and
masonry is considered rigid. These will be discussed further in the paper.
2 Learning from the old master builders

The understanding of the equilibrium of complex vaulted structures in masonry has
been lost over the centuries. One is dazzled when realizing that the stunning fan vaults
of the chapel of King’s College at the University of Cambridge, England have a
structural stone shell with an average thickness–over-span ratio smaller than that of an
1087
egg shell. This becomes even more impressive when understanding that this structure is
composed of thin stone slats held in place only by compression (and friction).
Thrust Network Analysis (TNA), a fully three-dimensional equilibrium approach,
allows now to explain and visualize their stability by finding compression-only
networks of forces, staying within the geometry of the structures [9]. Originally
developed for the analysis of masonry vaults, this approach becomes more powerful as
design tool. TNA allows the designer to carefully control three-dimensional funicular,
i.e. compression-only, shapes. This flexible control results in a new formal language for
stone structures.
The goal of this paper is to demonstrate the power of TNA for the design of novel
shapes in unreinforced stone, and thus shells in general, which attempts to blur the
boundaries between funicular and freeform design. A first, but convincing validation for
this approach is given by discrete, unglued structural models with surprising shapes.
3 From abstract to model

An important challenge in realizing the structural models presented in this paper, is the
transition from the abstract and discrete representation used for form finding, to the
physical parts of the model. An example of a similar challenge is the translation of the
hanging string model for the crypt of the Colonia Güell Church into an actual stone
structure. It is Antoni Gaudíwho was able to see form through these strings.
Using TNA, a thrust network is generated, comparable to the strings in Gaudí’s hanging
model. In the form-finding process, several levels of control are provided (Fig. 3): form
diagram, force diagram and loading (= self-weight) density. The form diagram defines
the general outline of the structure, and force line topology, and the force diagram
represents the equilibrium of the inner forces in the form diagram, or the horizontal
force components of the resulting thrust network. Both diagrams enable the direct
control by the user on form and the force distribution of the thrust network. The nodal
self weight applied for the form finding process is controlled by the user as well.
By linking a continuous geometric representation, a NURBS surface, to the thrust
network, tessellation and block generation independent from the given primal grid, is
possible. Thanks to these recent developments in TNA [2], efficient design and
production of the structural models presented in this paper became possible.
The structural behaviour of these unglued models is similar to the behaviour of
unreinforced masonry vaults, because of the satisfactory fulfilment of Heyman’s three
necessary requirements, i.e. the three assumptions introduced in Section 1:
- No tension: The compression-only geometry, generated by TNA, prevents tension
forces to occurunder the (dominant) design loading.
- Rigid: The materials used for the 3D printed have very stiff material properties
compared to the forces in the models. The funicular form, as a result of the
formfinding using TNA, furthermore results in very low stresses, resulting in very
small strains. The voussoirs can thus be considered as rigid.
- No sliding: Two conditions want to be satisfied to prevent this: the interfaces need
to have “enough” friction (i.e. more than the Coulomb friction, or a friction angle of
0.6 or higher), and the stereotomy of the vault (i.e. how the vault volume is cut into
1088
blocks) has to be such that sliding failure mechanism are prevented. The latter can
be guaranteed by controlling the tessellation and individual block geometries. To
provide sufficient friction between the model parts, the choice of rapid prototyping
technique is crucial. Plaster-based 3D printers produce fairly rough pieces that have
enough friction, which makes this technique perfect for the purpose of structural
testing. A disadvantage of these printers is that geometrical tolerances seem not that
reliable due to inaccuracies from e.g. shrinking. Further research is being done to
control this process. Other rapid prototyping technologies are Fused Deposition
Modelling (FDM) and Specific Laser Sintering (SLS), which are highly accurate in
terms of geometry, but the surfaces of the thermoplastic material are very smooth
and provide almost no friction. In order to prevent the interfaces to slide, small non-
interlocking notches are provided at the interfaces of the voussoirs (Fig. 2). These
were also helpful in the accurate registration of the pieces, controlling and
simplifying assembly.
Fig. 2: Notches to avoid local sliding failure at the interfaces.
4 Designing a freefrom masonry vault

In this section, the design process for a freeform, masonry-like vault model will be
described. Using commercial NURBS modelling software, two input surfaces were built
with one common edge, and two tangential edges. Using their local coordinate system,
the form diagram, or primal grid, representing the choice of force lines in the vault and
thus also the topology or planar projection of the thrust network was generated (Fig. 3a).
From this, the reciprocal force diagram, or dual grid, is produced (Fig. 3b). The lengths
of the branches in the dual grid represent the horizontal force components in the
branches of the thrust network. Due to the structural indeterminacy of the primal grid, it
is possible to deform the dual grid while maintaining certain rules [1]. An overlay of the
information of primal and dual grid is the force distribution, represented by the pipe
1089
diagram in Figure 3c. The radii of the pipes are proportional to the axial forces in the
branches. For a chosen self weight distribution, the thrust network is generated (Fig. 3d).
The force distribution diagram (Fig. 3c) allows for a good interpretation of the resulting
form of the thrust network, but also clarifies and visualizes that internal forces in the
shell have to be redistributed in a certain way in order to achieve a specific three-
dimensional effect. The thickest pipe segments on top of the diagram e.g. represent the
forces in the most shallow edge arch (Fig. 6); the “loose ends” on the right side of the
diagram represent the one continuously supported edge; or the backbone-like segments
in the middle show the stepwise accumulation of forces in that region. This
accumulation or channelling of forces results in the accretive kink in the thrust network
towards the support.
Figure 6 shows some local changes of the tessellation in detail, in order to prevent
sliding mechanisms, e.g. the geometry of the edge pieces (highlighted in blue) are
constrained to but cut perpendicular to the edge arches.
Fig. 3: The TNA form finding process of a “freeform” vault: a) the form diagram,
generated from two “stitched” NURBS surfaces; b) its corresponding reciprocal force
diagram; c) a pipe diagram, visualizing the force distribution; and d) the resulting
compression-only thrust network in equilibrium with a given loading.
1090
Fig. 4: Perspective view of the vault model.
Fig. 5: Perspective view of the vault model.
Fig. 6: Front view of the vault model.
1091
Fig. 7: Top view of the vault model with marked edge tessellation pattern.
Fig. 8: Support details, showing the unglued pieces held together by compression.
1092
5 Structural models as analysis tools

The current paper only showed the successful, first results of the capabilities of TNA by
producing stable scale models of unreinforced masonry shells with novel shapes. This
can be considered as a first validation of the approach.
More importantly, as the drawings of the tests with plaster models by Danyzy (Fig. 1,
[6]) showed for two-dimensional structures, scale models can be used to investigate the
stability and collapse mechanisms of discrete structures under e.g. support
displacements or concentrated live loads (Fig. 9). This is a really hard, and not at all
understood, problem for complex three-dimensional vaulted structures.
The use of scale models for sophisticated, three-dimensional structures, both historic
and new, is now possible thanks to improved rapid prototyping technologies. The use of
3D printed scale models to further the understanding of collapse mechanism in 3D
masonry has been first introduced by the first author, together with Prof. John
Ochsendorf at MIT [13]. This approach has provided new insides into the stability of
masonry domes [14,15]. Beyond the structural arguments for scale models, [2] gives
additional reasons how scale models are invaluable design tools for new structures in
masonry.
Fig. 9: Collapse sequence of a masonry vault model under point loads.
1093
6 Conclusions
This paper showed new directions for masonry design possible thanks to new
extensions to TNA. Rapid prototyping technology, combined with a customized digital
workflow for the planning and production, has been successfully used to efficiently
build structural masonry-like models. These models allow for a first validation and new
insights in structural behaviour of such novel vault forms. Furthermore, due to the
scalability of compression-only structures, they enable a reliable prediction of the
behaviour of a real scale stone structure for corresponding load assumptions.
This paper demonstrated a prototypical case study for the design, production, and
behaviour of 3d-printed models of masonry structures. Next research steps include the
setup of a testing laboratory at the ETH Zurich, that will enable a systematic testing and
analysis of masonry structures based on structural models.
7 Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Stefan Kindschi for his help with building and taking
pictures of the models.
References
[1] Block P and Ochsendorf J. Thrust Network Analysis: A new methodology for
three-dimensional equilibrium. Journal of the International Association for Shell
and Spatial Structures, 2007; 48: 167-173.
[2] Lachauer L, Rippmann M and Block P. Form Finding to Fabrication: A digital
design process for masonry vaults. Proceedings of the International Association for
Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2010, Shanghai, China.
[3] Addis B. Building: 3,000 Years of Design, Engineering and Construction.
London/NYC, Phaidon Press, 2007.
[4] Huerta S. Mechanics of masonry vaults: The equilibrium approach. In P. B.
Lourenço and P. Roca (Eds.) Proceedings of Historical Constructions 2001.
Guimaraes, 47-69.
[5] Huerta S. Arcos bovedas y cupulas. Geometria y equilibrio en el calculo tradicional
de estructuras de fabrica. Madrid, Instituto Juan de Herrera, 2004.
[6] Heyman J. The Stone Skeleton: Structural engineering of masonry architecture.
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1995.
[7] Danyzy A. Méthode générale pour déterminer la résistance qu'il faut opposer àla
poussée des voûtes. Histoire de la Sociétédes Sciences établie àMontpellier 1732;
2: 40-56.
[8] Block P, Ciblac T and Ochsendorf J. Real-time limit analysis of vaulted masonry
buildings. Computers and Structures 2006; 84(29-30): 1841-1852.
[9] Heyman J. The stone skeleton. International Journal of Solids and Structures 1966;
2: 249-279.
1094

Dissertation. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Cambridge, 2009.
[11] Chilton J. Finding Heinz Isler – The Engineer’s Contribution to Contemporary
Architecture, Thomas Telford Ltd., 2000.
[12] Addis B. A history of using scale models to inform the design of structures. In S.
Huerta (Ed.) Essays in the history of the theory of structures. In honour of Jacques
Heyman 2005. Madrid, Instituto Juan de Herrera, 9-44.
[13] Block P. “Equilibrium y’all” Blog: http://equilibriumstone.wordpress.com/
[14] Zessin J, Lau W and Ochsendorf J. Equilibrium of cracked masonry domes, ICE
Engineering and Computational Mechanics 2010.
[15] Quinonez A, Zessin J and Ochsendorf J. Small-Scale Models for the Analysis of
Masonry Structures. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Structural
Analysis of Historical Constructions - SAHC 2010. Shanghai, China.
1095
The engineering applications of free form curved-surface by

the height adjusting method
Changyu CUI1*, Hongyan ZHENG2 ,Baoshi JIANG3

1*
No.202, Haihe Road, Nangang District, Harbin 150090, China
cuichangyu1963@yahoo.com.cn
2.3
Abstract
In engineering, the free form curved-surfaces have been applied in architecture.
The structural behaviour of curved-surface structures, generally depend on the surface
shapes. The height adjusting method is a structural morphosis method which is
developed to construct the arbitrary geometry of curved-surface structures with less
thickness but better stiffness based on the relationship between the height parameters of
structural surface and the total structural strain energy. The differential of total
structural strain energy corresponding to surface height parameters is calculated by the
finite element approach .The surface height is adjusted iteratively according to its
sensitivity to total structural strain energy. A rational structural surface can thus be
found when the total structural strain energy reaches a minimum. With this method,
different structural surfaces can be obtained by adjusting design parameters such as
constraint or space conditions, for designer’s reference. This method can be also applied
to modify the architectural original form to achieve an approximately reasonable
structural geometry. The free form curved-surfaces constructed by this method can not
only keep the structure in a general membrane-stress state with sufficient rigidity but
show good architecture effect.
Keywords: shape optimization, structural optimization, nonlinear programming
1 Introduction
Structure is the skeleton of architecture space and bears the main loads. The choice of
structure shape not only affects the safety and economy of building but serviceability
and aesthetics, etc. How to determine the structure shapes scientifically? It is a new
subject which is the intersection of architecture and structure. At present the process
which determines structure shapes is artificial and lack of scientific theory. The
rationality is concerned with experience and knowledge mastered by designer. It is hard
to search a reasonable structure shape for a complicated building program. Establishing
a structural morphosis method to replace the process, structure shapes are determined
directly by calculating. This not only ensures the rationality of structure shapes but offer
many reasonable schemes for architecture intentions.
1096
Recently the research of structure morphology is active," homogenize method[1]",

"bublle method[2]", " ESO method[3]"and other theoretical methods are proposed.
Although these methods are imperfect, still remain in the plane problems and can not be
applied in practice engineering, it opens possibility of constructing structure shapes
based on theory methods.
Established from mechanical view, the height adjusting method is a new structural
morphosis method which can be applied in practice engineering by constructing
structure shapes. In the method, differential of the strain energy about the height of
curved-surface is calculated by the finite element approach, the height of curved-surface
is adjusted gradually and the structure become a reasonable structure shapes with the
minimal strain energy and sufficient rigid at last. The method is easy, and does not need
to deal with special mathematical data processing and is understood easily, it catches
dialectical relation between "shape" and "mechanical properties", the outcome is
reasonable and validity. The article will introduce the idea and the content and elaborate
the method with practice engineering.
2 The height adjusting method
2.1The problem of constructing the optimal structure shape

The total structural strain energy of the curved-surface structure varies with the change
of surface height parameters. The surface height is adjusted iteratively according to total
structural strain energy, thus the total structural strain energy can reach a minimal value,
and the rigidity of the structure can be improved. Consider the total structural strain
energy C as the function of height parameters Z, namely, C(Z). The problem of optimal
curved-surface structures of arbitrary geometries can be described with Eq.(1).
C ( Z )  Minimum
 S  0

 (1)
  max   0
  max   0
Note that: S is the curved-surface structure shape;
Ω0 is the space conditions; it is the allowable space forming structure shapes
and architecture conditions;
σmax is the maximal stress;
σ0 is the allowable stress;
δmax is the maximal displacement;
δ0 is the allowable displacement.
The first formula of Eq.(1) describes that the total structural strain energy is minimized
by adjusting the function of height parameters C(Z).The second one describes the
allowable space of forming curved-surface structures. It’s decided according to
architecture intentions, environment, structure, equipments and so on. The third and the
forth one describe stress and displacement conditions.
1097
2.2 The differential of total structural strain energy corresponding to

surface height-the sensitivity degree of strain energy
The sensitivity degree of strain energy is defined by
dC 1 (ij )T 
d ( Ke(i ) )
 U e
U (ij ) (2)
dzi 2 dzi
Notes that: U (ij ) is the element knot vector about knot i;

 Ke(i ) is the element stiffness matrix of knot i.
e
2.3The establishment of the height adjusting method

Set the parameter  >0, the surface height is adjusted by
C (Z )
zi     i  (3)
zi
Set z is a minimal value; omit higher order term of strain energy after Taylor
expansion.
Assume an appropriate (omit higher order term) parameter  , the strain energy is
reduced after the height is adjusted, that is
C(Z  Z )  C(Z ) (4)
If αi=0, the strain energy reaches a minimal value, not concerned with the height. We
can obtain curved-surface structures of arbitrary geometries when the strain energy
reaches a minimal value, it can be written gradually, that is
Z ik 1  zik   ik  (5)
Start from the assumed initial shape, and then use Eq.(1) repeatedly to adjust height, to
reduce the total strain energy of curved-surface shape step by step. Finally, we can
obtain the curved-surface shape when the total strain energy reaches a minimal value. 
is a empirical parameter, if set too large ,does not meet Eq.(4) , result can be not gotten.
If set too small, it will affect the evolution speed.
In summary, the steps of the height adjusting method are:
(1) Set initial shapes;
(2) Calculate the sensitivity degree αi of the total strain energy about every knot by
means of the finite element approach;
(3) Adjust curved-surface height with Eq.(5);
(4) Repeat the step (2), (3) until it meets the termination conditions (namely, the
sensitivity degree of the total strain energy is approximate to zero or the total strain
energy is fixed).
In general, the sensitivity degree of the total strain energy about every knot of curved-
surface structure is not uniform, positive, negative, zero are all possible. From Eq.(5)
the surface height is adjusted according to the sensitivity degree of the corresponding
total structural strain energy, it can be increased or reduced. Adjusted repeatedly, the
surface height can make the sensitivity degree of the total strain energy reach a minimal
1098
value. This not only can make it possible to offer a single convex type or concave type
of curved-surface structures, but also can offer concave-convex mixed type of curved-
surface structures. Different initial shapes have different sensitivity distribution of the
total strain energy. Thus, even if there are the same bearing conditions and the same
loads, it also can get different curved-surface structure shapes. From Eq.(4) the surface
height is adjusted within a certain range, the total strain energy of curved-surface is not
affected largely and stable. Compared with the traditional curved-surface structure, it is
less affected by initial defect.
3 The method in practice engineering

From the mechanical view, the height adjusting method is a method to construct the
rational structure shape by calculating. The following steps are to complete design of
the structure shape:
(1) Analyze all kinds of requirements, space conditions including bearing conditions
(2) Use the height adjusting method to obtain the structure shape
(3) Assess the structure shape, if it does not meet the architecture intentions, you
should adjust and modify design parameters, such as bearing conditions, space
conditions and so on; carry on (2) again. If it meets the architecture intentions,
design in detail by adjusting the structure shape partly. Space limitations and
bearing conditions affect the structure shape very much. Through adjusting these
design parameters, kinds of structure shapes can be gotten. An optimal scheme
can be chosen after comparison between the results. In addition, when the structure
by the method is applied to design of practice engineering, you should verify every
aspect of structural mechanical properties such as stability, seismic resistance and
so on.
4 Practice engineering
Fig.1 shows a funeral parlour (kakamigahara) in Japan (built). The plane is
60.0m×76.0m, use the height adjusting method to design the curved-surface roof. Set
the load q=5.0kN/m2, the thickness of the curved-surface structure is h=15.0 cm, the
adopted elastic modulus of the material is E=210.0 GPa, Poisson’s ratio is v=0.3.
Fig.1: kakamigahara（built） Fig.2: Evolution process

Considering architecture intentions, we set the initial shape just like step1 in Fig.2. Fig.2
shows the freeform curved-surface structure shape varies following the evolution.Fig.3
1099
shows the variation of average displacement in the evolving process. The height of the
curved-surface the structure shape is increased or reduced in the evolving process in the
figure. The final shape shows in the step28, average displacement is reduced quickly in
the initial evolution. Rigid of the curved-surface structure have been improved in a great
degree until step10. Average vertical displacement is reduced quickly, and then it is
reduced smoothly following the evolving process. Finally, converge to high rigid of
curved-surface structures of arbitrary geometries. The average vertical displacement is
1.2mm and average horizontal displacement is only 0.2mm. That was enough to meet
the requirements of design. From the results, the curved-surface structure by the method
is different from the traditional curved-surface structure, its shape is more flexible and
architecture expression is much better.
点支承
连续支承
Fig.3: Average displacement change Fig.4: plane figure

with the evolving steps
Fig.5 shows the model of the Gifu Kitagata Community Center in Japan (multi-activity
center, built in September, 2005).The plane is 56.0m×39.0m, set the load is 5.0kN/m2,
the thickness of the curved-surface structure is h=15.0 cm, the adopted elastic modulus
of the material is E=210.0 GPa, Poisson’s ratio is v=0.3. The evolving process is shown
in the Fig.6 and the plane figure is shown in Fig.4
Step1
Step1 Step18
Step9 Step28
Step9 Step28
Fig.5: the Gifu Kitagata Community Fig.6: evolution process

Center in Japan (model)
The height adjusting method is used in many designs of engineering schemes. The
Center Park in Fukuoka city of Japan (Fig.7 and Fig.8), the whole length is 190.0m, and
the maximum width is 50.0m .the helical curved-surface structure shape is obtained by
1100
the height adjusting method. The initial shape is set according to architecture intentions.
The Spain BLANES International Convention Exposition (Fig.9) is also designed by
this method.
.
Fig.7: Center Park in Fukuoka city of Fig.8: Center Park in Fukuoka city of
Japan (built) Japan (constructing)
Fig.9: Spain BLANES International Convention Exposition
From the practice engineering we can know that the curved-surface structures of
arbitrary geometries by the height adjusting method are not only reasonable in
mechanics but show good architecture effect. The height adjusting method is a
theoretical design method which can coordinate the rationality of structure and
architecture intentions.
5 Conclusion
The paper elaborates the height adjusting method and gets mechanical properties of
structure shapes by the method. The method can set design domain according to limited
condition and improves the structure ability of load-transferring under the premise of
security. Practice engineering verifies the practicality of the method. Structure shapes
by the method can ensure rationality in mechanics, embody architecture intentions, and
demonstrate that the height adjusting method is effective instrument of architecture and
structure design. The method is different from traditional design philosophy. It is
flexible, free and offers a new concept for architects and engineers.
1101
References
[1] Bendsoe MP, Kikuchi N. General optimal topologies in structural design using a
homogenization method ［ J ］ . Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and
Engineering, 1988, 71：197- 224
[2] Eschenauer H A, Kobelev V V, Schumacher A. Bubble method for topology and
shape optimization of structures［J］.Structural Optimization，1994, 8：42- 51
[3]大森博司，崔昌禹. 等値線を導入した拡張ESO 法による構造形態の創生- 拡
張ESO 法の特徴と進化方法-［C］//構造工学論文集. 2001, 47B：7- 14
[4] Xie Y M, Steven G P. Evolutionary structural optimization ［M］. Springer-Verlag,
1997
[5] Cui Changyu, Yan Hui. An advanced morphogenesis technique of curved shell with
arbitrary geometry——Height adjusting method and its application in engineering
practice，China Civil Engineering Journal Vol . 39 No. 12 Dec. 2006, 1-6.
1102
Form finding of tensioned fabric cone structures using the

natural force density method
Slade GELLIN 1*, Ruy M.O. PAULETTI 2
1*
Buffalo State College
Buffalo, NY, USA
gellins@buffalostate.edu; sladeg@birdair.com
2
Polytechnic School, University of São Paulo
São Paulo, Brazil
Abstract
This paper explores the form finding analysis of tensioned fabric cone structures
using the natural force density method. Results of form-finding of axisymmetric cone
structures indicate an agreement with previous work in the subject and offer great
promise in approaching non-axisymmetric cone structures in future research.
Keywords: Stress density method, tensioned fabric cone structures, variable bi-axial
stress
1 Introduction
In a series of papers presented at previous IASS Symposia [1 – 5], the first author has
studied the form finding of tensioned fabric cone structures using analytical and
numerical methods based on a standard structural mechanics approach. The results of
these studies indicate that a stable equilibrium shape for these structures exist for a
bounded range of geometric parameters describing the boundaries of the structure. This
range can be increased as the ratio of the meridianal stress to the circumferential stress
is increased. A uniform bi-axial stress state only exists when this ratio is 1:1; otherwise,
the stress varies throughout the membrane surface. For axisymmetric cones, the
dependence on the radial coordinate and the stress ratio was determined analytically. A
finite element formulation for membrane elements displaying a fixed stress ratio was
developed and incorporated into existing form finding software and tested successfully
for cone structures with bi-planar symmetry; however, the method depended on an
assumption of how a prescribed total axial force transmitted through the structure was
distributed circumferentially through the membrane at each axial coordinate.
The second author has presented numerous papers regarding the natural force density
method (NFDM) for form finding of membrane structures [6 – 9]. This method is an
extension of the force density method used for cable net form finding, but applied to
triangular membrane elements. The method rapidly converges to an equilibrium shape
for virtually any imposed boundary condition within a single iteration. Subsequent
iterations generally improve the shape slightly while the stress state approaches the
desired pre-stress. These studies employed a 1:1 stress ratio between the primary
stresses.
1103
This paper will combine the two bodies of work. The NFDM will be tested with fixed
ratios of the primary stresses different from 1:1 on these cone structures. The results
will be compared to those found in the previous studies. An iteration method for the
stress density membranes will be determined which will eventually converge to a stress
state throughout the structure that for non-axisymmetric cones leads to circumferential
distributions in a natural way.
2 Notation
h = Distance between the two base rings of a cone structure
r = Radial coordinate of a point on the membrane surface of the cone structure
R1, R2 = Radii of the smaller and larger fixed rings of the cone structure
Sr, Sφ = Meridianal and circumferential stress resultants
Smax, Smin = Maximum and minimum values of Sr in the cone structure
z = Axial coordinate of a point on the membrane surface of the cone structure
α = Sr / Sφ = Specified stress ratio at every point in the membrane surface
λ = R2 / R1
3 Methodology and Test Case

After the parameters h, R1 and R2 are selected, a finite element model of a frustum of a
right circular cone is constructed. The circular rings at the edges of the frustum have
fixed nodes. In accordance with the theory of NFDM given in [6], the stress resultants
are given initial values consistent with the choice of α.
An iteration of the method is then performed. The calculated state of stress in each
membrane element is then examined. Generally, the meridianal and circumferential
stresses will not be in the desired ratio, and non-zero shear stress will be present. To
begin the next iteration, the following algorithm is applied and incorporated into
existing NFDM software:

Sr  (( S )  ( S ))
 1 r (1)
1
S  (( S )  ( S ))
 1 r
The primed quantities represent the stress resultants calculated for a particular iteration
as a result of the NFDM process, while the un-primed quantities represent the stress
resultants to be used as initialization for that element for the next iteration. The shear
stress for the next iteration is set to zero. It should be noted that the terms within the
parentheses on the right hand side of Eq. (1) represent the first invariant of the stress
state. Iterations continue until a convergence criterion on the stress resultants is met.
The shape results will be compared to those derived using the computer program
developed in [2] for axisymmetric cone structures, which were generally consistent with
the theory presented in [1]. The stress distribution will be examined to determine if the
1104
method is giving satisfactory results. A comparison with theory [1] will be made to
determine how well the results satisfy:
1
S max 1
  (2)
S min
The test case will be a cone structure where h = 3 m, R1 = 1.5 m, and R2 = 5 m. A

control case with α = 1 will be tested to ensure that the methodology stated herein works
for a case that can be easily calculated using the unmodified software and agrees with
prior results. This case is interesting because the theory of [1] predicts a stable
equilibrium configuration with a slight neck. The stress resultants are initially set to 5.0
kN/m each. The test case that will fully test the new algorithm will have α = 3. The
initial values for the meridianal and circumferential stress resultants are 7.5 and 2.5
kN/m, respectively.
4 Results
Both analyses using the NFDM method converged very rapidly to their final shape, and
more slowly to a reasonably converged stress field. This result is not unlike others
using more conventional methods.
Figure 1 displays the converged shape derived by the NFDM analysis with α = 3. Note
that the NFDM analysis uses a full 360° cone, and, thus, does not assume any
uniformity in the circumferential direction.
Fig. 1: Derived equilibrium shape for model (α =3)
1105
The heavy blue line on the model is the meridian used for comparing the shape of the
cone profile with other results. Figure 2 displays the profiles of the test case for both
values of α and compares them with those derived using the computer program of [2].
There is excellent agreement between the results.
5
4.5
3.5
Alpha = 1 (NFDM)
r, m
Alpha = 1 [2]
3
Alpha = 3 (NFDM)
Alpha = 3 [2]
2.5
1.5
1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
z, m
Fig. 2: Comparison of equilibrium profiles
The stress distribution for the case of α = 1 was nearly uniform throughout the structure;
the stress ratios within the elements were nearly unity throughout the structure as well.
The stress distribution for the case of α = 3 is depicted in the two-part Figure 3 below:
1106
Fig. 3: Meridianal stress distribution
The figure shows the expected variable meridianal stress distribution with position, with
the maximum occurring at the smaller ring, and the minimum at the larger ring. It also
indicates relatively small variance circumferentially. The stress ratio within the
elements varied from about 2.95 – 3.05, which represents an error less than ±2 percent.
1107
Table 1 compares the results herein and those generated by the computer program of [2]
against the criterion of Eq. (2).
Table 1: Ratio of maximum to minimum meridianal stress
Method Smax / Smin

NFDM 2.13
[2] 2.29
Theory (Eq. 2) 2.23
It is believed that with mesh refinement that the NFDM results will approach the
theoretical value.
5 Discussion, Conclusions and Acknowledgement

The study undertaken herein has accomplished its goals: namely, an iterative algorithm,
as represented by Eq. (1), can be incorporated into existing NFDM software to explore
the behaviour of tensioned fabric cone structures under a specified fixed ratio of
meridianal to circumferential stress and achieve converged solutions comparable to
other methods. Furthermore, unlike the studies of [1 – 5], it was unnecessary to
prescribe the axial force transmitted through the structure in order to assign values of a
pre-stress in each element at the beginning of a particular iteration. It is believed that
this method offers great promise in analyzing non-axisymmetric cone structures in the
future.
The authors would like to thank Birdair, Inc. and its parent company, Taiyo-Kogyo
Corp., for their support of this research.
References:
[1] Gellin S. On the feasibility of tensioned fabric cone structures without radial cables.
IASS 2005. Theory, Technique, Valuation, Maintenance, Mihaelescu M. and
Mircea C. (eds.), 2005, 247-252.
[2] Gellin S. Finite element analysis of tensioned fabric cone structures without radial
cables. IASS 2006. New Olympics, New Shell and Spatial Structures, Xue S.D.
(ed.), 2006.
[3] Gellin S. Finite element analysis of tensioned fabric cone structures. IASS 2007.
Structural Architecture – Towards the Future Looking to the Past, Seviero E. (ed.),
2007.
[4] Gellin S. Finite element analysis of tensioned fabric cone structures with bi-planar
symmetry. IASS 2008. New Materials and Technologies, New Designs and
Innovations, Oliva J.G. (ed.), 2008.
[5] Gellin S. Finite element analysis of tensioned fabric cone structures using a
modified assumption on the meridianal stress. IASS 2009. Evolution and Trends in
1108
Design, Analysis and Construction of Shell and Spatial Structures, Domingo A and
Lazaro C (eds.), 2009.
[6] Pauletti RMO, Guirardi DM and Deifeld TEC. Argyris’ natural membrane finite
element revisited. International Conference on Textile Composites and Inflatable
Structures. Structural Membranes 2005, Onate E and Kroplin B (eds.) 2005.
[7] Pauletti RMO. An extension of the force density procedure to membrane structures.
IASS 2006. New Olympics, New Shell and Spatial Structures, Xue S.D. (ed.), 2006.
[8] Pauletti RMO and Pimenta PM. Shape finding of membrane structures by the
natural force density method. 6th International Conference on Computation of
Shell and Spatial Structures. IASS-IACM 2008: Spanning Nano to Mega, Abel JF
and Cooke JR (eds.) 2008.
[9] Pauletti RMO and Pimenta PM. The natural force density method for the shape
finding of membrane structures. International Conference on Textile Composites
and Inflatable Structures. Structural Membranes 2009, Onate E and Kroplin B
(eds.) 2009.
1109
A morphogenetic design approach with embedded structural

analysis
Mads Brath JENSEN 1*, Poul Henning KIRKEGAARD2,Malene Kirstine HOLST 1
1*
Department of Architecture & Design, Aalborg University, Denmark
Østerågade 6, 9000 Aalborg, Denmark
mbje@aod.aau.dk
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Aalborg University, Denmark
Abstract
The present paper explores a morphogenetic design approach with embedded
structural analysis for architectural design. A material system based on a combined
space truss and membrane system has been derived as a growth system with inspiration
from natural growth of plants. The structural system is capable of adding new elements
based on a structural analysis of the existing components and their internal stress levels.
A GA decision-making procedure that control the generation of the growth cycles is
introduced. This evaluation and generation loop is capable of successfully making
decisions based on several, and often conflicting, inputs formulated from architectural
requirements. An experiment with a tri-pyramid component has been considered, but
many other space truss systems could be explored in the same manner and result in
highly performative outcomes, not only with respect to the structural properties.
Keywords: Emergence, morphogenesis, morphogenetic, material system, FEA, growth
1 Introduction
Recently much research in architectural design has been performed with respect to
emergence which is related to how natural systems can evolve and maintain themselves
[1,2,3]. This kind of research is closely related studies of morphology by D'Arcy
Thompson in On Growth and Form [4] where it is argued that the forms of plants and
animals could be understood in terms of pure mathematics. The potential of the
mathematics of emergence that underlie the complex systems of nature can be adapted
by engineers and architects for the production of complex architectural forms and
effects, in advanced manufacturing of ‘smart’ materials and processes, and in the
innovative designs of active structures and responsive environments. The mathematical
models can be used for generating designs, evolving forms and structures in
morphogenetic processes within a computational environment where criteria for
selection of a solution can be derived from architectural requirements of performance
etc, i.e. the computer no longer represents form, it generates form. Neil Leach has
declared that digital architecture is undergoing a paradigm shift and has named this new
paradigm Digital Morphogenesis [5]. The process is ‘bottom-up’ since low-level
performance criteria are used to guide the discovery of the building’s form. This is
different to the normative top-down process where an architect starts with a formal
1110
response and subsequently works out the details of how it performs. Leach differentiates
these processes by describing the normative process as form making and digital
morphogenesis as form-finding.
Such a morphogenetic approach for form finding requires incorporation of form,
material, structure and program into a multi-performative system that will
simultaneously satisfy several, even conflicting objectives, in order to achieve an
optimal equilibrium. This process involves the combination and implementation of
concepts and methods based on precedent studies in the field of biomimetics, as well as
digital and physical form-finding experiments that inform a coherent design
methodology, leading to a structural system able to be fabricated using cutting-edge
technology [6]. The present paper describes and reflects upon the results of an
investigative project which explores the setting up of a material system for a combined
truss and membrane system. Previous work [7] on this project showed that structural
analysis was a vital parameter that if implemented into the computational framework
could enable the material system to generate more intelligent outputs feasible for
construction. The idea of the research is to use an ontogenetic approach [8] where
adaptive growth with inspiration from natural growth of plants is considered. By adding
a finite element method to the existing computational framework, the paper will
describe and reflect upon the application of adaptive growth within a material system, or
in other words, how stress as a growth promoting agent, by adding or subtracting
material or by changing form and structure, can ensure that the structural system can
adapt to various conditions.
2 Growth system with embedded structural analysis

Building upon previous experiments into material systems, where membranes patches
were generated through a computational setup, informed by physically-found material
restrictions and contextually-based inputs, it was found that the introduction of a space
truss system would result in a membrane system that was more independent of the
physical context (the wires connecting the membranes to its surroundings would be
attached to the space truss system instead), but still very contextually-informed and –
adaptive (see figure 1).
Fig. 1: Physical prototype of the combined space truss and membrane system.
1111
Exploring this potential resulted in the introduction of a structural system, consisting of

beams configured as a rigid triangular bi-pyramid. This new frame component was
constructed on the basis of several physical prototypes all based on the idea of having a
structure with no need for contextual support which at the same time could act as the
support structure for the membrane components. As can be seen in figure 2, this system
was guided by parameters as Start Point, Height Limit, Flow of People, Size Controller
and an Attractor. The explorations of this material system made it evident that in order
to setup a system capable of generating useable architectural constructions it is
necessary to incorporate structural analysis, as this will enable the system to generate
outputs that can withstand gravity and the weight of its own elements [7].
Fig. 2: The growth of the structure and the parameters that guides it.
2.1 The Growth System

Finding inspiration in the adaptive growth of plants the potential of the introduction of
structural analysis would be to have a structure that is capable of adding new elements
based on a structural analysis of the existing components and their internal stress levels.
The use of the result from these stress levels should not be seen as a single-parameter-
optimum, but more like one out of many factors to steer the structural growth, thereby
seeking for a multiple-parameter-equilibrium within the system [9].
An important part of the system is therefore the decision-making procedure that control
the generation of the following growth cycle. This evaluation and generation loop
should be capable of successfully making decisions based on several, and often
conflicting, inputs. For this specific research project the evaluation and following
generation of the structural components was setup to take into account parameters as:
the position of the existing pyramid component, the surfaces of that pyramid and their
direction towards the sun, the placement and force of a number of attraction points, a
1112
height limit for the structural assembly, and the stress levels of the truss elements within
the structure.
Using Rhinoceros TM for the generation and visualization of geometry, a plug-in for this
software was made that contained the computational framework for the material system
In the initialization phase of this plug-in the user/designer is asked to provide some of
these parameters. This is done through a series of points, lines and numeric values, all
drawn or entered through the Rhino-interface, giving the designer the ability to inform,
or guide, the structural growth.
As shown in figure 3 the design process starts with two points on a plane, which serves
as both the spawn point for the structure as well as the initial growth direction. Informed
by the user the system is restricting the growth through a series of parameters; beam
length and width, height limit, location and force of a number of attractor fields, and the
location of a fictive sun. These chosen parameters are only a few out of many possible
parameters and restrictions that should be implemented to further inform the system and
its growth sequence, structurally as well as architecturally. The parameters in use here
will however be adequate to show the potentials of implementing adaptive growth.
The structural component used in this case is a simple triangular pyramid (tri-pyramid)
consisting of four nodes and six beam elements – making it a space truss structure in
itself. The actual growth of the structure is done through the addition of a new
identically shaped tri-pyramid, which is to be attached to the newest existing component
in such a way that it shares three of its four nodes. Between the three shared nodes no
extra beam element will be added, so for each growth cycle only three beam elements
and one new node is added. These growth rules entails that the placement of a new
component has to be based on the previous tri-pyramid which leaves the growth
sequence with a choice of three different placement-scenarios – one for each side of the
existing tri-pyramid (excluding that one side that is connected to the “ground” or to an
existing component). It is in this decision-making step that the structure has to take into
account, not only its own internal stress levels, but also the need to extend towards both
the sun, to increase its capacity for shadowing, as well as the attractor-fields, to create
shadow in those areas indicated by the designer. To do so, the computational framework
evaluates on the output of the three parameters, as well as their internal weighting and
chooses the best (or highest scoring) of the three growth scenarios. This evaluation step
is repeated for each growth step, so each time a new component is added to the structure,
the system looks at, or analyses, its current internal stress levels and surrounding
context. Storing this information means that the system has the knowledge about all the
previous components and thereby gains the ability to adapt through a re-evaluation and
re-configuration of the previous components. Referring back to the adaptive growth of
trees and other plants, this would correspond to the plants’ ability to add more material
(and thereby strength) to the underlying branches, when growing a new one.
1113
Fig. 3: Flow chart for the design system.
1114
This adding of material leads to the next part of the system- the adjustments of the
width of the existing beams. Following the generation of a new component the system
re-configures the structural support to fit the needs of the continuously growing
assembly. This step is informed by the stress levels found in the FEA, or finite element
analysis, so if one of the beams is found to have a stress level that draws close to the
allowed maximum level the cross section area of this specific beam is increased and the
beam thereby becomes more capable of withstanding the load. Another scenario, which
is not found in the growth of plants but rather in the growth of human and animal bones,
is when a beam is found to be more than capable of withstanding the load and its
internal stress levels therefore approaches zero. When this scenario occurs the system
will decrease the cross section area of the beam, thereby lowering the use of material.
The last scenario is when the internal stress level becomes negative, or in other words
when the force acting on the beam shifts from compression to tension. When this
happens the system will change the cross section area to a fixed value – resembling the
thickness of a wire. To control this re-configuration of beam thicknesses the designer is
prompted to define all available cross section areas in the beginning of the process. This
enables the designer to restrict the system to only apply a specific series of beam
dimensions when growing the structure, thereby ensuring that these beams are available
when the physical building process commence. After decreasing the cross section area
of some beams and increasing others the growth cycle ends and a new one can begin.
In nature plants never grow unlimited and unrestricted. All plant species has an average
maximum height or size, one that they only rarely cross. Several factors have an effect
on these limits and whether a given plant reaches them or not; factors as for instance the
accessibility to water and sun, the temperature and wind in the given environment, or
the genetically controlled structure or growth cycle of the plant. In this adaptive growth
system the limiting factor for the structure is its ability to resist the forces of gravity – to
remain structurally sound. The system therefore stops the sequence of recurring growth
cycles when it analyses that the addition of yet another component results in an instable
structure that can’t obtain its own weight.
2.1.1 The scoring chart
As mentioned earlier the growth system has three new scenarios for each growth cycle –
three potential directions to grow. To evaluate which of these scenarios are best an
adjustable scoring chart has been constructed, so as to be capable of controlling their
influence on the decision making process. In this case three parameters have been
introduced to the system; FEA, sun direction, and force field – all three having an
influence on each successive growth cycle. To give an overview of how these
parameters restrain and guide the growth they will be explained more detailed in the
following text.
The score for the structural analysis is calculated by finding the single highest stress
value, extracted from the FEA, for each of the three growth scenarios. This set of
maximum values is then compared to the value of the “maximum allowed stress value”,
a parameter that the designer is prompted to enter upon initialization of the plug-in. The
closer the three extracted values are to their given maximum, the lower there scoring
1115
will become. In this way the system will favor the scenarios with the least internal stress
and thereby seek to continuously build upon the best structural configurations.
Calculating the influence of the sun is based on the way that plants grow – always
seeking the light by growing upwards and making sure that as few other plants as
possible blocks for these vital rays. In the growth system this is simplified in such a way
that the structure will be growing towards the direction of the sun and that it will be
more influenced by light the closer to the ground it is. In other words the sun will have a
high influence at first and then a lower and lower influence as the structures grows
closer to the specified height limit (a value set by the designer in the initialization
phase). Another parameter in this evaluation is the direction of growth, which is why
the three possible growth directions are taken into account. The way the system
calculates the influence of the sun is by taking a gradient that spans from the initial
“points on plane” to the specified “height limit” and compare this to the direction of the
potential growth for each of the three scenarios. The longer the distance to the “height
limit” and the more the growth direction is parallel to the direction of the sun, the higher
a score the scenario will receive.
The force field is implemented so as to give the designer an opportunity to guide the
growth of the structure towards a specified zone. When it comes to choosing one of the
three different growth directions, the force field parameter is calculated in the same way
as with the sun-parameter (the direction closest to parallel scores highest), but the
designer has the choice of setting “force”-value to either positive or negative, resulting
in either an attractive or a repulsive force field - meaning that either the structure will
increase its score when it gets closer to the center of the force field or it will decrease its
score.
As default all of these three parameters are set to have an output that range between 0
and 100, and as these are added together for the evaluation, one scenario can receive a
total maximum score of 300. Altering the output range of the three parameters
individually enables the designer to alter the importance of each of the parameters –
creating structures that are for instance more sensitive to high stress values than it is at
creating shadow. In figure 4 one can see what influence a shift in these three parameters
has for the growth of a structure.
1116
Fig. 4: The effect of altering the influence of the three parameters: FEA, Force field,
and Sun. During the growth experiments the values for: Sun angle, Beam length and
material, as well as Force field location and strength, were kept static.
From the resulting structures shown in figure 4 it is clear to see that alteration of one of
the three parameters has a significant influence on the growth of the structure. It is also
evident that the implementation of the FEA helps to guide the growth and ensures
structurally stable outputs. Looking at the five structures in the bottom of figure 4 one
can conclude that, besides the differentiated dimensioning of the beams, the effect of
1117
embedded structural analysis has consequences for the configuration of generated

structures. One is that the structures’ growth sequence terminate when the internal stress
in the beam elements reaches a given maximum value, which here results in the five
structures not consisting of the same number of elements. Another consequence can be
seen in the different configurations of the structures. Starting from the middle of the five
structures and stepping right, the influence of the structural analysis decreases, thereby
also weakening the guiding effect of the FEA, resulting in structurally weak
configurations that stops growing after only a few cycles.
2.2 A genetic algorithm to search the solution space
Looking at the structural output in figure 4 it is evident that the setup of the
computational framework has the potential for generating a vast amount of
differentiated outputs, making the evaluation of these potential structures a vital subject
for further research. The performance criteria for these structures is their ability to cast
shadow on a specified area and to do so on the basis of a series of restrictions that are
extracted through material experiments and from the physical context in which the
structures are to be placed.
In this paper the focus has been on the implementation of the structural part of the
system, but in order to create a morphogenetic design system that can help the designer
in during the initial design phase, it is necessary to also look at the architectural
parameters. The influence of the sun and the maximum growth height are parameters
that have already been introduced, and the previously implemented parameter for flow
of people should be adopted by the system as well. An essential parameter is however
the evaluation of the resulting shadow-patterns, produced by the structures and their
attached membrane patches. To perform such an evaluation it is necessary to implement,
or link to a piece of software that can perform, an analysis of daylighting factors, or
simply construct a custom algorithm that can approximate the amount/level of shadow
that is generated by a given structure on a given surface during a given time period.
Implementing such an architectural parameter would make it possible to perform an
evaluation of the different outputs that searches for a balance, or equilibrium, between
both the structural and the architectural parameters and requirements.
With a clearly defined goal for the system, find the best suited structure to cast a
specified amount of shadow on a given area, and by varying the external and internal
parameters of the system, it is possible to achieve a solution space instead of just a
single solution. To navigate such a large solution space one could once again find
inspiration in biology and look at the process of evolution. Through an accumulation of
small improvements a Genetic Algorithm (GA) implements the process found in the
evolution of species by simulating genetic operators such as crossover and mutation,
and thereby encodes potential solutions in a chromosome-like data structure [10].
Implementing GA into the computational framework would also introduce
unpredictability to the system, which would be very interesting for the design processes
– which is the reason why it is increasingly used as a generative means within the field
of architecture [11]. Determining what parameters that can be altered and in which
value range, the generation of solutions is no longer carefully controlled by the designer,
1118
but instead strongly influenced by the random variation and mutation of the GA.
Passing on the “good genes” to each subsequent generation the GA ensures that the
quality of the solutions improves with each generation. It is then up to the designer to
intervene and guide the process whenever new architectural potentials arise.
3 Conclusions
Embedding structural analysis has made it possible to further inform the generative
form-finding process and has the potential of ensuring structurally stable output, which
means that the solutions generated in the digital realm can be transferred into a physical
setting, without the need for structural post engineering. Analyzing the internal stress of
each beam element, in each growth cycle, also made it possible to control the
differentiated dimensioning of the space frame. Doing so made it possible to generate
structures that always contained, or were aware of, the state of all its components and
was capable of using this information to inform the growth. This made the structures
structurally adaptable to their context and also adaptable to the restrictions supplied by
the designer.
The tool, or plug-in, developed during this research project is rather generic and can
therefore be implemented in a range of task. In this experiment a tri-pyramid component
was in focus, but many other space truss systems could be explored in the same manner
and result in highly performative outcomes, not only with respect to the structural
properties. Adding for instance a guiding surface to the computational framework
would give the designer even more ways of guiding, or informing, the structural output.
An example could be that on could use the guiding surface as a target area for the
growth and thereby construct a scenario where the structures are to grow up and support
a roof element, without blocking for important views, interrupting walking paths or
interfering with other architectural elements. Such a design process would be informed
by structural and architectural parameters simultaneously, and the output would not be
limited to only being force-driven.
Implementing Genetic Algorithms into a generative system, as the one used in this
paper, would make it possible to search the solution space of a scenario as the one just
mentioned above. The GA would be capable of generating a lot of variation and
accumulate those “genetic combinations” that renders the best results – results where a
desirable balance between multiple, and maybe even conflicting, parameters are present.
These selected combinations, and their output, can further inspire, or even provoke, the
designer to make new choices and alter or add parameters to explore the uncharted
solution space.
References
[1] Hensel, M., Menges, A. and Weinstock, M. Eds.. Techniques and Technologies in
Morphogenetic Design. London: AD Wiley, 2006.
[2] Hensel, M., Menges, A. and Weinstock, M. Eds.. Emergence: Morphogenetic
Design Strategies. London: AD Wiley, 2004.
1119
[3] Hensel, M., Menges, A. and Weinstock, M.. Emergent Technologies and Design -
Towards a Biological Paradigm for Architecture. 2010, London: Routledge.
[4] Thompson, D W., 1992. On Growth and Form. Dover reprint of 1942 2nd ed. (1st
ed., 1917).
[5] Leach, N., Digital Morphogenesis, Architectural Design 79, no. 1 (2009), 34.
[6] Doumpioti, C., Adaptive Growth of Fibre Composite Structures, Silicon + Skin:
Biological Processes and Computation, Proceedings of the 28th Annual Conference
of the Association for Computer Aided Design in Architecture (ACADIA), 2008.
[7] Jensen MB, Mortensen HR, Mullins M, and Kirkegaard PH. Material Systems: A
Design Approach. eCAADe 2009: Computation: the new realm of architectural
design: 27th eCAADe conference. Istanbul, 2009.
[8] Hensel M and Menges A (ed.). Morpho-Ecologies. London, 2006.Schein M and
Tessmann O. Structural analysis as driver in surface-based design approaches.
International journal of architectural computing 2007; Issue 01 volume 06: 19-39.
[9] Raphael B and Smith IFC. A probabilistic search algorithm for finding optimally
directed solutions. Construction Information Technology 2000 – Taking the
construction industry into the 21st century. Reykjavik, 2000.
[10] Felicetti P, Xie M, Tang JW and Huang X. Application of evolutionary structural
optimization techniques to architectural structures. Game Set Match II, Delft 2006.
354-359.
1120
Form Finding to Fabrication:

A digital design process for masonry vaults
Lorenz LACHAUER1*, Matthias RIPPMANN1, Philippe BLOCK2
1
*Research Assistant, Institute of Technology in Architecture, ETH Zurich
lachauer@arch.ethz.ch
2
Abstract
It is common practice in engineering to represent a continuous stress field by a
network of discrete forces, e.g. hanging models (Gaudí), cable nets (Otto) or strut-and-
tie models (Schlaich) . These discrete force networks allow the user to visualize, grasp
and control the flow of forces in an intuitive manner. A recent computational advance in
this field is Thrust Network Analysis (TNA), which allows form finding controlled
through discrete force diagrams.
In this paper, a fully digital design process –from form finding to fabrication– for
compression-only masonry shells will be presented. The challenge is to provide a
smooth and efficient generation of different data representations of the discrete
geometry of the force (or thrust) network for the use in structural and experimental
modelling, discrete element modelling (DEM) software, or fabrication. The TNA
method has been implemented in existing CAD software, offering fully interactive
control of the boundary conditions, the internal stress field and the weight distribution
of the shell. The discrete thrust network is linked to a NURBS surface to derive
continuous geometric information, hence allowing the automatic generation of the shell
volume according to its self weight.
Keywords: digital workflow, form-finding, parametric modelling, masonry vault design,

fabrication
1 Introduction
The direct integration of structural constraints in the design process using physical
models has a long tradition. In 1908, Antoni Gaudífinished a sophisticated hanging
model for the design of the Colonia Güell church [1]. In 1964, Frei Otto founded the
Institute of Lightweight Structures (IL) at the University of Stuttgart, where the use of
physical models in structural design has been studied systematically [2]. A first
application of these model-based design processes for shell design from the IL has been
the building Multihalle Mannheim in 1975.
1121
In contrast to Otto, the Swiss engineer Heinz Isler used since the 1950s a model-based
workflow not for lightweight structures, but for thin concrete shell design. Isler worked
not only on the form finding, but also on the in-depth optimization of a continuous
design-analysis-construction process based on physical models. For the design phase,
Isler used inverted hanging cloth models, hardened with plaster or polyester resin,
which then were tested with electronic strain gauges to measures the shell behaviour
under applied load. Finally, the geometry was carefully measured by a mechanical,
three-dimensional measurement device, which traced the profiles used for the
scaffolding plans [3].
Today, in the age of computer aided design and manufacturing, the concept of the
continuous digital chain has been introduced for architectural design [4]. The
integration of geometric and fabrication constraints in a digital workflow has been
shown for timber construction [5]. Recently, the integration of structural constraints in a
design process using a digital simulation of hanging models and linking them to
fabrication has been demonstrated [6].
The use of simulations and computational tools, instead of physical models and
mechanical tools, causes a shift in the problem. While Isler mainly had to overcome
inaccuracies in the modelling process and the material testing, the challenges today are
in data processing, as each part of the process (e.g. form finding, structural analysis, and
manufacturing) uses different data representations, and each conversion of data is
typically causing a loss of information or accuracy.
2 Setup of Digital Design and Fabrication Processes for Vaults

This paper describes a continuous digital design workflow for masonry vaults, based on
the form-finding technique Thrust Network Analysis (TNA) [7, 8]. This method allows
the design of compression-only networks based on discrete force diagrams. The
resulting equilibrium networks are the control geometry of continuous NURBS surfaces
[9] which are used for the generation of stone block geometries, analysis data, and
fabrication and construction information. In order to process these different data
representations, commercial software packages and CAD programs are used, connected
and extended via custom developed interfaces to increase the software’s capabilities.
The sophisticated, but well-defined task of shell design allows the setup of a tight
prototypical computational workflow in vitro. The paradigm for this approach is the
work of Heinz Isler, who developed a tight design process for shells based on physical
models. The consistent integration of design information with geometric data, presented
in this paper, may be interpreted as project-specific Building Information Modelling
(BIM) [10].
Section 3 describes how different data transitions via custom tools and interfaces are
managed in detail. In section 4, a design-to-fabrication chain for structural models
using rapid prototyping (3D printing), is demonstrated. It will be shown that this process
is very close to a process that might be used for the actual goal of designing large-scale
stone masonry vaults.
1122
3 Customized Linking of Data and Applications

This chapter describes in detail strategies for the setup of a digital workflow for
computational vault design and realization. In order to efficiently deal with the diverse
challenges of form finding, analysis, and fabrication, commercial software packages are
linked with applications that were developed for this research project. The link between
these different programs is established by custom-made software interfaces. These
interfaces provide a structured transition between different data representations of
geometry and structural properties. The use of build-in import/export routines instead of
custom interfaces would cause a loss of geometrical and structural information.
The digital design workflow can be divided into three main phases (figure 1). Phase I
represents the form-finding process of the compression-only surface based on the TNA
method. In phase II, the geometry of the individual stone blocks is generated from the
compression-only surface. In phase III finally, different data sets are generated, for
discrete element analysis (DEA), computer numerically controlled (CNC) stone cutting,
rapid prototyping, and the production of the scaffolding. These three phases happen
roughly in this order in time, but with several feedback loops.
Figure 1: Digital Workflow: From Form Finding to Fabrication
1123
3.1 Phase I: Form Finding

Thrust Network Analysis (TNA) uses projective geometry, reciprocal diagrams and
linear optimization to provide a graphical, intuitive and real-time method, adopting the
same advantages of techniques such as graphic statics [11], but offering a viable
extension to fully three-dimensional problems.
(a) Input surface

The first step defines the general outline of the shell structure in plan. It is represented
by a single or poly surface (using NURBS surfaces) in a NURBS-modeling
environment, such as McNeel’s Rhinoceros® [12]. Both CAD applications feature tools
to easily generate and manipulate the form-determining surface. Further customized
tools were developed to make the process of manipulation more intuitive for the user.
(b) Control Diagrams

By addressing the input surface’s local coordinate systems the planar force network,
representing possible force lines in the structure, is generated automatically. This
process is fully integrated in the CAD environment interactively responding to any
changes made on the input surface. “Stitching” different NURBS surfaces, with each
their internal force pattern logic, allows the generation of sophisticated force line
topologies.
Based on the nodes and branches of the planar force network the reciprocal force
diagram is produced according to Maxwell’s definition of reciprocal figures [13]
through two consecutive linear optimization procedures [8]. The reciprocal diagram,
visualizing the proportional relationship of horizontal forces in the network, can then be
interactively manipulated by the user in order to vary the shape of the shell structure.
The process of manipulating the grids is fully integrated into a live feedback-loop
allowing for visual control of the resulting geometry in real-time.
(c) Compression-only surface

The output of this interactive form finding, which mediates between structural, visual
and functional needs, is provided as a single or poly NURBS surface automatically
generated from the point set data of the TNA. The TNA solver is integrated by
implementing the matrix computation routines from Rhino SDK [14] in custom-made
Grasshopper vb.net nodes [15] and by calling MatLab executables [16] from
RhinoScripts [17]. All information about the grid topology is maintained by addressing
the corresponding local coordinates of the thrust surface that represents the ideal shape
for the compression-only shell geometry according to the given input parameters.
Therefore, all data can be extracted and processed smoothly for the further phases of the
design process.
2.2 Phase II: Materialization

The resulting thrust surface of the first phase represents an ideal compression-only form
for a given, dominant loading case (which is also definable by the user), but is not yet
1124
influenced or driven by constraints arising from fabrication and construction techniques

as well as material properties. For the surface’s physical representation further
constraints have to be taken into account. The following steps are based on the
realization of the shell’s physical scale model.
This paper particularly describes the process of designing vaulted masonry-like
structures. The way of tessellating the surface is of key importance for the further
process. The tessellation of the geometry is influenced by the general shape of the
surface, linked to the design intent, its visual appearance (tectonics), the structural
analysis (force flow) and of course fabrication and material properties. The inter-
dependency of these parameters led to an approach that allows visual feedback and
multiple ways of controlling the process.
(a) Tessellation
First, a 2D topology for the given surface is defined, primarily depending on the number
and proportion of open and closed edges and the number of supports (Fig. 2). This
pattern is represented visually by a 2D polyline formation that can either be generated
by the user or by mathematic algorithms for ruled based configurations.
Using relaxation procedures, based on the transient stiffness method [18], which are
tightly integrated in the general digital workflow, the pattern is distributed evenly on the
surface. This approach allows to computationally control the edge conditions. In
contrast to e.g. pulling or projecting a pattern onto a surface, which typically results in
problems, or special cases, at the borders and corners of the surface patch to be
tessellated, this approach solves all these issues, connecting this step nicely to the
smooth digital workflow. Figure 2 shows the relation of the 2D pattern and the
corresponding surface boundary for different plan geometries.
Figure 2: 2D patterns for different surface (edge) geometries.
During the iterative process of distributing the pattern evenly on the surface, all vertices
stay on the surface (Fig. 3). Certain vertices are fixed at supports (the heavier dots in
Fig. 2) and edge vertices are constrained to only move along the surface edge.
1125
Figure 3: (a) Start configuration and relaxed pattern after (b) 5 and (c) 200 iterations.
The relaxation procedure can further be informed by restrictions arising from the force
distribution, the need for interlocking or staggered tessellation and fabrication
constraints like material and tooling properties (e.g. compression strength , friction,
size, maximum weight per piece or planar cutting planes). One way to incorporate those
requirements is to generate specific guides addressing the aforementioned aspects. For
example, as shown in Figure 4, certain groups of vertices can be forced to move only
along provided lines, which e.g. result from a surface analysis of the structural thrust
surface. Such additional constraints result in more control of the 3D pattern.
Figure 4: (a) Start configuration and relaxed pattern after (b) 5 and (c) 200 iterations
with control guides.
(b) Stereotomy
Based on the tessellation pattern, individual blocks are generated using a custom
RhinoScript routine. The NURBS surface provides the geometric information of the
surface normals; the load assumptions, used for form finding, determine the depth of the
blocks. The block interface surfaces, generated by this routine, are double curved, which
is no problem for 3D printing. In order to build the vault from stone blocks, further
research has to be done to simplify the geometry of the stone blocks. Planar interface
surfaces e.g. would be significantly more efficient for stone cutting. For the model,
additional block geometry modifications have been implemented, such as the
application of notches and numbers.
1126
2.3 Phase III: Realization

In the realization phase, different data sets are produced from the compression-only
surface and the block geometries for the purpose of analysis, model production,
fabrication, and assembly.
(a) Discreet Element Analysis

Discreet Element Analysis (DEA) is a method originally developed for rock mechanics.
It is used for computational testing of the mechanical behaviour of discreet elements.
Recent approaches show the application of DEA for masonry structures [19]. The
commercial package 3DEC [20] used in this research works with convex polyhedra as
input. To generate the input data, the stone block geometries have to be subdivided in
convex polyhedra. In a second step they have to be exported in the specific data format
used by the software package. Both steps are implemented as software applets for
Rhinoceros using RhinoScript.
(b) Rapid Prototyping

Rapid Prototyping is used to produce structural models for physical testing. Several
routines were developed for labelling and registration of the pieces. Further post-
processing routines for the optimization of the 3D-printing time, material and cost have
been programmed (Fig. 6).
(c) Fabrication
For the fabrication of the individual stone blocks, in a first step, the pieces have to be
aligned automatically, so that the cut-off is minimized. Then the fabrication data has to
be produced from the block geometry, so that the CNC machine is cutting the stone in
an efficient way, reducing cutting time and therewith cost.
(d) Formwork
Formwork has to be built to assemble the real-scale shell. Software routines have to be
developed, to generate efficient geometry of these structures automatically. The
formwork is a huge expense factor for building shells, so the focus in the optimization
of the scaffolding geometry should be on cost reduction.
4 Application: Structural Model Building

This section describes the production and assembly of a structural model as an
application of the digital process described in the previous section: a masonry vault,
built from individually cut stone blocks. In the scale model, each stone is represented by
a piece of 3D-printed resin. The design, production, assembly, and structural behaviour
of the scale model have analogies to the design, fabrication, building, and behaviour of
the real masonry-like vault. These analogies allow the anticipation of challenges in the
planning and construction process of the real scale vault while building the structural
model. Some strategies and software tools, developed for the rationalization of the
1127
model planning, can be directly used in the fabrication process of the real vault.
Analogies between scale model and real building are the followings:
4.1 Structural Behaviour

The form of the vault and the geometry of the individual stone blocks is designed, such
that the vault stands without any mortar, just by friction between the blocks. This is
possible, because of the existence of a compression-only force pattern, generated with
TNA. The structural behaviour of such a shell structure is invariant to scaling, as long as
the blocks have sufficient friction [21]. This invariance in scale allows the building of a
scale model with the same structural behaviour like the real vault from any not
deformable modelling material.
4.2 Logistics and Labelling

Models often consist of hundreds of pieces. To assemble them, a labelling system has
been introduced, which allows the identification of a given model piece in the CAD
model. Therefore a custom software applet has been developed using RhinoScript, that
automatically marks the pieces in the digital model. The numbering is related to the
order/sequence of assembly. The labels appear as “stamps” in the 3D-printed pieces
(Fig. 5). In the real stone vault, one has to deal with similar problems of logistics and
labelling. First, a sequence of construction has to be developed. The labelling system of
the stone blocks has to represent construction sequence, position, and orientation of
each block in the shell.
4.3 Minimization of Material

Before starting the rapid prototyping process, an important pre-processing step is the
alignment of the pieces in the CAD program. A dense packing of the pieces enables a
significant reduction of the resin amount, production time, and cost of the model. A
custom-made software applet has been developed in order to arrange the pieces
automatically. A first routine computes the minimal bounding box of each piece, and
then horizontally aligns them. A second routine nests the pieces in a box representing
the building space of the rapid prototyping machine (Fig. 5). For the fabrication of the
real scale stone blocks, the automatic alignment according to the minimal bounding box
minimizes the cut-off of stone material.
1128
Figure 5: Nesting for rapid prototyping
4.4 Formwork
Instead of assembling the model pieces using formwork in model scale, the pieces are
assembled upside-down in a bowl-like negative form of the shell. This negative form, or
cradle, is cut out from a foam block with a 3 axis CNC mill. For proper registration of
the pieces in the cradle, a system of notches has been developed. They were
automatically generated in the digital model by a custom script (Fig. 6). After arranging
all pieces in the cradle, the base plate with slots at the supports is placed on top of the
foam block. Then, the whole package of cradle, base plate and pieces are flipped.
Finally, the cradle is removed and the model stands just by friction between the pieces.
For the building process of the stone vault, scaffolding has to be developed. Based on
the same surface information as the cradle, a process for the automated generation of
scaffolding geometry and then fabrication data has to be set up.
1129
Figure 6: Cradle, model setup and assembly.
5 Conclusions and Outlook

This paper has described a powerful, interactive process for designing structural,
masonry-like vaults. A smooth digital workflow has been developed, going from form
finding to fabrication, dealing with a variety of constraints. The form finding is based
on TNA, which uses discrete control and force diagrams, to explore structural form.
These discrete networks are directly the control framework for NURBS surfaces, which
contain the continuous geometrical and structural information.
In the second and third phase of the digital workflow, important, further research needs
to be conducted to fully integrate fabrication constraints which are related to production
efficiency and latest CNC-fabrication techniques of stone cutting. However, the
developed process is already structured to easily integrate more complex parameters
emerging from the abovementioned aspects.
The application of the described workflow for realizing full-scale, “free-form”,
masonry-like vaults will be the next main focus of research.
References
[1] Tomlow J, Graefe F, Otto F, and Szeemann H. The Model. Institut für Leichte
Flächentragwerke ,1989, 34, Stuttgart.
[2] Gass S and Otto F. Experiments. Institut für Leichte Flächentragwerke, 1990, 25,
Stuttgart.
[3] Chilton J. Finding Heinz Isler – The Engineer’s Contribution to Contemporary
Architecture, Thomas Telford Ltd., 2000.
1130
[4] Dohmen P and Rüdenauer K. Digital Chains in Modern Architecture. In

Proceedings of eCAADe 2007 Conference, Wiesbaden, 801-804.
[5] Schindler C. Information-Tool-Technology: Contemporary digital fabrication as
part of a continuous development of process technology as illustrated with the
example of timber construction. In Proceedings of the International ACADIA
Conference 2007 Expanding Bodies. Halifax Nova Scotia.
[6] Kilian A. Linking Hanging Chain Models to Fabrication. In Proceedings of the 23rd
Annual Conference of the Association for Computer Aided Design in Architecture
and the 2004 Conference of the AIA Technology in Architectural Practice
Knowledge Community, Cambridge, 110-125.
[7] Block P and Ochsendorf J. Thrust Network Analysis: A new methodology for
three-dimensional equilibrium. Journal of the International Association for Shell
and Spatial Structures, 2007; 48: 167-173.
dissertation. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA, 2009.
[9] Farin G. Curves and Surfaces for CAGD: A Practical Guide (5th edn.). San
Francisco, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, 2002.
[10] Coenders JL. Parametric and associative design as a strategy for conceptual design
and delivery to BIM. In Proceedings of the International Association for Shell and
Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2009, Valencia, 1112-1123.
[11] Allen E. and Zalewski W. Form and Forces: Designing Efficient, Expressive
Structures. New York, John Wiley Sons, 2009.
[12] McNeel R. RHINOCEROS©: NURBS modeling for Windows [Computer software].
http://www.rhino3d.com/.
[13] Maxwell, JC. On reciprocal figures and diagrams of forces. Philosophical
Magazine and Journal Series 1864; 4(27): 250-261.
[14] McNeel R. Rhino.NET Framework SDK (Software Development Kit).
http://wiki.mcneel.com/developer/dotnetplugins.
[15] McNeel R. Grasshopper (generative modeling for Rhino).
http://www.grasshopper3d.com/.
[16] The Mathworks. MATLAB® CompilerTM.
http://www.mathworks.com/products/compiler/.
[17] Rutten D. RhinoScriptTM 101 for Rhinoceros 4.0. Robert McNeel Associates, 2007.
[18] Lewis W. Tension structures: Form and Behavior, Thomas Telford Ltd., 2003.
[19] DeJong, M. J., Seismic Assessment Strategies for Masonry Structures. PhD
dissertation. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA, 2009.
[20] Itasca: 3DEC - Three Dimensional Distinct Element Code [Computer software].
http://www.itascacg.com/3dec/.
[21] Block P, Lachauer L and Rippmann M. Validating Thrust Network Analysis using
3D-printed, structural models. Proceedings of the International Association for
Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2010, Shanghai, China.
1131
Research on Conceptual Design of Spatial Structure Based on

Bionic Theory
1 2
ShengDong MA. *, Zhongli LI.
1
IPPR Corporation, No.5 Xisanhuanbei Road, Beijing, China. Postcode:100089
2
Beijing Z＆T Fabric Architecture Technology Co. Ltd:100096
E-mail:magicstructure@hotmail.com *, zttech@zttech.cn
Abstract
Faced with complicated and various engineering structure, more and more
engineers are required to design lightweight structures which also have high strength
and stiffness. The structures of organisms are the results of natural selection and
evolution in millions of years, many of them have good mechanical properties. The
structural bionic theory is the subject which finding good structures of organisms
through study on their macro and micro characteristics. In this thesis, the structural
bionics theory was applied to increase the specific strength of spatial structure. Deep
research on the structure bionic theory is the foundation of the bionic structure design.
So, the general situation of bionic is described in this thesis and two basic theories of
the structural bionic theory were mentioned. They are similarity theory, evolution
theory. The new bionic design method was put forward which depended on the
organism characters and that was different from the traditional method that depended on
some biologic species. Several cases are expound.
Keywords: Structure Concept, Bionic theory, Specific Strength, Specific Stiffness,

Spatial Structure, Structural efficiency
1 Introduction
Fuller, R. Buckminster says: “Nature always does the most with the least.” Spatial
structures of all kinds show an inspiration which usually endued with by the nature. The
creativity of the nature exceeds the human ingenuity ever and again. The structure
efficiency index is introduced to measure the spatial structures.
2 Material and element efficiency index

Specific strength or specific stiffness are the main efficiency index, different elements
in different stress condition have different specific strength and specific stiffness. In this
section, the relationship between specific strength and material is discussed. the
generalized specific strength or specific stiffness is introduced to choose structure
material.
1132
The specific strength (specific stiffness) is the function of the material limit strength
 b (elasticity modulus E )and density  .
Mathematics expression:
 s   x  (x<1 )
（1）
Es  E y  (y<1 )
Table 1[1] Material Specific strength

 b E
Material Name 3 b /  E/
g / cm N / mm2 N / mm2
Concrete C30 2.5 14.3 30000 5.72 12000
bamboo 0.6~1.2 150 6700 150 6700
Steel Q235 7.85 235 206000 30 26242
Wood 0.6~0.8 10~20 1000 17~25 1666~1250
aluminium alloy
2.78 421 70560 151 25381
Ly12
FRP Ⅱ 1.45 1470 137200 1013 94621
Table 1 imply structure should choose the high specific strength, just like FRP.
Table2[2] Element Specific strength

Element Load case Specific strength Specific stiffness
tension  b /
1
Buckling E /
2
Frame 2
moment E /
3
2
torsion b3 / 
tension  b /
1
Buckling E3 / 
Plate 1
moment  b2 /
1
Shear b /  E3 / 
1
cylinder Buckling(axial) E /
2
cylinder Stress (internal)  b /

Shell 2
cylinder Buckling
(outside stress) E /
5
spherical shell  b /
Table2 shows the element should be in tensional condition shall have high specific
strength with the same material.
1133
3 Structure efficiency index
If the  is the general density,    M V ,where  M is the total mass of the

structure,  M is the total volume of the structure, which may reflect the carrying
capacity of the structure, but it is difficult to measure especial in the conceptual
structure design status. So introduce structure efficiency index Se to direct the
conceptual structure design. It may express with space vector and force vector dot
product. Mathematics expression:
 
Se  G • F ,
  (2)
G  [Gx，Gy，Gz ]，F  [ Fx，Fy，Fz ]，
 
Where G is the structure general geometry vector, Where F is the structure interior
force vector.
Fig: 1 beam Fig: 2 truss
Fig:3 huge stone Fig:4 horse skeleton


If the F  [0, 0,1] ,
the beam’s Se  h ;the truss’s Se  hL / s ,
So the truss structure efficiency is L / s times of the beam.
Maybe the original element is beam (Fig1), it is moment resistant element, the huge
stone (Fig3) is a good case. The original truss may be the horse skeleton show as Fig4.
The structure of horse is the results of natural selection and evolution in millions of
years, it has good mechanical properties. The huge stone is beam element while the
horse skeleton is truss structure, from above analysis the horse skeleton structure
efficiency is many times of huge stone.
4 Structure bionic theory and application

The general situation of bionic is described in this thesis and two basic theories of the
structural bionic theory were mentioned. They are similarity theory, evolution theory.
1134
4.1 Similarity theory and application
The universe thing is infinitely varied, and is ever changing, but there are massive
similar phenomena, for the universe is unified by the material. The more material is
microscopic, The more its structure is similar. On the other hand, some kind of thing
has same and the variation inevitably in the developing process, it can maintain for the
homogeneous attribute; it can develop for the variation. Only then similar and the
identical relations had been understood, it can grasp the essence. The structure bionic is
uses similarity between the organism and the engineering structure in aspect of
environment and performance and form.
Fig. 5: Galaxy Fig. 6: carbon atom
Fig.7: DNA Fig. 8: vein

From macroscopic view: each kind of stars in the galaxy in gravitational field has the
similar performance and form. From microscopic view: The atom, the crystal lattice the
crystal structure and DNA which forms according to the least energy principal. From
middle view: the vein is the micro tree, while the tree is the mocro vein . All of them are
similar.
Fig.9: Egypt stone Pyramid Fig.10: Louvre steel Pyramid

The pyramid is the most stable structure in the world. The Egypt stone Pyramid (Fig.9)
and Louvre steel pyramid are similar, from the table1, the material specific strength of
steel is 4~5 times of the stone, the material specific stiffness of steel is about double
1135
stone. Because the steel pyramid is middle hollow, the general density is much less than
the solid stone, so the real structure efficiency in much more than the above analysis.
Fig.11: ancient hat and hutch Fig.12: Qing Dynasty hat and and Temple of Heaven
The hutch in the past or now is similar with the Chinese ancient hat; Architecture shall
have the time , culture and region character, the Qing Dynasty hat in of the most
representative, the Temple of Heaven is great structure in the world, theirs form are
similar.
Fig.13: urchin Fig.14: Expression Hainan island

Expression Hainan island design inspired by see. Architecture morphology implies a
group of shells floating in the sea. The most huge shell is the main architecture ——
Expression Hainan island whose form coming from the urchin. The sea and the island
merge together.
4.2 Evolution theory and application
The two main mechanisms that produce evolution are natural selection and genetic drift.
Natural selection is the process which favors genes that aid survival and reproduction.
Genetic drift is the random change in the frequency of alleles, caused by the random
sampling of a generation's genes during reproduction. The relative importance of natural
selection and genetic drift in a population varies depending on the strength of the
selection and the effective population size, which is the number of individuals capable
of breeding.[3]
The bird beak is not the form show as Fig.15,16, On some birds, the tip of the beak is
hard, dead tissue used for heavy-duty tasks such as cracking nuts or killing prey. On
other birds, such as ducks, the tip of the bill is sensitive and contains nerves, for locating
things by touch. The beak is worn down by use, so it grows continually throughout the
bird's life. The lattermost beak form is the result of nature election.
1136
Fig.15: all kinds of beak Fig.16: Beak

The Lubango stadium steel roof structure inspired by beak, one cantilever truss is
shown as Fig.18.
Fig.17: Lubango stadium Fig.18: Cantilever truss
4.3 Similarity theory and Evolution theory and application
The Beijing customs swimming stadium is in the ground floor, there is a high rising
building besides it, according to Chinese seismic code，the hole should not bigger than
50% the total area. But how about knag? It is the nature election!
Fig.19: Swimming stadium Fig.20: interior Fig.21: knag
Fig.22: the plan Fig.23: zhaozhou bridge Fig.24: the nature arch
If the concrete roof is erected, the span is 58.9m，the height 15.6m, the ratio of height
to span is about 1/4， it is similar with the zhaozhou Bridge 1/5.
1137
Fig.25: the plan Fig.26: Yudai bridge

If the concrete roof is rotated 90 show as Fig25, the span is 31.2m，the height 28.45m,
the ratio of height to span is about 1/1.1， it is similar with theYudai Bridge 1/1.5.
The two famous bridges in China have good seismic performance according to the
earthquake history. The customs swimming stadium also shall have good seismic
performance according to Similarity and Evolution theory.
5 Conclusion
To enhance the structure efficiency, it shall choose the high specific strength and
specific stiffness, and the element shall be in the tensional condition. The structures of
organisms are the results of natural selection and evolution in millions of years, many of
them have good mechanical properties. The organism structure certainly not only has
high specific strength and specific stiffness, good stability and beauty form. So the
structure bionic theory is one of the useful method.
The computer's appearance has developed person's thought that strengthened person's
design capability, while man does creative work by comparing the organism and
structure especial difference in the structure concept status, the computer does the
calculating work.
References
[1] Wu yuanshu The specific strength and specific Stiffness of materials[J] Journal of
Astronautics 1985.7
[2] Chen Jifeng The specific strength of structure application in optimization [J]
Journal of Astronautics 1987.10
[3] Whitlock M (1 June 2003). "Fixation probability and time in subdivided
populations". Genetics 164 (2): 767–79. PMID 12807795.
[4] http://www.nipic.com
1138
Concept of Ammann bar grids for spatial structures

Romuald TARCZEWSKI1*, Waldemar BOBER 1
1*
Wroclaw University of Technology
ul. B. Prusa 53/55, 51-317 Wroclaw, Poland
romuald.tarczewski@pwr.wroc.pl
Abstract
The structural efficiency and aesthetic perception of spatial structures relies on
topological properties of their network. The specific way of arranging the components
in the space is crucial for both of these requirements. In the search for originality and
uniqueness of the form of spatial structure, one can choose aperiodic tilings, such as
famous Penrose tiling, as an inspiration for distribution of elements. In this point,
introduction of the idea of Ammann bars seems to be very useful.
Keywords: grid structures, aperiodic tilings, Ammann bar grid
1 Introduction
Large number of lattice structures has been constructed in the last century. Most of them
are shaped on the very regular geometrical basis adopted from crystallography. Recent
trends in architectural design prefer structures based rather on visual impression and
peculiarity than structures reminding “Machine Age”.
Very briefly, one can distinct two “schools” of shaping structural systems for free
formed architecture. The first one, “naturalistic”, derives inspirations from structural
prototypes widely found in Nature. such as bone tissue, shells, radiolarian skeletons etc.
are well known example. The second school is based on advances of mathematical
modelling. Many more or less complex mathematical concepts can be used as prototype
of real structure form. Recently, methods based on evolutionary algorithms became very
popular.
Science of tilings and patterns is a branch of discrete mathematic, old but just recently
“codified” [2]. This science developed tools for generating beautiful, unusual, intriguing
patterns. Many of these patterns have significant structural qualities and it is a real
neglect to omit them in the process of structural form finding. Concept of Ammann bars,
presented below is one of such ideas.
2 Geometrical shaping of spatial grid structures
From many geometrical methods describing double-layer spatial grid structures, one can
distinct method based on analysis of compounds of basic solids, such as tetrahedron and
half of octahedron. Grid is arranged on the edge lines of component solids, Fig.1.
1139
Fig. 1: Example of structure composed of regular tetrahedron
In order to retain continuity of the structure, it is necessary to use polyhedra, which fill
and divide space composed of basic solids. New solids generate additional vertices and
edges, which represent nodes and bars of the structure, Fig.2.
Fig. 2: Division of the basic solids – increasing the number of bars
Essential disadvantage of this method is the lack of information about sense of direction
of structure against supporting points. Thus, in practice, method based on systematic of
configuration of bars in the single layer, is more frequently applied. The name of each
configuration is derived from the orientation of grid lines. This can be two- or three-
directional, rarely four-dimensional. Orthogonal (O) and diagonal (D) configuration are
classified as two-directional, while triangular (T), hexagonal (H) and composed hexa-
triangular (TH) – as three-dimensional. Figure 3 presents examples of such
configurations.
Fig. 3: Examples of two- and three-directional configurations of bars: othogonal (O),

diagonal (D), triangular (T), hexagonal (H) and composed (TH)
All listed configurations of the single layer can be merged in double-layer structure.
This results in a multiplicity of new arrangements. They can be described by symbols
referring to the configuration of layers, ex. (O-D) is a structure with orthogonal upper
layer and diagonal bottom layer. Some examples are given on Fig. 4.
1140
Fig. 4: Examples of two-directional patterns of double-layer grids
Also three-directional configurations are suitable for shaping double-layer grids. In this
case, theoretical number of combinations is bigger than for two-directional
configurations. However, some difficulties with shaping of cross-braces layer and with
the length of bars in some combinations – limit the number of useful combinations to
four basic, presented on Fig. 5.
Fig. 5: Four double-layer grids shaped as combinations of three-directional layers
Both double- and three-directional configurations can be arranged as thinned, by means

of removing chosen cross-braces and bars in bottom layer (which is less stressed than
the upper one). These openings are regular and do not disturb global stability of the
structure. Some examples are presented on Fig. 6.
Fig. 6: Examples of patterns with thinned bottom-layer
1141
It is clear, that introduction of any irregularity to the pattern of grid’s layer, results in
significant complication of the whole structure. Moreover, geometrical methods
developed in the past are cannot be successfully applied for shaping such structures.
3 Penrose aperiodic tilings

All patterns mentioned above are highly regular. They reveal both mirror symmetries
(with many mirror lines) and translational symmetry. Actually, all plane-filling (close
packing) patterns made from fundamental prototiles: triangle, square and hexagon have
many translational symmetries. As late, as in mid seventies, Roger Penrose discovered
some sets of aperiodic prototiles [1,2]. What is important in this discovery, is that only
two tiles are sufficient to arrange a plane-filling tilings. The best know pairs of these
prototiles are: fat and thin rhombi, Fig. 7a) as well as kite and dart, Fig. 7b).
a). b).
Fig. 7: Pairs of Penrose prototiles: a). fat and thin rhombi, b). kite and dart
An interesting feature is that not every plane-filling pattern composed of Penrose

prototiles is an aperiodic tiling [2]. There are some matching rules assigned to these
prototiles that ensure their appropriate assembly. Figure 8 presents examples of Penrose
(aperiodic) tilings composed of prototiles from the Fig. 7.
a). b).
Fig. 8: Examples of Penrose patterns composed of the prototiles from Fig. 7
1142
Another interesting feature is that the Penrose tilings are the first tilings to exhibit
fivefold rotational symmetry. These patterns have some interesting structural proprties.
Their average vertex valency is 4. Stability of grid structures based on Penrose tilings
was considered for the first time by T. Wester [5]. He proved their internal stability for
sufficiently large configurations regarded as lattice structures.
Three dimensional version of Penrose tilings was discovered in mid eighties, as a
crystallographic model of quasi crystals. The space filling solids are fat and thin
rhombic cubes, with the Golden Ratio relation of the lengths and diagonals. Similarly to
its planar counterparts, rhombic cubes can pack in the space in many ways. Figure 9
presents one of the examples, published in [5].
Fig. 9: Example of three-dimensional Penrose pattern [5]
4 Ammann bars and Ammann bar grids

In late seventies, R. Ammann discovered several new sets of aperiodic prototiles [1,2,4].
They generally feature more complicated shapes, than Penrose prototiles mentioned
above. Lets consider two of these sets, named A4 and A5 [2]. Prototiles of the first one
are shown on Fig. 11a). With matching conditions (omitted here), one can compose an
aperiodic pattern as presented on Fig. 11b).
1143
a). b).
Fig. 11: Ammann’s aperiodic set A4: a). prototiles, b). example of tiling7
Prototiles of set A5 remind Penrose’s fat and thin rhombi, but the “fat” one became a
square, while the “thin” one is less flattened due to different values of internal angles,
Fig. 12a). Example of aperiodic A5 pattern is shown on Fig. 12b).
a). b).
Fig. 12: Ammann’s aperiodic set A5: a). prototiles, b). example of tiling
It is not possible to find the matching rules for aperidic tilings that depend only on the
shape of the prototiles. At first, edges of prototiles were marked with special marks,
such as semicircle, ellipse and other. Later on, R. Ammann developed very interesting
concept of so called Ammann bars, which significantly simplify use of matching
conditions in arrangement of aperiodic patterns. These bars are segments of lines
connected with each prototile. The only matching condition for these bars is that after
1144
completion , they form continuous, straight lines. Figures 13 and 14 shows Ammann
bars for sets A4 and A5, with description of their position. it is noteworthy, that the
position of bars and thus whole the tiling is closely related to silver ratio 1  2 .  
Fig. 13: Position of Ammann bars in prototiles of set A4
Fig. 14: Position of Ammann bars in prototiles of set A5
Set A4, composed with use of Ammann bars is presented on Fig. 15a). Segments of
lines in the tiles, shown on Fig. 13, form a series of continuous lines. An intriguing
feature of Ammann aperiodic sets is their self-similarity. Every tile in these sets can be
completely decomposed by close packing of identical but proportionally smaller tiles,
Fig. 15b). This decomposition can be continued to infinity and thus is of fractal nature.
Another feature is that sets A4 and A5 are dual, Fig. 16, and A4 can be obtained from
A5 using recomposition [2].
1145
a). b).
Fig. 15: Ammann’s aperiodic set A4: a). tiling with Ammann bars, b). self-similarity of
the tiling
Fig. 16: Duality of Ammann aperiodic sets A4 and A5
1146
In the basic description, the Ammann bars are auxiliary construction lines replacing
traditional, coloured vertices matching rules, in aperiodic Penrose tilings. They are
straight line segments in fat and thin rhombi as well as in kite and dart prototile figures,
which must continue as straight lines across whole the tiling in order to assure its
aperiodicity. Thus, the Ammann bars are grid (“skeleton”) of tiling.
In the more formalized description, to sum up former observations, the Ammann bars
are families of parallel lines with two spacings between them: long L and short S, with
the ratio =L/S. The long and short spacings form a sequence that follow a recursive
formula, such as Fibonacci series, or other Fibonacci related series,
eg …LSLSLLSLLSLLSLSLLSLLSLSLLSLSLLSL…
Moreover, these grids reveal a self-similarity property. It is a result of the fact, that there
are other, smaller or bigger values of spacings l and s, with the same ratio =l/s. Then,
ratio =L/l=S/s is called deflation (or inflation) factor. In general, one can note that the
two spacings of Ammann bars are the characteristic quantities of a certain matrix and
the inflation and deflation factor are the eigenvalues of that matrix, which is called a
generating matrix [3]. If deflation factor is assumed equal to the golden mean:
1
 
    1  5 one obtains a “Fibonacci”series. For     1  2 – “Octonacci”
2
series, for     2  3 – “Dodecanacci” series etc. In the case of Penrose aperiodic
tilings, golden ratio appears repeatedly: as the ratio of long and short tile edges, the ratio
of kite to dart areas and the ratio of the relative numbers of darts to kites in the infinite
tiling [4].
5 Idea of Ammann bar grids applied for structural systems

From the viewpoint of structural form-finding, single layer aperiodic grid is less
efficient than simple rectilinear lattice. Ammann bars grid is an excellent candidate for
the second, supplementary layer of the structure. Lets imagine a structure shaped on the
basis of A5 pattern, Fig. 17.
1147
Fig. 17: Aperiodic set A5 with Ammann bar grid
Such a structure would be composed of three layers. The upper one presents an
aperiodic pattern A5, the lower one presents related Ammann bars and the middle one is
a set of poles placed in the point of apparent intersection of bars in the upper and lower
layer. In the example below, Fig. 18, bars in the upper layer are made of RHS profiles,
while in the lower are made of wire ropes. Poles in the middle layer are made of SHS.
1148
Fig. 18: Example of the structure
5 Conclusive remarks
Aperiodic patterns presents an interesting alternative in shaping planar lattice structures.
Strengthened by additional layer, they form rigid structures. Ammann bar grids are
excellent templates for shaping bottom layers, as they are the only regular “skeletons”
for aperiodic tilings. As shown above, by means of combining upper – apperiodic and
lower, Amman layer, one can design a load-bearing structure, preserving its unusual
visual impression.
In further research some related topics can increase the scope of applications of
described structures. Among these, the concept of Weiringa roof and Ammann bar
cartwheel pattern seems to be the most promising.
References
[1] Ammann R, Grünbaum B. and Shephard G.C. Aperiodic tilings. Discrete and
Computational Geometry 1992; 8:1-25.
[2] Grünbaum B and Shephard GC. Tilings and Patterns. Freeman, 1987.
[3] Lück R. Basic ideas of Ammann bar grids. International Journal of Modern
Physics B 1993; 7:1437-1453.
[4] Senechal M. The Mysterious Mr. Ammann. Mathematical Intelligencer 2004;
26:10-21.
[5] Wester T. Structural Patterns in Nature – Part II. in: Motro R. (ed) "Shell and
Spatial Structures from Models to Realization". Proceedings of International IASS
Symposium. Editions de l'Espérou, Montpellier, 2004.
1149
Form-finding of irregular tensegrity

structures by using force density approach
Jaehong LEE1*, Hoang Chi TRAN2, Woosung CHUNG 2
1*
Professor, Department of Architectural Engineering, Sejong University.
98 Kunja Dong, Kwangjin Ku, Seoul 143-747, Korea
jhlee@sejong.ac.kr
2
Graduate Student, Department of Architectural Engineering, Sejong University.
chihoangkt@gmail.com
Abstract
A numerical method is presented for form-finding of irregular tensegrity
structures. The topology and an initial randomly generated force density vector are the
required information in the present form-finding process. The eigenvalue decomposition
of the force density matrix and the singular value decomposition of the equilibrium
matrix are performed iteratively to find the range of feasible sets of the nodal
coordinates and the force densities which satisfy the required rank deficiencies of the
force density and equilibrium matrices, respectively. Two numerical examples are
presented to demonstrate the efficiency and robustness in searching new self-
equilibrium stable irregular configurations of tensegrity structures.
Keywords: Irregular tensegrity structure, Eigenvalue decomposition, Form-finding,

Force densities
1 Introduction
Over the past few decades, tensegrity structures first proposed by Fuller [1] have
attracted considerable attention in a wide diversity of fields including aerospace [2],
architecture [3,4], civil engineering [5,6], biology [7] and mathematics [8].
For the form-finding of regular tensegrities, there have been extensive (for more details,
see [9-11]). For irregular tensegrities, so far only a few of researches have been studied
for this problem. Zhang et al. [12] and Baud et al. [13] employed the dynamic relaxation
method for form-finding of nonregular tensegrities by modifying their corresponding
regular ones. Micheletti et al. [14] used a marching procedure for finding stable
placements of irregular tensegrities based on their given regular counterparts. Moreover,
these two approaches are effective only for tensegrities with small number of members.
Most recently, Rieffel et al. [15] introduced an evolutionary algorithm for producing
large irregular tensegrity structures. Following their track, Xu and Luo [16] also
proposed a genetic algorithm, but applied different optimization models from [15].
However, these methods are mainly based on the discrete optimization technique
associated with the dynamic relaxation method for solving the irregular form-finding
1150
problem. Furthermore, topology, some initial axial forces, nodal coordinates and/or
member lengths and material properties must be assumed known in advance. Thus, it
still remains a problem to find the irregular tensegrity structures with the only known
information of the topology and an initial randomly generated set of force densities.
The present paper is an extension of the authors' previous work [17] and is aimed at
form-finding of irregular tensegrity structures. The topology and the initial force density
vector which is randomly generated with the sign of each component of this vector
based on the types of members are the required information in this form-finding process.
Any assumption about initial nodal coordinates and member lengths is not necessary in
the proposed form-finding procedure. The eigenvalue decomposition (EVD) of the force
density matrix and the singular value decomposition (SVD) of the equilibrium matrix
are performed iteratively to find the feasible sets of nodal coordinates and force
densities which satisfy the minimum required rank deficiencies of the force density and
equilibrium matrices, respectively.
2 Self-equilibrium equations and rank deficiency conditions

2.1 Self-equilibrium equations
The equilibrium equations of the free nodes in each direction of a general pin-jointed
structure given by Schek [18] can be stated as
CT diag (q)Cx  CT diag (q)C f x f  p x (1a)
CT diag (q)Cy  CT diag (q)C f y f  p y (1b)
C diag (q)Cz  C diag (q)C f z f  p z
T T
(1c)
where p x ,p y and p z (  ) are the vectors of external loads applied at the free nodes in
n
x-, y- and z-directions, respectively; x, y, z(  n ) and x f , y f , z f (  n ) are the nodal
f
coordinate vectors of the free and fixed nodes, respectively, in x-, y- and z-directions;
bn
C( R bn ) and C f ( R ) describe the connectivities of the members to the free and
f
fixed nodes, respectively; The symbol, (*)T , denotes the transpose of a matrix or vector;
And diag (q)(  bb ) is diagonal square matrix of q(  b ) which is the force density
vector as suggested in Schek [18], defined by
q  {q1 , q2 , , qb }T (2)
in which each component of this vector is the force fk to length lk ratio
qk  fk / lk (k  1, 2, , b) known as force density or self-stressed coefficient in Vassart
and Motro [19].
When external load and self-weight are ignored, the tensegrity system does not require
any fixed nodes (supports). Its geometry can be defined by the relative position of the
nodes. That is, the system can be considered as a free-standing rigid-body in space
[17,20]. In this context, Eq. (1) becomes:
Dx  0 (3a)
Dy  0 (3b)
Dz  0 (3c)
nn
where D(  ) known as force density matrix [19,21] or stress matrix [22] is given by
1151
D  CT diag (q)C (4)

For simplicity, Eq. (3) can be reorganized as
D[x y z]  0 0 0 (5)
nd
where [x y z](  ) is a matrix of nodal coordinates for a d-dimensional tensegrity
structure. On the other hand, by substituting Eq. (4) into (3), the self-equilibrium
equations of the tensegrity structures can also be reorganized as
Aq  0 (6)
dnb
where A(  ) is known as the equilibrium matrix in [17,20], defined by
 CT diag (Cx) 
 
A   CT diag (Cy )  (7)
 CT diag (Cz ) 
 
Eq. (5) presents the relation between force densities and nodal coordinates, while Eq. (6)
shows the relation between projected lengths in x, y and z-directions, respectively and
force densities. Both Eqs. (5) and (6) are linear homogeneous systems of self-
equilibrium equations with respect to nodal coordinates and force densities, respectively.
2.2 Requirement on Rank Deficiency Conditions of Force Density and

Equilibrium Matrices
From Eq. (4), D is always square, symmetric and singular with a nullity of at least one
since the sum of all components in any row or column is zero for any tensegrity
structure [9,17]. There are two rank deficiency conditions [17] need to be considered.
The first one related to semi-definite matrix D of Eq. (5) is defined by
nD  d  1 (8)
where nD ( n  rD ) denotes dimension of null space of D or rank deficiency of D ; and
rD  rank (D) . This condition forces Eq. (5) to yield at least d useful particular solutions
[17] which form a vector space basis for generating a d-dimensional tensegrity structure.
The second rank deficiency condition related to matrix A of Eq. (6) which ensures the
existence of at least one state of self-stress can be stated as
s  nA 1 (9)
where nD ( n  rD ) denotes dimension of null space of A or rank deficiency of A ;
rA  rank (A) ; and s is known as the number of independent states of self-stress, while
the number of inextensional mechanisms as presented in [23] are computed by
m  dn  rA (10)
3 Form-finding process
The initial force density vector is randomly generated as follows with the sign of each
component of this vector based on the type of each member, i.e. either cable or strut
which is under tension or compression, respectively:
q 0  { r1  r2   rc rc1  rc2   rb }T (11)


 
cables struts
1152
where r1, r2 ,..., rc , rc1, rc2 ,..., rb are all random numbers distributed in the interval (0; 10);
and c denotes the number of cables. Note that to keep positive sign for cables (tension)
and negative for struts (compression). Subsequently, the force density matrix D is
calculated from q 0 by Eq. (4). After that, the nodal coordinates are selected from the
EVD of the matrix D which is discussed in section 3.1. These nodal coordinates are
substituted into Eq. (6) to define the force density vector q by the SVD of the
equilibrium matrix A which is presented in section 3.2. The force density matrix D is
then updated by Eq. (4). The process is iteratively calculated for searching two feasible
sets of nodal coordinates [x y z ] and force densities q until the rank deficiencies of Eqs.
(8) and (9) are satisfied, which forces Eqs. (5) and (6) become true. In this context, at
least one state of self-stress can be created, s  1 . In this study, based on the required
rank deficiencies from Eqs. (8) and (9), the form-finding process is stopped as
nD*  d  1 (12a)
nA  1
*
(12b)
* *
where nD and nA are minimum required rank deficiencies of the force density and
equilibrium matrices, respectively.
3.1 Determination of feasible set of nodal coordinates

The square symmetric force density matrix D can be factorized as follows by using the
EVD [24]:
D  T (13)
where ( ) is the orthogonal matrix ( T  I n , in which I n   nn is the unit
nn
matrix) whose ith column is the eigenvector basis i ( n ) of D . ( nn ) is the
diagonal matrix whose diagonal elements are the corresponding eigenvalues, i.e.,
ii  i . The eigenvector i of  corresponds to eigenvalue i of  . The eigenvalues
are in increasing order as 1  2  n . It is clear that the number of zero eigenvalues
of D is equal to the dimension of its null space. Let p be the number of zero and
negative eigenvalues of D . There are two cases need to be considered. The first one is
p  nD* , and the other is p  nD* . However, since initial force densities randomly
generated based on the members' type usually result in p  nD* . Hence, only this case is
considered in this paper.
The first nD* orthonormal eigenvectors of  are directly taken as potential nodal
coordinates
[x y z]  [1 2 n ] * (14)
D
The force density vector q which is repeatedly approximated from Eq. (23) is in fact
the least-square solution of the linear homogeneous system Eq. (6) solved by the SVD
technique of the equilibrium matrix A as presented in section 3.2. In other words, the
algorithm iteratively modifies the force density vector q as small as possible to make
the first nD* eigenvalues of D become null as
i  0, (i  1, 2,, nD* ) (15)
1153
All the projected lengths L(  bn ) along nD* directions for b members are computed by
*
D
i  0, (i  1, 2,, nD* ) (16)

to remove one vector i among nD eigenvector bases of  if
*
Ci  0 (17)
or which i causes a zero length to any member among b members of the structure
whose lengths are defined by
lk  (lkx )2  (lky )2  (lkz )2 (18)
where lk ( l)   b ( k  1, 2,..., b ; and assuming d = 3) indicates the vector of lengths of b
members from any combination of d singular vectors among nD* above singular vector
bases in d-dimensional space; and lkx ( l x ),lky ( l y ) and lkz ( l z )   b denote the
coordinate difference vectors of the b members in x-, y- and z-directions, respectively,
which are calculated from
l x  Ci
l y  C j (i ,  j , k ) (19)
l  Ck
z
Eq. (17) shows i is linearly dependent with the vector I1  {1,1, 1}T while Eq. (20) is
very useful in checking whether there exists any member with zero length among b
members of d-dimensional structure. If there is no i which satisfies Eq. (17) or causes
a zero length to any member of the structure, the first three eigenvectors of  are
chosen as nodal coordinates [ x y z ] for 3-dimensional self-stressed structure.
Accordingly, D will finally have the required rank deficiency nD* without any negative
eigenvalue. It implies D is positive semi-definite, and any tensegrity structure falling
into this case is super stable regardless of material properties and level of self-stress
coefficients [22].
In short, the best scenario of configuration in 3-dimensional space is formed by three
best candidate eigenvectors selected from the first fourth eigenvector bases which
corresponding to the first fourth smallest eigenvalues, respectively. These eigenvalues
will be gradually modified to be zero by the proposed iterative form-finding algorithm.
In other words, the proposed form-finding procedure has repeatedly approximated
equilibrium configuration such that
D[x y z ]  [0 0 0] (20)
3.2 Determination of feasible set of force densities

The equilibrium matrix A is computed by substituting the set of approximated nodal
coordinates [x y z ] from Eq. (20) into (7). In order to solve linear homogeneous system
Eq. (6), the SVD [24] is carried out on the equilibrium matrix A :
A  UVWT (21)
dndn
where U(  )  [u1 u2 udn ] and W(  bb )  [w1 w2  wb ] are the orthogonal
matrices. V(  dnb ) is a diagonal matrix with non-negative singular values of A in
decreasing order as
1154
1   2   b  0 (22)
As indicated in Eq. (12b), the iterative form-finding algorithm is successful in case of
nA*  1 . Accordingly, there are also two cases for s during the iterative form-finding
procedure:
Case 1: s = 0, there exists no null space of A . The form-finding procedure defines the
approximated q that matches in signs with q 0 , as presented in [17,25], such that
Aq  0 (23)
Case 2: s = 1, it is known [26] that the bases of vector spaces of force densities and
mechanisms of any tensegrity structure are calculated from the null spaces of the
equilibrium matrix. In this case, the matrices U and W from Eq. (21) can be expressed,
respectively, as
U  [u1 u 2 u r | m1  m m ]
A
(24a)
W  [w1 w2 wb1 | q1 ] (24b)
where the vectors mi   (i  1, 2,...., m) denote the m inextensional mechanisms; and
dn
the vector q1 (  b ) matching in signs with q 0 is indeed the single state of self-stress
which satisfies the homogeneous Eq. (6).
In summary, the EVD of force density matrix D and the SVD of the equilibrium matrix
A are performed iteratively to find the feasible sets of nodal coordinates [ x y z ] and
force density vector q by selecting the appropriate singular vector bases in each
decomposition as the least-square solutions until the minimum required rank
deficiencies of these two matrices are satisfied, respectively, as presented in Eq. (12).
Since the tensegrity structure should satisfy the self-equilibrium conditions, the vectors
of unbalanced internal forces  x , y and  z ( n ) in x-, y- and z-directions, respectively,
defined as follows can be employed for evaluating the accuracy of the results:
 x  Dx (25a)
 y  Dy (25b)
 z  Dz (25c)
The Euclidean norm is utilized to define the design ò as
ò  ( x )T  x  ( y )T  y  ( z )T  z (26)
4 Numerical examples
Numerical examples are presented for two- and three-dimensional irregular tensegrity
structures. Both the nodal coordinates and the force density vector are simultaneously
defined with limited information of the nodal connectivity and the initial randomly
generated force density vector.
4.1 Two-dimensional irregular tensegrity structures
1155
4.1.1 Hexagon
6 (5) 5
(6) (4)
(7)
1 4
(8)
(1) (9) (3)
2 (2) 3
Fig. 1: A two-dimensional hexagonal tensegrity structure. The thick and thin lines represent the struts
and cables, respectively.
Table 1: The force density coefficients and lengths of the 2-D regular and irregular hexagonal tensegrity
structure
Initial value Final value

q0 q l
Regular Irregular Regular Irregular Regular Irregular
Elements (Ref.[17]) (present) (Ref.[17]) (present) (Ref.[17]) (present)
1 1 5.4701 1.0 1.0000 0.5774 1.5000
2 1 2.9632 1.0 0.3359 0.5774 1.8185
3 1 7.4469 1.0 1.0316 0.5774 1.6262
4 1 1.8896 1.0 0.6063 0.5774 2.7581
5 1 6.8678 1.0 0.6775 0.5774 1.1442
6 1 1.8351 1.0 0.4915 0.5774 3.1245
7 -1 -3.6848 -0.5 -0.1645 1.1547 2.0000
8 -1 -6.2562 -0.5 -0.3439 1.1547 4.6036
9 -1 -7.8023 -0.5 -0.3654 1.1547 4.8062
The initial topology of the hexagonal tensegrity structure comprising three struts and six
cables (Fig. 1) was studied by Tran and Lee [17] for its regular form. The known
information is the incidence matrix C and the initial force density vector q 0 which is
randomly generated by the proposed form-finding procedure as listed in Table 1. The
obtained force density vector q normalized with respect to the force density coefficient
of the cable 1 is presented in Table 1.
(a) (b)
Fig. 2: The obtained geometry of the two-dimensional hexagonal tensegrity structure, (a). Irregular
shape, (b). Regular shape (Ref.[17])
1156
The associated stable irregular configuration of the structure whose members' lengths
are different from one another (as can be seen from Table 1) is plotted in Fig. 2a. It is
thoroughly different from its regular form presented by Ref.[17] in Fig. 2b. The form-
finding procedure converges in three iterations with the design error ò  2.033 1011 .
The structure obtained has only one self-stress state (s = 1) and one infinitesimal
mechanism (m = 1) when its three rigid-body motions are constrained indicating it is
statically and kinematically indeterminate [23].
4.2 Three-dimensional irregular tensegrity structures
4.2.1 Expandable octahedron
An expandable octahedron consisting of 6 struts and 24 cables (Fig. 3) was investigated

first by Tibert and Pellegrino [9], Estrada et al. [21] and then by Tran and Lee [17] for
its symmetric form. The initial randomly generated force density vector q 0 and the
calculated force density vector q after normalizing with respect to the force density
coefficient of the cable 1 are reported in Table 2.
2 4
(23) (22) (24)
(21)
12
(15) 11 (30)
(13) (18) (20)
(16) (26)
(14) (17) (19)
9 (29)
7 10
(28) 8
(9) (25) (11) (12)
(10) 6
(1) 5 (7)
(2) (27) (8)
(4) (6)
(3)
(5)
1
3
Fig. 3: An expandable octahedron tensegrity structure.
Table 2: The force density coefficients and lengths of the 3-D regular and irregular expandable
octahedron tensegrity structure
Initial value Final value

q0 q l
Regular Irregular Regular Irregular Regular Irregular
Elements (Ref.[17]) (present) (Ref.[17]) (present) (Ref.[17]) (present)
1 1 3.8577 1.0 1.0000 0.5477 0.6683
2 1 6.8832 1.0 1.8755 0.5477 0.4038
3 1 9.6124 1.0 2.0442 0.5477 0.2732
4 1 9.4216 1.0 3.7029 0.5477 0.2998
5 1 5.1210 1.0 0.2334 0.5477 0.0933
6 1 3.1643 1.0 0.5660 0.5477 0.5733
7 1 7.8751 1.0 2.4219 0.5477 0.2325
8 1 7.8339 1.0 1.9283 0.5477 0.5851
9 1 7.6658 1.0 1.9903 0.5477 0.3503
10 1 7.6932 1.0 1.9688 0.5477 0.5559
11 1 1.9533 1.0 0.5696 0.5477 0.6983
12 1 7.1340 1.0 1.1547 0.5477 0.6854
1157
13 1 5.1693 1.0 1.3680 0.5477 0.6749

14 1 2.9095 1.0 0.4481 0.5477 1.0443
15 1 1.8867 1.0 0.4962 0.5477 0.7762
16 1 8.4122 1.0 2.2148 0.5477 0.4704
17 1 2.5751 1.0 0.9185 0.5477 0.6693
18 1 2.4721 1.0 1.3417 0.5477 0.6493
19 1 6.9939 1.0 2.6782 0.5477 0.3022
20 1 9.0495 1.0 1.1022 0.5477 0.8439
21 1 5.6490 1.0 0.3302 0.5477 0.9613
22 1 7.3243 1.0 1.4515 0.5477 0.3155
23 1 2.3823 1.0 0.2819 0.5477 0.5491
24 1 9.5811 1.0 2.2933 0.5477 0.4397
25 -1 -5.8680 -1.5 -1.7221 0.8944 0.7389
26 -1 -7.1176 -1.5 -2.4570 0.8944 0.6798
27 -1 -1.3291 -1.5 -1.2125 0.8944 0.2460
28 -1 -8.2828 -1.5 -1.9214 0.8944 1.0403
29 -1 -7.7376 -1.5 -1.7577 0.8944 1.0384
30 -1 -2.0817 -1.5 -1.6561 0.8944 1.2654
(a) (b)
Fig. 4: The obtained irregular geometry of the expandable octahedron tensegrity structure, (a). Top view,
(b). Perspective view.
(a) (b)
Fig. 5: The regular geometry of the expandable octahedron tensegrity structure (Ref.[17]), (a). Top view,
(b). Perspective
1158
Fig. 6: The convergence of the proposed iterative algorithm for the irregular expandable octahedron.
The obtained stable nonregular configuration of the structure is presented in Fig. 4. All
members of the structure have different lengths, which makes it distinguished from its
regular counterpart (Fig. 5) given by Ref.[17]. The form-finding procedure converges in
eighteen iterations in comparison with thirteen iterations [17] for its regular form. The
design error convergence is described in Fig. 6 with ò  1.964 109 . The structure
obtained has only one self-stress state (s = 1) and one infinitesimal mechanism (m = 1)
except for its six rigid-body motions. Accordingly, it belongs to statically and
kinematically indeterminate structure [23].
For the above examples, the force density matrices D are positive semi-definite, which
lead structures to super stable regardless of materials and prestress levels [22].
5 Conclusion
The numerical irregular form-finding procedure has been presented. The topology and
the initial force density vector randomly generated with the sign of each component of
this vector based on the types of members are the required information. Any assumption
about initial nodal coordinates and member lengths is not necessary in the proposed
form-finding procedure. The eigenvalue decomposition of the force density matrix and
the singular value decomposition of the equilibrium matrix are performed iteratively to
find the range of feasible sets of the nodal coordinates and the force densities which
satisfy the required rank deficiencies of the force density and equilibrium matrices,
respectively. In the numerical examples, a very good convergence has been shown for
two- and three-dimensional tensegrity structures. The proposed form-finding procedure
is capable of searching new irregular configurations with limited information of the
topology and the initial randomly generated force density vector.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by Basic Science Research Program through the National
Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and
Technology (2009-0087819).
1159
References
[1] Fuller RB. Synergetics-Explorations in the Geometry of Thinking. London, UK:

Macmillan Publishing Co Inc, 1975.
[2] Tibert AG, Pellegrino S. Deployable tensegrity reflectors for small satellites.
Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets 2002; 39(5):701-709.
[3] Fu F. Structural behavior and design methods of tensegrity domes. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 2005; 61(1):23-35.
[4] Tran HC, Lee J. Initial self-stress design of tensegrity grid structures. Computers
and Structures 2010; 88(9-10):558-566.
[5] Kebiche K, Kazi-Aoual MN, Motro R. Geometrical non-linear analysis of
tensegrity systems. Engineering Structures 1999; 21(9):864-876.
[6] Tran HC, Lee J. Self-stress design of tensegrity grid structures with exostresses. To
appear in International Journal of Solids and Structures.
[7] Ingber DE. The architecture of life. Scientific American 1998; 278(1):48-57.
[8] Connelly R, Whiteley W. Second-order rigidity and prestress stability for
tensegrity frameworks. SIAM Journal on Discrete Mathematics 1996; 9(3):453-491.
[9] Tibert AG, Pellegrino S. Review of form-finding methods for tensegrity structures.
International Journal of Space Structures 2003; 18(4):209-223.
[10] Juan SH, Tur JMM. Tensegrity frameworks: static analysis review. Mechanism and
Machine Theory 2008; 43(7):859-881.
[11] Sultan C. Tensegrity: 60 years of art, science and engineering. Advances in Applied
Mechanics 2009; 43:69-145.
[12] Zhang L, Maurin B, Motro R. Form-finding of nonregular tensegrity systems.
Journal of Structural Engineering-ASCE 2006; 132(9):1435-1440.
[13] Baudriller H, Maurin B, Ca~nadas P, Montcourrier P, Parmeggiani A, Bettache N.
Form-finding of complex tensegrity structures: application to cell cytoskeleton
modelling. Comptes Rendus Mcanique 2006; 334(11):662-668.
[14] Micheletti A, Williams WO. A marching procedure for form-finding for tensegrity
structures. Journal of Mechanics of Materials and Structures 2007; 2(5):101-126.
[15] Rieffel J, Valero-Cuevas F, Lipson H. Automated discovery and optimization of
large irregular tensegrity structures. Computers and Structures 2009; 87(5-6):368-
379.
[16] Xu X, Luo Y. Form-finding of nonregular tensegrities using a genetic algorithm.
Mechanics Research Communications 2010; 37(1):85-91.
[17] Tran HC, Lee J. Advanced form-finding of tensegrity structures. Computers and
Structures 2010; 88(3-4):237-246.
[18] Schek HJ. The force density method for form finding and computation of general
networks. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering 1974;
3(1):115-134.
1160
[19] Vassart N, Motro R. Multiparametered formfinding method: application to

tensegrity systems. International Journal of Space Structures 1999; 14(2):147-154.
[20] Motro R. Tensegrity: Structural Systems for the Future. London: Kogan Page
Science, 2003.
[21] Estrada G, Bungartz H, Mohrdieck C. Numerical form-finding of tensegrity
structures. International Journal of Solids and Structures 2006; 43(22-23):6855-
6868.
[22] Connelly R. Tensegrity structures: why are they stable? In: Thorpe MF, Duxbury
PM(Eds.), Rigidity Theory and Applications. Kluwer Academic Publishers
1999;pp.47-54.
[23] Pellegrino S, Calladine CR. Matrix analysis of statically and kinematically
indeterminate frameworks. International Journal of Solids and Structures 1986;
22(4):409-428.
[24] Meyer CD. Matrix Analysis and Applied Linear Algebra. SIAM, 2000.
[25] Tran HC, Lee J. Advanced form-finding for cable-strut structures. International
Journal of Solids and Structures 47(14-15): 1785-1794.
[26] Pellegrino S. Structural computations with the singular value decomposition of the
equilibrium matrix. International Journal of Solids and Structures 1993;
30(21):3025-3035.
1161
Modeling and configuration optimization method of free-form

space grid structures based on energy method
Na LI1*, Jinyu LU2, Yaozhi LUO 3
1*
College of Civil Engineering, Southeast University, China
Sipailou 2, Nanjing 210096, China
sissi-1001@163.com
2
College of Civil Engineering, Southeast University, China
3
Space Structure Research Center, Zhejiang University, China
Abstract
Combined with mapping technology and quasi-uniform bicubic B-splines, the
energy method is introduced to model and smooth the free-form space grid structure.
Compared with the elastic deformation energy function of thin plate, this paper
establishes a complete energy function which can express surface stiffness and physical
meaning of design parameters completely and clearly. In order to model the free-form
space grid structure, finite element method is introduced to solve the control equation
which is deduced based on the complete energy function. The energy method is also
applied to smooth the surface through the fairing factor adjustment. The effects of
fairing factor on morphological characteristics of grid structure are investigated. The
analyses of free-form surface grid structures verify the practicality and reliability of
method paper discussed.
Keywords: free-form surface, space grid structure, energy method, B-splines, model,
smooth
1 Introduction
In recent years, the advent of free-form space grid structures has brought an extension
of formal freedom that nobody could have imagined in architecture [1-2]. However, it is
difficult to represent free-form surface by direct analytic function. Today, the computer
aided geometric design techniques such as B-splines which can describe the free-form
surface in flexible ways have been gradually applied and make possible challenges. In
interactive design, the control points or knot vectors of B-spline surface can be directly
adjusted to achieve the object configuration [3-5]. But for engineers, the adjustment
based on the behavior of physical media is more convenient than the operation of
abstract geometric parameters. Thus the energy method which combines parametrically
described geometry and energy minimization algorithm was firstly proposed by
Terzopoulos et al [6]. Then Celniker and Gossard [7] established the energy function
which was regarded as the traditional reference by the subsequent studies [8-11] without
verifying its completeness. In this paper, compared with the elastic deformation energy
function of thin plate, a complete energy function is provided to determine the physical
1162
meaning of design parameters, the control equation is deduced, and finite element
method is used to model the free-form space grid structures.
For the configuration optimization, on one hand, if the original data points of surface are scattered or
there are protrudent points such as point clouds gotten by three-dimensional (3D)
measurement, it would affect smoothness of the whole mesh surface [8]. On the other hand, Gong
[12] introduced the reflection meshing method to meth the free-form surface, but some
anamorphic grids would appear in the places where the surface curvature changes sharp
[13]. To deal with those problems, the paper applies the energy method to smooth the mesh
surface through the fairing factor adjustment, and improves constraint condition and
objective function according to the practical acquirement.
2 Complete energy function
2.1 Traditional energy function

The traditional energy function established by Celniker and Gossard [7] is presented as
follows:
  S 2  212 Su S w   22 S w2  
E0    11 u 2 2 
 2 Sf dudw (1)
σ 
 11Suu  212 Suw   22 S ww 
2

where u, w are independent parameters, S=S(u, w)=[x(u, w), y(u, w), z(u, w)] is a surface
patch, Su is shorthand for S u while Suu is shorthand for  2 S u 2 , f=f (u, w) denotes
the applied loads which are changed by the user, and 11～22 are the design parameters.
2.2 Complete energy function establishment

The traditional energy function is derived from physical deformable media. So
compared with the elastic deformation energy function of thin plate [14], the
completeness of traditional energy function will be discussed.
Fig. 1: Load pattern of thin plate element
Figure 1 shows load pattern of a thin plate element. The in-plane forces Fx, Fy, Fxy
induce the tensile and shear deformation, while the lateral load f=f (x, y) distributed on
its upper flat surface induces the bending deformation. Set the lateral deflection w=w(x,
y) along the z axis as the independent variable function, the total energy function is
1163
1  Fx w x2  2 Fxy w x w y  Fy w 2y  
Π      2 wf dxdy
2   Dw xx  2 D1  μ w xy  Dw yy  2 Dμw xx w yy 
2 2 2 (2)
Ω 
Where wx is shorthand for w x while wxx is shorthand for  w x , D=Eh3/[12(1-

2 2
μ2)] is flexural rigidity, E is elastic modulus, h is thickness, and μ is Poisson’s ratio.

Substitution of w=S(u, w) into Eq. (2) gets a complete energy function with reduction of
factor 1/2 as follows:
 Fu Su2  2Fuw Su S w  Fw S w2  
E      2 Sf dudw
σ 
 DS 2
uu
 2 D 1 - μ S 2
uw
 DS 2
ww
 2 DμS uu ww 
S 
(3)
2.3 Complete energy model features

(a) Determination of physical meaning of design parameters
The contrast between Eq. (1) and Eq. (3) shows the corresponding relationship of design
parameters as shown in Table 1.
Table 1: The corresponding relationship of design parameters
Physical meaning u- direction force w- direction force shear force
traditional 11 22 12
complete Fu Fw Fuw
u- direction w- direction bi-direction
Physical meaning shear stiffness
bending stiffness bending stiffness bending stiffness
traditional 11 22 12
complete D D D(1-μ) 2Dμ
In the traditional energy function, design parameters are usually set 1. Table 1 illustrates
that the design parameters have determined physical meaning. For engineers, the
surface can be treated as virtual soft materials such as foam, rubber, etc. to obtain the
required configuration.
(b) Complete expression of surface stiffness
The contrast between Eq. (1) and Eq. (3) finds that the traditional energy function lacks
of the shear stiffness 2DμSuuSww. The complete function can express the surface
stiffness more clearly than the traditional one.
(c) Reasonable curvature distribution
The item 2DμSuuSww provides a bi-direction ability to resist shear deformation so that
the smoothness of the whole surface is improved.
1164
3 Modeling of free-form surface
3.1 Modeling methods representation

It is convenient to apply quasi-uniform bicubic B-splines to deal with the constraint
condition, and its patch is defined as [8]:
S (u, w)  N (u, w)V  uBV 0 BT w T (4)
Where u, w are independent parameters, u∈[0, 1], w∈[0, 1], u = [u3 u2 u 1], w = [w3
w2 w 1], B is the coefficient matrix of quasi-uniform B-spline basis functions, V is
control points vector of surface patch, and V0 is control points matrix form. Patches
arranged in sequence compose the whole surface. Substitution of Eq. (4) into Eq. (3)
gets surface element energy function:
1 1 Fu N uT N u   2Fuw N uT N w   Fw N wT N w  
E V T  
0 0  DN N   2 D1 -  N N

T
uu uu
T
uw uw
  DN ww N ww   2D N uu N ww dudwV 
T T
2V T    N T f dudw  V T KV  2V T F f
1 1
(5)
0 0
According to the energy minimization algorithm, the application of variational principle

E V  0 gets surface element control function:
KV  F f (6)
Where K is element stiffness matrix and Ff is element nodal load vector. So the total
control equation is
K sVs  Fsf (7)
Where Ks is total stiffness matrix, Vs is total control points vector, and Fsf is total nodal
load vector.
The constraint condition is AVs = b. In order to convert the constraint condition into the
external energy, penalty factor  is introduced as follows:
Esw 
1
2 2

AVs  bT αI AVs  b  1 VsT K wVs  2VsT Fw  bT αI b  (8)
Apply the variational principle Esw Vs  0 ,
K wVs  Fw (9)
Where Kw is penalty element stiffness matrix and Fw is penalty element nodal load
vector.
Combination with Eq. (7) and Eq. (9) gets the total control function with constraint
condition:
K s  K w Vs  Fsf  Fw (10)
1165
The procedure of finite element method to solve the control function is as follows:
(a) Input the initial conditions: the design parameters, constraint and load conditions.
(b) Mesh the surface and number control points.
(c) Evaluate element stiffness matrix K and the element nodal load vector Ff.
(d) Assemble total stiffness matrix Ks and the total nodal load vector Fsf, and introduce
the constraints matrix Kw and Fw.
(e) Solve the Eq. (10) to get the total control points vector Vs.
(f) Substitute into Eq. (4) to model the surface.
3.2 Modeling example

The initial condition is shown in Figure 2a. The boundaries AB, BC, CD, DA are fixed,
and the lateral loads are f1 and f2. The design parameters are Fu=1, Fw=1, Fuw=0, D=1,
μ=0.5.
a. initial condition b. free-form surface c. surface patch

Fig. 2: Modeling example
a. curve L1 b. curve L2 c. curve L3

Fig. 3: Curvatures of curves L1-L3
Model two surfaces W1 and W2 (see Figure 2b) based on the traditional and the complete
energy function respectively. In surface patch EFCG (see Figure 2c), the coordinate
discrepancy of corresponding points P1(9, 9, 1.577) and P2(9, 9, 1.428) is (0, 0, 0.149).
The deformation based on the complete energy function is milder. The curvatures of
curves L1-L3 (see Figure 2a) are shown in Figure 3. It illustrates that the curvatures
based on the complete energy function distribute absolutely more reasonably.
1166
4 Optimization of free-form surface space grid structures
4.1 Fairing methods representation

B-spline surface is meshed by the reflection meshing method to get the grid structure.
So the fairing of grid structure can be performed based on the surface expression. The
energy method can adjust the surface to minimize its energy and allow the smooth
surfaces satisfying to user controlled geometric constraints, so the smooth optimization
problem is as follows:
min E Vs  (11a)
s.t. DVs   ε (11b)

Where the independent variable Vs is control points vector of smooth surface. Eq. (11a)
is the fairing object function, and Eq. (11b) is the constraint condition and limits the
scope between the original and the smooth surface. Substitute of Eq. (3) into Eq. (11a)
without consideration of load energy item as follows:
E   Fu Su2  2Fuw Su S w  Fw S w2  DSuu
2
 2D1 - μ Suw
2
 DS ww
2
 2DμSuu S ww dudw (12)
σ
Analogously, substituting of Eq. (4) into Eq. (12), after element assembly, it gets
E  VsT K sVs (13)
In general processing, the constraint condition Eq. (11b) is the deviation tolerance of
control points between the original surface S0(u, w) and the smooth surface S(u, w),
which is difficult to control the deviation tolerance of grid points. So the deviation
tolerance of grid points is proposed here,
   
DVs    S ui , w j  S 0 ui , w j  AVs  b  ε
n m
(14)
i 1 j 1
Thus Eq. (11) convert into the following form:

min E Vs   min VsT K sVs  (15a)
s.t. DVs   AVs  b  ε (15b)
The fairing factor  is introduced to convert the constraint condition into the constraint
energy,
Es Vs   VsT K sVs  AVs  bT αI AVs  b

1
(16)
2
Apply the variational principle Es Vs  0,
K s  K w Vs  Fw (17)
1167
Where Kw=AT(I)A is fairing stiffness matrix and Fw=AT(I)b is fairing nodal load
vector.
The procedure of smoothing is as follows:
(a) Input the initial conditions: the design parameters, constraint conditions, and fairing
factor.
(b) Mesh the surface and number control points, and evaluate element stiffness matrix K.
(c) Assemble total stiffness matrix Ks, and introduce the fairing constraints matrix Kw
and Fw.
(d) Solve the Eq. (17) to get the total control points Vs of smooth surface.
(e) Check the deviation tolerance of grid points between the original surface S0(u, w)
and the smooth surface S(u, w). If the deviation tolerance is less than the given tolerance
ε, S(u, w) is the object surface. If not, increase the fairing factor , and go to step (c).
4.2 Fairing example

The original data points shown in Figure 4a are processed through reverse modelling
technique to get the space grid structure as shown in figure 4b [3, 15].
a. data points b. gird structure

Fig. 4: Original free-form surface
Design parameters are set Fu=1, Fw=1, Fuw=0, D=1, μ=0.5, =100. Compared with the
original (see Figure 5a), the Gaussian curvature scope of smooth surface (see Figure 5b)
is shrunken, and the quantity of protrudent points is reduced.
a. original grid structures b. =100 c. =0

Fig. 5: Gaussian curvature of grid structure
It is noted that when <1, the smooth effect is influenced absolutely by design
parameters that may decide the surface deformation ability. Especially, when =0, the
original surface becomes a shrunken surface (see Figure 5c), and it approaches the
lowest energy state, according to the energy minimization algorithm [8].
1168
5 Conclusions
Through the discussion of the elastic deformation energy function of thin plate, it is
found that the traditional energy function lacks of the shear stiffness 2DμSuuSww. This
paper establishes a complete energy function which can express surface stiffness and
physical meaning of design parameters completely and clearly. In order to model the
free-form space grid structure, finite element method is introduced to solve the control
equation which is deduced based on the complete energy function. The modeling
example illustrates that the surface curvatures based on the complete energy function
distribute absolutely more reasonably.
The energy method can adjust the surface to minimize its energy and allow the smooth
surfaces satisfying to user controlled geometric constraints, so it is also applied to
smooth the surface through the fairing factor adjustment. Consideration with the
adjustment convenience, the constraint condition of the deviation tolerance of grid
points is proposed to control the change of the surface. The relationship between the
fairing factor and design parameters shows they can both influence the smooth effect.
The fairing example verifies the practicality and reliability of method paper discussed.
The free-form surface space grid structures have great potential application in the future.
This energy method will be helpful to accelerate the development of this new form
space grid structure.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided for this work by the
China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (No.20100471367) and Jiangsu Planned
Projects for Postdoctoral Research Funds (No.0902005B).
References
[1] Massimo M. Architecture & structures: ethics in free-form-design. New Olympics
New Shell and Spatial Structures, IASS-APCS 2006 Symposium, Beijing, China,
2006.
[2] Harald K. Structural design of contemporary free-form-architecture. New Olympics
New Shell and Spatial Structures, IASS-APCS 2006 Symposium, Beijing, China,
2006.
[3] N. Li and Y. Z. Luo. New modeling technique for bionic space grid structures.
International Journal of Advanced Steel Construction 2009; 5(1): 1-13.
[4] Li Na and Luo Yaozhi. Modeling method for bionic latticed shell. Proceedings of
The 3rd International Conference on Steel and Composite Structures, Manchester,
2007: 1005-1009.
[5] Li Na, Cen Peichao and Luo Yaozhi. Modeling method of the scallop-shaped lattice
shell and optimization with strain energy method. Bulletin of Science and
Technology 2008; 24(2): 224-230 (in Chinese).
[6] Terzopoulos D, Platt J, Barr A, et al. Elastically deformable models. Computer
Graphics 1987; 21(4): 205-214.
1169
[7] Celniker G and Gossard D. Deformable curve and surface finite-elements for free-
form sharp design. Computer Graphics 1991; 25(4): 257-266.
[8] Zhu Xinxiong et al. The modeling technique of free-form curve and surface.
Beijing: Science Press, 2000 (in Chinese).
[9] Guan Zhidong. The study on the deformable curve and surface modeling techniques.
Beijing: Beijing University of Aeronautics & Astronautics, 1996 (in Chinese).
[10] Jing Ling, Xi Ping and Tang Rongxi. Application of finite element method in
deformable curve and surface model. Chinese Journal of Computers 1998; 21(3):
245-251 (in Chinese).
[11] Wesselink W and Veltkamp R C. Interactive design of constrained variational
curves. Computer Aided Geometric Design 1995; 12(5): 533-546.
[12] Gong Xiaoying. Research on generating free space surface and mesh technology.
Hangzhou: Zhejiang University, 2004 (in Chinese).
[13] Xiong Ying, Hu Yujin and Zhao Jianjun. An algorithm of surface triangulation
based on mapping and delaunay method. Journal of Computer-Aided Design and
Computer Graphics 2002; 14(1): 56-60 (in Chinese).
[14] Hu Haichang. The variational principles of elasticity with applications. Beijing:
Science Press, 1981 (in Chinese).
[15] Li Na and Luo Yaozhi. Reverse modeling method of space grid structures.
Proceedings of The 7th modern structure engineering, Hangzhou, 2007 (in Chinese).
1170
Extended Force Density Method on Form-Finding

of Tension Structures
Masaaki MIKI1*, Ken‟ichi KAWAGUCHI 2
1*
Graduate Student, Department of Engineering, the University of Tokyo, Japan
Society for the Promotion of Science Research Fellow (DC)
Bw501, Komaba 4-6-1, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8505, Japan
mikity@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Prof., Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo, Dr. Eng.
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to extend one of the foregoing methods on form-
finding of tension structures, the force density method (FDM) [1]. While FDM enables
us to find the forms of cable-nets by solving just a set of simultaneous linear equations,
it is pointed out that some difficulties arise when we apply FDM to the pre-stressed
structures consist as a combination of both tension and compression members.
Therefore, FDM still has a room to be extended.
As an analytical approach on the form-finding of pre-stressed structures, there are two
types of mathematical expression to be solved. One is an equilibrium equation based on
the self-equilibrium state. The other is a stationary problem of a functional based on the
variational principle. In general, the equilibrium equations and the stationary problems
of a functional are closely related to each other.
While the original FDM formulation is derived from a set of equilibrium equations, we
can indicate the existence of the variational principle in it. Thus, the functional related
to FDM is revealed.
Here, we extend FDM by considering various functionals as a generalization of the
related functional. Such newly introduced functionals enable us to find the forms of
complex tension structures which combine cables, tension membranes and compression
members, e.g. tensegrity, suspended membranes, etc.
In the first half of this paper, the concept of the extended force density method is
introduced. In the last part, some numerical examples are also shown with the
corresponding functionals.
Keywords: Tension structure, Force density method, Functional, Tensegrity, Cable-net,

Membrane
1 Introduction
Since the tension structures, such as cable-nets, suspended membranes, tensegrities, etc.,
are stabilized by introducing pre-stress, they require a process in which ensures them to
have a self-equilibrium state, so-called pre-stress state. While the existence of a pre-
stress state relies on their form, the process is so-called “form-finding”. For this purpose,
various numerical methods have already been proposed by many researchers.
1171
The purpose of this paper is to extend one of such foregoing methods, the force density
method (FDM) [1]. While FDM enables us to find the forms of cable-nets by solving
just a set of simultaneous linear equations, it is pointed out that some difficulties arise
when we apply FDM to the pre-stressed structures consist as a combination of tension
and compression members, e.g. tensegrities. Therefore, FDM still has a room to be
extended.
As an analytical approach for form-finding, there are two types of mathematical
expression to be solved. One is an equilibrium equation based on a self-stress state. The
other is a stationary problem of a functional based on the variational principle. In
general, the equilibrium equations and the stationary problems of a functional are
closely related to each other.
In this paper, therefore, we firstly indicate the existence of the variational principle in
FDM. Thus, the functional related to FDM is revealed. We also point out that the
selection of the functional on form-finding analysis has wide possibilities. Since FDM
has a related functional, we can extend FDM by considering various functional as a
generalization of it. In the last part, some numerical examples are also shown with the
corresponding functionals.
2 Force Density Method

2.1 Original Formulation
In 1973, FDM was first proposed by Linkwitz and Scheck. The characteristics of FDM
are integrated into two parts. The first is its definition and use of the quantity called
“force density”. The force density qj is defined by
q j  n j / Lj , (1)
where nj and Lj denote the tension and the length of j-th cable respectively, as shown in
Fig. 1(a). Following FDM procedure, each cable is assigned a force density as a known
parameter while nj and Lj are unknown. Therefore, FDM usually requires some
experiences to acquire an adequate configuration of the force densities.
The second is its linear form of the equilibrium equation. When the force densities are
assigned and the fixed nodes and their coordinates are defined, the self-equilibrium
condition for cable-nets is expressed as:
     
Dx  D f x f , Dy  D f y f , Dz  D f z f , (2)
in which D is the equilibrium matrix, x, y and z are the column vectors containing the
nodal coordinates of each node. The terms with subscript f are related to the fixed nodes
and those with no subscript are related to the free nodes. Here, note that this linear form
is not „approximated‟.
Since only x, y and z are the unknown variables, we can obtain the nodal coordinates of
the free nodes just by
     
x  D 1 ( D f x f ) , y  D 1 ( D f y f ) , z  D 1 ( D f z f ) . (3)
Once the nodal coordinates are obtained, the tension of each cable is calculated by Eq.
(1).
Using FDM, we can perform a form-study of cable-nets by changing the coordinates of
1172
the fixed nodes or the force densities of the cables as shown in Fig. 1(b).
(a) Force density (b) Form finding analysis with FDM

Fig.1: Force Density Method
2.2 Limit of FDM

On form-finding of a self-equilibrium system
which consists as a combination of both
compression and tension members, e.g.
tensegrity, FDM arises some difficulties when
we assign „minus„ force densities to the
compression members (struts) in contrast to the
tension members (cables)[2][3][4][5].
Let us consider a form-finding of the pre-
Fig.2: X-Tensegrity stressed structure called X-Tensegrity, shown in
Fig. 2. An X-Tensegrity is a planer pre-stressed
structure consists of 4 cables and 2 struts. The
struts connect to each other by the cables and do
not constrain each other.
For such isolated self-equilibrium systems, Eq.
(a) (b) (2) results in a simple form as
     
Fig.3: Instances Dx  0 , Dy  0 , Dz  0 ,
(4)
since they have no fixed nodes. When D is a regular matrix, a trivial solution is only
obtained, such as
   
x  y  z 0 . (5)
However, when D is a non-regular matrix, eq. (4) has complementary solutions. Such
solutions are obtained by analyzing the null-space of D. However, even if we do so, the
conciseness of FDM no longer exists as follows:
 When the assigned force densities are proportional to 1:1:1:1:-1:-1 for the 4
cables and the 2 struts respectively, many solutions are obtained. For example,
Fig.3 (a) and (b) both satisfy Eq. (4). The followings are an example of D and the
corresponding solutions for x:
 1  1 1 1  1  1   0 
 1  1 1 1      
D  , x  a 1  b  1  c  0  , (6)
 1 1  1  1 1  0   1 
      
 1 1  1  1 1  0   1
1173
where a, b and c are arbitrary. The same solutions are obtained for y and z.
 When the assigned force densities are not proportional to 1:1:1:1:-1:-1, the
obtained solutions do not describe a form. The folowings are an example of D
and the corresponding solutions for x, y and z:
 3  1 2 2 1 1 1
1  3 2 2 1 1 1
D , x  a  , y  b  , z  c   . (7)
2 2  1  3 1 1 1
    
2 2  3  1 1 1 1
This describes that every nodes are gathering on one point, i.e. [a b c].
2.3 Related Functional and the

Variational Principle
The following is the functional related to
FDM:
( x)   w j L j ( x) ,
2
(8)
(a) L (b) Equilibrium State (b) jEquilibrium of linear member
Fig. 4: Linear Member in which wj and Lj are an assigned weight
coefficient and a function to give the length for the j-th cable respectively. The column
vector x contains the x, y and z coordinates of the free nodes. It can be generalized as an
unknown variable vector by
x  x1  xn  .
T
(9)
Note that the known variables related to the fixed nodes are eliminated beforehand.
Let us consider the stationary condition of Eq. (8) by
( x) 
    2w j L j L j  0 , (10)
x j
where ∇ is the gradient operator defined by

f  f f 
f 
  , (11)
x  x1 x n 
which gives the steepest increase direction on a hyper surface. In this paper, a particular
function is only considered as L that takes two nodal coordinates and gives the distance
between them. As shown in Fig. 4(a), L describes two normalized vectors assigned on
each node. On the other hand, let n denotes the axial force of a linear member and the
member be balanced with two nodal loads applied on both ends as shown in Fig. 4(b).
Comparing Fig. 4(a) and (b), a self-equilibrium state of the cables is expressed as a
general form:

 j j .
n  L  0
j
(12)
Eq. (12) also lead us another form. Let δx=[δx1 …δxn]T be an arbitrary column vector, in
1174
other words, the virtual displacement. Let δLj=Lj∙ δx be the variation of Lj. Then, we
obtain the principle of virtual work for the general pre-stressed cable-nets:
w   n j L j  0 . (13)
j
Substituting Eq. (1) to Eq. (13), we obtain


j q j L j L j  0 , (14)
which is an alternative form for the self-equilibrium equation of FDM. Therefore, since
Eq. (10) and Eq. (14) are mathematically equivalent, Eq. (8) is the functional related to
FDM. Moreover, the assigned weights are presumed that they would play the same role
as the force densities do on form-finding.
Eq. (8) and (10) also lead us the principle of virtual work and the variational principle
for FDM by:
    x   2w j L j L j  0 . (15)
j
3 Extended Force Density Method

3.1 Generalization of the Related Functional
As well as FDM does, the stationary problem of Eq. (8) also arises some difficulties
when we assign „minus„weights to the struts in contrast to the cables. However, since
the related functional have already been clarified, we are able to extend FDM by
generalizing it.
Let us consider the form-finding of the X-Tensegrity again. While the coordinates of the
fixed nodes are assigned to cable-nets as the kinematic conditions, it seems unnatural
that no kinematic conditions are assigned to the X-Tensegrities. Then, for each strut, let
us assign the objective length as a kinematic condition instead of a weight as a
parameter. Therefore, we obtain a composed functional given by Lagrange‟s multiplier
method:
 ( x, λ)   w j L j ( x )   k ( Lk ( x )  Lk ) ,
2
(16)
j k
in which the second sum being taken for every strut, λk and Lk are the Lagrange’s
multiplier and the objective length for the k-th strut respectively. If the assigned weights
of the cables are proportional to 1:1:1:1 and the assigned lengths of the struts are
proportional to 1:1, both Fig.3 (a) and (b) satisfy the stationary condition of Eq. (16).
Considering the famous Pythagorean Theorem, i.e. c2=a2+b2, we can confirm that the
sum of the squared length of the cables takes the same number for both Fig.3 (a) and (b).
Here, note that we are able to try other functionals, for example,
 ( x, λ)   w j L j ( x )   k ( Lk ( x )  Lk ) ,
4
(17)
j k
because the functionals presented above do not have any physical meanings, e.g. energy.
Therefore, the exponent on Lj has no inevitability to remain 2 either. Solving the
1175
stationary problem of Eq. (17), Fig. 3(a) is the unique solution when the weights of the
cables are assigned as 1:1:1:1 and the lengths of the struts are assigned as 1:1. In turn,
Fig. 3(b) is the unique solution when the weights are assigned as 1:8:1:8 and the lengths
are assigned as 1:1. As same as FDM, we can obtain different forms by changing the
weights of the cables.
Here, let us consider a generalized functional as follows:
( x, λ)    j ( L j ( x ))   k ( Lk ( x )  Lk )  stationary. (18)
j k
When the functional is stationary, the stationary condition of Eq. (18) is satisfied, which
is given by
  j ( L j ) 
 L j   k Lk  0 . (19)
x j L j k
Then, when Eq. (19) is satisfied, comparing Eq. (12) and Eq. (19), the following non-
trivial configuration satisfies the self equilibrium condition:
  ( L ) 
n 1 1  1  , (20)
 L1 
which is called the self-equilibrium mode. Therefore, we proclaim that any functional
compatible to Eq. (18) has a possibility to suit such problems. From here, we call πj the
element functional and introduce an aspect that it can be selected freely. Thus, we
propose following 2 general policies:
 Perform a form-finding analysis by solving a stationary problem of a freely
selected functional
 When some difficulties arise, test other functionals.
Let us consider the relation between Eq. (20) and FDM. If wjLj2 is selected as the
element functional, Eq. (20) lead us a relation,
n j  2w j L j  w j  n j / 2L j . (21)
Therefore, it is confirmed that the assignment of the force densities is equivalent to the
assignment of the weights. In turn, if wjLj4 is selected, we obtain a relation,
n j  4w j L j  w j  n j / 4 L j .
3 3
(22)
Therefore, it is confirmed that the definition of a new quantity wj=nj/4Lj 3 and the
assignment of it is equivalent to the selection of wL4 as the element functional and the
assignment of weights. We call such new quantities, e.g. wj=nj/4Lj3, the extended force
density.
Without the great advantage of the linear form, we can summarize again the key
features of FDM, based on the investigation above:
 The coordinates are assigned to each fixed node as a kinematic condition.
 Force densities qj=nj/Lj are assigned to each cable as a known parameter.
On the other hand, in case which wL4 is selected as the element functional, the key
features of the extended FDM are:
 The objective lengths Lk are assigned to each strut as a kinematic condition.
1176
 Extended force densities wj=nj/4Lj3 are assigned to each cable as a known

parameter.
Thus, it is confirmed that the extended FDM is a generalization of FDM. Moreover, the
general form of the functionals, such as Eq. (18), enables us to select various non-linear
computational methods when we perform the extended FDM.
3.2 Additional Analyses

This chapter presents some additional numerical
analyses to support the comprehension of the extended
FDM.
Let us consider an analytical model as shown in Fig. 5,
that 220 cables connect to each other and 5 fixed nodes
Fig. 5: Analytical Model and its coordinates are defined.
Fig. 6 (a-i) to (a-iv) show the results of the
optimization problems to minimize the sum of the length of the cables powered by 1 to
4.
Fig. 6 (b-i) to (b-iv) show the other results of the same optimization applied to another
pre-stressed structure consists of 9 cables and 3 struts, which is called Simplex
Tensegrity. For the Simplex Tensegrity, the optimization was only performed for the
cables and the lengths of the struts were kept to the same number during it.
Comparing especially Fig. 6(a-ii) and (b-ii), it is implied that different selection of
functional is required for cable-nets and tensegrities.
L  L j 2  min L L
3 4
(a-i) j  min (a-ii) (a-iii) j  min (a-iv) j  min
(b-i) L j  min (b-ii) L j  min (b-iii) L j  min (b-iv) L j  min

Fig.6: Optimization Results
In this chapter, we show some numerical examples of the applied extended FDM. For a
general problem given by Eq. (18), the unknown variables are originally x and λ.
However, we just minimized the sum of the element functionals by satisfying the
constraint conditions of the struts. While the general non-linear computations require
the adequate initial x for the first step, we assigned the random numbers from -2.5 to 2.5
for each unknown variable. In spite of such rude manner, we always achieved to obtain
an expected solution.
1177
4.1 Structures Combine Cables and Struts

Let 20 struts be defined, and the sequential nodal numbers be assigned to both ends, as
shown in Fig. 7 (a). For example, 1 and 2 are assigned to the 1st strut, 3 and 4 are
assigned to the 2nd strut, and vice versa. Let N be an arbitrary natural number from 1 to
9. Let the i-th node connects, by 4 cables, to the nodes i+2N-th, i+2N+1-th, i+(40-2N)-th
and i+(40-2N-1)-th. If the calculated nodal number is greater than 40, no connection
added. Then we obtain 9 different analytical models. Fig 7. (b) describes the 8 cables
connect to the 1st and 2nd nodes when N=6. Using these models, we performed a form-
finding of unknown tensegrities by solving following problem:
 ( x , λ)   w j L j ( x )   k ( Lk ( x )  Lk )  stationary.
4
(23)
j k
Since the functional is assumed multimodal, more than 9 results were discovered. Fig.8
shows some of them.
(a) Indices of Nodes (b) 8 Cables Connect to 1st and 2nd (N=6)
Fig. 7: Instruction for Configuration
Fig. 8: Discovered Tensegrities
4.2 Structures Combine Cables, Membranes and Struts

In this section, we extend Eq. (18) as follows:
 ( x, λ)    j ( L j ( x ))    j ' ( S j ( x )) 
j j
, (24)
k k ( Lk ( x)  Lk )  stationary
1178
in which the first summation being taken for every linear element, the second, for every
triangular element, and the third, for every strut. A function Sj is defined that to give the
j-th element area. The forms of the cables are represented by the linear elements, and
the forms of the membranes are represented by the triangular elements. The stationary
condition of Eq. (24) is given by
  j ( L j )  j ' ( S j ) 
 L j   S j   k Lk  0 . (25)
x j L j j S j k
Replacing the partial differential factors by

 j ( L j )  j ' ( S j )
nj  ,j  , (26)
L j S j
we derive the general form of a self-equilibrium state:
 
  n j L j   j S j   k Lk  0 . (27)
x j j k
Eq. (27) also leads us the principle of virtual work for the general self-equilibrium
systems:
w   n jL j    jS j   kLk  0 . (28)
j j k
Eq. (24) suits the form-finding of a structure combines cables, tension membranes and
struts. We performed a form-finding analysis of the model which consists of 24 cables,
6 membranes and 6 struts. Fig 9. shows some results and the following is the selected
problem to be solved:
( x, λ)   w j L j ( x )   w j S j ( x ) 
4 2
j j
. (29)
k k ( Lk ( x)  Lk )  stationary
Through the analysis, we were able to obtain different forms by changing the weights or
the lengths of the struts.
Fig. 9: Structures Combine Cables, Membranes and Struts
4.3 Structures Combine Cables, Membranes, Struts and Fixed Nodes

We also performed a form-study of a suspended membrane structure which imitates the
“Tanzbrunnen Koln” by Frei Otto (1957). The following is the selected problem to be
solved:
1179
( x, λ)   w j L j ( x )   w j S j ( x ) 
4 2
j j
. (30)
 k ( Lk ( x)  Lk )  stationary
k
As shown in Fig. 10, by changing the weights and the lengths of the struts, we finally
succeeded to obtain an elegant form.
Fig. 10: Form-Study of a Suspended Membrane
5 Conclusion
The extended force density method was proposed, which suit the form-finding of pre-
stressed structures combine compression members. The extension was derived by
generalizing the functional related to FDM, since it was confirmed that the variational
principle also exists in FDM. Moreover, it was indicated that various functionals can be
selected on form-finding of tension structures. As a result, various self-equilibrium
forms were obtained by solving the stationary problems of them.
Reference
[1] Schek, H. J., The force density method for form finding and computation of general
networks, Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg1974; 3: 115-134.
[2] Connelly, R., and Back, A., Mathematics and tensegrity, American Scientist
1998;86 :142–151.
[3] Tibert, A. G. and Pellegrino, S., Review of form-finding methods for tensegrity
structures, Int. J. Space Struct2003;18(4): 209-223.
[4] Zhang, JY., and Ohsaki, M., Adaptive force density method for form-finding
problem of tensegrity structures, Int. J. Solids Struct2006;43:5658-5673.
[5] Vassart, N., Motro, R., Multiparametered formfinding method: application to
tensegrity systems. Int. J. Space Struct1999; 14(2):147– 154.
1180
Geometric method- a graphical method for the determination

of self-equilibrium mode of cable dome structures
Mohammad MOGHADDAS 1, K.K.CHOONG 2*

1, 2
Universiti Sains Malaysia
School of Civil Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia
14300 Nibong Tebal, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
cekkc@eng.usm.my
Abstract
In this article a new method based on the basic principle of closed force polygon
for system in equilibrium is presented for the determination self-equilibrium mode of
cable dome structure. The new method proposed has the advantage of simplicity in
procedures with only CAD tool needed. The main advantage of this method is the
ability to use it for configuration design of cable dome structures. In real structure
where the outer ring joints are made of rigid joints, the load on each joint can be
predicted. In this paper, two numerical examples are presented. The first one is a
simple example where step-by-step procedures of geometric method are shown. The
second example is a general example showing the ability of the proposed geometric
method.
Keywords: cable dome, geometric method, force polygon, self equilibrium mode
1 Introduction
Cable dome is a kind of tensegrity structure. Outer ring, inner ring, radial member and
mast member are the main components in a cable dome structure (Fig.1). In a cable
dome structure, the mast and the outer ring members are in compression but the radial
and inner ring members are in tension. These cables should be pre-tensioned in order to
achieve a self-equilibrium state. Determination of ratio of forces in each member for
achieving self-equilibrium is a critical part of analysis of cable dome structures.
Since a cable dome with its members pre-stressed is in the state of self equilibrium, all
the joints must be in equilibrium under the action of member forces(tensions or
compression). For maintaining equilibrium at particular joint, the summation of forces
at that joint must be zero. Maintenance of equilibrium of force due to pre-tension at
each joint is the basic principle of the new method – called geometric method, for
finding self equilibrium mode or force ratio. When the summation of three or more
force vectors is zero, it is well known that the vectors have to form a close polygon
(Fig.2). Specifying a reference value, the summation of force ratios at each joint in a
cable dome structure should form a close polygon. This is the basis of geometric
method.
1181
Fig.1: The components of cable dome
Fig.2: The summation of vectors
A lot of previous works have been carried out on cable dome structures
[Yamamoto(1993), Choong et al.(2000), Choong et al.(2005), Chong(2006) and Tee
(2009)]. With regards to the aspect of analysis to determine the self-equilibrium mode,
solution of mathematical equation is mainly used. As error is bound to occur in
numerical analysis, cases of analysis where solutions of self-equilibrium mode do not
exist could be due to the configuration investigated or it could also be possibly due to
error during numerical calculation. In contrast to the numerical analysis approach as
mentioned earlier, a graphical method whereby the process of determination of self-
equilibrium mode can be “visualized” has been proposed.
2 Procedures of the proposed geometric method

The proposed procedures are applicable to cable dome structure of which the
configuration is symmetry with respect of a plane passing through the compression ring.
In the present study, the type is limited to the so-called bicycle-wheel like cable dome
structures. Only the magnitude of the force ratios is determined. Proper assignment of
positive and negative sign to denote member in tension and compression, respectively,
is decided by the users. The procedures of the proposed geometric method are
presented using a simple example as shown in Figure 3. The cable dome example has
18 members and 9 joints.
At the beginning the cable dome is transformed to a equivalent 2D model which
corresponds to the projection of the dome onto the plane of symmetry(Fig.3). A suitable
CAD program is used to draw this projected 2D model. Procedures of analysis are
1182
started from a selected joint of the cable dome model. Any joint can be selected. Also
the value of the ratio of a member is assumed and the ratios of other member are
determined based on this assumption. Joint 1 is selected for this example. The ratio of
member 1-4 is assumed to be equal to its member length. Three members 1-2, 1-3 and
1-4 are connected to joint 1. The summation of the force ratios should be zero thus
making a close polygon (Step 1).
Fig.3: Procedures of geometric method
This ring is in the form of a triangle and all angles in the projected 2D model are known.
Also under the assumption, one side of it is known. There is only one possibility for
drawing a triangle under such condition and it can be easily drawn using any suitable
CAD program. The subsequent joint for analysis is a joint next to the first one. The
analysis is continued using joint 2. Members 1-2, 2-3 and 2-5 are connected to joint 2
and their force ratios should form a triangle. The ratio for member 1-2 and all angles of
this triangle are known, Therefore second triangle is drawn next to the previous one
with the shared member (1-2) between them ( Step 2).
The process is continued until the last joint. For drawing the triangle of joint 3, the
length of members 1-3 and 2-3 are known and only one member with a particular angle
is able to form a close polygon. If member 3-6 has this particular angle, the triangle for
the last joint can be drawn. But if the angle of the last member is not suitable, the force
polygon is not able to close indicating that it is not possible to achieve self-equilibrium.
The configuration of the cable dome has to be modified by changing for example the
arrangement of joints of the outer ring. After drawing the last triangle, the outer ring
force ratio polygon is drawn (Step 3).
In the next step, the corresponding force ratio polygon is drawn for inner ring. Joint 4 is
selected as the first joint of inner ring for analysis. The length of member 1-4 for the
force ratio polygon of outer ring is known; hence a triangle is drawn for joint 4 (Step 4).
For joint 5, the length of members 2-5 and 4-5 are known (Step 5). This condition is the
same as that for joint 3. There exist possibility that a close triangle for this joint is not
able to be drawn indicating that the configuration of the inner ring is not suitable for the
1183
corresponding shape of outer ring to maintain self-equilibrium state. For joint 6 the
procedures are the same as those for joint 5 (Step 6).
At the end of the graphical procedures of geometric method, two force ratio polygons
are drawn. The length of each side in these polygons is the force ratio for the
corresponding member in the projected 2D model(Fig.4). For transforming from the
projected 2D model back to original 3D configuration of the cable dome, the force ratio
fi of outer ring member should be recalculated due to the inclination  with respect to
horizontal plane of the corresponding member by means of the simple relation
fi,3D=fi,2D/cos. Since inner ring member all lie parallel to the plane of symmetry, the
corresponding force ratio can be directly used in the original 3D configuration. The
force ratio of mast member is obtained using the relation fi,3Dsin.
Fig.4: Force ratio polygons of inner and outer ring
3. Example of application to complex cable dome structure

The next example is a complex cable dome with 108 members and 47 joints. The
configuration has been designed using geometric method. The coordinates of joints are
shown in Table 1. The following novel features are introduced in the configuration of
this example: there are two openings, an outer ring member is used as a side of an
opening, a hexagonal ring is connected to quadrilateral ring, the shape of each ring is
completely different from each other, all joints are pin joints except four joints (joints 1,
2, 6 and 7 are rigid joints) and two different kind of multi inner ring layers cable domes
are used for the openings (Fig.5).
1184
Table 1: Coordinates of joint

Outer ring pin joint 03 04 05 08 09 10
X 86.5919 94.5265 102.7778 -36.5761 -49.7421 -49.9632
Y 8.9134 15.7102 34.2091 62.9710 30.9821 5.2863
Z 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
Outer ring fix joint 01 02 06 07
X 0.0000 74.0782 78.8114 -0.3730
Y 0.0000 5.5010 66.9319 70.2379
Z 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
Right 2nd upper inner ring 12 13 14 15
X 100.6033 81.9616 65.3668 74.7187
Y 32.4496 36.9856 24.0972 6.6566
Z 15.3094 15.3094 15.3094 15.3094
Right 2nd lower inner ring 30 31 32 33
X 100.6033 81.9616 65.3668 74.7187
Y 32.4496 36.9856 24.0972 6.6566
Z -15.3094 -15.3094 -15.3094 -15.3094
Right 1st upper inner ring 16 17 18 19
X 92.6075 82.7539 74.8193 78.7618
Y 25.9802 29.4533 22.6565 13.9510
Z 23.3986 23.3986 23.3986 23.3986
st
Right 1 lower inner ring 34 35 36 37
X 92.6075 82.7539 74.8193 78.7618
Y 25.9802 29.4533 22.6565 13.9510
Z -23.3986 -23.3986 -23.3986 -23.3986
Left 2nd upper inner ring 20 21 22 23 24 25
X -7.6515 -16.5973 -34.9420 -43.5517 -43.5330 -20.8731
Y 35.2267 53.6666 53.7315 34.9251 12.6856 14.7618
Z 15.3094 15.3094 15.3094 15.3094 15.3094 15.3094
Left 2nd lower inner ring 38 39 40 44 42 43
X -7.6515 -16.5973 -34.9420 -43.5517 -43.5330 -20.8731
Y 35.2267 53.6666 53.7315 34.9251 12.6856 14.7618
Z -30.6183 -30.6183 -30.6183 -30.6183 -30.6183 -30.6183
Left 1st upper inner ring 26 27 28 29
X -12.0339 -25.5216 -32.8243 -33.7900
Y 35.8947 44.5513 41.7578 23.8969
Z 23.3986 23.3986 23.3986 23.3986
Left 1st lower inner ring 44 45 46 47
X -12.0339 -25.5216 -32.8243 -33.7900
Y 35.8947 44.5513 41.7578 23.8969
Z 7.2201 7.2201 7.2201 7.2201
Conjunction joint 11
X 28.8576 Y 29.6620 Z 0.0000
1185
Fig.5: A complex cable dome structure
The force ratio of each member after applying the geometric method is summarized in
Table 2. For the purpose of checking for satisfaction of equilibrium of obtained results,
the force ratios are expressed in terms of the X, Y and Z components. For any joint
chosen, the summation of all force ratios in members with connecting end to the
particular joint vanishes indicating that all joints are in equilibrium. It is emphasized
that proper sign of positive (for tension members – radial and tension ring members)
and negative (for compression members – mast and compression ring members) to be
used together with the force rations should be made. Example calculation for the case
of joint 11 with connecting members 11-14, 11-22, 11-20 and 11-38 is shown in Eq.(1)-
(3). Values of force ratios are taken from Table 2.
(1)
(2)
(3)
The accuracy of force ratios determined using geometric method is based on accuracy
of length measurement of CAD program used.
1186
Table 2: Force ratios of all members in X, Y and Z components

Outer ring member 01-02 02-03 03-04 04-05 05-06 06-07 07-08 08-09 09-10 01-10
X 41.78 72.96 24.38 38.82 25.42 23.72 97.76 70.80 1.10 100.56
Z=0.00 172.0 127.6
Y 3.10 19.90 20.88 87.00 34.92 1.00 19.62 10.64
2 2
nd st
Right 2 upper inner ring 12-13 13-14 14-15 Right 1 upper inner ring 16-17 17-18 18-19
Right 2nd lower inner ring 30-31 31-32 32-33 Right 1st lower inner ring 34-35 35-36 36-37
X 16.35 14.73 7.99 X 8.63 7.62 3.74
Z=0.00 Z=0.00
Y 3.98 11.44 14.90 Y 3.04 6.53 8.26
Left 2nd upper inner ring 20-21 21-22 22-23 23-24 24-25 20-25
Left 2nd lower inner ring 38-39 39-40 40-41 41-42 42-43 38-43
X 10.70 32.19 23.20 0.03 33.92 12.02
Z=0.00
Y 22.06 0.11 50.69 35.89 3.11 18.60
Left 1st upper inner ring 26-27 27-28 28-29 26-29 Fix joint 01 02 03 04
Left 1st lower inner ring 44-45 45-46 46-47 44-47 X 3.47 3.02 4.79 1.70
X 6.70 17.44 1.33 4.66 Y 16.36 14.27 22.61 8.02
Z=0.00
Y 4.30 6.67 24.67 2.57 The angels of effect are +102o
Right 2nd layer upper radial member 02-15 03-15 04-12 05-12 06-13 11-14
Right 2nd layer lower radial member 02-33 03-33 04-30 05-30 06-31 11-32
X 12.56 18.16 8.84 32.19 2.63 34.08
Y 22.66 3.45 24.36 26.04 24.99 5.19
Z 295.49 23.42 22.47 219.56 2.50 4.57
Right 1st layer upper radial member 15-19 03-19 04-16 12-16 13-17 14-18
Right 1st layer lower radial member 33-37 03-37 04-34 30-34 31-35 32-36
X 2.39 6.13 1.63 7.00 1.01 11.36
Y 4.31 3.94 8.70 5.66 9.57 1.73
Z 4.78 6.33 6.86 7.08 10.27 9.56
Left 2nd layer upper radial member 07-21 08-22 09-23 10-24 01-25 11-20
X 42.97 17.96 46.47 67.77 43.80 45.44
Y 43.89 101.6 29.60 77.99 30.97 6.92
Z 40.55 168.34 114.92 161.36 32.13 19.05
Left 2nd layer lower radial member 07-39 08-40 09-41 10-42 01-43 11-38
X 21.49 8.98 23.23 33.89 21.90 22.72
Y 21.95 50.80 14.80 38.99 15.49 3.46
Z 40.55 168.34 114.92 161.36 32.13 19.05
Left 1st layer upper radial member 21-27 22-28 23-28 24-29 25-29 20-26
Left 1st layer lower radial member 39-45 40-46 41-46 42-47 43-47 38-44
X 10.74 4.49 11.62 16.94 10.95 11.36
Y 10.97 25.40 7.40 19.50 7.74 1.73
Z 9.74 17.16 8.76 14.07 6.86 20.97
Right 2nd layer mast member 12-30 13-31 14-32 15-33
X & Y=0.00 Z 242.03 2.50 4.57 318.91
Right 1st layer mast member 16-34 17-35 18-36 19-37
X & Y=0.00 Z 13.94 10.27 9.56 11.11
Left 2nd layer mast member 20-38 21-39 22-40 23-41 24-42 25-43
X & Y=0.00 Z 19.05 40.55 168.34 114.92 161.36 32.13
Left 1st layer mast member 26-44 27-45 28-46 29-47
X & Y=0.00 Z 20.97 9.74 25.92 20.93
1187
4. CONCLUSION
A new method called geometric method, which is based on the principle of close
polygon for equilibrium system for the determination of self-equilibrium mode for
bicycle-wheel like cable dome structure has been proposed. An example of complex
cable dome structures with novel features has been used to illustrate the applicability of
the proposed method. Extension of the method to treat configuration of cable dome
structures without plane of symmetry is topic for further research. Also, formulation of
systematic procedures for the purpose of configuration design of cable dome structures
is also another area to be studied.
REFRENCES
[1] Chong, C.F., "Effect of complexity in configuration on determination of self-
equilibrium streets mode of cable-dome structures”, M.Sc. Dissertation, School of
Civil Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 2006
[2] Choong, K.K., “Self-Equilibrium Stress Mode Analysis for Cable-Dome Structures
with the Use of General Inverse”, Proceedings of JPZ-UKM Seminar, Bangi,
Selangor, 18 August 2005
[3] Choong, K.K., Kim, J.Y. and Kang, J.W., “Development of Computational Tool
for Structural Investigation of Bicycle Wheel-Like Roof Structure”, Proceedings of
CDS05, Singapore, 25-26 August 2005
[4] Choong, K.K., Tanami, T. and Yamamoto, C. (2000), “Determination of Self-
Equilibrium Stress Mode for Bicycle Wheel-Like Structural Systems”, Proc. of 6th
Asian Pacific Conference on Shell and Spatial Structures, Vol. II, ed. Taek-Jin
Kwun and Dong-Guen Lee, Seoul Korea, 16-18 October 2000, pp.826-836
[5] Tee, G. K., “ A structural investigation on bicycle wheel like cable dome structure
with oval opening”, Undergraduate Final Year Project Report, School of Civil
Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 2009
1188
Architectural and Structural Investigation of Complex Grid

Systems
Stefan NEUHAEUSER1*, Fritz MIELERT1, Matthias RIPPMANN1,2, Werner SOBEK1
1
Institute for Lightweight Structures and Conceptual Design, University of Stuttgart
Pfaffenwaldring 14, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
stefan.neuhaeuser@ilek.uni-stuttgart.de
2
Institute of Technology in Architecture, Assistant Chair of Building Structure
Prof. Dr. Philippe Block, ETH Zurich, HIL E 46.1,
Wolfgang-Pauli-Str. 15, 8093 Zürich Hönggerberg, Switzerland
Abstract
This paper describes investigations into the architectural and structural

performance of complex, non-triangulated grid structures. Complex grid structures are
often highly differentiated (i.e. consisting of many components of different geometry),
thus an integrative, parametric design approach is necessary. In addition to the
considerations of geometric parameters, the evaluation of architectural and structural
performance criteria, including automated interfaces with analysis software, as well as
tools to assess the stability of such systems and perform sunlight simulation are
described.
Non-triangulated grid systems are often kinematic and require stabilization measures. A
novel method of using vacuumized film to stabilize a doubly curved shell structure with
a non-stable grid arrangement was investigated.
Two case studies of full-scale grid structures of high complexity are presented in the
context of parametric design, digital fabrication, and integrative design processes.
Keywords: Grid Structures, Parametric Design, Digital Fabrication, Static Determinacy,
Vacuumatic Stabilization
1 Introduction
Grid systems have been used extensively in the built environment, predominantly as
space-enclosing shell-type structures or true three-dimensional spatial structures. Their
inherent partial transparency can serve a number of architectural purposes, most
importantly providing and controlling lighting as well as visual relationships by the
targeted composition of the structural elements. In addition, spatial grid systems offer
great potential in terms of structural efficiency if an arrangement of members is chosen
that permits loads to be transmitted predominantly by axial forces, minimizing bending.
However, this requirement typically leads to kinematically determinate, most often
triangulated systems, severely limiting the design vocabulary available to architects and
engineers. The implementation of non-triangulated patterns may offer significant
1189
advantages: greater transparency, less density (both visually and physically) and
enhanced design freedom (from very regular and homogeneous tiling patterns to
random, essentially free-form arrangements).
2 Basic Structural Principles
2.1 Static and Kinematic Determinacy
Grid systems are most commonly composed of individual, typically straight elements.
To provide a continuous, stable load path, the arrangement of elements and the
connections between them are of critical importance. The most efficient systems from a
structural point of view are those that allow members to carry mostly axial forces. This
enables a uniform stress distribution and thus a better use of the section (fully-stressed-
design approach) as well as moment-free joints. However, such pin-jointed assemblies
require specific arrangement of members in order to achieve structural stability (either
statically determinate or indeterminate). Most often, this leads to triangulated
arrangements of members. It can easily be seen that a triangular system is stable, while
a quadrangular is not (ref. Figure 1).
Figure 1: a) Stable triangular and b) unstable quadrangular system
Several methods are available to evaluate the stability of pin-jointed assemblies. A

simple way is a formula known as Maxwell’s rule ([1], [2]). It requires for static
determinacy in 2D that
b  2 J (1)
where b is the number of bars, and J is the number of free (non-foundation) joints.
However, Maxwell’s rule is a necessary, but not a sufficient condition for static
determinacy. The arrangement in Figure 2 for example satisfies Maxwell’s rule with b =
8 and J = 4, but it can clearly be seen that one portion of the structure is kinematically
indeterminate (a mechanism), while another portion is statically indeterminate
(redundant).
1190
Figure 2: Non-stable system fulfilling Maxwell’s rule
A more thorough method is based on matrix structural analysis and uses the equilibrium
matrix to assess static determinacy ([3], [4]). The equilibrium matrix is derived from the
equilibrium equations for each free joint. In 2D (ref. Figure 3) the equilibrium equations
at a joint can be stated as
Pix  Qk , x  Ql , x
(2)
Piy  Qk , y  Ql , y
Figure 3: 2D Equilibrium at free joint
Expressing the equilibrium equation for all free joints in matrix format yields:
[ P]  [ B]  [Q] (3)
1191
where [P] is the vector of applied forces (at free nodes), [B] is the equilibrium matrix,
and [Q] is the vector of member axial forces. The relationships shown for 2D in
Equations (2) and (3) are easily expanded to 3D by including the equations of
equilibrium in the z-direction. Thus, the equilibrium matrix is of size [m x n] with m =
number of free degrees of freedom (equal to number of elements in [P]) and n = number
of member forces (equal to number of elements in [Q]).
Determining the rank of [B] will yield conclusions about the static and kinematic
determinacy of the system: if the rank of [B] < m then the structure is kinematically
indeterminate (unstable mechanism); if the rank of [B] < n then the structure is statically
indeterminate (i.e. the system of static equilibrium equations alone is insufficient for a
force analysis). For the system shown in Figure 2, the rank of [B] is equal to 7, while m
= 8 (number of free degrees of freedom = number of joint forces) and n = 8 (number of
member forces), thus the structure is in parts both statically and kinematically
indeterminate.
Assembling and determining the rank of the equilibrium matrix for any given structure
by hand is tedious. To facilitate this analysis for any 2D or 3D system, a custom plug-in
was written in Rhinoscript® that allows outputting the relevant parameters (joint
coordinates and member connectivity) for any geometry created graphically in
Rhinoceros®. Additionally, Matlab code was written to read in these data, automatically
set up the equilibrium matrix, and evaluate the static and kinematic determinacy of the
structure
Using these efficient tools, a first assessment can quickly be made regarding the
structural behavior of the system and stabilization methods required, prior to a more
thorough analysis using for example FEA software. The seamless integration of custom
plug-ins such as those described, as well as more sophisticated analysis tools during the
design process is essential for the realization of projects with complex geometries.
2.2 Concepts of stabilization
While triangulated systems are generally stable (i.e. kinematically determinate) they
provide little architectural freedom. If a non-triangulated geometry is to be used,
measures must be taken to prevent shear deformation of the individual panels (ref.
Figure 1b) ). Such measures may be
a. Cross-bracing, either tension-only, or tension-compression, likely resulting again
in triangulation.
b. Moment connections, preventing rotation between the members.
c. Surface elements to resist shear deformation (similar to shear walls), such as stiff
panels or foil elements.
d. 3D bracing schemes of higher complexity, such as was employed for the Eden
Project [5]
1192
e. Using particular member arrangements, that under certain conditions (in particular
with pretension) are only first-order mechanisms, but provide resistance to large
displacements (for example, tensegrity-structures, ref. [6])
3 Architectural Considerations
A thorough understanding of the static and kinematic determinacy of grid systems is
crucial when architectural and visual requirements correlate with the structural form and
pattern of the grid. Usually the outer and inner appearance of light and transparent
structures is directly linked to the visible structural layout. Therefore it is essential to
find ways to change structural and architectural parameters of 3D grid systems in a
reciprocal manner. For grid systems this inter-relationship of function, structure and
appearance can be further investigated by considering issues of lighting and visual
relationships, the structural behavior and construction as well as the emergence of
ornaments and patterns.
The control of lighting and visual relationships is an essential element for architects to
filter and define space in nearly every built structure. Moreover natural sunlight is used
to provide light and thermal energy in winter but usually has to be screened or filtered
in summer. To simulate the structure’s capability to block sunlight and certain views
from different directions, a ray tracing algorithm can be used. The data provided by this
procedure can then digitally inform a 3D model linking functional, structural and visual
information at the same time. It is possible to change the different input parameters of
the system and visualize the resulting geometry. For example the planar structural
elements and the individual cells of a 3D grid system as shown in Figure 4 can vary in
size and orientation to fulfill certain criteria by means of rule-based models.
Architectural expression is a function of visible structural layouts and tessellations of
grid systems and shell structures. Therefore the system-inherent ornamentation evolves
from the alignment of the structural elements. The implementation of structural
ornaments in architecture dates back to very early built structures. But whereas
traditional ornaments played an important role in architecture until the 19th century
entirely new ways of ornamentation started to arise with the beginning of the
information age [7]. Computer-aided methods of design and production led to highly
differentiated façades and structural framework with numerous individually designed
and fabricated elements.
The example in Figure 5 shows the parametric transformation of a pattern known as the
Cairo Tiling. By changing certain input parameters the pattern can vary locally. This
principle can be used for the design of grid systems where elements change length and
orientation due to functional, visual and structural requirements.
1193
Figure 4: Sunlight simulation (using a custom programmed plug-in) of a grid shell

structure with deep planar elements; visualization of the numeric data
Figure 5: Parametrically transformed Cairo pentagonal tiling
1194
4 Digital Design and Production Methods

The design and construction of complex 3D grid systems as described in the previous
chapter require new processes of planning and fabrication. Within the last few years, the
advent of digital and parametric tools led to various built examples of such structures.
In this context the digital model serves no longer only as a visual design environment
for architects and engineers. The reciprocity and complexity of the main parameters
within the overall design process leads to digitally informed models containing data that
is not only generated but also processed, stored and exchanged in a bidirectional manner.
The digital chain starts with the design informed by concepts, simulations and analysis
and continues with optimization procedures to generate the relevant data for digital
production processes.
Irregular grid systems have a large variability of components. Digital tools like CAD
and FEA programs are used to process data of such non-standard structures. Due to the
systems’ complexity and irregularity customized scripts and plug-ins are used to extend
the programs capabilities. Building upon this setup digital fabrication methods are used
to produce the individual elements of the structure. Although (at least for the time being)
the digital chain typically ends at the fabrication process, evolving constraints from
production techniques and material specifications are integrated as input parameters
from the outset.
5 Case Studies
Two recent projects at the Institute for Lightweight Structures and Conceptual Design
have been planned and realized to combine structural and architectural aspects as
outlined above. More importantly, they specifically took advantage of digital design and
production tools.
5.1 3D2REAL | Cairo Shell
5.1.1 Exhibition Stand 3D2REAL
The project 3D2REAL was initially conceived in 2009 as an exhibition stand for the
design store MAGAZIN at the Blickfang Design Fair (for Furniture, Fashion and
Jewellery) in Stuttgart. The stand consisted of a wall system, serving as a filter between
the design objects on display and the visitors. Planar elements, arranged in a
honeycomb-like grid layout, were oriented at specific angles to guide the observers’
view to the objects behind the wall while shielding other areas from sight. This was
achieved by aligning the elements toward five focal points, with each design object
receiving its own focal point (ref. Figure 6).
1195
Figure 6: 3D2REAL Concept to generate specific visual relationships
Behind the wall, the opposite effect was achieved - the view to the outside from the
focal points was completely unobstructed, allowing a panoramic perspective as the
honeycomb elements were aligned perpendicular to the observer’s eye (ref. Figure 7)
Figure 7: 3D2REAL Wall Section – View from outside in and from the inside out
1196
The pattern chosen for the grid layout was a Cairo tiling. While aesthetically pleasing,
this pattern is highly kinematic when pin-jointed (see also Section 5.1.2). To stabilize
the system for the wall, a joint connection detail that prevented rotation was therefore
chosen (ref. Figure 8).
Figure 8: 3D2REAL Construction detail for the planar elements
Due to the nature of the structure and the overall free-form geometry, the system
consisted of highly variable part geometries. In fact, of the over 2000 planar elements,
no two were identical. As such, the structure had to be designed using a parametric
approach und produced with digital CNC fabrication technology, cutting each
individual element geometry from 3 mm MDF sheets.
The result, shown in Figure 9, was a complex structure with high architectural appeal,
achieving the visual effect of focusing the visitor’s attention to the exhibition objects as
intended.
Figure 9: Exhibition stand 3D2REAL
1197
5.1.2 Cairo Shell
To further investigate the potential of Cairo tiling as a structural system, a proposal to

build a dome type shell structure was investigated (ref. Figure 10).
Figure 10: Cairo Shell Proposal
The Cairo tiling pattern consists of pentagons, and it is kinematic when pin-jointed.
Using the tools described in Section 2.1 studies were performed to determine the actual
degree of kinematic indeterminacy as a function of element numbers (ref. Figure 11).
The repetition factor in this study indicates the number of repetitions of the basic
element arrangement applied in each dimension (repetition factor 1 shows the basic
arrangement). The total number of grid elements is therefore proportional to the square
of the repetition factor. It is reasonable to expect that the degree of kinematic
determinacy (calculated as the difference between rank and number of rows of the
equilibrium matrix) is also proportional to the square of the repetition factor. The results
in Table 1 confirm this expectation.
1198
Figure 11: Static determinacy properties of pin-jointed Cairo Tiling in 2D (ref. Table 1)
(Note: Repetition Factor 4 not shown)
Table 1: Static Determinacy Properties of Cairo Tiling
Repetition Factor (ref. Figure 11)

Equilibrium
Matrix
1 2 3 4
Rows 58 162 314 514
Columns 56 148 280 452
Rank 54 146 278 450

Kinematic
4 16 36 64
Indeterminacy
In the generation of the 3D structure for the Cairo Shell, the grid pattern is extruded to a
focal point. Because of this extrusion, the static and kinematic properties in the plane of
the pattern are exactly the same for the 3D system as for the 2D system. The analogy is
shown in Figure 12 where it is evident that the kinematic deformation behavior of the
rectangle in 2D corresponds to that of the 3D system.
1199
Figure 12: Kinematic behavior of point extruded pattern
Using a dxf-file to digitally transfer the geometry, additional investigations were

performed using a plate element FEA model (in the software package SAP2000®, ref.
Figure 13) to assess the behavior of the system with two different stabilization methods
(ref. Figure 14):
a. Moment connections only, resisting relative rotation between the plate elements
b. With additional cross bracing elements in the open cells. The cross bracing in this
analysis represented sections of 0,2 mm x 200 mm ETFE film (tension only) to
simulate a continuous film.
The investigated shell shown in Figure 13 was a truncated sphere (26.5 m sphere
diameter) with a base diameter of 22.0 m, and a height of 5.8 m. The honeycomb
elements with a depth of 0.8 m consisted of 3 mm MDF plates. The initial investigation
was performed with self-weight loading (0.07 kN/m²).
To compare the two systems, the deflection and the forces acting on a trapezoidal
honeycomb element at the shell vertex were investigated. As shown in Figure 15 these
elements were subject to an axial force P (indicating membrane action) as well as a
moment M (indicating bending action).
1200
Figure 13: Structural Model of Cairo Shell
Figure 14: Modeled structural systems: with moment connections, with cross bracing
1201
Figure 15: Forces acting on honeycomb element of Cairo Shell
As expected, the results of the preliminary analysis (ref. Table 2) show an increase in
overall stiffness with the bracing. In addition, there is an increase in membrane action
(indicated by the force P) and a decrease in bending action (indicated by the moment M).
Table 2: Results of preliminary investigation of Cairo Shell structural system
Deflection Force P Moment M

System at crown at crown at crown
(mm) (kN) (kN· m)
Moment
3,5 -155 74
connections only
Additional bracing 2,7 -218 48,2
A novel and very elegant method of attaching an ETFE film as a bracing system onto
the grid structure would be by the application of a vacuum to draw a layer of film both
to the inside and the outside surface of the shell. The pressure difference would generate
a clamping force between the film and the main grid structure, resulting in friction that
in turn would be relied upon to transfer the stabilizing forces from the grid system to the
continuous film.
Vacuumatic structures have been realized successfully in the past (ref e.g. [8]), and
initial experiments on 2D grids showed great potential. However, applying this method
to a doubly curved 3D structure generates additional complexities. The inside and
outside surfaces of a shell, while being subject to the identical vacuum pressures, do not
have the same area. Thus, a net down force is generated when the vacuum is applied.
This is seen in Figure 16 for a small group of elements, where the sum of the normal
forces on the outer shell surface is greater than those on the inner surface.
1202
Figure 16: Pressure differential acting on curved structure
Because the applied forces are proportional to the surface area, the overall net force
(acting normal to the shell surface) can be calculated as
PTot  p  ( Aouter  Ainner) (4)
This force is distributed uniformly over the shell surface.

Analysis has shown that for the shell structure proposed above, a frictional force
(between the ETFE film and the main grid structure) in the range of PStab = 250 N at
each joint is required to stabilize the structure when subject to self-weight. Using simple
experiments the coefficient of friction between MDF and ETFE was determined to be μ
= 0.25. Based on the tributary area for each node (ATrib  0.25 m²) and
PStab  p  Atrib    250 N (5)
a pressure difference of Δp = 0.04 bar can be calculated as the sufficient vacuum to

achieve the required frictional force.
Using this pressure difference in Equation (4) with the dimensions of the proposed shell
results in a net force PTot = 272 kN. This force is distributed evenly across the surface,
resulting in a net pressure of 0.55 kN/m²acting normal to the shell surface. This load is
much greater than the investigated load of self-weight (0.07 kN/m²). With the additional
net pressure, an even greater stabilizing force PStab would be required, necessitating an
even greater pressure Δp, and thus establishing a cycle of ever increasing stability force
1203
requirement and pressure. This puts into question the benefit of the vacuumization
method for stabilization purposes in the first place, at least for this particular system.
The following questions regarding vacuum stabilization warrant further investigation:
 Under which dimensional conditions (such as curvature and element depth) is
vacuum stabilization a viable option?
 What is the difference in the stabilization effect in the simple model with nodal
bracing (ref. right hand side in Figure 14) compared to the stabilization effect
truly achieved by application of the film (acting mostly along the edges of the
grid elements)?
 What is the effect of the “clamping force” generated by the vacuumized film on
the elements with respect to plate buckling?
Additional research is currently underway to address some of these questions and
confirm the above findings, including non-linear FEA models of the combined system
(grid structure and ETFE film) as well as investigations into other methods to stabilize
the structure.
5.2 rn601
Following the success of the 3D2REAL exhibition stand, a new installation was realized
for the 2010 Blickfang fair. Serving as a unique framework for the design and furniture
objects selected by MAGAZIN, a foam-like structure of varying density was conceived.
This structure took the previous application of complex grid patterns from a quasi-
planar system to a true 3D spatial structure. The individual cells, initially based on a
Weaire-Phelan-Structure were subsequently deformed through computational
algorithms to specifically draw attention to the displayed objects (ref. Figure 17).
1204
Figure 17: Overall view of rn601 structure
The parametric deformation approach allowed the topology of the original regular
structure to be retained (such as four members connecting at each joint) and took into
account material properties (for example minimum bending radii) and production
constraints (for example maximum element size) during the design process. One
important restriction was that the structure needed to consist of developable 2D
elements in order to allow for an economical milling fabrication process. The initially
planar elements were then assembled in a 3D puzzle-like fashion (ref. also [9]) to form a
spatial system. To facilitate an efficient joining technique an elaborate interlocking
pattern was introduced at the element edges immediately prior to the production phase
(ref. Figure 18 and Figure 19). The final structure consisted of over 5000 individual
pieces, all of which were unique in their geometry and produced from 2mm PVC foam
board panels using CNC milling technology. Despite being subject to rigorous
algorithms and conditions, the result is a seemingly freeform spatial structure of great
architectural impact (ref. Figure 20)
1205
Figure 18: Node detail for rn601
Figure 19: Assembly detail for rn601
1206
Figure 20: Completed rn601 structure
The final structure was extremely light-weight (< 150 kg). Structural analysis was
performed to determine the material stresses of the system when subject to self-weight.
The geometry was exported from Rhinoceros® in IGES-format (which can handle
curved NURBS surfaces) and imported into the FEA software package Ansys® for
analysis (ref. Figure 21). As expected, the results showed that for the given load case of
self-weight only, the material stresses were very small (< 200 kPa peak von Mises
stresses).
Transferring geometry using a compatible file format as described in the two case
studies above is only the first step towards an automated integrative process. In a next
step, software tools can be written to automatically generate input files for analysis
software, execute the solution, and read and process the results. As such, the structural
behavior, similar to results from other analyses (for example sunlight simulation, ref.
Section 3) becomes part of a comprehensively informed model.
1207
Figure 21: Structural analysis of rn601 structure
6 Conclusions and Outlook

The concepts outlined above and the related case studies show the complexities but also
the great potential of complex grid systems. Computational design and production tools
were implemented to generate structures that appear to be freeform, yet adhere to strict
rules imposed during the design process. In addition to automating the consideration of
parameters such as material properties and fabrication constraints using a parametric
design approach, custom tools were developed to perform investigations into the
structural and architectural performance of these complex systems.
The concept of vacuumization to stabilize a structure, although initially thought to be a
very novel and efficient method, presented a number of complexities upon closer
investigation. Further research as outlined in Section 5.1.2 is necessary to draw
comprehensive conclusions about this method.
The continued integration of the tools at the disposal of architects and engineers will
allow the realization of highly differentiated and complex structures (grid system sand
otherwise). To facilitate the investigation and optimization of various performance
criteria, additional tools will be created to interface design and analysis software with
the goal of acquiring comprehensive information-based models. Most software
packages already permit such an approach by providing programming interfaces. It is
the authors’ belief that the potential of parametric design and digital fabrication will be
further enhanced by the automated integration of these tools.
1208
7 Acknowledgements
The work described in this paper is in large part the result of student design studio,
seminar, and thesis work. The authors wish to acknowledge the contribution of the
students involved: Alexandros Cannas, Benjamin Engelhardt, Fred Ernst, Sabrina
Fliegerbauer, Corina Grinbold, Kadri Kaldam, Tomas Kratovchila, Sebastian Lippert,
Michael Pelzer, Christine Rosemann, Christian Seelbach, Christian Weitzel, Andreas
Witzany.
Elias Knubben, academic assistant at the Institute for Lightweight Structures and
Conceptual Design, has been instrumental in the realization of the student projects.
The projects would not have been possible without the financial and material support
provided by the following: Amstrong DLW GmbH, BZT Maschinenbau GmbH,
Grinbold-Jodag GmbH, Lentia Pirna Kunststoffe GmbH, as well as appropriations from
the University of Stuttgart student tuition fees.
The continued support provided by MAGAZIN and Blickfang is greatly appreciated.
References
[1] Pellegrino S and Calladine C R. Matrix Analysis of Statically and Kinematically

Indeterminate Frameworks. International Journal of Solids and Structures 1986;
22:409-428.
[2] Guest S D and Hutchinson J W. On the determinacy of repetitive structures.
Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids 2003; 51:383-391.
[3] Tarnai T. Simultaneous static and kinematic indeterminacy of space trusses with
cyclic symmetry. International Journal of Solids and Structures 1980; 16:347-359.
[4] Przemieniecki, J S. Theory of Matrix Structural Analysis (2nd edn). Dover, 1985.
[5] Lyall S. Remarkable Structures – Engineering Today’s Innovative Buildings.
Princeton Architectural Press, 2002.
[6] Calladine C R. Buckminster Fuller’s “Tensegrity” Structures and Clerk Maxwell’s
Rules for the Construction of Stiff Frames. International Journal of Solids and
Structures 1978. 14:161-172
[7] Strehlke K. Das Digitale Ornament in der Architektur, seine Generierung,
Produktion und Anwendung mit Computer-gesteuerten Technologien. Diss.,
Technische Wissenschaften, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule ETH Zürich,
Nr.17830, 2008. 30.
[8] Schmidt T et al. Vacuumatics – Bauen mit Unterdruck. Detail 2007; 47:1148-1159.
[9] Killian A. Fabrication of partially double-curved surfaces out of flat sheet material
through a three-dimensional puzzle approach, in: Klinger K (ed). Connecting -
Crossroads of Digital Discourse: Proceedings of the 2003 Annual Conference of
the Association for Computer Aided Design in Architecture. Indianapolis, 2003.
1209
Shape Analyses for Isotonic Surfaces with Soap Film

Elements and Axial Lines
Hiroyuki OBIYA1*, Yusheng WU2, Katsushi IJIMA2

1*
Dept.of Civil Eng., Saga University
1 Honjo Saga, 840-8502 Japan
obiyah@cc.saga-ua.c.jp
2
Dept.of Civil Eng., Saga University
Abstract
Purpose of the shape analysis is to find the mechanically rational form for many
kinds of structures, for example, membrane structure, suspended cables, and so on. The
perfect equilibrium solutions with isotonic tensile can be obtained by shape analysis
using tangent stiffness method. The solutions constitute the polyhedrons which can be
similar in curved surfaces of soap film. When we evaluate the polyhedral equilibrium
solutions, the approximation performance is depending on their mesh density and mesh
distribution. This study proposes a new technique to obtain the polyhedron solutions
which can express smooth surfaces by parallel calculation of soap film analysis only to
normal direction and the 2D axial line analysis in tangent plane of the surface. By using
this technique, node distribution becomes more rational and large compulsory
displacement can be adopted when the simultaneous control is used as the incremental
method. Further, when using the 3D axial lines that have degree of freedom to all of 3
dimensions, we can assume it to be converted to the real cable elements after the shape
analysis.
Keywords: shape analysis, soap film, axial line elements, mesh distribution, polyhedral
equilibrium solutions, approximation of curved surface
1 Introduction
Plateau's problem is to find the minimal surface with a boundary shape, and many
researchers have spent their effort to solve the shape of soap film for over 100 years.
On the other hand, for practical use of isotonic surfaces as an initial shape, such as for
suspended membrane roofs or pneumatic structures, computational form-finding
methods have been developed since the end of last century. Recently, we can
determinate an isotonic surface as precise solution by general type of the finite element
method, in the case of the application to membrane structures with low-rise and with
simple in-plane boundary shape.
However, application of membrane structures is not only for large span roofs. We can
expect the possibility to adopt the isotonic surfaces to the primary shape of more
various styles of structures, for example, the underwater structures such as the storage
1210
tank of pure water floating on ocean, underground structures which is so called ‘geo-
membrane', and space structures on some extraterrestrial planet.
If we apply the shape of the isotonic surface to these new uses for membrane structures,
the technical consideration for computation will be required as follows:
(1) Loading condition should be applied not only to constant inner pressure but also to
the location dependency load such as water or soil pressure.
(2) Sure convergence property should be guaranteed even if in cases of complicated
boundary shapes.
(3) Development of a rational mesh division technique to express smooth shape of
curved surface is expected.
The authors' former paper has concluded that the tangent stiffness method is very useful
for the shape analysis of soap films [1]-[5]. The method uses the iterative process of the
tangent stiffness equation that derived from the equilibrium equation between the nodal
forces and the element edge forces. Furthermore, the authors mentioned that the
simultaneous control, which is an incremental technique, makes it possible to apply to
the location dependency load listed in above (1). For the problem of (2), the primary
equilibrium shape constituted by the axial line elements instead of the soap film
elements makes it easier to get the solutions, even if in case of the complicated
boundary shape. The axial line elements can produce the solutions very close to isotonic
surfaces, and can let the mesh distribution be uniform [2], [4].
With regard to problem (3), for instance, when the deformation of the surface from a
primary shape to the determined shape is too large, dispersion of the element area also
grows so large. In such a case, we cannot keep 'the significance' as approximate
solutions for curved surfaces anymore. Now, we discuss about an isotonic surface as a
discrete solution. Under the assumption of "triangle isotonic element", the determined
solution should be obtained as "a polyhedral equilibrium shape". Moreover, originally,
the isotonic surface does not have any stiffness toward normal direction of the surface,
and the position of every node as discrete solution can be located anywhere on physical
isotonic surface. Namely, there is the discrete equilibrium solution innumerably on an
isotonic surface. Therefore, we should keep the proportionate mesh distribution all
through the incremental process of the shape analysis.
Based on the above background, in this paper, the authors propose another technique
which is the parallel calculation of the soap film analysis and the axial line analysis. The
technique defines two independent and parallel coordinate. One has only one axis
toward normal direction of surfaces and that is prepared for the isotonic surface analysis
by triangular soap film elements. The other has two axes perpendicular each other and
both are to tangent direction of surfaces. The element forces of the axial line elements
are projected to these two coordinate axes. Thus this type of axial line elements has only
2 degree of freedom, so we call it "2D axial line", in this paper. According to the effect
of the 2D axial lines, the mesh distribution becomes more uniform, and the polyhedral
equilibrium solutions become more similar to the isotonic surfaces.
In this paper, we also mentioned another usage of the axial line elements that can be
converted to cable elements with real stiffness after the shape analysis. This type of
axial line elements has degree of freedom to all of 3 dimensions, and we call it "3D
axial line" to distinguish these axial line elements from 2D axial line. Therefore, the
1211
combination of the soap film elements and 3D axial lines can be expected to determine
a composite structure of membranes and cables.
2 Shape analysis
2.1 Tangent stiffness equation
Let the vector of the element edge forces independent of each other be indicated by S,
and let the matrix of equilibrium which relates S to the general coordinate system by J.
Then the nodal forces U expressed in the general coordinate follow the equation:
U = JS (1)
The tangent stiffness equation is expressed as the deferential calculus of Eq. (1),
δU = JδS + δJS = (K 0 + K G )δu (2)
In which, K0 is the element stiffness which provide the element behaviour in element
(local) coordinate, and KG is the tangent geometrical stiffness. δu is nodal displacement
vector in general coordinate.
2.2 Element potential function

In order to regulate the element behaviour in element (local) coordinate, we define the
element measure potential which is expressed as the function of measurement such as
element length or element area. Defining element measure potential is equal to
assuming the "virtual" elemental stiffness. And it has no relationship with material's
stiffness.
Let element measure potential is P, and let the vector of elements' measurements whose
component is independent of each other is s
P
S (3)
s
Then we can get the element edge force S.
Fig.1: Triangular soap film element
1212
2.3 Triangular soap film element

Let the area of triangle is A, and unit membrane tensile is σt (=constant, where σ is
tensile stress of the soap film element, t is the thickness of element). The element
measure potential is expressed as the function of element area,
P  tA (4)
We can get the element edge force by differential calculus of element measure potential,
P 1
Ni   tri (i  1,2,3) (5)
li 2
where, ri is the distance from the orthocentre of triangle (point 0) to each node.
As the element edge force can be set to the direction along the side of triangle, and
therefore, we can use the tangent geometrical stiffness matrix as same form as one of
triangular truss block. So, the form of KG becomes as follow:
k G2 + k G3 -k G3 -k G2 
K G   -k G3 k G1 + k G3 -k G1  (6)
 -k G2 -k G1 k G1 + k G2 
N
k Gi  i (e - αα T ), (i  1, 2,3) (7)
li
in which, α are the components of cosine vector alongside direction, and e is 3×3 unit
matrix.
Considering that the value of element stiffness K0 is much less than the value of tangent
geometrical stiffness KG [1], we ignore K0, and substitute K0 = 0 to the Eq. (2). From
the above equations, we get the tangent stiffness equation,
 U1  u1 
 U2   K GS  u2  (8)
U3  u3 
2.4 Axial line element

The line element is connected with nodal point 1 and nodal point 2. Supposing that the
element measure potential is proportional to the power of length of line element, the
element measure potential can be expressed as:
P  Cl n (9)
The axial line element force can be obtained by differential calculus of element measure
potential:
N  nCl n1 (10)
1213
where, C is the coefficient to be able to set freely.

Let α are the components of cosine vector alongside direction, and we can rewrite the
Eq. (1) as:
 U1   -α  N (11)
 U 2   α 
Substituting the Eq. (11) to the above Eq. (2), and make it matrix.
  U
U1 

 K LT  1 
u
u 
(12)
 2   2 
 e  (n  2)αα T 
K LT  nCl n2  e  (n  2)αα T
T
(13)
e  (n  2)αα e  (n  2)αα T 
For the Eq. (10), in the case of n=1, the element forces become constant, and for the Eq.
(11), the tangent geometrical stiffness of line element becomes the same form as truss
element's. Therefore, the axial forces can be designated as a constant value.
In addition, in the case of n=2, axial force is proportional to the length of line element,
and Eq. (12) is linear. However, in the case of n>2, iterative steps are required because
of nonlinearity. The magnitude of n become larger, the length of all line elements on the
solution surface tend to be more uniform [2].
Fig.2: Area vectors of elements and normal directional vector at node i
3 Nodal coordinate definition

3.1 Surface normal definition
As shown in Fig.2, the node i was connected with m (in this case, m=6) pieces of
elements (j=1~m). The area of element #j can be written as aj. When we consider that
node i shares 1/3 of each triangular area where inner pressure affects, we can express
area vector of each element as,
a
A ij  ij (14)
3
1214
And normal directional cosine vector of surface at node i can be written as follows:
m m
 i   Aij A ij (15)
j 1 j 1
Therefore, the tangent stiffness equation Eq. (8) can be rewritten as
 Z1   1   1 
T
 z1 
 Z2     T  K SG  1   z2  (16)
 Z 3    1T    1 
1
 z3 
 
Thus, the resultant force on each node can be projected to normal direction.
Fig.3: Coordinate system with normal direction and tangent directions
3.2 Tangent plane direction definition

In this paper, the line elements which can make the node distribution more uniform are
located along the 3-sides of triangular elements. We propose the independent coordinate
which has two axes perpendicular each other and both are to tangent direction of
surfaces. By using this coordinate, the axial forces of line elements can be projected to
tangent plane directions.
As shown in Fig.3, the normal direction of node i is ζi , and two tangent directions are φi
and ξi , which are perpendicular with normal direction. The tangent stiffness equation
Eq. (12) can be rewritten as follows:
 X 1  1T 
T
 x1 
 
Y1  1  S 1T 1T   y1 
 X    
2T  G 
K (17)
 2T 2T   x2 
2
 Y2     y2 
 2T 
The Eq. (16) and Eq. (17) are perfectly independent tangent stiffness equations. We
parallelly solve the Eq. (16) and Eq. (17) to get the incremental displacement of each
node. After that, we renew the nodal displacement, and calculate the unbalance force in
new state. The new iterative calculation is continued until the unbalanced forces
converge.
1215
Control point
Inner pressure (kpa)

1 DOF, Dc=0.1m
3 DOF, Dc=1m, n=5
4m
Fig.4: Initial shape and connectivity Volume (m³)
Fig.5: Inner pressure-volume curve
4 Effect of the 2D axial lines

As mentioned above, this paper proposes a technique, which is 3D analysis by
combination of the soap film elements and the 2D axial lines, for shape analysis of the
isotonic surface. In this chapter, we make two discussions. One is the comparison of the
proposal with 1D soap film analysis without 2D axial lines, and the other is the
influence of power n in the element force equation.
As shown in Fig.4, one side of hexagon is divided into 10, and the control point is set in
the centre. In addition, the unit of tensile stress of the soap film element is 3.0kN/m, the
coefficient of line element C=1. Simultaneous control is used as an incremental
technique in this example.
Compulsory displacement of each step is given as Dc=0.1m along vertical direction for
the 1D soap film analysis. In contrast, for the 3D analysis, the compulsory displacement
of each step is given as Dc=1m along vertical direction. The Fig.5 denotes inner
pressure – volume curve. Obviously, the tendency of curves is the same
[a] 1-D analysis, [b] 1-D analysis, [c] 3-D analysis, n=5
Dc =0.5m ,V = 74.6 m³ Dc =0.1m, V = 75.3 m³ Dc=1m ,V = 75.4 m³
Fig.6: The equilibrium shapes when the total compulsory displacement =3m
n: Power of 2D axial lines, Dc: Increment of compulsory displacement, ,V:Volume,
1216
In Fig.6, the increment of the compulsory displacement is given as Dc=0.5m and

Dc=0.1m respectively for 1D soap film analysis (Fig.6 [a], [b]). In contrast, when the
3D analysis is applied putting the 2D axial lines on each side of every triangle, the
increment of the compulsory displacement of each step is given as 1m (Fig.6 [c]).
When the 1D analysis is applied, too large increment makes the area of triangular
elements around the control point large. Further, because of no stiffness to the tangent
direction, the uneven distribution of the size of triangles would be kept all through the
process of the analysis. If the magnitude of increment becomes larger than 0.5m, it
causes divergence. Therefore, the compulsory displacement in each iterative step should
be less than 0.1m in case of the 1D analysis.
On the other hand, the 3D analysis brings the stable calculation process, even though
the increment is larger than 1m. However, the 3D analysis has disadvantage that the size
of the total stiffness matrix becomes 3 times in comparison with 1D soap film analysis.
Here, the total CPU time is discussed when the control point is displaced up to 9m.
It took 119seconds for 1D analysis with 0.1m of increment (see Fig.7 [b]) while it took
63seconds for 3D analysis with 1m of increment (see Fig.7 [e]). Fig.7[c] ~ [e] show the
equilibrium shapes in case of n=1, 2, 5, respectively.
[a] 1D analysis, Dc =0.5m ,V = 560.8 m3 [b] 1D analysis, Dc=0.1m, V= 555.1 m3
[c] 3D analysis, n=1 [d] 3D analysis, n=2 [e] 3D analysis, n=5

Dc =1m, V = 555.7 m3 Dc =1m, V =560.8 m3 Dc =1m, V =560.7 m3
Fig.7: The equilibrium shapes when total compulsory displacement =9m

n:Power of 2D axial lines, Dc: Increment of compulsory displacement, V:Volume
1217
5 Equilibrium shape by combination of soap film elements and 3D

axial lines
18m
3@6m
Fig.8: Initial shape and connectivity
Fig.8 shows the primary shape and the connectivity. One side of initial shape is divided
into 18. The green lines denote the 3D axial lines to be converted into cables after shape
analysis. Further, the 2D axial lines to unify the mesh distribution are located on 3 sides
of all triangular soap film elements. The tensile of the soap film element is 3.0kN/m,
and the coefficient of line element C=1 in this example.
Fig.9 shows the equilibrium shapes in cases with 3D axial lines and without 3D axial
lines respectively.
[a] Without "3D axial line",

V= 346.2m³, IP=1.0kpa
[b] With "3D axial line", n=6

V= 348.8m³, IP=1.6kpa
Fig.9: The equilibrium shapes when volume is close to 347m3

n:Power of 3D axial lines, Ip: Inner pressure, V:Volume,
1218
6 In case that different shape is obtained depending on mesh

connectivity
Fig.10 shows the same initial shape is meshed by two kinds of different connectivity.
The radius direction of initial shape is divided into 8, and the circumferential direction
is also divided into 8. The control point is set in the centre, and compulsory
displacement is given along vertical direction. The green lines denote 3D axial line and
its power is n=4. Also in this example, the 2D axial lines to unify the mesh distribution
are located on 3 sides of all triangular soap film elements. The tensile of the soap film
element is 3.0kN/m. Fig.11 illustrates the inner pressure-volume curve.
Fig.12 shows equilibrium solution compared with two kinds of mesh connectivity. For
1st mesh connectivity, the surface is inflated with rotation and it looks "twisted". In
contrast, when the 2nd mesh connectivity is adopted, the surface is inflated without
rotation. This is why the shape of the polyhedral solution is depending on the mesh
connectivity. Therefore, we have to be careful when preparing the mesh connectivity in
some cases like this example.
Control point Control point
R=8m R=8m
[a] 1st mesh connectivity [b] 2nd mesh connectivity

Fig.10: Initial shapes and their connectivity
Inner pressure (kpa)
1st mesh connectivity, Dc=0.1m, n=4

2nd mesh connectivity, Dc=0.1m, n=4
Volume (m³)
Fig.11: Inner pressure-volume curve
1219
R=6.0m, Ip=0.75kpa,V=1139.5m³ R= 6.0m, Ip= 0.68kpa,V=1062.5m³
R= 9.0m, Ip=0.86kpa,V= 2233.8m³ R= 9.0m, Ip= 0.80kpa, V= 1967.8m³
R=12.0m, Ip=0.82kpa, V= 4496.3m³ R= 12.0m, Ip=0.80kpa, V= 3804.2m³
[a] 1st mesh connectivity [b] 2nd mesh connectivity

Fig.12: Equilibrium shapes by different types of mesh connectivity
R:Rise of the control point, Ip: Inner pressure, V:Volume
1220
7 Conclusion
In this paper, a technique for shape analysis of isotonic surfaces is shown, and it is to
use the combination of triangular soap film elements and the axial lines. The
characteristics of this technique and results from the numerical examples are concluded
as follows:
1) Using the triangle isotonic elements and the 1D analysis toward the normal direction
of the surface, a polyhedral equilibrium solution is obtained. However, That is one
of the physical solutions which exist infinitely on isotonic surface.
2) Simultaneous control is an incremental method adopted in this technique. For 1D
analysis, too large increment makes the area of triangular elements around the
control point large. Furthermore, because of no stiffness to the tangent direction,
the uneven distribution of the size of triangles would be kept all through the process
of the analysis. Therefore, the increment of compulsory displacement should be less
than 0.1m in case of the 1D analysis. On the other hand, for 3D analysis, because of
the effect of 2D axial lines, large increment of compulsory displacement can be
adopted, which reduces the total time consumption in calculation. If the power of
2D axial lines n ≽2, the polyhedral equilibrium solutions become more similar to the
isotonic surfaces.
3) 3D axial lines can restrict the deformation of soap film during the process of shape
analysis. Furthermore, these axial lines can be converted to cable elements with real
stiffness after shape analysis. Therefore, the combination of the soap film elements
and 3D axial lines can be expected to determine a composite structure of membranes
and cables. In addition, in some cases of boundary shapes, we have to notice that the
mesh connectivity has influence to determined shape.
References
[1] Obiya H., Ru R., Ijima K., Goto S.: Tangent geometrical stiffness of isotonic
curved surface(in Japanese) ,Research Report on Menbrane Structures, pp.77-86,
1994.
[2] Ijima K., Obiya H., Form finding of single layer structure by measure potential
function of element, Structural morphology, pp.249-256, 1997.
[3] Obiya H., Ijima K., Goto S., Aramaki G., Kawasaki N.: Shape analyses of inflation
surface by the simultaneous control(in Japanese), Transactions of JSCES,
2002;4:37-44.
[4] Obiya H., Ijima K., Iguchi S.: A study on isotonic surface for membrane structure
under the follower force depending on its own shape(in Japanese), Journal of
structural engineering 2005;51A:79-86.
[5] Obiya H., Ijima K., Saigoku H.: An isotonic surface analysis using the
simultaneous control averaging a surface-tension(in Japanese), Journal of applied
mechanics2006; JSCE, 9:33-40.
1221
Direct area minimization through dynamic relaxation

Ruy M. O. PAULETTI 1*, Daniel M. GUIRARDI
1*
Polytechnic School of the University of São Paulo
P.O. Box 61548, 05424-970 São Paulo, Brazil
*
pauletti@usp.br
Abstract
Minimal surfaces, characterized by the property of a minimal area within a fixed
boundary, offer an interesting design option for membrane structures, since they are
uniquely defined and provide economy of material and more regular fabric patterns.
Analytical solution for the non-linear equation governing area minimization may be
rather difficult for complex boundaries, leaving numerical solution as the only general
way to tackle with the problem. When approximating the original, smooth surface by a
discrete, faceted surface, the condition of area stationarity is replaced by an equivalent
system of non-linear algebraic equations. Newton‟s method is the more popular method
for the numerical solution of such type of problems. However, since the area of any
smooth surface, of fixed boundary, is indifferent to deformations involving
displacements tangent to the surface itself, there exists an infinity of possible nodal
configurations laid onto the same surface. This reflects in the fact that the 2nd derivative
of the area functional becomes non-positive-definite, as the equilibrium configuration is
approached, rendering impossible the direct solution of the area minimization problem
by means of pure Newton´s method. In this paper we show that the dynamic relaxation
method offers an interesting alternative to solve the area minimization problem, first
interpreted as a nonlinear equilibrium problem, then replaced by a pseudo-dynamic
analysis, where fictitious masses and damping matrices are arbitrarily chosen to control
the stability of the time integration process.
Keywords: Area minimization, dynamic relaxation method, membrane structures,

nonlinear analysis
1 Introduction
The study of minimal surfaces is important both from theoretical and practical points of
view. Minimal surfaces are characterized by the property of a minimal area within a
fixed boundary. They are also the solution geometry for a membrane constringed to that
same boundary, and under an isotropic and uniform plane stress field [1], [2], [3]. These
properties render minimal surfaces an interesting design option for membrane structures,
since they are uniquely defined, for a given boundary, and provide economy of material
and more regular fabric patterns [4], [5], [6], [7], [8].
Minimal surfaces have also attracted the interest of scientists since the times of
Lagrange (who solved the problem for some surfaces of the type z  f  x, y  ) and Euler
1222
(who proved that minimal surfaces have zero-mean curvature everywhere, and therefore
are either plane or anticlastic). Euler was also the first to find the catenoid (the
minimum surface bounded by two parallel, co-axial rings), which remains one of the
few analytical solutions available to this class of problems. In the nineteenth century,
the Belgian physicist Joseph Plateau showed that analogue solutions to area
minimization problems could be produced by dipping wire frameworks into a bath of
soap solution.
2 Area minimization with fixed boundaries

For the moment, we restrain ourselves to surfaces bounded by closed
curves C embedded into Euclidian tridimensional space R 3 and spanned by a vector
field x  x 1 ,2  , where 1 and  2 are continuous and monotonous parameters, as
sketched in Figure 1.
S
2 P
1
z x  xˆ 1 ,2 
C
x O y
Fig. 1: A tridimensional surface bounded by a closed curve C and spanned by a vector

field x  x 1 ,2  (adapted from [8])
x
At every point P  S , we define vectors g  ,   1, 2 , tangent to the surface. A

unit vector, normal to the surface S at P , is given by g3  g1  g2 / g1  g2 . The total
area of any such a surface is given by
A   dA   g1  g2 d1 d2 (1)
S S
We seek a surface S * , spanned by a vector field x* , such that its area A* is a minimum.
In other words, for any perturbation field  u around x* , compatible with C , there must
hold
A
 A*   u  0,  u . (2)
x x*
Thus, the necessary 1st order condition for a configuration x* to be minimal is given by
the non-linear equation
1223
A
0, (3)
x x*
with the equality restriction  xP  xP   0, P  C , where x P is a vector function

spanning the prescribed coordinates at P  C .
The field of global coordinates x spanning a generic configuration S can also be
decomposed according to x  x r  u , where x r spans an initial given configuration and
u is a displacement vector field. Now, since x r is constant, and derivatives can be taken
indistinctly with respect to global coordinates x or to displacements u , the solution to
the area minimization problem consists in finding the configuration u* such that
A
p  u*    0, (4)
u u*
A
where we define the generalized internal load vector p  u   .
u
Analytical solution of the nonlinear Eq. (3) or Eq. (4) may be rather difficult for
complex boundary geometries, leaving numerical solution as the only general way to
tackle with the problem.
2.1 Discretization
In order to numerically solve Eq. (4), it is necessary to replace the continuous fields
x r , u and p by some convenient algebraic approximation. Faceted surfaces, although
not globally differentiable, offer a convenient alternative for the numerical estimative of
the total area of smooth surfaces, improving numerical precision as the number of facets
is increased. In this paper, we choose to work with flat triangular facets (the simplest
possible choice), laid onto a mesh of n nodes, whose coordinates are collected in a
global position vector x  x1T xT2  xTn  , where xi   xi  stores the Cartesian
T
coordinates of the ith node of the mesh. Nodal displacement can also be grouped in a
global displacement vector u  u1T uT2  uTn  3n1 , where ui   ui  stores the
T
Cartesian components of the displacement of the ith node. Note the double transpositions
present in these definitions, used simply to avoid a column-wise notation.
Figure 2 shows the basic geometric quantities required for the definition of a generic
triangular facet (an „element‟) of index e . Facet nodes and edges are numbered with
edges facing nodes of same number. We extract the element nodal coordinates and
displacements from the global position and displacement vectors according to xe  Ce x ,
and ue  Ceu , where Ce is the order 9  3n Boolean incidence matrix of that element,
which correlates the local node numbers {1,2,3} with the global numbers i, j, k such
1224
that C1ei  Ce2 j  C3e j  I3 and C1em  Ce2 m  C3e m  0 , m i, j, k , where 0 and I3 are,
respectively, the null and identity matrices of order three. Of course, these definitions
are merely formal, and computer implementation avoids the multiplicity of zero
multiplications they contain.
The lengths of the edges of a generic triangular facet can then be computed by
 ei  l ie  xek  x ej , with indexes i, j , k  1, 2, 3 in cyclic permutation. Unit vectors
parallel to the element edges are denoted by vie  lie / li . Now, an element area vector is
defined as a e  1
2 l
e
1  l e2  , and the element scalar area is given by Ae  a e , whilst
ne  ae / Ae is an unit vector, normal to the plane of the facet. A coherent node
numbering for all the elements provides an oriented surface.
1  x1 , y1 , z1 
3
2
 e
2
 x2 , y2 , z2 
1
3  x3 , y3 , z3 
Fig. 2: A triangular facet.
The total area of a smooth surface discretized by a mesh of ne triangular facets is then,
approximately,
ne ne
A   A   12  l1e  l e2 
e
(5)
e 1 e 1
2.2 Newton’s Method

Although in this paper we are concerned with solving the area minimization via
dynamic relaxation, for the sake of comparison we now remind that the more popular
method for the numerical solution of nonlinear systems is Newton‟s Method, in which
the solution u* is sought starting from an initial estimative u0 and iterating the
recurrence formula
ui 1  ui  H i1 pi , (6)
p  2 A
where we define the Hessian tensor, H   .
u u 2
Now, introducing in (6) the area approximation (5), we obtain an approximate
generalized internal load vector as
1225
ne
p   CeT p e (7)
e1
Ae
where we define the element internal load vector, p e  .
u e
By its turn, the Hessian tensor is approximated by
ne
H   CeT HeCe , (8)
e1
p e
where we define the element Hessian matrix, H e  .
u e
Deriving the area of a facet with respect to its displacements ue , after some algebra,
there results for the element internal load vector:
1
p e   Λ ene (9)
2
Λ3eT  , with Λ ek  skew  l ek  .

T
where Λe   Λ1eT ΛeT
2
Again deriving (9) with respect to displacements ue , one gets the element Hessian
matrix:
He 
1
4 Ae
 ΛeΓe ΛeT  2Ψe  (10)
where Γe  I3  nene and Ψe  skew(Ωe ) , and where Ωe  skew  a e  . It is seen that

T
Ψ e and therefore H e are both symmetric matrices.

However, it is intuitive to realize that the area of any smooth surface, of fixed boundary,
is indifferent to deformations involving infinitesimal displacements tangent to the
surface itself. In the case of a curved surface divided into a finite number of plane
triangular facets, this property is not exact, but anyway, for every given mesh topology,
there exists generally an infinity of possible nodal configurations, approximating the
same smooth surface. This reflects in the fact that the Hessian matrix (8) becomes more
and more ill-conditioned, as long as the solution is approached, and as long as the mesh
is refined. In practice, this characteristic overrules the direct solution of (4) by means of
pure Newton‟s method.
On the other hand, deformations involving displacement transversal to surface are in
general capable to alter its area. Thus a way to circumvent this problem is the
imposition that the nodal displacements have always a component transversal to the
current configuration. A particular case, where this restriction is naturally inserted is
given by surfaces described by functions z  zˆ  x, y  , which reduce the area
minimization problem to a scalar degree of freedom at every node, as studied in [7]. In
1226
the general tridimensional case, however, even this restriction degrades as a solution is
approached.
Because of these restrictions, it is usual in the problem of area minimization to replace
Newton‟s Method by other algorithms that avoid the exact inversion of the Hessian
matrix, such as conjugate gradient methods (as done in [7], [8]), or the BFGS algorithm
(as done in [9]), which are capable to converge to one of the infinite solutions that exist
for any given mesh topology.
2.3 The Dynamic Relaxation Method

The dynamic relaxation method (DRM) offers another interesting alternative to solve
complicated nonlinear equilibrium problems, replacing the static equilibrium problem
by a pseudo-dynamic analysis, where fictitious masses and damping matrices are
arbitrarily chosen to control the stability of the time integration process.
Thus, instead of solving (4), we may follow the damped vibrations of the dynamic
system
  Cu  p u   0
Mu (11)
until it comes to a rest, at a solution of Eq. (4). Usually, damping coefficients close to
the system‟s critical damping are chosen, in order to speed up the convergence to the
static equilibrium configuration.
Although the dynamic relaxation method shows no advantage for small to medium
sized problems, whenever Newton‟s Method shows good convergence, there may be
considerable economy for very large problems. The rationale is that, as long as the
computational costs for Newton‟s method grows with the square of the number of
degrees of freedom, and the cost of DRM grows linearly, there must be a particular
number above which Newton‟s costs becomes larger than DRM costs.
However, this idea cannot be plainly taken, since, when discretization of a given
structure is refined, a critical time-step which governs the numerical stability of the
system is also reduced, and thus more steps are required for the system to rest.
Nevertheless, since in the DRM the mass and damping matrices are fictitious, they may
be adjusted to keep the time-increments small enough to guarantee stability, but as large
as possible to reduce the number of steps required for convergence to the static solution.
2.4 Kinetic damping

Several strategies have been devised along the years to define proper damping matrix
for the DRM, but we choose here to circumvent the problem altogether, adopting the
process of kinetic damping, first proposed in [10], whereby the undamped movement of
the system, governed by
Mu  p  u   0 , (12)
is followed until a maximum of the total kinetic energy is reached, when all the
velocity components are cancelled, keeping the current geometry. The pseudo-dynamic
1227
analysis is then restarted until new kinetic energy maxima (usually smaller than the
precedent ones) are found, and all velocities are zeroed once again. The process is
repeated until all kinetic energy is dissipated, thus reaching the static equilibrium
configuration. The transient of the system‟s kinetic energy provides a visual criterion
for convergence.
2.5 Central differences

In-depth discussions on the relative performance of the several finite-difference
schemes available to solve Eq. (12) can be found in [11], [12], [13], [14] and [15].
Experience has shown that a convenient choice is offered by the central difference
method, which yields an explicit time-integration scheme, when the mass matrix is
diagonal, rendering very fast the calculation of every time-step.
In this paper we have adopted a particular brand of the central-difference scheme,
progressing from time tk to time tk 1 according to
u k  1  u k  1  tk M 1p k (13)

2 2
uk 1  uk  u k  1 tk  1 , (14)
2 2
where tk  1   tk  tk 1  / 2 .

2
Then we update the geometry according to x k 1  x0  u k 1 . Although more memory is

required to store both x 0 and u k 1 , it has been observed that this scheme is less sensitive
to round-off errors.
2.6 Numerical stability

The central difference method is only conditionally stable, and time increments must be
kept sufficiently small. It can be shown that for linear multiple degrees of freedom
(MDOF) systems, numerical stability is guaranteed by
2
t  , (15)
max
where max is the largest natural frequency of the system, rigorously obtained from the
solution of the global eigenvalue problem
det  H   2 M   0 . (16)
where, in the case of a linear system, H 0 is a constant Hessian matrix. Proofs for this
result, first stated in [16], can be found in references [11] to [15].
Assembling of the global Hessian matrix is, however, a sheer contradiction with the
spirit of DRM, one of the main advantages of it being the possibility of working only
with global vectors.
1228
Besides, definition of a global t may be quite non-economical, when the mesh is non-
uniform, for instance when surfaces presents sharp variations in curvature, because it
can be also shown that an upper limit approximation for the maximum frequency of the
system is given by the maximum maximorum of the element frequencies, i.e.,
max  max e,max 

ne
(17)
e 1
where e,max is the maximum natural frequency of element e ([14], [16]). Therefore, the
smallest element determines the maximum allowable time-step.
Fortunately, Eq. (17) provides also a way to compute an upper bound for the time-step
without the necessity of assembling the global stiffness matrix and –even more
relevant– it also allows a mass tuning procedure, whereby the fictitious element nodal
masses are adjusted in such a way that all the elements comply to a prescribed value
t * for the time increment, thus overcoming the limitations associated to non-uniform
meshes.
A quite general and efficient mass tuning algorithm has been developed by the first
author of this paper, a thoroughly discussion of which is deferred to a forthcoming
paper.
3 Flexible boundaries
Area minimization with flexible boundaries requires the specification of an additional
constrain, otherwise the problem becomes unbounded. Indeed, applying the so-called
soap film analogy, which states that the area of membrane under a uniform isotropic
stress field is minimal [1],[2],[3], it is perhaps easier to understand that it is impossible
to have a minimal area with free boundaries, since stresses transversal to the membrane
boundaries would be zero. Thus cables are always required to equilibrate stresses along
a membrane‟s boundary.
Here, however, we restrict the problem to purely geometric quantities, and an ingenious
way to do so is to redefine the problem as a volume minimization, as done originally in
[9]. We thus add a thickness h  x  to every point of the surface S , and we considered
the surface to be bounded by flexible lines along its boundary S , each of point of this
lines endowed with an a cross-section area A  xP  . We also consider that the surface is
restrained at some points x Pi , enough to avoid rigid body motions. The total volume of
the system is given by
V   h  x  dA   A  x d  . (18)
S S
1229
Now, analogously to (3), the necessary 1st order condition for a configuration x* to
present a minimum volume is given by the non-linear equation
V
 0, (19)
x x*
with the equality restriction, x Pi 

 xPi  0, i  1,, nP , where x Pi are prescribed
coordinates at the nP fixed points.
3.1 Facet-volume elements

Assuming a facet-volume discretization for the surface, together with line-volume
elements along its borders,
ne
V  V e (20)
e 1
Also assuming a constant thickness inside a triangular facet, its unbalanced load vector
is proportional to the quantity derived before, Eq. (9) . Thus, in this case,
he e e
pe   Λn (21)
2
3.2 Line-volume elements

We further assume that the surface boundary is divided into straight line segments
connecting end nodes i and j and endowed with an uniform cross-section area Ae , as
shown in Figure 3. The current volume of such line-volume element is given by
V e  Aee , where e  xe2  x1e is the current element length.
Fig. 3: A line-volume element
The line-volume element internal load vector is thus given by

V e e 
e
pe   A . (22)
u e u e
After some algebra, we obtain
1230
 ve 
p e  Ae  e  , (23)
v 
where v e   xe2  x1e  / xe2  x1e is the unit vector connecting the end nodes of the line
element. Once again, p e is added to the global internal load vector according to (7), now
with C1ei  Ce2 j  I3 and C1em  Ce2 m  0 , m  i, m  j .
4 Some benchmarks
4.1 A Catenoid
Figure 4 shows a catenoid surface whose generatrix is given by y  z   a cosh  z / a  .
The area of such surface is A  2 a  h   a / 2 senh  2h / a   . We consider the catenoid
delimited by two coaxial rings of radius 5.0m, distant 6.0m from each other, for which
h  3.0m , a  3.725355m and A  174.991064m2 .
Table 1 shows the relative errors for three different approximations. In all cases, an
initial cylindrical geometry connecting upper and lower rings was assumed, and a
dynamic relaxation analysis was performed until the kinetic energy the model was
damped out, which occurred after about 50 time-steps, for each model. We remark that
faceting introduces an intrinsic error in area estimative, which is not related to the
precision of the solution method.
2
a h
1
x y
ˆ  z
y y
Fig. 4: A catenoid surface and three different levels of discretization
Table 1: Area estimative for three different discretizations

Mesh ne nn Area [m2] error
1 72 48 173.5658 8.5 103
2 288 168 174.6246 2.1103
3 1152 624 174.9799 6.4 105
1231
4.2 A hyperbolic paraboloid with fixed borders

As a second benchmark we consider a hyperbolic paraboloid described by
z  x, y   axy , as depicted in Figure 5(a). Taking a  0.1m , 5m  x  5m ,
5m  y  5m , the area of this surface can be calculated, to any required precision, by
  dA    1   0.1y    0.1x   dx dy  107.90370m .

1 1
A   1   z / x    z / y 
2 2 2 5 5 2 2 2 2
5 5
S
A mesh with 1200 triangular facets and 645 nodes was adopted for the numerical
solution. Figure 5(b) shows the initial mesh geometry, purposely far from the minimal
configuration sought. Figure 5(c) shows the final configuration, with area
A=107.9235m2. About 200 time-steps were required to damp out the kinetic energy of
the model.
x  1 h  5m
y  2
  10m
  10m
Fig. 5: A hyperbolic paraboloid with fixed boundaries: (a) geometric parameters; (b)
initial geometry; (c) final geometry.
4.3 A hyperbolic paraboloid with flexible borders

As a final example, we consider a hyperbolic paraboloid with flexible boundaries,
taking the same mesh and initial geometry used in previous example. Only the
displacements of the vertices are restrained, and a series of line-volume elements is
arrange along the borders. Figure 6 shows the resulting geometries for A  50 ,
A  20 and A  10 , according to Eq. (22). About 250 time-steps are required to damp
out the model‟s kinetic energy. Element distortion increases considerably as the
borders‟ flexibility is increased, indicating that initial meshes laid onto geometries too
far from solution may degrade considerably.
Fig. 5: Some hyperbolic paraboloids with flexible boundaries:

(a) A  50 ; (b) A  20 ; (c) A  10 .
1232
4 Discussion and Acknowledgements

In this paper we show that the dynamic relaxation method (DRM) offers an interesting
alternative to solve the area minimization problem, first interpreted as a nonlinear
equilibrium problem, then replaced by a pseudo-dynamic analysis, where fictitious
masses and damping matrices are arbitrarily chosen to control the stability of the time
integration process. A discussion on the algorithms adopted for stability was postponed
to a future paper, but we believe that the examples herein presented encourage the
analyst to consider the application of DRM as a general method to solve nonlinear
problems, not necessarily of mechanical nature.
The 1st author acknowledges the support of Nohmura Foundation for Membrane
Structure‟s Technology.
References
[1] Isenberg, C. The Science of Soap Films and Soap Bubbles, New York, USA, Dover
Publications, 1992.
[2] Eisenhart, LP. A Treatise on the Differential Geometry of Curves and Surfaces,
New York, USA, Dover Publications, 1960.
[3] Douglas, J. Solution of the Problem of Plateau, Transactions of the American
Mathematical Society 1931;33(1): 263-321.
[4] Gründig, L. Minimal Surfaces for Finding Forms of Structural Membranes,
Computers & Structures1988; 30(3):679-683.
[5] Tabarrok, B., Qin, Z. “Nonlinear Analysis of Tension Structures”, Computers &
Structures 1992; 45(5-6): 973-984.
[6] Bletzinger, K-U., Wüchner, R., Daoud, F., Camprubí, N. Computational Methods
for Form Finding and Optimization of Shells and Membranes, Computer Methods
in Applied Mechanics and Engineering2005;194(30-33) :3438-3452.
[7] Souza, DCB., Pauletti, RMO., Almeida N., E. S. Sobre a Busca de Superfícies
Minimais Aplicada às Tensoestruturas, Congresso Ibero Latino-Americano sobre
Métodos Computacionais em Engenharia, Porto, 2007.
[8] Souza, DCB., Pauletti, RMO., Almeida Neto, ES. Finding minimal surfaces by
direct area minimization, IASS-SLTE International Symposium 2008 - New
Materials and Technologies, New Design and Innovations A sustainable Approach
to Architectural and Structural Design, 2008, Acapulco.
[9] Arcaro, VF. and Klinka, KK. Finite element analysis for geometric shape
minimization, Journal of the International Association for shell and Spatial
Structures 2009;50(2): 79-88.
[10] Cundall, PA. Explicit finite-difference methods in geomechanics, Blacksburg, VA,
1976.
1233
[11] Gondreau, GL. and Taylor, RL. Evaluation of Numerical Integration Methods in
Elastodynamics, Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering 1972;2
(69-97) .
[12] Zienkiewicz, OC. and Taylor, RL. The Finite Element Method, 4th Ed. McGraw-
Hill, London (1989).
[13] Hughes, TJR. The Finite element Method – Linear Static and Dynamic Finite
Element Analysis, Prentice Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1987.
[14] Bathe, K-J, Finite Element Procedures, Prentice Hall, Prentice Hall Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1996.
[15] Belytschko, T., Liu, WK., Moran, B. Nonlinear Finite Elements for Continua and
Structures, John Wiley & Sons, NY, 2000.
[16] Irons, BM. and Treharne, C. A bound theorem for eigenvalues and its practical
applications, 2nd Conf. on Matrix Methods in Structural Mechanics,245-254,
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, 9971.
1234
New conceptual design tools:

towards designers as software customizers
Alberto PUGNALE1*, Malene Kirstine HOLST2, Poul Henning KIRKEGAARD1
1*
Department of Civil Engineering, Aalborg University, Denmark
Sohngaardsholmsvej 57, DK-9000 Aalborg
apu@civil.aau.dk
2
Department of Architecture, Design and Media Technology
Aalborg University, Denmark
Abstract
This paper aims to discuss recent approaches in using more and more frequently
computer tools as supports for the conceptual design phase of the architectural project.
The present state-of-the-art about software as conceptual design tool could be
summarized in two parallel tendencies. On the one hand, the main software houses are
trying to introduce powerful and effective user-friendly applications in the world of
building designers, that are more and more able to fit their specific requirements; on the
other hand, some groups of expert users with a basic programming knowledge seem to
deal with the problem of software as conceptual design tool by means of 'scripting', in
other words by self-developing codes able to solve specific and well defined design
problems. Starting with a brief historical recall and the discussion of relevant researches
and practical experiences, this paper investigates the most recent studies about digital
conceptual design tools. The combined use of Rhinoceros™, a powerful three-
dimensional modeller diffused among designers, and Rhinoscript™, its implemented
programming environment, is here presented as a possible effective way to deal with
computer technologies for conceptual design in architecture.
Keywords:Conceptual Design, Design tools, Scripting, Computational Morphogenesis
1 Introduction
A large set of the most important architectural projects and experimentations, based on
an advanced and pioneering use of new computer design tools, was selected and
grouped for the first time in 2004 by Frédéric Migayrou and Zeynep Mennan under the
name of „Architectures Non-Standard‟, in occasion of the organization of an
international architectural exposition, held in Paris at Centre Pompidou [1]. Leafing
through the catalogue of the exposition, it should be noticed how different and
heterogeneous both the presented experimentations and the approach to new
technologies of their respective designers were. The exposed works ranged from
experimentations on „file to factory‟ and the industrialization of objects realized by
means of rapid prototyping, for instance of the Objectile group [2] and of d‟ECOi
Architects, to the investigation of the expressive potential of parametric curves and
surfaces, a kind of research proposed, for example, by Lars Spuybroek of NOX [3]. A
1235
more conceptual work on this direction was presented by Greg Lynn [4] and Kas
Oosterhuis [5], who focused their attention on the design process and the influences of
computer tools to the architectural conception, while a more concrete research about the
advanced use of new technologies for managing the project from its conception to its
realization was proposed by the architects of UN Studio [6]. Three-dimensional models
were used in their projects to define complex shapes, then developed to be constructed
with the aid of parametric software, allowing optimal control and perfect interaction and
sharing of design information among all the actors involved in the design process.
Finally, an independent work was presented by Markos Novak [7], self-defined as
„trans-architect‟, whose production is merely related to the digital world; for this reason,
he should be considered as a visual artist. However, the heterogeneity of exposed
projects and approaches to digital tools presents a fundamental common point, i.e. the
use of computer as object itself of experimentation, trying to find out its potential of
modifying and becoming an integral part of the architectural projects, starting from its
conception. In fact, nowadays the most common CAD applications are frequently used
by small and big offices, to deal with projects of any kind of typology or scale, as tools
for technical drawing and rapid sharing of information between designers, but while in
few academic and high level professional experiences the study of computer tools as
supports for the conceptual design exist since decades, the possible benefits for their
widespread use have been only recently perceived by software houses as a research
direction for the development of future products.
The most important results on this research field have been reached for instance by the
Bentley™ group, that has developed Generative Components™, formerly called
Custom Objects™. Under the guide of Robert Aish, this parametric design tool has been
created in order to generate and handle with a simple interface multiple and complex
relationships between architectural elements - with the aid of external commercial
software, Generative Components™ can also become a 'performance-driven' application,
able to support engineering optimization that modifies the metric space of generated
elements maintaining the overall topology of the architectural body. A first example of
this possibility has been directly tested by the developers combining the structural
design system 'eifForm' with this parametric design environment [8]. This generative
method is in practice an optimizing process called structural topology and shape
annealing (STSA), which combines structural grammars, performance evaluation
including structural analysis and performance metrics, and stochastic optimization via
Simulated Annealing. However, Generative Components™ also received enthusiast
feedback from users, who tested it starting from its early beta releases. It has been for
instance used by Coenders to perform at early design stages rapid and effective
structural optimization of free-form shapes [9] [10]. The default software features were
here improved implementing customized self-developed optimization strategies, but the
overall process was not finally evaluated as much flexible and adaptable to more
general design situations, as this kind of conceptual design phase requires.
From a more general point of view, it is possible to state that commercial software is
largely improving its potential to become an integral part of the architectural design
process, but at present a lot of remaining gaps of these programs are directly filled by
users with the aid of software customization and mixing more tools together to enhance
1236
their single capabilities. A recent example of this diffuse approach has been presented
by Fraschini et al., who designed a large lightweight roof structure using a commercial
three-dimensional modeller, as well as a self-developed program used for the structural
optimization of the overall shape - also with the aid of simple codes and effective CNC
prototypes, this project has been conceived starting from conceptual design stages as a
free-form but 'rational' proposal [11].
It should be underlined that all these examples have generally focused their attention on
a particular element or problematic aspect of the architectural project, such as the roof
structure. In spite of in some cases it could be considered as the most important part of
the building, that essentially defines its 'architecture', in many other projects it is not
possible to manage the design process in a such well defined way. In addition, also
these simpler design occasions, characterized by the presence of a major fundamental
design problem, have been approached in very differentiate ways, symptom of how is
unproductive to spend efforts in finding possible generalizations inside a so complex
mental activity, as the architectural design is.
Designers are therefore in a continuous vortex of pursuit for the latest commercial
software released, more and more able to deal with conceptual design problems, but
they are also trying to contribute themselves on this research, customizing existing
applications and combining some of them together, as happened in the previously
described examples. In this conceptual frame, this paper discusses the use of computer
technologies as conceptual design tools in architecture. A brief historical recall about
software customization is provided in Section 2, in order to present what was the first
approach of architects to computers, considering the lack of commercial software they
had in that period. Of course, some pioneers immediately reasoned about the
development of 'tailored' programs to fit architectural purposes, also including the more
creative conceptual design stage. The state-of-the-art on this topic is discussed in
Section 3, while a set of outstanding recent experimentations and some personal
acquired experiences about digital conceptual design tools are reported in Section 4.
This excursion in the world of conceptual design tools concludes in Section 5 with some
comments about the strong relationship existing between technology and thought, of
course focusing the attention on computer tools and thinking inside the architectural
design practice. The supported thesis is that a correct approach to computer technology
could be seen as a very positive aspect for the architectural design, able to stimulate
designer to what is the real purpose of their profession, in other words the generation of
buildings based on constructive and rational principles, made to solve user's problems.
2 Early customizers
During the Eighties, first computer technologies began their diffusion inside the world
of architecture. In that period, a lack of commercial software surely has a positive effect
on early braves users who, stimulated by the need of thinking about possible purposes
of that new tool, decided to explore its potential of supporting conceptual architectural
tasks. A first example of this trend could be found in the experience of the famous
American firm SOM, in which computers were diffused since the Fifties when
designers were developing the project for the Air Force Academy in Colorado.
1237
Computer were initially used in the administrative section of the office, but then, during
the Eighties, in the SOM office in Chicago started the development of a computer
program, specifically made to fit designer requirements, promoted by the partner Bruce
Graham. This was a first rough tentative of software definition tailored for architectural
needs, able to deal with designer problems and to manage the architectural project. It
was called Building Optimization Procedure (BOP), and it worked as a kind of
parametric software. Its mainly purpose was in the creation of a simple way to manage
building structures, in order to reduce the construction costs. Less or nothing about the
support for the architectural conceptual work was included in this software, but what is
worth to be remembered of this experience is the used approach to digital technologies -
in fact, they could be created and modified on the basis of a specific design need, and a
first improvement on this direction was of course made automating long and repetitive
manual operations, not so much related to the conceptual work yet. However, this
positive beginning has been early abandoned due to the increasing power of big
computer companies, that made no more competitive the self production of software by
large architectural offices. As a result, SOM sold its system to IBM. However, a
designer reflects about that period in this way: “this sale still remains something
difficult to stand. We were used to create our own software customized for what we
wanted to do... And now we are dependent of others who do things for us and that, of
course, are not in the way in which we want them. We are always having to evaluate
different software to find the one that better fits to our needs” [12].
Another example of this early approach to computers in the world of architecture can be
found in the research and didactics of John Frazer at Architectural Association in
London, that has been focused, for almost thirty years, in the development of a sense of
consciousness on his students with respect to computers. Practical experimentations
with hardware and software development were carried out by Frazer during his Diploma
Units to modify the student cultural approach towards computers, that was expected to
change from that of simple users of a „black box‟ in that of potential self-developers of
their appropriate design tools. A collection of Frazer‟s fundamental experiences has
been published in 1995 on “An Evolutionary Architecture” [9], that also has the implicit
purpose of understanding possible unknown uses of computer technology inside the
architectural design practice. The purpose of Frazer's researches was related to the
investigation of possible form-generation processes in architecture, also taking
advantage of growing scientific theories about the morphogenesis of natural shapes. In
this work, the simulation of the human heuristic way used to define architectural forms
is approached as a method to generate a new architecture, an 'evolutionary architecture'
considered as a kind of 'artificial life'. Also with a clear inspiration to the complex form-
generation rules of the living organisms, this work focused the designer attention on the
potential of computer technologies of becoming an integral part of the creative process,
and a fundamental catalyst to reach a new paradigm in architecture.
3 Conceptual design phase: approaches and emerging tools

As previously stated, starting from the Nineties a set of CAD commercial software
began to be developed, bringing to a rapid diffusion of Computer-Aided Design inside
1238
the world of architecture, together with an increasing illiteracy of computer software

basic development inside the world of architects (computer users). In practice, the
improvement of graphic interfaces corresponded to a substantial reduction of computer
control form the point of view of users. In the last few years, these tools has been
particularly improved, with the aim of becoming more and more specific for
architectural purposes. For this reason, traditional CAD systems are no more seen as
simple automated versions of building drawings but, on the contrary, as possible
containers of information about buildings and their elements, especially helpful in the
last constructive design phase.
Building Information Modeling represent at the moment the highest level of software
evolution about this kind of philosophy. By facilitating the information flow BIM tries
to integrate the design processes of the architect with the others practitioners in the
building industry. BIM is about information modelling, and as a vision it is strived
towards in the future, as it is intended to reduce design, construction and operation
failures, by the integrated platform that includes the different parties in the design,
engineering, construction process and even in the building life-cycle [14]. With Revit as
an example of BIM tool, the possibilities for cooperation of the architect and the
engineer are developed, and in practice it is solved by linking Revit Architecture and
Revit Structure by cross-linking the architectural file with the structural file. The
construction of Revit differs between the architectural files and structural files, as the
architect is responsible for the visual while the engineer is responsible for the structural.
However, apart from this, the BIM software does not seem to be a good tool to deal
with architectural conceptual problems. One perspective refers to the fact, that BIM
software contains an object oriented logic rather than a geometric representational logic
the designers use in the development of the design, where exceptions are like a rule in
the design, which the BIM software does not promote with the advanced object oriented
logic. This perspective along with the fact that designers design with a geometrical logic,
where they pursue software that represents the design and that collaborates with the
amount of information and degree of detail, the designers possess and have developed
within the conceptual stages. Especially the latter is an issue with BIM, as the degree of
details in the amount of information does not correspond the information the designer
needs and holds in terms of develop conceptual design.
3.1 Searching for recurrencies in conceptual design

These are the main reasons that stimulated researches inside software houses towards
the development of other typologies of tools that could fit better the conceptual design
phase of the architectural project. According to the recent papers by Robert Aish, it
seems indeed that a fundamental recurrence of the conceptual design activity is the
"creation and manipulation of geometric relationships" [15]. Recent parametric or
associated design tools such as Bentley‟s Generative Components™ and McNeel‟s
Grasshopper™, released as a plug-in for Rhinoceros™, has been developed following
this idea of supporting the designer generating projects by defining relationships.
Generative Components™ is an associative parametric design system. Once the
underlying logic and design relationships have been defined, the designer can create
new options without manually building or rebuilding the detailed design model for each
1239
scenario. The parametric construction allows addition of different parameters with

values defined by the designer. The parametric construction allows generating a clear,
associated, logical structural system based on rules, as the software supports the design
logic rather than the object logic of BIM. The software is able to express design
knowledge and replay every change in the input parameters of the system, which helps
rationalizing often complicated designs by explicitly defining the underlying logic,
rather than just containing the result of a set of geometric operations.
After few tentative uses of these tools, it clearly appears how much their user-friendly
graphic interface feel in users an immediate sense of confidence with the software,
allowing them to begin to design, or better 'play', with them, also before a real goal or
design problem has been defined. As a consequence, their use is mainly perceived as a
kind of trend to follow by designers, in which the produced results are only virtual
experimentations of the technology or geometrical exercises, without a real necessary
connection with architectural problems to solve. It is quite a paradox, that a type of
program born to approach artistic and abstract ideas of the conceptual design phase to
the rational principles of structures and construction works in practice producing the
opposite effect - in fact, these software allow designers to conceive and manage very
complex shapes and spatial configurations, very difficult to generate before their
introduction.
3.2 Development of 'tailored' design procedures

Alongside the development of these new programs, an increasing set of designers with a
basic programming knowledge or enthusiasts on software development began to search
by themselves a solution for the present lack of applications able to satisfy architects in
their work. After a first learning phase, it is now emerging among architects a group of
particularly expert users, able to write some code strings in order to 'customize' a
reference commercial software, enhancing its potential and possible purposes. This
phenomenon has been obviously encouraged by software house, that provide to users
simple programming environments together with their products. As a consequence,
nowadays any kind of wordprocessing or spreadsheet or CAD system included
programming environments such as Basic or Lisp.
This kind of activity, in other words the software customization, is generally identified
as „scripting‟ and consists in the specific use of programming for the development of
small codes, called „scripts‟, that only work under the presence of more sophisticated
supporting commercial software. The creation of these scripts was born in the Sixties
with the aim of automating long and repetitive operations that needed in that period to
be manually launched one by one from the command line [16]. However, now the
development of scripts is no more merely seen as a method of automating scheduled
procedures; it has become a way of extending the standard possibilities offered by
commercial software in order to better fit different specific user requirements. At
present, all the most common CAD applications such as AutoCAD™, 3D Studio
MAX™ and Maya™ implement simple programming environments that allow
designers the self-development of script codes; for this reason, the phenomenon of
„software customization‟ has also been growing in the last years into the field of
architectural design.
1240
The recent releases of Rhinoceros™, that is a powerful NURBS-based three

dimensional modeller implementing a simple VB-based scripting environment called
Rhinoscript™, is enormously enlarging the use of scripting in architecture. This fact
brings too important consequences; we assist to an intense development of 'tooling', in
other words of the creation from users of applications fitted to the solution of specific
constructive problems or about the description of the project. Digital technology is no
more approached as a passive tool and on the contrary it becomes a resource to
formulate in a different way architectural problems and to interactively construct
solution strategies. In this emerging panorama, scripting is not viewed as a tool to
merely improve a particular building performance but it acts as a further tool of thinking
for the architectural design practice.
4 From engineering optimization strategies to architectural form-

exploration tools
The self development of codes, used to customize and enhance the potential of
commercial software, is a consolidated practice in different engineering fields. For
instance, many recent works by Mutsuro Sasaki as structural consultant for famous
architectural firms have been approached in this way - in the project of the Kitagata
community centre, in Japan, or during the development of the Grin Grin park, in
Fukuoka, Sasaki improved the overall structural behaviour of these buildings by means
of a self-developed optimization tool called 'Sensitivity Analysis', that in practice
automated the long and repetitive manual design method of „trial and error‟,
transforming it into an iterative process of drawing/evaluation of tentative solutions on
the basis of FEM analyses [17]. In fact, in these projects the architectural shape was
already defined before Sasaki's structural contribution, therefore the actual followed
design process did not used computer applications as conceptual tools, and this
procedure should be considered as a pure engineering optimization. The same could be
stated for a set of other interesting projects, focused on the optimization of construction
costs glass grid-shells [18] [19]. This construction typology was born and developed in
the world of structural engineers as a very rational kind of structure. However, in recent
years it has been also used to realize a set of free-form shapes, imagined during the
conceptual phase as lightweight and transparent structures, but in practice very onerous
and complicated to realize with double curved glass elements. Also in this case
optimization is not included in the conceptual design phases, becoming more a tool able
to reduce the overall construction costs than a real support for conceptual design. In
summary, in all these cases a successful architectural result could be assigned more on
the basis of the high profile of involved designers than on the degree of 'dialogue'
among designers during the design process.
However, a set of limits could be also found in other design experimentations, in which
the use of computational tools significantly defined the architecture of the building
starting from early design phases. This kind of researches, that aim to generate
performance-driven shapes by means of numerical optimization tools, are generally
identified with the name of 'Computational Morphogenesis'. A wide set of applications
on this topic have been made for instance by William Baker et al. in different structural
1241
optimizations of high-rise buildings designed by SOM [20] [21], but, at present, the use
of digital form-finding procedures seems to present quite the same problems of similar
past experiences of the second post-war, made for instance by Frei Otto and other
engineers by means of physical models. In fact, the form-generation procedure used by
Sasaki for the project of a new High Speed Train Station in Florence, Italy, that was a
powerful topological optimization called 'Extended Evolutionary Structural
Optimization', is at the same time a producer of unexpected optimal structural
configurations, as well as an important limit for the exploration of architectural shapes,
that is restricted to a certain family of formal solutions [22].
Many engineering optimization tools have been recently used to investigate their
possible potential of becoming a valid support for the conceptual design phase of the
architectural project. However, also many problems still remain - the presented
examples represent famous and outstanding buildings, generally managed by large and
high profile firms, and therefore the diffusion of this approach is still far to be
considered for the most common design practice, mainly characterized by smaller
projects. A fundamental step forward on this point has been surely made by the
diffusion of scripting among architects, directly developed inside their favourite three-
dimensional modellers. The use of Rhinoceros™, or other powerful NURBS-based
programs, does not require to designers, for instance, a kind of interface between
architectural and structural or other design models - computational morphogenesis and
optimization algorithms can be directly self-developed inside the modelling software
with the aid of user-friendly programming environments, allowing designers to define
and use tailored design tools on the basis of the specific architectural problem. An
important benefit of this procedure is, of course, that it forces designers in finding
always a clear formulation of their problem, focusing their attention on it.
4.1 Applications and acquired experience

In the last years, different experimental works have been developed by a research group
related to the authors in order to really understand the potential of scripting, related to
architectural three-dimensional modellers, of acting as a conceptual tool for designers.
To develop all the following case studies, Rhinoceros™, developed by McNeel, has
been chosen as three-dimensional graphic modeller. It is largely diffused both in the
architect and designer communities due to its powerful NURBS-based graphic engine,
able to define any kind of free-form geometry. In addition, the tool used to develop and
run the following scripts, the optimization procedures, is the built-in Visual Basic
interpreter Rhinoscript™.
A first important research has been developed in 2007-2008, starting from the results of
a Master thesis concerning the Computational Morphogenesis of an auditorium ceiling
structure [23] [24]. Here, the idea was to generate by means of an evolutionary
procedure, in particular a Genetic Algorithm, a free-form folded surface that was also
able to respect the high acoustic performances generally required for concert halls (Fig.
1). This technique was mainly chosen for its heuristic, or meta-heuristic, search method
of the solution, which suggested, especially with reference to early conceptual design
stages, an expected potential in stimulating the interaction between the work of the
architect and that of the engineer. The problem was defined for an audience of 900 seats,
1242
in which the arena is the unique listener area. In order to better understand the single
contribute of the ceiling shape in modifying the whole acoustic behaviour of the room,
this base surface was conceived, as well as the lateral walls, as a regular geometry. Next,
a regular net of points was used in Rhinoceros™ to define the vertexes of faces,
geometrically described as NURBS surfaces. Next, the X and Y coordinates of each
point was assumed as fixed, while the Z coordinates have been considered as design
variables of this morphogenetic procedure. This means that the free-form shape of the
ceiling is defined, at each iteration, by the Z coordinate of a set of generative points,
always maintaining a regular planar configuration. In order to guarantee a good
listening position to the audience of the music hall, the error with respect to the
uniformity of sound level calculated on the seating area, was chosen as fitness function
of this acoustic morphogenetic procedure. The „acoustic solver‟ of this morphogenetic
process was developed as a customized version of the ray-tracing algorithm - modelled
in this way, the acoustic problem can be considered intrinsically analogue to a lighting
analysis problem. It should be underlined that this developed analysis method is
extremely simplified, because its purpose here was to improve the architect-engineer
interaction, guiding the process of morphogenesis to good solutions that could be finally
checked and further improved with more sophisticated acoustic analyzers.
Fig. 1: Computational Morphogenesis of a free-form ceiling

with high acoustic performances [23] [24]
1243
A second research has been developed in 2007 with the purpose of applying a similar
Computational Morphogenesis procedure of the acoustic case study to deal with a
structural problem [25]. This work has been conceived by referring to the recent well-
known project, the Crematorium of Kakamigahara designed by Ito and Sasaky, that is
an interesting building simply composed of a free-form concrete roof, supported by a
set of columns randomly positioned on the ground level (Fig. 2). Here, this project was
completely redesigned using the same Genetic Algorithm described fo the previous
work. The shape of the shell was described in Rhinoceros™ by means of a 3th degree
NURBS surface with a net of 10 x 10 control points, of which the vertical coordinates
was assumed as design variables of the morphogenetic process. Some of these points,
corresponding to the pillar-slab joints, was then considered as fixed in order to preserve
the heights of the roof supports. The maximum vertical displacement of the roof shape
was considered as the structural parameter to evaluate its local mechanical behaviour
and, in order to perform the FEM analyses, the concrete shell was loaded by the dead
load due to its self weight. At each iteration of the morphogenetic process, the NURBS
surface was translated into a discrete finite element mesh with constraints and loads
directly by the GA, following the syntax rules of ANSYS™, that was used as solver.
The interaction between the two tools was entirely automated.
Fig. 2: Computational Morphogenesis of a free-form structure [25]
1244
A third research work has been developed in 2008-2009 in relation to two different
optimization problems of free-form glass grid-shells [26] [27]. In order to reduce their
overall costs, a first algorithm has been tuned with the purpose of limiting the number
of element typologies (Fig. 3) and a second one have been developed to generate 'Planar
Quadrilateral' mesh configurations, starting from free-form shapes. Gradient based
methods, such as the Force Density Method, as well as evolutionary methods, such as
Genetic Algorithms, have been applied separately to benchmark shapes and to real case
studies, in order to compare their efficiency.
Fig. 3: Frame standardization of free-form grid shells [26] [27]

In these cases, computer tools have been used for optimization, as well as to perform
real Computational Morphogenesis processes. However, in both cases the necessity of
defining some script codes constricted us in focus the attention on a correct formulation
of the studied problems, as well as on a more clear understanding of the basic
architectural idea of the project. The possibility of working directly inside the
architectural three-dimensional modeller should be considered a major positive aspect
shared by these experimentations. In addition, this approach does not try to reproduce
by means of software and simulation a more traditional and physical design process, on
the contrary, it is only intended to stimulate a designer in finding new innovative ideas
and in supporting he or she in developing them to become real projects.
5 Taking architects to task with computer tools

This paper has presented the main studies and approaches to new computer technologies
as possible tools for the conceptual design inside the architectural project. In the last
years, the most important software houses, as well as many designers, have tested and
experimented on this field with different results; on the one hand, commercial software
is rapidly evolving and new versions or programs are continuously released producing a
kind of trend with respect on the use of new technology, also requiring to architectural
offices a high investment in financial and educational terms. On the other hand, an
increasing set of designers is trying to approach the conceptual design by means of
software customization - different programs are used at the same time, and some users
with sufficient programming skills also enhance their potential with the aid of scripting.
In this panorama, in the last few years the research groups related to the authors has
developed a set of works in order to understand what could be the best way to approach
computer technologies as conceptual tools in architectural design. From this point of
1245
view, the combined use of Rhinoceros™ and Rhinoscript™ demonstrated its high
potential of introducing scripting among architects, still maintaining their work focused
on real problems instead of inviting them to draw and define shapes not based on any
kind of rational principle.
5.1 The invisible computer design tool

It is probably too much early to clearly describe the fate of computer technologies as
possible supports for the conceptual design, as well as to understand if they will be
really able to define a new paradigm in architecture. However, it is possible to take
advantage of the evolution stages of other important past technologies in order to
imagine some probable scenarios for them.
The evolution of technology could be roughly separated in three main phases - at the
beginning it is created and developed, it is a tool of pure experimentation and its use is
restricted to a set of expert or fanatic users; in a following stage, technology begins to
be diffused, its use becomes consolidated among users, to deal with a wide range of
activities; finally, technology becomes 'invisible', it is completely 'interiorized' by users,
and its use by means of a human-technology interface is no more perceived as
something artificial but, on the contrary, natural [28] [29]. With computer technologies
we are now in the middle of this evolutionary path, that also defines their increasing
potential to use for conceptual purposes. In fact, other past revolutionary technologies
have followed this path, and one of the most important of them is of course the written
word. According to Ong [30], who studied its effects on human mental structures by
means of a continuous comparison between oral and writing cultures, for each new
technology a correspondent constriction of the user's creative freedom exists, that is
only apparently negative - this kind of limitation allows a better definition and control
inside a specific action field, in which the human mind can produce creative and
original results. Outstanding examples of this phenomenon can be found everywhere,
for example looking back to the world of music of the 16th century when the old
baroque compositions were gradually substituted with new scores, specifically written
for new keyboard-based musical instruments such as the harpsichord - from the intrinsic
limits of a recently introduced technology the foundations of the following more
brilliant musical season, that was what we now know as classical music, were laid.
1246
References
[1] Ed. Migayrou F. Architectures non standard. Centre Pompidou. 2003.
[2] Beaucé P and Cache B. Vers un mode de production non-standard. Géométrie
complexe et architecture. Archithese 2006, 4: 50-55.
[3] Spuybroek L. Nox. Thames & Hudson. 2004.
[4] Lynn G. Folds, Bodies & Blobs: collected essays. La lettre volée. 1998.
[5] Oosterhuis K. Hyperbodies: Toward an E-Motive Architecture. Birkhauser. 2003.
[6] Van Berkel B and Bos C. Buy Me a Mercedes-Benz: The book of the museum.
Actar. 2006.
[7] Novak M. Trasmitting architecture. Architectural Design 1995, 118: 42-47.
[8] Shea K Aish R and Gourtovaia M. Towards integrated performance-driven
generative design tools. Automation in Construction 2005; 14, 2: 253-264.
[9] Coenders J and Wagemans L. openStrategy Form Finding, a new approach to
structural form finding and structural optimization. Ed. Motro R. IASS
Symposium 2004, From models to realization. 2004: 66-67.
[10] Coenders J. Approximating complex shapes with intelligent structures: embedded
design intelligence in systems for the early phases of design. Journal of the
International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures 2006; 47, 152: 237-
244.
[11] Fraschini M Lo Prete M and Laurino N. Advanced architectural workshop:
implementing structural logics into a design process for large scale lightweight
coverings. Journal of the International Association for shell and spatial
structures 2010; 51, 164: 137-146.
[12] Adams N. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill: SOM since 1936. Phaidon. 2007.
[13] Frazer JH. An Evolutionary Architecture. Architectural Association Publications.
1995.
[14] Coenders J. Parametric and associative design as a strategy for conceptual design
and delivery to BIM. Eds. Domingo A and Lázaro C. IASS Symposium 2009.
Evolution and trends in design, analysis and construction of shell and spatial
structures. 2009: 1112-1123.
[15] Aish R. Extensible computational design tools for exploratory architecture. Ed.
Kolarevic B. Architecture in the Digital Age: Design and Manifacturing.
Routledge. 2005: 17.
[16] Ceruzzi PE. A History of Modern Computing (2nd edn). The MIT Press. 2003.
[17] Sasaki M. Flux Structure. TOTO. 2005.
[18] Baldassini N. Hidden and Expressed Geometry of Glass. Eds. Bos F Louter C and
Veer F. Challenging Glass: Conference on Architectural and Structural
Applications of Glass. 2008: 9-18.
[19] Baldassini N and Raynaud J. Free-form, form finding and anisotropic grid shell.
Eds. Domingo A and Lázaro C. IASS Symposium 2009. Evolution and trends in
design, analysis and construction of shell and spatial structures. 2009: 966-976.
1247
[20] Baker WF Novak LC Jajich D and Beghini A. Optimization Tools for the
Conceptual Design of Structures. IASS Symposium 2007. Shell and Spatial
Structures: Structural Architecture - Towards the future looking to the past.
2007: 39-40.
[21] Baker W Beghini A Carrion J Mazeika A and Mazurek A. Numerical tools in
structural optimization. Eds. Abel JF and Cooke RJ. Proceedings of the 6th
International Conference on Computation of Shell & Spatial Structures: IASS-
IACM “Spanning Nano to Mega”. 2008: 137.
[22] Cui C Ohmori H and Sasaki M. Computational Morphogenesis of 3D Structures
by Extended ESO Method. Journal of the International Association for Shells
and Spatial Structures 2003; 44, 141: 51-61.
[23] Mendez TI Astolfi A Jansen MJ and Sassone M. Architectural, Acoustic and
Structural Form. Journal of the International Association for Shell and Spatial
Structures 2008; 49, 3: 181-186.
[24] Sassone M Pugnale A and Mendez TI. On the interaction between architecture
and engineering: the acoustic optimization of a RC roof shell. Eds. Abel JF and
Cooke RJ. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Computation of
Shell & Spatial Structures: IASS-IACM “Spanning Nano to Mega”. 2008: 231.
[25] Pugnale A and Sassone M. Morphogenesis and Structural Optimization of Shell
Structures with the Aid of a Genetic Algorithms. Journal of the International
Association for Shell and Spatial Structures 2007; 48, 155: 161-166.
[26] Basso P Del Grosso A Pugnale A and Sassone M. Computational Morphogenesis
of free form grid shells. Ed. Paoletti I. Innovative Design & Construction
Technology: Building complex shapes and beyond. 2009: 283-296.
[27] Basso P Del Grosso A Pugnale A and Sassone M. Computational morphogenesis
in architecture: cost optimization of free form grid shells. Journal of the
International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures 2009; 50, 162: 143-
150.
[28] Norman D. The invisible computer. The MIT Press. 1998.
[29] Rogers EM. Diffusion of innovations (4th edn). The free press. 1995.
[30] Ong WJ. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word (2nd edn).
Routledge. 2002.
[31] Sassone M and Pugnale A. On the optimal design of glass grid shells with planar
quadrilateral elements. International Journal of Space Structures 2010; 25, 2.
1248
Morphology of roof structure systems designed by means of

lenticular girder
Janusz RĘBIELAK1*
1*
Tadeusz Kościuszko Cracow University of Technology
Ul. Warszawska 24, 31-155 Kraków, Poland
E-mail: j.rebielak@wp.pl
Abstract
The paper presents the morphological and structural rules of shaping of basic
types of the lenticular girder, which system is recently developed by the author. This
type of a girder is mainly intended as the lightweight support structure for various
shapes of roof covers. It is designed as a specific type of the truss system suitably
composed of compression and tension members and it has to be suitably pre-stressed.
The lenticular girder can take some various forms of simple trusses and it can be
designed in several different ways as spatial structural systems. In the paper are
discussed morphological aspects of basic structural types of the offered system.
Keywords: Lightweight system, roof structure, structural morphology, tension-strut

system
1 Introduction
Dead load of large span roof structure should be as low as possible that is why systems
composed of tension members are recommended for these purposes. Tension systems
are very efficient however because of e.g. architectonic reasons they can be considered
as not appropriate for certain investment tasks. It explains the recent popularity of
tension-strut systems in various types of roof covers. Main goal during the shaping
processes of the intended systems was the endeavour to obtain a lightweight structure
composed of possible simple components, which can take load forces applied at each
direction. It would be advantageous if the system could consist of typical components
produced in the bulk, the main parts of it should be typical manufactured components
with minimum additional and specific parts and operation processes necessary to
assembly the basic structural unit. Moreover they should be built of possibly small
number of compression members and necessary number of tension members. The
required initial pre-stressing should be applied in the possibly simplest way.
2 Basic structural form of plane lenticular girder

Scheme of one of the simplest structural forms of plane shape of lenticular girder is
shown in Figure 1. The girder consists of two compression members (1) having forms
of two contrary directed arches connected together in support nodes (A and B) and these
nodes are joint by means of the main central tension member (2) situated horizontally.
1249
In area between these compression members are placed two groups of inner tension
members (3) of shorter lengths, directions of which are focused in two nodes located in
the middle zone of the structure. Axes of one group of these members are concentrate
respectively in node U of the upper chord while directions of the second group of
members are focused in node L of the lower chord of that girder. These both central
nodes can be connected by means of relatively short vertical tension member (V) being
one of the inner tension members (3). Second endings of the inner tension members (3)
are joined to the intermediate nodes (D) arranged in suitable distances along the main
compression members (1). Necessary pre-stressing of the whole structure can be
applied e.g. by means of turnbuckle’s (N) device placed in the central tension member
(2). Intermediate nodes (D1) are also arranged along the central member (2) in crossing
points between it and the inner tension members (3). Structure of the intermediate nodes
(D1) should enable unobstructed small displacement of component parts connected
there and being result of strains of the whole system under the applied load. Some
structural details of that girder are presented in Figure 2.
1 U 3
2
A B
N D
V L D1
Fig. 1: Scheme of basic structural form of a lenticular girder
Exemplary form of the support node shows Figure 2a. In this case the main compression
members are designed in form of steel tubes (1), which are welded to a vertical plate
(Bv). An appropriate screw (N) plays role of a turnbuckle inside the horizontal tension
member (2) made also as a steel tube. Central nodes (U and L) are shaped according to
the assumed forms of particular components, compare Figure 2b [1].
Bv
a 1
b
Pv Pv
1 1 1
Bh Ph
Ph
Bz
N
Bp
2
Om
Bw
Bw 3
Os 3
3
Os Ph
1 N
2
Bv
Bw 1
Bz Ph Pv
Bp
Fig. 2: Proposed simple form of a) support nodes, b) central nodes of the type U or L
1250
3 Examples of basic spatial structural forms of lenticular girder
3.1 Initial remarks regarding shaping processes

Structural formula, presented above, can be applied also for spatial arrangement of
suitable component parts giving in a result several morphological solutions having
interesting structural and architectonic features. Various types of structural systems can
be obtained through different arrangement of tension and compression members in
space of created repeatable modules and their mutual configurations in space of a roof
structure. Location of arch compression segments towards the central surface of the
module is assumed as the distinguish feature in the processes of shaping.
3.2 Modules with arch segments located vertically

From analysis of Figure 1 follows that the lentiucular girder presented there can be
considered as an appropriate composition of two its halves placed on left and right side
towards the vertical line drawn between central nodes U and L. Therefore one half of
the structure can be distinguished as basic form for shaping of other types of spatial
structural systems. When these basic forms will be regularly repeated three times
around the vertical axis determined by nodes U and L and their vertex nodes As, Bs and
Cs will be directly connected together by means of long tension members running along
edges of a triangle then we obtain a spatial module denoted by symbol MT [3], general
scheme which is shown in Figure 3. It is obvious that number of basic simple halves of
a girder may be greater than three but this number seems to be most efficient from each
point of view. Buckling lengths of long tension members spaced between vertex nodes
will be decreased by arrangement of additional pairs of secondary tension members
running appropriately from nodes U and L.
As
Bs
Cs
Fig. 3: Spatial module of a lenticular girder marked by symbol MT created by

compression arch members vertically located towards the middle surface
Shape of module of the type MT can be supplemented by additional components

according measure dimensions and requirements of the designed roof cover. This
module is proposed to be replicate and suitably arranged on middle surface of the roof,
1251
which can take each, even optional shape of the designed cover especially of large span.
Module MT was applied as an integral of a small simple and lightweight cover spaced
over stands of a sport stadium, see Figure 4. In this case modules MT are arranged
along the stands and connected together only in two vertex nodes while in the area
between two adjacent modules is located additional system of component parts [2].
Fig. 4: View of one of variants of conceptual design of stand cover with application of
the MT spatial modules of the lenticular girder
If modules MT are located onto the same common horizontal surface and they are
distributed in every second field of a triangular grid in the way presented in Figure 5
and moreover their upper and lower nodes are connected by means of tension members
creating in both external layers also suitable triangular grids then this structural
arrangement is assumed to denote as the MT-X configuration of the lenticular girder.
S5
S4
S6
S3
S1
S2
Fig. 5: General view of a spatial arrangement of lenticular system denoted as MT-X
1252
Singular modules of the same inner build can be connected together in another way,
scheme of which is shown in Figure 6. It is possible by means of arrangement of
additional vertical members distributed in centres of adjacent triangular fields. Due to
this upper and lower nodes of each module can be connected by means of tension
members with suitable nodes of these additional members what gives in result external
layers of hexagonal pattern. This second structural configuration is called the MT-Y
system of the lenticular girder [3].
K
J
L
Fig. 6: Example form of structural arrangement of lenticular girder called MT-Y system
3.3 Modules built by arch segments placed on the middle surface

Basic form of lenticular girder was transformed into a spatial configuration presented in
Figure 7. In this case three arch segments of compression members are located onto the
same middle surface of the spatial module, which structural system is denoted as
lenticular girder of the type D [3]. Vertex nodes of triangular form of the repeatable
A
B
L
Fig. 7: Basic spatial form of lenticular system of the type D
1253
unit are connected directly by means of three relatively long tension members. Stable
configuration of that system is provided by means of suitable pairs of tension members
running from ending nodes of short vertical posts placed in the central point of each
module. Second endings of that tension members are connected to the intermediate
nodes uniformly arranged along the arch segments. If in external layers the tension
members directly connect nodes of vertical posts then they create triangular grids and
this configuration is called the spatial lenticular girder of type D-X, compare Figure 8a.
When tension members build hexagonal forms of grids in the mentioned external layers
then this system is denoted as the spatial lenticular girder of the type D-Y, compare
Figure 8b. There are several ways of arrangement of additional members, presence of
which makes possible the decreasing of buckling lengths of sometimes very long
components of that structural system.
a b
Fig. 8: Exemplary forms of spatial lenticular girder of a) type D-X, b) type D-Y
Mutual juxtapositions of distinguished forms of spatial modules in space of newly

created type of the lenticular girder can also be in form presented in Figure 9. In this
figure is shown only the basic type of that morphological configuration, which makes
possible shaping of triangular-tetrahedron patterns of the lightweight structural systems.
Fig. 9: Opposite position of two spatial modules of lenticular girder of type D
1254
This structural arrangement is assumed to denote as spatial lenticular girder of the type
D-TH and view of an exemplary configuration of six triangular modules is shown in
Figure 10. The main goal in processes of shaping of all presented here morphological
solutions of chosen forms of spatial structures is to obtain lightweight structural systems
built of mainly tension members and consist of as small as possible number of
compression members having possibly small buckling lengths. The last D-TH type of
lenticular girder meets almost all of the required features but from the first general
analysis of it follows that component parts of this system are distributed in non-uniform
way in its space. That is why it is necessary to arrange in empty “hexagonal” fields
additional members, presence of which will make possible to locate - in an economic
way - the necessary cladding elements of the designed roof structure.
Fig. 10: View of single hexagonal set of modules of D-TH type of lenticular girder
3.4 Girders built by means of transformed shapes of modules

Morphological features of module of the D-TH type of lenticular girder encourage to
undertake attempts to modify its shape in order to obtain larger number of various types
of structural systems for possible different useful applications. Scheme of one of series
of newly proposed solutions is presented in Figure 11. In boundary areas of that system
D E
A
U1 U2
L1 L2
B C
Fig. 11: Elementary set of a specific form of lenticular girder called type X
1255
are placed compression members running along arch lines of the former simple module
of the type D of the lenticular girder. Central part of this configuration can be multiply
replicated along span of a cover in the way presented in Figure 12. Because in the inner
build of this structure one can clearly distinguish repeated parts, which form resemble
pattern of a character “X” therefore that structural system is called the lenticular girder
of type X. In can be applied as a huge single girder of the structure for very large span
covers [3].
E
D
Fig. 12: View of example form of lenticular system of type X
4 Conclusions
The proposed structural systems of lenticular girder can be subjected to the further
transformations. One of goals of these transformations was the endeavour to reduce
buckling lengths of compression members. It could be reduced e.g. by suitable
application of appropriate designed membrane sheets. All configurations of various
types of lenticular girder should be subjected to the comprehensive numerical analyses
and model testing.
Acknowledgements
The paper is prepared in course of realization of the program nr 2464/B/T02/2010/38
entitled “Numerical methods in design of modern forms of architectonic space
structures” granted by Ministry of Science and Higher Education in Warsaw, Poland.
References
[1] Rębielak J. Dźwigar soczewkowy (Lenticular girder), Patent registration, Patent

Office of the Republic of Poland, Patent Application No P 385991, 1st September
2008.
[2] Rębielak J. Lenticular girder – structural shape and proposals for applications, in:
structures, 50th Anniversary Symposium of the International Association for Shell
and Spatial Structures (IASS), Valencia, Spain, 28 September – 2 October, 2009,
256-257.
[3] Rębielak Janusz: Konstrukcje dachów budowane za pomocą dźwigara
soczewkowego typu TX lub TY, XIV Międzynarodowa Szkoła Komputerowego
Wspomagania Projektowania, Wytwarzania i Eksploatacji, Wojskowa Akademia
Techniczna, Warszawa-Jurata, 10-14 maja 2010, 453-462.
1256
Computational morphogenesis of freeform structures

generated by translating B-spline curves
Yue WU 1*, Xin LI 2, Jingyun LIU3
1*
Professor, School of Civil Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology
Harbin Institute of Technology, P.O. Box 2619, 150090 Harbin, P.R.China
wuyue_2000@163.com
2
PHD Student, School of Civil Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology
3
Senior Engineer, Architectural Design and Research Institute of HIT
Abstract
Translational surfaces which generated by translating generatrix along directrix
are always considered to be convenient and fantastic for fabricating grid structures.
Usually, the shapes of generatrix and directrix on a translational surface are mainly
determined by architectural requirements; however, such manner can not ensure the
rationality of structural performance, especially for freeform structures. So, how to
generate a translational surface by considering both designer’s preference and structural
rationality is still an unsolved problem in practice. In this paper, a new computational
morphogenesis method has been put forward by combining the geometrical modelling
technique and the structural optimal method. The B-spline functions are adopted to
describe the generatrix and directrix, and the structural stain energy is taken as the
optimal objective function. A link between the differential of structural strain energy
and the geometrical control parameters of B-spline curves are weaved based on the
gradient method. So, by adjusting the shape of generatrix and directrix, a series of
freeform surfaces with minimum structural stain energy can be obtained. Due to the
optimal process is not starting from the generated surface, but from the generatrix and
directrix, this method can maintain the parallel features of curves on surface during the
process of morphogenesis. Finally some examples have been carried out to verify the
efficiency of this method.
Keywords: translational surface, B-spline curves, computational morphogenesis, strain

energy
1 Introduction
Applications of freeform structures have become to be a new tendency of spatial
structures, thanks to the outstanding architectural representation and the intense visual
impact of freeform profiles[1]. As shape resistant structures, freeform surfaces should
not only satisfy the aesthetic demand of architectures but also have good mechanical
performance. In order to design structures satisfying both of these two aspects, the idea
of structural morphogenesis could be considered, in which structural analysis methods
can be adopted for pursuing shapes with reasonable mechanical performance.
1257
Structural morphogenesis has been explored for such a long history that it can trace
back to the early stage of the emergence of modern architectures. Antoni Gaudi and
Heinz Isler are the most famous pioneers that utilized the reversed hanging method to
design pure compression structures with fantastic exhibition experimentally. With the
development of computational techniques, several numerical methods are proposed.
Y.Hangai used the theory of generalized inverse matrix to solve the problem of unstable
link structures, which is a convenient numerical realization for reversed hanging
method[2]. H.Ohmori took suspended membranes as the main objective and ideal forms
are pursued under the gravity load. With the development of computer, geometrical
modelling methods are commonly used in CAD softwares which can supply architects
with more abundant surfaces than reversed hanging method. Therefore, morphogenesis
methods about these kinds of surfaces are having been researched. For example,
H.Ohmori developed some methods for NURBS surfaces, in which the thickness[3] of
shells and control points[4] are treated as the main variables. As a matter of fact, there
are abundant geometrical modelling strategies and the structural morphogenesis
methods nowadays are not suitable for every kind of freeform surface.
Surfaces generated by translating curves have been widely adopted in the engineering
projects nowadays, such as the hippo house in the Berlin Zoo[5] (Fig.1a). A translational
surface can be described as the one created by a generatrix translating across a directrix.
As all lateral curves across the directrix are the same and parallel to each other, the
profiles of such surfaces are thought to be partially ruled and suitable for mapping
individual meshes[6] (Fig.1b).
a) Engineering project b) Relationship between curves on surface

Fig.1: Hippo house in the Berlin Zoo and its generating method
In this paper, a structural morphogenesis method concentrating on translational surfaces

is emphasized. Here, the directrix and the generatrix are expressed in the form of B-
spline functions which are widely used to establish freeform shapes numerically.
Geometrical modelling method and the gradient method have been connected with each
other for structural morphogenesis afterwards, in which the differential of structural
strain energy has been abstracted concerning the control parameters of B-spline curves.
Finally, some examples have been carried out to verify the efficiency of this method.
2 Geometrical modelling method for translational surfaces

The expression of a translational surface can be described by the functions of generatrix
and directrix. Since the B-Spline technique is adopted to describe freeform curves, the
functions of translational surfaces can be abstracted as follows:
1258
Let ( xi0 , yi0 , zi0 ) be the coordinate of an arbitrary point on generatrix. In order to define a
translational surface, the directrix should be divided to a sectional curve, on which
several discrete points could be produced. Let the vector between an arbitrary division
r
point and the initial point on directrix be t j  (txj , t yj , tzj ) (Fig.2).
Fig.2: The arrangement of discrete points on directrix
As a translational surface, the coordinate of an arbitrary point on surface ( xij , yij , zij ) can
be expressed as,
 xij  xi0  t xj
 j
 yi  yi  t y
0 j
(1)
 j
 zi  zi  t z
0 j
where the superscript 0 stands for the initial generatrix and j stands for the time of
translating generatrix. The subscript i stands for the number of point on generatrix. In
order to aquire freeform translational surfaces, B-spline functions can be adopted as,
M
S (u)   Pi  Bi ,k (u ) (2)
i 1
where matrix S (u)   x(u), y(u), z(u) represents the three dimensional coordinates of
points on the B-Spline curve, the control point vector of which is Pi   ,  ,   . Bi , k (u )
is the B-Spline basic function defined by rational polynominal ( k  1 represents the
degree). u is the vector needed for the construction of the B-Spline basic function. In
function (2), control points are thought to be the main parameters that influence the
shape of B-Spline curves.
If the coordinate of initial point on directrix is (0,0,0), the coordinate of an arbitrary
point on surface can be expressed in forms of B-Spline functions:
 j M N
 xi    gi  Bi ,k (u )    dj  B j ,l (v)
 i 1 j 1
 j M N
(3)
 i  gi i ,k
y    B (u )    dj  B j ,l (v)
 i 1 j 1
 j M N
 zi    gi  Bi ,k (u )    dj  B j ,l (v)
 i 1 j 1
1259
Functions above can be separated into two parts, the first item reflects all points on
generatrix and the second one stands for the translational distance on directrix. Fig.3
shows an example of translational freeform surface.
a) curves for translation b) translational freeform surface

Fig.3: An example of translational curve-generated freeform surface
3 Computational morphogenesis method

As mentioned above, control points are the key parameters that influence the shape of
B-spline curves. Therefore, a significant thought is that whether control points could be
adjusted to get freeform surfaces with excellent mechanical performance. The amplitude
of strain energy is considered to be an effective criterion for measuring mechanical
performance. Structures with small strain energy are reasonable in mechanical
performance. In this computational morphogenesis method, relationship between the
differential of strain energy concerning control points of B-Spline curves is established.
Strain energy can be decreased by adjusting the coordinates of control points.
Let Pg   g ,  g ,  g  and Pd   d ,  d ,  d  be the vector of control points of generatrix
and directrix separately and only the sub vectors  g and  d are allowed to be adjusted.
Equilibrium equation of structures can be indicated as：
K ( g ,  d )  U ( g ,  d )  F ( g ,  d ) (4)
in which: K - global stiffness; U - vector of nodal displacement； F - vector of force.

The structural strain energy can be expressed as：
1
C ( g ,  d )  F ( g ,  d )T  U ( g ,  d ) (5)
2
The strain energy C is a multi-dimensional function which can be developed by Taylor
expansion. The formula of C is represented as,
C ( g   g ,  d   d )  C ( g ,  d )
M N (6)
  C ( gi )T   gi   C ( dj )T   dj
i 1 j 1
where: C ( gi ) , C ( dj ) - the gradient of component in  g ,  d ；  g ,  d - increment

of vector  g ,  d .
If  g is adjusted to  g   g and  d is adjusted to  d   d , in which  g and  d are in
the reverse gradient directions. The structural strain energy would be decreased. The
1260
increment vector  g and  d can be expressed by the formula of strain energy

gradient：
 g    (C ( g ))
 (7)
 d    (C ( d ))
where  ,  stand for the step lengths.
 1 T K
C ( gi )   2 U    U
 gi
 (8)
C ( )   1 U T  K  U


di
2  di
The main point of equation (8) is how to weave a link between stiffness matrix and the
coordinates of control points. From equation (3), it can be concluded that nodes on
surfaces can be expressed by B-spline functions. The stiffness matrix is constructed by
the coordinates of nodes on surface from the knowledge of finite element method. So
that, formulas of strain energy gradient in equation (8) can be expressed as:
 K K zi
   z  
 gi i gi
 (9)
 K  K  z j
  dj z j  dj

After setting up all information about the model of freeform surfaces, support condition,
load cases and appropriate step lengths, etc. an optimal morphology could be obtained
from equations (1)-(9).
The structural morphogenesis method has been programmed using FORTRAN language.
In part 4, a translational freeform shell structure has been taken as an example to verify
the feasibility of this method.
4 Example
In this morphogenesis method, generatrix and directrix can be adjusted simultaneously
or can be adjusted separately, which depends on the designer’s preference. In the
following numerical examples, both of the two different adjusting strategies are realized.
The shape of translational freeform shell is fabricated by two perpendicular B-spline
curves (Fig.4a) and the initial model is shown in Fig.4b. Concrete is chosen as the
material of this structure, in which young’s module is set as E  3.0 104 MPa and
Poisson's ratio is  0.2 . The thickness of shell is t  10cm and the whole edges are pin
supported in three directions. Reasonable shapes are acquired under the crucial load
case (dead load + live load), the value of which is 3kN/m2 .
1261
a) generatrix and directrix b) initial shape of model

Fig.4: Model of morphogenesis example
4.1 Surfaces for adjusting generatrix
In the progress of evolution, strain energy is decreased with the transformation of

freeform surfaces and the average displacements are also reduced at the same time,
which means that structural stiffness is enhanced and the optimal surfaces are much
more capable to restrict loads.
Decreasing ratio of strain energy (%)
100 1.0
x direction
0.9 y direction
Average displacement (mm)
90 z direction
0.8
0.7
80
0.6
70 0.5
0.4
60
0.3
0.2
50
0.1
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Evolution step Evolution step
Fig.5: Evolution of strain energy Fig.6: Evolution of average displacements
Fig.7: Comparison of alternated models Fig.8: Change of generatrix
In this example, only the generatrix is allowed to be adjusted. Fig.5 and Fig.6 reflect the
improvement of structural stiffness. In Fig.5, more than 50% of original strain energy
has been deduced. In Fig.6, displacements in all directions are decreased and the
decreasing amplitude of displacements in the z direction is the largest. Fig.7 and Fig.8
1262
represent the comparison of the initial shape and the optimal shape when evolution is
finished.
4.2 Surfaces by adjusting both generatrix and directrix
The regularities of strain energy evolutionary and average displacements by adjusting

both generatrix and directrix are nearly the same with the results by only adjusting
curves in one direction and the detail information can be gained from Fig.9- Fig.12.
However, the main difference between these two methods is that the resultant shapes
are more abundant in appearance. Changes of both generatrix and dirextrix are shown in
Fig.12.
1.0
100 x direction
Decreasing ratio of strain energy (%)
0.9 y direction
Average displacement (mm)

90 0.8 z direction
0.7
80
0.6
0.5
70
0.4
60 0.3
0.2
50
0.1
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Evolution step Evolution step
Fig.9: Evolution of strain energy Fig.10: Evolution of average displacements
Fig.11: Comparison of alternated models Fig.12: Change of generatrix& dirextrix
5 Conclusion
In this paper, a new morphogenesis method is put forward concerning translational

freeform shells. Some conclusions are described as follows:
(1) The shapes of translational freeform surfaces are ensured by directrices and
generatrices which can be expressed by the B-spline functions. Control points are
considered as the main variables that influence the shape of surfaces.
(2) The basic idea of this structural morphogenesis method is to get freeform surfaces
with reasonable mechanical performance by adjusting the coordinates of control points.
1263
The strain energy is treated as the measurement of reasonable mechanical performance.

(3) The shapes of translational surfaces can be alternated by adjusting only generatrices
(directrices) or by adjusting generatrices and directrices simultaneously. Both of these
approaches can lead to surfaces with appropriate mechanical performance, from which a
series of brilliant shapes can be acquired.
References
[1] M Bagneris, R Motro, B Maurin and N Pauli. Structural Morphology issues in

conceptual design of double curved systems. International journal of space
structures 2008; 23:79-87
[2] Y.Hangai and K.Kawaguchi Analysis for shape-finding process of unstable link
structures. Journal of the International Association for Shell and Spatial structures
1991:116-127
[3] T.Kimuru and H.Ohmori. Computational morphogenesis of free form shells.
Journal of the International Association for Shell and Spatial structures
2008;49:175-180
[4] T.Kimuru, H.Ohmori and H.Hamada. Computational morphogenesis of free form
shells considering both designer’s preference and structural rationality. Proceeding
of IASS, 2007:
[5] J. Schlaich and H. Schober. Design principles of glass roofs. Proceedings of IASS
2002, 2002: 816-827
[6] James Glymph, Dennis Shelden, Cristiano Ceccato, Judith Mussel and Hans
Schober. A parametric strategy for free-form glass structures using quadrilateral
planar facets. Automation in Construction 2004; 13:187-202.
1264
3.3 Analysis
1265
Natural frequency analysis on symmetric tension structures

based on group theory
Yao CHEN1,2, Jian FENG1,2*
1 Key Laboratory of Concrete and Prestressed Concrete Structures of Ministry of

Education, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China
2 Engineering Research Center for Prestress of Jiangsu Province, Southeast University,

Nanjing 210096, China
chenyao_seu@hotamail.com
fengjian@seu.edu.cn
Abstract
As conventional approaches for calculating the natural frequencies do not make
full use of symmetry of structures, the computational cost is significantly raised with the
increasing number of nodes. In this paper, a simplification technique used to analyze
dynamic characteristics of symmetric tension structures are described based on group
theory. Firstly, the generalized eigenvalue problem for solving natural frequencies was
built, combined the tangent stiffness matrix with the lumped mass matrix, with initial
prestress concerned. Then the symmetry-adapted coordinate systems for the tension
structures were found based on group theory, and they were used to block-diagonalize the
stiffness matrices and mass matrices. Subsequently, the generalized eigenvalue problems
were simplified by solving the mutually independent subspaces, with the corresponding
natural frequencies and vibration modes obtained efficiently. Two illustrative examples
indicate the general procedure and show the superiority in reducing the difficulty of
frequency analysis. Compared to the finite element results by Abaqus, it is proved that
this method is validate and accurate.
Keywords: tension structures, natural frequency, group theory, symmetry, generalized

eigenvalue problem
1. Introduction
In 1986, Geiger [1] firstly introduced the “tensegrity” concept into engineering
application, and developed a new type of roof structures that mainly composed of cables,
rods and membranes. Subsequently, some novel tension structures have gradually
erected worldwide in recent years. They are drawing high attentions from architects and
1266
structural engineers for their special structural configurations and long span capabilities.
The most important attractive property of these tension structures is that they obtain
stable equilibriums and become stiff through prestress, while they are treated as
mechanisms in their initial configurations.
Recently, studies on tension structures have been carried out widely, mainly concerning
the form-findings [2-5], static stabilities and optimizations [6-9]. However, dynamic
analysis on tension structures is few. Luo [10] presented frequency analysis on Geiger
cable dome by finite element method. The relationships among the cable tension and the
natural frequencies of beam string structures were derived, with different boundary
conditions considered [11]. Wu [12] investigated the static and dynamic behavior of a
cable-stiffened arch, and compared the numerical results of free vibration with the
experimental ones.
Natural frequency is a very important and inherent mechanical property of structure,
and directly affects the structural performance under dynamic effects, such as wind and
seismic loads. In turn, it is a measure of the quality and stiffness of a structure.
Therefore, an analysis of the tension structure on the free vibration characteristic is of
great significance. Solving the natural frequencies of system is the generalized
eigenvalue problem on the tangent stiffness matrix and mass matrix. Because
conventional approaches for calculating the natural frequencies do not make full use of
symmetry, the computational cost is significantly increased with the increasing number
of nodes. Special methods are needed to find efficient solutions to such problems. In
fact, most tension structures are either symmetric or composed of repetitive
sub-structures. And group theory can simplify the natural frequency analysis for
symmetric tension structures. Kangwai [13] gave a detailed review and explained how
group theory could be used to analyze symmetric structures. Raj [4] applied group
theory to simplify the form-finding process for tension structures. And group theory
have been used to find reduced solutions for eigenvalue problems of single or two
dimension simple structures [14-16]. Here, the dynamic properties of tension structures
having more complicated symmetry forms are studied.
2. Method for natural frequency analysis
2.1 Basic assumptions and generalized eigenvalue equation

Some assumptions are adopted in this study, listed as follow:
(a) Joints are regarded to be pin-jointed;
(b) Both cables and struts are assumed to be straight and have linear elastic stress-strain
relationship, and their strains are small;
(c) The deadweight of elements is taken as concentrated nodal forces shared equally at
its two end joints;
(d) The free vibration of structure is simple harmonic motion.
1267
Ignoring damping, free vibration equation associated with the small motions of a
tension structure is given in terms of the well-known generalized eigenvalue equation
w2 M   K  F  0 (1)
where M is an md  md symmetric mass matrix for the structure with m nodes in

d-dimensions , K is an md  md symmetric tangent stiffness matrix, w is a frequency and
 is the corresponding mode shape. As deduced by Guest [17], the tangent stiffness
matrix K for a tension structure can be written as
 T S
K  AGA (2)
in which A is the equilibrium matrix for describing the geometry of the structure, S is
the stress matrix decided by prestress and the topology of the structure, and G  is a
diagonal matrix, which contains modified axial stiffness for the members.
2.2 A simple model with C2 symmetry

To describe the general procedure of this method, finding natural frequencies of
symmetric tension structures, a simple cable-strut structure with C2 symmetry is firstly
described. A plane view of the simple structure can be seen in Figure 1, which shows
the node and element number, and the boundary condition restricting nodes 5, 6.
Fig.1: Two-dimensional C2 Cable-strut structure

As shown in Figure 1, the structure described by the nodes 1-8 can be transformed into
an equivalent configuration by the following set of symmetry operations: the identity
(E), rotation by 180°about the origin O (C2), reflection in axes x (  x ) and in axes y
(  y ). Then this four symmetry operations { E , C2 ,  x ,  y } constitute the symmetry group
C2. To find the symmetry adapted coordinate system through the method illustrated in
[13], Table 1 shows the irreducible matrix representations  for C2 structure.
1268
Table 1: Irreducible representations of symmetry group C2 structure

 E C2 x y
A 1 1 1 1
B 1 1 -1 -1
1 0 -1 0 1 0 -1 0
E
0 1 0 -1 0 -1 0 1
By the great orthogonality theorem, an orthogonal transformation matrix V for the C2
cable-strut structure is
E
A B
E1 E2
0 -1 0 -1 0 -1 0 -1
-1 0 1 0 1 0 -1 0
0 1 0 -1 0 -1 0 1
V=0.5  -1 0 -1 0 -1 0 -1 0 (3)
0 1 0 1 0 -1 0 -1
1 0 -1 0 1 0 -1 0
0 -1 0 1 0 -1 0 1
1 0 1 0 -1 0 -1 0
There are 4 symmetry subspaces in the vector space V, where loads and displacements
are fully symmetric in V(A); in V(B) they are preserved by rotation C2; and they are
preserved by  x in V(E1) and by  y in V(E2), respectively. So that   V T  and F
 VTF .
Therefore, the symmetry adapted stiffness matrix and mass matrix can be written as
(4)
 and mass matrix M

Eq. (4) shows that the block-diagonalized stiffness matrix K  consist
of four independent 2  2 sub-matrix blocks along the diagonal. Then the eigenvalues
can now be found solving each sub-matrix Ki and corresponding Mi (i=A, B, E1, E2),
written as the following equations:
wi2 M i  i  Ki  i  0i  A, B, E1, E 2 (5)
The symmetry adapted frequencies wi and free vibration modes i that belong to the
symmetry subspace Vi can be obtained efficiently. As the eigenvalues of matrix under
transformation keep constant regardless of any similarity transformation, the
eigenvalues obtained here will be the natural frequencies of the original structure. And
the whole vibration modes of the original structure can be expressed as
1269
i  V (i) i i  A, B, E1, E 2 (6)
From the above procedure, it can be found that frequency analysis with 8 DOFs has
been substituted by solutions of four independent problems each of which is of
dimension 2.
To show the feasibility and accuracy of this method, the structure is compared with the
corresponding numerical results by Abaqus, which is based on the conventional
approaches finding natural frequencies. And necessary parameters of the structure are
known, where the slack length of horizontal cables (elements 1-2) and struts (elements
7-8) is 2000mm, the slack length of vertical cables (elements 3-6) is 1414.21mm. All
cables have same cross-sectional areas Acable=500mm2 and Young’s modulus
Ecable=1.9e5MPa. And all struts have same cross-sectional areas Astrut=3000mm2 and
Young’s modulus Estrut=2e5MPa. Mass density of all elements is 7850kg/m3. In addition,
the initial prestress of horizontal cables is 200MPa, where the prestress of other
elements can be obtained according to the self-stress mode vector of the equilibrium
matrix. Hence, certain stiffness and mass matrices could be deduced based on these
parameters.
The following figure 2 shows all the free vibration frequencies and shapes of the simple
structure solved by Abaqus. They are compared with the natural frequencies obtained
by symmetry method, listed in Table 2. The symmetry subspace which each vibration
mode belonged to is also listed. In addition, Table 2 also shows the results of the natural
frequencies when the initial prestress in all elements is 0.
Fig.2: Free vibration shapes of the Cable-strut structure solved by Abaqus (Hz)
It can be found from Table 2 that the results solved by symmetry and group theory
agree very well with the numerical values. The maximum relative error of the
1270
cable-strut structure with initial prestress is 7.6e-4, while that of the structure without
prestress is 1.6e-5. And both of them occur at the second vibration mode. Meanwhile,
all the numerical vibration modes shown in Figure 2 are accord with the characteristic
of the symmetry subspaces, where the modes 5 and 8 are fully symmetric, the modes 1
and 4 are rotationally symmetric, the modes 3 and 7 are symmetric along axis x, and the
modes 2 and 6 are symmetric along axis y. Comparisons between results of structures
with and without prestress show that the cable-strut structure is prestress stable, where
the first natural frequency relies on the prestress, and the others are almost unaffected
by the prestress.
Table 2: Natural frequencies of the symmetric cable-strut structures with and without
prestress
Vibration mode 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Symmetry subspace B E2 E1 B A E2 E1 A
With Symmetry 9.14 138.72 163.10 237.17 325.36 341.40 729.54 729.68
prestress Abaqus 9.14 138.63 162.99 236.99 325.18 341.19 729.56 729.71
Without Symmetry 0 138.51 162.95 237.17 325.29 341.48 729.46 729.66
prestress Abaqus 0 138.51 162.96 237.17 325.29 341.49 729.46 729.66
3. One more illustrative example: D6 Cable net structure
To better illustrate the symmetry method for obtaining natural frequencies and to
highlight the superiority of dealing with structures with more DOFS and much
complexity, a 3d cable net structure with 12 nodes and 12 elements and with D6
symmetry is investigated in this section.
The node and element numbering and symmetric boundary conditions of the cable net
structure are shown in Figure 3, where the six C2 rotation axes a, b, c, d, e and f are also
plotted.
Fig.3: Three-dimensional D6 Cable net structure
1271
Similarly with the symmetry group C2, the group D6 is constituted by twelve symmetry
operations { E , C61 , C62 , C63 , C64 , C65 ,  a ,  b ,  c ,  d ,  e ,  f }. And the irreducible matrix
representations  for D6 structure are shown in Table 3.
Table 3: Irreducible representations of symmetry group D6 structure
( a  cos( / 3) , b  sin( / 3) )
 E C61
C62 C63 C64 C65
A1 1 1 1 1 1 1
A2 1 1 1 1 1 1
B1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1
B2 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1
1 0 a -b -a -b -1 0 -a b a b
E1
0 1 b a b -a 0 -1 -b -a -b a
E2 1 0 -a -b -a b 1 0 -a -b -a b
0 1 b -a -b -a 0 1 b -a -b -a
a b c d e f
A1 1 1 1 1 1 1
A2 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
B1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1
B2 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1
1 0 a b -a b -1 0 -a -b a -b
E1
0 -1 b -a b a 0 1 -b a -b -a
1 0 -a b -a -b 1 0 -a b -a -b
E2
0 -1 b a -b a 0 -1 b a -b a
By the great orthogonality theorem, the orthogonal transformation matrix V for the D6
cable net structure is
V=[ V(A1), V(A2), V(B1), V(B2), V(E11), V(E12), V(E21), V(E22)] (7)
where
V(A1)=[-0.41, 0, 0, -0.20, 0.35, 0, 0.20, 0.35, 0, 0.41, 0, 0, 0.20, -0.35, 0, -0.20, -0.35, 0]T;
V(A2)=[0, -0.41, 0, -0.35, -0.20, 0, -0.35, 0.20, 0, 0, 0.41, 0, 0.35, 0.20, 0, 0.35, -0.20, 0;
T
0, 0, -0.41, 0, 0, -0.41, 0, 0, -0.41, 0, 0, -0.41, 0, 0, -0.41, 0, 0, -0.41] ;
V(B1)=[-0.41, 0, 0, 0.20, -0.35, 0, 0.20, 0.35, 0, -0.41, 0, 0, 0.20, -0.35, 0, 0.20, 0.35, 0]T;
V(B2)=[0, -0.41, 0, 0.35, 0.20, 0, -0.35, 0.20, 0, 0, -0.41, 0, 0.35, 0.20, 0, -0.35, 0.20, 0;
T
0, 0, -0.41, 0, 0, 0.41, 0, 0, -0.41, 0, 0, 0.41, 0, 0, -0.41, 0, 0, 0.41] ;
V(E11)=[0, 0, 0, -0.43, -0.25, 0, -0.43, 0.25, 0, 0, 0, 0, -0.43, -0.25, 0, -0.43, 0.25, 0;
0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0.50, 0, 0, 0.50, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, -0.50, 0, 0, -0.50;
T
-0.58, 0, 0, -0.14, 0.25, 0, -0.14, -0.25, 0, -0.58, 0, 0, -0.14, 0.25, 0, -0.14, -0.25, 0] ;
V(E12)=[0, 0, 0, 0.25, -0.43, 0, -0.25, -0.43, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0.25, -0.43, 0, -0.25, -0.43, 0;
0, -0.58, 0, -0.25, -0.14, 0, 0.25, -0.14, 0, 0, -0.58, 0, -0.25, -0.14, 0, 0.25, -0.14, 0;
T
0, 0, -0.58, 0, 0, -0.29, 0, 0, 0.29, 0, 0, 0.58, 0, 0, 0.29, 0, 0, -0.29] ;
1272
V(E21)=[0, 0, 0, 0.43, 0.25, 0, -0.43, 0.25, 0, 0, 0, 0, -0.43, -0.25, 0, 0.43, -0.25, 0;

0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0.50, 0, 0, -0.50, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0.50, 0, 0, -0.50;
T
0.58, 0, 0, -0.14, 0.25, 0, 0.14, 0.25, 0, -0.58, 0, 0, 0.14, -0.25, 0, -0.14, -0.25, 0] ;
V(E22)=[0, 0, 0, -0.25, 0.43, 0, -0.25, -0.43, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0.25, -0.43, 0, 0.25, 0.43, 0;
0, 0.58, 0, -0.25, -0.14, 0, -0.25, 0.14, 0, 0, -0.58, 0, 0.25, 0.14, 0, 0.25, -0.14, 0;
T
0, 0, -0.58, 0, 0, 0.29, 0, 0, 0.29, 0, 0, -0.58, 0, 0, 0.29, 0, 0, 0.29] (8)
There are totally 8 symmetry subspaces in the vector space V for D6 cable net structure,
where loads and displacements are fully symmetric in V(A1), rotationally symmetric in
V(A2); they are preserved by reflection along axis a, c, e and rotation C3 in V(B1) while
they are preserved by reflection along axis b, d, f and rotation C3 in V(B2); and they are
preserved by  a in V(E11) and by  d in V(E12); in addition, they are 2-fold symmetric
along lines a, d in V(E21) and 2-fold rotationally symmetric in V(E22). Hence, the
symmetry adapted stiffness matrix for D6 structure can be expressed as
(9)
where the block-diagonalized stiffness matrix K  consists of two 1  1 sub-matrix

blocks K A1 , KB1 , two 2  2 sub-matrix blocks K A2 , KB2 , and four 3  3 sub-matrix
blocks K E11 , KE12 , KE 21 and KE 22 along the diagonal. And as the free nodes are
rotationally symmetric, the mass is equal to each other. And the mass matrix of the D6
cable net shall be diagonal, then
  V T MV  M
M (10)
Eq. (10) shows that the symmetry adapted matrix is still the original diagonal mass
matrix. So the eigenvalues are got from the generalized eigenvalue problem of each
sub-matrix Ki and corresponding Mi (i=A1, A2, B1, B2, E11, E12, E21, E22). Then the
frequencies wi and vibration modes i lay in the symmetry subspace Vi can be
obtained, subsequently. The whole vibration modes can be expressed as
i  V (i) i (11)
In this example, it can be noticed that the natural frequencies of structure with 18 DOFs
1273
has been substituted by generalized eigenvalues of eight independent problems. To

present a certain comparison between results solved by the symmetry method and
Abaqus, assuming that the slack length of radial cables (elements 1-6) is 4000mm, and
that of ring cables (elements 7-12) is 3000mm. All cables have same cross-sectional
areas Acable=1963.44mm2 and Young’s modulus Ecable=1.9e5MPa. Mass density of all
elements is 7850kg/m3. And the initial prestress of all cables is 288.3MPa.
Both the natural frequencies got by the symmetry method and by Abaqus are listed in
Table 4, where the characteristics of vibration modes are also shown. It is validated
again that the frequencies obtained based on group theory is accord with the numerical
ones. The maximum relative error is 7.9e-4, and they appear in the 12th and 13th
vibration mode.
Table 4: Natural frequencies of the symmetric cable net structure
Mode Symmetry Abaqus Subspace Mode Symmetry Abaqus Subspace
1 0.682 0.682 A2 10 16.311 16.299 E21
2 1.042 1.042 E12 11 16.311 16.299 E22
3 1.042 1.042 A2 12 17.562 17.548 B1
4 1.042 1.042 E11 13 26.745 26.724 A1
5 1.526 1.525 E22 14 28.347 28.327 E12
6 1.526 1.525 E21 15 28.347 28.326 E11
7 1.717 1.716 B2 16 32.624 32.599 E22
8 10.839 10.830 E12 17 32.624 32.599 E21
9 10.839 10.830 E11 18 35.024 34.997 B2
Moreover, Figure 4 plots the first twelve free vibration shapes of the cable net structure
solved by Abaqus, where the vibration modes 1 and 3 are rotationally C6 symmetric, the
mode 12 is C3 symmetric along axis a, c, e while the mode 7 is C3 symmetric along axis
b, d, f, and the modes 4 and 9 are symmetric along line a while modes 2 and 8 are
symmetric along line d. In addition, the modes 6 and 10 are fully C2 symmetric while
modes 5 and 11 are rotationally C2 symmetric. It indicates that the numerical vibration
modes shown in Figure 4 satisfy with the characteristic of the symmetry subspaces.
4. Conclusion
Due to the fact that symmetry has not widely common and utilized by the structural
engineering community, a simplification approach using group theory to find the natural
frequencies is presented for symmetric tension structures, with initial prestress
concerned. On basis of symmetry adapted coordinate systems, it is possible to
block-diagonalize the stiffness and mass matrices, and hence greatly reduces the
complexity and computational effort of finding solutions of generalized eigenvalue
problem. Two illustrative examples validate this symmetry method be feasible and
accurate.
1274
Fig.4: First twelve vibration shapes of the Cable net structure solved by Abaqus (Hz)
5. Acknowledgements
This work has been supported by the Peak of the Six Talent Project (No.2007162)
financed by Jiangsu Province of China.
References
[1] Geiger DH. The design and construction of two cable domes for the Korean
Olympics. Shells, Membranes and Space Frames. Proceedings IASS Symposium1986;
265-272.
[2] Pellegrino S, Calldeine CR. Matrix analysis of statically and kinematically
indeterminate fameworks. Internarional Journal of Solids Structures 1986; 22(4):
409-428.
[3] Pellegrino S. Analysis of prestressed mechanisms[J]. Internarional Journal of Solids
Structures 1990; 26(12): 1329-1350.
[4] Raj RP and Guest SD. Using symmetry for tensegrity form-finding. Journal of the
International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures: IASS, 2006; 47(3) December
n. 152.
[5] Yuan XF, Dong SL. Integral feasible prestress of cable domes. Computers and
Structures 2003; 81: 2111–2119.
1275
[6] Kitipornchai S, Kang W, Lam H, et al. Factors affecting the design and construction
of Lamella suspen-dome systems. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 2005;
61:764-785.
[7] Skelton RE and Oliveira MC. Tensegrity systems. ISBN 978-0-387-74241-0, 2009.
[8] Tibert G. Numerical Analyses of Cable Roof Structures. Royal Institute of
Technology, Stockholm, Sweden, 1999.
[9] Zhang JY, Guest SD, and Ohsaki M. Symmetric prismatic tensegrity structures: Part
I. Configuration and stability. International Journal of Solids and Structures 2009; 46
(1): 1-14.
[10] Luo YZ, Wang R. Study on dynamic characteristics and behavior of cable dome
subjected to multi-dimensional and multi-point seismic excitations. Journal of Zhejiang
University (Engineering Science) 2005; 39(1): 39-45. in Chinese
[11] Zhang YX, Li GQ, Zhao SF. Frequency techniques based cable tension estimation
of beam string structures. Proceedings of International Conference on Monitoring of
Structure, Materials and Environment 2007; 1:574-578.
[12] Wu MG, Sasaki M. Structural behaviors of an arch stiffened by cables.
Engineering Structures 2007; 29 (4): 529-541.
[13] Kangwai RD, Guest SD and Pellegrino S. An introduction to the analysis of
symmetric structures. Computers and Structures 1999; 71: 671-688.
[14] Kaveh A and Nikbakht M. Improved group-theoretical method for eigenvalue
problems of special symmetric structures, using graph theory. Advances in Engineering
Software 2010; 41:22-31.
[15] Zingoni A. A group-theoretic formulation for symmetric finite elements. Finite
Elements in Analysis and Design 2005; 41(6):615–635.
[16] Zingoni A. On group-theoretic computation of natural frequencies for spring–mass
dynamic systems with rectilinear motion. Communications in Numerical Methods in
Engineering 2008; 24:973–987.
[17] S.D. Guest. The stiffness of prestressed frameworks: A unifying approach.
International Journal of Solids and Structures 2006; (43): 842-854.
1276
Elastic-plastic Analysis on Cast Steel Joint of a Beam String

Structure
Jiachun CUI 1*, Wei TIAN2
1*
Shanghai Xian Dai Architectural Design (Group) Co.,Ltd,
258 Shimen Er Road, Shanghai, China, 200041
College of Civil Engineering, Tongji University,
Jiachun_cui@xd-ad.com.cn
2
Shanghai Xian Dai Architectural Design (Group) Co.,Ltd
Abstract
Strength and rationality of cable joint will affect reliability of a beam string
structure. Therefore, it is used to be made of cast steel. In this paper, a cast steel cable
joint is analyzed by non-linear finite element method in three times of design cable
force. Development process of stress and strain, strength and ultimate bearing capacity
of joint are obtained. The results provide sufficient data for projects.
Keywords: beam string structure, cast steel joint, elastic-plastic analysis, finite element
method
1. Preface
Beam string structure is a self-balance system composed of compressive members in the
up, tensional cables in the down and struts in the middle. The tension of cable plays a
very important contribution on the overall stiffness of beam string structure. The cable
anchored in the end of structure through a joint, so strength and reliability of this joint
directly affect the safety of the structure. Cast steel joint has the characteristics of
arbitrarily choice in geometry and strength and therefore has a wide range of application
in the beam string structures [1, 3]. Different types of cast steel cable joint have been
used in many existed structures.
A cast steel joint is analyzed by non-linear finite element method, which is to study
development process of stress and strain, strength and extreme load of joint in the paper.
2. Project introduction
A beam string structure used for a gymnasium in Shandong is 106.0m in length and
77.0m in width. The roof is a combination of twelve parallel beam string structures and
two space truss structures in the ends while Substructure is a reinforced concrete frame
structure, Figure 1. The beam string structure has a span of 72.5m and consists of an
inverted triangle truss structure, struts and cables. Inverted triangle truss is 2.0m in
section width, 1.8m in section height and 4.0m in span height. The cable sag is 2.0m.
1277
The sections of top cords, bottom cords and web members areФ 245×12, Ф 245×
14and Ф 127×8 in the inverted triangle truss structures. The section of struts is Ф 159
×10 while cable section isФ 5×199.The objective of cable pre-stress is 600kN under
self-weight. Q345B was used for the truss structure.
The cable is anchored by a joint in the web of inverted triangle truss structure. This joint
connects truss structure by five branches, shown in Figure 2. Cast steel joint is used in
here because of its importance and complexity. The geometrical model of joint is
shown in Figure 3. Gs-20Mn5V is used for material of cast steel joint, and its yield
strength is 300MPa.
In order to get a comprehensive study of the joint in stress state and safety, the analysis
process is divided into two phases. In the first phase, the maximum design cable
tension is used to study the maximum stress and stress distribution in normal
serviceability state, and testing whether the strength of the joint meets the design
requirement. In the second phase, three times maximum design cable tension is used to
study the extreme capacity, safety, and development of plastic of joint under ultimate
load.
Figure 1: overall model of the structure Figure 2: joint location in the structure
(a) front (b) left
1278
(c) top (d) perspective

Figure 3: geometrical model of joint
3. Description of finite element model
3.1. Soft and element meshing

SolidWorks2007 developed by SolidWorks Corporation is used as a tool for building
three-dimensional geometric model of the cast steel joint. Five 500mm length branches
are built in the model to simulate steel pipes link with joint and provide constraints for
joint at same time. For simulating compression of cable force accurately a ring as big as
anchorage in diameter is built for adding force, Figure 4.
General finite element software named COSMOS2007 is used for internal force analysis,
and tetrahedron element with ten nodes is selected for the model. A free mesh technique
is used for element meshing, and grid density is improved in some places such as
geometrical corners, the positions set constraint and load. The number of elements is
39537 and the number of nodes is 67560 after mesh is completed, Figure 4.
Figure 4: mesh, constraint and load
1279
3.2. Boundary and load

Cable force acts on the joint through an anchorage. So a ring as big as anchorage in
diameter is built in the model and cable force is added in the ring. The branches
constrain joint in five directions. All displacements are constrained in the far end of
branches because they are bending members, shown in Figure 3. According to the
results of overall analysis the maximum force of cable is 1658.75kN.
3.3. Options of FEM analysis

An ideal bilinear kinematical hardening elastic-plastic model is used for material, and
von Mises yield criterion hypothesis is used for the model. The influence of large
displacement and large strain is considered and direction of force is always kept
perpendicular to the loading surface. Newton-Raphson iterative method is also used in
the analysis.
4. Results
4.1. Results under maximum design cable force

Node von Mises under maximum cable force is shown in Figure 5. As shown in the
figure, transition of stress is smooth throughout the model; no significant stress
concentration is found. The maximum stress is 169.67MPa locating at far end of branch
No. 1.
Figure 5: von Mises stress under maximum design cable tension (MPa)
Stress distribution of major out intersection curves are shown in Figure 6. As shown in
the figure, maximum stress in the out intersection curves of branch No.1, 2 and main
pipe is 142MPa; maximum stress in the out intersection curves of branch No.3, 4 and
main pipe is 106MPa; maximum stress in the out intersection curve of branch No.5 and
main pipe is 116MPa; and the maximum stress in the position out diameter of main pipe
changes is 41MPa. So the stress of branches is higher than that of main pipe.
1280
branch no.1 branch no.2
branch no.5 main pipe

Figure 6: von Mises stress in intersections of branch
and main pipe under maximum design cable tension
Under maximum cable force, the maximum stress is locating in far end of the branch
and below the design strength of material. Transition of stress is smooth, and no
significant stress concentration is found. The strength of joint meets the design
requirements and therefore can ensure the structural safety.
4.2 Results under 3.0 times maximum design cable force

Node von Mises under 3.0 times maximum cable force is shown in Figure 7. As shown
in the figure, the maximum stress is 332.89MPa, locating near the intersection of branch
No.2 and main pipe (node No. 16081), that means plastic strain has happened in some
places. Through analysis of stress of the entire loading history, some elements near far
end of branch No.2 go to plastic when 2.4 times maximum design cable force is reached
( node No. 3498), shown in Figure 9. With loading is going on, the plastic zone will
develop to near intersection of branch No.2 and main pipe while 3.0 times maximum
design cable tension is reached.
1281
Figure 7: von Mises stress under 3.0 times maximum design cable tension (MPa)
Stress distribution of major out intersection curves shown in Figure 8 under 3.0 time’s
maximum design cable tension. According to Figure 8 we can find the maximum stress
in out intersection curves of branch No.1, 2 and main pipe is 320MPa exceed the design
strength of material. Maximum stress in the out intersection curves of branch No.3, 4
and main pipe is 220MPa, and lower than the design strength. Maximum stress in the
out intersection curve of branch No.5 and main pipe is 220MPa. Maximum stress in the
position out diameter of main pipe changes is 124MPa.
1282
branch no.5 main pipe

Figure 8: von Mises stress in intersections of branch
and main pipe under 3.0 times maximum design cable tension
Stress time history curves of node No.16081 and 3498 are given in Figure 9. Boundary
ends of branches go to plastic first that meet the design principle ‘strength of the joint is
greater than members’.
(a) No.16081 (b) No.3498

Figure 9: stress time history curves of nodes
5. Conclusions
A cast steel cable joint of beam string structure is studied for nonlinear finite element
analysis with COSMOS. Large displacement and large strain are considered in the
model. According to results, some conclusions are received as follows:
(1) In normal serviceability state, transition of stress is smooth throughout the model, no
significant stress concentration is found, and maximum stress happen in the intersection
of branch and main pipe. Maximum stress is lower than design strength of the material
that can ensure the structural safety.
(2) In critical bearing capacity state, plastic deformation happens at branch first and
gradually develops to the main pipe that meets the design principle ‘strength of the joint
is greater than members’.
(3) The strength of joint meets the design requirements.
1283
References
[1] Huang Mingxin. Design and construction of large-scale Beam String Structures
[M]. Shandong, SHANDONG SCEIENCE & TECHNOLOGY PRESS, 2005.
[2] Zhou jian, Wang dasui. Study on design of steel roof for the Terminal 2 building of
Pudong International Airport [J]. PROCEEDINGS OF THE FOURTH CROSS-
STRAIT AND HONG KONG CONFERENCE ON STRUCTURAL TECHNOLOGY,
2006:42-46.
[3] Qian ruojun, Yang lianping, Xu chuanxi. The Design of Spatial Lattice Structures
[M]. Nan jing. SOUTHEAST UNIVERSITY PRESS, 2007.
[4] Luo xubin, Ma jun. Nonlinear Finite Element Analysis of Ultimate Strength of
Cast-steel Joints [J]. SPATIAL STRUCTURES, 2006, 9:56-60.
1284
Computer simulation of pulling columns process of

uplift-whole-upper-story-then-fixing-lower-damaged-elements
scheme of Yingxian wooden pagoda
Leiming DU1*，Hai-wang LI2, Jing LIU2, Dongqi QIN2
1* Department of Architectural Engineering ,Shanxi Engineering Vocational College,

131, Xinjian North Road, Taiyuan, 030009, China ;dlm_thunder@163.com
2 Department of Civil Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology,79,Yingzexi,

Street, Taiyuan, 030024, China;lhwtut@126.com
Abstract
In this paper the pulling columns process of uplift-whole-upper-story-then-
fixing-lower-damaged-elements scheme of Yingxian wooden pagoda is simulated
through ANSYS with geometric and material nonlinearity and real situation of the
columns and bucket arch joints and the offset of their columns taken into consideration.
The results show that: The maximum of Mises stress, contact pressures and friction
forces of column tenons and beams all increase when the offset of their columns being
larger; the maximal Mises stress of column tenons is in the root of the column, and the
maximum contact pressure and friction force are in the top and the bottom of the contact
surfaces of column tenons and beams; when the offset existed in the column is larger,
lifting column will cause the failure in the contact area of the column tenons and the
beams, so. some special measures is going to be taken to keep the joint of the column
and beams from damage during lifting; The lifting force is larger than the original axial
inner force of column during pulling column process, because the friction force and
other factors on the contact surface between the column and the beams. But the
difference of them is not big; the deformation of the column and the beams is limited
during pulling column, so the pulling column scheme is feasible after taking some
protective measures.
Keywords: wood structure, pulling column simulation, contact

analysis, the bucket arch joint, Ying Xian wooden pagoda
1. Introduction
Yingxian-wood-pagoda, the highest ancient timber pagoda in

the world, has been standing there for near a thousand years.
But it is now in the situation of slanting and some of its
structural elements have been damaged seriously for many
history reasons. In order to protect this first-class state relic
timber pagoda, a series of research program have been carried
out in Taiyuan University of technology, and the uplift-
Fig1:Yingxian wooden pagoda
1285
whole-upper-story-then-fixing-lower-damaged-elements scheme was proposed.

The wooden pagoda is a multi-story wooden frame structure with octagonal plane
layout, and its stories are linked up with bucket arch joints. The bucket arch joints
connect columns and beams, and transmit the topper loads to the lower columns. So in
the uplift-whole-upper-story-then-fixing-lower-damaged-elements scheme, the first
thing is to detach all upper stories by pulling the columns from the lower joints. But
after nearly thousand year’s compression and offset, there are large cohesive forces in
the joints and also large extrusion forces between column tenons and beams, therefore
while pulling columns all the cohesive and extrusion forces among the components of
the related joints are needed to be firstly overcome. This paper presents the computer
simulation of pulling columns process from the lower bucket arch joint, and the
simulation here is done by considering the real situation of the columns and bucket arch
joints and the offset of their columns. The distribution of the friction forces and contact
pressures between interfaces of column and beam tenons during the pulling process are
described in detail in the paper. The stress and state variation of column and beam
during the pulling process is analyzed, and its Mises-stresses and displacements are
presented either.
2. Calculation model and its material
Fig.2 is one of bucket arch joints which connects the topper columns and the lower
columns and radial beams, from which the analysis model of pulling column (Fig.3) is
taken as shown in profile 1-1 of Fig.1. The solid 45 element is basic element and the
surface-surface contact element (targe170 and contact 174) is used to simulate the
contact state of columns and beams.
topper column
floor 1
baulk
cap block 1 beam

forked tenon
architrave
beam
lower column 1-1
Fig2:The construction scheme of bucket arch joint
1286
a) The solid element of beam and column b) The element of contact surface
Fig.3: The finite element pulling column model
The material adopts bilinear elastic and anisotropic material model, and its parameters
are shown in Table 1 with Ex elasticity modulus paralleling to grain being from the
measured values[1].
Table 1: Material model parameters table
Elasticity
Elasticity Elasticity Poisson
modulus Poisson ratio Poisson ratio
modulus modulus ratio
parallel perpendicular perpendicular
Parameters perpendicular perpendicular parallel to
to grain to grain to grain
to grain to grain grain
Ex λy λz
Ey （Pa） Ez （Pa） λx
（Pa）
Value 1.59E10 1.59E9 1.59E9 0.1 0.1 0.1
Shearing
Shearing Shearing
modulus
modulus modulus Density
parallel Friction
Parameters perpendicular perpendicular ρ
to grain coefficient
Gxy
to grain to grain （kg/m3）
Gyz（Pa） Gxz（Pa）
（Pa）
Value 9.54E8 9.54E8 9.54E8 510.2 0.4
3. The material strength and strength theory
The timber that Yingxian wooden pagoda used is Larix principis-rupprechtii, which has
been extinction, so Northeast larch’s strength is consulted, with compression strength
parallel to grain 15MPa,bending strength 17MPa. According to The Norms of Ancient
Wooden Building Maintenance And Strengthening taking the importance factor of
structure for 0.9,and taking the adjustment factor more than 500 years of loads and
wood aging for 0.75 and 0.7, so finally compression strength parallel to grain is
10.1MPa and bending strength is 10.7MPa[2].The compression strength perpendicular to
grain of beam is 2.3~3.5MPa[2], and the shear strength is 1.6MPa, considering the
strength reduction factor more than 100 years of timber for 0.85, so finally shear
strength is 1.22MPa[3].
1287
According to the characteristic of timber materials, the maximum shear stress theory
(the third strength theory) and fourth strength theory is used for determining whether the
timber occurs failure.
1   3
 r 3   max    
2
 r4 
1
2
 
 1   2 2   2   3 2   3   1 2   
In the above formula,  1 is the first principal stress,  2 is the second principal stress
and  3 is the third principal stress. The third and fourth strength theory is used for
determining whether the column tenons and beams have occurred failure during the
pulling process，  r 4 is defined as Mises stress.
4. The finite element analysis of pulling process
The column heads of wooden pagoda have had different offset after 900 years, and three
upper storeys being lifted have 96 columns, whose offsets are different. This paper uses
the measured offsets of the column heads. The ends of the beams connected to other
bucket arch joints are constrained in the analysis model of pulling single column
(Fig.3(a)). The axial force of column as a concentrated force is imposed on the column
top head. The vertical upward displacement of the bottom end of the pulled column is
required to be 0.75m to have the column pulled out.
4.1 The pulling-column-process simulation on the column with minimal offset

The column with minimal offset is on the northeast of the third clear layer, with existed
axial inner force of 429.4KN, top radial offset of 30mm and normal offset of 30mm,
deviation angle of 0.6° [2]. The numerical calculation is done on the corresponding
pulling column model, and the Mises stress nephograms of the column and the beam,
contact force and the friction on the contact surface between the column and the beam
are shown in Fig.4.
The result in the Fig.4 shows the maximum Mises stress is in the root of column tenon
during pulling process, with the value 2.86MPa, and the maximum shear stress is in the
interior angle of column tenon’s root, with the value 1.03MPa.The maximum Mises
stress of beam is in the middle-upper of the contact surface between beam and column
tenon, with the value 0.43MPa. The maximum contact pressure of the contact surface
between beam and column is 0.17MPa, and the maximum of friction force is 0.08MPa.
According to the third and fourth strength theory, since all equivalent stresses are all
less then the strength design values of timber, so the pulling column process is safe.
1288
a) Mises stress of column tenons b) Mises stress of beam
c) Contact pressure d) friction force

Fig.4: the nephograms of maximum stress in column tenon and beam
The relation curves of the maximal stress, the contact pressure and contact friction to
the lifting displacement are shown in Fig.5. From the curves, the Mises stress of the
column and beam and the friction force and contact pressure on their contact surface all
decrease with the increasing of the lifting displacement, it is corresponding to the fact
that the column is gradually apart from the beams with the column being lifted. When
the lifting force reaches to 432.5kN, the column is disconnected from the beams.
1289
Fig.5: The relation curves of Mises stress, contact pressure and friction
to the lifting displacement
4.2 The simulation analysis of pulling column process that the normal offset of column
head is maximal.
The column with maximal offset is on the southwest of fourth clear layer, with existed
axial inner force 262.3KN, top radial offset 40mm, deviation angle 0.8°,normal offset
180mm, deviation angle 3.64 ° [2]. The numerical calculation is done on the
corresponding pulling column model, and the Mises stress nephograms of the column
and the beam, contact force and the friction on the contact surface between the column
and the beam are shown in Fig.6.
The result in the Fig.5 shows the maximum Mises stress is in the root of column tenon
during pulling process, with the value 17.3MPa, and the maximum shear stress is in the
interior angle of column tenon’s root, with the value 6.8MPa. The maximum Mises
stress of beam is in the middle-upper of the contact surface between beam and column
tenon, with the value 2.23MPa. The maximum contact pressure of the contact surface
between beam and column is 2.66MPa, and the maximum of friction force is 1.06MPa.
According to the third and fourth strength theory, the maximum Mises stress in the
column tenonin exceeds the compression strength parallel to grain of timber with
10.1MPa; and the maximum shear stress exceeds the shear strength of timber with
1.22MPa. So the pulling column process is not safe, some measures have to be taken to
reduce the stress of column tenons’ root during pulling columns process
1290
a) Mises stress of column tenons b) Mises stress of beam
c) Contact pressure d) friction force

Fig.6 The nephograms of maximum stress in column tenon and beam
.
The relation curves of the maximal stress, the contact pressure and contact friction to
the lifting displacement are shown in Fig.7. From the curves, the Mises stress of the
column and beam and the friction force and contact pressure on their contact surface all
decrease with the increasing of the lifting displacement; and the friction force and
contact pressure contact pressure of column tenon have abruptly change during pulling
process because of the large offset existed in the column end.
1291
Fig.6: The process curves of lifting force and characteristic element’s stress
5. Conclusion
From the above simulation results about the pulling columns process, the following
conclusions can be obtained:
(1) The maximum of Mises stress, contact pressures and friction forces of column
tenons and beams all increase when the offset of their columns being larger; the
maximal Mises stress of column tenons is in the root of the column, and the
maximum contact pressure and friction force are in the top and the bottom of the
contact surfaces of column tenons and beams.
(2) When the offset existed in the column is larger, lifting column will cause the failure
in the contact area of the column tenons and the beams. Some special measures is
going to be taken to keep the joint of the column and beams from damage during
lifting.
(3) The lifting force is larger than the original axial inner force of column during pulling
column process, because the friction force and other factors on the contact surface
between the column and the beams. But the difference of them is not big.
(4) The deformation of the column and the beams is limited during pulling column, so
the pulling column scheme is feasible after taking some protective measures.
References
[1] Taiyuan Institute of Technology, Shanxi Cultural Relics Bureau, Wood Sample
Test Report of Yingxian Wooden Pagoda［R］, Department of Civil Engineering,
Taiyuan University of Technology,1979
[2] [Ancient architecture Study Group of Taiyuan University of Technology,
Reliability Evaluation Report of Load-bearing Structure of Yingxian Wooden
Pagoda［R］,2002
[3] [Xuefei,The analysis on the behaviors of Yingxian wooden pagoda under
earthquake and co-operations of it with the steel tower for its maintenance,
Taiyuan University of Technology. Master's degree thesis, 2006
[4] [ Leiming Du. The process design of the uplift-whole-upper-story-then-fixing-
lower-damaged-elements scheme of Yingxian wooden pagoda and research on its
key technical problems, Taiyuan University of Technology. Master's degree
thesis, 2007.
1292
Development of cracked shell element

Kohei FUJITA1*, Muneo HORI2
1*
Graduate Student, Department of Civil Engineering, the University of Tokyo
1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-0032, Japan
fujita@eri.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Professor, Earthquake Research Institute, the University of Tokyo
Abstract
This paper develops a cracked shell element. Unlike ordinary methods, the
development is made by rigorously converting a Lagrangian of a three-dimensional
elastic body to that of a shell structure and by discretizing functions in the converted
Lagrangian so that a crack is easily modelled. Since the curvilinear coordinate relevant
to the shell is employed, covariant derivatives are used; all manipulation is processed by
Mathematica. The discretization uses a new scheme which uses discontinuous basis
functions. The validity of the Lagrangian transformation is verified. A numerical
experiment examines the performance of the cracked shell element, and shows that the
maximum relative error of computing displacement and stress is less than 20%, when
the crack depth is less than 20% of the shell thickness.
Keywords: finite element of shell, crack, particle discretization
1 Introduction
For efficient numerical analysis of fatigue cracks in thin structure members, it is
essential to use a cracked shell element. However, the development of such element is
not trivial. This is because it is difficult to model a crack, discontinuity in a
displacement function, in conventional geometrical treatment and it is more difficult to
discretize governing equations of displacement functions in terms of smooth
interpolation functions.
In this paper, a new approach is taken to develop a cracked shell element. First, a
Lagrangian of a shell structure is rigorously derived from that of a three-dimensional
elastic continuum, by assuming displacement functions that are relevant to a shell
structure. General curvilinear coordinate and covariant derivative are used; laborious
manipulation is processed by Mathematica. The transformation is verified by comparing
a cylindrical shell. Next, a particle discretization scheme (PDS)[1][2], which uses
discontinuous basis functions are applied to the Lagrangian, so that displacement
discontinuity for a crack is readily modelled. Numerical experiment shows that the
cracked shell element developed here is able to accurately estimate the displacement
and stress of a cracked shell when the crack depth is smaller than 20% of the shell
thickness.
1293
2 Formulation of cracked shell element
2.1 Transformation of Lagrangian

Let us start from a Lagrangian of a general three-dimensional elastic body, B, assuming
the quasi-static state and small deformation, i.e.,
LB     ij cijkl kl   ij ui , j   ij dx

1 
(1)
B 
2
where ui, ij and ij are displacement, strain and stress functions, components are for the
Cartesian coordinate (x1-x2-x3), and (.),i means the partial derivative, (.)/xi. For
simplicity, we assume displacement boundary conditions are given.
Now, we change the Cartesian coordinate to a general curvilinear coordinate 1-2-3
which is relevant to a shell structure and then transform the resulting Lagrangian to that
of a shell. Regarding B as a shell whose neutral plane is given as x3 = F(x1, x2), and
defining i as
xi   i  F,i 3 (i  1,2), x3  F (1 ,  2 )   3 , (2)
we can compute covariant derivative of this curvilinear coordinate. Symbolically, LB of

Eq.(1) is replaced by
1
  
LB     ij ci kj l  kl   i j u;i j   ij dξ. (3)
B  
2
Here, covariant and contravariant components are indicated by subscripts and

superscripts, respectively, and (.);i stands for the i covariant derivative. Note that J is
the Jacobian of coordinate transformation, and B' stands for the domain that correspond
to B viewed in the curvilinear coordinate.
Now, we assume the form of displacement functions of LB'. That is,
u1 , u 3 , u 3   U   3W,1 ,V   3W,1 ,W , (4)
where U, V, and W are functions of 1 and 2. Note that 3 is a coordinate in the shell
thickness direction, and Eq.(4) means that the out-of-plane displacement (W) is
perpendicular to the neutral plane and in-plane displacements (U and V) are uniform
along the thickness. Substituting the assumed displacement into LB' and carrying out the
integration with respect to 3, we arrive at
LM   Ld1d 2 , (5)
M
1294
where
1

L     ij ci kj l  kl   i j  ij1 U   3W,1    ij 2 V   3W, 2    ij 3W   ij 
H
2 (6)
 p 1,2  1 (U , p   3W,1 p )   (V, p   3W, 2 p )  W, p (   3 ) Jd 3.
p
2
p 3
p
p

It is straightforward to transform LM in a simpler form, when, say, a cylindrical shell is
considered. By transforming 1-2 coordinate to a longitudinal and circumferential
coordinates of the shell, we can easily show that the variation of LM leads to three
governing equations of {U,V,W}, which coincide with Timoshenko (pages 507-514)[3].
In the present manipulations, it is transparent that terms neglected by "elaborate
investigations" are smaller than the other terms.
2.2 Discretization of Lagrangian
PDS is a general discretization scheme which can be applied to any arbitrary functions,
and the essence of PDS is the use of dual sets of basis functions; one set is for a function
and the other for its derivatives. Dual domain decomposition, such as Voronoi and
Delaunay tessellations, is taken for an analysis domain, and (discontinuous)
characteristic functions of the decomposed sub-domains are used as basis functions.
Let {} and {} be the dual domain decomposition of the neutral plane M, and
denote by  and  the characteristic function of {} and {}. In LM, displacement
functions, {U,V,W}, are discretized in terms of 's and ij and i j in terms of 's.
More precisely speaking, the discretization of W is
W 1 ,  2    W    11   2 2   1 ,  2 , (7)


where W is out-of-plane displacement component, i is the bending angle in the i-
direction, and i is the distance from the center of . Other functions are discretized in
the same manner.
A shell element of PDS is readily derived by substituting the discretized functions into
LM. An element stiffness matrix is computed for M. Unlike a general three-dimensional
elastic body, however, this stiffness matrix does not coincide with that of a standard
shell element. This disagreement is natural since PDS is utterly different from the
discretization that is used for the standard shell element, and the accuracy of the shell
element of PDS is high as shown in the next example. However, a further investigation
is surely needed to improve the accuracy of the shell element of PDS.
In order to develop a cracked shell element, an assumption that a crack is located in the
boundary between neighboring 's must be made; PDS is not applicable to a more
general case when a crack is located within one . Based on this assumption, we
recalculate the integration of LB' with respect to 3 and substitute the discretized
1295
functions into the resulting functional. A cracked shell element is obtained without
making any further assumptions or approximations.
x2 x2
x3 x3
x1 x1
a) Crack on concave side b) Crack on convex side
Fig.1: Target domain of numerical example
3 Numerical Example
A numerical example is performed for the validation of the cracked shell element
derived. A shell structure with neutral plane of x3 = 0.2(x12+ x22) [m], -0.5  x1, x2 
0.5[m], thickness of h = 0.05 [m], material properties of E = 200 [GPa], = 0.3 is a
target problem. The four edges are clamped, and uniformly distributed load of 1.0 [MPa]
is applied perpendicular to the surface of the shell. Two cases, crack of depth d on the
center (x1 = 0) of the shell's concave side and the convex side, are considered (Figure 1).
Manifold M is divided into 625 elements for the model computed by the cracked shell
element derived in this paper. Models of 90,000 to 100,000 solid elements (second-
order tetrahedral elements), which is analyzed using ADVENTURE on Windows [4], is
used as a reference.
First, a displacement field is computed for each crack depth. Figure 2 plots the average
displacement in the x3 direction with respect to the index of crack depth:  = d/h. The
displacement of the shell element is in good agreement with the reference in small 
regions for both of the two cases. For larger , displacement computed for the case with
crack on the concave side keeps good agreement, while the case with crack on convex
side does not have such good agreement. The comparison of Figure 2-a and Figure 2-b
show that analysis using cracked element distinguishes the side of the crack and its
mean u3 [mm]
mean u3 [mm]
0.14 0.14
0.12 0.12
0.1 0.1
0.08 0.08
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
 
a) Crack on concave side b) Crack on convex side
Fig.2: Displacement trends (PDS-FEM:  reference:  )
1296
influence on the deformation of the structure, as the shape of the structure is identical
for the two cases at  = 0.
The number of the elements is changed to investigate the cause of error when crack is
0.3
maximum u3 [mm]
maximum u3 [mm]
on the convex side. This serves as a convergence 0.4check as well. Figure 3 plots
maximum 0.2 displacement in the x3 direction with respect
0.3 to the number of elements used
by cracked shell element models. The displacement converges near to the reference for
0.2
shallow0.1cracks ( = 0.1), but does not converge to the reference for deeper cracks ( =
0.5). The error is small when cracks are shallow, where 0.1 the assumption of displacement
field holds0 well. From these results, it can be seen that 0 the reason of error is not from
insufficient domain
1 decomposition,
10 100 but from the assumption 1 of the10 displacement
100 field.
Comparing the convergence rate of Figure 3-a and Figure 3-b, the cracked element
no. of elements no. of elements
converges faster for smaller , and converges slowly for larger .
Figure 4 shows the a)  =0.1 of error for displacement andb)strain
distribution  = 0.5
fields when the
Fig.3: Rate of convergence for crack on convex side (PDS-FEM: 
crack (= 0.2) is on the convex side. From Figure 4-a, it is seen that the maximum
reference: -)
relative error of the displacement in x3 direction is 12% near the crack tip. From Figure
4-b, it is seen that relative error of stress (11) is large near crack tip and boundaries
(maximum of 20%). Reasons for large error near boundaries are presently being studied.
Error of both displacement and stress fields are smaller for cases with crack on the
concave side.
11 relative
error
u3 relative 10%
error
0%
10% 0.4
-10% 0.5
0.2
0%
0.0 x 0.0 x
-0.4 2 -0.5
-0.2 -0.2 2
0.0 0.0
x1 0.2 -0.4 x1 -0.5
0.4 0.5
a) Displacement field (u3) b) Stress field (11)

Fig.4: Relative error (crack on convex side,  =0.2)
1297
4 Conclusion
For analysis of cracked shell structures, a cracked shell element is developed in this
paper. There are two major points in the formulation; the rigorous treatment of the shell
as a three-dimensional body, and the discretization of unsmooth function near crack.
Results of numerical experiments show that the model computed by cracked shell
elements developed in this paper have relative error of less than 20% in displacement
and stress fields, when the crack depth is less than 20% of the shell thickness.
Since the cracked shell elements described in this paper is formulated in a versatile and
straightforward manner, it is readily extended to a higher ordered or nonlinear cracked
shell element. Also, using a Lagrangian of dynamic state, cracked shell element is
extended to dynamic problems without major modification of the formulation.
References
[1] Fujita, K., Hori, M., Formulation of PDS-FEM cracked structural elements.
Journal of Applied Mechanics JSCE 2010; 13 (in Japanese, submitted)
[2] Hori, M., Oguni, K., Sakaguchi, H., Proposal of FEM implemented with particle
discretization for analysis of failure phenomena. Journal of the Mechanics and
Physics of Solids 2005; 53: 681-703.
[3] Timoshenko, S. and Woinowsky-Kreiger, S. Theory of Plates and Shells (2nd
edition). McGraw Hill, Kogakusha, Japan, 1959.
[4] ADVENTURE Project, http://adventure.sys.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp/
[5] Wolfram Mathematica, http://www.wolfram.com/
1298
Application of intelligent nonlinear analysis system to spatial

structures
Seung-Chang LEE1*, Jung-Keun OH2, Byung-Keun PARK3
1*
Principal Researcher, Ph.D.
Research Institute of Technology, Samsung C&T Corporation, Seoul, Korea
sc88.lee@samsung.com
2
General Manager, Samsung C&T Corporation
3
Executive Vice President, Samsung C&T Corporation
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to implement and verify the nonlinear analysis
module of ITOSS (Intelligent Truss Optimization System for Samsung). To verify the
performance of the system, it is applied to a benchmark problem and an actual project.
The system provide nonlinear buckling load which is in the approximately two times
than maximum elastic design load when it considers geometrical and material
nonlinearity. The shape and size of the imperfection have important influence on the
stability of the truss structure. Thanks to the development of ITOSS, it can generate
credible nonlinear analysis results within the limited time.
Keywords: Nonlinear analysis, ITOSS, dome, buckling load, imperfection, stability
1 Introduction
In the design of large spatial structure, the theory of structural stability is an important
subject because it can predict the limit state of the structure. Some of the studies carried
out in the large spatial structure consider only geometrical nonlinear behavior due to
large displacements while material law is assumed linearly elastic. However,
nonlinearities both geometrical as well as from the material point of view must be taken
into account in order to predict a realistic behavior.
Due to the complexities of nonlinear design of truss or dome structure, the outcome by
novice engineer could include some mistakes that lead to the design and construction
failures. In order to prevent those failures, it needs much time to check truss structure
composed of many members in case of both novice and professional engineers. Many
engineers require automated nonlinear analysis system that can simultaneously consider
both geometrical and material nonlinear behavior.
First author has developed the Intelligent Truss Optimization System for Samsung
named ITOSS [1]. The system has the function from generating the configuration to
analyzing the nonlinear behavior. For this, the system is composed of four modules; that
is, configuration module, property and loading module, optimization module and
nonlinear analysis module.
The purpose of this study is to implement and verify the nonlinear analysis module of
ITOSS. To verify the performance of the system, it is applied to a benchmark problem
1299
and an actual project. The system gave nonlinear buckling load which is in the
approximately two times than elastic design load when it considers geometrical and
material nonlinearity. The shape and size of the imperfection have important influence
on the stability of the truss structure. Due to the development of ITOSS, it can generate
credible nonlinear analysis results within the limited time.
2 ITOSS system
Most of input menus and interface programs of ITOSS system [1] are implemented by
the LPI function of LUSASTM [2] which is also its analysis solver. The system is
composed of four modules; that is, configuration module, property and loading module,
optimization module and nonlinear analysis module. In the configuration module as
shown in figure 1, it can automatically generate the geometry of flat roof, vault roof,
circular dome and elliptical dome with the basic data. Property and loading module has
the automatic function that wind or other loads can be subjected to the surface of truss
and dome. In the optimization module, the expected global minimum can be arrived
without stop through the re-analysis and re-selection automatically.
Fig. 1: Configuration and property module of ITOSS
Fig. 2: Nonlinear analysis module of ITOSS
1300
The focus of this paper is on the nonlinear analysis module and it can check the snap-
through behavior for the dome structure. As shown in figure 2, the system can
automatically convert linear model to nonlinear model. In the first step, the linear
(eigenvalue) buckling analysis is performed before the nonlinear analysis. This can
provide the linear buckling load of the structure and imperfect shape from the critical
buckling mode. The following step is to predict the nonlinear buckling load considering
the geometrical and material nonlinearity. Furthermore, the imperfection of shape can
be considered in the nonlinear analysis.
3 Linear vs. nonlinear buckling analysis

If a structure is subjected to a given load and large increase in loading in a large change
in the equilibrium configuration of structure, the applied load is defined as buckling
load. Below the critical buckling load of a structure, ‘stable’ equilibrium of structure
can be maintained. If the buckling load of dome structure with large span is unknown,
its stability and safety cannot be assured although it is well designed elastically.
Therefore, it is very important how to find the buckling load. There are two methods to
obtain buckling load. One is linear eigenvalue buckling analysis. The other is
geometrically nonlinear analysis. The buckling behaviour of structure predicted by these
methods is based on the geometric effects but not for material effects. For real structure
and practical design, geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis can be more
reasonable which can be third one to predict buckling load. Above three methods are
efficiently useful in ITOSS system in order to estimate the ultimate state of structure.
3.1 Linear buckling analysis

Eigenvalue buckling analysis can be applied to relatively stiff structures because their
stiffness matrix does not change prior to buckling. This can be used before a nonlinear
buckling analysis because it will provide both local and global buckling modes. Thus,
engineers use these modes to determine which buckling mode is the most critical in
order to select the appropriate buckling load factor. Furthermore, the critical mode
shape can be provided for the nonlinear analysis considering the imperfection.
3.2 Nonlinear buckling analysis

It is well known that a nonlinear buckling analysis can consider not only geometrical
nonlinearity but also material nonlinearity. Nonlinear analysis in ITOSS uses basically
Newton Raphson and arc-length control method [3].
3.2.1 Geometrically nonlinear analysis
Geometrically nonlinear analysis can provide a complete response of the structure at all
stages of loading. Engineers can determine the buckling load at ultimate point of force-
displacement graph. This analysis can also include features such as initial imperfection.
1301
3.2.2 Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis
Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis is more accurate than only

geometrically nonlinear analysis, and is therefore recommended for the design or
evaluation of structures.
4 Benchmark problem
In order to confirm the usefulness of ITOSS system, the parametric study is done with
30m span circular dome structure selected as the benchmark problem. The type of dome
is parallel lattice dome composed of spherical segments with parallel trussing [4]. Table
1 shows the configuration of benchmark problem. Rise (f) to span (D) ratio and the
number of layer are determined as main parameter because it can be representative of
dome structures.
4.1 Basic conditions

The geometry of benchmark problem is created automatically by the configuration
module of ITOSS. Number of ring is assumed as 5, all of members are selected as
Ø21.7x 2.0t steel pipe, and the perimeter of dome is supported by one-way roller
bearing. In case of double layer dome, the distance between inner and outer dome is 1m.
All structures are subjected to uniform vertical loads on the upper layer such as
2.0kN/m2.
4.2 Linear buckling analysis results

Table 2 describes linear buckling analysis results. In the case of f/D = 0.1 or 0.3, the too
low eigenvalues under 1.0 are obtained. As described in section 3.1, linear buckling
analysis can be applied relatively stiff structure. Linear buckling analysis results cannot
be applied to predict the maximum load for the rise to span ratio is under 0.3. For the
f/D is 0.5, the linear result of single layer is lower than the nonlinear result but that of
double layer is higher than the nonlinear one.
4.3 Nonlinear buckling analysis results

Table 2 and figure 3 to 5 show nonlinear buckling analysis results. For all of structures,
Geometrically NonLinear analysis (GNL) results represent higher than Geometrically
and Materially NonLinear analysis (GMNL) results. For f/D is 0.1 as flexible structure,
the values by GNL and GMNL are the smallest because they are geometrically and
materially weak structure subjected to vertical load. As increase in f/D enhance the
buckling load because structures become stronger geometrically.
In the more detail analysis, the values by GMNL are approximately 10% of those of
GNL except the most flexible dome structure with lowest f/D and single layer. This
means the value by GNL may not be critical buckling load in the most of actual dome
structures and therefore GMNL is more efficient tool to predict the buckling load of
dome structure.
1302
5 Considerations on imperfection
Initially designed perfect shape for dome structure is a little gradually changed during
and after construction for some reasons. As the applied load is increased, a lot of
members in the optimized structure can reach their buckling load at the same. Buckling
of any member corresponds to an eigenmode for the structure. Multiple coincident
eigenmodes can lead to high imperfection sensitivity of the structure’s load carrying
capacity. Thus, dome structure can also be sensitive to imperfection [5].
In order to check the imperfection sensitivity of ITOSS system, the parametric study is
performed with 30m span circular dome structure with f/D = 0.5 as shown in figure 6.
First mode shape from linear buckling analysis is used for the imperfection sensitivity
analysis.
Figure 7 to 8 describes imperfection sensitivity analysis results. As increase in
Deformed mesh Factor (DF) decrease the buckling load. Analysis is done with initial
deformed shape multiplied by the DF in order to consider the imperfection.
Table 1: Configuration and its linear analysis results
f/D = 0.1 f/D = 0.3 f/D = 0.5
Rise to span ratio f
f = 3m D = 30m f = 9m D = 30m f = 15m D = 30m
No. of layer Single Double Single Double Single Double
Max. disp. (m) 0.7737 0.2416 0.1050 0.0449 0.0777 0.0366

Total steel
1.001 3.025 1.148 3.468 1.388 4.189
amount(ton)
Table 2: Comparison of buckling analysis results for benchmark problem
Rise to span ratio f/D = 0.1 f/D = 0.3 f/D = 0.5
No. of layer Single Double Single Double Single Double

Linear buckling load
Too low Too low Too low Too low 7737 38342
(kN)
Nonlinear buckling
139 4580 2320 29440 8000 27750
(GNL, kN)
Nonlinear buckling
87 613 308 1683 661 2317
(GMNL, kN)
GMNL/GNL x 100% 62.6 13.4 13.3 5.7 8.3 8.3
GNL: Geometrically NonLinear analysis, GMNL: Geometrically and Materially NonLinear analysis
1303
Total Load f/D = 0.1, Single Layer Total Load f/D = 0.1, Double Layer
[ kN] [ kN]
GNL
150 5000
140 GNL
130
120 4000
110
100
90 3000
80
GMNL
70
60 2000
50
40
30 1000
20
GMNL
10
0 0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
Displacement 0.25
[m] 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00
Displacement 8.00
[m]
GNL: Geometrically NonLinear analysis, GMNL: Geometrically and Materially NonLinear analysis
Fig. 3: Comparison of buckling analysis results in case of f/D = 0.1
[ kN] [ kN]
2500 30000 GNL
2000
20000
GNL
1500
1000
10000
\
500
GMNL GMNL
0
0
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00
Displacement [m]
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 [m]
Displacement 0.60
[ kN] [ kN]
11000 40000
10000 GNL
35000
9000
8000 30000 GNL
7000
25000
6000
5000 20000
4000
3000 15000
2000
GMNL 10000
1000
0 5000 GMNL
-10000.00 0.30 0.60 0.90 1.20 1.50 1.80
-2000 0
Displacement [m] 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00
Displacement [m]
-3000
1304
Fig. 6: Configuration and first mode shape for imperfection sensitivity analysis
W(Load) GNL considering imperfection W(Load)

[ x Design Load] GMNL considering imperfection
[ x Design Load]
26
3
24
22
20
18
16 D F1.0
14 D F1.0
12 D F0.1
D F0.3
10 D F0.05
8 1 D F0.2
6 D F0.025
D F0.1
4 D F0.01
2 D F0.05
0
-2 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
-4
-6 Displacement(m)
-8
-1 Displacement (m)
Fig. 7: Imperfection sensitivity analysis results of single layer dome

W(Load) GNL considering imperfection W(Load) GMNL considering imperfection
[ x Design Load] [ x Design Load]
80 5
70
4
60
D F3.0
D F3.0
50 3 D F2.0
D F2.0
D F1.0
40 D F1.0
D F0.5
D F0.5 2
30 D F0.25
D F0.25
20
1
10
0 0 Displacement(m)
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 Displacement(m) 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Fig. 8: Imperfection sensitivity analysis results of double layer dome
1305
6 Application example
The dome structure as shown in figure 9 is subjected to uniform vertical loads on the
upper layer for nonlinear analysis module of ITOSS. Properties of all members are
selected from member database based on the linear static analysis and the optimization
module of ITOSS. The structure has roller bearing support at the edge bottom nodes.
The optimally designed structure can resist maximum design load within the allowable
stress and displacement. Uniformly distributed load of 2.0kN/m2 is considered as
maximum design load, 0.9 is maximum allowable stress ratio and span-length/300 is
maximum allowable displacement.
Fig. 9: Configuration of application example with 84m span length
W(Load) GNL W(Load) GMNL

[x Design Load] [x Design Load]
Perfection
3
14
Imperfection Perfection
12
10
2
Imperfection
8
6
1
4
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 Displacement
5.0 5.5 6. 0
(m) 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Displacement
1.0 (m)
1.2
Fig. 10: Nonlinear buckling analysis results of application example
1306
6.1 Nonlinear buckling analysis results

The load-deformation relationships for GNL and GMNL are shown in figure 10,
respectively. The ordinate represents the total vertical load which means the multiple of
maximum design load (2.0kN/m2). The abscissa represents the displacements of the
center node in vertical direction.
The load-deformation relationships of imperfect shape generally show stronger
nonlinearity than those of perfect shape. The buckling load of imperfect case is similar
to that of perfect case at the maximum allowable displacement (span length/300).
Additionally, the ultimate loads in both cases are over two times of maximum design
load and then the application example is stable when it considers imperfection,
geometrically and materially nonlinearity.
7 Conclusions
The buckling analysis of dome structure is still a difficult task because it needs in-depth
knowledge on post buckling behavior. The results by novice are very often not credible.
Thanks to the development of ITOSS, it can easily execute the nonlinear analysis within
the limited time even if the result reliability depends on the user’s knowledge.
1) Buckling load is enormously reduced by considering the material nonlinearities and

geometric imperfection.
2) Analysis results show that dome structure with single layer is more sensitive to initial
imperfection rather than that with double layer.
3) GMNL when it simultaneously considers initial imperfection is very efficient method
to predict the post buckling behaviour of actual dome structure.
References
[1] Lee SC and Oh JK. Development of intelligent truss optimization system. IASS-
IACM, Ithaca, Cornell Univ., 2008; F-2-B:205.
[2] LUSAS. Theory and user manuals, Version 14.0., Surrey, UK, FEA Ltd, 2007.
[3] Crisfield MA. Non-linear finite element analysis of solids and structures, Vol. 1,
John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 1991.
[4] Heino E. Structure systems. Gerd Hatje Pub., Germany, 1997.
[5] Shahzad K, Ahmed S and Himayat U. Effect of geometric imperfection on
buckling strength of cylindrical shells. Failure of Engineering Materials &
Structures, Mech. Eng. Dept., UET TAXILA, 2007.
1307
Force Method of Truss Structures by using

Singular Value Decomposition
Suhyun Lee1, Yoomi Na 2, Jaehong Lee 3*
1
Graduate student, Department of Architectural ,Sejong University, 98 Kunja Dong
Kwangjin Ku, Seoul 143-747, Republic Korea
E-mail : Suhyun332@naver.com
2
Graduate student, Department of Architectural ,Sejong University
E-mail : bymiracle14@naver.com
3*
Professor, Department of Architectural ,Sejong University, 98 Kunja Dong Kwangjin
Ku, Seoul 143-747, Republic Korea
E-mail : jhlee@sejong.ac.kr
Abstract
In this paper presents new force method by using force method for getting result
of member force of truss structures. The existing force method some advantages about
analysis of truss systems such as easier basic concept than finite element method, which
apply to analysis truss structure. Especially, algebraic force method uses to analyse
frame structures such as truss structures, pin-joint structures and frame structures. In
addition, this method is appealing to engineer because the properties of members of
structures most often depend on the member force than joint displacement. However,
existing force method has complex formulation for analysis. Therefore, in this study
proposed new force method using singular value decomposition, which is both having
easy basic concept and simple computation than existing force method. Based on this
proposed formulation, the flexibility matrix becomes not well-conditioned depending on
the problem. In this regard, new force method based on singular value decomposition is
proposed to analyze truss structures. The proposed method is based ob force density
method in form-finding of soft structures. Both the boundary conditions and applies
loading as well as the geometry of the structures are included in equilibrium matrix.
The proposed method is illustrated through formulation and some numerical examples.
Keywords: Force Method, Singular Value Decomposition, Truss, Structural Analysis, Equilibrium equation,
Flexibility Analysis
1308
1 Introduction
The structural analysis by using Force Method, which the member forces are used as
unknowns, is appealing to engineers, since the properties of members of a structure
most often depend on the member forces rather than joint displacements. This method is
used until 1960s. After this, most researchers prefers to another method than force
method because of advancement in digital computer and easier computation. The
displacement-based finite element method, which is the typical method of structural
analysis of skeletal structures, is used extensively solid mechanics problems. Moreover
a lot of commercial software has been developed based on this method. However, this
method is hard to understand how to deal with the problem since this method is highly
difficult basic concept. In contrast with this method, structural analysis using force
method is able to apply to analyse without difficulty because it is easier basic concept
than aforementioned method. Force method has four different approaches: [2]
1. Topological force method

2. Algebraic force method
3. Mixed algebraic-combinatorial force method
4. Integrated force method
In this paper an efficient new method has been developed based on Algebraic force
method by using Singular value decomposition. Algebraic methods has been developed
by Denke[3], Robinson[4], Topcu[5], Kaneko et al[6]., Soyer and Topcu and mixed
algebraic-topological methods has been used by Gilbert and Heath, Coleman and
Pothen, and Pothen. The fundamental concept of the algebraic force method can be
written as
r  B0 p  B1q (1)
Where B0p is a particular solution, which satisfies equilibrium with the imposed
external load p, and B1q was a homogeneous solution satisfying self-equilibrium with
forced internal load q. The row of matrix, both B0 and B1, presents the number of
elements while the number of columns of B0 is the number of external load, and column
of the B1 is the number of degrees in terms of structures statically indeterminate.
Algebraic force methods are efficient method in analysis of frame structures such as
truss, pin-joint frame. This method has easy basic concept, on the other hand, it has
complex computations. Therefore, the primary aim of this paper is solving the
disadvantage about this method. In this study proposed a new force method by using
singular value decomposition. In addition this new force method maintained basic
concept, it can be simple computation than general force method. In this paper
illustrates through some numerical examples.
1309
2 Formulation of new force method
Fig. 1: its properties of cross section (cm)
The Fg.1 illustrates truss element for explaining about proposed new force method. Let
the vector X i and X j be respectively. The coordinate ( xi , yi , zi ) of node i and the
coordinate ( x j , y j , z j ) of node j ,
X i  [ xi , yi , zi ] (2)
X j  [x j , y j , z j ] (3)
Then, the length of element l and direction cosine vector  can be written as
l  [( X j  X i )( X j  X i )T ]1/ 2 (4)
1
  [ x y z ]  ( X j  X i ) (5)
l
Fig. 2: Equilibrium of joint
1310
For ith element, the linear axial strain can be represented by
 i  Bij u j (6a)
or, ε = Bu (6b)
Where B is rectangular matrix having M  N dimension, where M is the number of

elements and N is the number of total degree of freedom of the structure. In addition,
u is joint displacement vector.
The equilibrium equation of whole model can be represented by
 C11   C1M   n1   P1 
          
    (7a)
         
 
CN 1   CNM   nM   PN 
or, Cn = P (7b)
Eq. (7a) is equation satisfied equilibrium at each node of the truss structures where
C matrix is transpose of B matrix. This matrix has N  M size, n is the member force
vector having M 1 size and P is external loading vector having N 1 size. Moreover
this theory considers both equilibrium for each node and boundary condition.
2.1 Boundary condition consideration
n 
C  Cbc      P (8a)
n 
 bc 
or, Cn = P (8b)
The dimension of Cbc is N  M bc , where M bc is the number of specified essential

boundary condition. In addition, nbc is reaction force vector. Therefore, C is a
rectangular matrix, which has N  ( M  M bc ) size.
2.2 External loading consideration

Eq. (8) illustrates whole formulation for performing analysis about truss structures.
However, in order to apply singular value decomposition, the equation should be
transformed into homogeneous equation. Therefore, Eq. (8) can be changed by
1311
n 
 
 
[C  Cbc  Cp ] nbc   0 (9a)
 
 
 n P 
Cn = 0 (9b)
Eq. (9) is homogeneous equation for singular value decomposition formulation. This
equation is available to perform to analyse truss structures. The dimension of CP is
N 1 and n P becomes always unity. Therefore, C is a rectangular matrix, which has
N  ( M  M bc  M P ) size.
2.3 Statically indeterminacy consideration

Eq. (9) can not analyze the statically indeterminate truss structures. In order to solve this
problem, in this study uses algebraic force method theory. The fundamental concept of
algebraic force method is Eq. (1). Therefore, it has to consider B1 for getting the exact
result.
CSI n  0 (10)
Eq. (10) is a rectangular matrix, which has N SI  M size where N SI is the number of
degrees in terms of structures statically indeterminate. Therefore, singular value
decomposition formulation, which considers boundary condition, external load and
statically indeterminate, be written as
 n  0 
C Cbc CP     
C n   0 
0   bc   
(15a)
 SI 0
 n P  0 
Ct n = 0 (15b)
Eq. (15a) is total formulation for performed analysis about force method based on
singular value decomposition and Eq. (15b) is condensed equation. Matrix C is
rectangular matrix, which has ( N  N SI )  ( M  M bc  M P ) size. Where N is degree of
freedom, which is satisfied equilibrium for each node and N SI is self equilibrium for
1312
virtual internal load q . In addition, where M is the number of elements, M bc is

boundary condition of structures and M P is external load.
C  U V T (16)
This equation is singular value decomposition formulation for force method, which is
Eq. (15b). Where U is orthogonal matrix which has M  M size,  is diagonal matrix
which has M  N size and V T has N  N size. The proposed theory can get both
member force each elements and reaction force.
In this section, the usefulness of procedures of this study by presenting examples (Plane
truss, space truss) is demonstrated.
3.1 Plane truss

3.1.1 Statically determinate truss structure
Fig. 3: the example of statically determinate plane truss structure
Fig. 3 is the example 1 of statically determinate truss structure with the number of nodes
is 4, the number of elements is 5 and P  1 at node 2. Nodes 1 and 4 are the supports
that node 1 is fixed and node 4 is roller.
1313
Table 1: Coordinate and connectivity of example 1
Coordinate
Node x y Element Connectivity
z
1 0 1 0 1 1 4
2 1 1 0 2 1 2
3 1 0 0 3 2 3
4 0 0 0 4 3 4
- - - - 5 1 3
Table 2: Matrix C of example 1
DOF at boundary
Elements P
condition
1x 0 1 0 0 0.707 1 0 0 0
1y -1 0 0 0 -0.707 0 1 0 0
Degree 2x 0 -1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
of 2y 0 0 -1 0 0 0 0 0 -1
freedom 3x 0 0 0 -1 -0.707 0 0 0 0
at node 3y 0 0 1 0 0.707 0 0 0 0
4x 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
4y 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Table 3: Result of example 1
Elements Present Elements Exact solution

1 0.0000 1 0.0000
2 0.0000 2 0.0000
Member force 3 -1.0000 3 -1.0000
4 -1.0000 4 -1.0000
5 1.4142 5 1.4142
6 -1.0000 6 -1.0000
Reaction force 7 1.0000 7 1.0000
8 1.0000 8 1.0000
Loading 9 1.0000 9 -
Table 1 given coordinate and the connectivity, table 2 is matrix C of this example for
analysis and table 3 is compared with result of this study and exact solution. Where (+)
is tension and (-) is compression, the solution by present methods is shown identical
results.
3.1.2 Statically indeterminate truss structure
Fig. 4 is the example of statically indeterminate truss structure with N =6, M =10 and
P  100kips at node 2 and node 4. Nodes 5 and 6 are the supports that both node 5 and
node 6 are fixed. This example 2 is 2 statically indeterminate truss structure therefore
the matrix CSI of this example needs to additional equilibrium equations.
1314
Fig. 4: the example of statically indeterminate plane truss structure
Table 4: Coordinate and connectivity of example 2
Coordinate
Node x y Element Connectivity Element Connectivity
z
1 2 1 0 1 3 5 6 1 2
2 2 0 0 2 1 3 7 4 5
3 1 1 0 3 4 6 8 3 6
4 1 0 0 4 2 4 9 2 3
5 0 1 0 5 3 4 10 1 4
6 0 0 0 - - - - - -
Table 5: Matrix C of example 2

Elements
DOF at boundary P
1x 0 -1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -0.7 0 0 0 0 0
1y 0 0 0 0 0 -1 0 0 0 -0.7 0 0 0 0 0
2x 0 0 0 -1 0 0 0 0 -0.7 0 0 0 0 0 0
Degree of 2y 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0.7 0 0 0 0 0 -100
freedom
3x -1 1 0 0 0 0 0 -0.7 0.7 0 0 0 0 0 0
at node
3y 0 0 0 0 -1 0 0 -0.7 -0.7 0 0 0 0 0 0
4x 0 0 -1 1 0 0 -0.7 0 0 0.7 0 0 0 0 0
4y 0 0 0 0 1 0 0.7 0 0 0.7 0 0 0 0 -100
5x 1 0 0 0 0 0 0.7 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
5y 0 0 0 0 0 0 -0.7 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
6x 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0.7 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
7y 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.7 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Self -32 0 -31 0- -2545 0 87 92 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
equilibrium 0 -2545 0 -65 -2545 -2545 0 0 138 3536 0 0 0 0 0
1315
Element This study Element Exact solution

1 197.51 1 197.50
2 2.49 2 2.50
3 -202.49 3 -202.50
4 -97.51 4 -97.50
Member 5 -0.01 5 -0.01
force 6 2.49 6 2.50
7 144.95 7 145.00
8 -137.89 8 -137.75
9 137.90 9 138.00
10 -3.52 10 -3.50
11 300.000 11 300.000
12 -102.500 12 -102.500
Reaction force
13 -300.000 13 -300.000
14 -97.500 14 -97.500
Loading 15 1.000 15 -
Table 4 given coordinate and the connectivity, table 5 is matrix C of this example for
analysis and table 6 is compared with result of this study and exact solution. Where (+)
is tension and (-) is compression, the solution by present methods is shown identical
results.
3.1 Space truss
Fig. 5: the example of statically indeterminate space truss structure
1316
Fig. 5 is the example of statically indeterminate truss structure with N =25, M =72 and
P  1 at node 1. This example 3 is 12 statically indeterminate truss structure therefore
the matrix CSI of this example needs to additional equilibrium equations.
Table 7: Coordinate of example 3
Coordinate Coordinate
Node x y Node x y
z z
1 0 0 38.1834 14 27 -81 0
2 27 27 0 15 -54 0 38.1834
3 54 54 38.1834 16 -54 54 38.1834
4 81 81 0 17 -27 27 0
5 27 81 0 18 -27 81 0
6 0 54 38.1834 19 -54 -54 38.1834
7 81 27 0 20 -27 -27 0
8 0 -54 38.1834 21 -27 -81 0
9 27 -27 0 22 -81 27 0
10 54 0 38.1834 23 -81 81 0
11 81 -27 0 24 -81 -27 0
12 54 -54 38.1834 25 -81 -81 0
13 81 -81 0 - - - -
Element This study Element Exact solution

1 -0.02153 1 -0.02153
2 -0.02287 2 -0.02287
3 0.04000 3 0.04000
4 0.02117 4 0.02117
Member 5 0.00737 5 0.00737
force 6 -0.00368 6 -0.00368
7 -0.02124 7 -0.02124
8 0.00494 8 0.00494
9 -0.00995 9 -0.00995
10 0.00133 10 0.00133
Table 7 given coordinate and table 8 is compared with result of this study and exact
solution which is condensed matrix because matrix is symmetric. Where (+) is tension
and (-) is compression, the solution by present methods is shown identical results.
4 Conclusion
In this study proposed new force method by using singular value decomposition.
Generally, the existing force method uses to analyze about frame structures such as pin-
joint structures and truss structures. This method is appealing to engineers, because the
properties of members of structure most often depend on the member force rather than
joint displacements. In addition, this method is used extensively, since it is an easily
1317
approachable fundamental concept. However, it has some problem such as complicated

computation.
In this study an efficient method is developed for the formulation of new force method
by using singular value decomposition. This method is able to apply to both statically
determinate truss structure and statically indeterminate truss structure. In addition, it can
get member force for each element and reaction force directly. Therefore, the method,
which is proposed in this study, is efficient method for engineers.
Acknowledgements
The support of the research reported here by Basic Science Research Program through
the National Research Foundation of Korea(NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education,
Science and Technology (2009-0087819) is gratefully acknowledged.
References
[1] A. Kaveh. Advances in Computational Mechanics via Graph Theory. Asian

Journal of Civil Engineering 2006:393-410.
[2] A. Kaveh, K.Koohestani and N.Taghizadieh. Efficient finite element analysis by
graph-theoretical force method. Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 2007; 43:
543-554.
[3] P.H. Denke. A general digital computer analysis of statically indeterminate
structures. NASA-TD-D-1666 1962.
[4] J. Robinson. Integrated theory of finite element method. John wiley 1973.
[5] A.Topcu. A contribution to the systematic analysis of finite element structures
using the force method. Doctoral dissert 1979.
[6] L.Kaneko, M.Lawo and G. Thierauf. On computational procedures for the force
methods. International Journal of Numerical Methods in Engineering 1982; 1469-
1495.
[7] A.Kaveh. Structural Mechanics : Graph and Matrix method. Research studies press
LTD 2004: 159-165.
[8] T.H.Raphael and G. Zafer. Elements of structural optimization. Springer 1991:237-
239
[9] Miroo Jung and Jaehong Lee. Self-equilibrium stress mode analysis of cable dome
structures by eigenvalue analysis. Architectural Institute of Korea 2009; 4: 101-108.
1318
Rotational Stiffness of Watarikaki Joint

Considered with the Beam Depth
Shigehiro MOROOKA1* and Aiko NAITO 2*

1*
Assoc. Prof., Dr. Eng., Tokai University
4-1-1 Kitakaname, Hiratsuka, Kanagawa, 259-1207, Japan
E-Mail: moro@keyaki.cc.u-tokai.ac.jp
2
M. Eng., K.Nakata & Associates
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to get a calculation formulas of rotational stiffness
for Watarikaki joint which is used in wooden structure, whose stiffness is caused by the
contact between a partial cut-off pillar and a beam. In Japan, Inayama’s formulas is
popular, but it is obtained from the J. Boussinesq solution called a simple radial
distribution in a semi-infinite region and it is not considered with the beam depth. In
this paper, appending some constraint conditions to let the beam depth infinite to stress
components in the semi-infinite region, we have an approximate analytical solution for
finite depth beam under a linearly increasing load. Afterward, the calculation formulas
in practical use are proposed.
Keywords: Rotational Stiffness, two dimensional elastic method, Wooden joint
1 Introduction
A wooden joint shown in fig. 1 is called Watarikaki joint in Japan. This joint resists
external force by sinking the beam into the partial cut-off pillar. When we estimate the
stiffness of such joints in structural analysis, the joints are numerically modeled by
nodal springs. The rotational stiffness of this spring is determined by the bearing value
against the rotation. In Japan, Inayama's equation[1] is popular to estimate the stiffness.
This equation is derived from the J. Boussinesq's solution[2] called a simple radial
distribution which gives the stress components in a semi-infiniely region, but is not
considered the beam depth. In the case that the pillar width is almost equal to the beam
height, the normal stresses on the beam section is almost equal to those in the J.
Boussinesq solution, but, in the case that the beam depth is smaller than the pillar width,
the stresses are different. So, this research aims at deriving a rotational stiffness
calculation formulas in consideration of the beam height in two dimensional elastic
theory.
Although a contact line of the pillar and the beam is straight, it is difficult to give the
displacement condition to the Airy's stress function that satisfies the compatible
equation in two dimensional elastic method. So, in this paper, the bearing pressure
assumes to be a linearly increasing pressure load as shown in fig. 2(b), and stresses are
1319
formulated as they are satisfied with some constraint conditions on the bottom of the
beam, consequently the distribution of the displacement are formulated. Then, a straight
line of displacement whose external forces work is equivalent to the formulated
displacement is calculated and a rotational angle  and the rotational stiffness are
formulated.
pillar
pillar nodal spring
beam
beam
Fig. 1: Watarikaki Joint and Numerical model
pillar pillar
beam
(a) Displacement (b) Stress

Fig. 2: Distribution of Displacement and Stress
Note that, in this paper, we treat the linearly increasing pressure as the superposition of
a symmetric load and an anti-symmetric load shown in fig. 3. We formulate the
displacement under the symmetric load in the second chapter, and under anti-symmetric
load in the third chapter. In the fourth chapter, we derive the displacement under the
linearly increasing pressure load by summing the above displacement equations. In
addition, the derived equation is not easy to use as a calculation formulas, so that an
approximate equation represented in polynomial are proposed.
At the last, the validity of this proposed calculation formulas is clarified in comparison
with FEM solution by using MIDAS/Gen.
1320
c c c c c
p0 p0 p0
x x x
h +
y y y
(a) symmetric load (b) anti-symmetric load (c) linearly increasing load
Fig. 3: Superposition of linearly increasing load
2 Approximate displacement under symmetric load

In this chapter, an approximate analytical solution of beam displacement at y=0 under
symmetric load whose width is 2c and the value is p0 (in fig. 3(a)) is formulated.
Although we can formulate explicitly the stress components if the load applies to semi-
infinite plate[3,4], we cannot do it for a beam with finite height.
Stress components x,y, xy in the case of plane stress distribution are presented by
using Airy's function  as following compatibility equation[3,4].
 4  4  4  2  2  2
 2   0 ,   ,   ,    (1)
x 4 x 2y 2 y 4 y 2 x 2 xy
x y xy
In the case that symmetric load is applied to an infinitely large plate, boundary
conditions at y=0 are
 xy | y 0  0 ,  y | y 0  p ( x) (2)
where
p( x)  p0 ( when | x | c ) , p( x)  0 ( when | x | c ) (3)
and, the function p(x) is even function so that load distribution is obtained by using
fourier transform as follows:
 2 p sin c
p ( x)   0
cos  xd (4)
0  
General solution of eq. (1) for the semi-infinite region is presented as follows[3,4].

   ( B e y  D ye y ) cos  xd
0
Here, symbols B and D are integral constants that can be determined by

compatibility condition (1), boundary conditions (2) and the load distribution (4),
and the corresponding stress y in the case of the semi-infinite region. But the aim
of this study is to get the beam whose height is finite h, so we append the following
constraint conditions to the solution of stress components. Note that these
conditions do not satisfy the first equation of eqns. (2).
h h
N    x dy  0 , M    x ydy  0 ,  y | y  h  0 (5)
0 0
1321
To append these boundary conditions, referring to numerical solution derived by

FEM, we assume the normal stress components as follows.
2 p  sin c
x  0  (1   y)e y cos  xd  F y  G
 0 
2 p0  sin c
y 
  0 
(1   y)e y cos  xd  H y
From eq. (5), unknown constants F, G and H are determined. The displacement
v1 at the upper bound of the beam can be obtained by integrating the strain
components
 y  ( y  x ) / E (6)
and we have
p0  h  1  c  x  1  c  x  
v1 ( x)   tan    tan  
E 2   h   h 
(c  x ) 2  h 2 (c  x ) 2  h 2
(c  x) log  (c  x) log
(c  x ) 2 (c  x ) 2
h2 (c  x) h 2 (c  x) 
   (7)
2{h2  (c  x)2 } 2{h 2  (c  x)2 } 
3 Approximate displacement under anti-symmetric load

As same as in the case of symmetric load, we cannot have the exact and explicit
analytical solution in this case. So we append a term that lets the beam's height h to the
solution of stress components for the semi-infinite region.
In the case of anti-symmetric load acting on a boundary of the semi-infinite plate,
boundary conditions are represented as follows.
 xy | y 0  0 ,  y | y 0  p ( x) (8)
where
p0 x
p ( x)  ( when | x | c ) , p( x)  0 (when | x | c ) (9)
c
and, the function p(x) can be obtained as follows.
 2p sin c  c cos c
p ( x)   0
 sin  xd (10)
0 c 
General solutiono in thie case can be written as follows.

   ( B e  y  D ye  y ) sin  xd
0
Here, similarly to the previous chapter, we append the following condition.
1322
 y | y h  0 (11)
To satisfy the condition, we assume the stress component as follows.
2 p  sin c  c cos c
y  0  (1   y)e y sin  xd  I y
c 0  2
Unknown constant Ia is determined by eq. (11), and in the same way in chap. 2, we
have following approximate displacement distribution at the upper bound of the
beam.
p0  (1  2 )hx  1  c  x  1  c  x   x2  c2 cx
v2 ( x)    tan    tan    log
E  2c   h   h  c cx
h2  cx cx  x 2  c 2  h  (c  x)2  h 2 

     log  (12)
2  h 2  (c  x ) 2 h 2  (c  x ) 2  2c (c  x ) 2  h 2 
4. Beam under linearly increasing pressure

4.1 Approximate Displacement
Approximate displacement under the linearly increasing pressure load as shown in
fig. 3(a) is given from eq. (7) and eq. (12) by replacing p0→p0/2, c→c/2 and x→(x
－ c/2), and summing. Normalizing =x/c and =c/h, we have the following
expression.
pc
v( )  0 J ( ) (13)
2 E
where,
 (1  2 ) 
J ( )  

 tan 1   tan 1 (1   )  

( )2  1 (1   )2    1
 log  (1   ) log
( )2 (1   ) 2  
1 2 ( )2   2  ( )2  1 

   (  1) log  log .
1   2 (1   )2 (1   )2 2 (1   )2  2  1
Figure 4 shows examples of the approximate analytical solution in a solid line and
FEM solution in a dashed line in the case of poisson's ratio  = 0.0 and 0.5. As the
differences between the presented solution and the FEM solution are small, we can
confirm the validity of the obtained approximate equation of displacement.
1323
0
Displacement [mm]
10
20
Presented
30
FEM Sol.
-3
40x10
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150
(a) in the case of ＝0.0

0
Displacement [mm]
10
20
Presented
30 FEM Sol.
-3
40x10
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150
(b) in the case of ＝0.5

Fig. 4: An example of displacement on the upper side of the beam
( in the case of beam height h=150mm, load distribution c=75mm )
4.2 Rotational stiffness

(1) Calculating rotational stiffness
Although the displacement distribution obtained by eq. (13) is not straight in the
area of x=0 ~ c, we assume a straight line whose external forces work is as same as
in the case of curving displacement in the area of x=0 ~ c, then the slope  can be
calculated as follows.
 3p 1
≒  0  {J ( )  J (0)} d
c 2E 0
1324
c c
Equivalent External
p0 Forces Work p0
=
 
Curved displacement Assumed straignt line
(a) analytical solution (b) approx. straight line
Fig. 5: Rotational angle 
On the other hand, in the case of applying the linearly increasing pressure on the
upper and the lower of the beam, the moment M is expressed by
p ct 4c 2 p c 2t
M 0   0
2 3 3
and consequently the rotational stiffness is obtained by
M 4c 2tE
K   L (14)
 9
where
1
L 1
.
 {J ( )  J (0)} d
0
and we call this L value a rotational stiffness coefficient in this paper. Figure 6 shows
the contour of the coefficient L with respect to poisson's ratio  and normalized
parameter ( loading width - beam height ratio ) . We can get the L value from this
figure and consequently the rotational stiffness K by eq. (14) in practical use.
(2) Wooden beam (  ＝0)

The direction of bearing pressure by the column to the beam is almost
perpendicular to the straight grain or the cross grain of the beam. In this case, the
possion's ratio of the beam would be 0 [5]. Therefore, applying ＝0 to eq. (14), and
approximating by polynomials, we can have the following equation.
4c 2tE
K  (0.320  2  0.085  0.737) (15)
9
Figure 7 shows the difference between the presented rotational stiffness K and
Inayama's equation. The presented solution is 20~30 % less than Inayama's.
1325
1.0
0.9
1.2
0.8
0.7
1.05
1.1
0.6
0.85
0.95
1.15
0.9
0.5

1
0.4 0.8
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

Fig. 6: Rotational Stiffness Coefficient L
6
160x10
Rotational Stiffness[Nmm/rad]
Rotational Stiffness[Nmm/rad]
6
Present 400x10
Present
Inayamas' sol.
120 Inayamas' sol.
300
80
200
40 100
0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
 
(a) in the case of h＝90mm (b) in the case of h＝150mm
Fig. 7: Inayama’s solution and the presented solution (＝0.0 )
5. Conclusion
Rotational stiffness of Watarikaki joint is approximately formulated in two
dimensional elastic theory. Calculation diagram of rotational stiffness coefficient
and the calculation formulas of rotational stiffness for Watarikaki joint are
proposed and their validities area confirmed.
In the future, using the presented displacement equation of beam with finite height
under uniform load, we can compute the distribution of bearing load in the case that the
1326
displacement distribution is straight, and discuss the difference of the rotational stiffness
according to the assumption of the boundary condition.
Reference
[1] Allowable stress design of house by wooden frame contruction method, Japan
Housing and Wood Technology Center, 2004 (in Japanese)
[2] Inayama MASAHIRO, Theoretical Study of Wooden Depressive Behavior,
Summaries of Technical Papers of Annual Meeting Architectural Institute of Japan,
p.p. 13-14, 1989 (in Japanese)
[3] Yoshikatsu TUBOI, An introduction to continuum mechanics, Sangyo Tosho (in
Japanese)
[4] Shouetsu ITO, An introduction to elastic mechanics, Morikita Publishing, 2006 (in
Japanese)
[5] Handbook of wooden industry , Rev. 4 ,Forestry and Forest Products Research
Institute, Naruzen, 2004 (in Japanese)
1327
A Study on a Procedure to Design

Light-weight Latticed Shells with High Strength
Yutaka NIHO1*, Shiro KATO 2 , Eka SATRIA3
1*
Kure National College of Technology
2-2-11, Aga-Minami, Kure, Hiroshima, JAPAN
niho@kure-nct.ac.jp
2
Toyohashi University of Technology, JAPAN
3
Andalas University, INDONESIA
Abstract
This study presents and investigates usefulness of a design procedure to realize
light-weight latticed shells with high strength. The procedure consists of a form-finding
with the aim of to minimize the bending stress for members and a member
proportioning method. This paper concludes that the design procedure presented is
usefulness to design light-weight latticed shells with high strength.
Keywords: Form-finding, Member Proportioning, Design
1 Introduction
Member proportioning for single layer latticed shells make a contribution on design for
light-weight latticed shells with high strength. And, some methods for member
proportioning have been presented. Kato et .al. have presented a member proportioning
method for single layer latticed domes based on linear buckling analysis [1]. And, Niho
and Kato have presented a member proportioning method for simply supported single
layer cylindrical latticed roofs with consideration of several types of loading [2]. These
procedures probably contribute to realize the light-weight single layer latticed shells
with high strength.
However, these procedures infrequently calculate members of which section is
extremely large for simply supported latticed shells, due to large bending moments of
these members. Therefore, not only member proportioning but also minimization on
bending moments for members are necessary to realize light-weight latticed shells with
high strength.
This paper shows and investigates usefulness of a design procedure to realize light-
weight latticed shells with high strength. The procedure consists of a form-finding with
the aim of to minimize the bending stress of members and a member proportioning.
Firstly, a latticed shell is formed based on a method which is similar to that presented in
Ref.[3]. Followed by, members of same latticed shell are calculated based on a member
proportioning method presented in Ref.[2].
This paper firstly describes briefly both a form-finding method and a member
proportioning method. Secondly, latticed shells are designed based on the procedure
presented here. The initial form of each shell is assumed here to be partial cylinder. And,
1328
each shell is assumed to be subjected to uniform vertical loading. Thirdly, member

stress, maximum strength and weight for each shell are calculated and investigated. And
finally, based on investigation, usefulness of the present procedure is discussed.
2 Form-finding Method
2.1 Fundamental Concept
2.1.1 Nodal Coordinate
The initial value of nodal coordinate for i-th node (XiG, YiG, ZiG) is firstly determined.
And then, i-th node is assumed to move to next position expressed by another
coordinate value (Xig0, Yig0, Zig0) as shown in Figure 1. And furthermore, i-th node is
assumed here to move again to third position expressed by a coordinate value (Xi, Yi, Zi)
defined by next equations:
MO 
X i  X ig 0   (X ij   j )  X ig 0  {X im }{ }
j 1 
MO 
Yi  Yig 0   (Yij   j )  Yig 0  {Yim }{ }  (1)
j 1 
MO 
Z i  Z ig 0   (Z ij   j )  Z ig 0  {Z im }{ } 
j 1 
where,
{X im }  {X i1 , X i 2 , X i 3 ,, X ij ,, X i ( MO ) }

{Yim }  {Yi1 , Yi 2 , Yi 3 ,, Yij ,, Yi ( MO ) }  (2)
{Zim }  {Zi1 , Zi 2 , Zi 3 ,, Zij ,, Zi ( MO ) }  
The vectors {Xim}, {Yim} and {Zim} are deformation modes determined previously
(See Fig.2). Suffix MO is the total of the deformation modes. j is a correction factor,
and the vector {} is expressed as follows:
{}T  {1, 2 , 3 ,,  j ,,  MO } (3)
4 4 i
1 3 i 1 3
2 2
( X i , Yi , Zi ) mode 1
Z21
Z mode 2
( X ig 0 , Yig 0 , Zig 0 ) Z32
node i mode j
Z ij
( X iG , YiG , ZiG )
X mode MO
Fig.1: Nodal Coordinate Fig.2: Example of a Series of Deformation Modes
1329
z z
edge(1) y
Ek , Ak
di y
edge(2)
k
ti
x
Fig.3: A tubular member
2.1.1 Sensitivity Coefficients
A sensitivity coefficient bgkj( l ) is calculated by next equation:

 kj (l )  b  k 0(l )
g kj (l )
 b
(4)
b
j
where, bk0( l ) is bending stress for edge( l ) of k-th member(See Fig.3) and is calculated
by next equation:
M k 0(l )
b k 0 
(l )
(5)
Z ek
Zek is elastic modulus of section for k-th member. Mk0( l ) is bending moment on edge( l )
for k-th member of a latticed shell of which form is defined by coordinate value (Xig0,
Yig0, Zig0).
bkj
(l)
is bending stress on edge( l ) for k-th member of a latticed shell of another form.
The another form is defined by coordinate value for i-th node (Xij, Yij, Zij ) defined by
next equation:
X ij  X ig 0  X ij   j 

Yij  Yig 0  Yij   j  (6)
Zij  Zig 0  Zij   j 

2.1.2 Objective Function
The form-finding method presented here aims to minimize next objective function U.
1 MEM  Ak  k 
U  
2 k 1  Ek
 ( b  k (1) )2  ( b  k (2) )2  (7)

where, Ak, k, and, Ek are sectional area, member length, and, Young’s modulus for k-th
member, respectively. MEM is the total number of members. bk( l ) is bending stress for
edge( l ) of k-th member(See Fig.3). This bending stress is calculated by next equation:
MO
b k
(l )
 b  k 0(l )   ( b gkj (l )   j )  b  k 0(l )  { b gk ( l ) }T { } (8)
j 1
1330
where,
{b gk (l ) }T  {b gk1(l ) , b gk 2(l ) , b gk 3(l ) ,, b gkj (l ) ,, b gkMO (l )} (9)
Therefore, the objective function U is updated as follows:
1 MEM  Ak  k  
U   
2 k 1  Ek
 ( b  k 0(1) )2  ( b  k 0(2) )2   
 
A   

 ( b k 0 ){ b gk } { }  ( b k 0 ){b gk } { }
MEM
  k k (1) (1) T (2) (2) T
 (10)
k 1  Ek  
A  
{ } { b gk }{ b gk } {}  {} { b gk }{ b gk } {}
MEM
  k k T (1) (1) T T (2) (2) T
k 1  Ek 
As shown in Eq(10), the objective function U is expressed as a quadratic equation of
correction vector{}. Therefore, the correction vector {} which satisfies next equation
is the optimal solution, based on the principle of minimum potential energy:
U  0 (11)
2.1.3 Constraint Function
The new coordinate value for i-th node (Xi, Yi, Zi) is considered here to be feasible if
next equation is satisfied:
1
fi  1   i  0 (12)
Ri
i   X i  X iG   Yi  YiG    Zi  ZiG 
2 2 2
(13)
where, Ri is the maximum limitation of the displacement i (See Fig.4).

The constraint function W is defined here by next equation:
1 NODE
W 
2 i 1
( K Si   i 2 ) (14)
Z Z
( X i , Yi , Zi )
( X i , Yi , Zi ) K Si
( X iG , YiG , ZiG ) i ( X iG , YiG , ZiG )

i
X X
Ri Ri
fi  0 fi  0
Fig.4: Maximum Limitation of Displacement
1331
KSi is stiffness of an axle spring for i-th node (See Fig.4) and is defined by next
equation:
K Si  0 ( fi  0) 
 (15)
K Si  K S ( fi  0) 
Substituting Eq.(13) into Eq.(14), the constraint function W is updated as follows:

K Si ( X ig 0  X iG ) 2  (Yig 0  YiG ) 2  ( Z ig 0  Z iG ) 2  
1 NODE
W 
2 i 1

NODE

  K Si ( X ig 0  X iG ){ X im }T { }  (Yig 0  YiG ){Yim }T { }
i 1

 ( Z ig 0  Z iG ){Z im }T { }  (16)

NODE 
  K Si { }T { X im }{ X im }T { }  { }T {Yim }{Yim }T { } 
i 1 
 { } {Z im }{Z im } { }
T T 

2.1.4 Feasible Solution
If the constraint function W is not zero, the vector {} which satisfies next equation is
the feasible solution:
U *  0 (17)
where,
U*  U W (18)
Eq.(17) gives next simultaneous linear equations.
{LT1}  {LT2}   [QT1 ]  [QT2 ]{} (19)
where,
 Ak  k  
 b  k 0 { b g kj }  b  k 0 { b g kj }
MEM
{LT1}   (1) (1) (2) (2)

k 1  Ek  

{LT2 }   K Si ( X ig 0  X iG ){ X im }  (Yig 0  YiG ){Yim }  ( Z ig 0  Z iG ){Z im }
NODE
i 1 
 (20)
Ak  k 
MEM
[QT1 ]   { b g kj }{ b g kj }  { b g kj }{ b g kj } 
(1) (1) T (2) (2) T
k 1 Ek 

NODE

[QT2 ]   K Si { X im }{ X im }  {Yim }{Yim }  {Z im }{Z im } 
T T T

i 1 
1332
2.2 Form-finding Method

Based on above equations, latticed shells are formed as shown in Table 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Table 1: Determination on the initial of nodal coordinate value
1-(1) Initial conditions of the latticed shell

Initial coordinate value for i-th node (XiG, YiG, ZiG), boundary condition, design load
and member sectional properties are determined.
1-(2) Initial of correction coefficients j
The initial inij is determined.
1-(3) Maximum limitation on the displacement of nodal coordinate
The maximum limitation Ri is determined.
1-(4) Increments of nodal coordinates for i-th node(Xij, Yij, Zij)
The increments Xij, Yij and Zij are determined.
1-(5) Nodal Coordinate (Xig0, Yig0, Zig0)
Xig0, Yig0 and Zig0 are defined initially by next equations respectively:
X ig 0  X iG 

Yig 0  YiG  (21)
Zig 0  ZiG 
Table 2: Calculation on Sensitivity Coefficients
2-(1) Bending moments Mk0(1) and Mk0(2)

Mk0(1) and Mk0(2) are calculated based on linear elastic analysis.
{Pd }  [KE 0 ]{D0} (22)
where, {Pd} is design load vector. [KE0] is linear stiffness matrix for the latticed
shell with coordinate value (Xig0, Yig0, Zig0).
2-(2) Bending stresses on members bk0(1) and bk0(2)
bk0 and bk0(2) are calculated by Eq.(5).
(1)
2-(3) Bending moments Mk(1) and Mk(2)

Mk(1) and Mk(2) are calculated based on linear elastic analysis.
{Pd }  [ K Ej ]{D j } (22)*
where, [KEj] is the linear stiffness matrix for the latticed shell with the nodal
coordinate (Xij, Yij, Zij). Xij, Yij and Zij are calculated by next equations, respectively:
X ij  X ig 0  X ij  ini  j 

Yij  Yig 0  Yij  ini  j  (3)*
Zij  Zig 0  Zij  ini  j  
where, inij is the initial of the coefficient j
2-(4) Bending stresses on members bk(1) and bk(2)
Substituting Mk(1) and Mk(1) into Eq.(5) respectively, bk(1) and bk(2) are obtained.
2-(5) Shape sensitivity coefficients bgkj(1) and bgkj(2)
(1)
bgkj and bgkj(2) are calculated by Eq.(4).
1333
Table 3: Stiffness of the Axle Spring for Each Node
3-(1) The function fi

The function fi is calculated by next equation:
1
fi  1  ( X ig 0  X iG )2  (Yig 0  YiG )2  (Zig 0  ZiG )2 (23)
Ri
3-(2) Stiffness of spring KSi
The stiffness KSi is calculated by Eq.(15).
Table 4: Updating Nodal Coordinate Value
4-(1) New correction coefficient vector{new}

The vector {new} is calculated by next equation:
{LT1}  {LT2 }   [QT1 ]  [QT2 ]{ new} (17)*
{LT1}, {LT2}, [QT1] and [QT2] are calculated by Eq.(20).

4-(2) Updating nodal coordinate
Xig0, Yig0 and Zig0 are updated by next equations respectively:
MO 
X ig 0  X ig 0   X ij   j  new j 
j 1 
MO 
Yig 0  Yig 0   Yij   j  new j  (1)*
j 1 
MO 
Z ig 0  Z ig 0   Z ij   j  new j 
j 1 
The coefficient newj is modified here by a factor j, because bending Stress for
each member is calculated based on linear elastic analysis, as shown in Table 2.
4-(3) Convergence Check
A convergence is assumed to be obtained, if former coordinate value for i-th node
is very close to the new one. If not, the procedure is repeated from 2-(1) till an
enough convergence is reached.
3 Member Proportioning
In this study, each member of latticed shells is assumed to be a steel tubular pipe. And
both thickness tk and diameter dk of the member are calculated based on the member
proportioning method presented in Ref.[2]. Details of the method refer to Ref.[2].
4 Analytical Model
The initial form for the shells which are applied as analytical models is assumed to be a
partial cylinder as shown in Fig.5. In Fig.5, L, B, 0 and b mean the length of the roof,
arc length of the roof, angle of curvature and length of members on gabled sides. Each
shell is composed of longitudinal members parallel to X-axis and diagonal members
crossing the X-axis at an angle of 60 degrees. The number of divisions in longitudinal
direction nx is 6, and, that in circumferential direction ny is 10. The member length 0 is
1334
assumed 4000mm. The subtended half angle 0 is varied as 2, 3 and 4 degrees. 0 is

defined as the half value of the cross angle of two adjacent members on gabled edges
and defined by following equation:
 0  2  n y  0 (24)
Each shell is assumed here to be applied vertical load Pd (=54.32kN) acting at the each
node, as shown in Fig.6. And, each shell is supported as shown in Fig.7 with hinges and
rollers. Nodes on peripheral edges that parallel to X-axis can move Y-direction. On the
other hand, nodes on gabled edges can move in X- direction. Rotations are not restricted.
Each shell is assumed to be composed of steel tubular members. For every member,
Young’s modulus Ek and yield stress p are 2.06x102[kN/mm2] and 0.235[kN/mm2],
respectively. All members are connected rigidity to nodes at their two edges. The
member slenderness 0 is varied as 40, 50 and 60.
60o
b 0
0
X Z
B
Y
L
0
Y
Fig.5: Initial form of latticed shells
X
Loading point
Y Y
Fig.6: Load Condition
:Pin-roller moves in Y-direction X

:Pin-roller moves in X-direction
:Hinge z y Elastic Beam
Y Elastic Plastic Spring :Node

Fig.7: Boundary Condition Fig.8: Modelling on Members for Numerical Analysis
1335
5 Numerical Analysis
Maximum Strength of each shell Pcr is calculated numerically in this paper. One
member is assumed to be composed of two elastic beams for numerical preciseness, as
shown in Fig.8. To consider the plasticity of members, each elastic beam is connected
by two elastic plastic springs placed at both ends. The stress interaction of the elastic
plastic spring with in a plastic range is assumed as follows;
2
 Nk  M yk 2  M zk 2
   1 (25)
 N pk  M pk
where, Nk, Myk and Mzk are axial force, bending moment in y-axis and that in z-axis for
k-th member, respectively. Npk and Mpk are axial and bending capacity of plasticity,
respectively.
Bending stress for members of each shell subjected to design load shown in Fig.6 are
calculated based on nonlinear elastic analysis.
6 Results
6.1 Form-finding
Fig.9 shows shells formed based on the method presented in Sec.2.2. And, Fig.10 shows
the objective function U. In addition, Ri, Zij, inij and j are assumed here to be 1000mm,
10mm, 1.0 and 0.005 respectively.
0 0 = 40 0 = 50 0 = 60
2o
3o
4o
Fig.9: Form of latticed shells
Fig.11 shows diagrams of bending stress for members of shells subjected to the design
load. The bending stress is calculated based on nonlinear elastic analysis, as
aforementioned. In Fig.9, the thickness tk is assumed to be 5mm for every member. And
the diameter dk is calculated by next equation for every member:
1336
25
40 0 = 2.0o 0 = 3.0o 10 0 = 4.0o
U [x103kNmm]
U [x103kNmm]
U [x103kNmm]
20
0 = 60 8 0 = 60
30 0 = 60
0 = 50
15
6 0 = 50
0 = 50
20 0 = 40 10 4 0 = 40
0 = 40
10 5 2
0 0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Iteration Step Iteration Step Iteration Step
Fig.10: Objective Function U
Longitudinal diagonal Longitudinal diagonal Longitudinal diagonal Longitudinal diagonal

members members members members members members members members
Initial Form New Form Initial Form New Form

(a) 0 = 2o , 0 = 60 (b) 0 = 4o , 0 = 60
Fig.11: Diagram of Bending Stress
0
dk  2 2 (26)
0
As shown in Fig.11, bending stress of each member for shells formed based on the
present method shown in Sec 2.2 is smaller than that for shells of initial form.
6.2 Member Proportioning

6.2.1 Diameter and Thickness
Table 5 shows the diameter dk and the thickness tk for a member. The member is the one
of which elastic modulus of section Zek is largest among all members. Zek is calculated
by next equation;
  d k 2  tk
Z ek  (27)
4
Table 5: diameter dk and thickness tk

Generated form Initial form
0 0
Zek[×104mm3] tk[mm] dk[mm] Zek[×104mm3] tk[mm] dk[mm]
40 56.76 9.033 282.8 144.2 18.96 311.1
2o 50 47.70 11.86 226.3 144.8 24.60 273.8
60 43.08 15.43 188.6 146.6 24.49 276.1
40 37.17 5.916 282.8 83.99 13.37 282.8
3o 50 32.25 8.020 226.3 98.22 20.19 248.9
60 29.10 10.42 188.6 105.0 21.23 251.0
40 28.01 4.457 282.8 58.46 9.303 282.8
4o 50 24.24 6.027 226.3 62.24 15.48 226.3
60 21.83 7.818 188.6 73.93 18.08 228.2
1337
0 = 2 degrees 0 = 3 degrees 0 = 4 degrees 0 = 2 degrees 0 = 3 degrees 0 = 4 degrees

1.0
Initial Form 1.0
0.8 New Form
W [x103kN]
max ( k )
0.6
0.4 0.5
0.2
New Form
0.0 0.0
40 50 60 40 50 60 40 50 60 40 50 60 40 50 60 40 50 60
Slenderness Ratio  0 Slenderness Ratio  0
Fig.12: Weight of latticed shells Fig.13: Member Stress
6.2.2 Weight
Fig.12 shows weight of latticed shells. As shown in this figure, a latticed shell designed
by the present procedure is lighter than same latticed shell of initial form.
6.2.3 Member Design Stress
Member stress is calculated here based on nonlinear elastic analysis for every latticed
shell. The member stress for k-th member is converted here to k calculated by next
equation;
| Nk | 1
k    M yk 2  M zk 2 (28)
 c  Ak  p  Z ek
where, c is compressive strength for members. For tensile members, c is assumed to
equal to yield stress p. And, if k is smaller than or equal to 1.0, member design stress
calculated for member proportioning is assessed to be reasonable. More details of
calculation for the compressive strength c refer to Ref.[2].
Fig.13 shows k for a member of each latticed shell designed based on the present
procedure. The member is the one of which k is largest among all members. As shown
in this figure, k for the member is almost equal to 1.0.
6.2.4 Maximum Strength and Strength to Weight Ratio
Fig.14 shows maximum strength of each shell Pcr. In this figure, Pcr is expressed as the
ratio to design load Pd(=54.32kN). As shown in Fig.14, Pcr is greater than Pd for every
latticed shell.
Fig.15 shows the strength to weight ratio of each latticed shells. The strength to weight
ratio Qcr/W is calculated by next equation;
Qcr n0  Pcr
 (29)
W W
where, n0 is the total of nodes subjected to Pd.
As shown in Fig.15, Qcr/W for a latticed shell formed based on the present procedure is
higher than that for the shell of initial form in every case. Based on this result, the
present procedure is assessed to design more light latticed shells with high strength.
1338
0 = 2 degrees 0 = 3 degrees 0 = 4 degrees 0 = 2 degrees 0 = 3 degrees 0 = 4 degrees

3 20
Initial Form Pd = 54.32kN Initial Form
New Form 15 New Form
2
Qcr / W
Pcr / Pd
10
1
5
0 0
40 50 60 40 50 60 40 50 60 40 50 60 40 50 60 40 50 60
Slenderness Ratio  0 Slenderness Ratio  0
Fig.14: Maximum Strength Pcr Fig.15: Strength to Weight Ratio
7 Conclusion
This paper shows a procedure to design light-weight latticed shells with high strength.
The procedure is composed of a form-finding method and a member proportioning
method. This paper also investigates weight, member stress and maximum strength for
latticed shells of which form is generated by the present procedure. As a result, the
procedure is assessed to design light-weight latticed shells with high strength.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our gratitude to Mr. Yuji TAKIUCHI a grad student of
Toyohashi University of Technology for his assistance.
References
[1] KATO S., KIM J.M. and MYOUNG C.C. : A New Proportioning Method for
Member Sections of Single Layer Reticulated Domes subjected to Uniform and
Non-Uniform Loads : Engineering Structure2003; 25:1265-1278.
[2] NIHO Y. and KATO S. : Proportioning of Members of Single Layer Cylindrical
Latticed Roofs under Non-Uniform Loadings : Proceedings of IASS symposium
2009.
[3] SATRIA E., KATO S., NAKAZAWA S. and NIHO Y. : Form-finding of RC
Shells Considering Multiple Design Loads : Proceedings of the APCS Symposium
2009.
1339
Maximum deflection and bending moments in a triangle slab

Keisuke NOMURA1*, Shigehiro MOROOKA2
1*
Graduate Student, Graduate School of Engineering, Tokai Univ.
4-1-1, Kitakaname, Hiratuka-City, Kanagawa, Japan
Tel. 81-463-58-1211 (ext4237) Fax. 81-463-50-2024
E-mail: abbacchio_ocean@yahoo.co.jp
2
Dr., Assoc. Prof., Department of Architecture, Tokai University, Japan
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to propose the calculation formula for a design
stress of any shape slab, and this paper presents the calculation formula of fixed end
triangle slab as an example. Although some analytical solutions of triangle slab had
been formulated, but it is difficult to formulate the solutions of arbitrary shapes. So, in
this paper, FEM solutions are assumed to be correct, and the calculation formulas to
express the values are presented.
Keywords: triangle slab, calculation formula, FEM
1 Introduction
In Japan, floor slabs are structurally designed separately from the frames. When
designing rectangle slab, bending moments in nine zones are calculated by using the
calculation formula described in Japanese RC buildings standard [1]. This calculation
formula for a design stress is made for rectangle slab, and its parameters are uniform
load, span length of short side and long side, consequently. When designing the floor
slab of arbitrary shape, the larger rectangle shape than the arbitrary shape must be
assumed and be estimated. Then, by this method, larger bending moment than needed is
required. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to propose the calculation formula for a
design stress of any shape slab, and this paper presents the calculation formula for a
design stress of fixed end triangle slab as an example. Although some solutions of
triangle slab in analytical technique are formulated and calculated [2][3], it is difficult to
formulate the solutions of arbitrary shapes. So, in this paper, the FEM solutions are
assumed to be correct, and the calculation formulas to express the value are presented.
2 Deflection of the triangle slab, and its parameters

Fig. 1 shows an example of deflection contour of a triangle slab obtained from FEM
analysis. The maximum deflection is expected to occur at the center of its incircle where
the distances from sides are the longest. So, one of the design parameter for maximum
deflection must be the incircle radius. If the incircle of triangle slab is expected to be a
circular plate, a deflection calculation formula of the circular plate is calculated only the
fixed end support and the simple support [3]. But, as shown in Fig.2, the parts
represented by solid lines (near the incircle point of contact) are almost fixed end, and
the parts represented by dashd lines have deflection and small fixed ratio. Consequently,
1340
the deflection of triangle slab can not be calculated only by the deflection formula of a
circular plate. However, incircle radius r must be the main parameters as well as in a
circular plate. Moreover, the fixed ratios on dashed lines must be decided by triangle
shapes. Since triangle shape is determined by vertex angles 1~3, they can be main
parameters.
triangle's
Fixed End 2
incenter
Fixed Ratio is Small
Maximum and Deflection
Deflection
r
1 3
Fig.1: An Example of Deflection Contour Fig.2: Fixed ratio in a Triangle Incircle
Figs. 3 and 4 show examples of principal bending moment (M1  M2) contour of the
triangle slab obtained from FEM analysis. Directions of arrows in Figs. 3 and 4 are
principal axes of the positive bending moments (Mc1 and Mc2) in central part, and
negative bending moments (Mb1 and Mb2) in boundary part. Subscript I~III are the
number of each fixed end boundaries. Mb1 and Mb2 occur near incircle points of contact,
and the principal axes are forward to the incenter. From this, incircle radius r is
expected to be predominant parameters of Mb1 and Mb2. Mc1 occurs at the nearest side of
the intouch triangle from the minimum vertex angle 1. Direction of the principal axis is
also in the same direction of the straight line which has connected the incircle point of
contact. From this, the straight line is expected to be main parameter of Mc1.
Mb2Ⅰ
Mb1Ⅰ Mc2
Mc1
Mb1Ⅱ Mb2Ⅱ
Fig.3: An Example of M1 Contour, Fig.4: An Example of M2 Contour,

and Principal Axes and Principal Axes
From the above, the main parameters for calculation formulas have been decided, as
shown in Fig. 5. Here, vertex angles are 1  2  3, lx is the length of the side of the
intouch triangle nearest to 1, and ly is the length of the straight line which crosses
perpendicularly with lx. Angle 4 is difference between a right angle and an angle which
ly and side make. The angle 4 is calculated from 4= (3-2) /2.
1341

  L2
Ⅲ
Ⅰ
r L3

 L1 Ⅱ L3
Fig.5: Variables in Calculation Formulas
FEM solutions were calculated by Midas/Gen. Slab is divided into triangle elements.
The division width is set to be r/25. It is enough value expected that the solution
converges. Moreover, in the shape of triangle slab, an acute triangle is common. Vertex
angles from 30 degrees to 90 degrees are considered here. The calculation formulas
which can calculate the FEM solutions simple are obtained.
3 Calculation formula for a bending moment and maximum deflection

3.1 A principal bending moment in central part
Mc1 and Mc2 of principal bending moment in central part occur on lx and ly. From this, it
is expected that Mc1 and Mc2 can be calculated by the equivalent formula to the bending
moment calculation method for rectangle slab. In rectangle slab, the calculation formula
of the bending moment is derived from the crossing beam method [1]. So, in this paper,
Mc1 and Mc2 are calculated by the crossing beam method. lx and ly in Fig. 5 are assumed
to be the span length of the short side and long side in rectangle slab, and Eq. (1) is
formulated. The difference between the Eq. (1) solutions and FEM solutions are
expressed with the ratio of the lx and ly length. Eqs. (2) and (3) are those ratios. The
calculation formula is defined as
2
M c1  wx l x' / 24 , M c 2  wl x' / 48
2
(1)
4
l y'
wx  w , l x'  a  l x , l y'  b  l y
'4 '4
l l
x y
a  0.820 (1  0.4421 )(1  0.877 44 ) (2)

b  0.314  0.4031 (3)
Here, the unit of 1 and 4 is rad.

lx and ly are not crossed perpendicularly with the fixed end boundaries. Therefore, those
fixed ratios of both ends are expected to be small. Coefficients a and b in Eq. (2) and (3)
are expected to express change of the fixed ratios of both ends.
1342
3.2 A principal bending moment in boundaries parts

The incircle radius r is considered to dominate the principal bending moment in
boundaries parts. Then, the bending moments calculation formulas are considered to be
calculated the circular plate [3]. However, since the bending moments change with
shape, they are not calculated only an incircle radius r. Then, the changing bending
moments are expressed with L1~L3. They divide the sides at an incircle point of contact,
as shown in Fig. 5. The calculation formulas are calculated as follows.
r 2 
M b1Ⅲ  50 0.4 0.6 0  2 
  w 50   L1 
 M b1Ⅰ    0 0. 6 1.0   L2  (4)
 M  1000 50 0.4 0 1.0  22 
 b1Ⅱ   L3 
r 2 
 b 2Ⅲ 
M  224 1.8 3 .0 0  2 
  w  L 
 M b 2Ⅰ    224 0 3.0 2.5  12  (5)
 M  1000 224 1.8 0 2.5  22 
L
 b 2Ⅱ    L3 
3.3 Maximum deflection

The bending moment calculation formula in the central part was calculated from the
crossing beam method. Therefore, the maximum deflection is also assumed to calculate
by the crossing beam method. Since the maximum deflection occurs near the incenter,
an incircle radius r is considered to dominate it. Then, lx4 in a crossing beam method is
assumed to define to r2 and lx2, and the calculation formula is created. The coefficient 
in Eq. (7) expresses the difference between the calculation formula and FEM solution,
and it is calculated from angle 1 and 4. The calculation formula is defined as
wr 2l x2
 max   (6)
Et 3
  (0.0793  0.0119 14 )(1  0.16 4 2 ) (7)
3.4 Zoning
When designing RC slab in Japanese RC building standard, the ideas of zonings are
applied [1]. The positive bending moments occur inside of zero bending moments and
the negative bending moments occur outside. Fig. 6 shows the example of the contour
of the maximum absolute value principal bending moments. The absolute value is zero
by about r/3 inner side from the fixed end boundaries. So, the zones can be divided into
the central part and boundaries parts by r/3 inner side from the fixed end boundaries.
Furthermore, boundaries parts are divided by the perpendicular with which fixed end
boundaries are lined from the vertexes of the central part. And as shown in Fig. 7, each
zones are defined as C, B1, and B2. The values of Mb1 and Mb2 in B2 are half smaller
than these in B1. Note that the principal axes of Mb2 in B2 directs to the incenter.
1343
Mc1 Mc2 (C) B2

Absolute Value is 0 Mb1 Mb2 (B1)
Mb1 Mb2 (B2)
2 2
B1
B2 C
3 3
1 B1 1
B2
Fig.6: Maximum Absolute Value of Fig.7:Zoning
Principal Bending Moment
4 Validities of the calculation formulas

The validities of the calculation formulas described above are presented here. 25
triangle models whose vertex angles are from 30 to 90 degrees are analyzed by FEM.
The 25 models and those angles 1~4 are shown in the Table 1. Here, the error ratio
defines it as (calculation formula solution-FEM solution) / (FEM solution). The error
ratios calculated from the FEM solutions and each above-mentioned calculation
formulas solutions of 25 models are shown in Fig. 8. Since the maximum error ratio is
about 4%, it is considered that the error ratios are small enough. Consequently,
calculation formulas have validities.
Table 1: Triangle Slab Models List

Model No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
 1(deg) 30 30 30 30 35 35 35 35 40 40 40 40 40 45 45 45 45 45 50 50 50 50 55 55 60
 2(deg) 60 65 70 75 55 60 65 70 50 55 60 65 70 45 50 55 60 65 50 55 60 65 55 60 60
 3(deg) 90 85 80 75 90 85 80 75 90 85 80 75 70 90 85 80 75 70 80 75 70 65 70 65 60
 4(deg) 15 10 5 0 18 13 7.5 2.5 20 15 10 5 0 23 18 13 7.5 2.5 15 10 5 0 7.5 2.5 0
5.0% Mc1
Error Ratio
4.0%
Mc2
3.0%
Mb1Ⅲ
2.0%
1.0%
Mb1Ⅰ
0.0% Mb1Ⅱ
-1.0% Mb2Ⅲ
-2.0% Mb2Ⅰ
-3.0% Mb2Ⅱ
-4.0%
 max
-5.0%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Fig.8: Error Ratios ( (Present solution - FEM solution)/ (FEM solution) )
1344
5 Conclusions
This paper presents the calculation formulas of M1, M2 and max for fixed end triangle
slab. The errors between these formulas and FEM solutions are small. However, the
coefficients in the calculation formulas are not clarified in physical meaning, so it is
necessary to verify it. And the M1 and M2 are the principal bending moments, and they
present the approximated numerical solutions. Therefore, when designing the slab, it is
necessary to take into consideration the coordinate conversion to the direction of the bar
arrangements, and safety ratios.
The calculation formulas proposed in this paper are restricted in fixed end triangle slabs,
and they were obtained from the numerical solutions. The future direction of this study
will be to propose the calculation formulas of the different boundary conditions and
fixed ratios, and shapes except triangle.
References
[1] Architectural Institute of Japan, All Standard for Structural Calculation of
Reinforces Concrete Structures –Based on Allowable Stress Concept–, AIJ, 1999. (in
Japanese)
[2] (Author) Ulitskii, et al. (Translator) Kawamata, S., et al., (1967). Structural Design
Data Book, Uno Bookstore, Japan (in Japanese)
[3] Phillip L. Gould: Analysis of Shell and Plates, (1989). World Publishing
Corporation, China
1345
Nonlinear Behavior of Under-tensioned Beams
Daeha Park1, Youngmin Kim1, Kihak Lee2, Jaehong Lee2*, Sungmin Lee3
1
Graduate student, Department of Architectural Engineering, Sejong University,
98 KunjaDong, Kwangjin Ku, Seoul 143-747, Korea
Email : arch_engin@hotmail.com ; clickob1@gmail.com
2*
Professor, Department of Architectural Engineering, Sejong University,
98 KunjaDong, Kwangjin Ku, Seoul 143-747, Korea
E-mail : kihaklee@sejong.ac.kr ; jhlee@sejong.ac.kr
3
Research Engineer, R&D Team Manager, Korea Construction Quality Research
Center, Seong-Nam, Korea
E-mail : safecity@empal.com
Abstract
This study presents inelastic nonlinear behaviour of under-tensioned beam systems.

In order to reduce these excessive moment and deflection, under-tensioned system
composed of beam, strut, and cable elements is frequently employed. In this study, two
different under-tensioned beam systems made up of structural steels and cables with
10mⅩ2.4m are tested. One is made up of typical wide flange section, the other uses
customized cold-form hollow section called PF500. The nonlinear behaviour of the
under-tension systems is investigated by using finite element model, and compared to
experimental results.
Keywords: Cable, Under-tensioned beam, Nonlinear analysis
1 Introduction
This study suggests the under-tensioned system on the lower side of structure.
Typical large span structures consisting of beam members result in increased moment
and bigger member sizes. In order to reduce these excessive moment and deflection,
under-tension system composed of beam, strut, and cable elements is frequently
employed, as shown in Fig. 1. In under-tension system, pretension is introduced in
cables to improve force distribution with some weight reduction.
This study investigates the nonlinear behavior of the under-tensioned systems, using
finite element model, and compares results of analysis model with experimental results.
Two different under-tension beam systems made up of structural steels and cables with
10mⅩ2.4m are tested. One is made up of typical wide flange section, the other uses
1346
customized cold-form hollow section called PF500. The various magnitude of the
pretension is applied at under-tension cables.
Fig 1: The simple version of the under-tensioned system
3 Experimental model
In this study, Two different under-tension beam systems made up of structural steels
and cables with 10mⅩ2.4m are tested, as shown in Fig. 2. One is made up of typical
wide flange section, the other uses customized cold-form hollow section called PF500.
To prevent local buckling and shear buckling, main-girder is welded with sub-girder
and cable anchor is connected with the main-girder for supporting the pretension.
Based on Korea Standard (KS B 0801), two different specimens are tested, as shown
in Table. 1 and Fig. 3. One is typical wide flange section, the other is cold-form hollow
section called PF500. The yield stress of typical wide flange section called SS400 is
304MPa and ultimate stress is 427MPa. The yield stress of cold-form hollow section
called PF500 or SPA-H is 320MPa and ultimate stress is 420MPa. The specimen of
cables is composed of three strands and the yield strength of a piece of the cable is
86kN. Therefore, the yield strength of the cable can be anticipated as 258kN.
As shown in the Fig. 4, the boundary conditions of this model are composed of
hinge and roller. Using the fatigue testing machines, this test applies the vertical loads
on the main-girder at either 1.25m from the middle of the structures. Because it’s
dangerous to exceed the yield stress of the cable, the test is performed within the elastic
region and determinates the maximum vertical loads with 120kN. Considered with a
safety factor, the pretensions in the cables are decided as 20kN, 30kN, and 50kN. Each
pretension is employed by controlling the length of struts.
1347
(a) Cross view (b) H-beam
(d) Plane view (d) PF500

Fig 2: Details of the under-tensioned structures and cross-sections
Table 1: Results of the specimens test
Yield Ultimate Yield Ultimate

Specimens Thickness Width
strength strength stress stress
Unit mm kN N/mm (MPa)
SS400 11.8 42 151 212 304 427
SPA-H
7.5 40 96 126 320 420
(PF500)
Cable 7.6 - 86 122 1895 2689
1348
Fig 3: Specimens of SS400, PF500, and cable
Fig 4: General views of the under-tensioned models
1349
3 Analysis Model
3.1 General descriptions

Based on experimental behavior of under-tensioned structures considered with a
safety factor, this study analyzes inelastic nonlinear behavior of under-tensioned beam
systems. Before analyzing the structure with 3-D modelling, this study analyzes the
structure based on the simplified 2-D model. This helps reducing the time for structure
modeling and impedes the bending moment of member so that we can more accurately
affirm the effectiveness of the under-tension cable on its main structure. After
understanding the behavior caused by 2-D model, this study analyzes the structure with
3-D modelling, in order to get the most similar result of the actual behavior.
As shown in the Fig. 5 and Table. 2, all girders designed as shell element are applied
with the cross sectional area and moment of inertia, because of resisting flexure moment.
Designed as truss element, the struts and cables are applied with the area. All analysis
element are employed with the result of specimens test, as shown in Table. 3.
Because the boundary conditions of this test model are composed of hinge and roller,
in this study, the boundary conditions are designed along width direction. The vertical
loads are applied on the main-girder at either 1.25m from the middle of the model.
Under-tension system, composed of beam, cable and strut elements, reduces
deflection and weight of the structure, since the moment is partially eliminated by cable
and strut elements. The behavior of under-tension system is seriously influenced by
length and number of the strut. Hence, this study computes the length of the struts
through hand calculation, as shown in Table.4, because each pretension is employed by
controlling the length of struts in the tests. Also, because the analysis program (ADINA)
based on FEM recognizes the pretension as the strain, this study modifies pretension.
Fig 5: Model element and loading point
1350
Table 2: Properties of cross section
Element
Shape of cross section Area (m2) Moment of inertia (m4)
Number
① H-294×200×8/12 7.23 × 10-3 0.11 × 10-3

(Main-girder) PF500 6.78 × 10-3 0.24 × 10-3
②
H-300×150×6.5/9 4.68 × 10-3 0.07 × 10-3
(Sub-girder)
③ D - 0.1m
2.83 × 10-3 2.89 × 10-6
(Strut) t - 0.01m
④
D - 0.0208m 0.14 × 10-3 1.58 × 10-9
(Cable)
Table 3: Material Properties
Element Young’s
Property Element
Number modulus (MPa)
① SS400 SHELL 206 × 103
(Main-girder) PF500 SHELL 206 × 103
②
SS400 SHELL 206 × 103
(Sub-girder)
③
SS400 TRUSS 206 × 103
(Strut)
④
CABLE TRUSS 194 × 103
(Cable)
Pretension Length of the strut

Test model Analysis model Test model Analysis model
(Member force) (strain) (m) (m)
20kN 760 × 10-6 0.703 0.703
30kN 1140 × 10-6 0.724 0.734
50kN 1955 × 10-6 0.759 0.757
1351
3.2 Maximum deflection

Before realizing under-tensioned system, this study analyzes the maximum
deflection of the girders made up of SS400 and PF500 and compares the maximum
displacement of the under-tensioned structures when the value of pretension is increased
in sequence. For all figures, when pretension is 30kN, the result is not plotted, because
it is difficult to discriminate other results.
The Fig. 6 appears the maximum deflection of the girders made up of SS400 and
PF500. For the case of structure made up of SS400, the yield strength occurs at 189kN.
On the other hand, the yield strength occurs at 353kN. It means that the structure made
up of SS400 has higher strength than the other one. As shown in the Table. 5, it appears
that the structure made up of SS400 has lower weight than the other one. Therefore,
from these facts, it is concluded that the structure made up of SS400 has better
performance than the other one.
The Fig. 7 indicates the maximum deflection of the under-tensioned structures made
up of SS400 and PF500. When under-tensioned cable is applied under the girder, for the
case of structure made up of SS400, the yield strength has increased about 30%. On the
other hand, for the case of structure made up of PF500, the yield strength has increased
about 10%.
The Fig. 8 and Fig. 9 appear that the maximum deflection is compared with the
results of test and analysis within the elastic region. When under-tensioned cable is
applied under the girder, for the deflection, 20mm, the structure made up of SS400 has
better resistance about 30% than structure not applied with cable. For the other case, the
structure made up of PF500 has better resistance about 20% than structure not applied
with cable.
Section of properties S(mm4) Weight(kg/m)
SS400 771,000 56.8
PF500 986,000 54.2
1352
Fig 6: Load amd deflection curve compared wtih the result of test and analysis
for the SS400 and PF500 girders.
Fig 7: Load amd deflection curve based on the result of analysis

for the under-tensioned beams
1353
Fig 8: Load amd deflection curve for the under-tensioned structure

made up of SS400 whithin the elastic region
Fig 9: Load amd deflection curve for the under-tensioned structure

made up of PF500 whithin the elastic region
1354
3.3 Member force

In this study, all members are analyzed with respect to the inelastic nonlinear
behaviour. The cable of under-tensioned structure is performed as the element of
tension and the strut is performed as the element of compression. For all figures, when
pretension is 30kN, the result is not plotted, because it is difficult to discriminate other
results.
The Fig. 10 and Fig. 11 appear that the member force of cable and strut is compared
with the results of test and analysis. In the under-tensioned structures, after the
pretension is employed in the cable, the yield strength of the cable occurs at 258kN
when the vertical loads are increasingly applied on the structures. The member force of
strut is increased by the pretension of cable and the vertical loads applied on the
structures. Also, because the under-tensioned structure made up of the PF500 has better
the stiffness than the other one, the compressive force has occurred in the strut.
Fig 10: Comparing the member force of cable for the under-tensioned structures
1355
Fig 11: Comparing the member force of strut for the under-tensioned structures
4 Conclusion
This study has performed the inelastic nonlinear analysis to investigate a maximum
displacement and member force for the structure to which the under-tensioned system is
applied. It shows that there are very good correlation between finite element model and
experimental results. By comparing a whole structure’s displacement and member force
based on a different pretension value of the under-tension cable, the following results
have been achieved.
(1) Although the under-tensioned structures made up of the PF500 has low weight,
it has better stiffness about 46% than that of wide flange members. It indicates
that the system with PF500 members exhibits much better structural
performances than that of wide flange members.
(2) In the under-tensioned structures, the pretension is increasingly applied to 8%,
12%, and 20% in the cable based on the yield force of the cable. when the
pretension is increasingly applied in the cable, the maximum deflection
decreases. However, the member force in the cable and strut increases.
(3) In this study, because the pretension considered with a safety factor is employed
in cable, the effect of deflection is small for increasing the pretension.
1356
5 Acknowledgements
This research was supported by a grant(code#06 R&D B03) from Cutting-edge Urban
Development Program funded by the Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime Affairs
of Korean government.
6 References
[1] Park DK, Park DH, Lee JH. Inelastic Nonlinear Analysis of Truss Structures With
Pretension. Proceeding of Annual Conference of the Architectural Institute of
Korea, Structure & Construction, 2009;29:237-240.
[2] Park DH, Park DK, Lee JH. Inelastic Nonlinear Analysis of Beam with Under-
tension System. Proceeding of Annual Conference of the Architectural Institute of
Korea, Structure & Construction, 2009;29:197-200.
[3] Kim YM, Kim MS, Lee KH. Experimental Study of Structual Behavior of long-
span girder bridge with Under-Tension System. Proceeding of Annual Conference
of the Architectural Institute of Korea, Structure & Construction, 2009;29:357-360.
1357
Leonardo and a higher-order infinitesimal mechanism

Tibor TARNAI1*, András LENGYEL 1
1*
Budapest University of Technology and Economics
Budapest, Müegyetem rkp. 3., H-1521 Hungary
tarnai@ep-mech.me.bme.hu
Abstract
This paper is concerned with the static and kinematic behaviour of two chain-
like bar-and-joint assemblies which have the same topology. One of them is a both
statically and kinematically indeterminate structure, that constitutes a higher-order
infinitesimal mechanism. The other is a both statically and kinematically determinate
structure, that was introduced by Leonardo da Vinci in the Codex Madrid. Proceeding
along the internal joints from the bottom to the top of the assembly, the lateral
components of the displacements of the internal joints of the infinitesimal mechanism
show an exponential decay, and the forces in internal bars of Leonardo’s structure show
an exponential growth. It is pointed out that, in the elastic model of Leonardo’s
structure, the propagation of displacements of internal joints and the propagation of
forces in internal bars also show an exponential character in a modified form. This work
also provides some hints to overcome difficulties arising at higher-order infinitesimal
mechanisms, and corrects minor mistakes of Leonardo.
Keywords: bar-and-joint structure, both statically and kinematically indeterminate

structure, rigidity, infinitesimal mechanism, force propagation, Leonardo da Vinci.
1 Introduction
Cable nets, cable domes and tensegrity structures, from mechanical point of view, are
usually bar-and-joint assemblies that constitute infinitesimal mechanisms. The answer
to the important question, whether self-stress may impart first-order stiffness to such a
structure, depends on whether or not it is an infinitesimal mechanism of the first or
higher order [8]. (An infinitesimal mechanism is of the nth order (n=1,2,…) if it
involves no elongation of any bar up to and including the nth order but exhibits an
elongation of order n+1 in at least one bar.)
In Ref [11], problems of definition and determination of the order of an infinitesimal
mechanism are discussed, and, among other things, an example of higher-order
infinitesimal mechanisms is presented where the propagation of displacements of the
joints shows an exponential decay. On the other hand, Nielsen [7] called attention to a
drawing of a structure of Leonardo da Vinci, taken from the Codex Madrid [6]
containing notes and drawings of his mechanical studies, which were believed to be lost
but remarkably were discovered in the National Library Madrid in 1967. At this
structure, the propagation of forces in bars shows an exponential growth.
1358
In this paper, the accidental similarity between the two structures, as well as the
“duality” between the exponential decay of displacements and the exponential growth
of bar forces are investigated. A spatial variant of Leonardo’s structure is also presented.
2 Definition of higher-order infinitesimal mechanisms

A structure is called infinitesimal mechanism if it has only infinitesimal free motions.
Koiter [5] has defined “an infinitesimal mechanism of the first order by its property that
any infinitesimal displacement of the mechanism is accompanied by second order
elongations of at least some of the bars. An infinitesimal mechanism is called of second
(or higher) order, if there exists an infinitesimal motion such that no bar undergoes an
elongation of lower than the third (or higher) order”.
Koiter’s definition can be mathematically formulated as follows. Consider a bar-and-
joint assembly which contains b bars and consider a system of infinitesimal
displacements of the joints. Let us denote an infinitesimal displacement component of a
characteristic joint by u and the elongation of the bar k due to u by ek. Produce the
power-series expansion of ek in u:
ek  a1k u  a 2 k u 2  a3k u 3  ... ( k  1,2,..., b) . (1)
For an infinitesimal mechanism, always there exists a system of infinitesimal
displacements of joints such that, in (1), a1k  0 for k  1,2,..., b .
Definition 1 [11]. An infinitesimal mechanism is of order n ( n  1 ), if there exists a
system of infinitesimal displacements of joints such that, in (1), a1k  a2 k    ank  0
for k  1,2,  , b , but there exists no system of infinitesimal displacements of joints such
that, in (1), a n 1,k  0 for k  1,2,  , b , that is, there exists at least one bar m,
m  1,2, , b, such that a n 1,m  0 .
Remark 1. This definition immanently contains the following property. In the case of a
system of infinitesimal displacements, consider the exponent of the first non-vanishing
term in series (1) for each bar, and take the minimum of these exponents. Then
determine this minimum for each possible system of infinitesimal displacements, and
take the maximum of these minima. The obtained number minus one is equal to the
order of the infinitesimal mechanism, n.
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 1: (a) A plane frame constituting a two-degree-of freedom infinitesimal mechanism.

It has a displacement (b) where the horizontal bars undergo a second-order elongation,
and another displacement (c) independent of the previous one, where the horizontal
bars undergo a fourth-order elongation.
1359
For multi-degree-of-freedom infinitesimal mechanisms, it can occur, that the

displacements corresponding to the different degrees of freedom result in different n
numbers, but according to Definition 1, the maximum of these n’s will be the order of
the infinitesimal mechanism. As an example, consider the plane bar-and-joint assembly
in Fig. 1(a), which is a two-degree-of-freedom infinitesimal mechanism. One of the
degrees of freedom permits a displacement shown in Fig. 1(b), on the basis of which we
would say that the order is 1. The other degree of freedom permits the displacement
shown in Fig. 1(c), on the basis of which we would say that the order is 3. Since we
have to take their maximum, we can declare that the assembly in Fig. 1(a) is a third-
order infinitesimal mechanism. (The way of actual calculation will be shown later.)
In mathematics, the term nth-order infinitesimal mechanism is not used.
Mathematicians usually deal with nth-order rigidity and nth-order flexes instead.
Connelly [1] has defined nth-order flex, by which we can straightforwardly define the
term higher-order infinitesimal mechanism.
Definition 2. A framework is an nth-order infinitesimal mechanism if the maximum
value of the order numbers of flexes of the framework is n.
We do not go into details, but it seems that Definitions 1 and 2 are equivalent.
3 A series of infinitesimal mechanisms

Consider first the bar-and-joint assembly in Fig. 2(a). Let the length of all the bars be
equal to the unity. Here x is the horizontal component of the displacement of joint B, 2y
is the vertical component of the displacement of joint A. Because of symmetry, we
consider the elongations of bars 1 and 2 to be equal (they are denoted by e). Bars 3 and
4 are considered inextensional, so the elongation of these bars is zero. Displacement
component y can be expressed by x: y  1  1  x 2 , but e by y: e  1  (2 y ) 2  1 .
A A 2y
2y 1 2
1 2
3 3
B C
B y y
2x z
x 6
5
4 4 x
(a) (b)
Fig. 2: A planar assembly composed of (a) two (b) three three-pinned frame units of
collinear joints, and their infinitesimal free displacements.
After taking the binomial series expansion of these functions, we get

1 1 1
y  x 2  x 4  x 6  , (2)
2 8 16
1360
1 1
e (2 y ) 2  (2 y ) 4   . (3)
2 8
Introduction of (2) into (3) yields
1 4 1 6 1 8
e
x  x  x  ,
2 4 32
that is, fourth-order elongations arise in bars 1 and 2. In bars 3 and 4, there are no
elongations. Thus, n + 1 = 4, and so n = 3, that is, the assembly in Fig. 2(a) is a third-
order infinitesimal mechanism. We remark here that a similar calculation can be
executed also for the structure in Fig. 1(a) with displacements according to Fig. 1(c).
Now let us supplement the bar-and-joint assembly in Fig. 2(a) with a horizontal three-
pinned frame of collinear joints, connected to joint B (Fig. 2b). Let the length of all the
bars be equal to the unity, and let bars 3, 4, 5, 6 be inextensional. Let us apply vertical
displacement z at joint C. In this case, displacement components x and y shown in Fig.
2(b), and elongation e of bars 1 and 2 will be:
x  1  1  z 2 , y  1  1  (2 x ) 2 , e  1  (2 y ) 2  1 .
After binomial series expansion and proper substitutions the elongation of bars 1 and 2
is obtained as
1 1 11
e  z 8  z10  z12   ,
2 2 16
that is, eighth-order elongations arise in bars 1 and 2. Thus, the assembly in Fig. 2(b) is
a seventh-order infinitesimal mechanism.
It can be shown that, in the general case, where the assembly is composed of M three-
pinned frame units with collinear joints, the assembly is a ( 2 M  1 )th-order infinitesimal
mechanism [11].
4 A chain-like infinitesimal mechanism

Let the value of M be equal to 9, thus we have the assembly in Fig. 3. In this case the
assembly is an infinitesimal mechanism of order n = 29 – 1 = 511. We selected the
particular value M = 9 because later we want to make a comparison between this
infinitesimal mechanism and a similar structure of Leonardo, mentioned in the
Introduction. Let each bar be 6m long. We suppose that each bar is infinitely rigid
except the uppermost two bars where extensions are allowed to develop freely. Let us
investigate the motions of the assembly if the lowermost joint 1 has a vertical
displacement of 1m. In the investigation, we apply the approximation 1  a  1  a / 2 ,
and consider only the lateral displacement of the middle joint of a three-pinned frame
unit, that is, vertical displacement for a horizontal three-pinned unit and horizontal
displacement for a vertical three-pinned unit. The axial displacements of the middle
joints are neglected. If the lateral displacement of joint i is  i then, from this, a
displacement  i 1 arises at joint i  1 , and the directions of the two displacements are
perpendicular to each other. According to the calculation applied in Section 3, we have
 
 i 1  2 6  6 2   i2 , that yields  i 1   i2 6 , that is,
1361
2i 1 1
1
i    i  1,2, ,9 . (4)
6
7
8
5
6
3
4
1
2
1m 6m
Fig. 3: A chain-like planar assembly composed of 9 three-pinned frame units of

collinear joints, and displacements of middle joints (numbered) when the lowest joint 1
has a prescribed vertical displacement of 1m.
It is easy to see that, with proceeding from the bottom to the top of the assembly, the
displacements are exponentially decreasing.
It is also possible to calculate the exact position and displacement of the joints, taking
into account the displacement in the axial direction further to the lateral one. The results
are only slightly different from those of the approximate calculations.
The displacements  i , obtained by both approximate (according to (4)) and exact
calculations, are given for the first few joints in Table 1. The data of Table 1 show that
the one-meter displacement of the first joint decreases to approximately 5 mm at the
third joint, and to 4 μm at the fourth joint. The displacement of the fifth joint is only 2
pm, which is smaller than the size of an atom. (For comparison, the radius of individual
atoms is in the range of 50  200 1012 m .) From practical point of view, this means
that from the fourth joint on basically there is no displacement. This surprising result
illustrates the most important property of higher-order infinitesimal mechanisms, the
fact that theoretically they have only infinitesimal free motions, but locally they behave
like finite mechanisms. The motion of mechanisms of this kind was also investigated by
Hortobágyi [4].
1362
Table 1: The lateral displacements of the middle joints of three-pinned units of the
assembly in Figure 3. (At joint i, the approximate value  iapprox and the exact value
 iexact of the lateral displacement as well as the error  i of the approximation,
expressed in percentage of the exact value, are given.)
i  iapprox [m]  iexact [m] i [%]

1 1 1 0
1 1
2 6  1.666666 10 1.674459 10 -1 0.465
3 63  4.629629 103 4.673880 10-3 0.947
4 67  3.572245 106 3.640860 10-6 1.884
5 615  2.126822 1012 2.209788 10-12 3.754
5 Leonardo’s structure
5.1 Structure in the Codex Madrid
On folio 75 in Volume I of the Codex Madrid containing notes and drawings of the
mechanical studies of Leonardo da Vinci [6], there is a drawing of a chain-like structure.
A part of this page of the Codex Madrid is shown in Fig. 4. Leonardo’s structure is
composed of 12-unit-long cables having a V shape such that, for each cable, the
distance between the midpoint of the cable and the straight line connecting the end
points of the cable is 1 unit. The straight lines connecting the end points of cables are
alternately horizontal and vertical. (The bar-and-joint model of Leonardo’s structure is
shown in Fig. 5.) Leonardo investigated the propagation of forces in the structure if the
bottom cable is loaded at its mid point with a weight of one pound. He made an
approximate analysis. He considered the cables to be inextensional, and neglected the
fact that a cable segment  joining another cable at its midpoint  has an inclination, and
calculated the forces in cables as the direction of the joining cable segment would be
perpendicular to the straight line connecting the end points of the cable. In this way,
Leonardo obtained equal forces in both segments of a cable. Let φ denote the angle of
inclination of cable segments. From the geometrical data it follows: sin   1 6 .
By resolving the forces horizontally and vertically at the node loaded by the weight of
one pound, force S1 in the lowermost cable is obtained: S1  3 pounds. For the second
cable, this member force of 3 pounds acts as a load and, because of the above-
mentioned approximation, the force in the second cable is S2  3S1 . The force in the kth
cable from below is S k  3S k 1 , that is,
S k  3k pounds.
Therefore, the propagation of forces in cables is exponentially increasing. (Cable forces
form a geometric progression with the common ratio 3.) From 1 pound load applied at
the midpoint of the lowermost cable, force S9 of 19,683 pounds ( S 9  39 pounds) arises
in the uppermost cable. Leonardo presented 19,530 pounds for that force (Fig. 4).
However, there are differences in other member forces as well. For instance, force S4 in
1363
the fourth cable is S 4  34  81 pounds, but Leonardo gave it as 80 pounds. The reason
for these differences is not known.
Fig. 4: Leonardo da Vinci’s drawing of a planar assembly in Codex Madrid I, p. 75R.

The values of forces in cables, arising from a one-pound load at the lowest cable, are
written on the respective cables. Leonardo, as usual, made this note in mirror image.
This page of Codex Madrid I is available at
http://digital.library.cornell.edu/k/kmoddl/pdf/020_009.pdf
5.2 Structure with rigid members subject to unit load

These minor inaccuracies urge us to analyse the equilibrium of Leonardo’s structure in
detail. We consider all nodes in their exact position and all members in their exact
direction. In the following we call the middle points of the three-pinned frame units
internal joints and the bars connecting two internal joints internal bars. Regarding all
members infinitely rigid, one can obtain the bar forces at all nodes from a vector
triangle. A typical equilibrium system is shown in the upper right corner of Fig. 5. The
bar forces are displayed at their corresponding location rounded to the nearest integer.
Note that the exponential growth of the forces in internal bars follows a quotient
1364
Sk 1 1 1 1 18
     3.042555 ,
Sk sin 2 2sin  cos  1 35 35
2
6 6
which is slightly larger than 3.
22031 20807

90  2
7241

2
S k 1
2380 2248 90

90
782
6839
Sk
257 243
84
739
28 26
9
80
3 1 3
6

9 1
Fig. 5: The inextensional bar-and-joint model of Leonardo’s structure. The values of

forces in bars, arising from a one-pound vertical load at the lowest internal joint, are
written on the respective bars. Forces in the two bars of a three-pinned frame unit are
different (except the lowest unit). In the upper right corner, the equilibrium of a joint is
shown by the vector triangle of bar forces acting at the joint.
5.3 Structure with elastic members subject to a load

Leonardo’s discovery, that a single load at the lowermost node produces an
approximately twenty thousand times magnified cable force at the top, indicates that the
elastic deformations of the members ought to be considered.
Let all members of length L be linearly elastic with Young modulus E and cross-
sectional area A. Let us apply a single load at the lowermost node similarly to
Leonardo’s drawing. We expect an exponential growth in the bar forces upwards. The
elastic elongations ek  S k L /(EA) of the members due to bar forces Sk result in
increasing nodal displacements downwards in a twofold way. On the one hand, longer
bars of three-pinned frame units result in larger heights, and on the other hand, they
produce shorter base length (and consequently larger height) in the next three-pinned
frame unit attached. Thus, this double exponential change in the bar forces and the
displacements yields that a surprisingly small force can produce large displacements
even if the structure is quite stiff.
1365
Our numerical investigations have shown that this cable structure with ordinary cross-
sections (such as EA  103  104 kN ) indeed undergoes large displacements even for a
small load. Figure 6 shows the deformed structure with tensile stiffness EA  104 kN .
The member forces SiF,i 1 and the lateral components  iF of the nodal displacements are
listed in Table 2. The results were obtained by a large displacement iterative analysis.
11
10 9
13
8 7
12 15
6 5
14 17
4
3
16 19
2
1
18 F
Fig. 6: The equilibrium shape of the bar-and-joint model of Leonardo’s structure with
6m-long linearly elastic bars of stiffness EA  104 kN and with a vertical load F  1 N
at the joint 1. The dashed lines show the structure at the rest position.
According to the entries of Table 2, the forces SiF,i 1 in internal bars form a
monotonically increasing sequence where the ratio SiF1,i 2 / SiF,i 1 is monotonically
increasing with an increase in i (i  1,2,,8) . Thus, the bar forces show an exponential-
like increase, but the change is faster than in a geometric progression. A similar
observation can be made for the displacements, but in an inverse manner. The lateral
components  iF of displacements of internal joints form a monotonically decreasing
sequence where the ratio  iF1 /  iF is monotonically decreasing with an increase in i
(i  1,2,,8) . Thus, the lateral components of displacements show an exponential-like
decrease, but the change is faster than in a geometric progression.
1366
Table 2: Forces in internal bars and lateral displacements of internal joints of the
structure with bar stiffness EA  104 kN . (Force SiF,i 1 in bar i, i  1 and the lateral
component  iF of displacement of internal joint i for vertical load F  1N applied at
joint 1. Downward and rightward displacement components are considered positive.)
i, i  1 SiF,i 1 [kN] i  iF [m]

{1,2} 0.000888 1 2.532616
{2,3} 0.001130 2 1.755583
{3,4} 0.001803 3 1.039841
{4,5} 0.003740 4 0.508759
{5,6} 0.009526 5 0.207777
{6,7} 0.027066 6 0.075092
{7,8} 0.080407 7 0.025550
{8,9} 0.242663 8 0.008432
{9,10} 0.736527 9 0.002574
It is ascertained that, proceeding from below to the top, the lateral components of
displacements of internal joints of the inextensional mechanism in Fig. 3 show an
exponential decay, where the displacements decrease much faster than a geometric
progression, and the forces in internal bars of Leonardo’s infinitely rigid structure in Fig.
6 show an exponential growth according to a geometric progression with common ratio
3.0425…. If the members in Leonardo’s structure are linearly elastic equal bars, then
elastic deformations change the structural behaviour. Though the lateral components of
displacements of internal joints and the forces in internal bars show an exponential-like
decrease and increase, respectively, the change is not as fast as in the case of the
inextensional members. In the investigated structure (with EA  104 kN ), the sequence
of the lateral components of nodal displacements has a ratio monotonically decreasing
from 1.44261 to 3.27611 , and the sequence of bar forces has a ratio monotonically
increasing from 1.2721 to 3.0352, that is, the ratio of change in both is approximately
the same. If the force unit is N instead of pound, then the force in bar {9,10} of the
infinitely rigid structure is 22,031 N (Fig. 5). As a consequence of elastic properties of
the structure, however, this value is decreased to 736 N (Table 2), that is, approximately
to its one 30th part.
With numerical calculations we found that, with a decrease in the magnitude of the load
F on the elastic structure, while keeping monotonicity, the ratio in the sequence of
forces in internal bars increases, and converges to 3.042555… the common ratio of the
geometric progression of bar forces in the infinitely rigid structure. For F  105 N, for
instance, the ratio varies from 3.0368… to 3.042553…. The nodal displacements are
less regular, the ratio monotonically decreases from 3.03361 to 3.28911 .
The determination of the order of a chain-like infinitesimal mechanism was
straightforward. This can give the impression that the determination of the order of an
infinitesimal mechanism is an easy task. Unfortunately, it is not the case. Connelly
1367
called attention to difficulties [2, 11] which partly come from the definitions of higher-
order infinitesimal mechanisms. One problem can be if the elongation functions are not
analytic at a point, for instance, where there is a cusp in the configuration space. This
particular problem can be resolved by using series expansion with fractional exponents
[3]. Another, quite general mathematical problem is the parametrization. The
displacement vector of any joint can be given as a function of parameter u, but we can
define a new displacement vector as a function of parameter u2. The result of this
reparametrization is that the order of the infinitesimal mechanism will be twice as large
as for the original parametrization. Consequently, the order can be arbitrarily large. This
problem is not yet settled. A very promising approach was presented recently by Stachel
[10] who suggested that the definition of nth-order infinitesimal mechanism must be
based on irreducible representations of flexes. Although the notion higher-order
infinitesimal mechanism is a purely geometrical term, to simplify the analysis Koiter
suggested the introduction of elasticity in the bars, that is, the use of the elastic energy
function of the assembly and interpretation of the infinitesimal mechanism as the
buckling mode of the assembly under zero loading. Koiter’s idea overcomes the
difficulties mentioned by Connelly, and indeed, it was successfully applied, for instance,
by Salerno [9].
6
1 
2
90   2

S k 1
90  
2 90  
90  
Sk
Fig. 7: The modified inextensional bar-and-joint model of Leonardo’s structure. Forces

in both bars of each three-pinned frame unit are equal. In the upper left corner, the
modified shape of a four-bar segment is shown. In the lower left corner, the equilibrium
of a joint is shown by the vector triangle of bar forces acting at the joint. A possible
spatial structure composed of such segments is shown in the right.
According to our analysis in Section 5.2, the forces in Leonardo’s structure show an
exponential growth with the ratio 3.0425  , which is different from Leonardo’s own
value of 3. However, it is possible to introduce a modification to the original structure to
1368
fit this number. Now each four-member segment of the structure contains a vertical
member and another one at 2 inclination as shown in Fig. 7. Thus each cable is
connected to the middle point of the next one at an angle of 90   in a symmetric way.
Moreover, it is possible to rotate the four-member segments around the axis of the
vertical member without affecting the force distribution. One such spatial structure is
also shown in Fig. 7.
Acknowledgement
The research reported here was supported by the Hungarian Scientific Research Fund
(OTKA) grant no. K81146.
References
[1] Connelly R. The rigidity of certain cabled frameworks and the second-order
rigidity of arbitrarily triangulated convex surfaces. Advances in Mathematics
37:272-299, 1980.
[2] Connelly R and Servatius H. Higher-order rigidity – What is the proper definition?
Discrete and Computational Geometry 11(2):193-200, 1994.
[3] Gáspár Zs and Tarnai T. Finite mechanisms have no higher-order rigidity. Acta
Technica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 106(3-4):119-125, 1994.
[4] Hortobágyi Zs. Numerical analysis of inextensional, kinematically indeterminate
assemblies. Periodica Polytechnica, Civil Engineering 44:43-55, 2000.
[5] Koiter WT. On Tarnai’s conjecture with reference to both statically and
kinematically indeterminate structures. Laboratory Report No.788. Delft
University of Technology, 1984.
[6] Leonardo da Vinci. Codex Madrid I: The Madrid Codices: National Library
Madrid, Facsimile Edition of Codex Madrid I (original Spanish title: Tratado de
Elastica y Mechanica en Italiano), Library Number 8937. Switzerland: McGraw-
Hill, 1974.
[7] Nielsen J. Leonardo da Vinci and the parallelogram of forces. In: Structural
Morphology – Towards the New Millennium. Proc. of the IASS International
Colloquium (eds J.C. Chilton, B.S. Choo, W.J. Lewis and O. Popovic), Nottingham,
1997, pp. 180-187.
[8] Pellegrino S and Calladine CR. Matrix analysis of statically and kinematically
indeterminate frameworks. International Journal of Solids and Structures 22:409-
428, 1986.
[9] Salerno, G. How to recognize the order of infinitesimal mechanisms – A numerical
approach. International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering 35:1351-
1395, 1992.
[10] Stachel, H. A proposal for a proper definition of higher-order rigidity, Tensegrity
Workshop 2007, July 9 – 13, 2007, La Vacquerie, France. See
http://www.geometrie.tuwien.ac.at/stachel/tensegrity_druck.pdf
[11] Tarnai T. Higher-order infinitesimal mechanisms. Acta Technica Academiae
Scientiarum Hungaricae 102(3-4):363-378, 1989.
1369
FEM analysis for stiffness of welded spherical joints

with rib stiffeners
Fan WANG1, Xing WANG1*

1*
School of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Ningbo University of Technology,
Ningbo 315211, P.R.China
wyuqi425@163.com
Abstract
Joint’s stiffness has important effect on stability ultimate bearing capacity of
large-span spatial reticulated shell. The welded hollow spherical joint with rib stiffeners
is a type of joint applied widely on large-span spatial reticulated shell. In this paper, the
axial flexibility and flexural stiffness of welded hollow spherical joint with different rib
stiffeners are analyzed with the FEM software ANSYS, compared with the non-rib
hollow spherical joint’s stiffness, then the calculation formulas of the axial flexibility
and flexural stiffness under different rib stiffeners are given through regression analysis.
Some important conclusions were obtained, which can provide theoretical foundation
for the stability ultimate bearing capacity analysis considering joint’s stiffness and can
be applied on practical design.
Keywords: Welded hollow spherical joint, Joint’s stiffness, Rib stiffeners, Regression
analysis
1 Introduction
Joint’s stiffness has important effect on stability ultimate bearing capacity of large-span
spatial reticulated shell. The welded hollow spherical joint with rib stiffeners is a type of
joint applied widely on large-span spatial reticulated shell. The stiffness of welded
hollow spherical joint without rib stiffeners has been analyzed with FEM[1]. For
practical engineering，rib stiffeners usually are set for the hollow spherical joint which
diameter larger than 300mm or which force large. Rib stiffeners have great effert to
improve the bearing capacity and stiffness of joint. Based on that there is no rearch
about the influence of rib stiffeners on stiffness of the welded hollow spherical joint, the
axial stiffness and flexural stiffness of welded hollow spherical joint with different
forms of rib stiffeners are analyzed with the FEM software ANSYS in this paper.
When the positions of rib stiffeners in the hollow spherical joint are different, the
resulting effect are different. According to the position relationship of rib stiffeners and
steel tube, the situation can be devided into two cases, one is that middle plane of
stiffener and the steel tube axis are in the same plane（in-plane stiffening）, another is
that the stiffener plane is perpendicular to the steel tube axis (out-plane stiffening).
According to the position relationship of moment plane and middle plane of stiffener,
the in-plane stiffening can be devided into stiffening in moment plane(in-plane strong
stiffening) and stiffening out moment plane(in-plane weak stiffening).
1370
2 Influence of rib stiffeners on stiffness of welded spherical joint
2.1 Finite element models

In this paper，the finite element analysis software ANSYS is used. The whole sphere
model is taken for analysis, the element is taken as four-node SHELL143 element, the
mesh is divided by mapping, the mesh on the intersection of steel tube and sphere is
encrypted. According to the different position relationships of rib stiffeners and plane of
steel tube, different models are built, shown in Figure 1. The thickness of rib stiffener is
taken as the thickness of hollow sphere, the width of rib stiffener is taken as half of the
radius of hollow sphere.
Out-plane stiffening In-plane stiffening
Fig. 1: The finite element models
2.2 Axial stiffness analysis for out-plane stiffening
In this paper, sphere’s diameter D=500mm, d/D=0.3~0.5, and sphere’s thinckness

respectively are 12mm, 14mm, 16mm, 18mm and 20mm. By calculating the axial
flexibility f t , the change of axial stiffness is observed, and compared with the same size
hollow sphere without rib stiffeners.
From the result, it can be seen that because of out-plane stiffening, the axial flexibility
decreases not very much, the rate is 1.8%~5.2%. Therefore axial stiffness is not
observably improved by this form of rib stiffeners. One conclusion can be drawn that
the regression formula[1] of axial flexibility without rib stiffeners can be applied to out-
plane stiffening hollow spherical joints conservatively.
2.3 Flexural stiffness analysis for out-plane stiffening
1371
The calculation results of flexural stiffness can be obtained, the equivalent node load of
moment applied on the intersection of the steel tube and the sphere. Compared with the
results without rib stiffeners, it can be seen that out-plane stiffening has little effect on
increasing the flexural stiffness. So the regression formula[1] of flexural stiffness
without rib stiffeners can also be applied to out-plane stiffening hollow spherical joints.
2.4 Axial stiffness analysis for in-plane stiffening
The upload way of in-plane stiffening is same as out-plane stiffening. Due to the
influence of deformation resisted by rib stiffeners, the vertical displacement of junction
calculated is taken as the biggest displacement of nodes. In this paper, the ratio of axial
flexibility with rib stiffeners to without rib stiffeners and reduced amplitude are
caculated too. The results were shown in Table1.
The results show that axial flexibility fell down obviously for in-plane stiffening, and
the bigger tube diameter the more reduce, which caused by maximum displacement
point far away from stiffener plane and it is in keep with practical. Therefore, in-plane
stiffening is more effective for the improvement of the axial stiffness. The axial
flexibility f v of In-plane stiffening can be obtained from axial flexibility without ribs
multiplied by a reduction coefficient  v , then f v =  v f . Through regression analysis of
the value of descender  , the formular  v =1-  is obtained. The 42 models of d/D=0.3,
0.35, 0.4，D=400mm, 600mm, 700mm, ect. are caculated too, the descender of axial
flexibility of in-plane stiffening to without ribs under different joints’ thickness are
shown in Figure 2.
35.0 d/D=0.3、D=400mm
30.0 d/D=0.3、D=500mm
d/D=0.3、D=600mm
25.0 d/D=0.3、D=700mm
降幅/%
d/D=0.35、D=400mm
20.0
d/D=0.35、D=500mm
15.0 d/D=0.35、D=600mm
d/D=0.35、D=700mm
10.0
d/D=0.4、D=400mm
5.0 d/D=0.4、D=500mm
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 d/D=0.4、D=600mm
球厚 /mm d/D=0.4、D=700mm
Fig. 2: Axial flexibility reduced amplitude of in-plane stiffening

with diffenent joint’s thickness
It can be seen from the figure 2, when the ratio of tube diameter and sphere diameter
d/D is equal, the changes of sphere diameter D and thickness  have little influence on
decender of axial flexibility. But when d/D is not same, the reducing amplitude of axial
1372
flexibility would reduce along with the value of d/D increasing. So in regression
analysis, the d/D is considered as independent variables to the dependent variable  ,
the regression equation of  v to d/D is obtained:
 v  0.331  1.715 (d / D)  1.286 (d / D) 2 (1)
Table 1: Aaxial flexibility of welded spherical joint with in-plane stiffening
Serial Jiont Tube Joint f v / 10-7mm/N In-plane Reduced

number diameter diamete thickness Stiffene amplitude
D/mm d/mm  /mm /without /%
ribs
1 500 150 12 5.0004 0.726 27.4
2 500 150 14 4.0495 0.726 27.4
3 500 150 16 3.3795 0.727 27.3
4 500 150 18 2.9354 0.732 26.8
5 500 150 20 2.5849 0.735 26.5
6 500 175 12 4.3686 0.768 23.2
7 500 175 14 3.5389 0.770 23.0
8 500 175 16 2.9554 0.773 22.7
9 500 175 18 2.5713 0.780 22.0
10 500 175 20 2.2674 0.787 21.3
11 500 200 12 3.8234 0.803 19.7
12 500 200 14 3.1003 0.803 19.7
13 500 200 16 2.5911 0.808 19.2
14 500 200 18 2.2579 0.819 18.1
15 500 200 20 1.9937 0.829 17.1
16 500 225 12 3.3547 0.822 17.8
17 500 225 14 2.7215 0.829 17.1
18 500 225 16 2.2756 0.836 16.4
19 500 225 18 1.9852 0.851 14.9
20 500 225 20 1.7548 0.863 13.7
21 500 250 12 2.9449 0.846 15.4
22 500 250 14 2.3898 0.854 14.6
23 500 250 16 1.999 0.863 13.7
24 500 250 18 1.7455 0.880 12.0
25 500 250 20 1.5443 0.896 10.4
2.5 Flexural stiffness analysis for in-plane stiffening
1373
According to different positions of bending moment, in-plane stiffening can be devided

into in-plane weak stiffening and in-plane strong stiffening shown as Figure 3.
weak stiffening strong stiffening
Fig. 3: Two kinds of finite element model
For in-plane weak stiffening, 15 models are calculated and for in-plane strong stiffening,
30 models are calculated. The resuts are shown in Table 2.
The increased amplitude of flexural stiffness of in-plane weak stiffening is still small,
because the vector direction of bending moment is parallel with stiffening plane, the rib
stiffeners do not play a important role in restraining bending, so the flexural stiffness
increases still not very obviously. Therefore for flexural stiffness K ev of in-plane weak
stiffening, the regression equation[1] of flexural stiffness without ribs can still be used.
When the bending moment vector direction perpendicular to the stiffening plane (in-
plane strong stiffening), it can be seen from the results, the flexural stiffness increase
obviously relative to the case without ribs, and even more than 100%. When the ratio
d/D of tube diameter and sphere diameter is small, the flexural stiffness increase largely,
the flexural stiffness increasing amplitude continuously decrease along with the value of
d/D increasing. It also can be seen from the Table 2, in situation of same value of d/D,
for the sphere thickness  changes, the flexural stiffness increasing amplitude increases
along with the sphere thickness increasing.
In the case of flexural stiffness of in-plane strong stiffening, the influence of d/D and
d on K ev' is considered. It can be found by a large number of calculations, when the
values of d/D and d are respectively equal, the flexural stiffness values of two models
of in-plane strong stiffening nearly are same.
Flexural stiffness of in-plane strong stiffening is analysed by the way of multiple
regression analysis, and moreover 56 models are slected for regressing, size range are:
400mm≤D≤700mm, 0.3≤d/D≤0.45, 12mm≤  ≤22mm.
The best regression formular of in-plane strong stiffening is obtained by grouping and
regressing with the SPSS:
1374
Table 2: Bending stiffness under in-plane strong stiffening
Serial Joint Tube Joint K ev' / In-plane Increased Results

number diameter diameter thickness 9 strong amplitude of
10 Nmm/rad
D/mm d/mm  /mm stiffening/ /% formula
No ribs （2）
1 500 150 12 10.0429 1.914 91.4 10.7088
2 500 150 14 13.2242 1.978 97.8 13.1920
3 500 150 16 16.6881 2.008 100.8 15.8818
4 500 150 18 20.1808 2.009 100.9 18.7782
5 500 150 20 23.8820 1.999 99.9 21.8813
6 500 175 12 14.2944 1.701 70.1 14.1253
7 500 175 14 18.6579 1.756 75.6 17.9135
8 500 175 16 23.3942 1.793 79.3 21.9830
9 500 175 18 28.0925 1.809 80.9 26.3337
10 500 175 20 33.0898 1.815 81.5 30.9657
11 500 200 12 20.1165 1.550 55.0 19.9218
12 500 200 14 26.0578 1.596 59.6 25.2697
13 500 200 16 32.3850 1.626 62.6 30.9849
14 500 200 18 38.5604 1.644 64.4 37.0674
15 500 200 20 45.1400 1.656 65.6 43.5174
16 600 180 14 16.8199 1.938 93.8 17.0156
17 600 180 16 21.2128 1.979 97.9 20.6153
18 600 180 18 25.7419 2.002 100.2 24.5125
19 600 180 20 30.5859 2.011 101.1 28.7074
20 600 180 22 36.0482 2.007 100.7 33.1998
21 600 210 14 23.9798 1.711 71.1 23.6895
22 600 210 16 30.0192 1.752 75.2 29.0791
23 600 210 18 36.0780 1.780 78.0 34.8738
24 600 210 20 42.5795 1.800 80.0 41.0734
25 600 210 22 50.2471 1.810 81.0 47.6780
26 600 240 14 33.7290 1.555 55.5 33.3738
27 600 240 16 41.9634 1.588 58.8 40.8933
28 600 240 18 49.9178 1.611 61.1 48.9418
29 600 240 20 58.4556 1.631 63.1 57.5193
30 66.62
600 240 22 69.0440 1.683 68.3
58
K ev'  40 .189  199 .065 (d / D)  0.007 d  218 .665 (d / D) 2
1375
 1.148  10 6 (d ) 2  0.036 (d / D)  (d ) (2)

'
In the formular, K ev is the joint flexural stiffness of in-plane strong
stiffening(109N·
mm/rad). Calculating K ev' by the formular, it can be seen that the
formular matches well.
3 Conclusions
In this paper, the stiffness of welded hollow spherical joint under different rib stiffeners
is analysed by the FEM software ANSYS, the following conclusions can be attained:
(1) For the welded hollow spherical joint bearing the axial force, the axial stiffness has
small increase by ribs when out-plane stiffening, but compared without ribs, increasing
amplitude is 2% to 3%, so the contribution is very small. For the welded hollow
spherical joint bearing moment, when out-plane stiffening, the flexural stiffness
increasing amplitude is small as well. Therefore, in this case , the axial stiffness and
flexural stiffness of welded hollow spherical joint with ribs can be taken as the
calculation results of welded hollow spherical joint without ribs.
(2) For the welded hollow spherical joint bearing the axial force, when in-plane
stiffening, the ribs give more support for improving axial stiffness of welded hollow
spherical joint, which is especially prominent when d/D is small. In this paper, the
regression formular of axial stiffness is given by the way of the reduction factor.
(3) For the welded hollow spherical joint bearing the bending moment, when in-plane
weak stiffening, the flexural stiffness increases unconspicuously，so the regression
formula of flexural stiffness without ribs can be adopted. When in-plane strong
stiffening, the rib stiffeners can just resist bending deformation to the best effect. In this
paper, the ideal regression equation under this type of stiffening is attained based on
many groups of dates. Considering the results of both cases, it is advised that, if the
joint is bearing large bending moment or the joint is particularly important, it should be
considered adopting the cross rib stiffeners.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided by the Natural
Science Foundation of Zhejiang, China (Project No: Y107595), the Science Research
Project of Department of Education of Zhejiang, China (Project No: Y200906262) and
the Natural Science Foundation of Ningbo, China (Project No: 2009A610120).
References
[1] Wang X, Dong SL and Wan HY. Finite element analysis of welded spherical
joints’ stiffness. Journal of Zhejiang University 2000;34(1): 77-82.
[2] Wang X, Dong SL and Wan HY. The influence of stiffness of welded spherical
joints on internal force and displacement of space trusses. Spatial Structures 1996;
2(4): 34-40.
1376
[3] Wang X and Dong SL. Tangent stiffness matrix of members of reticulated shell
considering joint’s stiffness of shell pole tangent stiffness matrix. Engineering
Mechanics 1999;16(4): 24-32.
[4] Ding HJ. Finite element method in elastic and plastic mechanics. Beijing:
Machinery Industry Press, China, 1989.
[5] Wang XM. ANSYS numerical analysis of engineering structures. Beijing:China
Communications Press, China, 2007.
[6] Department of mathematics, Shanghai Normal University. Regression Analysis and
Experimental Design. Shanghai: Shanghai Education Press, China, 1978.
1377
A spatial thin-walled beam element considering the coupling

of shear deformation
Xiaofeng WANG1*, Qilin ZHANG 2
1*
A709 Civil Building, 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai, P.R. China 200092
Wangxf822@sohu.com
2
Abstract
Based on the theories of Timoshenko’s beams and Vlasov’s thin-walled
members, a new spatial thin-walled beam element is developed by putting an interior
node in the element and independently interpolating bending angles and warp, in which
these factors such as traverse shear deformation, torsional shear deformation and their
coupling, coupling of flexure and torsion, and second shear stress are all considered.
According to the generalized variational theory of Hellinger-Reissner, the element
stiffness matrix is deduced. On the basis of the established beam element, a finite
element program is built by C#.NET and a few examples are listed and analyzed.
Comparison with theoretical solutions and numerical ones manifest that the developed
model is accurate and can be applied in the finite element analysis of thin-walled
structures.
Keywords: Spatial beams; thin-walled section; stiffness matrix; coupled shear

deformation; coupling of flexure and torsion; second shear stress
1 Introduction
Steel structures are widely used in civil engineering with its high strength, excellent
ductility, fast construction and effective space partition. In order to fully exploit its
strength, steel members are usually manufactured to be thin-walled. Those mainly
subjected to bending are called thin-walled beams.
In the past decades, many relevant researches have been conducted and the recent
focuses are principally on limit state[1]~[3], constitutive relationship[4] and geometrical
nonlinearity, including effects of shear deformation and(or) the coupling of flexure and
torsion[5]~[6], large torsion[7]~[8], lateral buckling[9]~[10], flexural-torsional buckling[11],
post-buckling[12] and plastic bifurcation[13].
As for the stout beams, shear deformation is predominant in the whole traverse
deformation and should be considered. Or else, great errors would arise. There are about
four possible approaches to consider shear deformation, i.e., the mixed finite element
method[14], the Timoshenko beam element with C0 continuity[15]~[17], the method of
taking homogeneous solutions of differential equations as element interpolation
functions[18], and the method of interpolating by the modified Hermitian polynomial[19].
1378
When a thin-walled beam is undergoing traverse flexure and torsion simultaneously,

traverse and torsional shear deformations would be coupled. Kim[20] developed a thin-
walled beam element based on Hellinger-Reissner’s generalized variational theory and
took it into account.
In the case that the shear center and the centroid of cross section don’t coincide, the
beam would suffer flexural deformation and accompanying torsion from traverse loads,
which is called the coupling of flexure and torsion. Hu[18] and Kim[20] analyzed the
motion of general cross section and hence included the influence in their thin-walled
beam elements.
Under a torque, warp often happens in a thin-walled beam. If it is constrained, sectorial
normal stress and shear stress (i.e. second shear stress) will be produced. The moment
of the shear stress about the shear center (i.e. second torque) would inevitably have
certain effect on torsional deformation. However, relevant documents considering such
an effect have not been found. And those considering the factors of traverse and
torsional shear deformations and their coupling, coupling of flexure and torsion, and
second shear stress have not, either.
The present paper aims to develop a finite element model considering such influences
based on the theories of Timoshenko’s beam and Vlasov’s non-uniform torsion.
According to the generalized variational theory of Hellinger-Reissner, the element
stiffness matrix is deduced. To consider the effects of shear deformation and second
shear stress, independent interpolation functions for bending angles and warp are
adopted with an interior node in the element to avoid shear locking induced by the
homogeneity of interpolation functions of traverse displacements and bending angles.
A finite element program on the basis of the present model is developed with the object-
oriented C#.NET. Some examples are analyzed and the results are compared to the
analytical ones and numerical ones obtained from elements of beam189 and shell181 in
ANSYS. The comparisons show that the present model is accurate, robust and reliable
for both member and structure analysis.
2 Shape function
z
A local coordinate of a spatial thin- m
walled beam element is established as l/2 l/2
j x
shown in Figure 1, in which axis x is

through the centroid, y and z are the y
sectional inertia axes, and i, j are the Figure 1: Coordinates of the element
element nodes. The displacement vector
of the element can be denoted as
u0 vs ws  x  y  z   (1)
where u 0 is the axial displacement at the centroid; vs , ws are the traverse displacements
at shear center along axes y, z , respectively;  x ,  y ,  z are the rotation angles around
axes x, y , z , and  is the warp angle.
As written in material mechanics and the theory of thin-walled members, the Lagrange
interpolation with 2 nodes is accurate for the axial displacement and the Hermite
1379
interpolation with 2 nodes is accurate for the traverse and torsional displacements.
Therefore, they can be formulated as
u0  N L1 2u0i  N L22u0 j (2)
dvs dv
vs  N H1 vsi  N H2 vsj  N H3  N H4 s (3)
dx i dx j
dws dw
ws  N H1 wsi  N H2 wsj  N H3  N H4 s (4)
dx i dx j
d x d
 x  N H1  xi  N H2  xj  N H3  N H4 x (5)
dx i dx j
where
N 1L 2  1   , N L22   (6)
N 1H  1  3  2
2 3
, N H2  3  2
2 3
, N H3 
   2   2 3

L, N H4 
   L
2 3
 (7)
x
  (8)
L
To consider the shear deformation and second shear stress, bending and warp angels are
interpolated independently. To avoid the shear locking, happening when interpolation
polynomials of traverse displacements and bending angles are homogeneous, and to
avoid zero energy caused by reduced integration, an interior node m is introduced at the
midpoint of the element (Figure 1). Thus, Lagrange interpolations with 3 nodes for the
bending and warp angles are employed:
 y  NL1 3 yi  NL23 yj  NL33 ym (9)
 z  NL1 3 zi  NL23 zj  NL33 zm (10)
  NL1 3i  NL23 j  NL33m (11)
where
N 1L3  1  3  2 2 , N L23    2 2 , N L33  4  4 2 (12)
The differential items in Eqs. (3)~(5) and the displacements of the mid node in Eqs.
(9)~(11) can be regarded as interior displacements irrelevant to adjacent elements, i.e.,
T

 dv dws dvs dws d x d x 

u  s
i
 ym  zm m  (13)

 dx i dx i dx j dx j dx i dx j 

and the exterior displacement vector is
ue  u0i vsi wsi  xi  yi  zi i u0 j vsj wsj  xj  yj  zj  j 
T
(14)
Then, the displacement of the element can be expressed in matrix form
u  N  u0 (15)
where
u0  ue  T
ui 
T T
(16)
N is the shape function matrix, and
N  N uT  N vT N wT NTx NTy NTz NT 
T
(17)
1380
3 Geometric matrix
Under exterior loads, the motion of an arbitrary point P( x, y, z ) in the beam can be
divided into the axial displacement and the tangential displacement:
u ( s, x)  u0 ( x)  z y ( x)  y z ( x)   ( s) ( x) (18)
where  is the sectorial coordinate and s is the curvilinear coordinate along the
contour of the cross section.
y z
 ( s, x)  h x  vs  ws (19)
s s
where h(s ) is the distance from shear centre S ( ys , zs ) to the tangential direction at
point P .
Eqs. (18) and (19) can be expressed in matrix form as
u  1 0 0 0 z  y  
u  y z u
  0 s s
h 0 0 0 
 (20)
Φu 
    u  Φ  u  Φ  N  u0  Ψ  u0
Φ 
where
Ψ ΦN (21)
From Eq.(20), strains in matrix form are derived:
   B 
ε   x    1   u0  B  u0 (22)
 sx   B2 
where B is the geometric matix.
4 Complementary energy
According to material mechanics and the theory of thin-walled members, the
complementary energy due to the normal stress can be formulated as
 x2
2
l 1 N 2 M y M z2 B 2
 C1   dV   (    )dx (23)
V
2E 0 2E A Iy Iz I
The complementary energy due to the shear stress can be represented as
2 l 1 Q y S z Qz S y M  S 2
 C 2   sx dV    (   ) dAdx
V
2G 0
A
2G I zt I yt I t
l 1
  2G (Q S yy  Qz S zz  M  S  2Q y Qz S yz
2 2 2
y (24)
0
 2Q y M  S y  2Qz M  S z )dx
where
1 dA 1 dA 1 dA 1 dA
S yy   Sz ， S zz  2  S y 2 2 ， S   2  S  2 2 ， S yz   SySz ，
2
Iz
2
A
t 2
Iy A t I A t IyIz A
t2
1381
1 dA 1 dA
S y  
I z I A
S z S  2 ， S z 
t 
I y I A
S y S  2 . N is the axial force; M y and M z are
t
moments about axes y and z ; B is the bimoment; A is the area of the cross section; I y
and I z are moments of inertia about axes y and z ; I  is the sectorial moment of inertia;
Q y and Qz are shear forces along axes y and z ; M  is the second moment; S y and S z
are moments of area about axes y and z ; t is the thickness.
The complementary energy due to the Saint-Venant’s shear stress linearly distributed
along thickness can be expressed as
2
1 Mf
l
 C3  
0 2G

J
dx (25)
where M f is torsional moment of Saint-Venant; J is Saint-Venant’s torsional moment
of inertia. Therefore, the total complementary energy is the sum of these three terms
above
 C   C1   C 2   C3 (26)
5 Stiffness matrix
On the basis of the generalized variational theory of Hellinger-Reissner, the modified
functional can be formulated as the following
 H  R (ui ,  ij )   in   C   ex (27)
where
l u     v 
 in (ui , ij )    N 0  M y y  M z z  B  Qy  s   z 
0
 x x x x  x 
(28)
 ws    x   x 
 Qz    y   M     M f   dx
 x   x  x 
 ex is the work done by the exterior loads and when only nodal forces F applied, it
can be simplified as
 ex  u0T F (29)
Considering the stationary condition of generalized variational theory ΠH R  0 , we
conclude:
u  y   
N  EA 0 , M y  EI y , M z  EI z z , B  EI , M f  GJ x (30)
x x x x x
 vs 
 z 
 S yy S yz S y   Q y   x 
1    w
S yz S zz S z   Q z    s   y  (31)
G x
 S y
 S z S  M     x 
  
 x 
1382
 N T  N  y 
T
 N
T
  N   N
T T
l  u 
0  x 
  N  
 x
 M y   z
  x

 M z     B   v  N  z  Qy
  x   x 
  
(32)
 N   N x
T
  N  x
T

T

  w  N y  Qz    N  M     M f  dx  F  0
 x   x   x  
Substituting Eqs.(30) and (31) into (32), we derive
K  u0  F (33)
where
T
 N y  N y
T T
l  N  N u  N  N z
0
K  [ EA u 
 x  x
 EI y 
 x

 x
 EI z  z 
 x  x
T T T
 N  N   N  N x  N   N 
 EI     GJ  x   GAyy  v  N z   v  N z 
 x  x  x  x  x   x 
T T
 N w   N w   N   N 
 GAzz   N y    N y   GA  x  N    x  N  
 x   x   x   x  (34)
T T
 N   N w   N w   N 
 GAyz  v  N z    N y   GAyz   N y   v  N z 
 x   x   x   x 
T T
 N   N   N   N 
 GAy  v  N z   x  N    GAy  x  N    v  N z 
 x   x   x   x 
T T
 N w   N   N   N w 
 GAz   N y   x  N    GAz  x  N     N y ]dx
 x   x   x   x 
 Ayy Ayz Ay   S yy S yz S y 
  
 Ayz Azz Az   S yz S zz S z   I 33 (35)
 Ay Az A   S y S z S 
  
I 33 is the unit matrix of 3 3 .
6 Examples
Based on the element established above, a finite element program was developed in
C#.NET. To verify the validity and accuracy of the element, some examples are given
in the following and results derived from the present model are compared with
theoretical solutions and numerical ones by beam189 and shell181 in ANSYS.
6.1 Case 1
A cantilever beam with I-shaped section (Figure 2) was loaded by a torque
T 1000N  cm and a traverse force Q  1000N at the free end, and the elastic
modulus was E  2.1107 N / cm2 ，and the Poisson’s ratio   0.25 . Its results are
listed in Table 1.
1383
A B
T z
Figure 2:Cantilever and its properties of cross section
Table 1: Comparison of results
elements vs/cm θ x/rad θ /rad
Theoretical - -4.76×10-2 1.29×10-3 8.43×10-6
Shell181 1280 -4.89×10-2 1.32×10-3 8.51×10-6
Present Model 2 -4.97×10-2 1.29×10-3 8.42×10-6
beam189 2 -5.67×10-2 1.33×10-3 8.51×10-6
It is shown that the traverse displacement obtained from the present model is much
closer to the theoretical result than that obtained from beam189, and almost with the
same accuracy as the element shell181. As for the displacements of torsion and warp,
the present model has a much higher accuracy than both beam189 and shell181, almost
as accuracy as the theoretical solutions.
6.2 Case 2
To investigate the model’s capability of analyzing the coupled shear deformations, a
cantilever beam with C-shaped section (Figure 3) subjected to traverse load
Q  1000 N at the end was analyzed, and the results are shown in Figure 4.
3.2
y
Ratio of Traverse Displacement
3.0
Q 2.8
2.6
1
d 2.4
shell181
S 2.2
20
Present Model
o z
2.0 beam189
e=d / b 1.8
0 2 4 6 8 10
b=10
Ratio of Span to Section Height
Figure 3: C-shaped Figure 4: Effect of coupled shear

Section deformation
Figure 6. C-shaped section
1384
It can be found from Figure 6 that the present model, which considers the effect of
coupled shear deformation, can reach a result closer to that obtained from shell 181 than
that from beam189.
7 Conclusions
Based on the theories of Timoshenko’s beams and Vlasov’s thin-walled members, a
spatial thin-walled beam element with an interior node has been established by
independently interpolating bending angles and warp, which considers effects such as
the shear deformations and their coupling, the coupling of flexure and torsion, and
second shear stress. According to the generalized variational theory of Hellinger-
Reissner, the element stiffness matrix is deduced. On the basis of the model, a finite
element program has been developed by object-oriented C#.NET. Examples given in
the paper indicate that the model is accurate, robust and reliable. Results calculated by
the present model are very close to theoretical solutions and numerical ones by shell181,
respectively. It apparently excels beam189 in accuracy and can be applied to the finite
element analysis of thin-walled structures.
8 Acknowledgments
University and National Science and Technology Support Program (2008BAJ08B06).
The writers would like to acknowledge above supports.
References
[1] Magnucka-Blandzi E.. Critical state of a thin-walled beam under combined load.
Applied Mathematical Modelling, 2009; 33(7): 3093-3098.
[2] Setiyono H.. An alternative approach to the analytical determination of the moment
capacity of a thin-walled channel steel section beam. International Journal of
Mechanical Sciences, 2008; 50(8): 1280-1291.
[3] Setiyono H.. Plastic mechanism and elastic-analytical approaches applied to
estimate the strength of an axially compressed-thin-walled channel steel section
beam. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 2007; 49(3):257-266.
[4] Bottoni M., Mazzotti C., Savoia M.. A finite element model for linear viscoelastic
behaviour of pultruded thin-walled beams under general loadings. International
Journal of Solids and Structures, 2008; 45(3-4):770-793.
[5] Wang X.F., Yang Q.S.. Geometrically nonlinear finite element model of spatial
thin-walled beams with general open cross section. Acta Mechanica Solida Sinica,
2009; 22(1): 64-72.
[6] Emre E.R., Mohareb M.. Torsion analysis of thin-walled beams including shear
deformation effects. Thin-Walled Structures, 2007; 44(10):1096-1108.
1385
[7] Mohri F., Damil N., Ferry M.P.. Large torsion finite element model for thin-walled
beams. Computers and Structures, 2008; 86(7-8):671-683.
[8] Mohri F., Eddinari A., Damil N., Potier F.M.. A beam finite element for non-linear
analyses of thin-walled elements. Thin-Walled Structures, 2008; 46(7-9): 981-990.
[9] Yau J.D.. Lateral buckling analysis of angled frames with thin-walled I-beams.
Journal of Marine Science and Technology, 2009; 17(1): 29-33.
[10] Mohri F., Bouzerira C., Potier-Ferry M.. Lateral buckling of thin-walled beam-
column elements under combined axial and bending loads. Thin-Walled Structures,
2008; 46(3): 290-302.
[11] Ruta G.C., Varano V., Pignataro M., Rizzi N.L.. A beam model for the flexural-
torsional buckling of thin-walled members with some applications. Thin-Walled
Structures, 2008; 46(7-9): 816-822.
[12] Machado S.P.. Non-linear buckling and postbuckling behavior of thin-walled
beams considering shear deformation. International Journal of Non-Linear
Mechanics, 2008; 43(5):345-365.
[13] Goncalves R., Camotim D.. Thin-walled member plastic bifurcation analysis using
generalised beam theory. Advances in Engineering Software, 2007; 38(8-9): 637-
646.
[14] Tralli A.. Simple hybrid model for torsion and flexure of thin-walled beams,
Computers and Structures, 1986; 22(4):649-658.
[15] Back S.Y., Will K.M.. Shear-flexible element with warping for thin-walled open
beams. International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering, 1998; 43(7):
1173-1191.
[16] Gendy A.S., Saleeb A.F., Chang T.Y.P. Generalized thin-walled beam models for
flexural-torsional analysis. Computers and Structures, 1992; 42(4):531-550.
[17] Hong C., Blandford G.E.. C0 finite element formulation for thin-walled beams.
International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering, 1989; 28(10):2239-
2255.
[18] Hu Y.R., Jin X.D., Chen B.Z. Finite element model for static and dynamic analysis
of thin-walled beams with asymmetric cross-sections. Computers and Structures,
1996; 61(5): 897-908.
[19] Minghini F., Tullini N., Laudiero F.. Locking-free finite elements for shear
deformable orthotropic thin-walled beams, International Journal for Numerical
Methods in Engineering, 2007; 72(7): 808-834.
[20] Kim N., Kim M.Y.. Exact dynamic/static stiffness matrices of non-symmetric thin-
walled beams considering coupled shear deformation effects. Thin-Walled
Structures, 2005; 43(5):701-734.
1386
Finite Element Analysis and Improved Design of Cross-

shaped Cast Steel Joints in Reticulated Shell Structures
Yuan-qing WANG1*, Cui LUO1, Yong-jiu SHI1, Jun XIONG1, Guo-xing LI2, Zhao-yi
ZHANG3
1*
Key Laboratory of Civil Engineering Safety and Durability of China Education
Ministry, Department of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China;
wang-yq@mail.tsinghua.edu.cn
2
King Glass Engineering Ltd, Zhuhai 519015, P.R. China
3
Shenzhen Institute China Academy of Building Research, Shenzhen 518057, P.R.
China
Abstract
The forces acting and the stress distribution of spatial reticulated shell structures
in joint zone are very complex. Designing values of bearing capacities are given in the
existing common cast steel joints designing specifications, which is suitable for cast
steel joints only subjected to axial loads. The bearing capacity formulas for large
complicated joints haven`t been given. But in fact in most case, the cast steel joints
work under complex loads. So it is necessary to theoretically analyze cast joint bearing
performances. The structure types and the design of cross-shaped cast steel joints in
large span reticulated shell structures used for Singapore botanic gardens exhibition
greenhouse are described briefly in the paper. Non-linear analysis is done for the cross-
shaped cast steel joint by using ANSYS, a general finite element programme. Stress and
deformation distribution, load-displacement curve of the cross-shaped cast steel joint
are carried out and compared with a cast steel joint with weld connections which
regarded approximate rigid connections. An improved cast steel joint model is put
forward in this paper and compared with the initial one in mechanical properties. The
present investigation indicates that the improved cross-shaped cast steel joint under
design loads has sufficient strength and rigidity. The local stress concentration problem
can be lighten and bearing capacity of cast steel joint can increase.
Keywords: cast steel joint, reticulated shell structures, finite element analysis,
improved design
1 Introduction
In recent years, with the diversification of structural forms and the development of
casting technology, cast steel joints have been adopted extensively at present in
domestic complicated steel structures instead of large-scale, long-span and special joints.
Cast steel joint has the advantage of economizing material like cast steel tubular joint,
beauty, and also avoids welding residual stress problems while multiple rods connecting
the intersecting joints by welding [1]. Compared with traditional welded tubular joints,
1387
cast steel joints in the region of intersection rods have more reasonable stress
distribution and weld seam dispersion greatly reduces the welding stress
concentration[2] . Compared with ordinary welded joints, cast steel joints with the
advantages of attractive appearance, bearing capacity and convenient construction are
widely used in offshore platforms, bridges and high-rise buildings, particularly in long-
span reticulated shell structures[3]. Since the application of cast steel joints in China is
relatively not long, current "Technical Specification for Cast Steel Joints"[4] only
proposes regulations in cast steel joints design and construction, but does not submit the
mechanical properties evaluation for cast steel joints. In domestic researches on cast
steel joints mostly based on specific form of cast steel joints in specific projects, so it is
necessary to make analysis on the mechanical properties of special shape cast steel
joints used in Singapore Botanic Gardens Exhibition Greenhouse.
Based on the connection joints used in combined arch with shell steel structures of the
Singapore Botanic Gardens Exhibition Greenhouse, we carry out finite element analysis
on cross-shaped cast steel joints with bolt connections in this paper. We establish three-
dimensional model of the specimen via CAD software first, and then analyze
mechanical properties of cast steel joints by general analysis software ANSYS, with the
consideration of material nonlinearity and kinematic nonlinearity. In order to study the
feasibility of cast steel joints with bolted connection, this paper carries out the finite
element analysis on cast steel joints with fully welded connection (that is to replace the
bolt connections of the transfer and the end connector with welded connections),
through the establishment of cast steel joint model with fully welded connections and
loading on this model. And then compares the mechanical properties including bearing
capacity and deformation of cast steel joints with the two types of connection forms. In
this paper improvement in the form of the cast steel joints are also suggested. The
results of finite element calculation show that this improved crossed-shaped cast steel
joints could commendably meet the requirement of completely rigid connection, and
provide theoretical basis for applications of cast steel joints in practical engineering.
2 Engineering background
Singapore Botanic Gardens Exhibition Greenhouse is a large span structure by adopting
the arch and reticulated shell together, which is an arch-shell hybrid structure system
and rarely used in the current long-span spatial structures. Two exhibition greenhouses
structure are irregular ellipsoid (Figure 1). Externals of the architectures are composed
by arch and shell of curved surfaces. The arch which mainly subjects loads located at
the outside of the reticulated shell, and the cross-shaped cast steel joints (Figure 2)
between reticulated shell and arch transfer the loads from the arch to the reticulated
shell. The reticulated shell has two layers of glass above [5], with the structural spans
being 169.9m×90.2m, 117.5m×76.6m.External loads directly effect on the reticulated
shell, and then transfer to the arch through cast steel joints which make the reticulated
shell and arch work together. To offset the impact of temperature stress, part joints
separately designed in the structure adopt retractable cast steel joints with spring, which
forms a more complicated stress zone in the region of joints.
1388
Fig.1 Aerial view effect drawing map of Fig.2 Schematic diagram of cast steel
reticulated shell structures joints between arch and reticulated shell
3 FEM model
3.1 Geometric model

The part of cast steel joints which made of cast steel are composed of intermediate cast
steel connector, transfer and end connector, shown in Figure 3.Steel beam is made of
Q345B steel, with the cross section dimensions: 180mm×50mm×230mm×14mm, and
thickness: 20mm, shown in Figure 4. Bolts can be divided into two groups: one group is
inner hexagonal bolt, used to connect transfers and flanges of end connectors (Figure 3,
Bolts 1), made of stainless steel 316. According to the data provided by the
manufacturer, these bolts have the design value of yield strength fy=205N/mm2, the
design value of tensile strength fu=520N/mm2, the design value of compressive strength
fc=193.1MPa, the design value of shear strength fyv=117.2MPa; the other group is
known as Austenitic bolts A2-70(GB70-85), used to connect transfers and web plates of
end connectors (Figure 3 bolts 2). According to the data provided by the manufacturer,
this group of bolts have the design value of yield strength fy=320N/mm2, the design
value of tensile strength700N/mm2 [6], the design value of shear strength fyv=245MPa.
The intermediate cast steel connectors are integral casted with transfers together, and the
end connectors are welded to steel beams. The cast steel joint members aren`t in the
same plane, with the angle between two adjacent members of 87.5°and 92.5°(Figure 5
(a)), the angle between diagonal members of 170°and 180°(Figure 5 (b )), and detailed
structure is shown in Figure 5(c) below.
The initial design form of cast steel joints (Joint 1, Figure 3) leaves 8 bolt holes with the
diameter of 24mm on every member. Improved cross-shaped cast steel joints(Joint 2,
Figure 6) leaves 12 bolt holes with the diameter of 20mm on every member, and
thickness of steel beams increases to 30mm. "Hollow out" design of intermediate cast
steel connectors changes to solid design. The improved cross-shaped cast steel joint is
shown in Figure 6 as follows.
1389
180
end connector
intermediate cast
steel connector
beam
bolt 1
230
transfer
242
bolt 2
36
2
2
4
30
Fig.3 Initial design form of cast steel joints Fig 4 Dimensions of steel beams
(Joint 1)
B 180
90
0
.5
87
100
87
.5
0
A A
230
C C 80
0
.5
92
92
.5
0
B C-C
(a) (c)
0
A-A 170
B-B
(b)
Fig.5 Detailed structure
Fig. 6 Improved design form of cast steel joints (Joint 2)
1390
3.2 Finite element model

Finite element model of the cast steel joint is built by general finite element program
ANSYS, according to the actual size of the specimens. As the transfers and the end
connectors of the cast steel joints are of complex parts modeling, while finite element
analyzing, firstly use the powerful modeling software AUTOCAD drawing three-
dimension graph of the cast steel joint, and then import the graph data into the finite
element program via the interface of the two software to ensure the finite element model
completely simulation of the dimension of actual specimens. Hexahedron solid element
SOLID95 is used to sweep mesh the regular part of cast steel joint, tetrahedral solid
element SOLID92 is used to free mesh the irregular part, and strengthen the mesh
density of mesh in partial of connecting region appropriately.
The finite element analysis with the consideration of material nonlinearity and
kinematic nonlinearity, opening the large deformation control switch, activating the
automatic time step, use Newton-Raphson method during nonlinear iteration, and
reference force convergence criterion. Take into account the contact problems between
bolts and bolt holes, between transfers and the end connectors. During the establishment
of contact pairs, define target surface by three-dimensional target element TARGE170,
and define contact surface by three-dimensional eight-node contact element
CONTA174. The friction surface anti-slip coefficient is set as 0.3.
In order to better match with the actual situation, based on the test data, the material
properties model adopts a simplified three-linear hardening model during the finite
element analysis, as shown in Figure 7. The material parameters of cast steel list as
follows, the yield strength fy=240N/mm2, elastic modulus E=2.0×105N/mm2, modulus
of the enhanced section E1ZG=2500N/mm2, the average of tensile strength fu=440N/mm2.
The material parameters of steel beam list as follows, the average of measured yield
strength is 330N/mm2, elastic modulus is 2.06×105N/mm2, modulus of enhanced
section E1G is 520N/mm2, the average of tensile strength is 505N/mm2. Cast steel
material is assumed to comply with the Von Mises yield criterion and correlation flow
rules, which is suitable for the initial isotropic small strain situations, almost including
most of the metal [7]. Von Mises yield criterion is used to determine whether the
material come into the yield stage. Reference the researches on cast steel joints, without
considering of welding residual stress and the effect of weld seam on the bearing
capacity of cast steel joints. The mechanical property of bolts is as mentioned as before.
As is common bolts, the finite element model does not apply pre-tightening force on
bolts.
1391
440 505
330 E1G =520MPa

stress/MPa
E1ZG = 2500MPa
240
stress/MPa
E=200000MPa
E= 206000MPa
0 0 . 0012 0 . 08
strain 0 0 . 0016 0 . 34
(a) simplified stress-strain curve of cast steel (b) simplified stress-strain curve of beam
Fig. 7 Simplified stress-strain curves of material
In order to study the feasibility of adopting bolted connection in cast steel joints ,
provide theoretical basis and more reasonable form of cast steel joints for practical
engineering, this paper carries out the finite element analysis on cast steel joints
adopting fully welded connection(that is to replace the bolt connections of transfer and
the end connector with welded connections ), through the establishment of cast steel
joint model with fully welded connections and loading on it. The mechanical properties
including bearing capacity and deformation of two connection types of cast steel joints
are compared. The FEA model and meshing of cast steel bolted joint (Joint 1) are
shown in Figure 8. The FEA model and meshing of improved cast steel bolted joint
(Joint 2) are shown in Figure 9. The FEA model and meshing of cast steel welded joints
(Joint 3) are shown in Figure 10.
(a) finite element model of joint 1 (b) bolt connections zone
Fig. 8 Joint 1
1392
(a) finite element model of joint 2 (b) bolt connections zone
Fig. 9: Joint 2
(a) finite element model of joint 3 (b) welded connections zone
Fig. 10: Joint 3
In the process of multi-step loads finite element analysis, impose constraints at the end
of every beam, put vertical concentration loads at the center of cast steel joints. Loading
located at the center of cast steel joints are used to simulate the interaction between the
arch and the reticulated shell. Schematic diagram of loading is shown in Figure 11.
There is strong restriction effect on the beams in the structure, so in the finite element
analysis four beams are fixed to simulate the situation of actual constraints [8].
Fig. 11: Schematic diagram of loading
1393
4 Finite element analysis and results
4.1 Comparative analysis on stress and deformation of cast steel joints
Through finite element analysis, the deformation of joint 1 in the loading direction and
along the axial direction of beam are shown in Figure 12(a) and Figure 13(a), the
deformation of joint 2 in the loading direction and along the axial direction of beam as
shown in Figure 12(b) and Figure 13(b), the deformation of joint 3 in the loading
direction and along the axial direction of beam as shown in Figure 12(c) and Figure
13(c).
(a) joint 1 (b) joint 2 (c) joint 3
Fig. 12: Deformation contour along the loading direction
(a) joint 1 (b) joint 2 (c) joint 3
Fig. 13: Deformation contour along the axial direction of beam
Comparison of the finite element analysis results of the three cast steel joints,
conclusions are obtained as follows:
(1) The deformation distributions of the three cast steel joints are almost the same, and
the maximum displacement are all at the center of cast steel joints, which shows that the
form and connection type of cast steel joints have little influence on the deformation of
cast steel joints;
(2) When adopting bolted connection for the cast steel joint, the stress concentration
occurs around the bolt holes in condition of three-dimensional stress;
(3) Hollowed design of the center of cast steel joint (Joint 1) causes serious stress
concentration, and the formation of weak areas. The improved cast steel joint (Joint 2)
1394
shows more security. Without affecting the construction, the design of joint 2 is
suggested in practical engineering.
4.2 Comparative analysis on initial stiffness of cast steel joints

In order to get the best connection type and optimal form of cast steel joint, analysis on
the mechanical properties of the three cast steel joints are carried out. Compare the load
- deflection curves of cast steel bolted joint (Joint 1) with that of cast steel joint with
fully welded connection (Joint 3), compare the load - deflection curves of the pre-
improved cast steel joint (Joint 1) and that of the improved cast steel joint (Joint 2)
respectively. The load - deflection curves obtained by finite element analysis are shown
in Figure 14 as follows. Reference to the method of determining the initial rotational
stiffness Sj,ini in EC3 (Sj,ini taking value of secant stiffness when joint bending moment is
equal to 2/3 of beam's plastic anti-bending bearing capacity[9]), the definition of "initial
stiffness" of the cast steel joints is the value of secant stiffness when joint bending
moment is equal to 2/3 of beam's plastic anti-bending bearing capacity. Therefore datas
are obtained as shown in table 1. The plastic anti-bending bearing capacity of beam
Mpx=f y Wpx=330×369664×10-6 =121.99kN· m, 2/3 of Mpx is 81.33kN· m, so finite element
analysis value for "initial stiffness" of joint 1 is: 81.33kN/46.8mm=1.74e3kN/m, "initial
stiffness" of joint 2 is: 81.33kN/45.8mm=1.78e3kN/m, "initial stiffness" of joint 3
is:81.33kN/32.1mm =2.53e3kN/m.
Joint1
160 Joint2
Joint3
143.4
140
139.3
130.4
120
load /kN
100
81.33
80
60
40
20
46.8
0
45.8
0 20 32.1 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
deflection/mm
Fig. 14: Load-deflection curves
Table 1: Initial stiffness of cast steel joints (103kN/m)
Joint type Joint 1 Joint 2 Joint 3
Initial stiffness 1.74 1.78 2.53
Initial stiffness ratio 0.69 0.70 1
The figures and table show that:
1395
(1) The initial stiffness of cast steel bolted joint (Joint 1) is only 69% of that of fully
welded connection joint (Joint 3), so welded connection is suggested in practical
engineering.
(2) The initial stiffness of improved cast steel joint (Joint 2) is greater than that of pre-
improved cast steel joint, probably refer to the increase thickness of cast steel members
and solid design of the cast steel joint. Solid design of intermediate cast steel connectors
should be adopted if without affecting the construction in practical engineering.
(3) Since all the whole loading process curves of cast steel joints present significant
elastic-strengthening tendency, the increase section can be taken as the bearing capacity
reserve of cast steel joints.
(4) The load - deflection curves of joint 1 and joint 2 both appear a short platform at the
beginning of loading, maybe due to bolts slip.
5 Conclusions
Finite element analysis is expanded on the three forms of cross-shaped cast steel joints
in the spatial reticulated shell structure of the Singapore Botanic Gardens, and
comparison on mechanical properties of cast steel joints in various forms is carried out
in the paper. From the finite element analysis, we draw the following conclusion:
(1) The initial stiffness of cast steel bolted joints is only 69% of that of cast steel fully
welded connection joints, therefore welded connection is proposal in practical
engineering.
(2) The phenomenon of stress concentration around the bolts and bolt holes is serious,
which should be paid attention to. The mechanical properties of bolts should be study
combining with finite element simulation and experiment.
(3) The initial stiffness of the improved cast steel joint (Joint 2) has been increased, so
the proposed design in practical engineering should be joint 2 with the central region
solid design.
(4) The cast steel joints models established in ANSYS could reflect mechanical
properties of the cast steel joints accurately. It shows that finite element analysis could
obtain the mechanical properties of cast steel joints in a more comprehensive
assessment, and it can provide a useful reference for the engineering design of cast steel
joints.
6 Acknowledgements
This work has been supported by KGE Research Fund (No. 200801) and by a grant
from the Specialized Research Fund for the Doctoral Program of Higher Education (No.
20090002110046).
1396
References
[1] Ren Jia-ji. Design and test of cast steel joint. Steel Construction 2006; (02).
[2] Sun Peng; Wang Yuan-qing; Shi Yong-jiu. Non-linear analysis on cast tubular T-
joint loaded by in-plane bending [J]. Journal of Shandong Jianzhu
University2006;(01)
[3] Wang Yuan-qing; Shi Yong-jiu; Zhu Lei; He Dong-zhe. Nonlinear analysis for the
bearing properties of multiplanar tubular joints with square and circular hollow
sections [J]. Journal of Building Structures 2004; 25(4): 72-75.
[4] CECS 235:2008. Technical specification for application of connections of
structural steel casting. Beijing: China planning press, 2008.
[5] Wang Yuan-qing, Shi Yong-jiu, Gao Yang, Li Guo-xing, Wang Zai-fu, Zhang
Zhao-yi, Liu Jian. Design and related technologies of Singapore botanic gardens
exhibition greenhouse. Industrial building (supplement) 2009; 07:91-102.
[6] GB3098.6-2000. Mechanical properties of fasteners Bolts made of stainless-steel,
screws and stud. Beijing: China planning press, 2000.
[7] Cai Jian-guo, Feng Jian, Gu Hong-bo, Zong Zhong-ling. Practical application and
analysis of complex cast-steel joint. Steel Construction 2008; (04).
[8] Luo Xu-bin, Ma Jun. Nonlinear finite element analysis on the ultimate strength of
the cast steel base joints. Spatial structure, 2006;12(3):56-60.
[9] Shi Gang, Shi Yong-jiu, Wang Yuan-qing, Li Shao-fu, Chen Hong. Finite element
and experimental analysis on bolted end-plate connections in steel portal frames.
China Civil Engineering Journal 2004;(07).
1397
Tensile force correction calculation method

Xin ZHUO1, Guo-fa ZHANG1, Koichiro ISHIKAWA2, Jian-ting Wu3
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
zhuoxin@zju.edu.cn
2
Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Fukui University,
Fukui 910-8507, Japan
3
Zhejiang Zhancheng Construction Group Co., Ltd., Hangzhou 310005, China
Abstract
Factors such as errors during the fabrication or construction of structural
components and errors of calculation assumption or calculation methods, are very likely
causing serious deviation of many string’s actual prestressing forces from the designed
values during tension structure construction or service period, and further threatening
the safety and reliability of the structure. Aiming at relatively large errors of the
prestressing force of strings in a tension structure construction or service period, this
paper proposes a new finite element method (FEM), the “tensile force correction
calculation method”. Based on the measured prestressing forces of the strings, this new
method applies the structure from the zero prestressing force status approach to the
measured prestressing force status for the first phase, and from the measured
prestressing force status approach to the designed prestressing force status for the
second phase. The construction tensile force correction value for each string can be
obtained by multi-iteration with FEM. Using the results of calculation, the string’s
tensile force correction by group and in batch will be methodic, simple and accurate.
This new calculation method can be applied to the prestressed correction construction
simulation analysis for tension structures.
Key words: Tension structures, Prestressed construction, High precision
1 Introduction
Tension structures, such as prestressed spatial grid structures and suspend-dome, etc.,
combine the rigid beams or rods with the flexible strings. The structural efficiencies of
such new types of structural systems are enhanced because the structural rigidity is
increased and the distribution of forces in the whole structure is improved by the
string’s prestressing force. Scholars have studied the analysis theories and calculation
methods for this structure system (Saiton et al., 1993; Kawaguchi et al., 1993; Chen and
Li, 2005; Zhang et al., 2004; 2005). However, the research topics concerning the
mechanics analysis in the course of construction were just begun a few years ago. Some
studies put stress on investigation of experiment (Tagawa et al., 1994; Yamagata et al.,
1994; Kawaguchi and Abe, 1999; Miyasato et al., 1999). Some studies focus on the
analysis theories and the calculation methods (Saiton et al., 2001; Dong et al., 2003;
1398
Zhuo and Ishikawa, 2004; Zhuo and Yuan, 2004; Zhuo et al., 2004; Lu and Shen, 2005).
The key for constructing tension structures is the prestressed construction of many
strings. It is unable to calculate accurately the string’s prestressing force of tension
structures in the structural design or construction simulation analysis, because such non-
ideal factors as the errors of calculation assumption or calculation methods, the errors of
fabrication or construction of structural components, the effects of construction or
temperature loads, and the effects of the material deformation or friction of structural
components, etc., are unavoidable. These non-ideal factors are very likely to cause the
actual prestressing forces of many string deviating seriously from the designed values
during a tension structure construction course or service period, and thus the safety and
reliability of the structure would be threaten. In order to achieve high precision control
of the prestressing forces of the tension structure, the work of construction correction is
absolutely necessary.
The mechanics analysis of tension structures in the course of construction is a hot
research topic in recent years. These researches have basically solved the issue of
mechanics analysis and calculation method of tension structures in the course of
introducing initial prestressing forces construction (Saiton et al., 2001; Dong et al.,
2003; Zhuo and Ishikawa, 2004; Zhuo and Yuan, 2004; Zhuo et al., 2004; Lu and Shen,
2005), but not the issue of analysis and calculation method of high precision controlling
of prestressing forces for tension structures based on measured data during construction
or service period. Aiming at the tension structures with big errors in prestressing force
during construction or service period, a new calculation method, so called “tensile force
correction calculation method”, is put forward in this paper. Based on the values of
string’s measured prestressing forces, the tensile force correction value, which means
the string’s tensile force control values in actual construction correction of each string
can be obtained by this calculation method. The calculation results showed that the
string’s tensile force correction construction work by group and in batch is methodic,
simple and accurate.
2 Principle of tensile force correction calculation method

Many string’s measured prestressing forces in a tension structure have large errors, and
should be carried out by group and in batch construction correction method. Here, the
group, as a space parameter, refers to some strings tensioned at the same time, and the
batch, as a time parameter, refers to the sequence of the strings tensioned. The groups
and the batches should be decided on the distribution of the strings in the structure and
the actual construction conditions.
The prestressed construction correction analysis is divided into two phases. In the
first phase, the analysis is started at the “zero prestressing force status” of the
structure, and ended at the “measured prestressing force status” of the structure with
prestressing force errors. The subsistent tensile force calculation values of each
string are forced to meet the measured values through structural finite element
analysis. In the second phase, the starting point of analysis is the “measured
prestressing force status”, and the ending point is the ideal “designed prestressing
force status” of the structure. The error status continuously approaches and finally
1399
reaches the ideal status through structural analysis and calculation, so the
construction tension correction values of each string could be obtained.
The traditional concept of prestressing force should be changed and fractionized,
because the construction correction of string’s prestressing forces in a tension structure
includes the factors of time and space. Assume n groups of strings in a tension structure
tensioned in n batches. The parameters are defined as follows: (1) construction control
tensile force Tij(k,m): the prestressing force construction controlling value of the ith
string in the jth batch tensioning construction; (2) subsistent tensile force Fij(k,m): the
prestressing force value of the ith string in the jth batch tensioning construction; (3)
target tensile force Pi(m): in the first analysis phase, it is the prestressing force measured
value of the ith string after the structure construction completed or in the service period;
in the second analysis phase, it is the prestressing force value of the ith string which
should meet, i.e., the prestressing force design value of the string. Where m is the step
of analysis phase, m＝1, 2; k is the step of iteration, k=1, 2, 3, …; i is the string’s
number, i=1, 2, 3, …, n; j is the tension construction sequence number, j=1, 2, 3, …,
n.The tensile force correction calculation uses the iteration approximation methods. The
second phase analysis is carried out after the first phase. The calculation principles and
methods of two analysis phases are basically the same. The analysis methods and the
calculation procedures could be summarized as follows:
(1) For the first iteration k=1, the structural geometrical nonlinear finite element method
(FEM) analysis is performed in terms of the construction tensioning sequence. When
calculating the strings of the jth group in the ith batch of tensioning, the construction
control tensile forces of strings are forced to be equal to the target tensile forces, i.e.,
Tij(1,m)= Pi(m), and the subsistent tensile forces Fij(1,m) of other strings which have
been tensioned in structure are calculated at the same time. All of the subsistent tensile
forces of each batch of strings have changed except that of the last batch strings when
calculating the nth group of the last batch of the strings. The value of tension force
change of each group strings is Fij(2,m)=Tij(1,m)−Fij(1,m).
(2) For the second iteration k=2, the construction control tensile force value of each
group strings in the first iteration is modified by compensating the value of tension
change. The construction control tensile force of the strings in the second iteration is
Tij(2,m)=Tij(1,m)+Fij(2,m).
The construction control tensile forces of the strings are forced to equal to Tij(2,m) and
the subsistent tensile forces of other strings tensioned in structure Fij(2,m) are calculated
at the same time. After calculating the nth group of the last batch of the strings, the
tensile force change of each group strings is Fij(3,m)=Tij(2,m)−Fij(2,m).
The results of iteration k=3, 4, … can be obtained in terms of the same principle.
(3) At the end of the kth iteration, if Pi(m)− Fin(k,m)ε0, i.e., the difference between the
actual value and the designed value of the string’s tensile force is less than a certain
amount, the iteration could be terminated. The flow chart of calculation method is
showed in Fig.1.
The results of the kth iteration in the first analysis phase are listed in Table 1. The
subsistent tensile forces of the last row, F1n(k,1), F2n(k,1), …, Fin(k,1), …, Tnn(k,1),
equal the measured tension values of each string, P1(1), P2(1), …, Pi(1), …, Pn(1).
1400
The results of the kth iteration in the second analysis phase are listed in Table 2. The
results on the diagonals, T11(k,2), T22(k,2), …, Tij(k,2), …, Tnn(k,2), are the construction
control tensile force values of the strings of groups 1, 2, …, n. These values are the
construction tension correction values of actually construction correction tensioning by
group and in batch, which are the major results that the new calculation method in this
paper seeks for. The last row, F1n(k,2), F2n(k,2), …, Fin(k,2), …, Tnn(k,2), presents the
final subsistent tensile force values of the strings which are equal to their designed
tension values, P1(2), P2(2), …, Pi(2), …, Pn(2), respectively, with the construction
correction tensioning method by group and in batch. This is the final target of the
calculation method in this paper as well as the high precision control of prestressed
construction for tension structures.
Calculating construction control tensile

force Tij(k,m)
Calculating the strings of the jth group in the ith

batch of tensioning
Calculating value of tension force change

of each group strings Fij(k,m)
No
Pi(m)−Fin(k,m)≤ε0
Yes
Exit
Fig.1: Flow chart of tensile force correction calculation method
3 Illustrative Example and Discussions

3 .1 Overview of the project
A prestressed spatial grid structure project with 27 m span, 24 m length and 24 m
height is shown in Fig.2. The distances to the first quarter plane and the last quarter
plane are both 2 m. The nodes are of bolt spherical node type. The rods are two
types of steel tubes with 216.3 mm×7.0 mm and 114.3 mm×6.0 mm circular hollow
sections
1401
Table 1: Results of the first analysis phase

Tension String number
construction
sequence
1 2 … i … n
number
1 T11(k,1) 0 … 0 … 0
2 F12(k,1) T22(k,1) … 0 … 0
…
…
j F1j(k,1) F2j(k,1) … Tij(k,1) … 0
0
…
…
n n n
n F1 (k,1) F2 (k,1) … Fi (k,1) … Tnn(k,1)
Table 2: Results of the second analysis phase

Tension String number
construction
sequence
number 1 2 … i … n
1 T11(k,2) F21(k,2) … Fi1(k,2) … Fn1(k,2)
2 F12(k,2) T22(k,2) … Fi2(k,2) … Fn2(k,2)
…
j F1j(k,2) F2j(k,2) … Tij(k,2) … Fnn(k,2)

…
n F1n(k,2) F2n(k,2) … Fin(k,2) … Tnn(k,2)
(CHSs), and the Young’s modulus of the steel was 200 GPa. Wall strings of groups
1~6 with prestressing force maximum allowable value of 500 kN, symmetrically
distributed at two sides of the structure, are to potentiate the side walls of the spatial
grid structure. Strings connected to the lower node of the grid structure are for
tensioning in construction. Roof strings of groups 7~12 with prestressing force
maximum allowable value of 650 kN, are to reinforce the top of the structure. The
string’s group numbers are showed in Fig.2a.
After the internal force tests of the structure carried out the prestressed construction,
large errors between the actual prestressing forces and the designed values were
found in many strings, and construction correction on the prestressing forces of the
strings should be carried out. The actual values Pi(1) and the designed Pi(2) values
of the prestressing forces of active wall strings and roof strings are showed in Table
3.
1402
3.2 Analysis of calculation results

When applying the tensioning construction correction method by group and in batch,
the tensioning sequence number was set the same as the string group number. Two
symmetrical wall strings constituted one group and were tensioned in sequence from 1
to 6, and roof strings were tensioned in sequence from 7 to 12. The construction
simulation analysis of the structure applied the tensile force correction calculation
method submitted in this paper, and four iterations was done in terms of the calculation
procedure and formulae of the first and the second analysis phases. Due to the limited
space of this paper, only the strings’ calculation results of four iterations in the first and
second analysis phases were listed in Table 4 and Table 5, respectively, showing that:
12
11
6 10
5 9
4 8
3 7 6
1 2 5
4
3
2
1
(a)
Roof strings
Wall strings Wall strings
(b)
Fig.2: Structural sketch and string. (a) Perspective
view; (b) Front view
Table 3: Target tensile force values of strings
Pi(1) Pi(2) Pi(1)
i i Pi(2) (kN)
(kN) (kN) (kN)
1 123.00 300 7 323.00 450
2 209.26 300 8 209.26 450
3 325.67 300 9 425.67 450
4 340.58 300 10 409.58 450
5 292.50 300 11 492.50 450
6 243.00 300 12 343.00 450
Note: i is the string’s number; Pi(1) is the prestressing force measured value of the ith
string after the structure construction completed or in the service period; Pi(2) is the
prestressing force design value of the ith string.
1403
Table 4: Calculation results in the first analysis phase

String’s tension (kN)
k j
i=1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 123.00
2 110.15 209.26
3 103.07 200.40 325.67
4 99.41 194.42 311.29 409.58
5 102.80 195.46 306.67 401.11 292.50
6 108.05 198.06 304.09 395.44 277.16 243.00
1
7 127.58 214.18 311.01 398.51 274.01 236.31 323.00
8 138.28 218.75 315.96 401.66 273.76 234.27 301.62 209.26
9 146.19 227.09 322.76 410.33 279.99 239.17 288.85 189.67 425.67
10 148.99 231.86 330.71 416.93 288.93 248.66 285.06 180.42 401.72 409.58
11 143.38 230.74 338.28 429.32 301.84 276.64 295.60 184.62 388.73 384.30 492.50
12 137.58 227.95 341.00 435.60 317.41 294.57 305.95 190.96 384.56 373.12 457.17 343.00
1 108.42
2 96.72 190.57
3 89.97 182.13 310.34
4 86.55 176.53 296.86 383.56
5 89.64 177.48 292.59 375.81 267.59
6 93.78 179.53 290.59 371.33 255.48 191.43
2
7 114.34 196.50 297.88 374.57 252.16 184.39 340.05
8 126.00 201.47 303.27 378.00 251.89 182.17 316.80 227.56
9 134.67 210.63 310.73 387.51 258.72 187.53 302.80 206.09 466.78
10 137.73 215.83 319.38 394.69 268.46 197.87 298.66 196.01 440.72 446.04
11 131.72 214.63 327.50 407.96 282.28 227.84 309.96 200.51 426.79 418.96 527.83
12 125.92 211.84 330.22 414.23 297.83 245.71 320.29 206.82 422.63 407.79 492.56 343.00
1 105.51
2 93.95 188.00
3 87.30 179.68 305.78
4 83.92 174.14 292.47 378.90
5 86.96 175.07 288.28 371.31 262.24
6 91.04 177.09 286.31 366.89 250.32 188.72
3
7 111.77 194.20 293.67 370.15 246.97 181.62 342.78
8 123.55 199.23 299.11 373.62 246.69 179.38 319.26 230.01
9 132.27 208.44 306.61 383.20 253.57 184.78 305.17 208.39 469.82
10 135.34 213.67 315.31 390.40 263.35 195.16 301.02 198.28 443.66 447.82
11 129.33 212.46 323.42 403.67 277.17 225.12 312.31 202.77 429.74 420.75 527.76
12 123.54 209.68 326.14 409.94 292.71 242.99 322.64 209.08 425.57 409.58 492.50 343.00
1 104.18
2 92.71 186.48
3 86.13 178.24 302.88
4 83.36 173.71 292.00 378.53
5 86.39 174.64 287.81 370.95 262.05
6 90.47 176.66 285.84 366.53 250.12 188.76
4
7 111.22 193.79 293.20 369.80 246.77 181.66 343.15
8 123.01 198.81 298.65 373.27 246.49 179.42 319.63 230.19
9 131.73 208.03 306.15 382.85 253.37 184.82 305.54 208.57 469.91
10 134.80 213.25 314.83 390.05 263.15 195.19 301.38 198.46 443.75 447.81
11 128.79 212.05 322.95 403.32 276.96 225.15 312.67 202.95 429.84 420.74 527.74
12 123.00 209.26 325.67 409.58 292.50 243.00 323.00 209.26 425.67 409.58 492.50 343.00
Note: Data with underline represent construction control tensile forces; data in bold represent prestressing force measured
values of the strings; k is the step of iteration; i is the string’s number; j is the tension construction sequence number.
1) At the end of the first analysis phase, the calculation values of prestressing forces of
all strings in Table 4 have met their measured values in the structure status with the
prestressing force errors. And, at the end of the second analysis phase, the calculation
1404
Table 5: Calculation results in the second analysis phase

String’s tension (kN)
k j
i=1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 300.00 199.72 322.41 408.15 294.00 245.94 336.88 222.96 431.00 411.86 489.93 338.52
2 294.77 300.00 320.01 406.83 294.23 246.76 343.45 226.08 433.96 413.74 489.72 337.35
3 295.12 300.47 300.00 407.45 294.49 246.91 342.93 225.42 433.53 413.17 489.31 337.13
4 295.95 301.86 303.37 300.00 297.01 248.80 341.72 223.18 430.50 410.83 485.74 334.35
5 295.97 301.87 303.33 299.93 300.00 248.64 341.69 223.17 430.55 410.92 485.83 334.54
1 6 296.83 302.30 302.92 298.98 297.22 300.00 340.39 222.43 431.22 412.46 489.80 338.58
7 302.67 307.36 304.95 299.86 296.31 298.12 450.00 211.04 427.60 411.11 491.84 341.91
8 314.84 312.47 310.48 303.33 295.98 295.84 425.90 450.00 416.25 405.14 493.39 346.23
9 315.47 313.12 310.97 303.96 296.39 296.11 424.88 448.48 450.00 403.23 492.59 345.85
10 315.85 313.69 311.84 304.63 297.29 296.99 424.35 447.37 447.35 450.00 490.48 344.43
11 316.23 313.74 311.26 303.70 296.42 294.93 423.61 447.11 448.36 451.92 450.00 348.51
12 314.49 312.91 312.08 305.58 301.11 300.34 426.71 449.00 447.11 448.57 439.46 450.00
1 285.51 200.51 322.68 408.27 293.88 245.70 335.75 221.86 430.56 411.67 490.14 338.89
2 280.99 287.09 320.61 407.12 294.08 246.41 341.42 224.54 433.13 413.30 489.97 337.88
3 281.57 287.86 287.92 408.15 294.50 246.66 340.57 223.45 432.41 412.37 489.28 337.51
4 282.44 289.33 291.49 294.42 297.17 248.65 339.29 221.08 429.20 409.89 485.51 334.57
5 282.45 289.34 291.47 294.38 298.89 248.56 339.27 221.08 429.24 409.94 485.56 334.68
2 6 283.31 289.77 291.06 293.43 296.12 299.66 337.97 220.33 429.89 411.48 489.51 338.69
7 290.52 296.02 293.57 294.53 295.01 297.34 473.29 206.27 425.43 409.81 492.03 342.82
8 302.97 301.24 299.23 298.07 294.67 295.01 448.62 451.00 413.80 403.70 493.61 347.24
9 303.71 301.99 299.80 298.80 295.14 295.32 447.43 449.24 452.89 401.48 492.69 346.79
10 304.11 302.60 300.73 299.52 296.10 296.26 446.86 448.06 450.06 451.43 490.43 345.27
11 304.39 302.64 300.29 298.83 295.46 294.74 446.32 447.86 450.81 452.84 460.54 348.29
12 302.65 301.80 301.12 300.72 300.16 300.16 449.42 449.76 449.55 449.49 449.98 450.00
1 282.86 200.65 322.73 408.29 293.85 245.65 335.54 221.65 430.48 411.64 490.18 338.96
2 278.44 285.29 320.71 407.17 294.05 246.35 341.08 224.27 432.99 413.22 490.00 337.97
3 279.04 286.09 286.81 408.24 294.49 246.61 340.20 223.14 432.25 412.27 489.30 337.59
4 279.92 287.57 290.40 293.70 297.18 248.61 338.91 220.76 429.02 409.77 485.50 334.63
5 279.93 287.57 290.38 293.66 298.74 248.53 338.89 220.75 429.05 409.82 485.55 334.73
3 6 280.78 288.01 289.97 292.72 295.98 299.51 337.60 220.01 429.70 411.35 489.49 338.73
7 288.04 294.29 292.50 293.82 294.85 297.17 473.87 205.85 425.20 409.67 492.02 342.88
8 300.53 299.53 298.18 297.38 294.51 294.83 449.13 451.25 413.55 403.54 493.61 347.31
9 301.28 300.30 298.75 298.12 294.99 295.15 447.92 449.45 453.34 401.29 492.67 346.86
10 301.69 300.91 299.70 298.85 295.97 296.15 447.35 448.25 450.47 451.94 490.38 345.32
11 301.97 300.96 299.26 298.16 295.33 294.58 446.81 448.06 451.21 453.35 460.56 348.33
12 300.23 300.12 300.09 300.05 300.02 300.00 449.90 449.95 449.96 450.00 450.00 450.00
1 283.35 200.58 322.69 339.27 293.86 245.67 335.60 221.68 430.50 411.64 490.17 338.94
2 278.88 286.24 320.64 338.14 294.06 246.37 341.21 224.35 433.03 413.25 489.99 337.94
3 279.44 286.98 289.13 339.13 294.47 246.61 340.39 223.30 432.35 412.36 489.34 337.59
4 279.78 287.56 290.55 293.95 295.53 247.41 339.89 222.36 431.07 411.38 487.84 336.42
5 279.81 287.57 290.50 293.87 299.04 247.22 339.84 222.35 431.14 411.48 487.95 336.65
4 6 280.69 288.02 290.08 292.89 296.19 299.81 338.51 221.59 431.81 413.06 492.01 340.78
7 287.90 294.26 292.59 293.98 295.07 297.49 473.82 207.52 427.35 411.39 494.53 344.90
8 300.30 299.46 298.23 297.52 294.73 295.16 449.25 451.20 415.77 405.31 496.11 349.30
9 301.00 300.18 298.77 298.21 295.18 295.47 448.12 449.51 453.16 403.19 495.22 348.88
10 301.39 300.77 299.67 298.91 296.12 296.38 447.57 448.36 450.41 451.72 493.03 347.40
11 301.70 300.82 299.20 298.16 295.42 294.71 446.98 448.15 451.22 453.27 460.31 350.70
12 300.00 300.00 300.00 300.00 300.00 300.00 450.00 450.00 450.00 450.00 450.00 450.00
Note: data with underline represent construction control tensile forces; data in bold represent prestressing force design
values of the strings; k is the step of iteration; i is the string’s number; j is the tension construction sequence number.
values of prestressing forces of all strings in Table 5 have met their designed values in
the ideal structure status without any errors of prestressing force;
1405
(2) The initial subsistent tensile forces of all strings listed in Table 3, 123.00, 209.26,
325.67, 340.58, 292.50, 243.00, 323.00, 209.26, 425.67, 409.58, 492.50, 343.00 kN, are
the measured tensions in Table 4 when k is 4. The subsistent tensile forces of all strings
meet their target tensile forces after analysis and calculation by applying the calculation
method described in this paper. According to the sequence from 1 to 12 which is
identical to the calculation, and applied the calculation results of construction control
tensile forces, 283.35, 286.24, 289.13, 293.95, 299.04, 299.81, 473.82, 451.20, 453.16,
451.72, 460.31, 450.00 kN, in Table 5 at k=4, the actual tensions of each string would
meet their designed tensions at the end of the 12th string tensioned during actual
prestressed construction correction;
(3) From the calculation results at k=4 in Table 5, it is shown that the maximum
tensions on wall strings in groups 1~6 have ever reached 339.27 kN and the maximum
tensions on roof strings in groups 7~12 ever reached 496.11 kN during prestressed
construction correction. These values are all less than the maximum allowable
prestressing forces, though higher than the designed tensions. Likewise, the calculation
results have shown also that no rod in the structure has been overstressed during
prestressed construction correction. Therefore this construction correction plan is
feasible. If calculation results indicate that the subsistent tensile force of some strings
exceeds the allowable values or the internal force of some rods exceeds the allowable
values during the prestressed construction correction, it could be solved by optimizing
tensioning sequence or increasing the tensioning grade quantity;
(4) It is obvious that increasing iteration times will lead to more precise result. But it is
good enough to do compensation iterations three times for real projects in general.
4 Conclusion
The correction of prestressing forces in actual construction should follow the
sequence determined by the calculations, and tensioning the strings of each group
one by one at the controlling values of actual prestressed construction which are the
construction correction values. When the tensioning of the last string is done, the
internal forces of all strings would meet the respective designed values of
prestressing force.
The calculation method in this paper is a high-efficiency step-by-step approximation.
Theoretically, it needs many iterations to achieve the final result. But, for the actual
engineering application, the result obtained from 2 or 3 iterations is good enough to
reach the required precision.
The calculation method could obtain not only the construction tension correction
values of the strings, but also the internal force values and the node displacement
values of all structural components in each batch of tensioning. Therefore, using the
calculation method illustrated in this paper and supported by structural analysis
software, the construction correction simulation analysis on tension structures could
be carried out easily.
1406
References
[1] Chen, Z.H., Li, Y., Parameter analysis on stability of a suspendome. International
Journal of Space Structures 005;(2):115-124. [doi:10.1260/0266351054764218]
[2] Dong, S.L., Zhuo, X., Zhou, Y.G., One-time pretensioning analysis method for
prestressed space truss. Journal of Zhejiang University (Engineering Science),
2003;37(6):629-633 (in Chinese).
[3] Kawaguchi, M., Abe, M., Design, Tests and realization of “suspend-dome” system.
Journal of IASS, 1999;40(131): 179-192.
[4] Kawaguchi, M., Abe, M., Hatato, T., On a Structural System “Suspend-dome”.
Proceedings of IASS Symposium, Istanbul, 1993, 120-129.
[5] Lu, F.H., Shen, Z.Y., Control of erection of hybridized space structure using the
modified cyclic iteration and initial length control methods. Journal of Building
Structures, 2005;26(3):92-97 (in Chinese).
[6] Miyasato, N., Saiton, M., Okada, A., Basic Study on Erection Planning Method for
Beam String Structure. Summaries of Technical Papers of Annual Meeting
Architectural Institute of Japan, Tyugoku, 1999;1029-1030 (in Japanese).
[7] Saiton, M., Okada, A., Kashimura, T., Study on Structural Characteristic of Hybrid
Skeleton with Tension Strings. Summaries of Technical Papers of Annual Meeting
Architectural Institute of Japan, Kanntou, 1993; 1419-1422 (in Japanese).
[8] Saiton, M., Okada, A., Miyasato, N., Proposal of Reversed Progress Technique for
Tension Structures and its Application. IASS Symposium, Nagoya, 2001; 128-129.
[9] Tagawa, H., Saiton, M., Okada, A., Mutoh, K., Mechanical Behavior of Hybrid
Skeleton with Tension String during Construction. Summaries of Technical Papers
of Annual Meeting Architectural Institute of Japan, Toukai, 1994; 2011-2012 (in
Japanese).
[10] Yamagata, S., Saiton, M., Okada, A., Oota, M., 1994. Experimental Studies on
Structural Characteristic of Hybrid Skeleton with Tension Strings. Summaries of
Technical Papers of Annual Meeting Architectural Institute of Japan, Toukai,
p.2007-2008 (in Japanese).
[11] Zhang, M.S., Bao, H.Z., Zhang, Z.H., Dong, S.L., Optimal prestress design of
suspen-domes. 2004; Spatial Structures, 10(3):26-30 (in Chinese).
[12] Zhang, Z.H., Dong, S.L., Yukio, T., Mechanical analysis of a type hybrid spatial
structure composed of cables, bars and beams. International Journal of Space
Structures, 2005;20(1):43-51. [doi:10.1260/0266351054214344]
[13] Zhuo, X., Ishikawa, K., Tensile force compensation analysis method and
application in construction for hybrid structures. International Journal of Space
Structures, 2004; 19(1):39-46. [doi:10.1260/026635104322988353]
[14] Zhuo, X., Yuan, X.F., Tensile forces emulational analysis of prestressed cables for
multistage tension construction method. Civil Engineering Journal, 2004;
37(9):27-30 (in Chinese).
1407
[15] Zhuo, X., Mao, H.J., Dong, S.L., 2004. Reverse analysis method of construction
control tensile force for prestressed space structures. Construction Technology
Journal, 33(11):4-5 (in Chinese).
1408
Induced moments considerations for geometrically nonlinear

analysis of 3D framed structures
Yi ZHOU1*, Zu-Yan SHEN 2,Yuan-Qi LI2
1*
suzhouzhouyi@yahoo.com.cn
2
Abstract
The geometrically nonlinear analysis of 3D framed structures has focused on the
treatment of the difficulties associated with finite nodal rotations. This paper aims to
discuss the nature of the internal moment which related to the geometrically nonlinear
analysis of 3D framed structures. Different approximations may automatically reveal
different natures for moments arising from internal stress fields. Due consideration is
taken of the 3D rotational behavior of nodal moments, in the Update Lagrangian
formulation, the geometric stiffness matrix enforced into induced moment matrix is
asymmetric. However, by enforcing all the joints to remain in equilibrium in the
deformed configuration, the antisymmetric parts of the geometric stiffness matrices
cancel out, resulting in a symmetric stiffness matrix for the structure. The Co-rotational
formulation excludes the rigid body rotation of the element, and that account of this
aspect requires the addition of a stability matrix to the natural tangent stiffness matrix.
In this stability matrix of a spatial beam element need fully account for the behaviour of
the nodal forces and moments over rigid body rotation. The neglect of the rotational
behaviour of nodal moments has led to omitting a joint moment matrix in the predictor
phase and an induced moment matrix in the corrector phase for the Update Lagrangian
framework, and deriving for an incorrect stability matrix in the Co-rotational
formulation. It is shown through numerical examples that the neglect of the rotational
behaviour of nodal moments, the Update Lagrangian formulation and the Co-rotational
formulation cannot accurately detect the flexural-torsional buckling load of spatial
structures in which the members are not connected collinearly.
Keywords: Update Lagrangian formulation; Co-rotational formulation; induced

moments
1 Introduction
In the past two decades, the two most popular frameworks in which the stiffness
matrices of a beam finite element for geometrically nonlinear analysis of 3D framed
structures have been derived appear to be the Updated Lagrangian and the Co-rotational
formulations. Recently, the treatment of the difficulties associated with finite nodal
rotation in 3D space which induces the following moment increments has received
1409
considerable attention by numerous researches. The element stiffness equation

containing the induced moment matrix is valid for a single discrete element. Unlike the
discrete elements, an element containing such a joint moment matrix is ready for
connection with other elements, as it satisfies all conditions of equilibrium for the two
ends of the element in the deformed configuration. For the Update Lagrangian
framework, the actual behaviour of nodal moments should be enforced into the
conventional geometric stiffness matrix through the additional matrix. In the context of
the Co-rotational formulation, the correct stability matrix should account for the change
in the direction of the nodal forces due to rigid body rotation and the behaviour of nodal
moments under rotations during an incremental displacement.
2 Rotational behaviour of nodal moments in the Update Lagrangian

and Co-rotational formulation
2.1 Nature of moments undergoing rotations
In three-dimensional nonlinear analysis, because of the different properties of the

bending moments and the torque, the following moment increments will be induced
when the element is subject to rotations which occur during an incremental step. The
moments can be considered the internal moment generated as stress resultants over the
cross section of each element of the structure. By definition, a moment generated as a
couple of direct forces is referred to as a quasitangential (QT) moment, and a moment
generated as two couples of direct forces as a semitangential (ST) moment. With
reference to Fig. 1, it is easy to see that different moment increments will be induced by
the QT and ST moments, all of which are initially of magnitude Mx and acting along the
x-axis at configuration C1. Such moment increments were also referred to as induced
moments by Yang and Kuo [4], as they were generated by rotation of existing moments.
When defined as stress resultants, the bending moment and St Venant torque should be
interpreted as the QT and ST moments, respectively.
x Mx x Mx x Mx
Mxθz 1_ M
-Mxθy 2 xθz - 1_2 Mxθy
y z y z y z
QT-1 QT-2 ST
Fig.1: Various moment mechanism
Based on the preceding definitions, Argyris, et al. [2, 3] have shown that the torque 1Mx
acting at C1 is a semitangential (ST) moment, and the bending moments 1My and 1Mz are
quasitangential (QT) moments, in the sense that the moments given in Eq. (1) will be
1410
induced when subjected to the 3D rotations θ x , θ y , and θ z :
11 1
∆M y = − M zθ x ∆M x = 1M zθ y
2 ； 2
11 1
∆M z = M yθ x ； ∆M x = − 1M yθ z (1)
2 2
Note that the induced moments given in Eq. (1) are associated with the rigid rotations of
the cross section on which the torque or moments act, which have nothing to do with
straining or deformation of the element.
2.2 Joint equilibrium conditions in the deformed configuration
One particular problem that has often been addressed by researchers on the buckling of
3D frames, including the out of- plane buckling of plane frames, is the so-called lack of
equilibrium for angled joints in the buckling configuration, although they were
equilibrated by bending moments in the initial configuration. This problem seems to be
first noted by Argyris, et al. [2, 3], which originates from the difference in the rotational
properties of moments about different axes.
In order to resolve this problem, Argyris, et al. [2, 3] suggested that the QT mechanism
of the bending moment should be replaced by the ST mechanism. By so doing, the
equilibrium of the angled joint in the buckling configuration can be maintained, and a
correction matrix should be added to the element stiffness matrix. Basically, the same
semitangential definition was adopted by Yang and McGuire in formulating a beam
element with seven degrees of freedom for the nonlinear analysis of framed structures
composed of I-sections. Yang and McGuire [4] have also been demonstrated that
whenever the conditions of equilibrium are enforced for each node of the structure, the
antisymmetric parts of the geometric stiffness matrices of all elements meeting at the
same node cancel out.
2.3 Induced moment matrix and joint moment matrix in the Updated
Lagrangian framework
In the present work, the actual behavior of nodal moments is enforced into the
conventional geometric stiffness matrix through the induced moment matrix in the
corrector phase.
{ f } = ([ke ] + [k g ] + [ki ]){un } (2)
Where {un } denotes the natural deformations obtained by excluding the rigid body
motions form the element displacement {u} . [ki ] is asymmetrical for an individual
element due to the lack of conjugateness between the bending moments and the rotation
1411
degrees of freedom. It can be expressed in matrix form as follows:
[ki ] = diag[[ 0 ] [ki ]A [ 0] [ki ]B ] (3)
⎡ 0 0 ⎤ 0 ⎡ 0 0 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
Where [ki ]A = ⎢ − M zA M xA / 2 ⎥ ， [ki ]B = ⎢ − M zB
0 0 M xB / 2 ⎥
⎢ M yA − M xA / 2 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢ M yB − M xB / 2 0 ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎣
The asymmetrical parts will be canceled at the joints when the element is connected to
the other elements. When the induced moment matrix is assembled into the structural
tangent stiffness matrix, only the symmetrical part is required because of the
enforcement of the equilibrium conditions for interconnected elements at structural
nodes. Therefore, a “correction matrix” that enforces the proper rotational behavior of
nodal moments into the conventional geometric stiffness matrix of an Updated
Lagrangian spatial beam element in the predictor phases is presented.
{ f } = ([ K e ] + [ K g ] + [ K j ]){u} (4)
Where the structural stiffness matrix [ K e ] , [ K g ] , [ K j ] is assembled from their

counterparts [ke ] , [k g ] , [k j ] on the element level and the joint moment matrix [k j ] can
be express
[k j ] = diag[[0 ] [ k j ] A [0 ] [ k j ]B ] (5)
⎡ 0 − M zA / 2 M yA / 2 ⎤ ⎡ 0 − M zB / 2 M yB / 2 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
Where [k j ] A = ⎢ − M zA / 2 0 0 ⎥ , [k j ]B = ⎢ − M zB / 2 0 0 ⎥
⎢ M yA / 2 0 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢ M yB / 2 0 0 ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎣
2.4 Induced moment matrix and joint moment matrix in the Co-rotational
formulation
The basic tangent stiffness matrix [kTb ] derived in a Co-rotational framework, which is
of the order 6 × 6 for a spatial beam element, is transformed to the 12 × 12 natural
tangent stiffness matrix [kTn ] through an instantaneous statics matrix [ B] [5]
[kTn ] = [ B][kTb ][ B]T (6)
Since the degrees of freedom involved in the Co-rotational formulation do not allow for
rigid body rotations, a stability matrix [ N ] needs to be added to the natural tangent
1412
stiffness matrix [kTn ]
[kT ] = [kTn ] + [ N ] (7)
before the resulting element tangent stiffness matrix [kT ] (which is expressed with
reference to the local coordinate system) can be assembled into the structure tangent
stiffness matrix. However, inspection of the stability matrix of Meek and Tan [6] reveals
that the rotational behaviour of the nodal moments of a spatial beam has not been fully
taken into account. It may be noted that the stability matrix presented by Oran [5] also
does not fully account for the rotational behaviour of nodal moments in space. In any
case, the stability matrix does not affect the accuracy of the primary equilibrium path
traced by the nonlinear solution as the stability matrix [ N ] is part of the element
tangent stiffness matrix used to predict the incremental displacements due to a loading
increment, but is not involved in recovering the element forces. However, the use of the
corrector stability matrix [N] is crucial in detecting bifurcation points on the nonlinear
equilibrium path of framed structures. In the present work, the natural tangent stiffness
matrix [kTn ] is used in the predictor and correct phase. The joint moment matrix [k j ] is
assembled into the predictor stability matrix [N] and the induced moment matrix [ki ] is
assembled into the corrector stability matrix [N].
The effects of the matrix [k j ] in the predictor phase and the matrix [ki ] in the corrector
phase will be numerically evaluated in the buckling analysis. For comparison, three
different expressions with the geometric stiffness matrix will be tried for considering
induced moment matrix and not considering induced moment matrix in the numerical
study, that is
Considering induced moment matrix and joint moment matrix:
I1: the geometric stiffness matrix [k g ] is the one given on p. 360 of Ref. [1];
I2: [k g ] is the one derived from Eq.(41) of Ref. [7];
I3: [k g ] is the one derived from Eq.(36) of Ref. [8];
Not considering induced moment matrix and joint moment matrix:
N1: the geometric stiffness matrix [k g ] is the one given on p. 360 of Ref. [1];
N2: [k g ] is the one derived from Eq.(41) of Ref. [7];
N3: [k g ] is the one derived from Eq.(36) of Ref. [8];
Example1. The angled frame under uniform bending in Fig. 2 was studied by Argyris et
al. [3]. The following data have been used: A= 18 mm2, L =240 mm, E =71,240 N/mm2,
G =21,790 N/mm2, J=2.16 mm4, Iy = 0.54 mm4, and Iz =1350 mm4. Due to symmetry of
the angled frame, only the left half is analyzed, which is modeled by six elements. The
end A of the member is restrained against rotations about the X and Y axes and against
1413
translations along the Y and Z axes, considering induced moment matrix, I1, I2, and I3
and the not considering induced moment matrix, N1, N2, and N3 were plotted in Fig.3.
As can be seen, the computed critical loads based on I1 and I2 are -620.96 N ⋅ mm and -
621.05 N ⋅ mm , which corresponds very well to the theoretical loads
M cr = ±π ( EI z GJ ) / L = 622.2 N ⋅ mm . The limit-point load using I3 is -586.89 N ⋅ mm .
In contrast, since the rotational behaviour of nodal moment in space was neglect, the
computed critical loads based on N1, N2 and N3 are only - 349.61 N ⋅ mm , -
349.7 N ⋅ mm and -340.90 N ⋅ mm . When the stability matrix N which considering the
rotational behaviour of nodal moments is used in conjunction with the element
derivation of Meek and Tan [6], the numerical results for the critical end-moment
converge to the solution of -621.03 Nmm. In contrast, since the rotational behaviour of
nodal moments in space was neglected in the stability matrix, the use of the latter matrix
resulted in failure to detect the instability condition of the structure, no matter how
many elements were used.
截面 A-A
x,y
y
-600
z
b
A -400
zA
t
L
L
A
I1
Moment M
-200 I2
I3
N1
Mz N2
x N3
Mz
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
z Displacement U zB
Fig.2 Angled frame Fig.3 Various solutions for angled frame
Example 2. Fig. 4 shows a single beam restrained against the rotations about the X and
Y axes at the left end and against the rotations about the Y and Z axes at the other end.
The following data are adopted: length L= 100 mm, cross-sectional area A = 0.18 cm2,
torsional constant J = 2.16 mm4, moments of inertia Iy = 0.54 mm4, Iz = 1350 mm4,
Young ’ s modulus E = 71,240 N/mm2, and shear modulus G = 27,190 N/mm2. The
beam is subjected to a moment of Mza at the left end and at the right end, and a
perturbation of 0.01Mza. Ten elements are used for the beam. The theoretical critical
moment for the beam under uniform moment is 1493.3 N mm. As Fig. 5 can be seen,
the computed critical loads based on I1 and I2 are 1493.19 N ⋅ mm and 1493.44 N ⋅ mm .
The limit-point load using I3 is 1464.95 N ⋅ mm . However, the computed critical loads
based on N1, N2 and N3 are only 1063.88 N ⋅ mm , 1063.93 N ⋅ mm and 1051.19 N ⋅ mm .
1414
1600
1400
1200
Y y
1000
M
0.01M
z
M X z 800
Z
w 600 I1
Moment M
I2
L 400
I3
N1
N2
200 N3
0
0 10 20 30 40
Displacement U zB
Fig.4: Single frame Fig.5: Various solutions for single frame
Hence, neglect of the rotational behavior of nodal moments, the Update Lagrangian
formulation cannot consider adequate for nonlinear analysis, because it tend to
underestimate the critical loads. For the Co-rotational formulation, the rotational
behaviour of nodal moments was neglected in the stability matrix resulted in failure to
detect the instability condition of the structure.
3 Conclusions
This paper has fully account for the rotational behaviour of nodal moments in space
relating to the Co-rotational and the Lagrangian formulations for elastic spatial beam
elements. It is shown through numerical examples that considering the rotational
behavior of nodal moments, the Update Lagrangian formulation and the Co-rotational
formulation can accurately detect the flexural-torsional buckling load of spatial
structures. While neglecting of the rotational behaviour of nodal moments, the Update
Lagrangian formulation underestimate the critical loads and the Co-rotational
formulation failure to detect the limit-point load.
References
[1] Yang YB and Kuo SR. Theory and analysis of nonlinear framed structures.
Englewood Cliffs (NJ): Prentice Hall, 1994.
[2] Argyris JH, Dunne PC and Scharpf DW. On large displacement-small strain
analysis of structures with rotation DOF, Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics
and Engineering 1978; 1414:401–451. 1515:99–135.
[3] Argyris JH, Hilpert O, Malejannakis GA and Scharpf DW. On the geometrical
stiffness of abeam in space—A consistent V.W. approach. Computer Methods in
Applied Mechanics and Engineering 1979; 20 20: 105–131.
[4] Yang YB and McGuire W. Joint rotation and geometric nonlinear analysis. Journal
of Structural Engineering 1986; 112
112: 879–905.
1415
[5] Oran C. Tangent stiffness in space frames. Journal of the Structural Division 1973;
99
99:981-1001.
[6] Meek JL and Tan HS. Geometrically nonlinear analysis of space frames by an
incremental iterative technique. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and
Engineering 1984; 4747:261–282.
[7] Yang YB and Kuo SR and Wu YS. Incrementally small deformation theory for
nonlinear analysis of structural frames. Engineering Structures 2002; 24:783–798.
[8] Yang YB and McGuire W. Stiffness Matrix for geometric nonlinear analysis,
Journal of Structural Engineering 1986;112112
112: 853–877.
[9] Teh LH and Clarke MJ. Co-rotational and Lagrangian formulations for elastic
three-dimensional beam finite elements. Journal of Constructional Steel Research
1998; 48
48:123–144
[10] Yang YB, Lin SP, Chen CS. Solution strategy and rigid element for nonlinear
analysis of elastically structures based on updated Lagrangian formulation.
Engineering Structures 2007; 2929:1189-1200.
1416
Up date Lagrangian formulations for geometrically nonlinear

Update
and postbuckling analysis
Yi ZHOU 1*, Zu-Yan SHEN 2,Yuan-Qi LI2

1*
suzhouzhouyi@yahoo.com.cn
2
Abstract
Nowadays, the advancement in analysis techniques can trace the nonlinear
response of structures, including the postbuckling response, using stiffness-based finite
element methods. The nonlinear load deflection responses of structures can be
computed by incremental approaches, with iterations performed at each incremental
step to remove unbalanced forces. Concerning the procedure of analysis, the following
are the phases that are considered essential for an incremental-iterative analysis:
predictor, corrector, geometry updating. The previous researches on geometrically
nonlinear analysis, focus be placed only on the formulation of the element or structural
stiffness matrices. However, the tangent stiffness matrix used in the predictor phase and
the corrector phase need not be exact, because the quality of the tangent stiffness matrix
affects only the speed of iteration, but not the accuracy of the result. This paper is focus
on the corrector or force recovery phase for computing the internal element forces, as it
dominates the accuracy of the final solution.
Keywords: Update Lagrangian formulation; predictor phase; corrector phase
1 Introduction
The most popular frameworks in which the stiffness matrices of finite element for
geometrically nonlinear analysis of frames have been derived appear to be the Updated
Lagrangian formulations. Concerning the procedure of the Update Largrangian
formulation, the following phases that are considered essential: predictor, corrector,
geometry updating. The predictor phase is concerned with the solution of the structural
displacement increments {U } from the structural equation. This phase is carried out on
the structural level. The corrector phase deals with the recovery of element force
increments { f } from the displacement increments {u} . This phase is conducted on the
element level. The resulting forces { 2 f } acting on each element at the end of each step
can then be obtained as the accumulation of all the force increments generated before
and during the current step. Once the structural displacement increments {U } are solved
for each step, the nodal coordinates and the orientations of the reference axes, including
those of the end sections, of each element of the structure can be updated. This is
referred to as the phase of geometry updating. The Update Largrangian formulation
1417
incorporates the rigid body motion of the element in the derivation of element stiffness
matrices. So the element displacement increments {u} can be decomposed into the rigid
body displacements {u}r and natural displacement {u}n . The nodal forces acting on the
space frame element at configuration C2 need calculated the natural deformations. The
accuracy of the updating of element geometry and the calculation of natural
deformations are very important to the corrector phase. Conventionally, many
researchers have spent great efforts in deriving sophisticated elements, in terms of
various stiffness matrices, for solving the nonlinear elastic problems. In this paper, by
utilizing the different properties of the predictor and corrector of the incremental–
iterative procedure we have demonstrated through the solution of nonlinear problem
that the simplicity of the tangent stiffness matrix in the predictor phase and the corrector
phase can also solve the nonlinear problem.
2 Incremental nonlinear analysis
2.1 Formulation of incremental nonlinear theory

Conventionally, three typical configurations are used to describe the deformation of a
nonlinear structure under applied loadings: the initial configuration C0, the last
(calculated) configuration C1, and the current configuration C2. It is assumed that all the
state variables such as the stresses, strains, displacements, and the loading history are
known up to C1, and that we are interested in the behavior of the structure at C2. The
step characterizing the behavior of the structure from C1 to C2 is referred to as an
incremental step. In this study, a left superscript denotes the configuration in which the
quantity occurs, and a left subscript the configuration with respect to which the quantity
is measured. The absence of a left superscript indicates that the quantity is an increment
between C1 to C2. By selecting C1 as the reference configuration, the virtual work
equation of equilibrium can be written for the element in a nonlinear incremental form
as [1]
∫ 1 Cijkl 1ε klδ 1ε ij 1dV + ∫ 1τ ijδ 1ηij 1dV = 12 R − 11R

1 1
V V (1)
The elastic stiffness matrix [ke ] can be derived from the strain energy of the element as
∫ Cijkl 1 eklδ 1 eij 1dV = {δ u}T [ke ]{δ u} (2)

1
V 1
Meanwhile, a geometric stiffness matrix that accounts for the instability effect of the
initial forces or stresses acting on the element can be derived from the potential as
∫ τ ijδ 1ηij 1dV = {δ u}T [k g ]{δ u}

1
1
V (3)
1418
Consider that the beam element is acted upon only by concentrated nodal loads. The
equilibrium can be written as [1,2]
[ke ]{u} + ([k g ] + [ki ]){u} = { 2 f } − {1 f } (4)
The asymmetrical parts will be canceled at the joints when the element is connected to
the other elements. When the induced moment matrix is assembled into the structural
tangent stiffness matrix, only the symmetrical part is required because of the
enforcement of the equilibrium conditions for interconnected elements at structural
nodes. An element with the joint moment matrix [k j ] , instead of the induced moment
matrix [ki ] , is referred to as a connected element [1,2].
At each incremental step of nonlinear analysis, the equations of equilibrium for the
structure can be established by assembling all the element equations with respect to the
initial configuration of the structure using the UL formulation as follows:
{ 2 P} − {1P} = [ K ]{U } (5)
where {U } the displacement increments of the structure generated during the step from
C1 to C2 , and {1P} and { 2 P} , respectively, denote the nodal forces acting on the
structure at C1 and C2 . The tangent stiffness matrix [ K ] represents a summation of all
the stiffness matrices mentioned above, ie, [ke ] , [k g ] , [k j ] for connected elements,
looped over all elements of the structure.
Concerning the incremental-iterative procedure, distinction should be made between the
predictor and corrector stages [3,4]. The predictor relates to solution of the displacement
increments {U } of the structure for given load increments {P} based on the structural
equation {P} = [ K ]{U } . This stage determines the trial direction of iteration of the
structure in the load–deflection space and thus affects the number of iterations or speed
of convergence. For this reason, the stiffness matrix [ K ] used in the structural equation
need not be exact. In the UL formulation, the corrector refers to recovery of the force
increments { 2 f } at C2 from the displacement increments {u} made available through
the structural displacement increments {U } .
2.2 Force recovery

One essential step in the nonlinear analysis of 3D structural frames is the updating of
orientation vectors for each element of the structure at the deformed configuration C2,
which serve as the basis for computing the transformation matrices. The procedure for
updating the end orientations of each element in the three-dimensional space has to be
developed based on the theory of finite rotations.
1419
2.2.1 Updating joint orientation matrix
According to Euler’s finite rotation formula, the position vector 1 P to 2 P can be [5]
2
P = 1 P + ( n × 1 P ) sin θ + n × ( n × 1 P )(1 − cos θ ) (6)
In an incremental nonlinear analysis, the position vector 1 P to 2 P can be regarded as

the end section orientation relating the C1 and the C2, the deformed orientation of a joint
can be described as
2
P = [T ]1P (7)
and the orthogonal joint orientation matrix [T ] can be written as [6]
sin θ (1 − cos θ )
[T ] = I + S (θ ) + S (θ )2 (8)
θ θ2
the joint orientation matrix [T ] for relating the C1 to the C2 axes is
⎡ 1 −θ3 + θ1θ 2 / 2 θ 2 + θ1θ3 / 2 ⎤

⎢
[T (θ )] = ⎢ θ3 + θ1θ 2 / 2 1 −θ1 + θ 2θ3 / 2 ⎥⎥ (9)
⎢⎣ −θ 2 + θ1θ 3 / 2 θ1 + θ 2θ3 / 2 1 ⎥⎦
θ1 , θ 2 , θ3 denote the components of the section axes of node. Three lines are rigidly
attached to a joint and continuously rotate with it. Initially they are, for convenience,
parallel to the global co-ordinate axes. Their direction cosines are arranged as the
column of an orthogonal matrix [α ] called the “joint orientation matrix” by Oran [7].
⎡ 1 −α 3 α 2 ⎤
[α ] = ⎢⎢ α 3 1 −α1 ⎥⎥ (10)
⎢⎣ −α 2 α1 1 ⎥⎦
Each joint orientation matrix will be updated by applying a rotation matrix to it
[α new ] = [T ( ∆θ )] ⋅ [α old ] (11)
where ∆θ is equal to {∆θ xa ∆θ ya ∆θ za } for node a of a member and

{∆θ xb ∆θ yb ∆θ zb } for node b of a member. After updating the joint orientation
matrices, one can proceed to determine the new set of local rotations and member
orientation due to deformation.
1420
Member’’s Orientation
2.2.2 Updating Member
We need to update the member orientation matrix in order to transform the local vectors
to the global for the next iteration. The coordinate transformation matrix discussed by
Bathe and Bolourchi [8] are calculated, based on the total displacements and rotations
from configuration 0 through k. Matrix [ gk R] relates C0 and Ck in global configuration k,
[ gk R] = [ 0k R][ g0 R] = [ k −1k R][ kk−−21R] ⋅⋅⋅ [ 01R][ g0 R] = [ k −1k R][ k −g1R ] (12)
1 1
y y
P2
β
s
s P1 2
y P3 2
x
γ
α r 1
x
Δu
ba
βα
x tγ 1
x
t a
Δu
ba
z
α
Δu b
ba
y
1
z 2
1
z z
(a) step 1 (b) step 2
Fig. 1: Rotation of member Coordinate Axes
Following the described transformation process, the transformation matrix due to

rotation α and β are calculated as
⎡ cos α cos β sin β sin α cos β ⎤

[ 1 R1 ] = ⎢⎢ − cos α sin β cos β − sin α sin β ⎥⎥ (13)
⎢⎣ − sin α 0 cos α ⎥⎦
in which angles α and β are calculated from
cos α = ( 1l + ∆u xba ) / lab ； cos β = lab / 2l

lab = [( 1l + ∆u xba ) 2 + (∆u zba ) 2 ]1/ 2 ； 2l = [(lab )2 + (∆u ba 2 1/ 2
y ) ] (14)
Transformation matrix 1 R 2 due to rotation γ is
⎡1 0 0 ⎤
[ 1 R ] = ⎢0 cos γ sin γ ⎥⎥ b
2 ⎢ (15)
⎢⎣0 − sin γ cos γ ⎥⎦
1421
Thus angle γ is calculated using
1 1 3
γ = ( r ∆θ xa + r ∆θ xb ) = ∑ [ 1 R1 (1, m)( r ∆θma + r ∆θmb )] (16)
2 2 m =1
The incremental transformation matrix [ 12 R]
[ 12 R] = [ 1 R 2 ][ 1 R1 ] (17)
The member orientation matrix can be expressed matrix [ 12 R] .
2.2.3 Updating natural deformation
As the previous refers, the element displacement increments {u} can be

decomposed into the rigid body displacements {u} and natural displacement {u}n .
According to the rigid body rule, the finite element can meet the condition of zero
strains and zero stresses under rigid body displacement. Hence, the nodal incremental
force is caused by the natural deformation. For a space frame element with six degrees
of freedom at each node, the natural deformation vector {∆un } can be written as [1]
{∆un } = {0 0 0 θ xa θ ya θ za ub 0 0 θ xb θ yb θ zb } (18)
The natural deformation vector {∆un } can be determined from the nodal section axes
and element axes at C1 and C2. For definition of θ xa , θ ya , θ za , θ za , θ yb , θ zb , please
refer to Eq.(8)
1
S (θ ) = ([T ] − [T ]T ) (19)
2
The natural rotations associated with node of the element can be calculated as
θ z = (T21 − T12 ) / 2 , θ y =（T13 − T31）/ 2 , θ x = (T32 − T23 ) / 2 (20)
With the updated member orientation matrix, and local rotations ( θ xa , θ ya , θ za , θ xb , θ yb

and θ zb ), iteration can proceed to evaluate new tangent stiffness, internal force vector,
and hence “out-of-balance” force vector. New correction applied in the same manner
until convergence is achieved.
1422

The generalized displacement control method [1] will be adopted in the numerical
studies. For comparison, different expressions will be tried each for the predictor and
corrector in the numerical study,
Predictor: the structural stiffness matrix [ K ] using the following :
(P1) [ K e ] + [ K g ] + [ K j ] , where [ K g ] is given of Ref. [1];
(P2) [ K e ] + [ K j ] ;
the structural stiffness matrix [ K e ] , [ K g ] , [ K j ] is assembled from their
counterparts [ke ] , [k g ] , [k j ] on the element level.
Corrector: the element stiffness matrix [k ] is assembled using the following:
(C1) [ke ] + [k g ] + [ki ] , where [k g ] is given of Ref. [1];
(C2) [ke ] ;
The angled frame under uniform bending in Fig. 2 was studied by Argyris et al. [9]. The
following data have been used: A= 18 mm2, L =240 mm, E =71,240 N/mm2, G =21,790
N/mm2, J=2.16 mm4, Iy = 0.54 mm4, and Iz =1350 mm4. Due to symmetry of the angled
frame, only the left half is analysed, which is modeled by six elements. The end A of the
member is restrained against rotations about the X and Y axes and against translations
along the the Y and Z axes, using the three combinations of predictor and corrector
P1C1, P2C1, and P1C2 were plotted in Fig.3. As can be seen, the computed critical
loads is -620.92 N ⋅ mm , -620.91 N ⋅ mm , -627.62 N ⋅ mm , respectively, which
corresponds very well to the theoretical loads M cr = ±π ( EI z GJ ) / L = 622.2 N ⋅ mm .
-600
y
B
L -400
zA
Moment M
-200 P1C1
P2C1
x P1C2
A C
z 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Displacement U zB
Fig.2: Angled frame Fig.3: Various solutions for angled frame
3 Conclusions
As far as the postbuckling responses of structures are concerned, the key phases
involved in an incremental-iterative nonlinear analysis, including the predictor,
corrector, geometry updating, equilibrium checking, incremental-iterative strategy, etc,
1423
have been identified and discussed. The tangent stiffness matrix used in the predictor
phase the correct phase need not be exact, because the quality of the tangent stiffness
matrix affects only the speed of iteration, but not the accuracy of the result. However,
the accuracy of the updating of element geometry and the calculation of natural
deformations are very important to the corrector phase.
Referencess
Reference
[1] Yang YB and Kuo SR. Theory and analysis of nonlinear framed structures.
Englewood Cliffs (NJ): Prentice Hall, 1994.
[2] Yang YB and Kuo SR. Frame buckling analysis with full consideration of joint
compatibilities. Journal of Engineering Mechanics 1992; 118
118:871–889.
[3] Yang YB and Kuo SR and Wu YS. Incrementally small deformation theory for
nonlinear analysis of structural frames. Engineering Structures 2002; 24:783–798.
[4] Yang YB, Yau JD and Leu LJ. Recent developments in geometrically nonlinear
and postbuckling analysis of framed structures. Applied Mechanics Reviews 2003;
56
56:431-449.
[5] Cheng H and Gupta KG. An historical note on finite rotations. Journal of Applied
Mechanics;1989:139-145.
[6] Argyris JH. An excursion into large rotations. Computer Methods in Applied
Mechanics and Engineering 1982; 32 32: 85–155.
[7] C. Oran. Tangent stiffness in space frames. Journal of the Structural Division,
1973, 99
99:981-1001.
[8] Bathe KJ and Bolourchi S. Large displacement analysis of three dimensional beam
structures. International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering 1979;
14
14:961–986.
[9] Argyris JH, Hilpert O, Malejannakis GA and Scharpf DW. On the geometrical
stiffness of abeam in space—A consistent V.W. approach. Computer Methods in
Applied Mechanics and Engineering 1979; 20 20: 105–131.
[10] Yang YB, Lin SP, Chen CS. Solution strategy and rigid element for nonlinear
analysis of elastically structures based on updated Lagrangian formulation.
Engineering Structures 2007; 2929:1189-1200.
1424
3.4 Instability
1425
Study on Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Q420 High-Strength

Steel Single-Angle Compression Members
Fangfang CHEN1, Minger WU2*, Qiang XIE3

Department of Building Engineering, Tongji University
1
ailsa_chen_c@126.com
2*
wuminger@tongji.edu.cn
3
qxie@mail.tongji.edu.cn
Abstract
To analyze the mechanical behavior of Q420 high-strength single-angle steel

member under axial compression, experimental research and theoretical calculation are
carried out to study the ultimate capacity, the overall stability and local buckling of the
member. In loading experiment, double knife-edge bearing is applied to simulate the
ends of the members. To investigate the influence of width to thickness ratio on ultimate
capacity and instability, three kinds of widely used sections are chosen for the
experiment. In order to examine the influence of slenderness ratio on ultimate capacity
and instability mode, five kinds of slenderness ratio are set for each section. For the
same section and slenderness ratio, three members are prepared in the experiment.
Finite element software ANSYS is applied to simulate the structural behavior of the
forty-five members. In the end the numerical analysis results of ultimate capacity and
instability mode are compared to the experimental results.
Keywords: angle steel, critical load, buckling, experimental study, finite element
method
1 Introduction
Q420 high strength angle steel has wider application in structure engineering [1]. But the
adaptability of Chinese design codes for high strength is not yet verified clearly and
studied systematically, especially for the local buckling of angle steel.
In order to study the bearing capacity of Q420 angle steel as compression member, this
experimental research and numerical simulation of the overall and local buckling of
Q420 angle are carried out in this paper. In order to obtain the distribution of bearing
capacity with different slenderness ratio and different width to thickness ratio, widely-
used angle sections are chosen to carry out the axial compression experiment. The
experiment includes mechanical properties tests of angle material and axial compression
experiments of forty-five angle specimens. In the numerical analysis the bearing
1426
capacity of angle specimens used in the experiment is simulated by means of finite

element method.
2 Experiment survey
2.1 Mechanical properties tests

Three kinds of sections (L125×8, L125×10 and L140×10) are used for this experiment.
All samples for testing mechanical properties are cut from the corresponding angle steel
according to Chinese test standard Steel and steel products-Location and preparation of
test pieces for mechanical testing (GB/T 2975-1998) and Metallic materials-Tensile
testing at ambient temperature (GB/T 228-2002).
In this test, upper and lower yield stress, ultimate strength and elastic modulus of Q420
high strength steel are tested. The mechanical properties are shown in Tab.1.
Table1 Mechanical properties of Q420 high strength steel

Angle section Upper yield point Lower yield point Ultimate strength Elastic modulus
L125×8 513 MPa 484 MPa 624 MPa 1.936e5 MPa
L125×10 496 MPa 463 MPa 620 MPa 1.894e5 MPa
L140×10 455 MPa 424 MPa 565 MPa 1.905e5 MPa
2.2 Experimental specimens

Three kinds of widely-used sections are chosen in this experiment, the equal angle
L125×8, L125×10, L140×10. For each section five kinds of design slenderness ratios，
20, 30, 40, 50 and 60, are chosen to study the change of critical load and buckling mode
of the angle steel members. For each section and slenderness ratio, three specimens are
prepared in the experiment. The method for numbering the specimens is as following:
for instance, 250801A represents the section of specimen is L125×8 (2508), the
slenderness ratio is 20 (01: the first design slenderness ratio), and is the first one of the
three specimens (A); 401005C represents the section is L140×10 (4010), the
slenderness ratio is 60 (05: the fifth design slenderness ratio), and is the third one of
three specimens (C) etc.
Fig.1: Typical specimens Fig.2: Double knife-edge support
1427
All the specimens are hot-rolled equal angle. In order for the convenience of loading
and geometric centering in test two end-plates are welded to the two ends of every
specimen. Furthermore, the center of end-plate should coincide with the center of angle
section. Some specimens are shown in Fig.1. Before the experiment, the width, the
thickness and the length of every specimen are measured.
2.3 Support for axial compression loading

In order to simulate the boundary conditions of hinge, two double knife-edge supports
are used at the two ends of specimen in this experiment [2], Fig.2.
2.4 Strain and displacement measurement

Besides loading forces and displacement in the direction of length, strain in cross
section and lateral displacement are also measured. Strain measurements are pasted on
three cross sections of specimen, as shown in Fig.3. Displacement measurements are
used to measure the axial and lateral displacements. Lateral displacements of middle
section in two directions are measured with three displacement measurements (Fig.3).
Distribution of strain measurements
Distribution of displacement measurements
Fig.3: Distribution of strain and displacement measurements
1428
2.4 Loading procedure

After the installation of specimen geometric centering and preloading are carried out
before loading test starts. The preload is about 0.1Pcr (Pcr is the estimated critical load).
The strain is checked to make sure that the specimen is compressed axially.
The loading test combined step-loading and continuous loading is adopted in this
experiment. The load step in step-loading is 10kN. When the load reaches about 0.6Pcr
(Pcr is the estimated critical load), step-loading is changed to continuous loading until
the specimen reach the buckles.
3 Experimental results and analysis
3.1 Experimental results

There are two kinds of failure mode in this experiment, local buckling and overall
buckling. Details of typical failure mode can be seen in Fig.4. The phenomenon of local
buckling is difficult to observe before the load reaches the critical value. When the load
reaches the peak point, local buckling happens suddenly (Fig.4 (a)). The displacement
and strain value increases sharply and the load decreases quickly. The whole failure is
very fast. But the process of overall buckling is easy to observe. The enlargement of
support rotation about the weak axis can be obviously seen during the process of
loading when the load is near to the peak point. No rotation is observed about the strong
weak axis of cross section in the experiment.
(a) Local bucking (b) Overall buckling

Fig.4: Typical failure modes
1429
The failure mode of most L125×8 specimens is local buckling, and that of only one
specimen (250804C) is overall buckling. The failure mode of most L125×10 is overall
buckling about weak axis. Only four specimens, the slenderness ratio of which is
relatively small, is local buckling. For L140×10 specimens, when the slenderness ratio
is less than 40, the failure mode is local buckling; when the slenderness ratio is 40, both
the local buckling and overall buckling are observed; when the slenderness ratio is
larger than 40, the failure mode becomes overall buckling. The details of critical load
from experiment can be seen in Tab.2.
3.2 Analysis about experimental results
3.2.1 Failure mode

Slenderness ratio plays an important role in the failure mode for specimens with same
cross sections. The smaller the ratio is, the more likely failure mode is inclined to local
buckling. And width to thickness ratio is important to the failure mode for specimens
with same slenderness ratio. The larger the width to thickness is, the more likely the
failure mode is inclined to local buckling.
3.2.1 Ultimate bearing capacity

For the specimens with overall buckling, the ultimate load will be reduced as the
slenderness ratio increasing. For the specimens with local buckling, besides the width to
thickness ratio, the ultimate load is also influenced by the slenderness ratio. The larger
the slenderness ratio is, the smaller the ultimate load is.
Table2: Ultimate bearing capacity (kN)

section λ=20 λ=30 λ=40 λ=50 λ=60
A 835.36 A 709.79 A 664.22 A 678.05 A 684.22
L125×8 B 867.49 B 775.69 B 710.34 B 691.89 B 681.77
C 849.13 C 748.15 C 710.34 C 714.95 C 689.13
A 1023.54 A 1106.15 A 1056.28 A 1070.12 A 870.59
L125×10 B 1087.80 B 1037.31 B 1056.28 B 908.68 B 978.51
C 1096.97 C 1102.40 C 1079.34 C 1010.15 C 990.77
A 1074.03 A 1070.12 A 1134.69 A 1047.17 A 1086.41
L140×10 B 1179.59 B 1037.83 B 1047.05 B 929.46 B 1066.79
C 1092.38 C 1083.95 C 1047.17 C 1025.10 C 1066.79
Note: Value with shadow means the failure mode is overall buckling, and value without shadow
means the failure mode is local buckling.
1430
4 FEM analysis
4.1 calculation model of FEM

The Q420 steel is taken as an ideal elastic-plastic material in FEM analysis. Von-mises
stress of the element is calculated to check yielding condition. The elastic modulus and
yield stress are taken from the mechanical properties tests (Table 1).
The software package ANSYS is used in FEM analysis. SHELL181 type element which
can be used in elastic-plastic analysis in ANSYS is chosen for FEM modeling. The
angle steel specimen with two end-plates in FEM modeled and the support condition of
two ends is considered. And the first mode linear buckling mode is taken as initial
imperfection distribution. In this analysis, the residual stress isn't taken into account.
The load-displacement curve and the ultimate load are obtained through are-length
method. Fig. 5 shows the failure mode calculated by ANSYS.
(a) Local buckling (b) Overall buckling

Fig.5: Failure mode calculated by FEM
4.2 Comparison with experimental results

The numerical and experimental results are plotted in fig.6. The comparison between
the FEM analysis results with and without imperfection shows that the influence of
imperfection to ultimate strength is significant. All the experimental results show that
there is no rotation about the strong axis. Therefore, all the following FEM results are
the critical loads about the weak axis.
According to the FEM analysis, only specimens without imperfection of L125×10 have
overall buckling, and all other are local buckling. Specimens with imperfection will
have same failure mode as elastic analysis under the influence of imperfection. This is a
little different from experimental results.
All the experimental results of angle L125×8 are higher than FEM analysis results.
When slenderness ratio is 20, the differences are within 10%. When the slenderness
ratio is larger than 20, the differences are over 15%. When the slenderness is over 30,
the strength reduction is reduced as the slenderness ration increasing, which is
coinciding with the experimental results.
1431
All the FEM analysis results of angle L125×10 without imperfection are a little higher
than experimental results within 10%. All the FEM analysis results with imperfection
are equivalent with experimental results.
When the slenderness ratio is less than 40, the FEM analysis results of angle L140×10
with imperfection are equivalent with experimental results, and the FEM analysis
results without imperfection are about 10% higher than experimental results. When the
slenderness ratio is more than 30 and less than 60, the FEM analysis results without
imperfection are equivalent with experimental results, and the FEM analysis results are
about 10% lower than experimental results. When the slenderness ratio is 60, the FEM
analysis without imperfection is about 15% lower than experimental, and the FEM
analysis with imperfection is about 20% lower than experimental.
900 1200
800
1000
700
600 800
500
P (kN)
P (kN)
perfect 600 perfect

400 imperfect
imperfect
test
test
300 400
200
200
100
0 0
20 30 40 50 60 20 30 40 50 60
 
(a) L125×8 (b) L125×10
1200
1000
800
P (kN)
perfect
600
imperfect
test
400
200
0
20 30 40 50 60

(c) L140×10
Fig.6 Comparison of ultimate load
1432
5 Conclusions
The experimental results show that the slenderness ratio is also important for the
ultimate load of local buckling besides of overall buckling. The larger the slenderness
ratio is, the smaller the ultimate load is.
When the width to thickness ratio is within some range, the FEM results with
SHELL181 element type are relatively near the experimental results.
References
[1] Han Y, Xu DL, Yang JP, Chen YC, Li MH. Research on Applications of Q420
High-strength Steel in UHV Transmission Project. Electric Power Construction
2009; 30(4): 33-35.
[2] Cao XL, Hao JP, Cao ZM, Zhang TG, Zhang Y, Li TJ. Ultimate Bearing Capacity
Analysis of High-Strength Single-Angle Compression Member Eccentrically at one
End. Journal of Civil, Architectural & Environmental Engineering 2009; 31(5):1-8.
1433
Conversion of imperfection-sensitive elastic structures into

imperfection-insensitive ones by adding tensile members
Xin JIA1, Herbert MANG1*
1*
Institute for Mechanics of Materials and Structures, Vienna University of Technology,
Karlsplatz 13/202, 1040 Vienna, Austria
Herbert.Mang@tuwien.ac.at
Abstract
The benefit of an increase of the stability limit of a structure in consequence of a
modification of the original design may largely be lost through deterioration of the
postbuckling behavior. Therefore, it may be useful to concentrate on design changes
that result in a significant improvement of the postbuckling behavior without decrease
of the stability limit. It is shown that the possibility of converting imperfection-sensitive
structures into imperfection-insensitive ones by adding tensile members is not restricted
to academic examples such as the von Mises truss. An arch bridge serves as the
demonstration object.
Keywords: bifurcation buckling, consistently linearized eigenproblem, imperfection

(in)sensitivity, Koiter’s initial postbuckling analysis, von Mises truss, arch bridge
1 Introduction
In contrast to imperfection-insensitive structures, imperfection-sensitive ones cannot
carry the buckling loads of corresponding perfect structures. Design changes leading to
an increase of the stability limit will be counterproductive if such an increase is
accompanied by a significant deterioration of the prebuckling behavior, i.e. if the
imperfection sensitivity of the original structures is markedly increased.
An example for such a design change is the increase of the thickness of a shallow
cylindrical shell [1]. It results in the convergence of the bifurcation point, which
represents the stability limit, to the snap-through point [2]. The load levels related to
these two points increase with increasing thickness of the shell. At the same time, the
postbuckling behavior gets worse which is reflected by the increase of the difference
between the stability limit of the perfect structure and the snap-through point of the
imperfect one.
The task of this paper is to utilize the effect of attaching a vertical elastic spring to the
vertex of a von Mises truss for a real-life structure. Approximate postbuckling analysis
of such a truss, subjected to a vertical load at the vertex, is a classroom example that can
be solved analytically [3]. Whereas the von Mises truss without the spring is
imperfection sensitive, it becomes imperfection insensitive provided the stiffness of the
spring is large enough so that the increase of the load in the spring overcompensates the
decrease in the load carried by the truss.
The paper is organized as follows: In section 2, the difference between bifurcation
buckling from a general state of prebuckling deformations, as occurs in the majority of
1434
real-life structures, and from a membrane deformation state will be explained in the
context of the Finite Element Method (FEM). Section 3 contains an extension of
Koiter’s initial postbuckling analysis [4] to sensitivity investigations of the initial
postbuckling behavior [5]. The first example presented in Section 4 is the
aforementioned von Mises truss. It is an example for buckling from a nonlinear primary
path, characterized by a membrane deformation state. The second example is an arch
bridge.
2 Consistently linearized eigenproblem

The mathematical formulation of the consistently linearized eigenproblem for the first
eigenpair  1      , v1     where  denotes a dimensionless load factor by which
the reference load vector P , in the frame of the FEM, is multiplied, reads as [6]
 T +  1    KT ,   v1  0
K
     (1)
where K 
 is the tangent stiffness matrix and K
T T , is its first derivative with respect to
 . At the stability limit,
  v  0,
1   , v1  v1 , K (2)
T 1
with (2.3) representing the condition for loss of stability of equilibrium in the form of
bifurcation buckling, characterized by
d  0. (3)
The equal sign holds for the borderline case of hilltop buckling [2] for which also dq,
representing an infinitesimal increment of the vector of nodal displacements at the snap-
through point, is an eigenvector.
Derivation of (1) with respect to  yields
 +     K
1,  K   
 T , 1 T ,    v1
(4)
 K  +     K
   v  0
T 1 T ,  1, 
where [6]
N
v1,    c1 j vj , (5)
j 1
1435
with
*T 
1 v1  K T ,   v1
*
c11   ,
2 v1*T  K  v*
T , 1
*T 
   v j  K T ,  v1
* *
c1j   *1 , (6)
1   *j v*Tj  K T ,  v*j
j  2,3, , N
where vj is the eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue  j   . The coefficients

c1j depend on the normalization of the eigenvectors.
Premultiplication of (4) by v1T and consideration of (1) gives
1,* 
v1*T  K T ,   v1
*
  . (7)
1*   v1*T  K  v*
T , 1
At the stability limit,
1,* 0 1,*
  *  1,* . (8)
1   0 1,  1
*
Substitution of (8) and (2.1) into (7) gives

v1T  K v
 *
1,  T T , 1 . (9)

v K  v
1 T , 1
For the special case of a membrane deformation state, (4) disintegrates to [7]
 +     K
1,  K   
 T , 1 T ,    v1  0
(10)
 K  +     K
   v  0.
T 1 T ,  1, 
At the stability limit, (10.1) becomes
T ,  v1  1, KT ,  v1

K   (11)
1436
with 1, according to (9), whereas (10.2) reduces to (2.3). Eq.(10) represents a
constraint condition restricted to bifurcation from a membrane deformation state.
3. Koiter’s initial postbuckling analysis

h
 y pat
r
ma
pri v() B
B
ath
ondary p 
sec
S S

0 uS u ((B )) u ((B ))  v(B ) u
Fig. 1: Nonlinear primary path and secondary path for a specific value of the design
parameter  ( u denotes the displacements of the primary path)
Fig. 1 shows a nonlinear primary path (I) and the secondary path (II) for a specific value
of the design parameter  that is increased from zero in the course of sensitivity
analysis of the initial postbuckling path. For this value of  ,  (Fig. 1) is a function of
the parameter  that describes the postbuckling path.
The series expansion of   ,  is given as
  ,   1    2   2
(12)
 3   3  O  4  .
1 , 2 ,... are coefficients depending on  . Steinboeck et al.[8] have shown that
1    0  (13)
is a necessary condition for imperfection insensitivity. Making use of (13), the

expression for the coefficient 2   is obtained as [5]
2    d1   (14)
with (omitting the argument  )
1437
1  :v v
d1  ( v1T  K
T 
v  K T ,  v1
T ,u 1 2
1
(15)
1 
 v1T  K T ,uu  v1  v1  v1 )
6
where v1 is the eigenvector, and v2  v2   denotes the first residual vector in the
series expansion
v  ,   v1    v 2   2
(16)
 v3   3  O  4 
for the displacement offset which vanishes at the stability limit S (Fig. 1).
A sufficient condition for imperfection insensitivity for a specific value  of the design
parameter  is
d1      0 
(14)
 2      0, (17)
recalling that (14) is based on (13). This condition is not necessary because
imperfection insensitivity is also given for
d1      0 
(15)
 2      0
(18)

[7]
 3      0
if
4      0. (19)
If also
4      0 
[7]
 5      0, (20)
then, for the special case of bifurcation buckling from a membrane deformation state,
6      7    
 8      ...  0 (21)

(12)
       0,
1438
indicating zero-stiffness postbuckling which was shown to be imperfection insensitive

[5]. Zero-stiffness postbuckling may be seen as a constraint condition for the
postbuckling path that does not exist for the general case of bifurcation buckling.
4. Numerical investigation
4.1 Von Mises truss

Fig. 2 shows the left half of a von Mises truss with a vertical elastic spring attached to
the vertex of the structure at which a vertical load  P with P  104kN is applied. The
length of the undeformed bar, L , is 100cm and the initial position of the load point, u10 ,
is 30.9 cm. The side length of the quadratic cross section, a , is chosen as 20 cm and the
elastic modulus E , as 2.1107 kN / cm2 . The spring constant is given as  k where
k  102 kN / cm and   is a scaling parameter that represents the design parameter.
In the prebuckling regime, the bar is straight. Hence, buckling occurs from a purely
axial deformation state of the bar. For such a prebuckling deformation state the
constraint condition (11) must hold at the stability limit.
k
L
a u2 u1 L
u10
a
P
Fig. 2 Left half of a von Mises truss with a vertical elastic spring attached to the load
point
Details of the analysis can be found in [6] where two solution strategies were pursued: (i)
exact nonlinear theory and (ii) approximation of the deformed shape as a sine curve. In
the latter case, it is stipulated that u  u1 , u2  suffices to define the configuration of the
T
system, i.e. the model is reduced to a two-degrees-of-freedom scheme.

All parameters are tuned such that hilltop buckling occurs for   0 (Fig. 3(a)). The
negative slope of the projection of the secondary path onto the plane u2  0 at S  D
(denoting the coincidence of the bifurcation point S with the snap-through point D )
indicates that a structure which experiences hilltop buckling is imperfection sensitive, as
was proved theoretically in [2]. Increasing the stiffness of the spring by increasing  ,
improves the postbuckling behavior, as expressed by a linear increase of
2m   , m  . Fig. 3(b) refers to a situation which is characterized by 2  0 and
1439
4  0. Hence, zero-stiffness postbuckling does not occur here. The positive slope of
the projection of the secondary path onto plane u2  0 in Fig. 3(c) shows that the
initially imperfection-sensitive structure was converted into an imperfection-insensitive
structure. The form of the projections of the secondary paths in Fig. 3 onto the plane
u2  0 indicates symmetric bifurcation with respect to this plane, characterized by
1  3  5  ....  0 . As was shown in [8], symmetric bifurcation is not necessary for
imperfection insensitivity.
  
6 10 D
S=D
S 15
4 I 8 D
II
II S II
2 6 10
O I
I
4
-2 5
2
-4
O O
0 0.2 u1 0.4 0.6 0.2 u
1 0.4 0.6 0.2 u
1 0.4 0.6
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 3 Load-displacement paths of a von Mises truss for three different values of the
G spring stiffness: (a)   0 , hilltop buckling, (b)   27.2 (c)   43.2
4.2 Arch bridge
Fig. 4(a) shows the investigated bridge. The two inclined, plane, parabolic arches with
fixed supports meet at mid-span. They are connected by four transverse horizontal
braces. The deck is a simply supported cylindrical shell with a rise of 100cm (Fig. 4(b)).
It is suspended from the braces and the arches, respectively, by altogether five hangers
and stiffened by three longitudinal beams, two of which along the longitudinal edges of
the deck.
The elastic modulus, E S , and Poisson’s ratio,  S , of the steel used for the arch, the
lateral braces, the stiffening beams, and the hangers, are given as 21000 kN / cm2 and
0.3, respectively. The elastic modulus EC and Poisson’s ratio,  C , of the concrete used
for the deck, are taken as 3500 kN / cm2 and 0.1 respectively. At the onset of buckling,
the deck is mainly in compression. Hence, the influence of the reinforcement ratio and
of cracking of concrete on the buckling load and the initial postbuckling behavior is
negligible.
Fig. 5 shows the cross-sections of the members of the arch bridge. The diameter of the
hangers is given as  d where d  1cm and   is a scaling factor that represents the
design parameter. The thickness of the deck is chosen as 30 cm.
FE analysis of the arch bridge is carried out with MSC Marc 2005 [9]. The arches,
braces, and stiffening beams are modelled with 2-node beam elements allowing
1440
consideration of twist [9]. The deck is discretized with 4-node shell elements [9]. Linear
2-node truss elements with constant cross-section [9] are used for modelling of the
hangers. The uniform reference surface load applied to the deck is given as
P  0.004 kN / cm2 (including self weight and traffic load).
z
x
y
(a)
(b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 4 (a) Arch bridge, (b) view from the side, (c) floor plan, (d) front view; unit of
numerical data: cm
3
3
80
60 d
40 40
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Fig. 5 Cross-section of (a) the arches, (b) the braces, (c) the stiffening beams, (d) the
hangers; unit of numerical data: cm
1441
(a) (b)
Fig. 6 (a) Deformed arch bridge without hangers just before buckling, (b) buckling
mode
Fig. 6(a) shows the deformed arch bridge without hangers just before buckling. The
value of the vertical displacement of the midpoint of the arch bridge is 21.1 cm on the
reference load, which is 1/190 of the span. In contrast to the von Mises truss, the
prebuckling deformation state of the structure is not a membrane deformation state
because it contains e.g. bending deformations of the deck. Hence, the constraint
condition for bifurcation buckling from a membrane deformation state (Eq.(11)) is not
satisfied. Fig. 6(b) shows the buckling mode.
Fig. 7(a) shows the load-displacement path of the midpoint of the deck of the arch
bridge without hangers, i.e. for   0, where u denotes the vertical displacement of this
point and rz stands for the rotation (in radian measurement) of the tangent at this point
in the direction of the x  axis , about the z  axis (see Fig. 4(a)) The negative slope of
the projection of the secondary path onto the plane rz  0 at the stability limit S (Fig.
7(b)) indicates that the structure without hangers is imperfection sensitive, i.e.
1   0  0, 2   0  0. The thin curve in Fig. 7(a) - Fig. 7(d) refers to an
imperfect structure. The imperfection was chosen as a perturbation of the geometric
shape of the perfection structure, affine to the eigenvector v1 . The largest deviation of
the geometric shape of the deck of the imperfect structure from the one of the perfect
structure is 0.4%. As was found to be the case for the von Mises truss, loss of stability of
the deck of the arch bridge occurs in the form of symmetric bifurcation with respect to
the plane rz  0 . Increasing the stiffness of the hangers by increasing  to 0.6182,
results in 2  0 and 4  0 , indicating that the structure is already imperfection
insensitive which is reflected by the positive curvature of the projection of the
secondary path onto the plane rz  0 (Fig. 7(c)). For   0.8000 , the path of the
imperfect structure and the projection of the secondary path onto the plane rz  0 are
monotonic (Fig. 7(d)). Comparing Fig. 7(b) with Fig. 7(d), it is seen that the addition of
tensile members in the form of hangers has resulted in the conversion of the originally
imperfection-sensitive arch bridge into imperfection-insensitive one. This conversion is
accompanied by an increase of the stability limit. Moreover, for the reference load, the
vertical displacement of the midpoint of the arch bridge is 12.9 cm, which is 1/310 of
the span, as compared to 1/190 for the arch bridge without hangers.
1442
 1.6
 D S
D
1.6 S 1.2
1.2 I II
0.8
0.8
I 0.4
0.4 O
0 II O
-0.4
0.03 -0.4
0 50 0
100 150 200
-0.03 rz 0 50 100 150 200
u u
(a) (b)
2.7 3.6


2.7
1.8 D D
S
II 1.8 S II
0.9
I I
0.9
O 50 100 150 200 O 30 60 90 120 150 180

u u
(c) (d)
Fig. 7 Load-displacement paths of the midpoint of the deck of an arch bridge for three
different values of the stiffness of the hangers; (a),(b)   0 , (c)   0.6182 , (d)
  0.8000 (Figs. 7(b) - (d) show the projection of the secondary path onto the
plane rz  0 )
5. Conclusions
It was shown that conversion of imperfection-sensitive elastic structures into
imperfection-insensitive ones by adding tensile members is not restricted to academic
problems such as the von Mises truss where buckling occurs from a membrane
deformation state. A condition allowing to identify such a deformation state by means
of the consistently linearized eigenproblem was presented. An arch bridge for which
this condition does not hold was used to demonstrate that the postbuckling behavior of
1443
the structure can be significantly improved by adding sufficiently stiff hangers which
overcompensate the decrease in the load carried by the deck in the postbuckling regime.
Acknowledgements
Jia X. thankfully acknowledges financial support provided by the Austrian Academy of

Sciences.
References
[1] Schranz C, Krenn B, and Mang H.A. Conversion from imperfection-sensitive into
imperfection-insensitive elastic structures II: Numerical investigation. International
Journal of Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering 2006; 195:
1458-1479.
[2] Mang H.A, Jia X., and Hoefinger G. Hilltop buckling as the  and  in
sensitivity analysis of the initial postbuckling behavior of elastic structures. Journal
of Civil Engineering and Management 2009; 15(1): 35-46.
[3] Brush D.O., and Almroth B.O. Buckling of Bars, Plates, and Shells. McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1975.
[4] Koiter W. On the stability of elastic equilibrium, Translation of ‘Over de Stabiliteit
van het Elastisch Evenwicht’ (1945). In NASA TT F-10833, Polytechnic Institute
Delft, H.J. Paris Publisher: Amsterdam, 1967.
[5] Mang H.A., Hoefinger G., and Jia X. On the predictability of zero-stiffness
postbuckling. Journal of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics 2010; accepted for
publication.
[6] Steinboeck A., Jia X., Hoefinger G. and Mang H.A. Remarkable postbuckling
paths analyzed by means of the consistently linearized eigenproblem. International
Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering 2008; 76:156-182.
[7] Mang H.A. and Hoefinger G. Bifurcation buckling from a membrane deformation
state. Submitted for publication.
[8] Steinboeck A., Hoefinger G. Jia X., and Mang H.A. Three pending questions in
structural stability. Journal of the International Association for Shell and Spatial
Structures 2009; 50: 51-64.
[9] MSC.MARC. volume A: Theory and user information. MSC.Marc manuals 2005.
1444
Postbuckling Behavior of Shallow Lattice Dome

Damir LAZAREVIĆ 1*, Mario UROŠ, Petra GIDAK
1*
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Kačićeva 26, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
damir@grad.hr
Abstract
The paper analyzes the postbuckling behavior of a single layered, shallow lattice
dome. Equilibrium paths are obtained by the nonlinear finite element method using the
geometrically exact beam finite element. The problem is solved by using the well
known version of the Newton–Raphson Method, the Arc-Length Method. The
constraint condition according to Riks is adopted. The bracketing technique, Bergan’s
current stiffness parameter and mode injection strategies are applied in order to detect
and traverse the critical (especially bifurcation) points. Due to the difficulties and
uncertainties near multiple bifurcations, the results from static analysis are further
confirmed by a more robust nonlinear transient dynamic analysis using the Hilbert–
Hughes–Taylor time stepping scheme (snap–through and snap–back are detected). The
shape of the imperfection is treated as a linear combination of buckling modes and
several values of extreme amplitudes (up to 50 cm) in a given shape are considered.
Based on this approach, the load capacity of a single layered welded dome ˝Krešimir
Ćosić˝, erected in Zadar, Croatia, is estimated.
Keywords: Lattice Dome, postbuckling behaviour, Arc-Length Method, bracketing

technique, current stiffness parameter, imperfection sensitivity
1 Introduction
Lattice (reticulated) dome is a very attractive static system. Visual monotony of
continuous shell type is easily avoided by various possible arrangements of pipes.
Double curvature makes them very efficient; hence it is possible to cover large spans
with a minimum structural weight. For example, the steel part of presented dome
comprises only 35kg/m2 in self weight for a 90 m span. However, as opposed to
continuous steel shells, the reduction factors used to reduce bearing capacity due to
imperfections and yielding are largely unknown, mainly due to the lack of
experimentally obtained results for such structures. Although it is possible to use the
equivalent slenderness ratio λ=2[3(1-ν2)]1/4(h/t’)1/2, (ν - Poisson ratio, h - dome height,
t’- thickness of equivalent continuous dome) and apply many results obtained for
continuous shells, such procedure may be satisfactorily justified only for some regular
patterns (for example, triangular or square layout of pipes). Consequently, numerical
procedures (supported by experiments to come) represent reasonable strategies for
understanding the behaviour and load bearing capacity of such structures.
1445
2 Global dome geometry

”Krešimir Ćosić” dome in Zadar is formed as a segment of spherical surface (spherical
cup). The sphere radius is 194 m, while the span of the dome is 140 m with the central
angle of approximately 92°, and the height of 30 m. Therefore, the rise to span ratio is
about 1/4.7. Up to the height of 20 m the structure is made of reinforced concrete and
above that level it is made of steel with the rise to span ratio of 1/9, which may be
considered unusually shallow (Figure 1a). The main characteristic of the concrete part
are large openings, while the steel part is recognized as a uniquely shaped reticulated
shell (Figure 1b).
Fig. 1:”Krešimir Ćosić” dome: (a) main geometry, (b) structural system
3 Structural system
The concrete part of the dome has two regions which behave in two completely
different ways. Around the openings it acts like a curved multi-bay frame which lies on
a spherical surface, while within the continuous region it carries the load as a
homogenous shell. The frame part consists of curved thin (Bernoulli-Euler) struts and a
shear wall above them, which can be approximated by the deep (Timoshenko) cross
beam. The struts and beam are assumed fully clamped both at the foundation level and
at the connection to the continuous part of shell. Apart from large axial forces, the
significant bending moments and shear forces in the frame are also developed, so the
struts and shear wall are additionally stiffened by 30/70 cm beams. For the same reasons,
the boundaries of homogenous part of shell are also stiffened by 50/70 cm edge beams.
In such a way appropriate (semi rigid) boundary conditions in the regions of shell
discontinuity are obtained and larger deformations at the boundaries are prevented.
Beams are partially sketched in Figure 1b.
It should be mentioned that large axial forces at the upper right corner of the first
opening are also efficiently accommodated by stiffeners. These forces represent
resultants of stress trajectories, which are densely placed around the corner (Figure 2a).
The concentration is a consequence of large openings, which disrupt the natural flow of
radial trajectories (coming from the continuous part of the shell), and which therefore
must deviate into the foundation and the cross beam (Figure 2b). The deviation into the
1446
foundation beam is not large because of the uniform prestress of the beam which centres
stress trajectories. However, the same does not apply to the deviation into the cross
beam, which is significant and consequently, large tension force is developed as a
resultant of the inclined compression forces (see polygon of forces in figure 2a). This
force is absorbed by reinforcement of the edge beam.
Fig. 2: Stress Trajectories: (a) stress concentration at the corner, (b) radial stress flow
disruption
Such load transfer paths are easily explained because the equilibrium conditions require
that radial forces Nr, perpendicular to the unloaded edge beam of continuous part must
be zero. High concentration of these trajectories into the cross beam (note Figure 2b)
indicates that a large compressive force is to be expected. Therefore, the boundaries of
the cross beam are stiffened by the ribs to prevent buckling in the normal direction
(mostly during the staged construction phase). The upper rib is specially shaped to
ensure adequate and sufficiently stiff support for the steel part of the dome (Figure 3a).
Fig. 3: (a) 1st buckling mode of the concrete part, (b) layout of the lattice part (joint A
is monitored as control point)
1447
It should also be mentioned that the dome thrusting forces are accommodated by the
230/120 cm foundation beam, prestressed with the 15 000 kN force (final value, after all
losses are accounted for). The shell thickness is 30 cm near the base and 20 cm
otherwise. The steel part is made of 323.9/7.1 mm pipes, welded in place to form a
single layered lattice shell mostly characterized by triangles and hexagons, ending with
a central 12 m opening, stiffened by a larger 508/11 mm edge pipe. The shape is
developed from simple triangular pattern such that radial pipes are shifted away from
the joints [1]. In such a way, only two pipes are joined together at any given location,
which makes it easier to form and weld joints in situ (Figure 3b). Finally, the dome is
covered by special sandwich panels to prevent large temperature gradients affecting the
net. Therefore, the thermal effects are not as large as would normally be expected [1].
4 Numerical model
Numerical analyses are performed using the FEAP program, v7.5 [2,3] (slightly
modified at some places) and results are additionally verified by SAP 2000, v12 [4].
The model consists of frame and shell elements accounting for finite displacements,
rotations and strains (finite strains in FEAP only). Finite element mesh is gradually
refined near the boundaries in order to capture properly the high gradients of bending
moments due to the fixity of dome into stiffer surrounding beams and to adequately
approximate and resolve buckling modes in both radial and meridional directions. Line
elements are also refined to capture properly local buckling between two joints of the
reticulated shell. Some very stiff parts of the model are eliminated from the system of
equations using the known master-slave kinematic constraint [5] (penalty formulation is
avoided) in order to decrease the condition number of the global stiffness matrix and to
improve stability and accuracy of numerical computations [6]. This is deemed to be an
important issue, because in highly nonlinear problems large number of equations must
be solved iteratively, so the number of operations and therefore round-off errors are
significantly increased. The analysis is performed in stages (first the foundation beam,
then the concrete part and finally the steel part) to correctly induce prestress forces into
the foundation only, and not into the entire model.
5 Computational strategies
5.1 Motivation
It is clearly not easy to estimate the load bearing capacity of such a composite structure.
Even if the ideal (Euler) buckling coefficient were to be known (which is easy to
calculate and is theoretically correct only if the prebuckling path is linear), the reduction
factor accounting for the influence of various types of imperfections and inelastic
behaviour is not easy to decide on [7]. As it is impossible (for obvious reasons) to
conduct multiple experiments of such structures, the only way to estimate the ultimate
limit state is to numerically evaluate the postcritical behaviour of the model. Such a
strategy is particularly important in spherical shells because the postbuckling branches
sharply decrease (snap through and snap back are usually detected) and extreme
1448
imperfection sensitivity (asymptotically, according to Koiter’s half-power law) is

typically obtained. The drop of the equilibrium curves in the postcritical region is a
consequence of the cubic term in the energy expression, while the sensitivity is
associated with several coinciding modes at (or near) bifurcation point(s). As it has been
previously mentioned, the mesh must be properly refined in these critical regions and
the load increments must be rather small if such clusters of multiple bifurcation points
and associated buckling mode shapes are to be properly detected. In the following,
based on this initial discussion, only the analysis of lattice steel part is described.
5.2 Finite element used

The model is based on geometrically exact beam finite element, which has initially been
developed in two dimensions by Reissner [8] and subsequently extended to three
dimensions by Simo [9]. He introduced natural expression for the beam deformation
map through the rotation tensor as a measure of the cross section finite rotation. In this
unique approach, the cross sections are assumed to be rigid (plane section hypothesis)
and tracked through the space by following the section normal. The stress resultants and
Timoshenko hypothesis arise very naturally from this approach. These ideas are used by
Ibrahimbegović [10], who developed the stiffness matrix K and the load vector f for the
element implemented into the FEAP program. The element is initially straight, with two
nodes, formulated using isoparametric interpolations with a single point Gauss
quadrature for the tangent stiffness (to avoid locking). Linear displacement and
incremental rotation approximations are applied during continuation. Also, linear elastic
relations between the Green-Lagrange strain and the second Piola-Kirchhoff stresses are
adopted. Therefore, simple (Saint-Venant-Kirchhoff) constitutive equations between the
stress and strain resultants are obtained, although at large strains (no matter how large
the displacements and rotations are) certain problems with volume change often arise
(interesting ideas how to avoid these effects are given in [11]).
5.3 Path following technique

The nonlinear system of algebraic equations K(u)u = f which stems from the type of
finite element employed is usually solved iteratively, based on the residual equation r(u,
λ) = λ f-K(u)u. The load parameter λ is used to change the magnitude of the fixed load
pattern f within the iterative method applied. The known family of Newton-Raphson
methods is usually adopted to solve the residual equation r(u, λ) = 0. However, it is
known from the stability theory that the problem considered here does not have a
unique solution for every λ. Therefore, this parameter is not assumed to be prescribed,
as in the class of pure load control strategies, but it is rather considered to be an
unknown variable leading to a family of Arc-Length versions of the Newton–Raphson
method. FEAP uses the idea based on maintaining a constant length of the equilibrium
path. The stiffness matrix is augmented by an additional linearized constraint equation
in the sense of Riks [12] and Schweizerhof and Wriggers [13]. The normal hyperplane,
which is perpendicular to the tangent on the equilibrium path, is adopted, and the
equation needed to solve for the parameter λ is obtained. The system of equations for
the steel part of dome is not very large, so the full Newton-Raphson scheme at every
increment is used. The system is solved by the Cholesky LTDL decomposition (negative
1449
definite matrices must be handled) using the partitioning technique to utilize symmetry
of the stiffness matrix. In order to achieve a better convergence of the method, a simple
heuristic rule [14] based on halving the iteration step to automatically adjust the arc-
length during solution continuation difficulties is adopted. The reduction is based on a
number of successful (or unsuccessful) iteration steps. So, for example, in the initially
straight region of the primary equilibrium path larger steps are obtained, while in the
pathological regions around critical points (especially like sharp corners) extremely
small steps are required.
5.4 Detecting critical points

If the above comments are carefully adhered to, the arc-length method shall easily
traverse critical points with a horizontal or a vertical tangent, as opposed to classical
solution strategies based on the load and displacement control. Even if critical points are
hard to reach, it is almost impossible to follow unstable paths that emanate from such
points (unstable branch of the snap through problem for the load control and similarly
for the snap back problem for the displacement control). Namely, the augmented system
is singular at the bifurcation and (due to partitioning) at the limit point, but such
scenarios rarely happen during the arc-length continuation process. However, if the
critical point is accidentally reached, it can be skipped by a simple restart option from
the last converged state with a slightly modified step size. This is known as ’’the man in
the loop’’ in the programming theory, and in our opinion, it should be a part of every
efficient solution continuation algorithm. Naturally, the rank deficiency must be
recognized during the decomposition of the stiffness matrix so as to prevent
uncontrolled solution. Efficient interchanges of rows and columns (to preserve
symmetry) of the stiffness matrix is possible when zero pivot is detected and when
cancellation of the factorisation process naturally arises in case of multiple zeroes [15].
Such a scenario is somewhat unclear from the strong stability theory point of view
because the critical point is never exactly reached. Nevertheless, it is possible to arrive
(almost) at the critical point using a simple bisection technique or in a more complicated
(and faster) way using additionally the augmented system (generally by the eigenvalue
equation K = 0). Additional interesting ideas are given in [16]. We have adopted the
first mentioned approach in the analysis. Therefore, the changes of signs of pivots are
monitored in order to indicate if the critical point is bypassed. In such case, the
algorithm changes the load direction and goes backwards with the arc-length halved.
Should convergence be achieved, the eigenvalue analysis is executed in order to see if
the eigenvalue is close to zero (within assumed tolerance). If not, the procedure is
repeated and this step is reduced until the zero eigenvalue is detected. Near critical
(singular) point system of equations is not well conditioned (det K → 0, cond K → ∞)
and an eigenvalue search with a small negative shift is used. It should be mentioned that
Bergan’s current stiffness parameter k = k(λ) / k(0), [k(λ) = f TΔui+1 / (Δui+1TΔui+1)] is
successfully used to change the load direction during the bracketing process. Parameter
sign changes in the case the limit point is crossed, whilst it remains unaffected when
bifurcation point is bypassed, which is beneficial. The subspace iteration method is
implemented into FEAP program to detect eigenpairs. After several trials it was decided
that the number of vectors which span the subspace should equal the number of zero
1450
eigenvalues plus two, but in any case no more than eight (whichever condition prevails).
Such size of the subspace worked well in all situations. The results obtained match
fairly well the classical linear eigenvalue analysis. This was indeed expected, because
all the prebuckling equilibrium paths of the perfect dome are almost linear. However,
the main difficulty in the case considered here was the existence of two or more very
closely spaced eigenmodes (with the same, or almost the same critical load). Thus, the
problem was how to change one relevant secondary equilibrium path (one with the
overall minimum).
5.5 Traversing critical points (branch switching)

At the critical point, two cases were tested. If T f  0 (then Δλ must vanish) a limit point
is detected, while for T f = 0 (whatever Δλ) a bifurcation point is identified. The point is
an isolated point if only one eigenvector exists, while multiple (coinciding) critical
points are found otherwise. To proceed on the secondary path, the buckling mode
injection approach is used. This is a natural idea because eigenvectors detected at
critical point are tangent to the secondary path and therefore provide a good choice of
how to begin. Accordingly, the implementation within FEAP adopted ui = ucr + |u| / (ε
|cr|) cr and the default value for the scaling parameter was ε = 100 (ucr cr) / (|ucr||cr|)+1,
although even smaller trial value was successfully adopted. Critical point is only
slightly perturbed by using ε because it is very accurately detected, and very small
disturbance easily pushes the model onto the secondary branch, if the small step size is
initially used. However, due to multiple bifurcations, all linear combinations of
eigenvectors must also be initially tried because they also lie within the tangential
hyperplane spanned by the eigenvectors found. More precisely, the influence of slightly
complicated injection cr = ∑εi i,cr, inserted into ui, must be examined. Scalar
coefficients εi are very small numbers. In our case, the two coincident eigenvalues are
found first (λcr=4.16) and the three initial directions are tried [ε 1,cr, ε 2,cr and ε (1,cr +
2,cr)]. The overall minimum on the secondary branch is found by the perturbation ε 1,cr
(Figure 4b).
Fig. 4: Stability behaviour according to the 1st buckling mode: (a) sensitivity curves, (b)
equilibrium paths
1451
Following that, the higher, but more imperfection sensitive, modes are investigated.
Moreover, two interesting bifurcation sets are found; the lower, with two coinciding
modes again (λcr=4.48), and the higher with even more (five) closely spaced modes
(λcr=7.52). So, for the former case three combinations are induced and a single direction
is also found as applicable (Figure 5b). For the latter case some 15 linear combinations
were tried, and the one with the overall minimum is presented (Figure 6). To avoid
errors in visual inspection about the character of the critical point [17], equilibrium
paths at additional nodes and degrees of freedom are also examined.
It should be noted that lower eigenvalues are bypassed and that the unstable branch is
followed using the kinematic constraint expressed as a linear combination of the lower
modes (no master node is needed). The main idea is to make incremental model
displacements orthogonal to all the modes found. (Clearly, they are automatically
orthogonal to any linear combination of these modes at the same time.) Despite a degree
of success is obtained, there are difficulties with the implementation with such strategy
in particular in connection with the arc-length method which must be additionally
augmented and properly linearized using such an additional constraint. More work is
needed in order to fully incorporate this idea into the FEAP program.
Since the eigenvalues (within the step size) detected are extremely close, the results are
additionally verified by a dynamic approach. Thus, uncertainties near and at the
bifurcation set are overcome by inertial effects which push the model into the physically
correct direction. The analysis is realized by the Hilber-Hughes-Taylor (HHT) time
stepping scheme included in SAP. External forces are quasi-statically applied to avoid
any significant acceleration on the primary path. For this purpose, the ramp time history
function that increases to full value from zero time to the time equalling ten times T1
(first natural period) is adopted. In the HHT method, the minimum value of parameter α
= -1/3 is initially used and the analysis is run again with a decreasing time step and the
value of α. For accurate results, small time steps and α close to zero should be adopted.
Lumped mass matrix with translational components only is applied (i.e. no rotatory
inertia is assumed).
Fig. 5: Stability behaviour according to 2nd buckling mode: (a) elastic sensitivity curve,
(b) equilibrium paths
1452
Damping is defined as mass and stiffness proportional (Rayleigh type), controlled by

2% damping ratio for the 1st and the 10th vibration mode. It is noted that the primary
branches obtained by the static and the dynamic approach are practically coincident.
The secondary branch is either horizontal or vertical and it depends on the character of
the equilibrium path (snap through or snap back), because in dynamic approach, the
unstable branch cannot be followed and the stable equilibrium position (often very
distant in shells) are again determined.
5.6 Imperfection sensitivity

The shape of the imperfection is treated as a linear combination of the buckling modes.
However, the sensitivity diagrams (Figures 4a and 5a) are constructed according to the
imperfection shapes in the form of eigenvectors alone, because the overall minimum of
the equilibrium curves with this perturbation of the ideal geometry at a critical point is
obtained. Therefore, the initial geometry is assumed imperfect using ε1,cr or ε2,cr.
Subsequently, nonlinear calculations based on the described strategies are adopted again.
Multiple bifurcation points are changed to isolated limit points and most numerical
difficulties practically disappeared. Consequently, the unstable paths (Figures 4b and 5b)
are traversed without numerical problems. According to Koiter’s half-power law, the
second bifurcation set is very imperfection sensitive. Although the higher modes are
usually not theoretically relevant, they are of practical importance here as the dome
cover (which, to be otherwise on the safe side, is not included in the model) in reality
favours higher and symmetric buckling shapes. Therefore, the third bifurcation set with
five symmetrical modes may be very interesting. Although it has a significantly higher
critical force than the first or the second one, the overall minimum of the secondary
branch may be smaller because of the extreme imperfection sensitivity.
More precisely, the fact that such an extreme

snap back of the equilibrium shape is
detected (Figure 6) implies that the primary
and secondary branches are so closely
spaced (distance of 7.5 mm only) that large
(red coloured) part of the primary path is
practically impossible to reach. The
extremely small imperfections will drive the
model on the secondary branch and the
associated minimum (λcr=2.54) which may
only be considered as relatively safe. This
Fig. 6: One of the higher, imperfection equilibrium path is still under investigation,
sensitive buckling modes but it seems that it is a consequence of
compound (coupled) buckling phenomena,
as not only global instability modes interact, but also the local buckling of numerous
members appears simultaneously. In addition, the sharp snap back is also the result of
the fact that path is not only asymptotically valid (for small postcritical deflection)
because the finite displacement formulation is used and large postcritical deflections are
1453
properly accounted for. It can also be said that the higher order terms of the potential
energy (or equilibrium path) expression are included.
It must be emphasized that asymmetric loads (which activate asymmetric buckling
modes) are not treated because the snow loading is rather small (Mediterranean region;
0.2 kN/m2) and the wind loading is almost symmetrical (moreover, in the uplift
direction) at the top of the cup. The only seriously treated asymmetric forces are the
earthquake forces (peak ground acceleration 0.2g), but they are found to be of little
relevance for buckling.
5.7 Bearing capacity

Based on the stated findings, the relatively small design value of imperfection ε = ± 5
cm is recommended. This value is never exceeded as the continuous geodesic
measurements have confirmed. Based on the discussion so far, only the geometric
nonlinearity is fully considered. However, it is clear from the deformed shapes (see
small pictures) that large curvature of rods on the top and at the bottom of the buckling
modes exists. This means that potential yielding of material must somehow be
accounted for. In this project, the point of first yielding during continuation on the
primary path is detected and the plastic sensitivity curve, associated with these points is
then constructed. Thus, avoiding the direct calculation of plasticity effects, numerical
stability and convergence to the correct solution is somewhat easier to obtain. The
results are additionally confirmed by means of a plasticity reduction factor [18]. It was
decided to use Gerard formula η = (ET ES)1/2/ E, where ET, ES and E are tangent, secant
and Young modulus of steel respectively. Values of ES = 0.7 E and ET=0.35 E close to
yielding are used and a factor of η = 0.5 is accordingly obtained. So, the final design
capacity η λe of the lattice part is indicated on Figure 4a. The obvious load bearing
reserves are kept due to serious uncertainties (see Conclusion), particularly possible
high imperfection sensitivity of higher modes and a sharp drop of the associated
equilibrium curves. It should be mentioned that yielding on the primary path associated
with the second bifurcation set is not detected and the elastic sensitivity curve according
to our interpretation of plasticity effects remains changed (Figure 5a). The effect of
plasticity on the secondary branch is not accounted for.
6 Additional reserves
There is no doubt that the dome cover must increase the load bearing capacity of the
dome. Simply, the cover beams and sandwich panels increase axial stiffness, and the
eccentricity (e =370 mm) with respect to the pipes increases the bending stiffness of the
dome (Figure 7). Of course, the axial contribution is not as important as bending,
especially in the postcritical region. The main reason is that the membrane forces
dominate on the primary path and the contribution of the cover beams to the large
membrane stiffness of the dome is relatively small. On the other hand, excessive
bending resistance is activated latter, during large rotations on the secondary path as the
bending stiffness of the dome due to large eccentricity significantly increases. Therefore,
the higher ideal critical load and the decrease of the slope of the postbuckling path are
1454
naturally expected. Consequently, the higher limit loads of initially imperfect structures
and a decrease of imperfection sensitivity should be obtained.
Unfortunately, the behaviour of the panel is quite complicated and it is not easy to
include some parts of the cover into the model. Exclusion of the panel renders analysis
to be on the safe side. It may be possible to do that based on a carefully judged effective
width concept, but for a complicated cover the procedure is far from the code based
rules.
Fig. 7: Connections between pipes and dome cover
If only the cover beams (European IPE 200) are eccentrically included (which is surely
justified), certain additional reserves for smaller imperfections are clearly obtained (red
curve at figure 8). However, these reserves are neither well documented nor used during
the design process. (Actually, IPE profiles and sandwich panels are treated as loading
only; additional stiffness is not accounted for).
Fig. 8: Additional reserves with dome cover included
7 Conclusions
The paper describes main numerical strategies used in the design of large single-layered
lattice dome. Although some of the procedures are well established, there are open
questions where further research is required. For example, it is possible to predict
rational amplitude of acceptable imperfections, but the relevant shape of imperfections
is not yet well established. The problem is emphasised by the fact that compound
1455
buckling (simultaneous local buckling of the rods and the overall buckling of the dome)
may highly deteriorate the imperfection sensitivity of reticulated shells. Therefore, any
clustering of singular points, which could become a region of possible high
imperfection sensitivity, must be detected and postbuckling branches that emanates
from such clusters should be investigated.
For regular lattice shapes, it is possible (for engineering purposes) to establish (isotropic
or better anisotropic) continuum treatment [19] and then use many experimental results
of continuous shells to estimate load bearing capacity, but for highly irregular network
the statically equivalent continuum concept may be very inadequate or even dangerous.
References
[1] Hemerich E, Lazarević D, Anđelić M, Šošić I. Welded tubular structure for the
Zadar dome, 12th International Symposium on Tubular Structures (ISTS12),
Shanghai, China, 2008.
[2] Taylor RL. FEAP – A Finite Element Analysis Program, Version 7.5
Programmer Manual, Berkeley, California, 2005.
[3] Taylor RL. FEAP – A Finite Element Analysis Program, Version 7.5 User
Manual, Berkeley, California, 2005.
[4] SAP2000 Analysis reference manual, Computers and Structures, Inc., 2005.
Berkeley, California, 2005.
[5] Crisfield MA. Nonlinear Finite Element Analysis of Solids and Structures:
Advanced Topics, Volume 2, John Wiley & Sons, 1997.
[6] Higham NJ. Accuracy and Stability of Numerical Algorithms. Society for
Industrial an Applied Mathematics, 1996.
[7] Galambos TV. Guide to stability design criteria for metal structures, (5th edn).
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1998.
[8] Reissner E On one-dimensional finite strain beam theory: the plain problem.
Journal of Applied Mathematics and Physics 1972; 23:795-804.
[9] Simo JC. A finite strain beam formulation. The three dimensional dynamic
problem: Part I Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering 1985;
49:55-70.
[10] Ibrahimbegović A and Mikdad MA. Finite rotations in dynamics of beams and
implicit time-stepping schemes International Journal for Numerical Methods in
Engineering 1998; 41:781-814.
[11] Holzapfel GA. Nonlinear Solid Mechanics A continuum Approach for
Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 2008.
[12] Riks E. The application of Newton’s method to the problem of elastic stability
Journal of Applied Mechanics, 1972; 39:1060-1066.
1456
[13] Schweizerhof K and Wriggers P. Consistent linearization for path following

methods in nonlinear fe-analysis Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and
Engineering, 1986; 59:261-279.
[14] Wriggers P. Nonlinear Finite Element Methods, Springer-Verlag, 2008.
[15] Bathe KJ. Finite Element Procedures, Prentice Hall, 1996.
[16] Seidel R. Practical Bifurcation and Stability Analysis, Springer-Verlag, 2009.
[17] Thompson JMT and Hunt GW. A General Theory of Elastic Stability, John
Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 1973.
[18] Allen HG and Bulson PS. Background to Buckling, McGraw-Hill., 1980.
[19] Kollar L and Dulacska E. Buckling of Shells for Engineers, John Wiley & Sons,
1984.
1457
Study on In-plane Ultimate Load-carrying Capacities of Two-

hinge Arch
Ma Zhigang1*, Liu Tao 1
1*
Jiangsu Huning Steel Structure&Machinery Co, Ltd, Beijing 100190, China
Mazhigang1979@163.com
,
Abstract
The study on the in-plane ultimate load-carrying capacities of two-hinge arch
structure is focused in this paper. Three two-hinge arches of 30-meter span in this paper
are selected, one for symmetry semicircle shape, and the other two for non-symmetry
arc shape. The three arches are all composed of box-shaped steel beams. The arch foot
is fixed. The structure’s model and analysis are operated by means of software ansys.
The element type utilized in analysis is two nodes three-dimensional beam element
Beam 188. The in-plane ultimate load-carrying capacities subject to horizontal load and
vertical load are obtained.
Keywords: arch, ultimate load-carrying capacity, stability
1 Introduction
Arch structure, accounting for a beautiful shape, reasonable mechanical properties and
convenient construction, makes a frequent application in the roof structure. The arch
structure, a shape of which is completely symmetric arc-shape or parabola-shape, is
frequently utilized in building structure. In demanding for the requirements of change
and innovation of architecture forms, non-symmetry shape arch structure tends to be
widely applied. On account of the actual structure design, multi-arches will be contacted
together by tie bars to bear loads, the out-plane of the arch can maintain stability, the
study on the in-plane ultimate load-carrying capacities of two-hinge arch structure is
focused in this paper. Three two-hinge arches of 30-meter span in this paper are selected,
one for symmetry semicircle shape, and the other two for non-symmetry arc shape. The
three arches are all composed of box-shaped steel beams. The arch foot is fixed. The
structure’s model and analysis are operated by means of software ansys. The element
type utilized in analysis is two nodes three-dimensional beam element Beam 188. The
in-plane ultimate load-carrying capacities subject to horizontal load and vertical load are
obtained. The dynamic stability of symmetry and non-symmetry arches is also analyzed
in this paper.
1458
2 Analysis Model
Three models
are chosen for
calculation in
this paper,
shown in Figure
1. The spans are
30m, model A is
a symmetric Figure1. Analysis model
semicircular arch, model B and C are non-symmetric arches. The three arches are all
formed by box-shaped steel beam, the cross-section of which is 口600x300x20x20. The
steel material is Q345B. The arch foot is fixed. Ultimate load-carrying capacity study
and dynamic stability of the three arches are presented by employing an elastic-plastic
large displacement finite element analysis.
3 Calculation Results
3.1 Elastic Buckling Mode and Elastic

Buckling Load
Every order elastic buckling modes and
elastic buckling loads of the three arches are
obtained by means of elastic buckling
analysis. Elastic buckling load-carrying
capacity is the highest carrying capacity in
ideal condition. Under the vertical line load,
the first three modes and buckling loads of Figure 2. The map of vertical load
the model A, B, C are presented in Table 1.
The map of load is shown in Figure 2
Table 1：The elastic buckling mode and buckling load under vertical line
load（X1e3kN/m）
First Second Third

Buckling Mode
A
Buckling Load 1.404 2.597 4.249
Buckling Mode
B
Buckling Load 1.816 3.111 5.554
Buckling Mode
C
Buckling Load 1.266 1.462 2.662
1459
Under the left horizontal line load, the

first three modes and buckling loads of
the model A, B, C are presented in Table
2. The map of left horizontal line load is
shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Left horizontal line load
Table 2：The elastic buckling mode and buckling load under left horizontal load（X
1e3kN/m）
First Second Third

Buckling Mode
A
Buckling Load 2.1266 5.2490 7.0553
Buckling Mode
B
Buckling Load 2.8187 5.6769 8.6511
Buckling Mode
C
Buckling Load 2.2158 7.7565 8.0838
Under the right horizontal line load, the first

three modes and buckling loads of the
model A, B, C are presented in Table 3. The
map of right horizontal line load is shown in
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Right horizontal load
Table 3：The elastic buckling mode and buckling load under right horizontal load（X
1e3kN/m）
First Second Third

Buckling Mode
A
Buckling Load 2.1266 5.2491 7.0553
Buckling Mode
B
Buckling Load 8.5438 12.7754 16.8156
Buckling Mode
C
Buckling Load 2.4901 3.8584 4.3845
1460
3.2 Influence of Different Layout of Initial Disfigurement

Initial disfigurement is taken into account in FEA. Layout of initial disfigurement is
every order elastic buckling model of the arch. Magnitude of the initial disfigurement is
 0 / L  1/ 250 . The stress-strain relationship of material is ideal elastic-plastic,
Es  2.06 105 MPa ， f y  345MPa . When the vertical force is loaded on the arch, the
ultimate load-carrying capacity of the three arches with different initial disfigurement is
shown in table 4.
Table 4：The ultimate load-carrying capacity under vertical load（X 1e3kN/m）
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
A 0.2443 0.2725 0.2382 0.2674 0.2458 0.2452 0.2453 0.2606 0.2365
B 0.3962 0.4011 0.3972 0.3842 0.3824 0.3678 0.3728 0.3720 0.3693
C 0.0724 0.0724 0.0722 0.0715 0.0726 0.0721 0.0708 0.0714 0.0721
Under horizontal load, the ultimate load carrying capacity is the load value when the
arch’s horizontal deflection is 350mm. When the horizontal force is loaded on the arch,
the ultimate load-carrying capacity of the three arches with different initial
disfigurement is shown in table 5,6.
Table 5：The ultimate load-carrying capacity under left horizontal load（X 1e3kN/m）
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
A 0.0858 0.0865 0.0868 0.0868 0.0926 0.0927 0.0931 0.0935 0.0941
B 0.1215 0.1222 0.1229 0.1229 0.1234 0.1235 0.1236 0.1239 0.1249
C 0.0800 0.0808 0.0820 0.0828 0.0843 0.0855 0.0865 0.0882 0.0888
Table 6：The ultimate load-carrying capacity with right horizontal load（X 1e3kN/m）
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
A 0.0858 0.0865 0.0868 0.0868 0.0926 0.0927 0.0931 0.0935 0.0941
B 0.2535 0.2638 0.2632 0.2633 0.2634 0.2638 0.2640 0.2644 0.2650
C 0.0933 0.0934 0.0938 0.0939 0.0941 0.0970 0.0978 0.0998 0.0999
It’s shown that, under the vertical load, the most disadvantageous layout of initial
disfigurement of the A arch is the ninth order elastic buckling mode. For the B model,
it’s the sixth mode, for the C model, it’s the seventh mode. Under the left horizontal
load, the most disadvantageous layout of initial disfigurement of the A B C arches is the
first order elastic buckling mode. Under the right horizontal load, the most
disadvantageous layout of initial disfigurement of the A B C arches is the first order
elastic buckling mode.
3.3 The influence of magnitude of initial disfigurement

It’s supposed that the three arches is loaded vertical force, for the A arch, the layout of
initial disfigurement is the ninth order elastic buckling mode. for the B model, it’s the
sixth mode, for the C model, it’s the seventh mode. The magnitude of initial
disfigurement  0 / L is 1/1000, 1/500, 1/250, 1/200, 1/100. The influence of initial
disfigurement on the ultimate load-carrying capacity is shown in Figure 5.
1461
Figure 5. the influence of magnitude of initial disfigurement

It’s shown that the ultimate load-carrying capacity of the three arches under vertical
force decrease with the magnitude of the initial disfigurement. The initial disfigurement
of the structure should be diminished by any possibility in the construction.
4 Dynamic stability
Dynamic unstability acceleration peak
value of the three arches is obtained by
the time-history analysis with seismic
wave. The seismic wave is shown in
figure 6. Elastic-plastic large
displacement finite element analysis is
employed in calculation. Rayleigh
damping is supposed. Rayleigh
damping ratio is 0.02. The material is
Q345, The stress-strain relationship of
material is ideal elastic-plastic,
Es  2.06 105 MPa ， f y  345MPa . Figure 6. the seismic wave
Layout of initial disfigurement is the
first order elastic buckling model of the arch under vertical load. Magnitude of the the
initial disfigurement is  0 / L  1/ 250 . Under the different acceleration peak value, the
displacement curve of mid-span node of the arch is shown in figure 7. The dynamic
stable load-carrying capacity can be obtained obviously. It’s shown that the dynamic
stability of the non-symmetry arch is lower than that of the symmetry arch.
1462
Figure 7. the displacement curve of the mid-span

node
4 Conclusion
1) The most disadvantageous layout of initial disfigurement of the arch is not
necessarily the first order mode of the elastic buckling analysis.
2) The ultimate load-carrying capacity decreases with the magnitude of the initial
disfigurement of the arches.
3) The dynamic stable load-carrying capacity of the non-symmetry arch is lower than
that of the symmetry arch.
References
[1] Wang Guozhou, Qu Fuqian, Theory and design of steel structure[M].

[2] GB50017-2003 Code for design of steel structure [S].
[3] Guo Yanlin, Chen Guodong, Lan Yong, Ultimate load-carrying capacity of 3-pipe
shuttle-shape steel latticed column[A], Journal of Building Structures 2002;(5):25-
30
[4] Lan Yong, Guo Yanlin, Chen Guodong, Elastic Buckling Behaviour of Shuttle-
shape steel latticed column[A], Journal of Building Structures 2002;(5):18-24,30
1463
Buckling of cellular members loaded by an axial force

Delphine SONCK1*, Wesley VANLAERE 2, Rudy VAN IMPE 2
1*
Laboratory for Research on Structural Models, Ghent University
Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 904,B-9052 Zwijnaarde, BELGIUM
Delphine.Sonck@UGent.be
2
Laboratory for Research on Structural Models, Ghent University
Abstract
Cellular members are steel I-section members with large round web openings.
Because of these openings, the material use of these members loaded in bending is more
economical than for classical plain-webbed I-section members. These members are also
used for applications in which they are loaded by an axial compressive force and a
relatively large bending moment. However, the behaviour of cellular members in these
loading conditions is still unknown, and must be investigated. As a part of this more
extensive research, the authors have studied numerically the general elastic buckling
behaviour of cellular members loaded by an axial force. In this paper, the results of this
study are presented and compared with a proposed analytical expression for the flexural
buckling load. It is found that this expression is accurate for the examined cellular
members, the failure behaviour in compression of cellular members being very similar
to that of plain-webbed members.
Keywords: cellular members, flexural buckling, Abaqus, numerical simulations,

columns
1 Introduction
Cellular members are steel I-section members with large circular web openings that
appear in a regular pattern (Fig. 1). Castellated members are very similar, but have
hexagonal instead of circular web openings. As a consequence, structures with these
members are lighter in weight and appearance. The main advantage of these members is
the optimisation of material use for cellular beams loaded in bending. Because of this
major advantage, these members are predominantly used for applications in which they
are solely subjected to a bending moment about the strong axis. Consequently, most
research on cellular and castellated members over the past 30 years has focussed on this
loading condition. Currently, different failure mechanisms of these beams under
ambient and fire conditions are still being studied, since the presence of the web
openings alters the failure behaviour of cellular beams. A good overview of the different
failure mechanisms of cellular beams in ambient conditions is given by Kerdal and
Nethercot in [1].
1464
For applications in which a column is subjected to an axial force and a large bending
moment, a cellular member can be used as column. In the same fashion as for beams
loaded in pure bending, the presence of the openings will alter the failure behaviour of
cellular members in this loading condition. However, according to the authors’ best
knowledge, no research on this topic is available. This topic is currently being
investigated by the authors. Earlier work by the authors focussed on the general
buckling behaviour of cellular members loaded in pure bending [2], one of the two
limiting cases of the loading condition of compression and bending. This paper will
focus on the general elastic buckling behaviour of axially compressed members, pure
compression being the other limiting case of this loading condition. These members will
fail by elastic flexural buckling (Fig. 2).
Fig. 1: Cellular member
According to the authors’ best knowledge, research regarding the failure behaviour of
cellular members loaded by an axial compressive force is almost non-existing. The
buckling behaviour of cellular and castellated members was studied respectively by
Sweedan et al. [3] and El-Sawy et al. [4]. In these papers, buckling about the strong
axis was considered, while our focus is on weak-axis buckling.
Fig. 2: Flexural buckling of a cellular member
In this paper, an analytical expression for the weak-axis flexural buckling load of
cellular members will be proposed, based on an existing expression for another elastic
general buckling mode. The results of this expression will be compared with the results
of numerical simulations in Abaqus for a wide variety of realistic cellular member
geometries. Based on this comparison, the accuracy of the design rule will be
determined.
2 Examined sections
Cellular members are constructed starting from a rolled I-section. The web of the parent
section is cut as depicted in Fig. 3. After this operation, the two obtained T-sections are
shifted and welded together (Fig. 4). In the current research, only one parent section for
each cellular member was considered, but it is also possible to fabricate a cellular
member starting from two different I-sections. The resulting total height of the cellular
1465
member, HT, can be calculated according to (1). In this formula, hT is the total height of
the parent cross-section, a is the opening diameter, w is the width of the intermediate
web post and rb is the width of the cut (Fig. 3 and Fig. 4).
 a  2rb 2  w2 (1)
HT  hT 
2
rb rb
h Th T HH
T T aa
ww
end
end ww
Fig. 3: cutting of the parent section during Fig. 4: resulting cellular member
fabrication of the cellular member
In the current research, six different parent sections were chosen: the European profiles
IPE300, HEA320, HEM320, IPE600, HEA650 and HEM650. This choice was the result
of the selection of three different I-section types (IPE, HEA and HEM), considering two
different heights for each of these types. The dimensions of the resulting cellular
member, which were chosen to vary between realistic boundaries, can be expressed in
function of the other dimensions by means of a factor f. This is shown by formulae (2)-
(5). For each factor f, three different values are considered (Table 1). The length L of
the member is the smallest value of the length corresponding with a whole number of
web openings that is greater to or equal to Lmin.
a  fa .hT (2)
w  f w.a (3)
wend  f w,end .w (4)
Lmin  f L .HT (5)
Table 1. Chosen values of varied parameters

Factor for Different values considered
Opening diameter a fa 0.8 1 1.2
Intermediate web post width w fw 0.1 0.4 0.7
Width of the web post at the end wend fw,end 1 2 3
Minimum length Lmin fL 10 25 40
If all the different parameters are combined, 486 possible geometries are found.
However, these geometries need to fulfill certain geometric constraints as well. These
1466
constraints can be found in [5]. As a result, the total number of examined geometries
was 387.
3 Proposed analytical expression
The examined loading and boundary conditions are given in Fig. 5: a simply supported
member with length L is loaded by an axial compressive force N. The x-axis is oriented
along the length of the beam; the y- and z-axis are oriented respectively in the direction
of the strong and the weak axis of the cross-section (Fig. 5-Fig. 6). When the
compressive force N becomes equal to the critical compressive force Ncr, the member
buckles: the cross-section of the member at location x undergoes a lateral displacement
vy which varies like a half sine-wave along the length of the member. This general
buckling mode is called weak-axis flexural buckling.
y L
N N
z x
Fig. 5: examined loading and boundary conditions (top view)
For a member with a uniform cross-section along the length of the member, the critical
buckling load Ncr of a member of length L is given by (6). In this expression, E is the
modulus of elasticity of the material of which the member is made and Iz is the second
moment of area of the cross-section about the weak axis.
2 EI z
N cr  (6)
L2
The approach used to derive the analytical expression for the critical weak-axis flexural
buckling load is similar to the approach used for the elastic lateral-torsional buckling
moment Mcr of a cellular member. According to the ENV3 [6] and a European research
report [7], Mcr can be calculated using the same expression as for a plain webbed
member, but by using the cross-sectional properties at the centre of the opening. Using
the same approach for the critical axial load, Ncr,2T can be calculated using (6), with Iz
calculated at the centre of the opening, as given by (7). In this expression, tw is the
thickness of the web, HT the total height of the cross-section, tf the thickness of the
flanges, b the width of the section and a the opening diameter (Fig. 6). The second
moment of area, Iy,2T in (7) is calculated using a thin-walled approach, matching the
used finite element model.
b3t f 3
( HT  t f  a )tw
I y ,2T  2  (7)
12 12
1467
b tf
z
y
HT a
tw
Fig. 6: cross-sectional geometry at the centre of the opening
The second term in (7) takes into account the presence of web openings. Since the
thickness of the web tw is small compared to the other dimensions, the second term in (7)
will be much smaller than the first term. Therefore, the influence of the web openings
on Ncr will be small if expression (7) is valid.
It is expected that the true bending stiffness EIy of the cellular member will lie between
EIy,2T(a) and EIy,2T(a=0), respectively the bending stiffness calculated at a cross-section
through the centre of the opening and the bending stiffness at a cross-section between
two openings. Because Iy,2T is expected to be a lower, safe boundary of the true bending
stiffness, the critical load Ncr,2T is also expected to be a safe approximation of the true
failure load. The accuracy of the expression for Ncr,2T was assessed by comparing the
results of the expression with the results of the numerical simulation for each examined
geometry.
4 Numerical Simulations
The critical buckling load of the cellular members was calculated using a linear
buckling analysis with the finite element package Abaqus. The first eigenvalue obtained
from this analysis (Ncr,abq) will be compared with the proposed analytical expression for
Ncr,2T in order to determine whether this expression is accurate.
The geometry was simulated in Abaqus using quadratic shell elements with reduced
integration (S8R) for both the flanges and the web. The fillet between the flanges and
the web was not taken into account. The used boundary conditions and loads were these
from a simply supported, axially compressed member, as shown in Fig. 5. The axial
compressive forces were applied by means of line loads acting on the flanges and the
web at both ends of the member. The material used was a purely elastic steel with a
Young’s modulus of 210 GPa and a Poisson’s ratio of 0.3.
The model was validated by comparing the outcome of the theoretical expression with
the results of the numerical simulations for plain-webbed members, which gave
satisfying results. For each of the examined cellular member geometries, the observed
buckling mode was the general weak-axis flexural buckling mode, as depicted in Fig. 2.
5 Comparison of results and discussion
For each examined geometry, the critical buckling load obtained numerically with
Abaqus, Ncr,abq, was compared with the result of the analytical expression Ncr,2T. In Fig.
7-Fig. 12, the ratio Ncr,abq/Ncr,2T is depicted for each examined geometry, grouped per
parent section. In these figures and in Table 2, it can be seen that the values of Ncr,abq
1468
approach these of Ncr,2T quite well. The largest deviations occurred for the geometries
with the HEM320 parent section, where Mcr,abq can be as small as 0.97Mcr,2T. This
means that the design rule is slightly unsafe, but these unsafe deviations are not relevant
due to their small size.
Fig. 7: Ncr,abq/Ncr,2T ratio for cellular Fig. 8: Ncr,abq/Ncr,2T ratio for cellular
members with an IPE300 parent section members with an IPE600 parent section
members with an HEM320 parent section members with an HEM650 parent section
members with an HEA320 parent section members with an HEA650 parent section
1469
Table 2: overview of results for each parent section

parent section
IPE300 IPE600 HEM320 HEM650 HEA320 HEA650
mean 1,00 1,00 0,99 1,00 0,99 1,00
Ncr,abq
minimum 0,99 1,00 0,98 0,99 0,97 0,99
Ncr,2T
maximum 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
The analytical expression was expected to be a lower boundary for the critical load.
However, the values of Ncr,abq are often slightly smaller than the values of Ncr,2T,
especially for the shorter lengths of the member. This is the result of the distortion of
the web, which is more prominent for short length beams with a relatively slender web.
In Fig. 13, the deformation of the cross-section is depicted for a cellular member with
an HEA320 parent section, for both a short and a long cellular member. The same
effect was seen in earlier research by the authors, when the critical lateral-torsional
buckling moment of cellular members was investigated [2].
L=4.4m L=15.6m
Fig. 13: deformation of the cross-section for member with HEA320 parent section
The analytical expression seems accurate for all examined geometries. From these
results, it seems that the elastic flexural buckling load can be calculated using the
classical expression for a uniform cross-section, with the bending stiffness EIz
calculated at the centre of the opening. This means that the elastic buckling behaviour of
axially compressed cellular members is similar to the buckling behaviour of plain-
webbed members under axial compression.
In reality however, cellular members will display certain non-linear behaviour and
imperfections, of which the non-linear plastic material behaviour (instead of elastic
behaviour), geometric imperfections and residual stresses are the most important. As a
result, the failure load of these members will be different from the elastic critical load.
In future work, this behaviour will be examined by performing finite element analyses,
in which geometric nonlinearity, plastic material behaviour, residual stresses and
geometric imperfections are taken into account.
6 Conclusions
In this paper, the elastic buckling behaviour of axially compressed cellular members
was examined. A proposed analytical expression for the elastic buckling load of these
members was compared with finite element simulations for a wide variety of cellular
beam geometries. In the proposed analytical expression, the elastic buckling load is
calculated using the classical flexural buckling load expression with the cross-sectional
1470
properties calculated at the centre of the opening. This approach is very similar to the
approach used for lateral-torsional buckling of cellular beams. For the examined
geometries, the proposed design rule for the critical buckling load seemed accurate, the
failure behaviour in compression of cellular members being very similar to that of
plain-webbed members.
In future work, the effect of geometric nonlinearities and imperfections, as well as
plastic material behaviour and residual stresses will also be taken into account in the
numerical simulations. Using these results, a design rule to calculate the ultimate failure
load of axially compressed cellular members will be formulated.
References
[1] Kerdal D, Nethercot DA. Failure modes for castellated beams. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 1984;4:295-315
[2] Sonck D, Vanlaere W, Van Impe R. Elastic lateral-torsional buckling of cellular
beams, Proceedings of the International Symposium “Steel Structures: Culture &
Sustainability 2010”, in press (2010)
[3] Sweedan AMI, El-Sawy KM, Martini MI. Identification of the buckling capacity of
axially loaded cellular columns. Thin-Walled Structures 2009;47:442-454.
[4] El-Sawy KM, Sweedan AMI, Martini MI. Major-axis elastic buckling of axially
loaded castellated steel columns. Thin-Walled Structures 2009;47:1295-1304.
[5] CTICM (Centre Technique Industriel de la Construction Métallique). ARCELOR
Cellular Beams-Detailed Technical Description (Technical documentation for
software ARCELOR Cellular Beams v2.32). CITCM, France, 2006.
[6] CEN (European Committee for Standardisation). ENV 1993-1-1:1992, Eurocode 3:
Design of steel Structures – Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings – Annex
N. Brussels, 1992.
[7] European Commission Directorate-General for Research. Lateral-torsional
buckling in steel and composite beams. Research project 7210-PR-183 final
technical report (Book 2–Design guide). Luxembourg, 2003.
1471
Research on stability problems for light-weight steel structure

with gabled frames
SONG Xiao-guang1*, DING Juan2, LIU Shen-ru1, ZHANG Qi-lin1
1*
School of Civil Engineering Tongji University
1239 Siping Road Shanghai China
76sungxg@tongji.edu.cn
2
Yinchuan Architecture & Plan Design Institute Co. Ltd
188 North-Jinning Street Xingqing District Yinchuan Ningxia China
Abstract
Some provisions in Technical specification for steel structure of light-weight
buildings with gabled frames （C E C S 102:2002） have been proved to be im proved
through extensive application gradually, especially those about stability analysis. These
aspects include : 1）determ ination of effective length coefficient of tapered colum n ;
2）determ ination of effective length coefficient of tapered column in light-weight steel
structure with gabled frames with leaning column ; 3）formulas for web effective width
of members with I-section ; 4）stability analys is on cold -formed purlins under wind
uplift load. Through sufficient and systemic finite element analysis, defects about above
issues in existing specification are pointed out and improvement proposals are
suggested, which provide theoretical basis for revising Shanghai Technical specification
for steel structure of light-weight buildings with gabled frames.
Keywords: light-weight steel structure with gabled frames, tapered column, effective length coefficient,
leaning column, wind uplift load, cold-formed purlins, stability capacity
1 Introduction
Since Technical specification for steel structure of light-weight buildings with gabled
frames （C E C S 102:2002）[1] has been promulgated and implemented in 2003, it is
applied extensively in design and construction for light-weight steel structure with
gabled frames. However, the specification gradually exposed some problems which
should be improved, particularly about the stability analysis.
These problems mainly involve the following ：1) determination of effective length
coefficient of tapered column; 2) determination of effective length coefficient of tapered
column in light-weight steel structure with gabled frames with leaning column; 3)
formulas for web effective width of members with I-section; 4) stability analysis on
cold-formed purlins under wind uplift load. Through sufficient and systemic finite
element analysis, defects about above issues in existing specification are pointed out
and improvement proposals are suggested, which provide theoretical basis for revising
Shanghai Technical specification for steel structure of light-weight buildings with
gabled frames.
1472
2 Effective length coefficient of tapered column for single-span

gambled frames
Stability of tapered column should be classified as global stability of frame, which
should be solved through global stability analysis. Beam3, which is a uniaxial element
with tension, compression, and bending capabilities, is adopted for analysis. Segmental
uniform cross-section method, that is to simulate tapered columns and beams by a
number of discrete uniform cross-section units, is introduced.
The nominal yield strength of steel is fy=235N/mm2 which is designated as Q235 and
Yang’s modulus is E=2.06×105N/mm2. The relation between stress and strain adopts
ideal elastic-plastic model.
Nodes of column base are exerted restraints along X and Y axis, i.e. ux and uy, and
nodes of beams are exerted force downward to simulate vertical load uniformly
distributed on beam. Analysis model is illustrated in Fig.1.
Fig.1 Analysis Model of Gabled Frame
Axial compressive force Pcr of tapered column is obtained by elastic stability analysis
when frame achieve global instability. General Euler formula 错误！未找到引用源。,
which gives
 2 EI
Pcr  (1)
l 2
From which effective length coefficient of tapered column,  , is obtained by
substituting Pcr of tapered column for Pcr in Euler formula
 2 EI Pcr
 (2)
l
Analysis covers 19 typical frames with 0.1 roof pitch, in which ratio of cross sectional
moment of inertia for tapered column, I c 0 I cl , range from 0.026 to 0.73. Comparisons
between analysis results and values from reference 错误！未找到引用源。 are
illustrated in Fig.2 and Fig.3 when I c 0 I cl  0.1 and I c 0 I cl  0.175 respectively.
1473
It is noted that numerical results should be multiplied by 0.85 considering rotation

constraint of column base in physical construction.
Fig.2 Comparison of effective length coefficient of column between numerical analysis

and reference [1]
（ I c 0 I cl  0.1 ）
Fig.3 Comparison of effective length coefficient of column between numerical analysis

and reference [1]
（ I c 0 I cl  0.175 ）
From it we can see that the results of two methods coincide nearly when K 2 / K1  0.2 ,
and effective length coefficient  of reference [1] is unconservative when K 2 / K1  0.2 .
1474
Moreover, table 6.1.3 of reference [1] only covers I c 0 I cl  0.2 while physical
configuration with I c 0 I cl  0.2 is considerably prevalent in construction. Therefore,
values in table 6.1.3 of reference [1] should be revised when K 2 / K1  0.2 , and values
should be supplemented when I c 0 I cl  0.2 . As shown in table 1, effective length
coefficient of tapered column with hinged base is revised and supplemented.
Table 1: Effective length coefficient for tapered column with base-hinge
K2/K1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.75 1.0 2.0 >2.0

0.01 0.442 0.368 0.349 0.331 0.320 0.318 0.315 0.310
0.02 0.654 0.502 0.470 0.440 0.428 0.420 0.411 0.404
0.03 0.824 0.599 0.558 0.520 0.501 0.492 0.483 0.473
0.04 1.040 0.676 0.628 0.583 0.564 0.549 0.532 0.525
0.05 1.096 0.756 0.694 0.644 0.618 0.606 0.589 0.580
0.06 1.197 0.815 0.748 0.692 0.666 0.651 0.630 0.615
0.07 1.297 0.873 0.801 0.742 0.711 0.697 0.672 0.650
0.08 1.498 0.955 0.840 0.768 0.736 0.719 0.701 0.629
0.09 1.599 1.014 0.893 0.816 0.782 0.763 0.744 0.668
0.1 1.699 1.027 0.935 0.857 0.817 0.801 0.790 0.739
IC0 0.15 2.042 1.235 1.109 1.021 0.965 0.938 0.895 0.872
I C1 0.2 2.136 1.395 1.254 1.140 1.080 1.045 1.000 0.969
0.25 2.242 1.520 1.355 1.236 1.177 1.152 1.111 0.957
0.3 3.128 1.852 1.576 1.390 1.307 1.263 1.211 1.056
0.35 3.329 1.965 1.685 1.479 1.381 1.333 1.274 1.109
0.4 3.384 2.016 1.737 1.532 1.434 1.385 1.324 1.154
0.45 3.425 2.084 1.787 1.584 1.488 1.439 1.378 1.198
0.5 3.800 2.246 1.909 1.676 1.565 1.511 1.437 1.257
0.55 4.150 2.385 2.004 1.750 1.628 1.573 1.486 1.306
0.6 4.445 2.527 2.107 1.830 1.696 1.637 1.546 1.366
0.65 4.474 2.566 2.158 1.878 1.744 1.683 1.585 1.385
0.7 4.753 2.687 2.247 1.948 1.804 1.739 1.638 1.438
Note: boldface denotes the values revised and supplemented.
3 Effective length coefficient of tapered column for multi-spans

gambled frames with leaning column
Multi-spans gambled frame with leaning column is illustrated in Fig.4, in which leaning
column with both hinged ends not only provide nothing for lateral rigidity, but also
induce instability of frame because of axial force. Therefore, effective length coefficient
of side column should be multiplied by amplification factor  .
1475
Effective length coefficient of side columns for multi-spans frame,  l , is obtained by

same method in section 1, which gives
Fig.4 Multi-span gabled frames with leaning column
l
 (3)
0
In Eq. (3),  l is effective length coefficient of side columns for multi-spans frame with
leaning column and  0 is effective length coefficient for frame without leaning column
in same condition.
Analysis covers 57 typical multi-spans frames with leaning column, in which ratio of
cross sectional moment of inertia for tapered column I c 0 I cl range from 0.026 to 0.73
and number of spans includes 2, 3 and 4. Comparisons of amplification factor between
analysis results and values from reference 错误！未找到引用源。 are illustrated in
Fig.5, Fig.6, and Fig.7 when uniform distributed load is applied on beams of typical
multi-spans frame with I c 0 I cl  0.4 .
Fig.5 Comparison of column amplification factor of double-span gabled frames with

leaning column
（ I c 0 I cl  0.4 ）
1476
Fig.6 Comparison of column amplification factor of three-span gabled frames with

leaning column
（ I c 0 I cl  0.4 ）
Fig.7 Comparison of column amplification factor of four-span gabled frames with

leaning column
（ I c 0 I cl  0.4 ）
1477
From it we can see that 1) amplification factor  of reference [1] is slightly conservative
when K2 / K1  0.2 and don’t need to revise; 2) amplification factor  of reference [1] is
severely conservative when 0.1  K 2 / K1  0.2 and should be revised.
When 0.1  K 2 / K1  0.2 , amplification factor of side column is
   1  P h 
1i 1i
 P i h i 
(4)
f f
In which  is correction factor and other parameters are referenced Eq. (6.1.3-6) at [1].
According to data analysis, we obtained
  0.8  K 2 K1  0.1  2 (5)

Comparisons of result among revised Eq. (4), numerical analysis and reference [1] are
illustrated in Fig.5, Fig.6, and Fig.7. From it we can see that the result of revised Eq. (4)
is more close to numerical result than reference [1] and tend to safety.
4 Web effective width of members with I-section

Generally, post-buckling strength can be utilized for web of I-section but not for flanges.
Most codes at present of home and abroad adopt effective width method to utilize post-
buckling strength, which theoretical base all originated from effective width theory of
Von Karman. In 1946, G. Winter advanced practical formula based on plentiful
experiment data. After application for many years, the formula was revised as [3]
E   tw  E 

be  1.9t w 1  0 . 415   (6)
 max   hw   max


Where be is effective width of plate, t w and hw is thickness and width of plate
respectively,  max is maximum stress.
Analysis covers 3 groups of axially compressed short columns which count up to 108
and 3 groups of eccentrically compressed short columns which count up to 333.
Shell181, which is a four-node element with six degrees of freedom at each node, is
adopted for analysis. The nominal yield strength of steel is fy=235N/mm2 and
fy=235N/mm2 which is designated as Q235and Q345 respectively which Yang’s
modulus is E=2.06×105N/mm2. The relation between stress and strain adopts ideal
elastic-plastic model. Rigid zones are created at both end planes in order to realize
hinged constrain and plane hypothesis in which centroid of section is selected as master
node of rigid zone. Translational constrains along 3 coordinate axis and rotational
constrain about longitudinal direction are exerted on nodes at bottom plane and
translational constrain along longitudinal direction are released on nodes at top plane.
For axially compressed short columns, loads are uniformly exerted on nodes of flanges
and web at end plane. For eccentrically compressed short columns, equivalent loads
1478
with different values are uniformly exerted on flanges at end plane to simulate eccentric
load.
As lack of space, only effective width coefficient of web for axially compressed short
column is selected to compare with results of Eq.(6) and reference [1], which is
illustrated as Fig.8.
Fig.8 Comparison of effective width coefficient for axially compressive short column
From Fig.8 we can see that result of Eq. (6) is less than numerical result by 23%
averagely which is tend to be conservative. However, this result is acceptable based on
an overall consideration of defect accumulation and residual stress by welding. Result
of Eq. (6) and reference [1] coincide nearly when hw / t w  120 , while divergence of
them gradually become obvious when hw / t w  120 . Moreover, effective width
coefficient of web derivate from [1] becomes negative when hw / t w  217 , which is at
variance with practical situation. Therefore, when hw t w  135 (Q235) and
hw t w  110 (Q345) correspond to  p  2.4 , Eq. (6.1.1-2a～6.1.1-2c) are adopted as
before; above equations should be revised as follow when  p  2.4 :
When 1.2   p  2.4 ,   0.64  0.24  p  1.2 (7)
When  p  2.4 ,   0.35  0.07  p  2.4 (8)

Parameters above are referenced [1]. Comparison among Eq. (6), numerical result and
reference [1] is illustrated in Fig.8, which indicates revised formula is acceptable and
safety.
1479
5 Stability analysis on cold-formed purlins under wind uplift load

Recently, lightweight roof systems composed of cold-formed purlins, roll-profiled steel
sheets and tension rods are extensively used in roof cladding systems. Under wind uplift
load, the main failure mode of purlin will probably be flexural-torsional buckling,
because the bottom flange of purlin is compressed and roof system cannot provide
effective lateral restraints to it. Wind uplift load will probably be the control factor of
purlin design especially in the area where wind pressure is very large. However, it is
found that stability formulas of purlin under wind uplift load in reference [1] are
verbose and conservative. Stability bearing capacity analyses are performed on simply
supported purlins with all specifications in appendix B and C of reference [1] and
common span. In order to obtain accurate result, SHELL181 element is adopted to
simulate simply supported purlins, which is a 4-node element with six degrees of
freedom at each node. The nominal yield strength of steel is fy=235N/mm2 which is
designated as Q235 and Yang’s modulus is E=2.06×105N/mm2. The relation between
stress and strain adopts ideal elastic-plastic model.
Results are summarized in Table 2 and 3. Where: qu1 is the result based on formulas in
appendix E of reference [1], and design strength f is substituted for yield strength fy in
formula (E.0.1-1); q'u1 is the result based on new formula (9) proposed latterly; qua is the
result of stability bearing capacity analysis by ANSYS10.0 taking into account the
initial geometrical imperfection. When span l=4m, no tension rod is installed; When
span l=6m, a tension rod is installed at mid-span section; When span l=7.5m or l=9m,
two tension rods are installed at one-third point sections. All the rods are fixed at one-
third point of web adjacent to bottom flange.
Table 2 Results summary of C-shaped purlins
Span qu1 q’u1 qua qua  qu1 qua  q 'u1

Section qu1
（m） (KN/m) (KN/m) (KN/m) q ' u1
C140×2.0 4.0 0.862 1.056 1.37 58.93% 29.73%
C140×2.2 4.0 0.929 1.181 1.54 65.77% 30.40%
C140×2.5 4.0 1.027 1.372 1.78 73.32% 29.74%
C160×2.0 4.0 1.186 1.769 1.73 45.87% -2.20%
C140×2.5 6.0 0.826 0.942 1.33 61.02% 41.18%
C160×2.0 6.0 0.964 1.121 1.29 33.82% 15.08%
C160×2.2 6.0 1.043 1.225 1.47 40.94% 20.00%
C160×2.5 6.0 1.152 1.376 1.74 51.04% 26.45%
C180×2.0 6.0 1.252 1.547 1.41 12.62% -8.86%
C180×2.2 6.0 1.360 1.685 1.61 18.38% -4.45%
C180×2.5 6.0 1.514 1.891 1.94 28.14% 2.59%
C160×2.5 7.5 0.856 0.959 1.25 46.03% 30.34%
C180×2.0 7.5 0.958 1.060 1.22 27.35% 15.09%
1480
C180×2.2 7.5 1.042 1.155 1.36 30.52% 17.75%

C180×2.5 7.5 1.159 1.294 1.60 38.05% 23.65%
C200×2.0 7.5 1.072 1.217 1.38 28.73% 13.39%
C200×2.2 7.5 1.167 1.326 1.53 31.11% 15.38%
C200×2.5 7.5 1.298 1.486 1.79 37.90% 20.46%
C200×2.5 9.0 0.878 0.962 1.20 36.67% 24.74%
C220×2.0 9.0 0.860 0.956 1.08 25.58% 12.97%
C220×2.2 9.0 0.939 1.043 1.21 28.86% 16.01%
C220×2.5 9.0 1.049 1.171 1.40 33.46% 19.56%
C250×2.0 9.0 0.961 1.121 1.25 30.07% 11.51%
C250×2.2 9.0 1.056 1.228 1.40 32.58% 14.01%
C250×2.5 9.0 1.190 1.405 1.63 36.97% 16.01%
Table 3 Results Summary of Z-shaped Purlins
span qu1 q’u1 qua qua  qu1 qua  q 'u1

Section qu1
（m） (KN/m) (KN/m) (KN/m) q ' u1
Z140×2.0 4.0 1.619 1.718 1.75 8.09% 1.86%
Z140×2.2 4.0 1.764 1.893 1.94 9.98% 2.48%
Z140×2.5 4.0 1.973 2.163 2.26 14.55% 4.48%
Z160×2.0 4.0 2.111 2.530 2.72 28.85% 7.51%
Z140×2.5 6.0 1.059 1.173 1.39 31.26% 18.50%
Z160×2.0 6.0 1.194 1.326 1.48 23.95% 11.61%
Z160×2.2 6.0 1.299 1.448 1.66 27.79% 14.64%
Z160×2.5 6.0 1.448 1.634 1.91 31.91% 16.89%
Z180×2.0 6.0 1.534 1.759 1.97 28.42% 12.00%
Z180×2.2 6.0 1.677 1.924 2.14 27.61% 11.23%
Z180×2.5 6.0 1.846 2.168 2.48 34.34% 14.39%
Z160×2.5 7.5 0.950 1.095 1.36 43.16% 24.20%
Z180×2.0 7.5 0.984 1.170 1.35 37.20% 15.38%
Z180×2.2 7.5 1.123 1.279 1.48 31.79% 15.72%
Z180×2.5 7.5 1.258 1.440 1.74 38.31% 20.83%
Z200×2.0 7.5 1.125 1.341 1.55 37.78% 15.59%
Z200×2.2 7.5 1.228 1.467 1.74 41.69% 18.61%
Z200×2.5 7.5 1.377 1.652 2.00 45.24% 21.06%
Z200×2.5 9.0 0.928 1.103 1.39 49.78% 26.02%
Z220×2.0 9.0 0.886 1.071 1.21 36.57% 12.98%
Z220×2.2 9.0 0.971 1.172 1.37 41.09% 16.89%
Z220×2.5 9.0 1.092 1.321 1.64 50.18% 21.15%
1481
Z250×2.0 9.0 0.993 1.262 1.34 34.94% 6.18%

Z250×2.2 9.0 1.092 1.385 1.57 43.77% 13.36%
Z250×2.5 9.0 1.233 1.563 1.84 49.23% 17.72%
From it we can see that the maximum and average of qua  qu1  qu1 are up to 73.32%
and 38.15% respectively for C-shaped purlins, and the maximum and average are
50.18% and 33.90% for Z-shaped purlins. The key of stability analysis lie in how to
simulate lateral support of sheets and tension rods. Reference [1] take emphatic
consideration about lateral restraining stiffness provided by roof sheets to purlins while
neglect bracing of tension rods in determining reduction factor of stability, i.e. χ.
However, tension rods, especially adjacent to bottom flange, cooperate with roof sheets
in providing strong flexural-torsional restraints to bottom flanges of purlins, which
improve stability bearing capacity of purlins under wind uplift load significantly.
Therefore, results of formulas in reference [1], i.e. current technical specification, are
relatively conservative. Moreover, there are very specific requirements of roof sheets in
reference [1]: major trapezoidal corrugations space on centre is not more than 120mm,
and gauge of base plate is not less than 0.66mm. In practice, the specific requirements
don’t always be met easily. Therefore, in the absence of test data, the result based on
parameters from reference [1] must be inconsistent with the actual situation.
Because of common restraints of roof sheets and tension rods, bending deformation of
Z-shaped purlin conform to the law of rotating around the x1 -x1 axis, which is the
centroidal axis perpendicular to the web, as shown in Fig.9. Therefore, in-plane moment
of web, i.e. Mx1, is adopted in stability bearing capacity analysis under wind uplift load,
whether it is C- or Z-shaped purlin. In the following formulas, subscript x involved in
the Z-purlin all correspond with the centroidal axis x1 -x1.
Fig.9 Schematic Diagram of Z-shaped Purlin
In order to simplify the design, effective section modulus Wex can be adopted as 0.9Wx
approximately and the above formula can be simplified as:
Mx
 fy (9)
0.9bxWx
1482
Where out-of-plane stability factor for web, φbx, is determined as appendix A.2 in
reference [5] and φ'bx should substitute for φbx as formula (10) when φbx is greater than
0.7.
0.274
 'bx  1.091   1.0 (10)
bx
The meaning of the symbols in above formulas should refer to appendix A.2 in
reference [5].
Result comparison of new design formula (9), design formulas in reference [2] and
numerical analysis is shown in Table 2 and 3 detailed, from which we can see the
average of qua  qu1  qu1 and qua  q'u1  q'u1 are up to 38.15% and 17.22%
respectively for C-shaped purlins, 33.90% and 14.45% respectively for Z-shaped purlins.
Therefore, the results of new design formula (9) are more ideal than that of formulas in
reference [1] and can be applied in design for its simplification and practicability.
It is noted that connection between sheet and purlin all adopt self-drilling screws in this
paper, which can prevent lateral displacement and torsion effectively combined with
tensional rod. However, it demands further analysis whether formula (9) is applicable
for other type of connection, such as standing-seam-connection and clip connection.
6 Conclusion
Effective length coefficient  of reference [1] tends to unconservative when linear
stiffness ratio of beam to column K 2 / K1  0.2 for single-span gambled frame. Moreover,
values should be supplemented in reference [1] when I c 0 I cl  0.2 . As shown in table 1,
effective length coefficient of tapered column with hinged base is revised and
supplemented.
Amplification factor  for side column of frame with leaning column at reference [1] is
severely conservative when 0.1  K 2 / K1  0.2 and should be revised. Formula revised
is given as Eq. (4).
Effective width coefficient of web derivate from [1] becomes negative
when hw / t w  217 , which is at variance with practical situation. When  p  2.4 ,
effective width coefficient of web should be revised as Eq. (7) and Eq. (8).
Results of stability bearing capacity under wind uplift load according to formulas in
reference [1] are relatively conservative because lateral restraints of tension rod are
neglected in determining reduction factor of stability, i.e. χ. New design formula (9) is
proposed based on reference [5] which is proved to be more reasonable and can be
applied in design for its simplification and practicability.
7 Acknowledgments
University and National Science and Technology Support Program (2008BAJ08B06).
The writers would like to acknowledge above supports.
1483
References
[1] Standard of China Association for Engineering Construction Standardization. CECS

102:2002 Technical specification for steel structure of light-weight buildings with
gabled frames [S].Beijing: China Planning Press, 2003 (In Chinese)
[2] Chen Ji. Stability of Steel Structure Theory and Design（4nd Edition）[M]. Science
Press, 2008, Beijing：38. (In Chinese)
[3] YU Wei-wen. Cold-formed steel design（3nd Edition） [M]. China Water Power
Press and Intellectual Property Press, 2008, Beijing：83. (In Chinese)
[4] FENG Dong, WANG Yi-jun. Design method of purlin subjected to wind suction
[J].Steel Construction, 2004, 19(3): 8-10. (In Chinese)）
[5] National Standard of People’s Republic of China. GB 50018-2002 Technical code of
cold-formed thin-wall steel structures [S].Beijing: China Planning Press, 2002 (In
Chinese)
1484
Comparison of Dynamic Instability Behavior for Space

frames with Various Networks
Yi, Shin-Woo1*, Nam-Seok KIM2, Sun-Woo PARK3 and Seung-Deog KIM4
1*
Graduate school doctorate course, Dept. of Architecture Eng., Semyung Univ.,
304-1 Yigonghakgwan, Semyung University, Jecheon, Chungbuk 390-711, Korea
biglions@nate.com
2
Graduate school master, Dept. of Architectural Engineering, Semyung University,
3
Professor, Dept. of Architecture, Korea National University of Arts,
4
Professor, Dept. of Architecture Engineering, Semyung University,
Abstract
The space frame structure is one of the large span structural systems consisting
of longitudinal and latitudinal members. The members are connected in three
dimensions. A space frame structure has high stiffness with a structure resisting external
forces in steric conformation. At the same time, light weight is possible due to the
mechanical properties of the space frame which is designed to share equal stress.
Although the space frame structure has the advantage of light weight and high stiffness,
it is obvious that an instability phenomenon at a specific critical load can occur.
Especially, the more structure has large span, the more dynamic structural instability of
space frame sensitively and complexly responds to small vibration which is exposed
always. So, we have to predict failure mechanism of dynamic in order to reflect this
phenomenon at the early-design step of space frame. In this study, dynamic instability
behavior of the space frame dome is investigated with numerical integration of kinetic
Equation and finite element method considering geometric nonlinearity. Analysis
models are star dome and parallel lamella dome as parts of space frame structures.
Keywords: Dynamic analysis, Space frame, instability, Star dome, Parallel lamella
dome
1 Introduction
The space frame dome has curvature and is a form-resistant structure that can resist
external forces. As such, it is suitable for a large-span structure; however, it is destroyed
by instability that is attributable to bending deformation that takes place at a specific
load level. Accordingly, structural stability is a very important problem to investigate
for the loading capacity of shell structures. The problem of structural stability can
divided into static stability problems, and dynamic stability problems.
The problem of dynamic stability has been studied for years by many researchers
around the world. Suhara1) first presented a paper on the problem of dynamic stability in
1960. Suhara obtained axial symmetric deformation of a shallow spherical shell under
1485
uniform step load. He indicated the importance of selecting the appropriate

displacement function. Using Garlerkin’s method, Budiansky & Roth2) obtained the
symmetric axial deformation of a shallow spherical shell under uniform step loading for
a finite continuous time. In this case, the standard of judging dynamic buckling load is
suggested as loading level to indicate the incremental decline of displacement responses
for small increments of loading levels. In addition, degree of freedom has to increase by
the increment of the number of waves when the parameter of the shape is more than 5~6.
It was also noted that dynamic buckling occurs by asymmetric deformation. It is
compared with solution of Humphreye & Bodner3). Simites4) suggested lower bound
and upper bound condition as the standard for judging dynamic buckling using total
potential energy.
Humphreys, Roth & Zatlers5) have tests for shallow spherical shell under impact loads
to compare with the analysis method and the judgement standard of Budiansky, Roth &
Zatlers. As a result, it was found that the critical solution was 10-20% higher for
theoretical solution than the estimated experiment.
The studies above mainly present the boundary of dynamic buckling loads. This study
deals with the problem of dynamic instability under step-load to understand the primary
mechanism of dynamic instability with space frames.
We deal with equations of motion considering Geometric nonlinearity, and obtained
discrete equations of motion using Galerkin’s method. We obtain a non-linear
displacement response using numerical integration by Newmark-β. The attractor
characteristic at phase curves and time-history response are examined in order to grasp
the generation path of the dynamic buckling.
2 Nonlinear FE formulation
Choose a local coordinate system (xyz) and a global coordinate system (XYZ) as shown
in Fig. 1, and express the nodal force vector {f} and the nodal displacement vector {d}
of the local coordinate system, and the nodal force vector {F} and nodal displacement
vector {D} of the global coordinate system as follows:
Fig. 1 : Coordination system and nodal displacements
, , (1)
1486
, , ,
T is transformation Matrix, and in the coordinate system of Fig. 1, it becomes as

follows:
, (2)
where,
, ,
Introduce non-dimensional quantity ξ, which is , and assume that the

displacement in elements is changed in a linear manner.
, , (3)
Using the secondary nonlinear item of strain, the strain-displacement equation becomes
as follows:
, (4)
where,
, ,
It can be expressed in the form of a matrix, as follows:
,
,
,
(5)
Mark , the increment of , in the matrix also.
, , (6)
1487
Assume that all materials are within the range of elasticity ( ). In order to
calculate the stiffness matrix of the element, introduce the principle of virtual work.
(7)
Then, substitute equation (4) for equation (7), and the following fundamental equation
can be obtained.
(8)
In conclusion, the following nonlinear equation can be obtained.
(9)
where,
, ,
, , , , ,
Considering inertial force and damping force in equation (9), nonlinear equation of
motion was obtain as follows
where,
M : mass matrix,
1488
C : proportional damping matrix.3.1 Modeling of space frames
In this chapter, we will grasp the instability response characteristic of space frame
according to rise-span ratio, damping ratio and shape imperfection condition. Analysis
model is star dome and parallel lamella dome, which is multi degree of freedom node
that has already been used in many research papers.
The structural shapes of the star dome and parallel lamella dome are as shown in Figs. 2
and 3, respectively. It assumes that the area of the cross-section element is constant.
Elastic modulus and density of total element are 2.110 6 kgf / cm2 and 7.85 10 kgf / cm2 ,
respectively. Radius of the model is L. Distance from node 1 to node 2 and distance
from node 1 to node 8 are L1 and L2, respectively. Heights of nodes 1, 2 and 3 are H,
H1, and H2, respectively. Also, all nodes of the model are located on the sphere surface
and at the same angle from the center of the sphere surface. The analysis model is as
shown in Tables 1 and 2 below,
Fig. 2: Shape of Star Dome
Fig. 3: Shape of Star Dome
1489
Table 1:Model of Star dome

Model L L1 L2 H H1 H2 μ θ (m)
ST_1 500 338.22 170.58 100 88.76 55.23 0.1 7.54 98.91
ST_2 500 352.25 181.95 200 176.80 108.68 0.2 14.53 104.22
Table 2: Model of Parallel lamella dome

Model L L1 L2 H H1 H2 μ θ (m)
PL_1 500 338.22 170.58 100 88.76 55.23 0.1 7.54 136.36
PL_2 500 352.25 181.95 200 176.80 108.68 0.2 14.53 144.67
where load condition is unit load, which has the same loading for each node. To grasp
instability response considering shape imperfection, we calculate the 1st buckling mode.
Initial imperfection amount is adapted imperfection of 0.01% using 2L value of each
model as a standard. (m) is the sum of the total length of each element. In addition,
dynamic analysis is numerical analysis method using geometrical nonlinear. It is
executed at incremental intervals of 1/100 for static buckling load. We investigate the
load-displacement of each incremental step for space frame, and then grasp their
dynamic instability responses.
3. 2 Dynamic responses of star dome

In the analysis of star dome, the comparison of static buckling load and dynamic
buckling load is as shown in Table 3.
Table 3 : Comparison of Dynamic buckling load with Static buckling load

Static Dynamic buckling Dynamic buckling
Model
buckling ratio(No damp) ratio(Damp)
Perfect shape
5872.539 kgf 57% 72%
=0.1
Imperfection0.01%
5835.241 kgf 58% 72%
=0.1
Perfect shape
41940.24 kgf 56% 74%
=0.2
Imperfection0.01%
40920.08 kgf 56% 74%
=0.2
Dynamic buckling loads of each model are compared from Fig. 4.1 to Fig. 4.8. Time
history as damping ratio of perfection model for pre-buckling and post-buckling are
shown from Fig. 5.1 to Fig. 5.12, and phase curves are shown from Fig. 6.1 to Fig. 6.6.
1490
Fig.4.4: Imperfection
Fig.4.1: Perfection Fig.4.2: Perfection Fig.4.3: Imperfection
0.01%, =0.1
=0.1 undamp =0.1 damp=0.05 0.01%, =0.1undamp
damp=0.05
Fig.4.8: Imperfection
Fig.4.5: Perfection Fig.4.6: Perfection Fig.4.7: Imperfection
0.01%, =0.2
=0.2 undamp =0.2 damp=0.05 0.01%, =0.2 undamp
damp=0.05
Fig.5.1: Perfection Fig.5.2: Perfection Fig.5.3: Perfection Fig.5.4: Perfection

=0.1 Pre-buckling =0.1 Post-buckling =0.1 Pre-buckling =0.1 Post-buckling
undamp Node 1 undamp Node 1 damp=0.05Node 1 damp=0.05Node 1

undamp Node 2~7 undamp Node 2~7 damp=0.05Node 2-7 damp=0.05Node 2-7

1491
Fig.6.1:Perfection Fig.6.2:Perfection Fig.6.3:Perfection

=0.1 undamp =0.1 undamp =0.1 undamp
Pre-buckling laod buckling load post-buckling load
Fig.6. 4:Perfection Fig.6. 5:Perfection Fig.6.6:Perfection

=0.1 Damp=0.05 =0.1 Damp=0.05 =0.1 Damp=0.05
1492
3. 3 Dynamic responses of parallel lamella dome

In the analysis of parallel lamella dome, the comparison of static buckling load and
dynamic buckling load is as shown in Table 4.
Table 4 : Comparison Dynamic buckling load with Static buckling load
Static Dynamic buckling ratio

Model buckling
Load No damping Damping
Perfect shape
12384.65 kgf 35% 91%
=0.1
Imperfection0.01%
12220.00 kgf 33% 89%
=0.1
Perfect shape
116849.5 kgf 24% 96%
=0.2
Imperfection0.01%
114899.6 kgf 24% 92%
=0.2
Dynamic buckling load of each model is observed from Fig. 7.1 to Fig. 7.8. Time
history as damping ratio of perfection model for pre-buckling and post-buckling are
shown from Fig. 8.1 to Fig. 8.12. Phase curves are shown from Fig. 9.1 to Fig. 9.6.
Fig.7.1: Perfection Fig.7.2: Perfection Fig.7.3: Imperfection Fig.7.4: Imperfection

=0.1 =0.1 0.01%, =0.1 0.01%, =0.1
undamp damp=0.05 undamp damp=0.05
Fig.7.5: Perfection Fig.7.6: Perfection Fig.7.7: Imperfection Fig.7.8: Imperfection

=0.2 =0.2 0.01%, =0.2 0.01%, =0.2
undamp damp=0.05 undamp damp=0.05
1493
Fig. 8.1: Perfection Fig. 8.2: Perfection Fig.8.3: Perfection Fig.8.4: Perfection
undamp Node 1 undamp Node 1 damp=0.05Node 1 damp=0.05Node 1


undamp Node undamp Node damp=0.05 Node damp=0.05 Node
8,10,12,14,16,18 8,10,12,14,16,18 8,10,12,14,16,18 8,10,12,14,16,18

𝜇 =0.1 Pre-buckling 𝜇 =0.1 Post-buckling 𝜇 =0.1 Pre-buckling 𝜇 =0.1 Post-buckling
undamp Node undamp Node damp=0.05Node damp=0.05 Node
9,11,13,15,17,19 9,11,13,15,17,19 9,11,13,15,17,19 9,11,13,15,17,19
Fig.9. 1:Perfection Fig.9.2:Perfection Fig.9. 3:Perfection

=0.1 undamp =0.1 undamp =0.1 undamp
1494
Fig.9. 4:Perfection Fig.9. 5:Perfection Fig.9.6:Perfection

=0.1 damp=0.05 =0.1 damp=0.05 =0.1 damp=0.05
4 Conclusion
This study investigated the instability of space frames which models are star dome and
parallel lamella dome under step excitation in the vertical direction, and the following
observations were made:
(1) Dynamic buckling load ratio is higher for star dome than for parallel lamella
dome in a state of undamped vibration.
(2) Dynamic buckling load ratio is higher for parallel lamella dome than for star
dome in a state of damped vibration.
(3) For Star dome, Node displacements showed similar conduct at the same
height.
(4) For Parallel lamella dome, Node displacements showed different conduct at
the same height (H2). In particular, Nodes 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, and 18 are bigger
than Nodes 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, and 19.
(5) A clear difference was shown at each height (H,H1,H2) for Star dome
compared to Parallel lamella dome in the figure of Phases curves.
(6) The aspect of attractor is similar at Pre-buckling load and buckling load, but
showed rapid change at Post-buckling load.
References
[1] Suhara,J., "Snapping of shallow spherical shells under static and dynamic
loadings," ASRL TR 76-4, Aeroelastic and Structures Research Laboratory,
Cambrige, Mass., June 1960.
1495
[2] Budiansky,B., and Roth,R.S., "Axisymmetric dynamic buckling of clamped

shallow spherical shells," Collected Papers on Instability of Shells Structures,
NaSA TND-1510, Washington, D.C., 1962, 597-606.
[3] Humphreys, J.S., and Bodner, S.R., "Dynamic buckling of shallow shells under
impulsive loading," J.Eng. Mech. Div., ASCE, 88,Em2, 1962, 17-36.
[4] Simitses,G.J., "Dynamic snap-through buckling og shallow spherical caps." Proc.
Seventh AIAA/ASME Structures and Materials Conference, Cocoa Beach, Fla.,
April 1966, 112-124.
[5] Humphreys,J.S., Roth,R.S., and Zatlers,J., "Experiments on Dynamic buckling og
shallow spherical shells under shock loading," AIAA J., 3, 1, 1965, 33-39.
[6] Kim, S.D., “On The Characteristic of Indirect Snapping of Shell-Like Structures,”
The 9th Asian Pacific Conference on Shell and Spatial Structures, 2009, Nagoya,
Japan, pp.5-6.
[7] Kim, S.D. and Hangai, Y., “Direct and Indirect Snappings of Shallow E.P. Shells
under the Up-and-Down Earthquake Excitation,” Proceedings of International
IASS, Copenhagen, 1991, pp.289-296.
1496
A method for the damage assessment of single-layer latticed

shells by perfoming static stability analysis twice
Dabin YANG 1*, Yigang ZHANG 2, Jinzhi WU 3, Wenchao LIU 4
1*
Spatial Structures Research Center, Beijing University of Technology
Pingleyuan 100, Chaoyang District, Beijing100124, China
yangdabin@126.com
2,3,4
Spatial Structures Research Center, Beijing University of Technology
Abstract
The static stability capacity is the main index to measure the whole mechanical
performance of single-layer latticed shells. A new damage assessment method of single-
layer latticed shells was presented by performing static stability analysis once before
and once after subjecting the shell to earthquakes, and the damage index is calculated in
this method from a perspective of the static stability capacity degradation incurred by
earthquakes. The method has a solid theoretical basis and can be easily implemented.
Compared with other methods to assess the damage of single-layer latticed shells, the
examples show that the method has a high precision especially when the shells near
collapse. The method is also applicable to the damage assessment of single-layer
latticed shells subjected to fire and other hazards.
Keywords: damage assessment, single-layer latticed shells, static stability analysis
1 Introduction
The damage assessment has been one of the key and difficult problems in the
earthquake engineering. The state of structural damage is usually described by a damage
index D because of its simplicity and effectiveness. A rational damage index should be
in the range of [0,1], and a value of zero represents no damage while a damage index
value of one corresponds to collapse. The damage indices can be broadly divided into
two classes[1]: strength-based damage indices; and response-based damage indices. The
latter has been widely used, which can also be divided into two types according to the
calculating method: (1) the damage indices are calculated by the damage parameters
incurred by earthquakes, and the widely used damage parameters are stresses,
displacements and energy, etc. The well-known Park-Ang damage model[2] is a typical
example of this approach. (2) the damage indices are calculated from a perspective of
the degradation of structural performance, such as stiffness and frequency. One of the
typical example is the method presented by Ghobarah[1], and the basic procedure of the
method is to perform pushover analysis for the structure before and after subjecting the
structure to the earthquake, then the damage index is calculated according to the
stiffness degradation:
D=1-(Kfinal/Kinitial) (1)
1497
where Kinitial is the initial slope of the base shear-top deflection relationship resulting
from the pushover analysis of the structure before subjecting it to the earthquake and
Kfinal is the initial slope of the same relationship but after subjecting the frame to the
earthquake. This method and the modified version have been widely used in the damage
assessment of frame structures.
Most of the damage assessment methods are about the multi-story structures. In the
research of the damage assessment of single-layer latticed shells, Zhi[3] presented a
fitted damage index with the span, strains, nodal displacements and yielded members
ratio as the damage parameters. Du[4] evaluated the damage of single-layer latticed
domes with the Park-Ang damage index. Kato[5] presented discrete damage values of a
single-layer latticed dome and the substructure with the maximum displacement and
acceleration as the damage parameters. It can be seen that all the available methods are
of the first kind of response-based damage assessment methods, and there are no
assessment methods of the second kind. A new damage assessment method of single-
layer latticed shells was presented in the paper by performing static stability analysis
twice: once before and once after subjecting the shell to earthquakes, and the damage
index is calculated in this method from a perspective of the static stability capacity
degradation incurred by earthquakes.
2 Basic principles
The design of the most single-layer latticed shells are controlled by the static stability
capacity, so the static stability capacity is the main index to measure the whole
mechanical performance of single-layer latticed shells. It is rational and effective to
calculate the damage index from a perspective of the static stability capacity
degradation incurred by earthquakes. Similar to the method presented by Ghobarah, the
method is to perform static stability analysis for the shell twice, and once before
subjecting the shell to the earthquake and once after subjecting the shell to the ground
motion. The load-displacement curves are shown in Fig.1, where Pi and Pf are the static
stability capacities of the shell before and after the earthquake. Unlike the method
presented by Ghobarah, if the shell does not collapse after the earthquake, then the static
stability capacity will at least be the self weight P0 (including the self weight of
members, the dead load and live load converted to masses during the seismic time
history analysis) of the shell, so the influence of P0 should be removed when the
damage index is calculated by the method. Similar to Equation 1, the damage index D
can be calculated as follows:
D=1-(Pf-P0)/(Pi-P0)=(Pi-Pf)/(Pi-P0) (2)
If the load P is expressed by the load factor F , i.e., introducing the equations Pi =P0Fi
and Pf =P0Ff into the equation above, a new form of it is:
D=(Fi-Ff)/(Fi-1) (3)
1498
P
Pi Before earthquake
Pf
After earthquake
Displacement
Fig. 1: Load vs. Displacement Curve
3.1 Model
A single-layer latticed dome shown in Fig.2 is taken as the numerical example, and the
span and height of the dome are 40m and 8m, respectively. All the periphery nodes are
pin-supported, and the material is the ideal elasto-plastic model with the yield stress of
235MPa and Young’s modulus of 2.06e5MPa.
Fig. 2: Single-Layer Latticed Dome
The members section arrangement has a great influence on the static stability
performance of the single-layer latticed shells, and a rational section arrangement
should make sure most members work together to bear the loads, thus a relatively high
static stability capacity will be achieved. After comparison of the static stability
performance of some domes with different section arrangements, the radial and hoop
members section are determined as Ø1144mm and the others are determined as
Ø1083.5mm. The combination of the dead load(self weight of members and 0.5kN/m2
super dead load) and the live load (0.5kN/m2) are selected as the load in the static
stability analysis. The basic eigenvalue buckling mode is taken as initial geometry
imperfection applied to the dome, and the maximum imperfection value is taken as
1/300 of the span. Both geometric and material nonlinearity are included in the analysis.
The static buckling shape of the dome is shown in Fig.3, in which the dot denotes the
node with maximum vertical displacement in the buckling shape, and the load factor-
vertical displacement curve of the node is depicted in Fig.4, from which the static
stability capacity factor can be drawn as 4.33. The yielded members are depicted with
bold lines in Fig.5.
1499
Load Factor F
3
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Displacement (mm)
Fig.3. Static Buckling Shape Fig.4. Load Factor-Vertical Fig.5. Yielded
(scale 30) Displacement Curve Members Distribution
3.2 Seismic time history analysis and static stability analysis

The FEA software ABAQUS 6.9-1 is used to do the time history and static stability
analysis, and Both geometric and material nonlinearity are considered in the analysis.
All the members are meshed with 4 beam elements-B31 with the section type of PIPE.
The Riks arc-length method is used to do the static stability analysis, and restart
technology is used to do the static stability analysis after earthquake in order to import
the damage state into the beginning of the second static stability analysis. The default
Hilber-Hughes-Taylor implicit integration algorithm in ABAQUS/Standard is used to
do the time history analysis. Self weight of Members is automatically considered by the
software, and super dead load of 0.5kN/m2 and live load of 0.5kN/m2 are converted to
nodal masses. Rayleigh damping ratio is taken as 0.02.
To learn the yield extent of the members, plastic strains of eight member section points
are outputted, which is shown in Fig.6, and 1P is used to denote the members in which
at least one section point enter into plastic stage, and 8P denote the members in which
all the eight section points enter into plastic stage. Three dimensional El-Centro and
Taft earthquake acceleration records are selected as the input excitations. The
accelerations are scaled to different PGA in order to learn damage states of the dome
under the earthquakes with different intensities. The dome is unloaded after the
earthquake, then the second static stability analysis is performed with P0 as the load
combination.
Fig.6.Section Points
To learn damage states of the dome clearly, the shape and the second buckling shape
after the El-Centro earthquakes with different PGA are shown in Fig.7 and Fig.8, in
which the dots denote the nodes with maximum vertical displacements in the shape, and
the numbers in the parentheses of the titles denote the scaled times of the displacements.
The 1P and 8P members are depicted with bold lines in Fig.9. All the X axes of Fig.7~9
are in the horizontally left-to-right direction. The damage state figures of the dome after
the Taft earthquake are omitted due to paper page limit. The maximum nodal vertical
1500
displacement DSmax during the time histories are shown in Fig.10. The static stability
load factor-displacement curves before and after earthquakes with different PGA are
depicted in Fig.11 and Fig.12. The static stability capacity factors after earthquakes with
different PGA are depicted in Fig.13.
440gal (80) 800gal (30) 1200gal (3) 1400gal (3)

Fig.7. Shape After El-Centro Earthquakes with different PGA
440gal (35) 800gal (30) 1200gal (3) 1400gal (3)

Fig.8. Buckling Shape After El-Centro Earthquakes with different PGA
1P 1P 1P 8P 1P 8P
Fig.9. Yielded Members After El-Centro Earthquakes with different PGA
4.5 4.5
El-Centro Taft
4 440 600 4
1600 400 500
800 1000 600 700
3.5 1100 1200 3.5
1400 800 900
3 1400 Before earthquake 940 Before earthquake
Load factor F
3
Load factor F
1200
1000 2.5 2.5
PGA (gal)
800 2 2
600 1.5 1.5
400 1 1
200 0.5 0.5

0 0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
DSmax (mm) Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm)
Fig.10. PGA vs. DSmax Fig.11. F vs. Displacement Fig.12. F vs. Displacement
Curve Curve (El-Centro) Curve (Taft)
1501
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
Ff
El-Centro
2
1.5 Taft
1
0.5
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
PGA (gal)
Fig.13. PGA vs. Ff Curves
PGAy and PGAc are used to denote the PGA when the dome yields and collapses,
respectively. The PGAy for El-Centro and Taft earthquakes are 440gal and 400gal,
respectively, and the PGAc are 1440gal and 980gal, respectively. It can be seen from the
figures above that when PGA is less than PGAy, the dome remains elastic after the
earthquakes and the static stability capacity will not reduce; and when PGA is equal to
PGAy, only a few members of the dome yield after the earthquakes, so Ff almost equals
Fi; and when PGA is greater than PGAy and less than PGAc, the DSmax, the quantity of
1P and 8P members increase gradually on the whole with the increase of PGA, while Ff
almost decrease gradually with the increase of PGA, and when PGA is close to PGAc,
almost all the dome members yield and the quantity ratio of 8P members to all the
members is also high; when PGA is equal to or greater than PGAc, the dome collapse. It
can also be seen that the shape after the earthquakes is similar to the static buckling
shape after the earthquakes, which shows that buckling of the dome almost follow the
shape and damage state incurred by the earthquakes.
There is a hardening phenomenon[6] that need to be noted in Fig.10 and Fig.13 with the
El-Centro earthquake. The DSmax and Ff curves deviate from the original developing
trend when PGA reaches 1100gal, thus making the DSmax and the Ff non-monotonic
functions of the PGA. This is called hardening which is a frequent phenomenon in the
incremental dynamic analysis(IDA) of frame structures[6] and spatial structures[7],
whereas it needs further research about whether there is a correlation between the
reverse of maximum displacement and that of static stability capacity when domes
harden.
3.3 Damage assessment of the dome

By Substituting Ff in Fig.12 and Fi=4.33 into the Equation 3, the damage index D
under El-Centro and Taft earthquakes can be calculated, which is shown in Fig.14.
1.0
0.8
El-Centro
0.6
Taft
D
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
PGA (gal)
Fig.14. PGA vs. D Curves
1502
When PGA is less than PGAy, the dome remains elastic after the earthquakes and D
equals zero; and when PGA is equal to or greater than PGAy and less than PGAc, D
increases on the whole with the increase of PGA except the occasional hardening of the
dome, and D converges to one when the PGA approaches PGAc; and when PGA is
equal to or greater than PGAc, the dome collapse, so D is taken as one. Therefore,
compared with the other damage assessment methods of single-layer latticed domes, the
most advantage of the method is the high precision especially when the dome nears
collapse.
4 Summary of the method

The general formula of the method is as follows:
 0, PGA  PGAy

D    Fi  Ff  /  Fi  1 , PGAy  PGA  PGAc (4)

 1, PGA  PGAc
The method is of the second kind of response-based damage assessment methods, and it
avoids the calculation of damage parameters and only needs static stability analysis
before and after the earthquake, so it is easily implemented and the calculation is simple.
5 Conclusion
A new damage assessment method of single-layer latticed shells was presented by
performing static stability analysis twice. The method has a solid theoretical basis and
can be easily implemented. Compared with the other methods to assess the damage of
single-layer latticed shells, the example shows that the method has a high precision
especially when the shell near collapse. The method is also applicable to the damage
assessment of single-layer latticed shells subjected to fire and other hazards.
References
[1] Ghobarah A, Abou-Elfath H, Biddah A. Response-based damage assessment of

structures. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics 1999; 28: 79-104
[2] Park YJ and Ang AHS. Mechanistic seismic damage model for reinforced concrete.
Journal of Structural Engineering 1985; 111: 722-739
[3] Zhi, XD, Fan F, Shen SZ. Failure mechanisms of single-layer reticulated domes
subjected to earthquakes. Journal of the International Association for Shell and
Spatial Structures 2007; 48: 29-44
[4] Du WF, Gao BQ, Dong SL. Double-control criterion of dynamical strength failure
for single layer latticed shells. Journal of Zhejiang University(Engineering Science)
2007; 41: 1916-1920( in Chinese )
1503
[5] Kato S and Nakazawa S. Seismic risk analysis of large lattice dome supported by
buckling restrained braces. Proceedings of 6th International Conference on
Computation of Shell & Spatial Structures 2008; NY, USA
[6] Vamvatsikos D and Cornell CA. Incremental dynamic analysis. Earthquake
Engineering and Structural Dynamics 2002; 31: 491-514
[7] Yang DB, Zhang YG, Wu JZ. Seismic performance assessment of single-layer
latticed dome using IDA. Proceedings of the 9th Asian Pacific Conference on Shell
and Spatial Structures 2009; Nagoya, Japan
1504
Instability Characteristic of Space Frames with Various

Networks
Kyung-Hoon YOU1*, Nam-Seok KIM2, Byung-Wook CHO3 and Seung-Deog KIM4
1*
Graduate school, Dept. of Architectural Eng., Semyung University
ykh01133@naver.com
2
Graduate school, Dept. of Architectural Eng., Semyung University
3
Vice President,
Tiger Corporation, Seoul 137-849, KOREA
4
Professor, Dept. of Architectural Eng., Semyung University
Abstract
The space frame structure that is one of large span structural systems consists of
the member of longitude and latitude. These members are connected to three dimension.
The space frame structure has the advantage of the high stiffness and the lightweight. It
is suitable for large spatial structure more than the RC structure or two dimension
trussed structure. Although the space frame structure having the advantage, it is obvious
that the instability phenomenon at the specific critical load is occurred. So, the problem
of understanding instability behaviour is indispensable step at the space frame structure.
In this study, we grasp collapse mechanism of space frame using 2 free nodes truss
model in order to investigate static structure instability characteristics of space frame
according to geometric form. Used numerical models are star dome, parallel lamella
dome and 3 way grid dome according to geometric form. These are analyzed instability
behaviour characteristics according to load condition and shape imperfection
Keywords: Space Frame, Buckling Load, Perfection, Imperfection
1 Introduction
In a structure with space frames, static stability is directly connected with the
momentary collapse of the entire structure, so to neglect to examine the problem may
cause huge losses in terms of human lives and property. Unlike general structures, the
structural design of large space frame structures with spans over 200~300m need to
undergo stress analysis and stability analysis at the same time. At present, the span size
of large space buildings, which are located all over the world, with space frame
structures ranges from scores of meters to over 300m. Indeed, the number of such
structures is increasing. Some overseas construction companies are keen to build large
space dome buildings with spans of over 2km with space frame structures. It is very
1505
important that these large space structures are analysed for structural stability problems.
The likely increase in demand will necessitate various simulated analysis to ensure the
economic feasibility and safety of such structures.
In this paper, therefore, we will outline the characteristics of the static structural
instability of a Lattice Dome structure and we will try to understand the mechanism by
which a space frame with 2-free-nodes structures collapses. We used the Star Dome, the
Parallel Lamella Dome, and the 3-Way-Grid Dome, according to their geometric shapes,
as models and examined their unstable behavioural characteristics according to the
weaknesses inherent in each shape.
2 Finite element formulation considering nonlinear theory

We drive the tangent stiffness matrix of 6 degree of freedom considering the geometric
nonlinear. Element coordinate ( x, y, z ) and global coordinate (X,Y,Z) is in Fig. 1, and
nodal displacement d and nodal load f is as eq.1.
Fig. 1: Coordinate system and Nodal displacements
 di 
 
d    [ ui vi wi  xi  yi  zi  u j v j w j  xj  yj  zj ] T
 d 
 j 
(1)
 fi 
 
f    [ f xi f yi f zi mxi m yi mzi  f xj f yj f zj mxj m yj mzj ] T
 f 
 j 
And the distance of element direction x is shown in form (2) considering
dimensionless ξ . So, ξ (0≤ ξ ≤1) is shown using initial value x i .
x  x1
ξ (2)
l
The displacement functions of element coordinate system are as(3)-(6). Lagrange

interpolation function is used to axial displacements u(x) and St. Venant’s torsion
 (x) , and Hermit interpolation function is used to vertical displacement v(x) , w(x) .
1506
u ( x)  L1ui  L2u j (3)

 ( x)  L1  L2 xj (4)
 ( x)  H1i  H 2 j  H 3 zi  H 4 zj (5)
w( x)  H1wi  H 2 w j  H 3 yi  H 4 yj (6)
where,
Li : Lagrange interpolat ion function , Hi : Hermite interpolat ion function
Differential equation of u(x) , (x) , v(x) , w(x) is shown below matrix form.
du du d
  U 1T d (7)
dx d dx
dv dv d
  V1T d (8)
dx d dx
d 2 v d 2 v  d 
2
 2    V2 d
T
(9)
dx 2
d  dx 
dw dw d
  W1T d (10 )
dx d dx
d 2 w d 2 w  d 
2
 2    W2 d
T
(11)
dx 2
d  dx 
d d d
  1T d (12 )
dx d dx
We choose the strain-displacement relationship with second order terms As.
   0p   0b   Lp (13)
where,
1 du   dv   dw  
2 2 2
du d 2v d 2w 
  ,
0
p
  y 2  z 2 ,
b
0           
p
L
dx dx dx 2 dx   dx   dx   
The material is elastic. So the stress-strain relationship is expressed as;
Where E is elastic modulus.
  E (14)
In initial state, nodal force, nodal displacements, stress and strain are expressed as f ,
d ,  and  , respectively. The increment is defined as f , d ,  and
 ,respectively . Using the principle of virtual work, the nonlinear stiffness equation of
element is,
d T ( f  f )    T (   )dv (15)
1507
In this paper, we consider the St.Venant’s torsion about the closed section. So, using the
circular coordinate system, shear strain(  ) is as(16), the stress-strain relationship is as
(17).
d
 r  r1T d (16)
dx
  G  Gr1T d (17)
where,
E
r : Ladius of section ,G : Shear elastic modulus
2(1  v)
We consider form (15), (16) and (17), final equation of tangent nonlinear stiffness is
f  r  (k E  kG )Δd (18)
where,
k E  k1  k2  k5 , kG  k3  k4 , r  r1  r2  f
l l l
r1  EA U1 ( 0p   Lp ) dx, r2  {EI z  (V2  V2T ) dx  EI y  (W2  W2T ) dx} d
0 0 0
l l l
k1  EA U1U dx, T
1 k 2  EI z  V V dx  EI y  W2W dx
2 2
T
2
T
0 0 0
1 l
k3  EA (V V  W1W )(   ) dx,
1 1
T
1
T
0
p p
L k4  EA (U1U1T )( 0p   Lp ) dx
0 0
k5  GI p  1 1T dx
If we define nodal force to F and residual force to R and nodal displacement to D ,

using transformation matrix T , the tangent stiffness matrix in the global coordinate
system can be expressed as.
F  R  ( K E  K G )D (19)
where,
K E  T T k ET , K G  T T k GT
In this paper we assume that cross section is constant
3 The static structure unstable characteristic of the space frame

through 2- free nodes structure.
This chapter is aimed at comprehending the unstable behaviour of a space frame
structure when it is it bent. To examine static structural unstable behaviour, we used a
triangle as a basic module for Model A and a quadrangle for Model B. The shapes and
nodes are like those in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3.
1508
Fig. 2: 2-free nodes structure Fig. 3: 2-free nodes structure

Model A Model B
Table 1: The buckling load of the imperfect shape structure (Model A)

Perfection Buckling Load Buckling Load Ratio
H L ( s Pcr ) Imperfection (kgf)( Pcr ) (%)( Pcr / s Pcr )
0.01% 165428.3 100.53
0.10 100 500 164561.1 0.05% 162212.6 98.57
0.10% 158968.0 96.60
0.01% 1131480.0 99.66
0.20 200 500 1135315.0 0.05% 1129003.0 99.44
0.10% 1115432.0 98.25
Table 2: The buckling load of the imperfect shape structure (Model B)

0.01% 85113.73 98.39

0.10 100 500 86505.11 0.05% 83113.27 83.11
0.10% 80548.39 80.55
0.01% 548941.4 95.31
0.20 200 500 575926.6 0.05% 555079.2 96.38
0.10% 550410.2 95.57
(a)Model A (b)Model B
Fig. 4: Comparison of buckling loads according to the Rise-span (  ) ratio
Tables 1 and 2 show the buckling load of an imperfect shape structure. Fig. 4 shows the
comparison of buckling loads according to the Rise-span (  ) ratio. We can see that the
buckling load ability of Model A is superior to that of Model B. In addition, Model B
displays the most sensitive reaction when the Rise-span (  ) ratio is 0.1.
1509
4 Characteristics of Structural Instability of Dome Structure

When a large space structure is erected within a space frame, the problem of structural
stability is determined by various conditions, such as form, scale, boundary,
arrangement and constituents of the structure. Conditions such as the arrangement and
constituent parts are very important in a space frame as they are unique factors of a
space frame and can’t be found in a continuum shell. An analysis was carried out to
examine the characteristics of a Lattice Dome structure taking into account its shape
imperfection and bending in relation to the Rise-span (  ) ratio.
To check the unstable behaviour related to shape imperfection, we looked at the first
buckling mode through an eigenvalue analysis. Regarding the initial imperfection, we
applied imperfections of 0.01%, 0.05% and 0.10% using 2L values for each model as a
standard. The cross section of a member is same with 11.2 cm2 in all factors and all the
values of the materials have the same modulus of elasticity E  2.110 6 kgf / cm and
density   7.85 10 3 kgf / cm3 . Ltot expresses the sum of the entire length of each
model factor.
4 -1 Characteristics of Structural Instability of a Star Dome Structure

We are able to understand unstable behaviour according to the Rise-span (  ) ratio and
can study the unstable behaviour of a space frame from the point of view of perfect
shapes and imperfect shapes. An objective model to be analysed are Star Domes, multi-
free node space structures, which have been investigated by many researchers.
The shape of Star Dome structures are like those in Fig. 5. All nodes of the model exist
on the spherical surface at the same angle range from the center of the spherical surface.
Two models, ST_1 and ST_2, are chosen for analysis utilizing the Rise-span (  ) ratio
as in Table 3.
Table 3: The analysis model of Star Dome structure
Model L1 L2 H H1 H2 Ltot (m)

ST_1 338 171 100 89 55 0.1 7.5 99
ST_2 352 182 200 177 109 0.2 14.5 104
Fig. 5: The shape of Star Dome structure
1510
(a) ST_1 Model (b)ST_2 Model

Fig. 6: The force - displacement diagram of the imperfection shape structure
(Imperfection 0.10% )
(a) ST_1 Model (b) ST_2 Model

Fig. 7: Comparison of buckling loads according to shape imperfection
Table 4: the buckling load of a Star Dome structure

according to the Rise-span (  ) ratio
0.01% 24932.89 99.69
0.10 100 500 25010.07 0.05% 24631.01 98.48
0.10% 24256.14 96.99
0.01% 84489.98 99.76
0.20 200 500 84689.68 0.05% 83593.66 98.71
0.10% 82604.45 97.54
Table 4 displays the value of the buckling load of a Star Dome structure according to
the Rise-span (  ) ratio and the results of perfect shape analysis and imperfect shape
analysis.
According to analysis results, when the Rise-span (  ) ratio of a Star Dome structure is
0.2, the value of the buckling load increases about 3.5 times more than when the ratio is
0.1. In the case of perfect shape analysis and imperfect shape analysis, the ST_1 model
showed a gap of about 3%, while the ST_2 model showed a gap of about 2.5%.
Therefore, the ST_1 model is more sensitive than the ST_2 model.
1511
4 -2 Characteristics of Structural Instability of a Parallel Lamella

Dome Structure
The shape of Parallel Lamella Dome structures are like those in Fig. 8. All nodes of the
model exist on the spherical surface at the same angle range from the center of the
spherical surface. Two models, PL_1 and PL_2, are chosen for analysis utilizing the
Rise-span (  ) ratio as in Table 5.
Table 5: The analysis model of Parallel Lamella Dome
Model L1 L2 H H1 H2 Ltot (m)

PL_1 338 171 100 89 55 0.1 7.5 136
PL_2 352 182 200 177 109 0.2 14.5 145
Fig. 8: The shape of Parallel Lamella Dome
(a) PL_1 Model (b) PL_2 Model

(a) PL_1 Model (b) PL_2 Model

1512
Table 6: the buckling load of a Parallel Lamella Dome structure

0.01% 53216.69 99.76
0.10 100 500 53342.50 0.05% 52667.62 98.73
0.10% 50701.31 95.05
0.01% 163897.5 100.17
0.20 200 500 163615.00 0.05% 162685.3 99.43
0.10% 160321.9 97.99
Table 6 which is the value of buckling load of a Parallel Lamella Dome structure
according to the Rise-span (  ) ratio is an analysis result of perfect shape analysis and
imperfect shape analysis.
According to analysis results, when the Rise-span (  ) ratio of a Parallel Lamella Dome
structure is 0.2, the value of buckling load increases about 3 times than when the ratio is
0.1. In case of perfect shape analysis and imperfect shape analysis, the PL_1 model
showed a gap of about 5%, while the PL_2 model showed a gap of about 2%. Therefore,
the PL_1 model is more sensitive than the PL_2 model.
4 -3 Characteristics of Structural Instability of a 3 Way Grid Dome

Structure
The shape of 3 Way Grid Dome structures are like those in Fig. 11. All nodes of the
model exist on the spherical surface at the same angle range from the center of the
spherical surface. Two models, 3W_1 and 3W_2, are chosen for analysis utilizing the
Rise-span (  ) ratio as in Table 7.
Table 7: The analysis model of 3 Way Grid Dome
Model L1 L2 H H1 H2 H3 Ltot (m)

3W_1 338 171 100 89 76 55 0.1 7.5 170
3W_2 352 182 200 177 133 109 0.2 14.5 180
1513
Fig. 11: The shape of 3 Way Grid Dome
(a) 3W_1 Model (b) 3W_2 Model

(a) 3W_1 Model (b) 3W_2 Model

Table 8: the buckling load of a 3 Way Grid Dome structure


0.01% 54124.84 99.66

0.10 100 500 54311.69 0.05% 53074.50 97.72
0.10% 51690.66 95.17
0.01% 148925.10 99.99
0.20 200 500 148943.10 0.05% 148428.20 99.65
0.10% 146658.00 98.47
1514
Table 8 which is the value of buckling load of a 3 Way Grid Dome structure according
to the Rise-span (  ) ratio is an analysis result of perfect shape analysis and imperfect
shape analysis.
According to analysis results, when the Rise-span (  ) ratio of a 3 Way Grid Dome
structure is 0.2, the value of buckling load increases about 2.74 times than when the
ratio is 0.1. In case of perfect shape analysis and imperfect shape analysis, the 3W_1
model showed a gap of about 5%, while the 3W_2 model showed a gap of about 1.5%.
Therefore, the 3W_1 model is more sensitive than the 3W_2 model.
4 -4 Characteristics of Static Instability of a Lattice Dome structure

This paragraph compares and analyses the results of the previous paragraph in order to
understand the instability characteristics of a Lattice Dome structure. In a Lattice Dome
structure, the entire length of used factors becomes different according to the form of
the structure. To compare unstable characteristics, relations between the entire element
length of each model and the buckling load are divided according to the initial imperfect
shape for comparison.
(a)   0.1 (b)   0.2

Fig. 14: Comparison of Dome structure according to the Rise-span (  ) ratio
Table 9: Comparison of buckling loads of Dome structure

Dome Bucklin Load (Pcr) Ltot (m) Pcr / Ltot
ST_1 25010.07 99 252.63
Star Dome
ST_2 84689.68 104 814.32
Parallel Lamella PL_1 53342.50 136 392.22
Dome PL_2 163615.00 145 1128.38
3W_1 54311.69 170 319.48
3 Way Grid Dome
3W_2 148943.10 180 827.46
According to results of comparison, the value of the buckling load per unit length of a
Parallel Lamella is superior to those of a Star Dome structure and a 3 Way Grid Dome
structure.
1515
5 Conclusion
As a space structure is a kind of resistance-type structure, we see that structural
behaviour is closely related to the shape or form of the structure. Unstable behaviour is
very effective for bifurcation buckling because triangle modules are used. The following
results were obtained after analyzing the static instability behaviour of a Lattice Dome
under conditions were bending takes place.
1). When the Rise-span ratio was 0.1, the buckling ability of a 3 Way Grid Dome was
superior to a Star Dome and a Parallel Lamella Dome. When the Rise-span ratio was
0.2, the Parallel Lamella Dome was superior to a Star Dome and 3 a Way Grid Dome.
2). The value of the buckling load per unit length of a Parallel Lamella Dome was
superior to those of a Star Dome and a 3 Way Grid Dome.
3). According to results obtained from the analysis of imperfect shapes, perfect shapes
and imperfect shapes showed a difference of about 1.5~5% in all Dome structures. As
a result, the initial imperfection does not cause any problems in terms of general
stability.
References
[1] Bergan, P. G., "Solution algorithms for nonlinear structural problems," Computers
and Structures1980; 12:497-509.
[2] 金勝德, "偏平構造物の動的安定に關する硏究," 東京大學大學院, 博士學位
論文, 1990.
[3] 1. Wood, R. D. and Zienkiewicz, O. C., "Geometrically nonlinear finite element
analysis of beams, frames, arches and axisymmetric shells," Computers &
Structures1997; 7:725-735.
[4] Choong, K. K. and Hangai, Y., "Review on methods of bifurcation analysis for
geometrically nonlinear structures," IASS, 1993; 34(112): 133-149.
1516
3.5 Optimization
1517
Adaptive Structures Optimization by means of the Virtual

Force Density Method
Paolo BASSO1*, Andrea E. DEL GROSSO 2

1*
PhD student, Dep. of Structural Mechanics, University of Pavia
Via Ferrata 1, 27100, Pavia, Italy
paolo.basso@unipv.it
2
Professor, Dep. of Civil, Environment. and Arch. Engineering, University of Genoa
Abstract
The Virtual Force Density Method (VFDM) represents an extension of the well
known Force Density Method (FDM) through a re-interpretation of the concept of
connectivity matrix and a more general vector generation rule which no longer needs for
an applied force field but only requires geometry. The method, already applied to
geometrical optimization problems in architecture, such as the frames standardization of
free form grid-shells and the approximation of complex shapes by planar quad meshes
(PQ meshes), is proposed in this paper as an optimization tool in the field of Variable
Geometry Structures (VGS).
In particular, two novel possible applications of the VFDM are presented the first one
concerning the study of the so-called origami structures and, the second one, concerning
Mutually Supported Elements (MSE). Both studies aim to demonstrate the high
flexibility of the method and its aptitude to face architectural/structural/geometrical
problems since the only requirements are a set of nodes and a law to connect them, as
available in most structures. The discussion also aims to underline the feasibility of the
proposed solutions in view of their application to the field of adaptive structures in
architecture, that‟s to say those structures belonging to the overall framework of
„bionic‟ building skin systems able to dynamically respond to or interact with various
design drivers.
Keywords: VFDM, responsive skins, innovative architecture, MSE, origami structures.
1 Introduction
As explained in [1] and [2] the idea of the traditional Force Density Method (FDM) can
be effectively developed in order to be used for a wider range of optimization problems.
In particular, the so called Virtual Force Density Method (VFDM), which represents the
extension of the original method through a re-interpretation of the connectivity matrix
and of the vector‟s generation rule, has been previously applied to find a solution to two
geometrical problems related to complex shape in architecture. The successfully faced
1518
problems concerned the heterogeneity of elements composing free form grid-shells and
the approximation of complex shapes with planar quad meshes (PQ meshes).
The aim of the present paper is to evaluate a further extension of the applicability of the
method towards optimization problems involving morphing structures (i.e. structures
which are able to respond to inputs by changing their configuration). In particular the
discussion focuses on Variable Geometry Structures (VGS) for innovative applications
as adaptive architectural envelopes and the results of two case studies about two
different VGS systems are reported in the last sessions of the paper. In both studies, one
involving rigid-foldable origami and, the other one, involving Mutually Supported
Elements (MSE), the VFDM is applied to find optimal configurations which are also
kinematically compatible with an initial system. During the process, no care of the
kinematics is taken while the feasibility of the process itself is ensured.
2 Adaptive structures and building responsive skins

There is a clear need to develop new technologies and strategies to address energy
efficiency with appropriate procedures and building techniques, while taking account of
the social acceptance by the buildings‟ users and the return on investment. In general
the envelope of the buildings is the most important element and has a high potential
contribution to reducing energy demand. Consequently, the roof and walls seem to be
the key elements to be addressed, externally (for example by applying a new generation
of façade elements) or internally (for example by applying new generation of insulation
materials focusing on the best compromise between energy performance, investment
cost, durability and ease of installation).
In the first case, adaptive structural systems are currently investigated as an innovative
and effective solution leading to the, so called, “responsive skins”. The aim is the
performance enhancement of those facade elements which are subject to variable
actions and, consequently, which could take advantage of changes in their
configurations. Such elements are, for instance, solar panels and sliding shutters whose
behaviour depends on the sun path or wind turbines, which rely on wind intensity and
direction. As random, pseudo-random or just time dependent inputs are quite always
associated with actions which are variable in space other than in intensity, we need
devices able to face such variability, that‟s to say to overcome the problem of inverse
kinematics and optimization over some kind of Variable Geometry Structure (VGS).
The best solution, in terms of VGS, obviously depends on the particular faced problem
because every VGS has its own characteristics. An overview of VGSs which have been
already applied in an architectural context or which seem suitable for future applications
is presented in [3]. Among the others, two different types of VGS, particularly
promising for architectural applications are rigid-foldable origami and Mutually
Supported Elements (MSE). Both Origami and MSE can be represented by a mesh,
intended as a set of points (nodes) connected one to the other according to a particular
scheme (connectivity matrix). The possibility to represent Origami and MSE in this way
led here to the idea of studying and optimizing their behaviour through the VFDM; the
results of this attempt are analyzed and discussed in the remaining sessions of this paper.
1519
3 VFDM: main elements and procedure scheme

The VFDM is an extension of the traditional FDM presented by Linkwitz and Schek in
1971 [4] which consists in the generalization of the concept of connectivity matrix and
which breaks the need for a force field making it suitable for geometrical optimization
processes.
The main elements of the algorithm are:
1) A set of n points (nodes) p where pk is a 1x3 array representing point k

coordinates for k = 0,1…, n.
2) A connectivity matrix M
3) Boundary conditions C
4) A vector‟s generation rule r
5) An objective function f
p and M, from the classical point of view, give together the geometry definition of the
network. Anyway it has to be underlined that the shape of M in the algorithm can vary
in function of the connection scheme which, in turn, depends on the set goal. Two
alternative connection schemes are reported in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1: from left to right – a) connection between two vertices of the mesh - the
connector is a frame; b) a possible alternative connection among more than two
vertices - the connector is a face.
C is not strictly necessary because, from the mathematical point of view, the initial
position of nodes could itself represent a sufficient boundary condition (in other words
it could happen that C = p). However defining more constraints for the nodes
coordinates can‟t practically be avoided when we deal with real projects.
r is a function of p and M in the case only geometry is involved, that‟s to say:
r = r (p, M, ...) (1)
f represents the controller of the algorithm. The fitness evaluation at each step is the
way we can stop iterations. It is possible and, sometimes, convenient to use the
objective function itself as a vector generation rule; in this case points r and f would be
merged into one (r = f ).
1520
A general scheme of the whole procedure is as follows:
Fig. 2: VFDM scheme.
4 Applications
In architecture and structural engineering, the problem of obtaining geometrical spatial
configurations fitting some specific requirements, related to construction, to structural
behavior or to other aspect of the building performance, can be effectively approached
as an optimization problem, in which the best fitting configuration is the optimal or in
some case, just a sub-optimal solution. In this context the VFDM has been proved to be
an effective design tool as architectural problems are often connected with
representation of geometry which, in turn, can be referred to as a set of points and
connections.
In this paper a similar approach, still involving the VFDM, has been proposed for the
optimization of two structural systems (VGSs) which are intended for “adaptive”
applications such as building responsive skins.
The aim is not to simulate the morphing behaviour of the two structures but to find at
least two different optimal configurations for each structure corresponding to two
different boundary conditions. In other words, the possibility to find an optimal
configuration for each analyzed VGS, which is compatible with a (supposed optimal)
starting configuration of the same VGS, is investigated. Compared to the previous
“static” applications of the VFDM, it is not only necessary to take into account the
performance target but also to ensure the maintenance of pre-determined correlations
among nodes (i.e. distances). It is important to point out that, even if this consideration
1521
sounds like a constraint, it results instead in a contribution to the vector generation rule
setting. Consequently the algorithm behaves more like a multi-objective procedure
where the main challenge is the choice of different weights which have to be assigned to
the different targets.
4.1 Origami
Only in the last years the kinematic behavior of origami has been taken into
consideration for adaptive architectural envelopes [5]. Non-static examples of origami
structures mainly come from space engineering where deployable surfaces have been
studied since a long time ago. A particular kind of origami is the so called „rigid
foldable origami‟, extensively studied in mathematical theory [6][7] and also
successfully applied in space engineering [8]. Rigid-foldable origami is a piecewise
linear developable surface that can realize a deployment mechanism if its facets and
fold lines are substituted with rigid panels and hinges, respectively. Such a deployment
mechanism looks interesting also in an architectural context because its structure, based
on watertight single surfaces, is suitable for constructing an envelope of a space, and
because its purely geometric mechanism does not rely on the elasticity of materials.
The use of the VFDM to lead the folding of a rigid-foldable origami is shown in the
next sub-sessions.
4.1.1 Geometry description
A rigid-foldable origami can be simply represented by a triangular mesh. In order to

ensure the “foldability” of the mesh it is possible to perform a matrix analysis of the
correspondent framework as explained in [9] and the analysis should result in enough
independent inextensional mechanisms without self-stiffness. For the case study
presented here the mesh is the one represented in Fig. 3-a and is composed by 16 nodes
(n) and 33 frames (f). The number of internal independent inextensional mechanisms (m)
can be derived as follows as a function of k and s:
(2)
The optimization process via VFDM is intended to lead from an initial configuration of
the origami mesh to an optimal configuration which is practically represented by a
target surface. Before running the algorithm a value for k has to be set; this gives, in
turn, a positive value for m – s. In other words, the possibilities in constraining mesh
nodes to match the target surface depend on Eq. 2.
1522
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
7 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
8 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
9 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
10 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
11 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
13 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0
15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
Fig. 3: from left to right – a) representation of the rigid-foldable origami mesh and b)
the related connectivity matrix M.
4.1.2 Procedure settings
The connectivity matrix M for this problem is reported in Fig. 3-b and is a mxm
symmetric matrix where m is the number of mesh nodes. The ones in the matrix
represent a connection between two nodes; the sum of the values at row i corresponds to
the number of frames sharing node i.
The fitness function that allows to monitor the effectiveness of the optimization process
reads:
+ (3)
The convergence of the fitness function f to zero is the optimal searched solution.
As the origami mesh is composed only by triangles then the maintenance of initial
frame lengths ensures also the respect of each face of the mesh. The calibration of the
weight for each part of the objective function (and for the corresponding vector
generation rule) keeps away from sudden changes in the k nodes coordinates due to dj,
leaving predominance to the respect of frames lengths, so that even a snap-through
behaviour is avoided.
1523
4.1.3 Results and remarks
Fig. 4 shows the results of a series of tests with two regular target surfaces and with a
free-form target surface, changing the number and the position of the constraints.
The red point represents the fixed node while black ones are nodes constrained to the
target surface.
Single-curved and duble-curved Free-form reference surface

reference surface
Fig. 4: results of several rigid foldable-origami applications.
These simple applications results are obviously not enough to ensure a general
effectiveness of the method but can justify further research in this direction. The main
expected issue is the maintenance of infinitesimal tolerance values which are necessary
for this kind of problems but not so easy to achieve when we deal with an increasing
number of nodes/frames.
4.2 Mutually Supported Elements

Mutually supported elements (MSE) arranged in closed circuits create MSE modules.
These modules are also known as reciprocal frames [10] or nexorade fans [11]. MSE
circuits may be connected one to another to generate much larger space structures. Such
configurations are generally 3-dimensional and non-traditional in form and differ from
better known truss assemblies because elements join each other not only at the ends but
even at intermediate points. One of the most interesting aspects of this structural system
is the possibility to manage restraints in order to allow a frame to change the position of
its supporting point by sliding on another frame.
The aim here is to take advantage of this possible kinematic behavior of MSE in order
to propose such structural system for applications in the field of adaptive structures in
architecture. Fig. 5, for instance, shows three different possible configurations of a set
of MSE, where each configuration differently stretches an elastic holed pattern placed
among the frames. Thinking of a building skin made by this kind of elements it could be
possible to manage glare or direct lighting from outside the building by dilating and
contracting holes in the façade pattern.
1524
The use of the VFDM to lead the morphing process of a set of MSE is shown in the next
sub-sections.
Fig. 5: Three different spatial configurations of a set of MSE and a special type of joint
which allows the reciprocal movements of frames.
4.2.1 Geometry description
Assuming the module for the MSE as the square one in Fig. 6-a then it is possible to
represent a set of such modules by a quadrilateral mesh with nodes ordered in the p
vector as in Fig. 6-b. As for the case of the origami mesh it is necessary to identify the
internal independent mechanisms [12]. The task is still to force the mesh towards a new
optimal configuration represented by a target surface.
1525
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
5 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
6 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
8 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
9 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
11 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
13 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 13 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
Fig. 6: from top left to bottom right – a) reference MSE module, b) representation of the
MSE mesh, c) relations among mesh nodes, d) connectivity matrix M for maintenance of
the MSE system, e) connectivity matrix M for maintenance of frame lengths.
1526
4.2.2 Procedure settings
Compared to the origami one, in this case the mesh must be coupled with some more
data in order to ensure both the VGS mechanics and the maintenance of the frame
lengths. In particular the first task is solved by forcing the position of each node i to be
along the line defined by vertices i-nCols and i+nCols (or by vertices i-1 and i+1
depending on the position of i in the mesh) where nCols is the number of nodes for each
row of the mesh. Consequently virtual force vectors are created from each node to its
projection on the defined line, being the magnitude of the vector the distance between
the node and its projection.
The maintenance of the initial frame lengths requires instead that each node i refers to
node i-2 and i+2 (or i-2nCols and i+2nCols depending on the position of i in the mesh).
These considerations, graphically represented in Fig. 6-c, lead to the building of two
different connectivity matrices to manage the geometry changes (Fig. 6-d,e).
The fitness function that allows to monitor the effectiveness of the optimization process
reads:
+
f= (4)
+
The convergence of the fitness function f to zero is the optimal searched solution.
4.2.3 Results and remarks
Fig. 7 shows the results of a series of tests with two regular target surfaces and with a
free-form target surface, changing the number and the position of the constraints.
The red point represents the fixed node while black ones are nodes constrained to the
target surface. The lengths of the frames which don‟t lie inside the mesh are not
controlled during the optimization process and their representation just aims to clarify
the disposition of the MSE modules.
1527
Single-curved and duble-curved

reference surface Free-form reference surface
Fig. 7: results of several MSE applications.
Observed results lead the same kind of remarks as for the case of the origami mesh. The
VFDM looks effective over the presented problems but a complete determination of
kinematic and static characteristics of the mesh is a priori requirement. Further studies
are also necessary to prove the efficiency of the method over more complex problems.
5 Conclusions
In this paper a preliminary study concerning the application of the VFDM for adaptive
structures optimizations has been presented. The results achieved with two simple
benchmarks representing, the former, a rigid-foldable origami and, the latter, a set of
MSE, demonstrate both the effectiveness of the method and its versatility. Moreover it
has to be underlined how the relatively easiness of the algorithm leads to these results
avoiding any kinematic consideration. In fact, only once the optimal configurations
which respond to the given set of boundary conditions have been found, it is then
necessary to solve an inverse kinematics problem.
Further work is necessary to investigate the behaviour of different objectives
converging into a unique vector generation rule or even alternatives to this solution. For
example a sensitivity analysis could be performed to better understand how to set the
relevance of each objective in order to achieve the best results.
Finally, as in most non-linear methods, a further issue is represented by general
parameters settings. Expertise is always required in this case since tolerances in
convergence may vary a lot depending on the problem.
1528
References
[1] Basso P, Del Grosso AE, Pugnale A and Sassone M. Computational

Morphogenesis in Architecture: The Cost Optimization of Free-Form Grid Shells.
IASS Journal 2009; vol.50 no.3: 143-150.
[2] Basso P, Del Grosso AE, Pugnale A and Sassone M. Applications of a Virtual
Force Density Method. Evolution and trends in design, analysis and construction
of shell and spatial structures – Proceedings of the IASS Symposium 2009;
Valencia, Spain, Sept. 28 - Oct. 2.
[3] Del Grosso AE, Basso P. Adaptive Building Skin Structures. 20th International
Conference on Adaptive Structures and Technologies, October 20-22, 2009, Hong
Kong.
[4] Linkwitz K, and Schek HJ. (1971), „Einige Bemerkungen zur Berechnung
vonvorgespannten Seilnetzkonstruktionen‟, Ingenieur-Archiv 40, 145-158.
[5] Heinzelmann F. Lightweight origami structures and day lighting modulation.
structures – Proceedings of the IASS Symposium 2009; Valencia, Spain, Sept. 28 -
Oct. 2.
[6] Belcastro SM, Hull T. Modelling the folding of paper into three dimensions using
affine transformations. Linear Algebra and its Applications, Vol. 348, 273-282,
2002.
[7] Balkcom DJ, Demaine ED, Demaine ML. Folding Paper Shopping Bags. Abstracts
from the 14th Annual Fall Workshop on Computational Geometry, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, November 19–20, 2004, 14–15.
[8] Miura K. Triangles and Quadrangles in Space. Evolution and trends in design,
analysis and construction of shell and spatial structures – Proceedings of the IASS
Symposium 2009; Valencia, Spain, Sept. 28 - Oct. 2.
[9] Pellegrino S, Calladine CR. Matrix analysis of statically and kinematically
indeterminate frameworks. Int. J. Solids Structures 1986; Vol. 22 No. 4: 409-428.
[10] Popovic O. The architectural potential of the reciprocal frame. PhD thesis,
University of Nottingham, 1996.
[11] Baverel O. Nexorades: A family of interwoven space structures. PhD thesis,
University of Surrey, 2000.
[12] Parigi D, Sassone M, Napoli P. Kinematic and static analysis of plane reciprocal
frames. Evolution and trends in design, analysis and construction of shell and
spatial structures – Proceedings of the IASS Symposium 2009; Valencia, Spain,
Sept. 28 - Oct. 2.
1529
The engineering applications of free form structures by the

Extended-ESO method
Changyu CUI1* Baoshi JIANG2 Hongyan ZHENG 3

1*
cuichangyu1963@yahoo.com.cn
2, 3
School of Civil Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology,
Abstract
The design of architectural forms using structural computations is helpful for
architects at the schematic design stage. Derived from the principle of ―nature
evolution‖, the Extended-ESO (extended evolutionary structural optimism) method is a
new structural morphosis method which was put forward in 2002. In this method, the
finite element approach is employed to analyze the relevant structural mechanical
properties such as the von Mises stress distribution. Resistance efficiencies of local
areas are further evaluated by analyzing the contour lines or surfaces. The original
structural geometry is modified iteratively by ―preserving, eliminating or adding‖ those
areas according to their contributions to the structural resistance, so that a rational
architectural form can be obtained. Several practical engineering designs obtained from
this method are analyzed in details. The choice of original structural geometry is also
discussed, aiming at improving the evolving efficiency. With this method, the change of
different kinds of design parameters, such as constraint or space conditions, may create
different architectural forms, which is beneficial for designers. Generally, an
architectural form constructed using this method can keep the structure in a mostly
uniform axial-stress state with the bending moment controlled. The validity and
practicability of the method are discussed. In addition, these structures by this method
also show good architecture effect through their free form.
Keywords: Extended-ESO method, free form structure, structural morphosis, schematic

design
1 Introduction
The Extended-ESO (extended evolutionary structural optimism) method is a structural
morphosis method which is helpful for architects at the schematic design stage by
architectural form design using structural computations.
1.1 The concept of structural morphosis

As we know, structure is the skeleton of the architecture space and the main body of
resisting loads. So the selection of the structure shape not only affects the safety and
economy of a building, but also all the requirements for architecture such as
serviceability and aesthetic, and so on. How to determine the structure shape
1530
scientifically is a new subject for the crossing fields of architecture and structure. At
present, the process determining the structure shape is as follow: firstly, comprehensive
analysis of all the conditions of architecture and structure; secondly, supposition of
structure shape and concrete dimension according to architecture intentions; then,
calculating and analyzing the structure shape to check whether it can meet all the
requirements. If can‘t, restarting to the supposition of structure shape. If can, continuing
to the detailed design stage. It is not difficult to see the supposition of the structure
shape is man-made. Its rationality is closely related with the designers‘ experience and
knowledge level, restricted to a large extent by architecture intentions, and lack of
scientific theoretical basis. Generally speaking, no matter how rich the experience of the
designers is and how high the theoretical level, it is difficult for anybody to ensure the
rationality of structure shape perfectly. It is also very difficult to seek a rational
structure shape for more complex architecture projects. If the process of supposition,
calculating, analyzing and checking is taken as a process of structure morphosis; in
other words, the process is substituted by a structure morphosis method, the structure
shape will be directly gotten by calculation. Thus, the rationality of structure shape can
be ensured and varied rational designs can be provided for architecture intention by the
structure morphosis method. We can definite the word ‗structural morphosis‘ as follow:
structural morphosis is a process of seeking various ‗good structure morphology‘ by
analytical approaches to realise the coordination between structure shape and structural
mechanical properties.
1.2 The research on structural morphosis

Many researchers have been studying the structure morphosis for a long time .they tried
to use many methods for this study. The architect Antonio Gaudi in Spanish put forward
the method of model experiment, and designed constructions resisting loads with axial
force, for example, Colonia Guell church. The structure engineer Heinz Lsler in
Switzerland designed many free form curved-surface structures such as Deitingen gas
Station by the method of Reverse Hanging Experiment. The theoretical research on
structure morphosis methods is active recently, although it starts late. So many methods
are put forward, for example, Homogenization method[1], Bubble method[2], GA
method[3], ESO method[7], etc. especially, the Homogenization method is mostly
applied to mechanical technology and play a big part in shape design of automobile
parts. These methods developed the possibility of creating structure shape by theoretical
methods, although they can‘t be applied in practical engineering because of some
problems and imperfection, for instance, just being used in plane problems.
The Extended-ESO method is a structure morphosis method which can be applied in
engineering which was put forward in 2002. The method is mainly used to create the
supporting structure now.
1.3 The basic idea of Extended-ESO method

When all the materials consisting of a construction simultaneously reach to yield
strength under loads, the materials are considered as sufficient use. The structure shape
which has uniform distribution of von Mises stress under loads will not produce flexural
torque but axial force. In light of mechanics, this structure is taken as a most rational
1531
structure shape. The problem of structure morphosis resisting loads by the means of
uniform distribution of von Mises stress can be formulated as follow:
  von  Minimum

 S  0
 (1)
  max   0
von
  max   0
Note that
 von is standard deviation of von Mises stress, it denotes the von Mises stress
distributing uniformity.
S is the form of the structure.
Ω0 is allowable space, it denote the space limitations of the architecture conditions.
 max
von
is the maximum von Mises stress.
σ0 is allowable stress.
δmax is the maximum displacement.
δ0 is allowable displacement.
In formulae (1), the first formula denotes the von Mises stress distribution of the
structure shape to create and evolve. The second formula denotes all kinds of
architecture space limitations including boundary conditions which the structure shapes
to create and evolve should meet. The third, fourth formulas denote stress and
deformation conditions respectively.
The existent organism on earth comes from a long time evolution. In the course of
evolution, the low efficiency of adaptability is eliminated and the high efficiency is
selected and enriched. Through the stimulation of the natural phenomenon, the structure
is divided into two parts: the inefficient area and the efficient area for resisting loads. If
the operations of eliminating, preserving or increasing are undertaken for the structure
step by step according to efficiency of resisting loads, the high efficiency structure
shape can be gotten. The efficiency of resisting loads can be understood as the size of
von Mises stress. Now, suppose the high/low dividing stress which divided the structure
into inefficient area and efficient area is xck when reaching evolutionary step k. The
high/low dividing stress xck divides the whole structure S k into the area S mk whose
efficiency of resisting loads is larger than xck and the area S nk whose efficiency of
resisting loads is lower than xck . A new structure can be gotten if the inefficient area
S nk resisting loads is eliminated and the efficient area S mk is preserved. However, the
evolutionary process should reflect the internal force redistribution and allow the
structure to be increased or grow. The increased area is structure boundary area between
the outside of the structure and the inside of allowable space, notated it as ETk . Thus the
new structure shape evolving from step kth to k+1th can be determined by the follow
equation (2).
Sk 1   S k  Snk   ETk (2)
1532
Through introduction of the assumption of continuous distribution of the von Mises

stress in the whole allowable space and contour line, the Extended-ESO method realise
the operations of eliminating, preserving or increasing for the structure by eliminating
the area whose efficiency of resisting loads is lower than high/low dividing stress xck in
the background grid of allowable space. See [4] or [5] for more information.
2 the engineering application of the Extended-ESO method

The Extended-ESO method is the method which is used to create and form rational
structure shape by computation from the view of mechanics. In engineering design the
following steps can be adopted to finish structure shape design:
1) Overall analysis of the various requirements, assumptions including space
conditions such as boundary conditions.
2) Attainment of the structural shape by the Extended-ESO method.
3) Evaluation of the structural shape. If the result cannot meet architectural intentions,
adjusting and revising design variable such as space conditions, boundary
conditions etc, restart to step 2nd. If it can, go to detailed design after adjusting
structure‘s local shape.
Space conditions and boundary conditions have great influence on structural shape, so a
variety of structural forms can be gotten by adjusting these design variables. The
optimum scheme can be gotten from the comparison of the various results. In addition,
all structural performance of the structure by the Extended-ESO method, for example,
structural stability, seismic performance, should be verified while the structure is
applied to engineering. The structural shape by the Extended-ESO method, which takes
von Mises stress as the objective mechanical quantity, is a structure resisting loads with
axis force. So it is necessary to pay particular attention to the stability of pressure parts
while evaluation of the structural shape. The structure‘s local area can be increased in
dimension or revised the structural shape though other proper measures to ensure the
safety of the structure if necessary.
The structure shape by the Extended-ESO method is characterized by its free form and
efficient bearing capability. Now, the applications by the Extended-ESO method in
architectural structure design are shown as follow.
2.1 International bidding design scheme of Italy Florence New Station

Fig.1 indicated that international bidding design scheme of Florence New Station in
Italy (Architect: Arata Isozaki, length 400.0 m × width 42.0 m × height 20.0 m) the roof
is taken as a light airport; the huge space in the lower part of the architecture is taken as
a multi-functional complex. The structure shape in this design scheme is completed by
the Extended-ESO method.
The project scale is large, in order to reduce the calculating time the structure is divided
into three parts (L1 = 125.0 m, L2 = 150.0 m, L3 = 125.0 m) .Here only the central part
(length of 150.0 m)is taken as an example to show the process of creating and forming
structure morphology by the Extended-ESO method. The basic allowable space is a
1533
cuboid whose dimension is length of 150.0 m × width of 42.0 m × height of 20.0 m (the
material elastic modulus E = 210 GPa, Poisson‘s ratio υ = 0.3, the vertical uniform
distributed load q = 100 kN/m2 on the roof).all these are to meet the space constraints
that the Central height is at least 6.0 m.
Fig.1: Perspective View of Firenze New Station Project (Architect: A.Isozaki)

Supports can be arbitrary to set up at both ends of the bottom of the basic allowable
space. Structure Shape is closely related to boundary conditions and space conditions.
（a）（b）（c）（d）
Fig.2: Structure form corresponding to various space support condition
In Fig.2, (a) (b) show the evolutionary results of supporting at one point, (c), (d)
supporting at two points at both ends of the basic allowable space. In addition, (a) is the
basic allowable space, (b), (d) is the results with the limitation that there is no structure
produced along the length direction of the both sides of the allowable space in the
length of 150.0 m × width 2.0 m × height of 18.0 m. (c) is the results with the limitation
that there is no structure produced along the length direction of the both sides of the
allowable space in the length of 150.0 m × width 2.0 m × height of 15.0 m. program (d)
is the final choice after analyzing the four results.
In Fig.3, in evolutionary stage Step11 ~ Step13, through gradually improving the shape
details by the tiny local movement, elimination and proliferation, structure morphology
ultimately converges into the shape shown in Step13. Figure 4, Figure 5 indicated that
the rate of change of the von Mises stress standard deviation and weight in the evolution.
From the two figures, stress standard deviation and weight change greatly. Standard
deviation drops rapidly. And weight rises sharply in the beginning of the evolutionary
process. But with the evolution the standard deviation and weight gradually reduce, and
have few changes during the convergence stage. The resulting structure morphology is
stable, and the von Mises stress distribution is uniform. Therefore, the structure shape is
considered to be reasonable.
1534
Step1 Step2 Step4 Step7 Step8 Step9 Step11 Step13
Fig.3: Evolution process of structure form
 i / 0 (%)
Wi / W0 (%)
Standard deviation variety
120.0%
偏差
Gravity variety rate

300.0%
100.0% 重量
進化ごとの重量／初期重量（％）
250.0%
偏差／初期偏差（％）
80.0%
200.0%
60.0%
150.0%
40.0%
100.0%
20.0%
50.0%
0.0%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 0.0%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
偏差 Step ( i進化数
) Step 進化数
(i)
重量の変化
Fig.4: Standard deviation variety of Fig.5: Gravity variety rate of structure

evolution process body at evolution process
2.2 Qatar education city convention center

Qatar education city convention center （ Fig.6 ， length250.0 m × width30.0 m ×
height20.0 m ） the span between the two supporting points is 100m. The whole
structure is symmetrical. The vertical uniform distributed load q = 100 kN/m2 on the
upper surface.
Fig.6: Qatar education city convention center (Architect: Arata Isozaki)
In Fig.7, Set the design domain as in step1. The structure shape of design scheme is
created by the Extended-ESO method. The structure shapes begin to vary in step4 and
become stable in step14. New supports occur in step14. The structure shapes become
stable and just change in details in step16. The last design scheme is shown in Fig.6.
1535
Step1 step4 step14 step16

Fig.7: Evolutionary process
Fig.8 shows the change ratio of structure‘s mean stress, standard deviation and weigh
with evolutionary step increasing. It is seen that the mean stress and standard deviation
of the structure reduce rapidly in the initial steps and tend to converge, and the structure
weigh rise in the initial steps, then decline, thus reasonable structures can be found.
平均位移
2.50E-03
Change ratio（%）
weigh
Mean displacement（m）
deviation
mean stress
2.00E-03
UXP
UYP
UZP
平均位移（ｍ）
1.50E-03
1.00E-03
5.00E-04
0.00E+00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
step
Step Step
Fig.8: Change ratio of structure’s mean Fig.9: Change of mean displacement of x、
stress, standard deviation and weigh with y、z direction in the evolutionary process
evolutionary steps
2.3 Himalayan Art Center
The central special shaped part Himalayan Art Center (Fig.10) designed by architect
Arata Isozaki is created also by the Extended-ESO method. The basic process of
forming the shape is similar to the above two engineering. The evolutionary process is
shown in Fig.11.
Step1 Step3
Step5 step7
Fig.10: Himalayan Art Center Fig.11: Evolutionary process

2.4 Spain BLANES International Convention Exposition
The architecture module of Spain BLANES International Convention Exposition which
will be built in BARCELONA, Spain‘s eastern coastal city of BLANES is shown in
1536
Fig.12. The structure shape was shown in Fig.13. The building is 397.5m long and
67.5m in maximum width (Fig .13). The roof shape was designed by the height
adjusting method (see [6] for more information on the roof shape forming), and the big
space structure shape at bottom (Exposition, 195.0m×45.0m×18.0m) was designed by
the Extended-ESO method.
The structures by the two structure morphosis methods were organically jointed
together. They both formed integrity with the good architectural expression.
Fig. 12: Spain BLANES International Fig. 13: Structure expression figure of Spain
Convention Exposition BLANES International Convention Exposition
2.5 other scheme designs
The Extended-ESO method was applied in other engineering scheme designs. Such as
the Beijing International Automotive Expo Center program (Fig.14), the second phase
of the project program of the Nation Art Museum of China (Fig.15) etc. Through these
engineering examples, it can be seen that the Extended-ESO method proposed in this
paper, although is established from a mechanical point of view, but the structure shapes
by it show good performance effect.
Fig. 14: Nation Art Museum of China Fig. 15: Beijing International Automotive Expo
Center program
3 Discussion, Conclusions
The Extended-ESO method stimulates the evolutionary phenomenon and makes
structure evolve gradually into rational structure shape through a series of operations of
eliminating, preserving, and increasing. The method realises the operations of
eliminating, preserving or increasing for the structure by eliminating the area whose
efficiency of resisting loads is lower than high/low dividing stress in the background
grid of allowable space. From the process of all the structure morphosis, we can see that
the final structure shape by the Extended-ESO method can embody the architecture
1537
intentions through setting the initial structure shape, design domain, supporting
conditions etc, and be beautiful, imaginative flowing free forms showing good
architectural expression. The mechanical properties of the structure shape by the
method are in a mostly uniform axial-stress state. These engineering design projects in
this paper show the practicability of the method of Extended-ESO and conform that the
method is a useful tool for architecture and structure design.
References
[1] Bendsoe MP, Kikuchi N. General optimal topologies in structural design using a
homogenization method ［ J ］ . Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and
Engineering 1988, 71：197- 224
[2] Eschenauer H A, Kobelev V V, Schumacher A. Bubble method for topology and
shape optimization of structures［J］. Structural Optimization，1994, 8：42- 51
[3] 大森博司, 鬼頭伸彰. 遺伝的アルゴリズムを用いたトラス構造物の形態創出
［C］// 日本建築学会構造系論文集. 1999：No.520, 85- 92
[4] Cui Changyu and Yan Hui An advanced structural morphosis technique———
Extended evolutionary structural optimization method and its engineering
applications. China Civil Engineering Journal Vol. 39 No. 10 Oct. 2006:42-47.
[5] C. CUi, H. OHMORI and M. SASAKI Journal of the International Association for
Shell and Spatial Structures Vol.44(2003) n.1 April n.141:51-61.
[6] Cui Changyu and Yan Hui A morphosis technique for curved-surface structures of
arbitrary geometries——Height adjusting method and its engineering applications
China Civil Engineering Journal Vol. 39 No. 12 Dec. 2006:1-6.
[7] Xie Y M, Steven G P. Evolutionary structural optimization［M］. Springer-Verlag,
1997.
1538
Shape and topology optimization of space structures by the

force density method and hybrid genetic algorithms
Benoît DESCAMPS1*, Philippe BOUILLARD1, Laurent NEY1,2,
Rajan FILOMENO COELHO1
1*
BATir Department, UniversitéLibre de Bruxelles
Av. F. D. Roosevelt 50, CP194/2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
E-mail: benoit.descamps@ulb.ac.be
2
Ney & Partners s.a.
Abstract
This work presents a preliminary shape design strategy for finding optimal truss
systems. As space structures deal with both equilibrium issues and geometric
constraints, the force density method is exploited to address the form finding problem.
Then, the method is extended to the simultaneous shape and topology optimization by
defining the force density ratios in every bar as design variables. This task involves the
development of a hybrid genetic algorithm: the genetic algorithm extensively explores
the design space, whereupon a gradient-based algorithm performs a fine-tuning on best
solutions. Three examples applied to a hanging model, to a space frame and to three-
dimensional footbridges, illustrate the versatility and the applicability of the proposed
strategy.
Keywords: Preliminary shape design, space structures, force density method, shape
optimization, topology optimization, hybrid genetic algorithm
1 Introduction
Traditionally, engineering theories treat the question of the shape design of structures in
two distinct ways depending on the type of design variables: structural or geometric.
The former mainly deals with structural form finding where internal loads are a
consistent part of design variables, while the later, widely used in the structural
optimization field, is concerned with a geometrical approach for which nodal
coordinates, B-splines or others define the shape of the reference configuration used in a
subsequent finite element analysis. However, the design of space structures is frequently
located on the boundary between these two approaches, motivating the development of
a more general methodology [1].
The force density method, first proposed by Linkwitz and Scheck [2][3] for the form
finding of general cable networks, ensures the equilibrium state through a particular
way of parameterization of the initial nonlinear problem. The so-called force density,
which is the force-to-length ratio for each element, encompasses both geometrical and
structural data within one type of variable. However, the lack of a physical correlate of
the force density ratio and the lack of direct control on node coordinates constitute the
major drawbacks for extending the method to more general truss structures other than
1539
tensegrity structures. In particular, the method disregards any explicit consideration of

performance measures and restrictions.
Keeping the principle of the direct approach introduced by the force density method, we
propose here to reformulate the problem in terms of objectives and constraints [4][5].
More specifically, by manipulating force density variables, we attempt to find an
optimal shape according to a user-defined objective function subject to constraints by
means of general-purpose optimization algorithms [6][7].
Although the shape is modified by a change in the force densities, important gains in
terms of structural performances can also be achieved at the topological level. Putting
both aspects together in an aim of structural optimization, the task becomes more
complex due to the nonlinearity of the objective function and constraints, to the
dimension of the design space and to the mixed (discrete/continuous) nature of the
problem. However, it will be shown that the use of the force density principle leads to a
more stable process which avoids usual pathologies related to topology optimization.
For solving the mathematical optimization problem, we consider both families of
optimization algorithms for which the following characteristics can be stated. On one
hand, the well-known efficiency of metaheuristics for probing large design space is
hampered by poor convergence due to the inherent stochastic nature of these algorithms.
On the other hand, gradient-based algorithms are only able to reach local optima
whereas their convergence is very fast. These considerations motivate the development
of a hybrid genetic algorithm [8], leading to an integrated design process that gathers
the advantages of both strategies.
The paper is organized as follows: after an introduction to the force density method (§2),
basic concepts of structural optimization are given, underlying the introduction of the
force density method in a context of structural optimization (§3). Then, a genetic
algorithm in accordance with the force density model is developed (§4). The last part
describes the hybridization with gradient-based algorithms (§5), followed by numerical
examples (§6) and conclusions (§7).
2 Force density method

This section describes the main concepts of the form finding problem, whose goal is to
determine an equilibrated structure under load with given boundaries. If we assume that
the forces are conservative, the energy is path independent, i.e. it depends only on node
coordinates.
In geometrically nonlinear problems involving large displacements, we make a
distinction between the reference configuration and the actual one. The governing
equation is the principle of virtual work, fulfilled for any arbitrary variation of the
virtual displacement δu:
W
W   u  0. (1)
u
The equilibrium condition is given by the residual force vector R, which is computed
via the first derivative of the virtual work with respect to displacement vector u:
1540
wint wext
R  . (2)
u u
The integration domain is the unknown volume V at the actual configuration. The
Cauchy stress tensor and its conjugate strain are respectively denoted by σ and ε. In
order to express the internal virtual work in terms of the reference configuration Vr, we
apply the “pull-back” operation [9]:
wint ε εG
 σ: dV   S : dVr , (3)
u V
u Vr
u
where S is the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor and εG is the Green-Lagrange strain
tensor.
u2
lr xr2 x2 l
u1
xr1 x1
Fig. 1: a shallow truss element at the reference and the actual configuration [10]
Let us focus now on shallow truss elements (Fig. 1). The constant external load vector
of the element nodes is denoted by pT = [p1 p2]. The position vector of the element
nodes at the reference and the actual configuration are respectively xrT = [xr1 xr2] and xT
= [x1 x2] linked by the following equation:
x  xr  u. (4)
After some rearrangements (see [10] for more details), (1) and (2) lead to the following
system of equations for each element e:
Ne  I I  I I 
le   I  xe  qe  I 
xe = pe , (5)
I   I
1541
where qe is the force density ratio, Ne is the internal load and le the element length. The
general assembly procedure of the standard finite element analysis leads to the
following linear system of equations:
KX  P. (6)
In nonlinear analysis, we find the equilibrium point by prescribing a reference

configuration and enforcing the stationary condition through an iterative process. A
reference configuration close to the final one as well as a convenient choice of the load
step is required to ensure convergence. However, if we directly prescribe the force
density ratio, the resolution of (6) is a direct operation.
3 Force density optimization

Although the resolution of (6) for the whole structure ensures the equilibrium of any
configuration, a judicious choice of the parameterization leads to significant gains in
terms of structural performances. Hence, we propose to make use of numerical
optimization techniques. The problem consists in finding the force density vector q that
minimizes the objective function f subject to inequality g and equality h constraints:
min f  q  s.t. g  q   0, h  q   0. (7)

qQ
Typically, objectives are mass, stiffness, stress levelling, etc. Some strict requirements
also arise such as equilibrium conditions given by (6), position of nodes, etc. The key
point of the proposed design process is that it works on equilibrated configurations
rather than on the reference one, avoiding numerical issues due to kinematical
indeterminacies. The optimization is thus performed on the actual working state of the
structure. The strategy is applicable irrespective of the geometrical hypothesis (either
linear or nonlinear), of the dimension of the Euclidean space (2D/3D) and of a possible
initial prestressed state.
4 Genetic algorithm
Solving the problem (7) requires numerical optimization techniques. In this aim, an
adapted genetic algorithm is developed to find the optimal configuration according to
the designer’s criteria. A set of random configurations, called individuals, is generated.
Based on the principle of the survival of the fittest over generations, only the individuals
best adapted to their environment are selected for the next generation. In other words,
each of them is evaluated by the form finding procedure according to their fitness
function aggregating the objectives and constraints. Then, genetic operators, like
mutation and crossover, are applied on them to generate the offspring, and so forth.
Moreover, the introduction of elitism speeds up the convergence.
1542
For the simultaneous shape and topology optimization, a graph-based coding [11] is
used and adapted consistently with the force density parameterization. To summarize,
each element of the adjacency matrix Q represents the force density related to an
element connected to the nodes given by the number of the row and the column. In
particular, a zero-value of a force density means the absence of the corresponding
element (Fig. 2). The mathematical graph parameterization is independent of the ground
structure. Also, it allows for the handling of individuals of variable size, and it prevents
from getting unfeasible topologies.
0 0 0 q15
0 0 q25
0 q35
0
Fig. 2: an example of graph-based coding (left) and the corresponding three-

dimensional configuration (right)
4.1 Shape optimization
Assuming a truss structure, a sophisticated load-carrying configuration has to be found.

Shape optimization tools have been developed over years for finding optimal
geometries. By directly working on equilibrated systems given by (6), the investigations
leads to the definition of design variables. Obviously, the force density ratio is actually
defined as shape variable since intrinsic characteristics of each structural entity, i.e. each
bar element, is fully described within this representation. Note that as the force densities
are related to structural elements rather than on node coordinates, specific procedures,
beyond the scope of this paper (see also [12]), are required to handle geometric
constraints on loaded nodes.
4.1.1 Geometry mutation operator

The aim of the mutation operator is to bring more diversity in the search for optimal
solutions. Physically, the shape is slightly modified. The operation consists in applying
a small perturbation ξ around initial force density values as follows
qij'  qij   , (8)
where ξ is a normally distributed random number.
1543
4.1.2 Geometry crossover operator

Here, the shape of two selected parent individuals from the previous generation is
altered by combining their force densities in order to generate two child individuals with
similar characteristics:
qij' ,1  rqij ,1  1  r  qij ,2 ,
(9)
qij' ,2  rqij ,2  1  r  qij ,1 ,
where r is a random number uniformly distributed between 0 and 1.
4.2 Topology optimization
It is well-known that the search for a suitable connectivity can strongly improve
structural performances. Starting from a ground structure, a discrete approach employs
binary variables to specify the presence or the absence of an element. Although this
approach is useful for probing the whole design space, it constitutes also a challenging
task due to the great number of possible singular configurations. In this paper, this
drawback is overcome by working with the force density method. Avoiding numerical
issues, the method implicitly enforces the equilibrium condition. Moreover, some
topological phenomena appear over iterations such as merged nodes or unstressed
elements. To clean up the solution, an appropriate strategy of recombination exploits
these features.
4.2.1 Topology mutation operator

Random elements
A virtual binary matrix with a size equal to the number of the ground nodes is randomly
generated. For each existing element, if the corresponding value is one, the element is
removed or added according to its current state.
Switching node
This operator changes the connectivity of an element by switching one of its nodes by
another node belonging to the structure.
Disconnection of nodes
A general issue when generating a configuration from a ground structure is that the
number of elements and/or nodes is oversized. Consequently, it is more natural to
randomly remove some nodes of the structure and its adjacent elements.
4.2.2 Topology crossover operator

Random
The first genetic operator of crossover works in a same way as the random elements
mutation. A binary matrix with the same size as the ground nodes is randomly generated.
For each existing element, if the corresponding value is one, the element is changed
with the other individual.
1544
Uniform
This crossover type changes a random node and its adjacent elements with another node
of the second individual.
5 Hybrid genetic algorithm

Although genetic algorithms are well-suited for probing large design spaces with
discrete and continuous variables, it also shows poor convergence for continuous
variables. Generally, the best solution obtained from genetic algorithms, in an
acceptable CPU time, is a structure including an appropriate topology whereas the shape
has to be improved. This ascertainment leads us to consider a hybrid approach where
gradient-based algorithms are used for fine-tuning. The goal is now to find the balance
between global and local search. It is possible to classify three different approaches [13]:
Pre-hybridization
In order to provide a good initial population, a local search is performed prior to genetic
algorithms. This approach decreases the solution space but appears inapplicable for
structural optimization problems.
Organic-hybridization
A local search is used during the genetic operations, which seems interesting for small
model but very time-consuming for shape and topology optimization considering the
high number of individuals and the time required for the evaluation of a single
individual. Moreover, premature convergence can occur and the local optimizer may
interfere with genetic parameters.
Post-hybridization
It consists in locating the global feasible optimum area of the objective function via
metaheuristics. Then, a local search through gradient-based algorithms is performed on
best individuals provided.
From these three approaches, the last one seems the most efficient for this kind of
optimization problem. An overview of the solution space is done by the genetic
algorithm, which quickly tests a great number of possible configurations. Then, the fine-
tuning slightly modifies the shape, and truss elements can be recombined if merged
nodes or unstressed elements are detected.
Three examples are studied. First, a univariate shape optimization problem endowed
with a convex objective function illustrates the behaviour of the model with the force
density method. This inverse hanging model is free of geometrical constraints, except
for boundaries. The second example shows a more complex optimization problem for a
space frame. Here, the shape and topology are optimized and the objective function is
1545
multimodal. The last example gives a mix of the two first cases wherein the hanging
model is combined with geometrical restrictions.
6.1 Hanging structure – inverse model
Originally, the force density method has been applied on prestressed cable net structures
[3]. Here is the starting point for its extension to the search for optimal shape. Let us
consider inverse hanging model acting in pure compression. It is generated by changing
the sign of the uniform force density distribution. The pin-joint structure is composed of
10,000 nodes subject to a uniform vertical load distribution (Fig. 3). In a shape
optimization context, the strain energy is defined as the objective function in order to
maximize the stiffness. It appears that a pure tension or compression state implies the
convexity of the objective function, allowing the use of a simple descent algorithm for
its optimization. Numerical experiments show that the number of iterations is
independent of the number of nodes. The convergence is reached after less than five
iterations. Note that the algorithm might be stopped at each iteration since every
configuration generated by the force density method is equilibrated.
f init = 7.06x104 f opt = 5.20x104
Fig. 3: initial structure (left), optimal solution (right) for the hanging model
6.2 Space frame
This example shows a structure where both shape and topology are optimized. A pure
hanging model cannot exist, i.e. there is simultaneous presence of tension and
compression elements. This is the case when assuming that loaded node coordinates are
constrained in the same plane as supports are (Fig. 4a). For each element, a force
density ratio is defined as design variable. The strain energy is defined as objective
function. Starting from a ground structure of 20 nodes, there are 190 potential truss
elements and more than one million possible topologies. For the sake of generality, a
member grouping is avoided. The optimization is first performed by the genetic
algorithm with an initial population of 8000 individuals and 15 generations, where the
best solution gives an objective value of 200.01 (Fig. 5). Then, the 40 best individuals
according to their objective function are selected for the fine-tuning through a gradient-
based algorithm, reaching a value of 189.44 for the objective function. The lightest
structure is kept as final solution for the optimization problem (Fig. 4b). However, the
1546
fully stressed design involves optimal solutions with many elements. For technological
reasons, it could be convenient to decrease the number of them. These alternative
solutions can be achieved through a filter method that removes the least stressed
elements under a certain stress rate (Fig. 6). Remark that concerning the shape and
topology optimization, the buckling is not taken into account, which could have an
impact on the general shape of the structure.
Fig. 4: problem statement (a) and an example of optimal configuration (b)

for the space frame
1.00E+06
1.00E+05
Objective function
1.00E+04
1.00E+03
1.00E+02
1.00E+01
1.00E+00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Generation
Fig. 5: convergence curve for the genetic algorithm (semi-logarithmic scale) for the
space frame example
1547
f = 189.44 filter rate = 0% f = 189.55 filter rate = 1% f = 190.57 filter rate = 5%
Fig. 6: plane views of alternative solutions for the space frame
6.3 Lightweight bridges
These two examples show a combination of both concepts mentioned above: the
funicular principle and the space frame. For crossing wide spans, self-weight becomes
penalizing and lightweight structures appear as an appropriate answer. However,
complex configurations arise when considering three-dimensional cases. Moreover,
geometrically nonlinear behaviour hinders the search for an equilibrated system, which
demonstrates the need for consistent strategies to find optimal shapes. For lightweight
bridge structures (Fig. 7), our studies [3] have shown that it is possible to group some
force density variables in order to decrease the number of variables and to handle
geometric constraints regardless of the optimization process. Moreover, the number of
cables, as well as the position of boundaries, is also defined as design variables (Tab. 1).
Design variables
Arch bridge Suspension bridge
Uniform force density in the arch Uniform force density in the hanging cable
Boundary coordinates Force density in the masts
Number of struts Number of cables
Tab. 1: design variables for the arch bridge (left) and the suspension bridge (right)
1548
Fig. 7: arch bridge (left) and suspension bridge (right)
7 Conclusions
Structural design deals with different disciplines of computational mechanics, like
nonlinear mechanics, form finding and structural optimization. Each has its own
strategy to address the generation of structural shape. In this paper, we have shown that
merging these strategies provides an elegant alternative for the preliminary shape design
of space truss structures.
First, the scope of the force density method is no longer limited to tensile or tensegrity
structures but is extended to any kind of truss structures. Starting from a general
optimization formulation, the force densities are defined as design variables, which
appear very suitable for the exploration of novel solutions and making the problem of
structural optimization more stable
To tackle the simultaneous shape and topology optimization, the development of a
hybrid genetic algorithm gathers both global aspect of genetic algorithms and accuracy
of gradient-based algorithms, enhancing the chances of finding the global optimum.
Numerical experiments have shown that the proposed strategy is able to address the
form finding and structural optimization of both hanging models and space frames,
highlighting two different design philosophies.
Our current works are concerned with the integration of material properties, so that a
complete sizing, shape and topology optimization, taking buckling into account, can be
performed.
References
[1] Bletzinger K-U, Firl M, Linhard J and Wüchner R. Optimal shapes of mechanically
motivated surfaces. Computer methods in applied mechanics and engineering 2010;
199: 324-333.
[2] Linkwitz K. New methods for the determination of cutting pattern of prestressed
cable nets and their application to the Olympic Roofs Munich. Proceedings of the
IASS Pacific Symposium on Tension Structures and Space Frames, Tokyo, October
1971; 17-23.
1549
[3] Scheck H-J. The force density method for form finding and computation of general
networks. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering 1974; 3: 115-
134.
[4] Descamps B, Filomeno Coelho R, Ney L and Bouillard Ph. Multicriteria
optimization of lightweight bridge structures by a constrained force density method.
Computers and Structures (submitted).
[5] Masic M, Skelton R and Gill, P. Optimization of tensegrity structures.
International Journal of Solids and Structures 2006; 43: 4687-4703.
[6] Nocedal J and Wright S. Numerical Optimization. Springer, USA, 1999.
[7] Yang X-S. Nature-Inspired Metaheuristic Algorithms. Luniver Press, UK, 2008.
[8] El-Mihoub T, Hopgood A, Nolle L and Battersby A. Hybrid Genetic Algorithms: A
Review. Engineering Letters 2006; 13: 124-137.
[9] Crisfield MA. Non-linear finite element analysis of solids and structures. John
Wiley and Sons Ltd, UK, 1991.
[10] Pauletti RMO and Pimenta PM. The natural force density method for the shape
finding of taut structures. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and
Engineering 2008; 197: 4419-4428.
[11] Giger M and Ermanni P. Evolutionary truss topology optimization using a graph-
based parameterization concept. Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization
2006; 32: 313-326.
[12] Eriksson A and Gunnar Tibert A. Redundant and force-differentiated systems in
engineering and nature. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering
2006; 195: 5437-5453.
[13] Kumar Gudla P and Ganguli R. An automated hybrid genetic-conjugate gradient
algorithm for multimodal optimization problems. Applied Mathematics and
Computation 2005; 167: 1457-1474.
1550
Proceedings of the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposiu
Symposium 2010, Shanghai
Optimization of Pretensioned truss structures using

Micro Genetic Algorithms
Daehwan Kim1, Byoungwook Yoon 2, Jaehong Lee 3*, Sungwoo Woo4
1
Graduate student, Department of Architectural Engineering, Sejong University
Email : regkdh@naver.com
2
Graduate student, Department of Architectural Engineering, Sejong University
Email : zero2p@nate.com
3*
Professor,, Department of Architectural Engineering, Sejong University
98 Kunja Dong, Kwangjin Ku, Seoul 143 143-747, Korea
Email : jhlee@sejong.ac.kr
4
Building Engineering Team, Hanwha Engineering & Construction Corp
1 Janggyo
Janggyo-Dong, Jung Ku, Seoul 100-797, Korea
Email : sungwoow@hanwha.co.kr
Abstract
Pretensioned truss becomes more important as cable cable-dome,
dome, tensegrity and other
structural system have adopted pretensioned truss or cables. In this paper, the optimum
size and optimum prestressing force of pretensioned truss are investigated by using
micro genetic algorithms. Design optimization of trusses consists of arriving at
optimum sizes of cross-section
section and prestressing force parameters,
s, when weight of the
truss is minimum, satisfying a set of specified constraints. Genetic algorithms
algorithms-based
methods provide ideal techniques for modeling many practical considerations, which
make the optimal solution constructible. Classical ten-bar truss problem from literature
are solved and the results are compared. Features of the proposed method, which help in
modeling and application to optimal design of pretensioned truss structures, are
demonstrated by solving a problem of seventy two bar truss structures. Optimal
prestressing forces are also found for various configurations of pretensioned truss
structures.
Keywords: Genetic algorithms, Truss structures design, Prestressed trusses, Optimization
1 Introduction
Despite
espite existing major preventiv
preventivee factors in performing optimum design of structures
such as the large number of structural required analyses and large computational costs,
engineers and owners have always desired to have optimal structures. In order to find
optimal structure, optimal
ptimal de
design of truss structures has always been an active area of
research in the field of search and optimization. Various techniques based on classical
1551
optimization methods have been developed to find optimal truss structures

structures. Furthermore,
advanced computers have ve been possible to make a lot of optimization algorithms. Most
of these techniques can be classified into three main categories: sizing, geometry, and
topology optimization, however,
owever, prestressed truss[5] optimization is lack
lacked to research.
In this paper, optimum design is studied to truss structures by using genetic algorithms.
Goldberg[1][2] is one of the pioneers in developing the Genetic algorithm. Further
developments are due to optimization to Jenkins
Jenkins[3] and Kaveh[4] among many others.
In the process of optimizing the structure by the genetic algorithm
algorithm,, if minimizing the
structural weight is taken as the objective, by altering the cross section of members, the
optimization may lead to optimum weight
weight. Too find an optimum design is developed to
using the Micro genetic algorithm
algorithm(μ -GA), which is proposed by Krishnakumar
Krishnakumar[6], with
respect to truss structures. In the sizing and pretension optimization of trusses, cross
sectional areas and pretension
ension of members are considered as design variables and the
coordinates
rdinates of the nodes and connectivity among various members are considered to be
fixed. Figure 1 shows flow chart of the micro genetic algorithm.
Therefore, the paper presents effect for the optimal design of pretensioned truss
structures and investigates optimal pretension of seventy two bar truss structures
structures, when
example problems are considered as design variable of cross sectional areas
areas.
Fig 1: Flow chart of the micro genetic algorithm
1552
Inn this section, two example problems are studied for optimization by using the micro
genetic algorithm. The ten bar truss is studied to consider as design variable of cross
section, and the results are compared with previous results. Furthermore
Furthermore, the seventy
two bar truss is considered
ed as design variables of pretension as well as cross section.
The weights of the considered examples are less than the trusses without pretension, and
optimal pretension is resulted by using micro genetic algorithm.
2.1 Ten bar truss

In order to verify the program
gram to use the micro genetic algorithm, cclassical
lassical ten
ten-bar truss
problem from literature which is solved by Haftka is compared with present results of
optimization. Figure 2 shows plan view of ten bar truss. It is composed of ten members
and it is width length of 720 in
inches and vertical length of 360 inches.. Two loads of 100
Kips acts on the 2 and 4 nodes in the downward direction. 5 and 6 nodes are not to
move and free to rotate. The data for ten bar truss is given in Table 1. In the sizing
optimization
zation of trusses, cross section of members is considered as design variables and
the coordinates of the nodes and connectivity among various members are considered to
be fixed. Figure 3 shows a history of optimization with respect to the ten bar truss. It
can be seen that the structural weight decreases sharply at the beginning while tardily
near the optimum weight. The solution may be gained within 20 generations. The cross
sectional areas of the truss after optimization are shown in Table 2. Present
resent results are
obtained very close to literature.
Table 1: Data for design of the ten bar truss

Design variables
Cross section variables : A1; A2; A3; A4; A5; A6; A7; A8; A9; A10
Objective functions
æ 10 ö
f ( x) = ç å Ai × li ÷ × r
è i =1 ø
Constraint data
Stress constraints
(s y )i £ 25ksi (i = 1, 2,3, 4,5,56, 7,8,10)
(s y )i £ 75ksi (i = 9)
Cross section of elements constraints
0.1in 2 £ Ai £ 10.0in 2
Material properties
Young’s modulus E = 1.0 ´ 10 4 ksi
Density of the material r = 0.1lb / in3
1553
Fig 2: The ten bar truss(l=360in, P=100Kips)
Fig 3:: History of optimization with respect to the ten bar truss
Table 2: Result of cross section and stress for the ten bar truss
ross section of optimization(in2)
Cross Stress of element(ksi)
Elements
Haftka[7]
[7] Present work Haftka[7] Present work
1 7.90 7.80 25.0 24.1
2 0.10 0.60 25.0 17.0
3 8.10 8.30 -25.0 -24.9
4 3.90 3.90 -25.0 -22.1
5 0.10 0.10 -0.07 0.29
6 0.10 0.50 25.0 23.2
7 5.80 6.20 25.0 24.9
8 5.51 5.00 -25.0 -24.9
9 3.68 3.90 37.5 31.8
10 0.14 0.60 -25.0 -23.0
1554
2.2 Seventy two bar truss

This
his section presents the design of a seventy two bar with pre
prestress and demonstrates
the advantages of pretensioned trusses of weight saving
saving. Figure 4 shows plan and
oblique views of the seventy two bar truss. Itt is composed of seventy two members
having equal lengths of 54 in. A load of 13,534 lb acts on the center node in the upward
direction. The center node is free to move in the vertical direction only wwhile all edge
nodes are restrained in that ddirection. Thehe seventy two bar truss is symmetry with
respect to width and length. Consequently element
elements are specified only 12 numbering
and the others are skipped.
Inn order to minimum weight of truss structure, objective and penalty function are
calculated as :
Minimize
F(X , M ) = f (X ) (1)
F ( X , M ) = f ( X ) + penalty ( X )
ìïæ s (i) ö 2 üï
penalty ( X ) = r íç - 1÷ ý (2)
ïîè s all ø ïþ
where
here F(X,M) is value of objective function, penalty(X) is value of penalty function.
Penalty
enalty constant is defined to r at penalty function. Value
alue of penalty function is existed
to exceed allowable stress of elements, and it is increased to F(X,M). Therefore,
minimum weight of structure is resulted to minimum value of f(X) and not to exist
value of penalty function.
(a) Oblique view (b) Plan view

Fig 4: The seventy two bar truss
1555
2.2.1 1 design variable of cross section
The data for seventy two bar truss is given in Table 3. Inn the sizing and pretension
optimization of trusses, cross sectional areas and pretension of members are considered
as design variables and the coordinates of the nodes and connectivity among various
members are considered to be fixed. Cross sections of elements are considered as 1
design variable and the
he case stud
studies are solved for minimum
nimum weight of truss structures
without and with pretension. 5 and 9 of elements are considered as different design
variables of pretension.
Table 3: Data for design of the seventy two bar truss(1 design variable of cross section)
Design variables
Cross section variables : A1=A2=A3=A4=A5=A6=A7=A8=A9=A10=A11=A12
Pretension variables : T5; T9
Objective functions
72
f ( x) = å Ai × li
i =1
Constraint data
Stress constraints
(s y )c £ 20ksi
(s y )t £ 40ksi
0.01in 2 £ Ai £ 1.00in 2
Value
alue of pretension constraints
0lb £ Ai £ 15000lb
Material properties
Young’s modulus E = 16 ´ 103 ksi
(a) Without pretension (b) With pretension

Fig 5:: History of optimization with respect to the seventy two bar truss
(1 design variable of cross section)
1556
Figure 5 shows a history of optimization with respect to the seventy two bar truss. It can
be seen that the structural weight decreases sharply at the beginning while tardily near
the optimum. Two solutions may be gained before 20 generations.
Table 4 and 5 show optimization results that present work is compared with previous
results. Present works show to very close to previous results. Truss russ structure with
optimum pretension is efficiency to decrease weight about 37% in comparison to
without pretension. Ratio of stress over allowable stress is provided
rovided in Table 6. It shows
that element stresses of truss with pretension are closed to allowable stress more than
without pretension.
Table 4: Optimal design without pretension

Levy[8] Present work
Elements
lements
Force(lb) Force(lb)
1 2871 2899
2 4785 4797
3 -4426 -4426
4 -1914 -1903
5 479 481
6 -239 -238
7 1196 1199
8 -1077 -1060
9 1436 1447
10 -598 -598
11 718 722
12 -1436 -1429
Cross
ross section 0.2213 in2 0.22131 in2
Volume 860.4 in3 860.5 in3
Table 5:: Optimal design with pretension

pretension(1 design variable of cross section)
Levy[8] Present work
Elements
Force(lb) Pretension(lb) Force(lb) Pretension(lb)
1 5583 0 5578 0
2 4785 0 4798 0
3 -2791
2791 0 -2797 0
4 798 0 761 0
5 1595 4982 1591 4975
6 --798 0 -793 0
7 399 0 428 0
8 --798 0 -784 0
9 2791 12756 2781 12583
10 -2791
2791 0 -2789 0
11 -1196
1196 0 -1174 0
12 -2791
2791 0 -2749 0
Cross section 0.13955 in2 0.13987 in2
Volume 542.6 in3 543.4 in3
1557
Table 6: Ratio of stress over allowable stress

Without pretension With pretension
Element
σ/ σallowable σ/ σallowable
1 0.33 1.00
2 0.54 0.86
3 -1.00 -1.00
4 -0.43 0.14
5 0.05 0.28
6 -0.54 -0.28
7 0.14 0.08
8 -0.24 -0.28
9 0.16 0.50
10 -0.14 -1.00
11 0.08 -0.42
12 -0.32 -0.98
2.2.2 3 design variables of cross section
The data for seventy two bar truss is given in Table 7. Inn the sizing and pretension
optimization of trusses, cross sectional areas and pretension of members are considered
as design variables and the coordinates of the nodes and connectivity among various
Table 7:Data
Data for design of the seventy two bar truss(3 design variabless of cross section)
Design variables
Cross section variables : A1=A7; A2=A4=A5=A9=A11=A12; A3=A6=A8=A10
Pretension variables : T5; T9
Objective functions
72
f ( x) = å Ai × li
i =1
Constraint data
Stress constraints
(s y )c £ 20ksi
(s y )t £ 40ksi
0.01in 2 £ Ai £ 1.00in 2
Value
alue of pretension constraints
0lb £ Ai £ 15000lb
Material properties
Young’s modulus E = 16 ´ 103 ksi
1558
members are considered to be fixed. Cross sections of elements

ements are considered as 3
design variable and the case studies are solved for minimum weight of truss structures
without and with pretension. 5 and 9 of elements are considered as different design
variables of pretension. Figure 6 shows history of optimizationation with respect to the
seventy two bar truss. It can be seen that the structural weight decreases sharply at the
beginning while tardily near the optimum. History istory of optimization which is truss
without pretension shows convergence within 30 generations. However,
owever, the other need
to 80 generations for converged weight.
(a) Without pretension (b) With pretension

Fig 6:: History of optimization with respect to the seventy two bar truss
(3 design variables of cross section)
Table 8:: Optimal design with and without pretension

Elements
Force(lb) Force(lb) Pretension(lb)
1 2428 3341 0
2 4798 4798 0
3 -4797 -3335 0
4 -2359 -1415 0
5 -66 3824 11254
6 37 -1893 0
7 1157 2620 0
8 -1148 -199 0
9 1222 1667 4058
10 48 -3322 0
11 1234 -1186 0
12 -1186 -1651 0
A1 0.06200 in2 0.08361 in2
Cross section A2 0.23988 in2 0.16680 in2
A3 0.12012 in2 0.12008 in2
Volume 584.6 in3 503.5 in3
1559
Table 9:: Ratio of stress over allowable stress

Element
σ/ σallowable σ/ σallowable
1 0.87 1.00
2 1.00 1.00
3 -1.00 -1.00
4 -0.98 -0.59
5 -0.01 0.80
6 -0.01 -0.57
7 0.47 0.78
8 -0.24 -0.06
9 0.25 0.35
10 0.01 -1.00
11 0.26 -0.25
12 -0.49 -0.69
Table 8 shows optimization results of truss structures with and without pretension.
Because of increased design variable of cross section, optimal design without pretension
is seen a large effect to reduce weight. Truss russ structure with optimal pretension is
efficiency to decrease weight about 14% in comparison to without pretension.
Furthermore,
urthermore, optimum pretension, wh when truss is considered as 3 design variables of
cross section, is different the other case that is considered to 1 design variable of cross
section. Ratio of stress over allowable stress is provided in Table 9. It shows that
element stresses of truss with pretension are closed to allowable stress more than
without pretension.
3 Conclusion
This study iss developed optimal design of truss by using micro genetic algorithm
algorithm(μ-GA)
which is optimization technique. Micro icro genetic algorithm has a merit not to need
mathematics knowledge for optimum design of structures
structures, and it can be applied to
analysis program of structure. Features of the proposed method, ten bar and seventy two
bar truss are demonstrated by solving a problem. From the example ple of seventy two bar,
micro genetic algorithm is found the optimum pretension and cross section.
Pretensioned
retensioned truss efficiently permits to reduce weight of structure than truss without
pretension. Furthermore, increased design variable of cross section is seen a large effect
to reduce weight. Therefore,
herefore, tthe examples studied in this paper for optimization the
efficiency of the present method.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by a grant(code#06 R&D B03) from Cutting
Cutting-edge
edge Urban Development
Program funded by the Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime Affairs of Korean gov
government.
1560
References
[1] Goldberg D.E, Sizing Populations for Serial and Parallel Genetic Algorithms,
Proceeding 3rd International Conference on Genetic Algorithms and Their
Application, Arlington, VA, pp.70
pp.70-79, 1989.
[2] Goldberg D.E, Genetic Algorithms in search, Optimization and machine Learning,
Addison-Wesley,
Wesley, 1989.
[3] Jenkins W.M, Structural Optimization with the Genetic Algorithm, The Structural
Engineer, Vol. 69. No.24, pp.419
pp.419-422, 1991.
[4] Kaveh A and Kalatjari V, Size/geometry Optimization of Trusses by The Force
Method and Genetic Algorithm, ZAMM ZAMM-Journal
Journal of Allpied Mathematics and
Mechanics, Vol. 84, No.5, pp.347
pp.347-357, 2004.
[5] Yeontae Kim, Optimum Design of Truss Structures with Pretension Considering
Buckling Constraint, Korean society of steel constructio
construction,
n, Vol.22, No.2, 2010
[6] Krishnakumar K, Micro
Micro-genetic
genetic Algorithm for Stationary and Non Non-stationary
Function Optimization, SPIE, Intelligent Control and Adaptive Systems, Vol.11,
No.96, pp.282-296,
296, 1989
[7] Raphael T.Haftka and Zafer Gurdal, Elements of Structural Optimization, Kluwer
Academic Publishers, 1992.
[8] Levy R and Hanaor A, Optimal Design of Prestressed Truss. Computers &
Structures Vol.43, No.4, pp.741
pp.741-744, 1992.
1561
Optimal Design of Spatial Steel Truss Structure using

Topology Optimization of Unit Structural Model
Hosoo KIM 1*, Youngsin PARK 2 , Myungkyu YANG 2, Minho LEE 2
1
* Professor, Department of Architectural Engineering, Cheongju University
586 Daesungro, Sangdang Gu, Cheongju 360-764, Korea
hskim@cju.ac.kr
2
Graduate Student, Department of Architectural Engineering, Cheongju University
Abstract
Recently, it is very important to find out the optimal initial shape for the
efficient design of spatial steel truss structure which is one of spatial structures. But,
most initial designs for spatial structures are performed by designer’s intuition and
previous experiences instead of the application of the various optimization schemes.
Also, much efforts are required in the optimization of the whole structure. Thus, the
reasonable and economical optimization techniques are needed to perform the optimal
design of structural system. For these reasons, we present the optimal design of spatial
steel truss structure using the topology optimization of unit structural model. To this end,
we design the unit structure as the application initial model. Also, we perform the
topology optimization for the unit structural model by considering the reasonable
boundary conditions, and then expand the optimal layout of unit structural model to the
whole structure which adopts the member grouping. Finally, the size optimization for
the whole structure combined with several unit structural models is performed to find
out the final optimal shape of spatial steel truss structure.
Keywords: Topology optimization, Spatial steel structure, Unit structural model, Initial
optimal shape
1 Introduction
Today, the initial shape design of spatial steel truss structures requires the reasonable
structural optimization methods to design the optimal weight and economical structure.
Therefore, this study presents a shape design process of spatial steel truss structures
using topology and size optimization. Topology optimization is a method used widely in
the initial phase of design. Using topology optimization in the shape design of structures
enables us to avoid previously many problems that can occur later in the design process.
Also, topology optimization assists the designer in the selection of optimal initial
structural topology by redistributing the material of design domain. In this study, the
topology optimization method is applied to optimize the unit structural models of spatial
steel truss structures. And, the initial optimal layout of whole structure can be decided
through the expanding process of unit models by the several steps of topology
optimization. Also, this study additionally decides the optimal weight of the whole
1562
structure by performing the size optimization for the shape results of topology
optimization.
2 Structural Optimization
2.1 Topology optimization
Topology optimization can be formulated as material distribution problem that
optimally distributes the material over a fixed design domain that subjected to given
constraints and objective function. The general topology optimization problem is
depicted in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1: General topology optimization problem
Also, we use the SIMP(Solid Isotropic Material with Penalization) material model, and
the density(x) of each element affects the stiffness of the element as in Eq.(1).
K e  ( xe ) p K 0 (1)
where K e is the local element stiffness matrix, x e is the density of each element(design
variable), K 0 is the local stiffness matrix of an element with a relative density(solid
element), and p is a penalty factor to prevent intermediate densities(p>1). Topology
optimization problem to minimize the compliance of the structure while it is subjected
to a limited amount of material in the design domain can be written as
n
Minimize : c( x)   (u e )T K eu e
e=1
n
  ( xe ) p (u e )T K 0u e
e=1
(2)
V ( x)
Subject to :  f
V0
1563
F  Ku
0  xmin  x  xmax
where c is the compliance(objective function), n is the number of elements, u e is the

displacement vector of element, V(x) is the material volume, V0 is the design domain
volume, f is the volume fraction. The values of x e are allowed to vary between xmin and
xmax  1 .
2.2 Size optimization

Size optimization method is the traditional and common tools. Generally, the purpose of
size optimization is to design the optimal weight of structures. In this study, the design
variable is cross-sectional area of member and cross-sectional shape is maintained as the
initial shape during the optimum design process. The size optimization problem to
minimize the total weight of structure subjected to stress and displacement constraints
can be written as
n
Minimize : w    e e
e=1
(3)
Subject to :  e ( x)   a (e=1,2,…,n)
 j   ju (j=1,2,…,d)
x v L  x v  x vU (v=1,2,…,m)
where  e is a density coefficient of member e ,  e is the volume of member e and n

is the number of members.  e ( x) is the constraint stress, and  a is the allowable stress.
 j is the displacement of node j and  ju is the displacement constraint value. x v L and
x vU are the minimum and maximum constraint values of design variables and m is the
number of groups. During the process of size optimization, the displacements of all
nodes should not exceed the target displacement.
3 Procedure of initial shape decision

3.1 Unit structural model
This study uses the unit structural model for the optimal shape design of whole structure.
The unit structural model has two dimensional design domain to perform topology
1564
optimization. And, the topology optimization result for the unit structural model is
expanded as the whole structure as shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2: Unit & whole structural model
3.2 Initial shape design process

For the shape design of the spatial steel truss structures, this study presents the process
using topology optimization of unit structural model as Fig. 3.
Fig. 3: Initial shape design process
The first step shows the definition of the design domain and finds out the optimal
material distribution. The second step shows topology layout interpretation. By
interpreting such topology layout, the designer can obtain the shape design of the
structure. And then, an additional size optimization is performed to obtain optimal
sectional area. At the end step of the process, designer can obtain the optimal shape of
the structure.
1565
4 Application example
4.1 Topology optimization for unit structural model
In this study, arch steel truss structure is selected as an example model. The unit
structural model is defined as the design domain to perform topology optimization. The
definitions of design domain include boundary conditions, domain size and load
location. The design domain of topology optimization for designing a unit structural
model is illustrated in Fig. 4. Also, the material properties of a unit structural model has
Young’s modulus E  210 GPa and the Poisson ratio   0.3 . According to the above
definitions of design domain, the result of topology optimization is shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 4: Design domain of a unit structural Fig. 5: Result shape of topology

model optimization
4.2 Topology layout interpretation

An arch truss design is performed based on result shape of topology optimization. The
outline design is performed to catch the basic outline as shown in Fig. 6(a), and then it
is designed with the truss system as shown in Fig. 6(b). Also, the unit structural model
designed as a truss system is expanded as the whole structure as Fig. 7.
(a) Outline design (b) Truss design
Fig. 6: Topology layout
1566
Fig. 7: Whole structure layout
4.3 Size optimization

The purpose of size optimization is to determine the optimal cross-sectional area of the
members. The global structure model of arch type for the size optimization is shown in
Fig. 8. In this study, the size optimization problem is to minimize the weight with
constraints on the value of some displacement and member stresses. Also, models based
on groups of members are divided into two cases. First case is no group of members.
And, in the second case, members are divided into three groups: chords(Group 1),
members(Group 2), braces(Group 3). The top chord joints of truss are subjected to
vertical loads of 100 kN. The results of size optimization are shown in Table 1. CASE 2
model with three groups of members shows the reduced weight, compared with CASE 1
model with no groups of members.
Fig. 8: Model of size optimization
Also, the weights according to iteration process are stably converged to optimal value as
shown in Fig. 9. And, Fig. 10 shows the optimal shape of the arch truss structure.
1567
Table 1: Results of optimal design

Model Member Size Displacement Maximum Optimum
(mm) (mm) Stress Ratio Weight( kN )
CASE 1 Group  238.0 9.7 1.0 98.69

1 x 4.5
Group  262.0
1 x 5.0
CASE 2 Group  65.5 9.9 1.0 58.70

2 x 2.6
Group  85.5
3 x 3.4
Fig. 9: Optimal weight history Fig. 10: Optimal initial shape
5 Conclusions
This study presents the shape design process of steel truss structure using topology
optimization of unit structural model. To this end, the optimal layout of whole structure
can be obtained through the several steps for topology optimization process of unit
model. Also, the additional size optimization is performed to give the optimal weight
design. Especially, an arch truss structure is considered as an application model, and the
reasonable member grouping is applied for the efficient optimal design. Therefore,
design process presented in this study can provide the useful information for the
practical application of optimization techniques in the initial design of spatial structures.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by a grant (code#06 R&D B03) from Cutting-edge Urban
Development Program funded by the Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime Affairs
of Korean government.
1568
References
[1] Hassani, B. and Hinton, E. Homogenization and structural topology optimization :
theory, practice and software. Springer, 1999
[2] Bendsøe, M. P. and Sigmund, O. Topology optimization: theory, methods and
applications(2nd edn.). Springer, 2003
[3] Kirsch, U, Reduced Basis Approximations of Structural Displacements for Optimal
Design, AIAA Journal, Vol. 29, 1991
[4] Sigmund, O. A 99 line topology optimization code written in MATLAB, Structural
and Multidisciplinary Optimization, 2001; 21(2): 120-127
[5] Bendsøe, M. P. and Sigmund, O. Material interpolations in topology optimization
Archive of Applied Mechanics, 1999; 69: 635-654
1569
Geometric Multi-objective Optimization of Free-form Grid

Shell Structures
Francisco PANTANO1*, David CAMPBELL2, Hiroki TAMAI 3
1*
Geiger Engineers
2 Executive Boulevard, Suite 410 – Suffern – New York
fpr@geigerengineers.com
2
Geiger Engineers
dmc@geigerengineers.com
Abstract
This paper explains a design optimization methodology for the development of
free-form grid shells structures that facilitates the design process aimed at freeing
designers to concentrate more on the possibilities of this kind of solutions than on the
limitations of satisfying the constraints.
The method presented is employed to achieve defined optimums in finding grid
geometries for a given free form surface forms.
The optimization engine works under a given free-form 3d surface, also a given grid
topology, and finds one optimum solution according to the criteria that are formulated
in the multi objectives functions. The solution grid geometry fits exactly with the given
surface.
With this method presented it is not only possible to optimize technical parameters of
the grid geometry (lengths, angles, etc), it is also of value in achieving aesthetic goals in
grid definition that allow this structural type to reach their intended appeal.
Keywords: grid shells, multi objective optimization, free form surface, structural
optimization, form finding, optimization algorithms
1570
1 Introduction
The grid shell structures are becoming every day very attractive to the architectural
world as their elegance and possibilities inspire the creative activity to reach goals that
were not possible to imagine few years ago.
As the intention of the creative is to reach more complex designs as the experience on
this typology is growing, and the design software tools available today are becoming
more flexible and easy to interact with them, the effort to find the solution of the
engineering problem is being loaded with so many parameters that new tools have to be
develop to achieve a successful result.
2 The problem
Grid shell structures are composed by multiples linear elements connected between each
other in a way that all of them are included in a 3d surface. As this surfaces are
becoming less regular, the linear elements that creates the grid shell are much more
heterogeneous.
It is clear that it is needed to accept this situation as a consequence of this structural
typology.
Once we have this clear by default, the next question that is placed on the table is if it is
possible to reduce the heterogeneity and find a good compromise between aesthetic
impact and construction effort.
2.1 Optimizing
This problem is not the first time that is addressed in the scientific world. There are
other disciplines that have done a lot of research on finding optimum solutions to very
complex problems.
As the aim of this paper is not to discuss about optimization methods. The work will be
focused on how to apply an optimization criteria to the problem of the free form 3d grid
shell structures.
This method works with a given 3d free form surface, a given grid topology and will
optimize the grid geometry to find the optimum for all nodes of the grid. This means
that the solver engine will work in a multi-objective optimization process where the
objective functions of the nodes are considered as part of a global objective function.
For the present work it has been defined two set of nodal objective functions:
1. For Same Length between elements
2. For Same Angle between elements
2.1.1 Same Length Objective Function
The way it is formulated the objective function to reach the same length solution is
based in the sum of the square of the difference between the average length of all of the
elements that meet in a single node and the length of each element.
1571

n
aL l 1 i
n
sl 
oF i
 1l aL
n
 2
2.1.2 Same Angle Objective Function
The way it is formulated the objective function to reach the same angle solution is based
in the sum of the square of the difference between the division of 360ºin the numbers of
elements that meet in a single node and the angle between one element in relationship
with the neighbour.
aA360
º
n
sa
oF
n
1A
i 
i1
aA  2
i 1
* Ai = angle between element i and i+1
2.1.3 Multi-objective Functions
The multi-objective optimization problem presented here has two components:

1. Conflict in optimizing each single node for a Same Length, Same Angle or a
combination of both.
2. Conflict in optimizing the objectives functions of all nodes.
The way it is managed the first of these problem is using the weight criteria as we
ponder one respect to the other and we get a Combined Objective function that reduce

the multi-objective problem to one single function.
coF 
node

sl oF 
sl sa oF sa
As it is well known, this way of combining objective functions have the difficulty on
well estimate the right weight coefficients to balance the magnitude of all different kind
of objective functions.
For the second situation, as explained previously, the solver is programmed in a way
that optimize all Combined Objective Functions of each node as part of a Global
Objective Function that is the consequence of the sum of all single Combined Objective
Functions of the node.

n
goF  1coF node
_i
1572
3 The solution
In this part we will focus our work in explain the problem in a practical way. It has been
created some reduced 2D example showing step by step the actions in this process.
3.1 One node solution

Here we will work with a problem of four nodes and three elements in 2D. The
coordinates of nodes from 1 to 3 are fixed and only the node 4 is free to move. This
means that the parameters for this optimization problem will be the coordinates X and Y
of node 4.
The coordinates of nodes 1 to 3 are specified in a way that the solutions will be very
intuitive to be checked.
Table 1: Nodes coordinates
Node X Y
n1 0.0 0.0
n2 2.0 0.0
n3 1.0 1.0
n4 0.5 0.2
Fig. 1: Grid Topology for a single node

problem
Same Length Starting Case: Same Angle Starting Case:
Optimized:
Optimized:
1573
Table 2: Nodes coordinates Table 3: Nodes coordinates
Node X Y Node X Y
n4 1.0 0.0 n4 1.0 0.57735
Fig. 2: Grid Topology for a single node Fig. 3: Grid Topology for a single node
problem same length problem same angle
1574
3.1.1 Multi-objective solution for a single node

According to the previously described in chapter 2.1.3 case 1, we have to use the
Combined Objective Function:

coF
oF
oF node
sl  sl sa sa
With this approach, the difficulty is to decide the right weight coefficients that reach an
effective solution.
In the following graphics we can see the behaviour of the different Objective Functions
(vertical axe) in relationship with the Y coordinate (horizontal axe) of node 4.
Fig. 4: Same Length Objective Function Fig. 5: Same Angle Objective Function
respect n4 Y coordinate respect n4 Y coordinate
As seen in the plots above, we can understand that the different Objective Functions
have different scales.
We will need to rescale one of them to be able to balance the values in the Combines
Objective Function.
A value of 10000 as Scale Factor for the Same Length Objective Function gives a good
compromise as we can see that it will create a minimum in between of the minimums of
both Objective Functions..
α sl = 10000 ; α sa = 1.0
1575
Fig. 6: Combined Objective Function respect n4 Y coordinate
Same Length Starting Case: Same Angle Starting Case:
Optimized:
Optimized:
1576
Table 4: Nodes coordinates
Node X Y
Fig. 7: Grid Topology for a single node
n4 1.0 0.339 problem multi-objective solution
The plot of the previous problem is shown in the graphic below:
Fig. 8: Node 4 Y coordinate Multi-Objective Optimum Solution
1577
3.2 Multi-objective solution for multiple nodes

According to the previously described in chapter 2.1.3 case 2, we have to use the Global
Objective Function:

n

goFcoF 1 node
_i
Bellow the problem used to demonstrate the validation of the above concept:
1578
3.2.1 Optimized solution for same length problem:
3.2.2 Optimized solution for same angle problem:
1579
4 The solution in 3D attached on a free form surface

Until now we have shown the problem in a 2D plane.
The extended problem in a 3D free form surface is not much more complicated than
explained above for a 2D case. As a 3D surface is a function between three parameters
(X, Y, Z), we can reduce this to a two parameter problem just making a parametric
conversion of the surface function in the area close of each single node and since then
the problem will be reduced to only two parameters (U, V).
Fig.8: Normal and Tangent vectors on the surface
Fig.9: Parametric relationship on the surface
Once this process is done, we can proceed as shown previously and formulate the
objective functions using U and V as 2D parameters of the objective functions and find
their minimums.
f (x, y, z)  x(u, v) ; y (u, v) ; z (u, v)  f (u, v)
1580
References
[1] Jörg Schlaich. Conceptual Design of Light Structures. Journal of the International
Association for Shell and Spatial Structures 1996; 146:157-168.
[2] P. Basso, A. E. Del Grosso, A. Pugnale and M. Sassone. Computational
Morphogenesis in Architecture. Cost Optimization of Free-Form Grid Shells.
Journal of the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures 2009;
162:143-150.
1581
Optimization of a Deploying Pantograph Structure Using

Heuristic Algorithms
Ashley P. THRALL1*, Ignacio PAYÁ-ZAFORTEZA 2
1*
Graduate Student, Princeton University
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Engineering Quad, Princeton, NJ 08544 USA
athrall@princeton.edu
2
Assistant Professor, Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología del Hormigón (ICITECH)
Departamento de Ingeniería de la Construcción y Proyectos de Ingeniería Civil
Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
Visiting Professor, Princeton University
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Abstract
Section profiles for steel structures are typically selected by the engineer through
a trial and error process. This method leads to safe designs, but the quality of the final
solution and the amount of time required to obtain it depend largely on the experience
of the engineer. This design process becomes more arduous for deployable structures
which require analysis throughout deployment. An alternative approach is offered by
optimization methods. Heuristics or metaheuristics such as Genetic Algorithms or
Simulated Annealing offer an intuitive approach to design and are capable of handling
the complicated constraints dictated by design codes. This paper explores the
application of two heuristic algorithms, First Best Gradient (FBG) and Simulated
Annealing (SA), to the minimization of the weight of a deploying pantograph structure
subject to the constraints that each member meets American design code. The
methodology presented here could easily be applied to a more complicated structure.
This problem has six design variables representing the section profiles of the elements
of the pantograph which are taken from the American Institute of Steel Construction
HSS Circular Tube profile tables. Structural analysis of a possible solution of the
problem is performed using a two-dimensional, frame analysis that calculates internal
forces in each member as the system deploys and checks its feasibility. The comparison
of single lowest runs provided by FBG and SA shows that both methods can find the
same optimal solution with a weight of 3.04kN and a hand analysis confirmed its high
quality. These results show the capability of both algorithms to easily perform the
profile optimization for deploying structures.
Keywords: Optimization, Heuristic Algorithms, Simulated Annealing, Deploying

Structure
1582
1 Introduction
The traditional approach to the structural design of bridges and buildings is based on a
trial and error process which leads to safe designs but that has one important drawback:
the quality of the final solution and the amount of time required to obtain it depend
largely on the experience of the engineer that performs the analysis. This process
becomes more complicated in the design of deployable structures which must be
analyzed at each stage of deployment. An alternative approach is offered by
optimization methods. These methods can be classified into two broad groups: 1) exact
methods such as linear and non linear programming (see Hernández and Fontan, 2002
[1]), and 2) heuristics or metaheuristics such as Genetic Algorithms or Simulated
Annealing (see Dreo et al., 2006 [2]). Heuristics emulate strategies used by nature
and/or artificial intelligence, and have been recently used with great success to solve
complex mono and multiobjective optimization problems related to both steel and
concrete structures (see e.g., Ali et al. [3]; Payá-Zaforteza et al. [4]; Payá et al. [5]).
Though these methods cannot guarantee a global minimum, they are intuitive and
capable of handling the complex constraints found in modern design codes.
This paper explores the application of two heuristic algorithms, First Best Gradient
(FBG – see Yepes, 2002 [6]) and Simulated Annealing (SA – Kirkpatrick et al., 1983
[7]), to the profile optimization of a deploying pantograph structure (Figure 1). Here the
objective function is to minimize the self-weight of the structure subject to the
constraints of meeting American design code [8]. Profiles for each member are selected
from a database of HSS tube sections from the American Institute of Steel Construction
(AISC) [9]. Each profile in the database is numbered, and this number represents all of
the associated section geometric and mechanical properties. The profile numbers for
each element are therefore taken as the design variables. This research first involved
developing an evaluation module that computes the weight of one possible solution and
checks that each member meets the design code for axial force, bending, and shear.
FBG and SA are then used to explore the solution space in the search for the optimal
solution. It is worthy to notice that (a) the minimum weight objective function was
selected to coincide with the ethos of the engineer – not to waste material and (b) the
same methodology could be applied to other objective functions and other constraints.
A pantograph was selected as the case study for this research since it is the key element
of many deployable structures. A pantograph is a four-bar linkage which, unless
restrained, can deploy as shown in Figure 1. Linked together these elements can form
deployable roof structures such as the movable theater built by Emilio Pérez Piñero in
1961 (see Figure 2) [10]. Such structures are classified as manually locking deployable
structures, meaning that they are mechanisms unless additional members or restraints
are added to make the system stable. Two pin restraints are used in this case study to
represent the manual locking of the pantograph. This type of deployable structure is
stress-free at all stages of deployment except for its self-weight and other environmental
loads such as wind. Alternatively other self-locking, snap-through deployable structures
are stress-free in the final configuration (except for self-weight), but are geometrically
nonlinear during deployment [11]. This research will focus only on manually locking
deployable structures. See Gantes 2001 for a full review of deployable structures [11].
1583
Figure 1: Case Study of Pantograph Deploying

(red numbers indicate element numbers).
Figure 2: Piñero’s Movable Theater. Image courtesy of Piñero 1962 [10]
2 Problem formulation and optimization procedures

2.1 Problem formulation
This paper studies the minimization of the self-weight W of a steel structure (see Eq. 1)
while satisfying the constraints given by the expression (2):
nel
W   A i Li (1)
i 1
gj 0 (2)
In Eq. 1 ρ is the density of steel and Ai and Li represent, respectively, the cross-sectional
area and length of each of the nel elements of the structure. In this study, the section
profiles are the design variables. The lengths of the elements and geometry of
deployment are parameters that remain constant throughout the optimization process.
Constraints in Eq. 2 relate to the requirements of the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Load and Resistance Factor Design
1584
(LRFD) Bridge Design Specifications [8]. More specifically each member is checked
for axial, shear, and bending capacity under self-weight (with a load factor of 1.25).
This includes slenderness constraints, limits for local buckling, compressive stress
capacity based on buckling, and checks for combined bending and axial load.
Sections 2.2 and 2.3 contain a general description of the two heuristic algorithms. FBG
and SA are later applied to solve the optimization problem.
2.2 First Best Gradient
The First Best Gradient is an algorithm that starts by creating an initial feasible solution
of the problem, S0. For this case study, So represents a 6 element vector in which each
number is associated with the section profile of the corresponding element. These
profiles are selected from a tabulated list of 128 AISC13th Edition Steel Construction
Manual HSS Circular Tube profiles [9] which are ordered by decreasing radius of
gyration. The algorithm finds a new current solution S1 by making a small random move
of the variables of S0. For this study, a random movement means selecting a section
profile with either a higher or lower radius of gyration than the current section. The
user selects the maximum number of variables (v) to be moved and the maximum
amount of permitted movement up or down the table of sections (pm). The algorithm
randomly selects the actual number of variables to be moved (which can range from 1 to
v) and the actual amount of movement (which can range from 1 to pm, either up or
down). The new current solution is evaluated in terms of weight. If W(S1)< W(S0) then
S1 is checked against structural constraints, and if it is feasible, it is adopted as the new
working solution (S1 becomes a new S0). The algorithm stops when S0 is not improved
after a certain amount of iterations (it) which is defined by the user.
2.3 Simulated Annealing
The SA algorithm was proposed by Kirpatrick, Gelatt and Vecchi in 1983 and is based
on the analogy of crystal formation from masses melted at high temperature and then let
cool slowly [7]. At high temperatures, configurations of greater energy than previous
ones may randomly form, but, as the mass cools, the probability of higher energy
configurations forming decreases. The process is governed by the Boltzmann expression
exp(-ΔE/T), where ΔE is the increment of energy of the new configuration and T is the
temperature. The algorithm starts with a feasible solution randomly generated S0 (as in
the case of FBG) and a high initial temperature. Like FBG, the initial working solution
is changed by a small random move of the values of the variables. The new current
solution, S1, is evaluated in terms of weight. Unlike FBG, the SA algorithm permits the
acceptance of greater weight solutions when a 0 to 1 random number is smaller than the
expression exp(-ΔE/T), where ΔE is the weight increment and T is the current
temperature. The current solution S1 is then checked against structural constraints and if
it is feasible, it is adopted as the new working solution (S1 becomes a new S0). The
initial temperature is decreased geometrically (Ti+1=rTi) by means of a coefficient of
cooling r. A number of iterations (m) called a Markov chain is allowed at each step of
temperature. The algorithm stops when the temperature is a small percentage of the
1585
initial temperature or when there are no improvements in a number of Markov chains (n)
(typically 1% and 1-2 Markov chains). This research only considers the latter stopping
criteria. The SA method is capable of surpassing local optima at high-medium
temperatures and gradually converges as the temperature reduces to zero. The SA
method requires calibration of the initial temperature and the user must define the length
of the Markov chains, the cooling coefficient, and the stop criterion. The initial
temperature is usually adjusted following different methods like the one proposed by
Medina [12], which consists of choosing an initial value and checking whether the
percentage of acceptances of higher energy solutions is between 20-40 percent. If the
percentage is greater than 40%, the initial temperature is halved; and if it is smaller than
20%, the initial temperature is doubled.
3 Optimization of a deploying pantograph of six elements

3.1 Introduction.
The example studied in this paper relates to the deploying pantograph of Figure 1. This
case study has six design variables representing the section profiles of the elements of
the pantograph (numbered in red in Figure 1) which are taken from a list of 128 AISC
HSS Circular Tube profiles [6]. The steel yield strength is 414 MPa and its Young’s
Modulus is 200,000 MPa. The case study is loaded under self-weight only. Two pin
connections act as restraints on either side of the structure and one pin is assumed to
move to permit a deployment of the structure from 10m to 20m. Each member is
assumed to act like a beam-column, subject to axial force, shear, and bending.
Members 1 and 2 form one continuous beam (hereafter referred to as 1-2), as do
Member 3 and 4 (hereafter referred to as 3-4). Neglecting symmetry, this case study
has 1286 or 4.4x1012 possible solutions which justifies the use of optimization
algorithms as it would be computationally too expensive to perform an exhaustive
exploration of the solution space.
Structural analysis of a possible solution is performed using a two-dimensional, linear
elastic frame analysis program that calculates internal forces in each member as the
system deploys. The deployment is divided into a discrete number of stages as
requested by the user. The coordinates of each joint are calculated for each stage based
on a geometric parameterization of the specified deployment. The direct stiffness
method of analysis is used. At each stage, the global stiffness matrix is calculated based
on the specified section properties and the nodal coordinates at that stage. The effects
of shear deformation are included. The nodal displacements at each stage are found by
simply inverting the global stiffness matrix and multiplying it by the specified forces on
the system. Based on these results, the nodal reactions and internal forces are calculated
at each stage of deployment [13]. It is assumed that the deployment occurs at a
sufficiently slow speed such that inertial effects can be ignored and quasi-static analyses
of the structure capture its behavior. The structure is assumed to be stress-free in all
stages of deployment, aside from stresses induced by self-weight and applied loads.
3.1 Numerical results and discussion.
1586
3.1.1 Hand analysis.

While it is computationally expensive to perform a complete exploration of the solution
space, symmetry and some simplifications can be employed to design the system by
hand. It is clear that the worst case loading scenario is when the system is fully
deployed (the right diagram of Figure 1), so all other stages can be ignored. By
symmetry, the right half the structure can be removed and replaced by a roller at the
joint between members 2 and 3 (see Figure 3). Members 5 and 6 are tensile members
that only load Members 1-2 and 3-4. Therefore, they should be designed with the
smallest possible cross-sectional area while still meeting slenderness requirements for
tensile members (HSS 3.5 x .125). Then in a hand analysis, the self-weight of these
members can be applied as horizontal and vertical point loads on beam 1-2 (as shown in
Figure 3). Governed by slenderness requirements for compressive members, Members
1 and 2 (and by symmetry 3 and 4) are HSS 5.563 x .134. The total self-weight of the
system is 3.04kN. These results will be used to confirm the results of our optimization
studies. While it is trivial to design the members of this case study, with a more
complicated structure the advantages of heuristic algorithms are clear.
3.1.2 First Best Gradient and Simulated Annealing.

Both the FBG and SA algorithms were used to optimize the case study shown in Figure
1. All results were run on a personal computer with an Intel(R) Core(TM)2 Duo CPU
T8100 Processor at 2.10GHz using MATLAB [14].
For both FBG and SA, the user must select a variety of parameters (for example: v, pm,
it, r, etc). By the very nature of heuristics, each “run” of an algorithm with the same
parameters may yield a different final result. For the purpose of this research, ten runs
are performed for each combination of parameters of the tested algorithm to obtain
results that are statistically representative. Other researchers have proposed more
complex methodologies to obtain the minimum number of computer runs based for
example on the use of the Weibull distribution function (see Paya-Zaforteza et al., 2010
[15]) or the Student’s t-distribution function (see Martínez et al., 2010 [16]).
Figure 3: Simplification for Hand Analysis (red numbers indicate element numbers)
First, the FBG algorithm was used to find the lowest weight solution in the least amount
of time. A variety of parameters were tested, including various combinations of the
number of variables to be moved (v), the maximum amount of movement up or down
the list of profile sections (pm), and the number of iterations until convergence (it). See
Table 1 for a detailed list of the parameters, for the minimum weight of the runs and its
associated time, the average weight, average time, and the sample standard deviation
(σW). Figure 4 shows a plot of the Pareto-Optimal solutions for the average weight of
each combination of parameters and the lowest weight solution of each combination. In
1587
the graph of weight versus CPU time, a solution is said to Pareto-Optimal when there is
no other solution overshadowing it in this graph. This implies that no other solution
found by the algorithm was able to find a better solution of the problem (smaller W)
using a smaller CPU time. The black line indicates the weight of the hand design found
in Section 3.1.1. For all 10 runs of some of the combinations of parameters, the FBG
algorithm found the same solution as the hand design (meaning zero sample standard
deviation). These combinations are: FBG 4, 5, 7, and 13. FBG 11 found the same
solution as the hand design for nearly all of the runs and therefore has a very small
sample standard deviation. On average, FBG 4, 5, 11 and 13 took the least amount of
time to find the hand design - approximately 6 seconds of CPU time. FBG 11 found
this solution with the least amount of time: 4.8 seconds. Overall, the FBG algorithm
was able to find the lowest weight solution consistently and in a short period of time.
Table 1: Results of First Best Gradient Runs.
Name v pm it Minimum Time for Average Average σW
W (kN) Min. W W (kN) Time (s) (kN)
(s)
FBG 1 1 5 1000 4.83 0.84 5.90 1.68 1.16
FBG 2 1 5 5000 4.65 3.44 5.96 3.14 0.75
FBG 3 1 5 10000 3.85 5.16 5.69 5.44 0.99
FBG 4 1 10 1000 3.04 5.37 3.04 6.21 0
FBG 5 1 10 5000 3.04 15.20 3.04 17.27 0
FBG 6 1 15 100 3.15 2.61 3.28 2.25 0.08
FBG 7 1 15 1000 3.04 5.53 3.04 6.72 0
FBG 8 2 5 1000 3.90 1.20 5.17 1.58 0.86
FBG 9 2 5 5000 3.72 3.70 6.45 3.78 3.11
FBG 10 2 5 10000 3.56 5.80 5.29 6.43 0.88
FBG 11 2 10 1000 3.04 4.24 3.04 6.34 0.02
FBG 12 2 15 100 3.34 2.27 3.82 1.89 0.38
FBG 13 2 15 1000 3.04 4.77 3.04 6.25 0
Figure 4: Comparing First Best Gradient Results. The left graph shows the average
results from 10 runs. The right graph shows the lowest weight of 10 runs and its
associated time. Only the Pareto-Optimal solutions are shown.
1588
A similar study was then made using the SA algorithm. Based on the results of the FBG
study, the 4 combinations of parameters that consistently produced the hand design (v=1
pm=10; v=1 pm=15; v=2 pm=10; v=2 pm=15) were used for the SA study. Various
values of r, the length of the Markov chain (m), and the number of Markov chains until
convergence (n) were then selected. See Table 2 for a detailed list of the parameters, for
the minimum weight of the runs and its associated time, the average weight, average
time, and the sample standard deviation. See Figure 5 for plots of the average and
lowest weight results from 10 runs. Overall, the SA algorithm was far less consistent in
finding the hand design result in the same amount of time as the FBG algorithm. As
shown from the lowest weight plot of Figure 5, the SA algorithm was able to find the
hand design in some instances. However, the lowest time for this occurred with SA 10
at a time of 12.54 seconds. This is roughly 3 times longer than the best result from the
FBG algorithm. Though this combination yields good results in one run, when
averaged across 10 runs it results in one of the highest average weights. None of the SA
combinations were able to find the hand results consistently with a sample standard
deviation of zero. The combination for SA 7 was selected as an experimentation with
longer Markov chains (m) and more Markov chains (n). Though this combination found
the hand design more consistently than any of the other SA runs, some runs did not
converge to the hand solution and this combination took much longer than all the other
SA combinations. Presumably with longer Markov chains and/or more Markov chains
until convergence, the SA algorithm would more consistently reach the hand design.
However, this would require far more CPU time than the FBG algorithm.
The longer length of time for the SA algorithm can be attributed to several factors,
including 1) the time to find an initial temperature which is not done in the FBG
algorithm, 2) the acceptance of higher weight solutions results in more iterations of the
frame analysis program than the FBG algorithm which does not permit these higher
weight solutions, and 3) the additional storing and comparing of results inherent in the
SA algorithm. While the SA algorithm was not as useful for this case study, it has
shown advantages over the FBG algorithm for more complicated studies where the FBG
algorithm may become trapped in local minimum (see e.g. [17]).
Table 2: Results of Simulated Annealing Runs.

Name v pm r m n Min. Time Ave. Ave. σW
W for W Time (kN)
(kN) Min. W (kN) (s)
(s)
SA 1 1 10 .8 100 2 3.04 14.10 4.10 10.96 0.82
SA 2 1 10 .9 100 2 3.55 12.00 4.35 10.41 0.85
SA 3 1 10 .8 500 1 3.17 46.97 3.74 31.73 0.43
SA 4 1 10 .9 500 1 3.14 44.99 3.95 28.36 0.54
SA 5 1 10 .8 500 2 3.04 24.50 3.40 44.09 0.43
SA 6 1 10 .9 500 2 3.16 39.79 3.73 41.19 0.48
SA 7 1 10 .8 2000 3 3.04 420.58 3.11 241.31 0.10
SA 8 1 15 .8 500 2 3.04 97.08 3.23 46.01 0.21
SA 9 1 15 .9 500 2 3.10 37.56 3.39 48.39 0.26
1589
SA 10 2 10 .8 100 2 3.04 12.54 4.72 8.40 1.42

SA 11 2 10 .9 100 2 3.68 7.50 4.74 9.81 1.36
SA 12 2 10 .8 500 1 3.22 25.96 3.67 26.99 0.33
SA 13 2 10 .9 500 1 3.38 32.60 4.07 25.61 0.51
SA 14 2 10 .8 500 2 3.04 36.98 3.77 37.48 0.53
SA 15 2 10 .9 500 2 3.14 84.96 3.71 51.01 0.52
SA 16 2 15 .8 500 2 3.04 50.39 3.49 42.02 0.35
SA 17 2 15 .9 500 2 3.27 43.69 3.86 43.32 0.42
Figure 5: Comparing Simulated Annealing Results. The left graph shows the average
results from 10 runs. The right graph shows the lowest weight of 10 runs and its
associated time. Only the Pareto-Optimal solutions are shown.
6 Conclusions
This study showed that the FBG and SA heuristic algorithms were able to find the same
solution as a hand design for a deployable pantograph case study. FBG was able to find
this result more quickly and consistently than the SA algorithm. However, presumably
for more complicated problems, the SA algorithm could provide advantages since it
permits a means of escaping a local minimum. Based on this research, FBG and SA are
simple and fast alternatives to hand design for the profile optimization of deployable
structures.
In the future, this research could be applied to the design of realistic structures, such as
deployable roofs. For such structures, additional loadings (such as live load,
temperature load, wind, etc) and service limit states (including deflection limits, etc)
would need to be considered. The flexibility of the FBG and SA algorithms could
easily include these additional loads and constraints.
1590
7 Acknowledgements
This material is based upon work supported under a National Science Foundation
Graduate Research Fellowship. Funding for this research has been provided to Mr.
Paya-Zaforteza by the Spanish Ministry of Education through its program for
postdoctoral stays (Contract No EX-2008-0669) and by the Junta de Comunidades de
Castilla La Mancha (Research Project PII2I09-0129-4085). The authors would also like
to thank professors Sigrid M. Adriaenssens, Maria E.M. Garlock, and David P.
Billington from Princeton University for their guidance on this project.
References
[1] Hernández S and Fontan A. Practical Applications of Design Optimization. WIT
Press, 2002.
[2] Dreo J, Petrowsky A, Siarry P, Taillard E, and Chatterjee A. Metaheuristics for
Hard Optimization. Methods and Case Studies. Springer, 2006.
[3] Ali, N, Sellami, M, Cutting-Decelle AF and Mangin JC. Multi-stage production
cost optimization of semi-rigid steel frames using genetic algorithms. Engineering
Structures 2009; 31(11): 2766-2778.
[4] Payá-Zaforteza, I, Yepes V, Hospitaler, A, and González-Vidosa, F. CO2-
optimization of reinforced concrete frames by simulated annealing. Engineering
Structures 2009; 31(7):1501-1508.
[5] Payá, I, Yepes, V, González-Vidosa, F, and Hospitaler, A. Multiobjective
optimization of concrete frames by simulated annealing. Computer-Aided Civil
and Infrastructure Engineering 2008; 23(8):596-610.
[6] Yepes, V. Economic Heuristic Optimization Applied to VRPTW Type
Transportation Networks. Doctoral Thesis, Dept. of Transportation Engineering,
Univ. Politécnica de Valencia, 2002. In Spanish.
[7] Kirkpatrick, S, Gelatt, CD, and Vecchi, MP. Optimization by simulated annealing.
Science 1983; 220 (4598): 671-680.
[8] American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. AASHTO
LRFD Bridge Design Specifications: Customary U.S. Units (4th edn). Washington,
D.C., 2007.
[9] American Institute of Steel Construction. Steel Construction Manual (13th edn).
Chicago, 2005.
[10] Piñero, E.P. Expandable Space Framing. Progressive Architecture. 1962; 43(6):
154-155
[11] Gantes, C.J. Deployabe Structures: Analysis and Design. WIT Press, 2001.
[12] Medina J.R. Estimation of incident and reflected waves using Simulated Annealing.
ASCE Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering, 2001; 27(4):
213-221.
1591
[13] Prevost, J.H.P. CEE 361/MAE325/CEE 513 Lecture Notes/MATLAB Program.

Princeton University, 2007.
[14] MATLAB. Standard user’s manual. Version 7.8.0.347 (R2009A), USA, 2009.
[15] Payá-Zaforteza I, Yepes, V, González-Vidosa, F, and Hospitaler, A. On the
Weibull cost estimation of building frames designed by Simulated Annealing.
Meccanica 2010; doi 10.1007/s11012-010-9285-0.
[16] Martínez, F.J., González-Vidosa, F, Hospitaler, A., and Yepes, V. Heuristic
optimization of RC bridge piers with rectangular hollow sections. Computers and
Structures 2010; 88(5-6): 375-386.
[17] PayáI, Yepes V, Clemente J and González F. Optimización heurística de pórticos
de edificación de hormigón armado – Heuristic optimization of reinforced concrete
frames. Revista Internacional de Métodos Numéricos para Cálculo y Diseño en la
Ingeniería 2006; 22(3). In Spanish
1592
Elasto-Plastic Design Optimization on Truss Structure using

Genetic Algorithm
Huaguo Wang1*, Hiroshi Ohmori 2
1*
School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
Email Address: whg0515@gmail.com
2
School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
Abstract
Present research comes up with a scheme of elasto-plastic design optimization
for truss structure using Genetic Algorithm (GA). The purpose of proposed scheme is,
through the optimization method of GA, to explore a near optimal truss structure
capable of keeping structural-load-carrying capacity under load level of ordinary load
like dead load, live load etc., and simultaneously keeping from collapsing under load
level of accidental load caused by big earthquake, typhoon etc. A numerical example is
carried out to investigate and verify the propose scheme, in which a great decrease in
weight during GA evolution history is observed and results in a simple and light truss
structure with all required constraints being stratified. It implies that proposed scheme is
applied in success and of availability and reliability as a design supporting tool for truss
structural design.
Keywords: Genetic Algorithm, Truss Optimization, Elasto-plastic Analysis, Ground

Structure
1 Introduction
Truss structures are widely employed in the industrialized world. They appear as
bridges, towers, pylons, roof supports, building exoskeletons or high technology light
space structures [1]. Since truss structures have regular structural forms as well as sole
material, optimal design of truss structure has always been an active area of research in
the field of search and optimization in the past decades [2,3]. Recently researches
focusing on practical truss optimization using Genetic Algorithm have been carried out
by Kawamura et al [4,5]. However, research works accomplished by them are still
somewhat far from application to real truss structural design for that many design
requirements are needed for a practical truss, such as allowable stress, maximum nodal
displacement, no crossing members, on collision between truss members, etc, which are
usually dealt with as constraints when using the optimization method of Genetic
Algorithm.
Upon the base of design requirements above, this paper considers another item of
design requirements in the practical truss optimization scheme, that is, collapse load
capacity of truss structure. As is commonly known structural design procedure can be
conventionally divided in two design stages. At the first stage we have to insure
structure can keep its structural-load-carrying capacity under load level of ordinary load
1593
like dead load, live load or their combinations. On the other hand, at the second design
stage, we should prevent structure from collapsing in a sudden load case caused by
prohibitively big earthquake, or typhoon. In general, structure is expected to be
designed at its elastic state at the first design stage, usually using finite element method
(FEM) for structural calculation, and to be better to reach plastic state at the second
design stage, conventionally using the approach of incremental elasto-plastic analysis
method [6] to calculate the ultimate collapse load for frame structure. In this study,
incremental elasto-plastic analysis method is applied to truss structure to predict its
collapse load, and the obtained collapse load is imposed as a constraint in truss
optimization using Genetic Algorithm.
2 Incremental elasto-plastic analysis method for truss structure

The incremental elasto-plastic analysis method is based on the plastic hinge concept for
fully plastic cross sections in a structure under increasing proportional loading in frame
structure. It assumes that plastic hinge would occur if bending moment at a section
reaches plastic moment, and will maintain that value with bending moment increase in
other sections until the whole structure reaches a collapse mechanism. However, there is
no bending moment, only axial force, in truss structural members. Therefore, based on
the assumption of steel being an elastic-perfectly-plastic material, we suppose that a
‘plastic hinge’ would happen in truss structure when the axial stress of a member
bearing tension force reaches yield stress, or a member bearing compressive stress
reaches buckling force. Similarly, like the plastic hinge in frame structure, we also
assume that members in tension, or in compression, would maintain their ultimate stress
sate as forces increase in other members until the whole truss structure becomes
collapsed. As a result, the incremental elasto-plastic analysis method is therefore can be
used to predict collapse load of truss structure. Figure 1 shows the collapse process of a
plane truss with a comparison to process of occurence of plastic hinges in frame
structure.
Fig. 1: Application of incremental analysis method to truss structure.
1594
3 Genetic Algorithm
Genetic Algorithm, developed by John Holland [7] in 1975, is a particular class of
evolutionary algorithms (EA) that use techniques inspired by evolutionary biology such
as inheritance, mutation, selection, and crossover. In a certain sense, it represents a
parallel stochastic search, where design process simultaneously updates several
candidate designs such that average value of a measure of fitness of these designs is
improved. This is philosophically similar to a biological population evolving generation
by generation in such a manner that it better adapts to a given environment. Compared
to other normal optimization methods, GA directly works with a population of
individual strings with no need of much auxiliary information in order to work properly,
for example, gradient techniques need derivatives in order to be able to climb the
current peak. Those characteristics make GA an advantage to treat discrete variables
and easy to achieve global optimal solution. The procedure of Genetic Algorithm is
illustrated in Figure 2.
Fig. 2: Flowchart of Genetic Algorithm.
4 Genetic Algorithm for truss structure optimization
4.1 Design variables

An objective function is necessary for GA to deal with a particular optimization
problem. In the scheme of truss optimization problem, the total weight of truss is chosen
as the objective function since it is what we much concern in structural design, and
design variables for optimization are truss topology and cross sectional areas of
members. For instance, a truss structure can be represented in form of a chromosome in
GA as shown in Figure 3.
Fig. 3: Chromosome for truss structure in Genetic Algorithm
1595
4.2 Ground structure

In the process of GA aforementioned in section 2, a population of solutions for
optimization problem needs to be randomly generated in the first generation, stated
differently, a group of individuals each made by a random composition of design
variables is necessary. For truss structure, a truss structural individual can be obtained
by first getting a random topology from the ground structure [8, 9] in which the
maximum length of possible generated truss structural members is able to change, and
then randomly assigning cross sectional area to each member with several prepared
cross section types. Figure 4 shows an example of ground structure owing to which the
diversity of produced truss topology can be protected.
Fig. 4: Chromosome for truss structure in Genetic Algorithm
4.3 Stable unit of topology generation

In order to secure a stability of truss structures generated, tetrahedron is adopted as
basic stable unit when forming truss topology by ground structure. As can be seen in
Figure 6, at first, four arbitrary points are randomly selected in the available area for
making the first tetrahedron in such a way that those points are not on the same plane
(Phase 1). Next, three points among the nodes in this chain of tetrahedron are selected
and other node among the nodes which has not yet been selected in the available area is
connected to those points (Phase 2 and Phase 3). In the final stage, the necessary
members are created so that each point is connected (Phase 4,5,6). These newly
produced members will be stable. Until all required points, namely supporting points
and loading points, are included in these selected nodes, the procedure is continued.
Fig. 5: 3-D truss topology composed of tetrahedrons.
1596
5 Formulation for elasto-plastic truss optimization problem
5.1 Statement of the optimization design problem

The elasto-plastic truss optimization problem for minimizing the total truss weight with
topology, cross section as variables can be formulated as
Minimize　　　　 f ( x, A)  W ( x, A)
(1)
Subjected 　 to　　 g( x, A)  0
where W is the total weight; x is the vector of coordinate and topology; A is the
vector of cross section of members; g is function of constraint condition. The total
weight W can be further described as
m n
W   cilii   w j (2)
i j
where c is the compensate coefficient of members due to the extinction of cross section
at their both ends;  i is the density of material of member i ; li is the calculated length
of member i ;  i is the cross section of member i ; w j is globe mass of joint j ; m is the
amount of members; n is the amount of nodes. A flow chart for elasto-plastic truss
optimization using Genetic Algorithm is demonstrated in figure 6, where the step of
‘Structural Calculation’ is further amplified in Figure 7, which is a detailed procedure of
elasto-plastic analysis for truss structure in section 2.
Fig. 6: Flowchart of elasto-plastic truss optimization using GA
1597
Fig. 7: Flowchart of ‘Structural Calculation’ in Figure 6
5.2 Fitness function

Additionally, a fitness function is of a great significance to evaluate the individuals in
Genetic Algorithm. The inverse of total weight W multiplied by several coefficients
with respect to the penalty of violation on constraints, is adopted as the fitness function
which is mathematically described as follows
1
 
Ffitness  W ( x, A)  (  stressj ) A  (  dispj ) B  ( collaspe )C   ( D  angle )  ( cross ) k  (3)
 j j m 
where W is total truss mass; A , B , C , D are the weight coefficients of constraint of
allowable stress, maximum nodal displacement, collapse load, and angle between
members at joint, respectively. Particular penalty coefficients for those constraints are
to be explained in the following sections.
5.2.1 Constraint on allowable stress
The first design stage allows no member stress more than allowable one. Assume the
characteristic value of strength of material is denoted as F and considering the long
1598
term effects of loads, the allowable stress for tension members and compressive
members are
F
ft  (4)
1.5

 1  0.4   /  2
 
F　　   
 
fc   (5)
 0.277 F 　　　　　   
   /  2

where  is slenderness ratio;  is the critical slenderness ratio;  and 0.277 are safety
coefficient according to design code. Therefore, the penalty coefficient of stress  stress
in Eq. (3) is specified as
 
 　 if 　　   lim
 stress    lim (6)

1　　 otherwise
where  is axial stress and  lim represents different value corresponding the
stress type in question.
5.2.2 Constraint on displacement
The first design stage also requires structural deformation to be limited to serviceability
limit state according to design criterion. Maximum nodal displacement value in truss
can be set in input file in this scheme. Corresponding penalty coefficient of maximum
displacement  disp in Eq. (3) is defined as
 d
 　 if 　 d  d lim
 disp   d lim (7)
1 otherwise　

where d lim is the maximum nodal displacement set by designer or related specifications.
5.2.3 Constraint on collapse load
To keep structure from collapsing at an accidental load case, the collapse load
calculated by elastoplastic analysis must be larger than the value of accidental load at
the second design stage. Besides, to avoid to generating truss structures of great strength,
a less than 70 % of c is also penalized. Therefore, coefficient of  collapse in Eq. (3) is
defined as
1599
 a
  　 if 　 c  a
 c

collapse  1- a (8)
  c
otherwhise 　
0.3　 if (1- a 0.3)
 c
where a is the accidental load value, c is collapsed load value.
5.2.4 Constraint on member interference at joint
As can be been in Figure 8, interference between members at a connecting joint should

be avoided from the view point of construction. Hence, the angle between two members
at a joint is limited so as to keep them from colliding with each other. On the other hand,
interference is also associated with the connecting globe size. Therefore, globe sizes are
to be tested in an ascending order for assembly without interference. If the largest globe
size for selection is equipped and two members still collide with each other, the angle is
to be penalized. Penalty coefficient of angle in Eq. (3) is
 
 　 if 　    lim
 angle   lim (9)
1 otherwise　

where  lim is the limited angle when the maximal globe is equipped.
Fig. 8: Interference between two members Fig. 9: Crossing between two members
5.2.5 Constraint on member crossing
Existence of crossing members is also needed to be avoided from the view point of
construction (Figure 9). Therefore, distance between members is restricted and related
constraint is defined as ( cross ) k in Eq. (3), where  cross is a constant, k is the amount
of couples of crossing members. The principle of judging member crossing is
1600
 E 　　 if 　　 d  RA  RB
 cross   (10)
1 otherwise　　
where R A and RB are the radius of two members; d is the distance between the two
members; E is a constant greater than 1, determined by designer and can be raised if
one wants to emphasize this constraint.
6 Numerical Example
A double-layer space truss structure is shown in Figure 10. The structure is restrained in
all directions at the four corner pinned supports. Each top node is subjected to a vertical
load by transition from a uniform load of a value 0.534 kN / m2 , which is considered as
an ordinary load condition at the first design stage. Moreover, a seismic load,
considered as an accidental load condition at second design stage, is added in opposed
X direction in form of acceleration  E  g , where g is the acceleration of gravity. In
fact, the accidental load in form of acceleration is transformed into single loads when
performing elasto-plastic analysis. For all truss elements the Young’s modulus is E
=205 GPa , characteristic value of strength 235 N / mm2 , density 7.85 kg / m3 .
Fig. 11: Ground structure
Fig. 10: Truss optimization domain
Ground structure for generating truss topology is as shown in Figure 11, having a
maximum member length of 5.1 m. Several standardized cross section and globe types
for selection are listed in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. GA parameters are provided in
Table 4. The item depicted as ‘Collapsed load ratio’ in constraint Table 5 is to control
the proportion of accidental load to collapse load in a range from 0.7 to 1.0 so that
neither unsafe nor too strong structures may acquire a high fitness.
1601
Table 1: Cross section types

Number Diameter Thickness Area Moment
( mm ) ( mm ) 2
( cm ) ( cm )
4
1 34.0 2.3 2.29 2.89 Table 3: Globe types

2 42.7 2.3 2.92 5.97 Number Radius Mass
3 48.6 3.2 4.56 11.82 ( mm ) ( kg )
4 60.5 3.2 5.76 23.70
5 76.3 3.2 7.35 49.2 1 25.0 0.514
6 76.3 4.2 9.51 62.03 2 42.5 2.52
7 89.1 3.2 8.64 79.76 3 55.0 9.03
8 89.1 4.2 11.20 101.18 4 65.0 3.2
9 101.6 4.2 12.85 152.60 5 75.0 3.09
10 114.3 4.5 15.52 234.32 6 90.0 23.97
11 139.8 4.5 19.13 438.17 7 100.0 32.88
12 165.2 4.5 22.72 733.94 8 110.0 43.88
13 165.2 5.0 25.16 808.05 9 130.0 72.43
14 190.7 5.3 30.87 1327.45 10 150.0 111.26
15 216.3 4.5 29.94 1679.76
16 216.3 5.8 38.36 2126.05
17 267.4 6.0 49.27 4210.72
18 267.4 6.6 54.08 4600.50
19 318.5 6.0 58.90 7193.19 Table 5: Constraints
Allowable tension stress 157 N / mm2
Table 4: GA Parameters Maximum displacement 75 mm
Population size 60 Section types 4
Generation size 2000 Collapsed load ratio
displacement 0.7~1.0
Probability for crossover 0.80 Member crossing Not allowed
Probability for mutation 0.08 Member interference Not allowed
Optimization run on WindXP 2.61GHz AMD 64×2Dual cost 5 hours 27 minutes. The
GA generation against the total weight of individual having the best fitness in each
generation is plotted in Figure 12. It is obviously noted that a great decrease in total
weight has happened during GA evolution history. The best fitness variation is as
shown in Figure 13, converging into a constant value with a proportion of a value of
11.11 to the inverse of its weight. The proportion of a value of 11.11 is because weight
coefficient denoted by ‘C’ in Eq. (3) is squared in input data. These figures indicate that
the final optimal truss structure is un-penalized.
Fig. 12: Evolution history of best mass Fig. 13: Evolution history of best fitness
Some best fitness individuals in different generation can be seen in Figure 14 where
different colours stand for different cross sectional areas, showing a tendency of
becoming simple in topology and thin in cross section as generation increases.
1602
Fig. 14: Individuals with best fitness in different generation

The final optimal truss structure in 2000th generation (shown in Figure 15) weights only
2.546 ton, almost 10 % of initial individual, with all constraints being well satisfied.
Collapse load obtained in form of acceleration is 1.42g, which is larger than the seismic
acceleration. The collapsed mechanism can be seen in Figure 16. It is noted that the
elasto-plastic analysis only processed for two steps, inducing four collapsed elements to
reach a collapse mechanism. This is probably due to the simple truss topology that can
bear less elasto-plastic analysis steps. Distribution of stress and displacement at the first
design stage are shown in Figures 17 and 18 respectively, well satisfying the design
requirement. As a result, the designed scheme is successfully and effectively applied to
truss optimization problem.
Fig. 15: Optimal truss structure Fig. 16: Collapse mechanism
Fig. 17: Stress at the first stage Fig. 18: Displacement at the first stage
1603
7 Conclusions
Incremental elasto-plastic analysis method is successfully applied to calculate the
collapse load of truss structure that is the fundamental design basis for structural design
at the second design stage. The obtained collapse load is then imposed as a constraint in
the scheme of truss optimization using Genetic Algorithm (GA) so that truss
optimization with consideration on both the first design stage and the second design
stage can be proposed. Numerical example converges at a simple and light truss
structure with all constraints being well satisfied, indicating the successful realization of
designed scheme.
References
[1] A. Dominguez. Practical Design Optimization of Truss Structures Using Genetic

Algorithms, Research in Engineering Design, 2006.
[2] Ponslet, E. and H. H. Curney. Optimal Placement of Tuning Masses on Truss
Structures by Genetic Algorithms. 34thAIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures,
Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conference. AIAA/ASME Adaptive Structures
Forum Lajolla, pp. 2448–2457, 1993.
[3] Rajan, S. D. Sizing, Shape, and Topology Design Optimization of Trusses using
Genetic Algorithm. Journal of Structural Engineering1995; 121(10):1480–1487.
[4] H. Kawamura, H. Ohmori and N. Kito: Truss Topology Optimization by a
Modified Genetic Algorithm, Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization2002;
23( 6): 467-473.
[5] S.Kunda, H. Ohomri. Multi-objective Optimal Design of Truss Structures for Large
Telescope. Summaries of Technical Papers of annual Meeting, Architectural
Institute of Japan, pp. 917-918, 2007.
[6] M.Bill Wong. Plastic Analysis and Design of Steel Structures. Library of Congress
Cataloging-in-Publication Data, 2009.
[7] Holland, J, Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems: an Introductory Analysis
with Applications to Biology, Control, and Artificial Intelligence, University of
Michigan, 1975.
[8] Grieson, D. E. and W. H. Pak. Optimal Sizing, Geometrical and Topological
Design using a Genetic Algorithm. Structural Optimization1993;6:151– 159.
[9] Hajela, P. Genetic Search - An Approach to the Nonconvex Optimization Problem.
AIAA Journal 1990;28(7) : 1205-1210.
1604
Reliability-based design of single-layer lattice shells using

Kriging approximation
Jingyao ZHANG1*, Makoto OHSAKI2
1
*Dept. of Architecture and Urban Design, Ritsumeikan University
1-1-1 Noji-Higashi, Kusatsu, Shiga 525-8577, Japan
E-mail: zhang@fc.ritsumei.ac.jp
2
Dept. of Architecture, Hiroshima University, Japan
Abstract
In this study, we present an optimization approach for robust design of single-
layer lattice shells, where uncertainties in material properties are taken into
consideration. The structural reliability is evaluated by probability of satisfying specific
structural performance, by applying Monte Carlo simulation (MCS). Because MCS
needs a large number of structural responses corresponding to possible material
properties, we adopt Kriging method to predict these responses through a limited
number of responses obtained by carrying out structural analysis. To design the optimal
structure with minimum weight, while having specified structural reliability, Simulated
Annealing (SA) method is utilized.
Keywords: Reliability-based design; Lattice shell; Uncertainty; Kriging method;

Optimization.
1 Introduction
Unavoidably, uncertainty exists in any practical design process of structures. To
consider these uncertainties, an empirical coefficient, called safety factor, is introduced
in conventional (deterministic) design procedure: nominal values of the structural
analysis parameters are reduced to ‘dependable’ values by dividing safety factors. The
basic idea behind the procedure is to design a conservative structure, intended to predict
the worst cases of outputs, such as maximum displacements or drift angles, by the
combination of the worst cases of inputs—the dependable values of the structural
stiffness/strength parameters less than those of the real structures, and the external loads
greater than that might possibly occur.
However, this can only be true in static cases, and may mislead designers in dynamic
cases. For example, the seismic responses of a structure significantly depend on
characteristics of response spectra of the input motions rather than stiffness of the
structure; moreover, less strength in some structural members may lead to less
responses of the structure owing to more plastic energy dissipation. Thus, conventional
design procedure may not lead to conservative design as expected, and could end up
with overestimating capacity of the structures, which indicates that more sophisticated
approaches to considering uncertainty are necessary.
1605
(b) Bird-eye view
(a) Top view (c) Side view

Fig. 1: Single-layer lattice shell.
To evaluate dynamic characteristics of a structure subjected to severe earthquakes, time

history analysis (THA) is the most reliable approach, though much higher computation
cost is needed in comparison to static analysis. Moreover, in the framework of
performance-based engineering, dynamic performance of a structure subjected to
possible uncertainty involved in structural analysis needs to be evaluated in terms of
probability.
For such purpose, Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) is the most straightforward way,
however, it is unlikely to be directly applicable to complex systems. This is because that
expensive THA for a large number of possible values of the structural parameters has to
be conducted, which results in unacceptably expensive computational cost. Instead of
the direct approach, (approximation) approaches can be used to carry out MCS, based
on the approximate responses estimated by using a limited number of structural
analyses.
Metamodels interpolate the results (dynamic responses) obtained in preliminary
experiments (structural analyses) with smooth nonlinear functions, for the purpose of
predicting the responses for the parameter values for which experiments have not been
carried out. There have been a number of existing metamodels developed so far, such as
response surface approximation, radial basis function, artificial neural networks,
Kriging method and multivariate adaptive regression splines. Among these, Kriging
method has gained much attention in engineering literatures because of its high
accuracy and low computational cost [1].
As the structural reliability is available in terms of probability analysis by MCS, we are
then in the position to design a structure with the best performance. In this study, we
consider the problem of finding the single-layer lattice shell with minimum weight,
which is assembled by the available sections. For this typical combinatorial
optimization problem, the simulated annealing (SA) method is adopted in this study.
Following this introduction, Section 2 gives a brief introduction to Kriging model for
response prediction, and a brief summary of the simulated annealing method; Section 3
considers the reliability-based optimal design of a three-dimensional single-layer lattice
shell as shown in Figure 1, to demonstrate the availability of the proposed approach;
and Section 4 concludes the study.
1606
2 Approximate responses and optimal structure
This section gives a brief description of Kriging method for prediction of responses, and
simulated annealing method for finding the optimal structure.
2.1. Kriging method

Kriging method is a spatial prediction approach based on minimization of the mean
error of the weighted sum of responses at the sampling points, at which experiments are
conducted. The name of ‘Kriging’ refers to a South African geologist D.G. Krige, who
developed the method for statistical evaluation of mining data. The method gained
further and much wider applications in other engineering fields from the end of 1980s.
In this subsection, we briefly summarize the basic equations of Kriging method as
described in [2] for the completeness of the study.
Suppose that we consider the uncertainty in nd structural parameters, and carry out
preliminary analyses at the n s sampling points si   n (i  1,..., ns ) . The prediction
d
points, at which responses are to be predicted, are denoted by x   n .

d
Let R   n n denote the correlation matrix, describing correlations of the responses at

s s
the sampling points, and let r(x)   n denote the correlation vector for sampling points
s
and prediction point: the ith entry of r(x) is the correlation between the prediction point
x and the sampling point s i , and the (i, j)-entry of R   n n is the correlation between
s s
the two sampling points s i and s j .

The normalized value ŷnor of the predicted (approximate) response ŷ , at the prediction
point x , is determined as follows by minimizing the mean square error and using the
best linear unbiased predictor
ˆ ˆ i T R 1y
yˆnor (x)    r(x) R (y   i)
T 1
with ̂  T 1 , (1)
i R i
where every entry in i   n is equal to one. Thus, the predicted response ŷ is
s
yˆ   y yˆ nor  y , (2)
where  y and y are the standard deviation and mean of the responses at the sampling
points, respectively.
The correlation is usually defined as a function of correlation parameters and distances
between the relevant points: the (i, j)-entry R (θ, si , s j ) of R and the ith entry r (θ, x, si )
of r is written as
nd nd
R(θ, si , s j )   R( k , d ) , r (θ, x, si )   r ( k , dik ) ,
k
ij (3)
k 1 k 1
where  k , dijk and d are respectively the kth entries of correlation parameter vector θ ,
i
k
distances d ij between sampling points and distances d i between sampling points and
1607
prediction point. The correlation parameters θ are unknown and are determined by
minimizing prediction errors at specific (verification) points in this study.
In the case that the existing sampling points are unlikely to predict the responses with
high enough accuracy, more sampling points are needed to improve the prediction
accuracy. There are several approaches for adding new sampling points as summarized
in [2], and we adopt the approach that adds the point having the maximum mean square
error of prediction in the study.
2.2. Optimal structure

Using the approximate responses predicted by Kriging method, the structural reliability,
in terms of probability, of a structure can be easily computed by carrying out MCS, with
assumptions on probability distribution densities for uncertainties in the structural
analysis parameters; and moreover, the dynamic performance of a structure can be
evaluated in many ways, for example, the probability of exceeding a specific nodal
displacement for reliability-based design of a single-layer lattice shell as a numerical
example considered in Section 3.
Satisfying certain dynamic performances, as constraints, our next step is to find the
optimal structure with the minimum weight. To consider the design problem in practice,
the members are selected from a given list of available sections. Thus, this is a typical
combinatorial optimization problem, and we adopt simulated annealing method as
summarized in the next subsection for the problem.
2.3. Simulated annealing method

As its name implies, simulated annealing (SA) method exploits an analogy between he
metal annealing process and the process of searching for the best solution in an
optimization problem [3]. Gradients of the objective or constraint functions are not
necessary, and the major advantage of SA over other heuristic approaches is the ability
to find the global optimum.
There are in total five processes involved in SA: (a) initial solution, (b) local search, (c)
transition of solutions, (d) cooling schedule, and (e) termination condition. The typical
flowchart for these processes is shown in Figure 2.
Fig. 2: The flowchart of classical simulated annealing method.
Among these processes, solution transition is the key for jumping out from a local
optimum, since it ensures that acceptance of non-improving solution is also possible. To
be specific, solution transition will occur if a randomly generated number P  (0,1) is
less than the probability P of transition calculated by
1608
P  min{1, efi / ti } , (4)

where f i is the increase of the objective value and t i is the temperature at the current
iteration i. It is obvious from Eq. (4) that, transition to an improving solution is always
accepted, and transition to a non-improving solution is possible but will be more and
more difficult, as the temperature is continuously cooled down according to the cooling
schedule.
This section demonstrates validity of the proposed reliability-based design methodology
for single-layer lattice shells via numerical studies.
3.1 Model description

As a numerical example, we consider the three-dimensional single-layer lattice shell as
shown in Figure 1. The structure consists of 132 members, which are connected by pin-
joints. Surrounding nodes are fixed in all translation directions. Radius of the structure
is 20.0m, and the height is 5.359m.
The members are classified into seven groups as shown in Figure 3, where the members
in each group have the same cross-sectional area. The 43 available sections are listed in
Table 1. The members are steel pipes and modeled as truss elements in structural
analysis. The steel materials are idealized by a bilinear constitutive model, defined by
Young’s modulus, yield stress and hardening coefficient.
Dead loads applied at the roof are assigned as 1.6 kN/m2, which is assumed to include
the self-weight of members. In the THA, the masses are lumped at the nodes.
The artificial seismic motion as shown in Figure 4 is generated by the standard
superposition method of sinusoidal waves, corresponding to the life-safe performance
level during the very rare earthquakes specified in Notifications 1461 and 1457 of the
Ministry of Land Infrastructure and Transport, Japan. The phase difference spectrum of
El-Centro 1940(EW) has been used. To consider extreme loads, three times of this
artificial seismic motion is applied at the supporting nodes, which locate on the outer
circle of the structure, in single horizontal direction.
Group 7 Group 4
Group 6 Group 3
Group 5 Group 2
Group 1
Support
Fig. 3: Grouping of members.
1609
15
10
2
)
5
Acceleration (m/s
-5
-10
-15
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
time (s)
Fig. 4: The artificial seismic motion.
Tab. 1: Cross-sectional areas of available members.

Diameter Area Diameter Area Diameter Area
(mm) cm2 (mm) cm2 (mm) cm2
6.272 19.270 70.210
7.591 165.2 20.260 355.6 86.290
89.1 8.638 22.720 103.300
9.412 25.160 120.100
11.200 190.7 30.870 80.420
9.892 29.940 406.4 98.900
101.6 10.790 216.3 38.360 118.500
12.850 53.610 157.100
9.808 49.270 90.640
12.180 267.4 54.080 111.500
114.3 457.2
15.520 75.410 133.600
20.410 58.910 177.300
14.990 318.5 67.550
139.8 17.070 77.090
19.130 99.730
21.170
THA of the structure is carried out using the open source solver OpenSees [4]. The
effect of geometrical nonlinearity is also taken into consideration. Rayleigh damping is
adopted for THA, with the same damping ratio h=0.02 for both of the 1st and 3rd modes
of the structure, which are antisymmetric with respect to a plane containing the axis of
symmetry. The time step for integration by the Newmark-  method (   0.25 ) is 0.01
second.
3.2 Uncertainty and optimal structure

In this study, we consider the uncertainties in three structural parameters: yield stress,
Young’s modulus and hardening coefficient. Damping ratio is also an important
structural parameter for dynamic analysis, but will not be considered in the example
1610
because it has monotonic relation to the maximum responses of the structure: the larger
is the damping ratio, the less is the response.
The nominal values of the yield stress, Young’s modulus and hardening coefficient are
3.25 108 N/m2, 2.05 1011 N/m2 and 1/100, respectively. The upper and lower bounds
for uncertainties are respectively set as 1.2 and 0.8 times of their nominal values.
Furthermore, to carry out MCS, these structural parameters are supposed to have
uniform probability distribution densities.
To apply Kriging method for response prediction, we start from nine initial sampling
points, which are the combination of the upper and lower bounds of any two of the three
parameters, in addition to the sampling point with nominal values. New sampling points,
which lead to the maximum reduction of MSE, are consecutively added as sampling
points in order to refine the response surface.
Reliability of the structure is evaluated by the probability of exceedance of a specific
horizontal displacement, 0.025 m, of the central node. MCS is applied to compute the
probability of exceedance of specified displacement of the central node. The probability
should be less than a specific target value to guarantee a safe structure, which is set as
10% as a constraint condition in this example.
Moreover, we use the Gaussian spatial correlation function, which is preferable for a
differentiable response function [5]; the lower and upper bounds of the correlation
parameters are assigned as 0.1 and 10.0, respectively. The correlation parameters are
found by minimizing the prediction errors at specified verification points, using the
optimization tool fmincon( ) provided in MATLAB [6].
The initial temperature for SA is assigned as 3.0, and coefficient for the linear cooling
procedure is 0.9. The process of finding new solutions will be terminated when the
temperature is less than 0.01.
All members of the structure are initially assigned to the sections with cross-sectional
area of 0.002117 m2. Performance of SA is demonstrated in Figure 5: red stars and blue
circles respectively represent the solutions, which satisfy and violate the specified
constraint. As can be observed from the figure, the initial solution does not satisfy the
constraint on structural reliability, but feasible solutions satisfying the constraint are
gradually found in the neighbor of the current solution by local searches; non-improving
solutions are possibly accepted ensuring that it is not entrapped in local optimum and
converges to ‘global’ optimum.
3.2
2.8
Total volume (m 2 )
2.6
2.4
2.2
1.8
1.6
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Steps
Fig. 5: Performance of SA.
1611
Fig. 6: Distribution of cross-sectional areas of the optimal solution.
The distribution of cross-sectional areas of the optimal structure is illustrated in Figure 6.

To illustrate the distribution clearer in the figure, radius of each member is plotted in
proportion to its cross-sectional area.
4 Conclusions
In this study, we have studied the reliability-based design methodology for single-layer
lattice shells, subjected to possible uncertainty involved in the parameters of structural
analysis. The approach can be applied to other structural systems, for example the two-
dimensional arch model in our previous studies [7,8].
The study has shown that uncertainties in material properties can be easily considered
by Kriging method to evaluate reliability of a structure against specific external loads.
However, external loads, especially ground motions, are highly uncertain, and hence,
their influence on dynamic responses should also be carefully investigated, which is the
future topic of the study.
Moreover, we have considered only uniform probability distribution for uncertainties in
material properties in the numerical example; but any other type of probability
distribution can be incorporated, with minor modification in applying MSC.
Furthermore, other than the single-objective optimization in the example, more
structural performance measures and more objective functions could be considered.
Acknowledgement
The first author is grateful for the support from Japan Society for the Promotion of
Science for the Start-up research, and support from Leaveanest Research Grant.
References
[1] Sakata S, Ashida F and Zako M, Structural optimization using kriging

approximation, Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg2003;192: 923-939.
[2] Lee TH and Jung JJ, Kringing metamodel based optimization, Optimization of
Structural and Mechanical Systems, edited by Arora JS, World Scientific, 2007.
[3] Kirkpatrick S, Gelatt CD Jr. and Vecchi MP, Optimization by simulated annealing,
Science, 220:4598, 671-680, 1983.
1612
[4] Neuenhofer A and Filippou FC, Geometrically nonlinear flexibility-based frame

finite element, Journal of Structural Engineering 1998; 124:6, 704-71.
[5] Mitchell TJ and Morris MD, The spatial correlation function approach to response
surface estimation, Winter Simulation Conference archive Proceedings of the 24th
conference on Winter simulation table of contents, Arlington, Virginia, United
States. pp. 565-571, 1992.
[6] Borse GJ, Numerical Method with MATLAB. International Thomson Publishing Inc.
1997.
[7] Zhang JY and Ohsaki M, Prediction of Dynamic Response of Spatial Structures
using Kriging Method, Summaries of Technical papers of Annual Meeting, AIJ,
Kinki, B-3, 2008.
[8] Zhang JY and Ohsaki M, Reliability-based optimization of spatial structures using
approximation model. Proc. International Association for Shell and Spatial
Structures, Valencia, Spain, Sep. 2009.
1613
Topology Optimization of a Shell Supported Bridge

Tobia ZORDAN1*, Bruno BRISEGHELLA2, Luigi FENU3,
Enrico MAZZAROLO4, Cheng LAN4 , Enzo SIVIERO5
1*
Professor of Tongji University, Shanghai, China
Contact address: Via del Gazzato 20, I-30173 Venezia-Mestre, Italy
Email: tobia.zordan@gmail.com
2
Professor of Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
3
Assistant Professor of University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
4
PhD candidates of University IUAV of Venice, Venice, Italy
5
Professor of University IUAV of Venice, Venice, Italy
Abstract
The shell supported bridges, where the deck is supported by a shell structure, are
special spatial shape obtained by means of a form-finding algorithm in order to achieve
mainly membrane stresses and avoid bending effects. Famous examples of such kind of
optimization are given by the work of Sergio Musmeci [1], which without the
possibility of using the results coming from the FE analysis, worked on models
naturally shaped by the use of soap films. However, unexpected bending moments and
excessive tensile stresses would occur due to thickness of the shell, variations of
material, load of the deck and other factors.
Aiming to reduce the presence of such undesirable stress distribution and starting from a
shell surface obtained through a form-finding process and used to support the deck of a
footbridge, a finite element topological optimization by means of ESO (evolutionary
structural optimization) procedure is carried out in order to minimize the weight
(volume) of the shell itself of a certain percentage. After identifying the shell regions
where the pseudo densities obtained from previous topological optimization results are
lower, the geometry of the shell is updated by eliminating the material of these regions.
This process has revealed effective in reducing concentrated tensile stresses. With an
iterative procedure of form finding and topological optimization, a shell with a pattern
of holes is obtained and the area of shell regions with low tensile stresses is minimized.
At the end, a parametric analysis is carried out to determine the optimal solution in
terms of displacements and stress distribution.
Keywords: shell supported bridge, topology optimization, structural optimization, finite

element
1 Introduction
Shells of minimal area are able to fluently and efficiently transfer loads from their
points of application to the foundations. The problem was deeply studied by outstanding
1614
authors such as, for example, Frei Otto and Sergio Musmeci. In particular this last one
stated that, since in tension structures the strength of tensile resistant materials is
efficiently exploited, with the same principle the concrete strength of R/C shells could
be comfortably exploited considering a stress distribution with opposite sign. As a
consequence, elegant and slender shells were shaped designing auxiliary tension
structures subjected to the same loads and restraint reactions, as well as same normal
internal forces, but with opposite sign.
Using the principle of shells of minimal surface, Musmeci shaped also shell bridges,
whose decks were supported by an anticlastic shell structure. In this way he designed
his masterpiece, the Basento Bridge in Potenza (Italy) [1]-[3].
Fig. 1: Basento Bridge - S. Musmeci, 1967-69, Potenza (Italy)
Nowadays Musmeci’s method of designing R/C shells can be highly simplified by using
heuristic and evolutionary algorithms, which allow us to solve complicate design
problems with many variables and constraints. The compressed membrane must have
the same shape of a tension structure with the same loads and design constraint
reactions but with the opposite sign. A possible technique is given by modelling the
tension structure as a cable net; the compressive force in each strip of the R/C shell is
referred to the tensile force Hi of the correspondent i-th cable of the tension structure
with same shape. Assume that H is the vector of the Hi forces in each cable. If x0j, y0j, z0j
are the coordinates of each j-th point of the starting surface, the coordinates xj, yj, zj of
the same points in the final membrane surface are obtained by minimizing the following
objective function:
f (H)  max z j  z0 j  max x j  x0 j  max y j  y0 j (1)
subject to a number of constraints. For instance, for the generic m-th and n-th cable in
two orthogonal x and y directions respectively, the force in each cable must be limited.
It must be not higher than the cable resistance, and keep the cable sufficiently in tension,
namely:
 H x min  H xm  H x max

 (2)
 H
 y min
 H y n  H y max
1615
The function f (H) can be minimized by means of heuristic and evolutionary algorithms
that, despite the great number of variables and constraints and the great number of
calculations required, allow us to solve optimization problems such the one mentioned
above.
When function f cannot be further lowered with an assigned precision, its minimum is
achieved. Finally, the tensile forces in each cable, corresponding to the compressive
forces in each shell strip, are calculated by means of membrane equations.
In this way, undesired bending effects could be minimised; however, their arising and
presence in some localised regions of the shell is unavoidable. Meanwhile, the stresses
on the R/C shell should be well controlled because of the intrinsic characteristics of the
specified construction material.
Therefore, a procedure of structural optimisation, such the one described before,
becomes meaningful to pursuit the stated goals.
Structural optimization applied to spatial or shell structures, is being considered as one
of the most challenging and committing tasks in structural design. Over the past decades,
structural topology optimization for continuum structures has been extensively explored.
Many optimization methods such as the homogenization technique (Bendsøe and
Kikuchi 1988), solid isotropic material with penalization (SIMP) (Bendsøe 1989; Zhou
and Rozvany 1991) and evolutionary structural optimization (ESO) (Xie and Steven
1993, 1997) have been developed [4]-[8].
By observing the evolution of naturally occurring structures, such as shells, it becomes
obvious that the topology and shape of such structures achieve their optimum over a
long evolutionary period and adapt to whatever environment they find themselves in. In
the following of this paper, the topological optimization is introduced, then, a shell
structural optimization using finite element topological method is presented.
2 Structural Topology Optimization

Topological optimization is used to find a special form of a structure and to define,
through the use of finite element methods, its closest shape and material distribution
with reference to a selected goal, so that an objective criterion (i.e., global stiffness,
natural frequency, etc.) attains a maximum or minimum value under given constraints
(i.e., volume reduction…) [8].
Unlike traditional optimization, topological optimization does not require the explicit
definition of optimization parameters (i.e., independent variables to be optimized). In
topological optimization, the material distribution function over a body serves as
optimization parameter.
2.1 General Optimization Problem Statement

The theory of topological optimization seeks to minimize or maximize the objective
function (f) subject to the constraints (gj) defined. The design variables (ηi) are internal,
pseudo-densities that are assigned to each finite element (i) in the topological problem.
The pseudo-density for each element varies from 0 to 1; where ηi ≈0 represents material
1616
to be removed; and ηi ≈ 1 represents material that should be kept. Stated in simple

mathematical terms, the optimization problem is as follows:
f = a minimum / maximum w.r.t. ηi (3)
subject to:
 0  i  1 i  1, 2,3,, n
 (4)
g j  g j  g j j  1, 2,3,, m
where: n = number of elements; m = number of constraints; g j = computed j-th

constraint value; g j = lower bound for j-th constraint; g j = upper bound for j-th
constraint.
2.2 Maximum Static Stiffness Design

In the case of “maximum static stiffness” design subject to a volume constraint, which
sometimes is referred to as the standard formulation of the layout problem, the goal is to
minimize the energy of the structural static compliance (UC) for a given load case
subject to a given volume reduction. Minimizing the compliance is equivalent to
maximizing the global structural static stiffness. In this case, the optimization problem
is formulated as a special case of Eq. (3) and (4), namely,
UC = a minimum w.r.t. ηi (5)
subject to:
 0  i  1 i  1, 2,3,, n
 (6)
V  V0  V
*
where: V = computed volume; V0 = original volume; V * = amount of material to be

removed.
Topological optimization may be applied to either a single load case or multiple load
cases. For the latter, given k different load cases, the following weighted function (F) is
defined:
F U C1 ,U C2 ,,U Ck   WU
k
i
i C Wi  0 (7)
i 1
where: Wi = weight for load case with energy UC. The functional minimization Eq. (5)
is replaced with:
F = a minimum w.r.t. ηi (8)
1617
and Eq. (5) and Eq. (8) are clearly identical for the special case of k = 1.
While compliance and total volume are global conditions, certain and critical
calculations are performed at the level of individual finite elements. The total volume,
for example, is calculated from the sum of the element volumes; that is,
V  iVi (9)
i
where: Vi = volume for element i. The pseudo-densities effect the volume and the
elasticity tensor for each element. That is,
 Ei    E i  (10)
where the elasticity tensor is used to equate the stress and strain vector, designed in the
usual manner for linear elasticity:
 i    Ei  i  (11)
where: {σi} = stress vector of element i; {εi} = strain vector of element i.
3 Structural Optimization Procedure

The optimization procedure is illustrated in Fig. 2.
No, use different model
Finite Element Analysis
Calculate
Define Load Results Yes
FE Model Stresses and End
Cases Tolerant?
Deformation
No, use the same model
redefine volume reduction
Define
Volume
Model Reduction
Remove Topological
Updating
Elements with Optimization
Low Pseudo- Procedure
Densities Perform
Topological
Optimization
Plot Pseudo-
Density
Contour
Fig. 2: Flowchart of optimization procedure
The optimization includes three main parts: 1) finite element analysis, which includes
finite element modelling and defining load cases on the model, also the solution parts
1618
before optimization and after; 2) topological optimization, which evaluates the materials
under the conditions of load cases defined resulting in pseudo-densities; 3) model
updating, which updates the model by removing material (elements in FE model) with
low pseudo-densities and re-launches the solution part of FE analysis.
Besides these three main parts, when the result of first model is obtained, the maximum
stresses and deformations are checked to know if the responses are tolerant. If they are
not tolerant, decision is made to use the same model with different volume reduction
value and re-perform the topological optimization, or to use a different model.
4 Case Study
4.1 Shell Supported Bridge

The heuristic algorithm introduced above was used in shaping a R/C pedestrian crossing
of a canyon with a span of 40 m and width of 6 m. Consider the shape of a tension
structure desired, for instance by an architect for aesthetic reasons, as a starting surface,
with successive iterations, by using an heuristic algorithm, to obtain a stiffer shape with
ideal only membrane internal forces (Fig. 3) [8]. Through this method, a footbridge with
1
ELEMENTS
deck supported by a shell of minimal surface was shaped by Fenu, Madama and Tattoni
MAT NUM
(2006) by using the “Simulated annealing” algorithm (Fig.3) [10].
Fig. 3: Shell supported bridge Fig. 4: FE model in ANSYS

Shell Bridge Full
4.2 Finite Element Model

The bridge was modelled in finite element analysis software ANSYS (Fig. 4). The
element types for the model: SHELL93: for the concrete shell; BEAM188: for the deck
girder; BEAM4: for transverse beams and shell edge reinforcing beams. The total
numbers of nodes and elements were listed in Table 1.
Table 1: Total numbers of nodes and elements in FE model
Elements
Nodes
Shell Beam Total
26987 8800 34 8834
Both the shell and deck are simply supported. Pinned joints are provided between deck
and shell.
1619
4.3 Models Considered

The following different models are considered to compare the final results obtained
from the mentioned optimization procedure.
1. Model I: the uniform meshed shell with same material (MAT) number which
means that all the shell area will be considered in topological optimization.
2. Model II: the uniform meshed shell, but different MAT number in the edge
region, which means the area on the edges of the model will not be involved in
the optimization process.
3. Model III: same as Model II with the addition of stiffening beam elements
(15cm by 15cm) on the edge of the shell.
Table 2: Different models considered
Model Shell without edge area optimization Shell with edge stiffening beam
I No No
II Yes No
III Yes Yes
4.4 Load Cases Considered

A uniformly distributed pedestrian load of 4 kN/m2 was considered with 9 different load
conditions, as presented in Table 3.
Table 3: Pedestrian load conditions considered
Load case Loading area(s)
1 full bridge full width
2
full bridge half width
3
4
half bridge full width
5
6
two diagonal areas of half width
7
8
three alternative areas of half width
9
1620
4.5 Topological Optimization Results

Topological optimization processes were performed with reference to different volume
reductions of the shell. The results are plotting with reference to pseudo-densities, as
shown in Table 4.
Table 4: Pseudo-densities contours from topological optimization
Model I Model II Model III

1 1 1
5% V. Redu.
V.Redu=5% - Topo. Opt. - Pseudo-Density V.Redu=5% - Topo. Opt. - Pseudo-Density V.Redu=5% - Topo. Opt. - Pseudo-Density
2 2 2
0 .4 .8 0 .4 .8 0 .4 .8
.2 .6 1 .2 .6 1 .2 .6 1
Shell Bridge Full Shell Bridge Full
1Shell Bridge Full 1 1
10% V. Redu.
2 2 2
0 .4 .8 0 .4 .8 0 .4 .8
.2 .6 1 .2 .6 1 .2 .6 1
1Shell Bridge Full 1Shell Bridge Full 1Shell Bridge Full
20% V. Redu.
2 2 2
0 .4 .8 0 .4 .8 0 .4 .8
.2 .6 1 .2 .6 1 .2 .6 1
30% V. Redu.
2 2 2
0 .4 .8 0 .4 .8 0 .4 .8
.2 .6 1 .2 .6 1 .2 .6 1
Shell Bridge Full Shell Bridge Full Shell Bridge Full
4.6 Stresses and Deformations of Updated Models

On the basis of the topological optimization results, models were updated by removing
the elements with low pseudo-densities. For instance, as shown below, the elements
with pseudo-densities lower than 0.5 were removed by setting their material parameters
such as densities on elastic modulus to 0 or to very low values. The results of all load
cases were compared to achieve the envelope condition displayed in Table 5, where the
1621
contours are limited to display a stress level ranging from -3MPa to 3MPa, considering
a stress higher than 3MPa potentially unsuitable for the structure.
The maximum deflections (envelope case) of the deck girder and the central line of
shell are displayed in Table 6, where the dashed lines represent the elements being
removed.
Table 5: Maximum stresses contours of updated models

1 1 1
Top Layer
V.Redu=0% - Max. Stress Contour on Top-Layer V.Redu=0% - Max. Stress Contour on Top-Layer V.Redu=0% - Max. Stress Contour on Top-Layer
2 2 2
0% V. Redu.
-.300E+07 -.100E+07 .100E+07 .300E+07 -.300E+07 -.100E+07 .100E+07 .300E+07 -.300E+07 -.100E+07 .100E+07 .300E+07
-.200E+07 0 .200E+07 -.200E+07 0 .200E+07 -.200E+07 0 .200E+07
1 1 1
Bottom Layer
V.Redu=0% - Max. Stress Contour on Bottom-Layer V.Redu=0% - Max. Stress Contour on Bottom-Layer V.Redu=0% - Max. Stress Contour on Bottom-Layer
2 2 2
-.300E+07 -.100E+07 .100E+07 .300E+07 -.300E+07 -.100E+07 .100E+07 .300E+07 -.300E+07 -.100E+07 .100E+07 .300E+07
-.200E+07 0 .200E+07 -.200E+07 0 .200E+07 -.200E+07 0 .200E+07
Top Layer
2 2 2
5% V. Redu.
-.300E+07 -.100E+07 .100E+07 .300E+07 -.300E+07 -.100E+07 .100E+07 .300E+07 -.300E+07 -.100E+07 .100E+07 .300E+07
-.200E+07 0 .200E+07 -.200E+07 0 .200E+07 -.200E+07 0 .200E+07
1 1 1
Bottom Layer
2 2 2
-.300E+07 -.100E+07 .100E+07 .300E+07 -.300E+07 -.100E+07 .100E+07 .300E+07 -.300E+07 -.100E+07 .100E+07 .300E+07
-.200E+07 0 .200E+07 -.200E+07 0 .200E+07 -.200E+07 0 .200E+07
1622
1 1 1
Top Layer
2 2 2
10% V. Redu.
-.300E+07 -.100E+07 .100E+07 .300E+07 -.300E+07 -.100E+07 .100E+07 .300E+07 -.300E+07 -.100E+07 .100E+07 .300E+07
-.200E+07 0 .200E+07 -.200E+07 0 .200E+07 -.200E+07 0 .200E+07
1 1 1
Bottom Layer
2 2 2
-.300E+07 -.100E+07 .100E+07 .300E+07 -.300E+07 -.100E+07 .100E+07 .300E+07 -.300E+07 -.100E+07 .100E+07 .300E+07
-.200E+07 0 .200E+07 -.200E+07 0 .200E+07 -.200E+07 0 .200E+07
1 1 1Shell Bridge Full
Top Layer
2 2 2
20% V. Redu.
-.300E+07 -.100E+07 .100E+07 .300E+07 -.300E+07 -.100E+07 .100E+07 .300E+07 -.300E+07 -.100E+07 .100E+07 .300E+07
-.200E+07 0 .200E+07 -.200E+07 0 .200E+07 -.200E+07 0 .200E+07
1 1 1
Bottom Layer
2 2 2
-.300E+07 -.100E+07 .100E+07 .300E+07 -.300E+07 -.100E+07 .100E+07 .300E+07 -.300E+07 -.100E+07 .100E+07 .300E+07
-.200E+07 0 .200E+07 -.200E+07 0 .200E+07 -.200E+07 0 .200E+07
1 1 1Shell Bridge Full
Top Layer
2 2 2
30% V. Redu.
-.300E+07 -.100E+07 .100E+07 .300E+07 -.300E+07 -.100E+07 .100E+07 .300E+07 -.300E+07 -.100E+07 .100E+07 .300E+07
-.200E+07 0 .200E+07 -.200E+07 0 .200E+07 -.200E+07 0 .200E+07
1 1 1
Bottom Layer
2 2 2
-.300E+07 -.100E+07 .100E+07 .300E+07 -.300E+07 -.100E+07 .100E+07 .300E+07 -.300E+07 -.100E+07 .100E+07 .300E+07
-.200E+07 0 .200E+07 -.200E+07 0 .200E+07 -.200E+07 0 .200E+07
1623
Table 6: Maximum deflections of updated models

deflection solutions of different shell volume reductions deflection solutions of different shell volume reductions deflection solutions of different shell volume reductions
1 1 1
deck deflection (cm)

0 0 0
-1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2
0% 5% 10% 20% 30% 0% 5% 10% 20% 30% 0% 5% 10% 20% 30%
-3 -3 -3
-20 -8 0 8 20 -20 -8 0 8 20 -20 -8 0 8 20
longitudinal x (m) longitudinal x (m) longitudinal x (m)
1 1 1
shell deflection (cm)

0 0 0
-1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2
0% 5% 10% 20% 30% 0% 5% 10% 20% 30% 0% 5% 10% 20% 30%
-3 -3 -3
-20 -8 0 8 20 -20 -8 0 8 20 -20 -8 0 8 20
longitudinal x (m) longitudinal x (m) longitudinal x (m)
4.7 Comparison of solutions

From the comparison of the different results obtained from the model displayed above,
a noticeable variation of the vertical deflections of the shell is appreciated as the
percentage of material removed increases.
From the stress contours presented, the structural response of Model I and Model III is
characterized by a more uniform distribution of the stress level with lower peaks. As a
consequence, the need to increase the stiffness of the edges of the shell, in order to limit
the onset of undesirable stress peaks, emerges.
A comparison of the results obtained suggests the choice of Models I and III with a
volume reduction of 20% as the most suitable compromises between structural and
aesthetical issues (Fig. 5). In fact, these models still emphasize the natural flow of
forces from their point of application to the foundations (Fig. 6) respecting the initial
layout of the shell without any volume reduction.
Further reductions of the volume of the shell would involve major changes in the
structural response and the achievement of a different structural scheme evolving from
1
ELEMENTS
1
ELEMENTS
TYPE NUM
that of a shell type to an arched layout. TYPE NUM
Shell Bridge Full
Shell Bridge Full

a) Model I with volume b) Model III with volume
reduction of 20% reduction of 20%
Fig. 5: View of the FE model of the solutions Fig. 6: Virtual image of the bridge
proposed after ESO procedure
5 Conclusions
On the basis of former experiences of carried out by several and well known designers
of shell and membrane structures, a form finding process is performed and manually
1624
oriented in order to determine a shell surface used to support the deck of a footbridge
under given external restraints and boundary conditions.
The surface obtained is then used as a starting layout for a finite element topological
optimization process based on an ESO (evolutionary structural optimization) procedure
aiming to minimize the overall weight of the structure with an iterative process that
eliminates the construction material from the area characterized by a lower stress level.
The mentioned process, manually oriented by, revealed itself as an effective tool in
generating a 3D surface characterized by more uniformly distributed stress levels with
lower peaks of tensile stresses and limited deformations.
Further research is required in order to investigate the economical issues related to the
kind of structure proposed and the most appropriate construction materials and erection
techniques.
References
[1] Musmeci S. Ponte sul Basento a Potenza, Industria Italiana del Cemento, 1977, n.
2: 77-98.
[2] Gambarova P., Carini A. Sul comportamento membranale e flessionale di gusci
con appoggi puntiformi - About menbranal and flexural behaviour of punctiform
supported shell. “Sandro Dei Poli, 1985; A Festschrift for the Seventieth Birthday”
Politecnico di Milano, Milan (Italy) 1985; 273-290.
[3] Fenu L., Manca S. On the shaping of cable-membranes structures by using
"simulated annealing". Proc. of the 2-nd Int. Conf. on Structural and Construction
Engineering ISEC-02, in “System-based Vision for Strategic and Creative
Design”Vol.1, Rome (Italy), September 23-26, 2003; 575-579.
[4] Huang X., Xie Y.M., Evolutionary topology optimization of continuum structures
with an additional displacement constraint, Structural and Multidisciplinary
Optimization, 2010 - Springer.
[5] Vogel, F., Topological Optimization of Linear-Elastic Structures with ANSYS 5.4.,
NAFEMS Conference on Topological Optimization (1997).
[6] Mlejnek, H.P. and Schirrmacher, R., An Engineer's Approach to Optimal Material
Distribution and Shape Finding, Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and
Engineering 1993;106:1-26.
[7] Bendsoe, M.P. and Kikucki, N., Generating Optimal Topologies in Structural
Design Using a Homogenization Method, Computer Methods in Applied
Mechanics and Engineering 1988;71:197-224.
[8] ANSYS Inc., Release 11.0 Documentation for ANSYS.
[9] Fenu L., Madama G., A method of shaping R/C shells with heuristic algorithms
and with reference to Musmeci’s work, Studies and Researches, Politecnico di
Milano 2005;25: 199-238.
[10] Fenu L., Madama G., Tattoni S., On the conceptual design of R/C footbridges with
the deck supported by shells of minimal surface. Studies and Researches,
Politecnico di Milano. 2006; 265( 5): 103-126.
1625
An evolutionary approach to architectural design

Zhi Hao ZUO1*, Bang ZHAO2, Yi Min XIE1, and Xiaodong HUANG1
1*
School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering, RMIT University,
GPO Box 2476V, Melbourne 3001, Australia.
E-mail: zhihao.zuo@rmit.edu.au
2
School of Architecture and Design, RMIT University
Abstract
Topology optimization has been developed into a mature design tool for practical
applications in many fields such as civil building, automotive and aircraft industries.
This paper studies the application of topology optimization for architectural design
using the bi-directional evolutionary topology optimization technique (BESO).
Rhinoceros 3D is used as the base environment for the design process. A Rhinoceros
plug-in is developed to communicate between Rhinoceros as the CAD platform and a
computer program BESO3D as the optimization engine. The initial design is created in
Rhinoceros and transferred to the BESO engine for topology optimization process. The
optimal design as the result is displayed in Rhinoceros after the optimization is finished.
Further interpretation of the optimization results is discussed within the framework of
Rhinoceros. Applications of Rhinoceros-BESO design integration are showcased as the
examples to demonstrate the efficiency and robustness of topology optimization in
Keywords: topology optimization, bi-directional evolutionary structural optimization

(BESO), concept design, Rhinoceros, optimal design
1 Introduction
Topology optimization is a powerful tool in finding optimal material distribution for a
structure. It is capable of speeding up the structural design process and producing
reliable solutions for structural design problems. This area has been extensively
investigated in the past three decades and several popular techniques have been
developed such as the homogenization method[1], the solid isotropic microstructure
with penalization (SIMP) method [2], the evolutionary structural optimization (ESO)
method [3] and the bidirectional ESO (BESO) method [4]. Although the optimization
techniques have been developed into theoretically mature tools and preliminary
applications of topology optimization are found in some engineering design fields such
as mechanical design and aircraft design, the potential of this design tool for
architectural design has not been fully recognized.
The availability of robust topology optimization techniques in the early stages of the
design process changes the traditional way of architectural concept design and leads to
greater economic efficiency with innovative solutions. Topology optimization is able to
1626
benefit architectural design by guiding the architects towards mechanical and aesthetical
distinction. However, topology optimization of the time still seems academic in general
sense and remains a difficult tool in terms of non-architect-friendly complicate
computer software packages which demands high profession of mechanics from the
users. This, to some extent, prevents the wide application of this useful tool in modern
2 Evolutionary topology optimization cooperating with 3D modelling

software
ESO is a numerical FE-based optimization method with computational efficiency and
easy implement. The basic concept of ESO is that by slowly removing inefficient
materials, the residual shape of the structure evolves into an optimum. Its later version,
BESO not only enables material to be removed, but also to be added simultaneously.
Investigation of ESO/BESO has been made during the past two decades and developed
into a mature technique [5] in dealing with a wide range of optimization problems.
Topology optimization for stiffness (or simply stiffness optimization) aims to produce
stiffest solutions and is the most meaningful problem in most of the design cases.
Stiffness is the crucial factor of a structure that affects various aspects such as deflection,
vibration and stress distribution. In architectural design, a concept featured with the
maximized stiffness not only enhances the economic material usage with optimized
mechanical properties, but also avoids unnecessary design changes in later structural
design stage.
In this paper, we aim to demonstrate a concept design procedure based on the popular
structure modelling software package Rhinoceros. A topology optimization computer
program BESO3D is used that has been continuously developed by the authors.
Rhinoceros is used for structure modelling and optimal solution inspection, while
BESO3D is used as the finite element analysis module and the optimization engine.
Further, an extra plug-in developed by the authors is used in the Rhinoceros window to
communicate between Rhinoceros and BESO3D. Several design examples are shown in
order to demonstrate the proposed design procedure. More information about BESO3D
and the Rhinoceros plug-in is found under the Innovative Structures Group website
(ISG.rmit.edu.au).
3 Numerical procedure
The flowchart of the proposed procedure is shown in Fig. 1. Generally three steps are
identified. The first step includes preparatory actions creating the design domain,
defining the boundary and loading conditions, and determining the BESO parameters.
The design domain in topology optimization is a domain where the material can be
removed or added in order for the structure to evolve to an optimum. By defining the
boundary and loading conditions, the user needs to apply loads to the structure and fix
some points in order to make the structure stable. Further, BESO parameters need to be
determined, such as the objective volume fraction that defines the ratio of remaining
material in the design domain for the expected final design. These actions are performed
1627
inside Rhinoceros using the intrinsic modelling functions for creating geometries and
the extra plug-in for adding boundaries and loadings etc.
After the preparatory step, BESO3D is activated to perform the optimization based on
the design domain with boundaries and loadings. An iterative loop is executed including
the finite element analysis of the structure and the BESO optimization based on the
analysis results. The loop stops after the termination criteria are satisfied including the
objective volume fraction satisfaction and the solution convergence.
In the third step, the optimal design output from BESO3D can be imported into
Rhinoceros for detail inspection. Using the intrinsic functions of Rhinoceros, the user
can further process the optimal design, e.g. smoothing the zigzag surface due to the
existence of finite elements. Alternatively, the user may output the final design in the
format fit for other software packages like Maya for further processing such as
rendering and surface polishing.
1. Create the design domain for

the structure
Rhinoceros
2. Determine boundary constraints
and loads on the structure
3. Determine BESO parameters
4. Carry out finite element analysis

of the structure
5. BESO optimization based on the BESO3D

FE results
No 6. Termination criteria
satisfied?
Yes
Rhinoceros
7. Solution output, inspect
Maya
and process of final design
3Ds Max etc.
Fig. 1: Flowchart of the proposed design procedure
4 Examples
4.1 A 3D cantilever
This example deals with a cantilever in three dimensions. Figure 2 shows the design
domain and the boundary and loading conditions. Four corners on one face are fixed,
while a point load 100N is applied to the centre of the opposite face. The optimization
aims to find an optimal design with maximized stiffness using the objective volume
fraction of 20%, i.e. 20% of the design domain is filled with material.
1628
Fig. 2: Design domain and boundaries for the 3D cantilever
Figure 3 shows the final optimal design for the 3D cantilever with different views in
Rhinoceros. The final design imported is originally zigzag shaped finite element model.
Within Rhinoceros, the final design is processed with smoothed surfaces so that the
optimal design is clearly identified. Further, the rendered final optimal design is shown
in Fig. 4.
Fig. 3: Final solution of the 3D cantilever in different views in Rhinoceros
Fig. 4: The rendered final optimal design of the 3D cantilever
1629
4.2 A 3D Michel Type Structure

This example shows the optimization of a Michel type structure of three dimensions.
The design domain and boundary and loading conditions are shown in Fig. 5. Four
lower corners are fixed and a point load of 100N is applied to the centre of the lower
surface. The objective volume fraction is set to 20%. Figure 6 shows the smoothed
optimal design in different views, while the rendered optimal design is shown in Fig. 7.
Fig. 5: Design domain and boundaries for the 3D Michel structure
Fig. 6: Final solution of the 3D Michel structure in different views in Rhinoceros
Fig. 7: The rendered final optimal design of the 3D Michel structure
1630
5 Conclusions
In this paper, the BESO topology optimization is integrated into the architect-friendly
design tool Rhinoceros for stiffness optimization of structures. The BESO3D computer
program works as the post-processor to Rhinoceros in which the structure concept
design is easily created and inspected. Numerical examples are presented to
demonstrate the proposed procedure’s ability of dealing with architectural design
problems of structures. It is shown that the BESO is capable of easily cooperating with
architect-friendly software packages and of aiding designers to find optimal structural
layouts in concept design.
References
[1] Bendsøe MP and Kikuchi N. Generating optimal topologies in structural design

using a homogenization method. Comput Methods Appl Mech Eng 1988; 71: 197-
224.
[2] Bendsøe MP. Optimal shape design as a material distribution problem. Struct
Optim 1989; 1: 193-202.
[3] Xie YM and Steven GP. A simple evolutionary procedure for structural
optimization. Comput Struct 1993; 49: 885-886.
[4] Huang X and Xie YM. Convergent and mesh-independent solutions for the bi-
directional evolutionary structural optimization method. Finite Elem Anal Des 2007;
43: 1039–1049.
[5] Huang X and Xie YM. Evolutionary Topology Optimization of Continuum
Structures: Methods and Applications. Chichester, 2010.
1631
3.6 Wind simulation
1632
Wind analysis of an arch supported tensile roof

Krisztián HINCZ1*, Mauricio GAMBOA-MARRUFO 2
1*
Department of Structural Mechanics,
Budapest University of Technology and Economics
Műegyetem rkp. 3., Budapest 1111, Hungary
hinczkrisztian@yahoo.com
2
Structural Engineering Group, Engineering Faculty,
Autonomous University of Yucatan
Av. Industrias No-Contaminantes x Periférico Norte S/N, Cordemex,
Mérida, Yucatán, México
gmarrufo@uady.mx
Abstract
Determination of the wind load is a critical question of the design of hyperbolic
tensile structures. The design codes give the site wind speed and dynamic pressure, but
do not provide the pressure coefficients (cp) for different hyperbolic shapes. In the case
of complex surfaces and/or long-span structures wind tunnel tests have to be performed
to determine the pressure coefficients. However, in the case of smaller or simpler
surfaces the pressure coefficients are often approximated.
This paper introduces the wind analysis of a simple arch-supported cable net roof. The
pressure coefficients of the surface have been determined by the help of wind tunnel
tests for three wind directions.
After the determination of the pressure coefficients, the structural analysis of the
structure was performed. The cable forces were calculated on the basis of the measured
cp values, the two load cases according to the European Standard [1] and cp values given
by the Hungarian Standard [2] for flat roofs. In the last case the pressure coefficients are
calculated for every triangular element of the numerical model of the roof on the basis
of the angle between the wind direction and the normal vector of the element. Since
several membrane structures have been designed in the last two decades in Hungary on
the basis of similarly determined (roughly approximated) cp values, it was interesting to
compare not only the measured and the approximated cp values, but the representative
values of the cable forces also.
Keywords: pressure coefficient, wind tunnel test, tensile structure, dynamic relaxation
method
1 Introduction
During the design of membrane and cable net structures, the determination of the wind
load, especially the determination of the pressure coefficients is a very important and
difficult task. In the case of long-span tensile structures the pressure coefficients are
typically determined by the help of wind tunnel tests. Wind tunnel tests provide the
1633
most precise pressure coefficients, on the other hand it is expensive and time consuming
to make experiments in it. In the case of smaller structures, the pressure coefficients are
often approximated on the basis of previous tests on similar surfaces or on the basis of
design standards.
The European Standard gives general pressure coefficients for hyperbolic surfaces for
two different load cases. Load case 1 means suction on the whole surface with a
constant cp value of -0.7, load case 2 means positive pressure on the whole roof with a
constant cp value of +0.3.
In Hungary several membrane structures have been designed on the basis of
approximated pressure coefficients. The pressure coefficients are often determined on
the basis of a function of the angle between the normal vector of the surface and the
wind direction. The function is originally given for flat roofs by the Hungarian Standard.
Typically the pressure coefficients are calculated for every surface element of the
numerical model of the roof on the basis of the above mentioned function.
The TensiNet Design Guide [3] gives the cp values for some shapes on the basis of wind
tunnel test, which can be used during the design of similar structures.
This paper introduces the wind analysis of an arch-supported cable net structure. After
the determination of the pressure coefficients for three wind directions, the experimental
results were compared with the approximated pressure coefficients on the basis of the
European Standard and on the basis of the function used in Hungary. Finally the internal
forces of the cable net were calculated and compared in the case of different pressure
coefficients.
2 The analysed surface

The analyzed surface is an arch-supported cable net covered with membrane (Fig. 1).
The covered area is square with a 100 m-long diagonal (Fig. 2). The angle between the
arch and the horizontal plane measured at the corners is 40°. The height of the roof is
18.35 m (Fig. 3). The cable net consists of snow cables convex seen from above and
wind cables convex seen from below.
The hyperbolic equilibrium shape of the cable net was determined by the help of a
dynamic relaxation based numerical procedure [4], [5]. For the analysis the cable net
was covered with planar triangular elements and these elements were loaded with the
external pressure or suction.
Fig. 1: Axonometric view of the analized structure
1634
Fig. 2: Floor plan of the analized structure
Fig. 3: Side view of the analized structure
3 Determination of the pressure coefficients

The determination of the pressure coefficients was carried out in the short wind tunnel
at the Structural Engineering Laboratory of the Engineering Faculty of the Autonomous
University of Yucatan which has a 1.5-m long by 1-m2 cross-sectional working area.
An accurate 1:260 plaster scale model of the analyzed structure was built by means of a
3D Z-Corporation Spectrum z510 printer. Tap-holes were conveniently distributed on
the hyperbolic surface to obtain the variation of pressure coefficients on it (Fig. 4).
1635
Fig. 4: Tap-holes in the 1:260 plaster scale model used to obtain pressure coefficients
The scale model dimensions were 385 mm diagonally and 71 mm high. Pressure
tappings were located at each tap-hole to measure wind pressures on the hyperbolic
surface of the model. These tappings were connected to an Esterline 16-channel
pressure NetScanner Model 9116 via a tubing system. Thus in each experiment, during
data acquisition, sixteen pressure tappings were connected through the tubing system to
the pressure NetScanner for simultaneous measurement.
All pressure measurements are presented in this paper as pressure coefficients, Cp,
defined by:
Pressure Reading ( p) p  p
Cp   10 (Eq. 1)
Reference Dynamic Pressure ( pr ) 2  u r 2
where p0 is the local pressure at the surface tapping, p is the nominal undisturbed free
stream static pressure applied to the reverse side of the transducer diaphragm,  is the
density of air, and ū`r is the velocity of the undisturbed flow at a reference point distant
from the model location.
During each experiment the model was subjected to a laminar wind flow while located
at 100 mm from the wind inlet of the wind tunnel working area and centred
transversally (Fig. 5). Data acquisition was carried out for three wind directions (see
Figs. 7, 9 and 11). Each experiment lasted 120 seconds with pressure readings at a rate
of 2 Hz and was repeated 2 or 3 times using wind speeds of 20 m/s and 25 m/s to verify
steadiness of results.
1636
Fig. 5: Location of the model in the wind tunnel working area
4 Comparison of the experimental and the fictitious pressure

coefficients
The pressure coefficients have been determined by the help of wind tunnel tests for
three wind directions. For these three wind directions the pressure coefficients were also
determined for every surface element by the help of a function based on the Hungarian
Standard for flat roofs. The function gives the pressure coefficients on the basis of the
angle between the wind direction and the normal vector of the roof pointing towards the
interior of the surface (Table 2, Fig. 6).
Table 2: The calculation of the pressure coefficients on the basis of angle α between the
wind direction and the normal vector of the roof
α 0<α<30° 30°<α<75° 75°<α

cp 0.8 1.4·
(75°-α)/45-0.6 -0.6
In the case of wind direction 1, the wind is perpendicular to the plane of the supporting
arch. The results of the wind tunnel test can be seen in Fig. 7, the approximated pressure
coefficients calculated on the basis of the above given function can be seen in Fig. 8.
The maximum of the positive pressure coefficients in the first case is 0.37, in the second
case is 0.24. The maximum of the negative pressure coefficients in the first case is -0.64,
in the second case is -0.6.
There is a significant difference between the two set of pressure coefficients on the
windward side of the roof. The experimental pressure coefficients are almost only
positive; the approximated pressure coefficients are almost only negative on the
windward side of the roof. Close to the experimental results, the function gives constant
-0.6 pressure coefficients on the leeward side of the roof.
1637
surface of
the roof
wind direction
normal vector
of the roof
Fig. 6: The cross section of a hyperbolic surface and the measuring of angle α
In the case of wind direction 2, the wind is parallel with the plane of the supporting arch.
The results of the wind tunnel test can be seen in Fig. 9, the approximated pressure
coefficients calculated on the basis of the above given function can be seen in Fig. 10.
The experimental pressure coefficients vary between -0.56 and 0.39, there is positive
pressure only in two small areas near the supports of the arch. The function gives
negative pressure coefficients on the whole roof with a -0.6 maximum value.
In the case of wind direction 3, the angle between the wind direction and the vertical
plane of the supporting arch is 45 degrees. The results of the wind tunnel test can be
seen in Fig. 11, the approximated pressure coefficients calculated on the basis of the
above given function can be seen in Fig. 12. The experimental results show that there
are large negative pressure coefficients on the leeward side of the ridge of the surface;
the maximum value is -1.5. The maximum of the positive pressure coefficients is 0.4.
The approximated pressure coefficients vary between -0.6 and 0.51.
Since the maximum values are not enough to decide if an approximated pressure
coefficient distribution is on the safe side or not, the internal forces were calculated on
the basis of the different pressure coefficients.
1638
Fig. 7: Pressure coefficients on the basis of the wind tunnel test, wind direction 1
Fig. 8: Pressure coefficients based on the function for flat roofs, wind direction 1
1639
1640
1641
5 Comparison of the internal forces according to the different pressure

coefficients
The structure was analysed through a procedure based on the dynamic relaxation
method. During the static analysis the dynamic pressure was 1 kN/m2.
Table 2 contains the maximum and minimum forces in the wind and snow cables and
the number of slack cables. The representative values of the cable forces are given for
 the construction shape (prestressed but unloaded structure),
 the three wind directions on the basis of the experimental and the approximated,
function based pressure coefficients,
 the two load cases given by the European Standard, suction with constant
pressure coefficient -0.7 (load case 1), positive pressure with constant pressure
coefficient 0.3 (load case 2).
The results show that in the case of wind directions 1 and 2, the maximum forces in the
wind cables are larger by more than 20% in the case of the function based pressure
coefficients than in the case of experimental pressure coefficients. In the case of wind
direction 3, the maximum force in the wind cables is smaller in the case of the function
based pressure coefficients (450 kN) than in the case of the experimental pressure
coefficients (519 kN). The large negative pressure coefficients (given by the wind
tunnel test) at the leeward side of the ridge resulted in the maximum cable force in the
case of the experimental pressure coefficients. The constant negative pressure
coefficient (-0.7), given by the European Standard results in the same maximum force
(besides a completely different force distribution in the cable net).
The experimental pressure coefficients give the maximum force in the snow cables in
the case of wind direction 3 (336 kN), the function based pressure coefficients give a
larger value (362 kN), the constant positive pressure coefficient (0.3) given by the
European Standard gives smaller value (291 kN).
The maximum of the cable forces show that in the case of the analysed roof and the
analysed three wind directions, the simultaneous use of the function based pressure
coefficients and the two load cases given by the European Standard would give very
good results. The maximum forces calculated on the basis of these five cases are very
close to the experimental results.
Finally Fig. 13 and Fig. 14 show the cable forces in the case of wind direction 3 on the
basis of experimental and function based, approximated pressure coefficients. Fig. 15
shows the cable forces in the case of constant (-0.7) pressure coefficients. The
differences between the force distributions are significant according to the differences in
the distributions of the pressure coefficients.
1642
Table 2: Cable forces calculated on the basis of different pressure coefficients
Wind cables Snow cables
Max force Min force Max force Min force

Slack Slack
[kN] [kN] [kN] [kN]
Construction shape 240 74 0 256 113 0
Wind direction 1,
365 0 2 263 0 5
experimental p. c.
Wind direction 1,
450 138 0 176 0 8
function based p. c.
Wind direction 2,
340 176 0 330 0 8
experimental p. c.
Wind direction 2,
451 243 0 260 0 16
Wind direction 3,
519 88 0 336 0 8
experimental p. c.
Wind direction 3,
450 243 0 362 0 14
constant pressure
519 278 0 180 0 16
coefficient -0.7
constant pressure
203 8 0 291 211 0
coefficient 0.3
1643
Fig. 13: Cable forces calculated on the basis of the pressure coefficients given by the
wind tunnel test, wind direction 3
Fig. 14: Cable forces calculated on the basis of pressure coefficients given by the
function for flat roofs, wind direction 3
Fig. 15: Cable forces calculated on the basis of constant -0.7 pressure coefficients
1644
6 Conclusions
The paper introduces the wind analysis of a simple arch supported tensile roof. After the
introduction of the wind tunnel tests, the pressure coefficients are given for three wind
directions. The experimental pressure coefficients are compared with standard based
fictitious pressure coefficients. Finally the cable forces are calculated on the basis of the
different pressure coefficients.
The results show that in the case of the analysed roof, the simultaneous use of the
function applied often in Hungary for the determination of the pressure coefficients and
the two load cases given by the European Standard give good results. The maximum of
the cable forces calculated on the basis of the five different set of approximated pressure
coefficients are very close to the maximum forces based on the three set of experimental
pressure coefficients.
Acknowledgement
Support by OTKA Grant No. PD-75305 and by the Hungarian-Mexican

Intergovernmental S & T Programme (NKTH) No. MX-7/2007 is gratefully
acknowledged.
References
[1] European Standard EN 13782:2005

[2] Hungarian Standard MSZ 15021/1-86
[3] Foster B., Mollaert M., European Design Guide for Tensile Surface Structures,
TensiNet 2004.
[4] Barnes M.R., Form-finding and analysis of prestressed nets and membranes,
Computers and Structures, 1988; 30; 685-695.
[5] Day A.S., An introduction to dynamic relaxation, The Engineer, 1965, 218-221.
1645
Wind Loads for designing open-topped oil storage tanks

Choongmo KOO1*，Yasushi UEMATSU2 ，Koji KONDO3 ，Kazumasa OKUBO3
1*
Department of Architecture and Building Science, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-
8579, Japan
E-mail: koo@venus.str.archi.tohoku.ac.jp
2
Department of Architecture and Building Science, Tohoku University
3
Kajima Techinical Research Institute
Abstract
Wind force coefficients for designing open-topped oil storage tanks are
investigated based on a series of wind tunnel experiments. Focus is on open-topped
tanks; the effects of roof on the wind forces as well as on the buckling behavior are
investigated. In the wind tunnel experiments, the wind pressures are first measured at
many points both on the external and internal surfaces of rigid models in a turbulent
boundary layer. Then, the buckling behavior of thin cylindrical shells with or without
roof is investigated both in smooth and turbulent flows. A discussion is made of the
dynamic load effects on the buckling behavior. The effect of wind force distribution on
the buckling behavior is investigated. The results indicate that the distribution on the
windward surface affects the buckling behavior significantly.
Keywords: Oil Storage Tank, Open-top, Thin Circular Cylindrical Shell, Wind Tunnel
Experiment, Wind pressure Coefficients, Buckling.
1 Introduction
Circular cylindrical shell structures, such as oil-storage tanks and silos, are generally so
thin compared with the radius that the stability of these shells under wind loading is one
of the most important technological problems. Therefore, wind loads and aerodynamic
behavior of circular cylindrical structures were studied extensively in the past (e.g.
MacDonald et al. [1, 2], Holroyd [3], Uematsu et al. [4, ], Uchiyama et al. [6]).
However, no study has been made of the dynamic wind forces based on simultaneous
pressure measurements at many locations both on the external and internal surfaces of
open-topped cylinders in turbulent boundary layers. In such structures, wind load
becomes the most critical when they are empty. At present, in the structural design of
these shells, the wind loads are usually determined based on the time-averaged wind
pressure distributions on the external and internal surfaces. However, the net wind
forces should be evaluated by considering the dynamic load effects and the correlation
between the external and internal pressures.
In the present study, wind pressures at many locations on the external and internal
surfaces of tank models are measured simultaneously in a turbulent boundary layer. The
time-space correlation and the dynamic load effects of pressures are investigated. A
buckling test with thin shell specimens is conducted in smooth and turbulent flows.
1646
Measurements of the mean wind pressure coefficients are also measured in these flows
to calculate the buckling loads. Based on these results, a discussion is made of the
design wind loads on open-toped cylindrical storage tanks with consideration of the
buckling behavior and the dynamic load effects of wind pressures.
2 Characteristics of wind pressures on the external and internal

surfaces
2.1 Experimental apparatus and procedures

The wind-tunnel experiments were carried out in a closed-circuit-type wind tunnel at
Kajima Technical Research Institute, which has a working section 18.1 m long, 2.5 m
wide and 2.0 m high. A turbulent boundary layer with a power law exponent of
approximately 0.15 was generated on the wind tunnel floor (see Fig.1). Fig.2 shows the
profiles of the mean wind speed and turbulence intensity of the wind tunnel flow. The
turbulence intensities at z = 62.5, 125 and 250 mm are approximately 0.18, 0.16 and
0.14, respectively. Three models (Models A to C) with different aspect ratios of H/D=
1.0, 0.5 and 0.25 were tested; the external diameter of the model is D = 250mm, and the
thickness is 6mm. The geometric scale of the models is assumed 1/400, same as that of
the wind-tunnel flow. The dimensions of the models and the tap location are shown in
Fig.3. The pressure taps of 0.5 mm diameter are installed at a step of 15o on the external
surface and at a step of 30o on the internal surface along each circumference. The roof
height hr can be varied from 0 to H. In the present paper, focus is on two limiting cases;
i.e. hr = 0 (open-top) and H (closed-top). The pressure taps are connected to pressure
transducers in parallel via 80 cm lengths of flexible vinyl tubing of 1 mm inside
diameter. The wind pressures at all taps are sampled simultaneously at a rate of 1 kHz
for approximately 33 sec. The compensation for the frequency response of the
pneumatic tubing system is carried out by using a digital filter to obtain a flat response
up to about 500 Hz. The wind velocity UH at a height of z = H is approximately 10 m/s
for all models; the corresponding Reynolds number Re (=UHD/, with  being the
kinematic viscosity of the air) is approximately 1.7  105. The Reynolds number regime
is regarded as ‘transcritical’, based on McDonald et al. [1].
From the experimental data, we obtain five or six series of 10 min time history of
pressures in full scale. The statistical value of wind pressures are evaluated by applying
ensemble average to the results of these five or six consecutive runs.
Fig.1: Experimental model placed in a wind tunnel (Model C).
1647
700
Mean wind speed
600 Mean(α=0.15)
Iu
500
400
Z (mm)
300
200
100
0
0 0.5 1 1.5
U(z)/U(400), Iu
Fig.2: Profiles of the mean wind speed and turbulence intensity of the wind tunnel flow.
238
Wind
250
Reference point
10
50 50 50 50 50
250 (d) Roof

41,7
Wind
10
15o
250
250
Wind
24,2
10
125
Wind
62,5
10
24,2
41,7
10
10
(a) Model A (H/D = 1.0) (b) Model B (H/D = 0.5) (c) Model C (H/D = 0.25)
Fig.3: Dimensions of wind-tunnel models and location of pressure taps
(external wall surface and roof).
2.2 Distributions of wind pressure coefficients
Our previous study (e.g., Uematsu and Koo [7]) indicated that the variation of wind
pressure coefficient in the vertical direction is fairly small. Therefore, focus is on the
distribution along the circumference including the reference point (see Fig.3) in the
present paper.
1648
2.2.1 Distributions of wind pressure and force coefficients
Buckling behavior of cylindrical shells seems dependent on the magnitude and extent
of positive wind forces on the windward area. Therefore, the pressure distribution at an
instant tmax when the external wind pressure at the reference point becomes the
maximum peak value may be important from the viewpoint of structural stability of the
shells. To investigate such a pressure distribution, a conditional sampling of wind
pressures was carried out. The instantaneous Cp value at t = tmax is represented by Cp*
hereafter. Fig.4 (a) shows the result for Model A. For the purpose of comparison, the
distribution of the mean pressure coefficient Cpmean along the same circumference is
plotted in Fig.4 (b). Note that in the figure the values of Cp* and Cpmean are normalised
by the corresponding external pressure coefficients at the reference point.
1.5 1.5
Cp(θ)/Cp(0°)
Cp(θ)/Cp(0°)
Model A Model A
(Open-top) 1.0 (Open-top) 1.0
External External
z= 3/4H 0.5 z= 3/4H 0.5
θ (deg) θ (deg)
0.0 0.0
-180 -120 -60 -0.5 0 60 120 180 -180 -120 -60 0 60 120 180
-0.5
-1.0 Internal -1.0
Internal
-1.5 -1.5
-2.0 -2.0
(a) Conditional sampling (b) Mean

Fig.4: Circumferential distributions of the pressure coefficients (Model A, Open-top)
1.5
Cf(θ)/Cf(0°)
M ean
Conditional sampling
1
0.5
0
θ(deg)
-180 -120 -60 0 60 120 180
-0.5
-1
Fig.5: Circumferential distributions of the wind force coefficients
The distributions of Cpmean and Cp* looks similar to each other. However a detailed
comparison indicates that the two distributions are somewhat different from each other,
particularly for the negative external pressure coefficients and the internal pressure
coefficient; the values obtained from the conditional sampling are generally smaller in
magnitude than those of the mean pressure coefficients. On the other hand, regarding
the wind force coefficient, defined by the difference between the external and internal
pressure coefficients, the distributions of mean wind force coefficient Cfmean and the
1649
conditional sampling Cf* value are similar to each other, as shown in Fig.5. In the figure,
the wind force coefficients are again normalised by the values at θ = 0 o. Similar
features of wind pressure and force coefficients were observed for the other models.
2.3 Wind pressure fluctuations
2.3.1 Distribution of correlation coefficient
The correlation coefficients R between the external or internal pressures at the reference
point and those at the other points are computed. The reference point for each model is
shown in Fig.3. Figs.6 and 7 show the circumferential distributions of R at z = 4/5H for
Model A and at z = 2/3H for Model C, respectively. Note that the results for Model B
were similar to these for Model A.
The results on the correlation coefficient R may be summarized as follows. (i) The
distribution is similar to the Cp* distributions obtained from the conditional sampling as
well as to the first mode shape obtained from a POD analysis (see Uematsu and Koo
[7]). (ii) The external pressures in the windward region are positive and well correlated
with each other. On the other hand, the correlation between these positive pressures and
the negative external pressures in the side and leeward regions is rather low. (iii) The
external and internal pressures at the reference point are correlated well with each other.
(iv)The magnitude of R generally becomes smaller with a decrease in the aspect ratio.
1.5 1.5
○ External ○ External
R
1
× Internal × Internal
1
0.5 0.5
θ( deg)
0 0
-180 -120 -60 0 60 120 180 -180 -120 -60 0 60 120 180
θ(deg)
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
(a) Model A (z = 4/5H) (b) Model A (z = 4/5H)
Fig.6 Circumferential distribution of correlation coefficient (Model A, open-top)
1.5 1.5
R
○ External ○ External
R
Figure 3 Circumferential
1
× Internal
distributions of 1
× Internal
the pressure coefficients
0.5 0.5
θ( deg)
0 0
-180 -120 -60 0 60 120 180 -180 -120 -60 0 60 120 θ( deg)
180
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
(e) Model C (z = 2/3H) (f) Model C (z = 2/3H)
Fig.7 Circumferential distribution of correlation coefficient (Model A, open-top)
1650
2.3.2 Power spectra
Figs.8 and 9 show the reduced power spectra of external and internal pressures at θ = 0o
(reference point) and θ = 180o, respectively. Non-dimensional power spectra of the
external and internal pressures at the reference point are similar to each other. They are
also similar to that of wind velocity fluctuations in the approach flow. This feature and
the above-mentioned results on R indicate that the external and internal pressures at the
preference point are affected by the approach flow and fluctuate with a high correlation.
Two peaks are seen in the spectra of the internal pressures at θ = 180o (Fig.9(a)). The
second peak may be related to the flow separation at top of the cylinder.
1.00E+00 1.00E+00
1.00E-01 1.00E-01
f・S(f)/σ^2
f・S(f)/σ^2
1.00E-02 1.00E-02
1.00E-03 1.00E-03
External External
Internal Internal
1.00E-04 1.00E-04
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
fD/UH fD/UH
(a) Model A (z = 4/5H) (b) Model C (z = 2/3H)
Fig.8 Non-dimensional power spectra of pressures at θ= 0°(reference point)
1.00E+00 1.00E+00
1.00E-01 1.00E-01
f・S(f)/σ^2
f・S(f)/σ^2
1.00E-02 1.00E-02
External External
Internal Internal
1.00E-03 1.00E-03
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
fD/UH fD/UH
(a) Model A (z = 4/5H) (b) Model C (z = 2/3H)

Fig.9 Non-dimensional power spectra of pressures at θ= 180°
2.4 Gust effect factor
The design wind loads may be given by the product of the equivalent static wind force
coefficient and a gust effect factor Gf. The value of Gf should be evaluated based on the
dynamic property of the most important load effect. As will be shown later, the
buckling of cylindrical shells occurs only in the windward area. Therefore, the wind
force in this area affects the buckling behavior significantly. It may be reasonable to
1651
evaluate the gust effect factor based on the averaged wind force over some area
including the stagnation point. Hence, the time-history of area-averaged wind forces for
various windward areas, represented by  = B/2 to +B/2 and z = 0 to H, are
computed, and the gust effect factor, defined as the ratio of the maximum peak to the
mean values, are computed. The results are plotted in Fig.10. The data for B = 0o
represent the results for the averaged wind force over the stagnation line (θ = 0 o). The
dashed lines represent the results for the wind force at the reference point (close to the
stagnation point). The values of Gf change only a little with B up to about 50o, which
implies that the wind pressures on the windward area are significantly affected by the
turbulence in the approach flow and fluctuate almost simultaneously. That is, the gust
effect factor may be evaluated based on the turbulence of the approach flow.
3 Model C
Gf
Model B
2
Model A
1
0 30 60 90 120
ΔB (deg)
Fig. 10 Gust effect factor based on the area-averaged wind forces (open-top)
3 Experiment on the buckling behavior of thin cylindrical shells
3.1 Test cylinders and experimental procedure
The buckling behavior of thin cylindrical shells with or without roof was investigated
both in smooth and turbulent flows. The wind-tunnel experiments were carried out in an
Eiffel-type wind tunnel at Tohoku Institute of Technology (see Fig.11(a)). A turbulent
boundary layer with a power law experiment of approximately 0.17 was generated on
the wind tunnel floor. The turbulence intensity IuH is approximately 0.12 at z = 110 mm
and 0.09 at z = 218 mm. The turbulence intensity of the smooth flow is less then 1%.
Test cylinders were made of 0.1 mm thick polyester film with Young’s modulus E =
5.55 GPa and Poisson’s ratio  = 0.3, by bonding a belt of 5mm width along the
longitudinal seam and then attaching an aluminum end plate at the bottom and an
aluminum ring at the top. The belt was made of the same film as the cylinder wall. In
order to obtain clear boundary conditions at the both edges, the film was bonded to a 10
mm thick end-plate at the bottom and to a ring at the top with epoxy cement (see
Fig.11(b)). The diameter D is 216 mm, and the height H is 110 mm (Cylinder A) or 218
mm (Cylinder B). Therefore, the length L of the shell is 90 mm for Cylinder A and 198
mm for Cylinder B. For closed-top models, the upper ring was covered with a 1 mm
1652
thick plastic circular plate. Note that the length-to-diameter ratio (L/D) of the test
cylinder is somewhat smaller than that of the height-to-diameter ratio of the models
used for pressure measurements described above.
The aspect ratio of the specimen including the aluminum ring and plate is 1.0 for
Cylinder A and 0.5 for Cylinder B. In the smooth flow case, the specimen was mounted
on a circular end plate 5 mm thick and 60 cm in diameter, which was placed 10 cm
above the wind tunnel floor (see Fig.11 (a)). The radial displacement w of the cylinder
at the mid-height was measured by a laser displacement meter (see Fig.11 (b)).
(a) Test cylinder (cylinder A, Smooth flow) (b) Dimensions of the test cylinder
Fig.11: Experimental setup and test cylinder.
In addition to the displacement measurements with elastic cylinders, the mean pressure
coefficient distributions on the external and internal surfaces are also measured with
rigid models, the results of which are used for determining the buckling load. The outer
diameter D and height H are the same as these of the above specimens.
3.2 Bucking load

Fig.12 shown the time history of shell vibration at a point ( = 0o, z = H/2) for Cylinder
A in the smooth flow. At low wind velocities the shell wall vibrates randomly. As the
velocity pressure qH at a height of z = H is increased, the vibration amplitude increases
gradually. At some critical velocity pressure qHcr0, the windward part of the cylinder
buckles intermittently. This phenomenon is called ‘Initial buckling’, in this paper. With
an increase in velocity pressure, large deflection accompanied by the buckling occurs
more frequently. At a critical velocity pressure qHcr1, the shell buckles completely
(called ‘Complete buckling’, here). The results on cr0 and cr1 for cylinder A are
summarized in Table 1.
Table 1: Non-dimensional buckling loads (Cylinder A)
Flow Roof cr0 cr1

Smooth flow Closed-top 240 280
Open-top 224 262
Turbulent boundary layer Closed-top 201 287
Open-top 205 275
1653
1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5
w (mm)
w (mm)
0.0 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 Time (s) 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
-0.5 Time (s)
-0.5
(a) qH/qHcr1 = 0.87 (b) qH/qHcr1 = 0.92
1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5
w (mm)
w (mm)
0.0 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 Time (s) 5 0 1 2 3 4 Time (s) 5
-0.5 -0.5
(c) qH/qHcr1 = 0.94 (d) qH/qHcr1 = 0.98
Fig. 12: Time history of deflection of at ( = 0 , z = H/2) in the smooth flow o
(Cylinder A, open-top)
Our previous study (e.g., Uematsu and Koo [7]) indicated that the pressure coefficients
on the external wall were not affected by the roof, while the roof affected the internal
pressures significantly.
Furthermore, the pressure measurements in the smooth flow as well as in the turbulent
boundary layer indicated that the mean pressure coefficient distributions on the external
surface are quite different from each other, particularly in the side and leeward regions.
Therefore, the overall distributions of the wind force coefficients in the four cases
shown in Table 1 are quite different from each other. Nevertheless, the values of cr1 for
the four cases are close to each other. This feature implies that the buckling of the
cylinder is governed by the magnitude and distribution of the positive wind force on the
windward area, considering that the wind force coefficients in the windward area are
only slightly affected by the roof and the flow condition.
The skewness S and kurtosis K of the shell vibrations are computed to understand the
vibration characteristics quantitatively. Fig.13 shows the results for Cylinder A. The
values of |S| and K increase significantly with qH as the value of qH/qHcr1 exceeds about
0.75 in the turbulent boundary layer and about 0.87 in the smooth flow. This feature
corresponds well to the results in Fig.12.
66 100
一様流open SKEWNESS
● Smooth (open-top) ● Smooth (open-top)
44 一様流closed
○ Smooth (closed-top) 80 ○ Smooth (closed-top)
境界層乱流open
▲ Turbulent (open-top) ▲ Turbulent (open-top)
22 △ Turbulent (closed-top)
境界層乱流closed 60 △ Turbulent (closed-top)
qH/qHcr1
S-3
0
40
S
0
K
0.7 0.8 0.9 1

-20.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
-2 20
-4
-4 0
-6 0.7 0.8 0.9 qH/qHcr1 1.0
-6 -20
qH/qHcr
(e) Skewness (f) Kurtosis
Fig. 13: Skewness and Kurtosis of shell vibration at a point ( = 0o，z=H/2)

(Cylinder A, open-top)
1654
The characteristics of wind pressures acting on open-topped tanks have been
investigated in a wind tunnel. The results of conditional sampling indicate that the
values obtained from the conditional sampling Cp* values are generally smaller in
magnitude than those of the mean pressure coefficients Cpmean in the side and leeward
regions. However, regarding the wind force coefficient, defined as the difference
between the external and internal pressure coefficients, the two distributions are similar
to each other, which implies that the design wind force coefficient can be evaluated
based on the mean wind force coefficient. The correlation coefficients R between the
external pressures in the windward region are generally positive and well correlated
with each other. The external and internal pressures near the stagnation point are also
correlated relatively well with each other. The buckling loads for both the open-topped
and closed-topped tanks are similar to each other despite a significant difference in the
distribution of wind force coefficients in the side and leeward regions. This indicates
that the wind force distribution on the windward regions affects the buckling behavior
significantly. Therefore, the design wind force coefficient can be estimated by the
product of the mean wind force coefficient and a gust effect factor that is determined
from the turbulence of approach flow.
References
[1] P.A. MacDonald, K.C.S. Kwok, J.D. Holmes. Wind loads on circular storage bins,
silos and tanks: I. Point pressure measurements on isolated structures, Journal of
Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics1988; 31: 165187.
[2] P.A. MacDonald, K.C.S. Kwok, J.D. Holmes. Wind loads on circular storage bins,
silos and tanks: II. Effect of grouping, Journal of Wind Engineering and
Industrial Aerodynamics 1990;34:77-95,.
[3] R.J. Holroyd. On the behaviour of open-topped oil storage tanks in high winds
(Part 1), Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics1983;12:329-
352,.
[4] Y. Uematsu, M. Yamada. Aerodynamic forces on circular cylinders of finite
height, Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics,1994;51: 249-
265.
[5] Y. Uematsu, K. Uchiyama. Deflection and buckling behavior of thin, circular
cylindrical shells under wind loads, Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial
Aerodynamics 1985;18:245-261,.
[6] K. Uchiyama, Y. Uematsu, T. Orimo. Experiments on the deflection and buckling
behavior of ring-stiffened cylindrical shells under wind pressure, Journal of Wind
Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics1987; 26: 195-211.
[7] Y. Uematsu, C.M. Koo. Wind-tunnel study of wind loads on circular cylindrical
structures, Journal of Wind Engineering,2008;JAWE, 33:17-25. (in Japanese)
1655
Theory of POD and its application in wind engineering of

spatial structures
Fanghui LI 1*, Ming GU 2 , Zhenhua NI 3 , Shizhao SHEN 4
1*
School of Architectural Engineering, Heilongjiang University
Harbin 150086, China
fhli_2000@163.com
2
State Key Laboratory for Disaster Reduction in Civil Engineering, Tongji University
3
Department of Civil Engineering, Shantou University
4
School of Civil Engineering ,Harbin Institute of Technology
Abstract
Proper orthogonal decomposition (POD) is an effective technique for data
reduction and feature extraction of the random field. The POD is a statistical method
particularly suitable for problems concerning wind engineering. This paper introduces
the basic theory of the POD and main advantages of its applications to wind engineering
of structures, these include that the original pressure field can be accurately
reconstructed with a limited number of modes by using the wind pressure data which
are measured simultaneously in a wind tunnel test. The effectiveness and practicability
of POD was illustrated by comparing with original data in the time domain and
frequency domain.
Keywords: Proper orthogonal decomposition, pitched roof, reconstruction of wind

pressure field
1 Introduction
Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD) is an effective method to analyze statistical
characteristics of complex random fields. POD is a method of detecting a new
coordinate system which can most efficiently represent the original random phenomena,
and greatly reduce the data storage [[1]~[6]]. POD technique represents a random process
as a linear combination of the orthogonal eigenmodes and principal components, which
are uncorrelated with each other. The POD technique has been applied in many fields
including random variable, signal analysis，process identification, and many others
[7~10]
. This paper focuses on the applications of POD to wind engineering of structures.
The structures located in the boundary layer of atmospheric turbulence boundary layer
usually have complex wind pressure fields because of the no-stationary turbulent flow
and the flow separation and reattachment. Pressure fluctuation is an important factor for
the design of roofs because it is apt to cause numerous failures of structure claddings
and roof covers. Based on the analysis of the eigenvalue problem of the covariance
matrix or correlation matrix, POD applies an efficient technique to identify the wind
pressure fields [[11]] and adopts combination of simple series to describe the pressure
1656
fluctuation [[11]]. POD, as a space-time separation method, divides the pressure field into
spatially varying parts, the eigenvectors of covariance matrix, which is independent of
time, and time varying parts, the principal coordinates, which is independent of spatial
position. The application of POD to wind engineering was first introduced to analyze
pressure fluctuations on cooling tower by Armitt (1968). Best and Holmes (1983)
investigated building wind loading using eigenvalues in the covariance integration
method, pointed that the wind-induced RMS response of structures can be expressed as
the response contributed by the first several eigenmodes [[9]]. Panofsky and Dutton(1984)
proposed to simulate gust random samples by using principal coordinates[[13]].
Davenport applied POD to the research on wind velocity fields and wind pressure fields,
provided an efficient method to generalization and simplification of wind load [[14]].
Bienkiewicz et al. analyzed the fluctuating wind pressure on the roof of a low-rise
building. The mechanical essence of the lower eigenmodes was also discussed [[15],[16]].
In general, there are two different interpretations for the POD technique, the first
interpretation as Karhunen-Loeve decomposition (KLD) and the second one considers
that the POD consists of three methods: the KLD,the principal component analysis
(PCA), and the singular value decomposition (SVD)[[10]].
In this paper, the derivation of POD is presented from the viewpoint of Rayleigh’s
quotient, which is independent of the original framework which is based on Mercer
theorem, and the meanings of related variables are clarified. Then the application of
POD to reconstruction of wind pressure field is introduced. Taking the pitched roof as
an example, the reconstruction of wind pressure field was studied by using the wind
pressure data which are measured simultaneously in a wind tunnel test. The
effectiveness and practicability of POD is illustrated by comparing with original data in
the time domain and frequency domain.
2 POD Method
{ p(t )} is the wind pressure vector measured simultaneously in wind tunnel model
{ p(t )}  { p1 (t ), p 2 (t ),  p N (t )}T (1)
Where, p i (t )  p( xi , y i , t ) is the fluctuating pressure on the ith pressure tap.

An orthogonal coordinate is expected to be obtained, on which { p(t )} has maximum
projections. {φ}n is set as base vector of axis-n of the orthogonal coordinate.
Accordingly the projection of pressure vector on the axis-n is:
a n (t )  { p(t )}T {φ}n  {φ}Tn { p(t )} (n  1,2, , N ) (2)
The formulation above is normalized:
{φ}Tn { p(t )}
a n (t )  (3)
({φ}Tn {φ}n ) 1 2
Where, a n (t ) is principal coordinates. The following equation can be obtained by
maximizing the projection with mean square method:
1657
{φ}Tn { p(t )}{ p(t )}T {φ}n {φ}Tn [c]{φ}n

a n2 (t )    λn (4)
{φ}Tn {φ}n {φ}Tn {φ}n
{φ}n is derived from the equation above to obtain maximum value of λn , which is a kind
of Rayleigh Quotient problem. Due to the characteristics of Rayleigh Quotient, it is
known that the Rayleigh Quotient of equation (4) is stationary of eigenvector of
covariance matrix [c] . Therefore, if and only if {φ}n satisfies the eigenvalue problem
below, the a n2 (t ) is equal to stationary and the stationary, namely eigenvalue, is:
[c]{φ}n  λn {φ}n (n  1,2, , N ) (5)
Assuming eigenmodes have been normalized, eigentmodes matrix and principal
coordinates matrix are defined as follows:
[Φ]  [{φ}1 , {φ}2 ,  , {φ} N ] {a (t )}  {a1 (t ), a 2 (t ),  , a N (t )}T (6)
Equation (2) leads to:
{a(t )}  [Φ]T { p(t )} (7)
According to the orthogonality of eigenmodes matrix [Φ] , the following equation is
given by equation (7)
N
{ p(t )}  [Φ]{a(t )}   a n (t ){φ}n (8)
n 1
POD divides the space and time-dependent pressure field into principal coordinates
a n (t ) , which is independent of spatial position, and eigenmodes {φ}n , which depends
on spatial position.
The field-total sum of the mean-square of the wind pressure field is equal to the sum of
the eigenvalues, can be written
N
 P ( x, y, t )dxdy   λn
2
(9)
n 1
The eigenvalue is the measure of the contribution of each eigenmode to the pressure
mean squares.
In the following sections, the applications of POD to reconstruction of wind pressure
field are investigated by using the wind pressure data which are measured
simultaneously in a wind tunnel test.
3. Wind tunnel test
The experiments were conducted in a boundary layer wind tunnel with a 3mx2m cross-
section. A pitched roof model at a scaling of 1/60 is shown in Fig.1. Its prototype has
plan dimension of 42m by 21m with the roof pitch of 20o and the eaves height of 6m, in
simulated boundary-layer turbulent flows, representing the open-country exposure with
the power-law exponent of 0.16 that is in accordance with Chinese Loading Code of
Building and Structures. The wind pressure data was measured simultaneously at all
points using a multi-channel simultaneous fluctuating pressure measurement system.
1658
Four ZOC33 pressure modules were measured substantially simultaneously with 20480
samples and the sampling frequency of 312.5Hz by using DSM3200 data acquisition
system produced.
Fig.1: Testing model in wind tunnel
4 Reconstruction of pressure fields

Wind pressure fields on roof are difficult to be analyzed due to the large quantity of
wind pressure data. A few of eigenmodes and principal coordinates are utilized to
reconstruct pressure field and extract the properties of random pressure fields by POD.
The wind pressure coefficient at a point (x,y) on the roof surface can be expanded as
M
C p ( x,y,t)   a m (t )φm ( x,y) (10)
m 1
Where， M is the number of eigenmodes to be adopted, a m (t ) is the principle

coordinates, φ m (x,y) is the eigenmodes. The number of modes that need to be
considered for exact reconstruction, namely, M is smaller than N. The original wind
pressure field may be approximated by Eq.(10), this is so-called the reconstruction of
wind pressure field.
Combining pressure data which was measured simultaneously in wind tunnel, the wind
pressure field on the pitched roof model is reconstructed by POD. The distribution of
pressure taps is shown in Fig.2. Table 1 gives the comparison of contributions from the
first ten modal energies and associated accumulated energies calculated from the
eigenvalue problem with or without the mean pressure components. It was found that
the modal energy with mean wind pressure components included is much larger than the
same modal energy without mean pressure values. The analysis of eigenvalues problem
demonstrates that the 1st eigenvalue of correlation matrix contributes significantly.
Therefore, reconstruction by the 1st eigenmode is usually accurate enough for most of
pressure taps. Table 2 shows the mean wind pressure value on the typical taps of the
pitched roof. The comparison between reconstructed and real mean wind pressure
coefficient at typical pressure taps validates the efficiency of the proposed
reconstruction method.
1659
Fig.2: Arrangement of pressure taps on roof (unit: mm)
Table 1: Comparison of the first 10 modal energies and associated accumulated

energies
Mean Included Mean Excluded

Mode Modal Energy Accumulated Energy Modal Energy Accumulated
(%) (%) (%) Energy (%)
1 86.46 86.46 16.23 16.23
2 1.13 87.59 7.01 23.24
3 0.91 88.50 5.68 28.92
4 0.63 89.12 3.52 32.44
5 0.56 89.68 3.40 35.84
6 0.51 90.19 3.15 38.99
7 0.47 90.66 2.95 41.94
8 0.45 91.11 2.79 44.72
9 0.40 91.51 2.49 47.22
10 0.32 91.83 1.96 49.18
Table 2: Comparison between reconstructed and real mean wind pressure coefficient at
typical pressure taps
Number of taps Reconstructed value Real value Error(%)

1 -0.5644 -0.5644 0.00
5 -0.1003 -0.1005 -0.23
53 -0.0336 -0.0331 1.48
71 -0.4792 -0.4785 0.15
Fig.3 shows the comparison between original (solid line) and reconstructed (dotted line)
pressure time series and auto-spectra of tap 1, in which the notation “M modes”means
M modes were adopted in pressure reconstruction based on POD technique. It is
indicated that the errors of both time and frequency domain analysis are reduced as the
number of adopted modes are increased. If the number of adopted modes is large
1660
enough, the wind pressure field can be reconstructed exactly with this method. The
efficiency of reconstruction depends on the location of reconstructed pressure taps. The
reconstruction of regions with stronger wind pressure is more efficient. The errors are
mainly showed in high-frequency area when the modes adopted are deficient.
0 0
10 10
0
Cp(t)
nS(n)/2
-0.5
nS(n)/
-1 -1
10 10
-1 20 modes
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01
— Real — Real
0 --- 20 modes --- 40 modes
Cp(t)
-2 -2
-0.5 10 10
0 2 0 2
10 10 10 10
-1 40 modes
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 n(Hz) n(Hz)
0 0
10 10
0
Cp(t)
-0.5
60 modes
nS(n)/2
-1
nS(n)/
-1 -1
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 10 10
0
Cp(t)
— Real — Real
-0.5 --- 60 modes --- 80 modes
-2 -2
-1 80 modes 10 10
0 2 0 2
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 10 10 10 10
time(s) n(Hz) n(Hz)
(a)wind pressure comparison (b) auto-spectra comparison
Fig.3: Comparison between original (solid line) and reconstructed (dotted line)
pressure time series and auto-spectra of tap 1
5. Conclusions
There is no doubt that the POD method has gained widespread applications. The POD
technique with new coordinate system is feasible and useful for description of random
fields. In this paper, the POD theory is presented, the reconstruction of a long-span
pitched roof are performed.
(1) The derivation of POD is presented from the viewpoint of Rayleigh’s quotient,
which is independent of the original theory framework which is based on mathematics,
and the relationship between eigenmodes and principal coordinates are clarified with
unambiguous mechanical meanings.
(2) The limited number of eigenmodes and principal coordinates is accurate enough for
reconstruction of wind fields on pitched roof. The efficiency of the proposed method is
illustrated by comparing with original data in the time domain and frequency domain.
Moreover, the description of wind field can be simplified making use of series
combination of eigenmodes and principal coordinates.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful for the support of this research by the Committee of National
Science Foundation of China (50678122, 50908077).
1661
References
[1] Gillamd X, Smith D, Wu F. Proper orthogonal decomposition modeling for full-

scale pressure fields. 14th Engineering Mechanics Conference. Austin Texas 2000;
21-24.
[2] Wolter C, Trindade M A, Sampaio R. Obtaining mode shapes through the
karhunen-loeve expansion for distributed-parameter linear systems. Shock and
Vibration 2002; 9: 177-192.
[3] Kerschen G, Feeny B F, Golinval J C. On the exploitation of chaos to build
reduced-order models. Comput.Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg 2003; 192: 1785-1795.
[4] Cizmas P G, Palacios A, Brien T O, et al. Proper orthogonal decomposition of
spatio-temporal patterns in fluidized beds. Chemical Engineering Science 2003; 58:
4417-4427.
[5] Bienkiewicz B. New tools in wind engineering. J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn 1996;
65: 279-300 .
[6] Tamura Y, Suganuma S, Kikuchi H et al. Proper orthogonal decomposition of
random wind pressure field. Journal of Fluids and Structures 1999; 13:1069-1095
[7] Hemon P, Santi F. Applications of biorthogonal decompositions in fluid-structure
interactions. Journal of Fluids and Structures 2003; 17: 1123-1143.
[8] Slater J C, Pettit C L, BERAN P S. In-situ residual tracking in reduced order
modeling. Shock and Vibration 2002; 9: 105-121.
[9] Holmes J D. Analysis and synthesis of pressure fluctuations on bluff bodies using
eigenvectors. J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn 1990; 33: 219-230.
[10] Wu C G, Liang Y C, Lin W Z, et al. A note on equivalence of proper orthogonal
decomposition methods. Journal of Sound and Vibration 2003; 265: 1103-1110
[11] Kareem A. Analysis and Moelling of Wind Effects: Numerical Techniques. Wind
Engineering into the 21st Century. Rotterdam, 1999.
[12] Baker C J. Aspects of the Use of the Technique of Orthogonal Decomposition of
Surface Pressre Field. Wind Engineering into the 21st Century. Rotterdam, 1999.
[13] Jeong S H. Simulation of large wind pressures by gusts on a bluff structure. Wind
and Structures 2004; 7(5): 333-344.
[14] Davenport A G. How can we simplify and generalize wind loads?. J. Wind Eng.
Ind. Aerodyn 1995; 54/55: 657-669.
[15] Bienkiewicz B, Tamura Y, Ham H J, Ueda H, Hibi K. Proper orthogonal
decomposition and reconstruction of multi-channel roof pressure. J. Wind Eng. Ind.
Aerodyn 1995; 54/55: 369-381.
[16] Bienkiewicz B, Ham H J, Sun Y. Proper orthogonal decomposition and
reconstruction of roof pressure. J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn 1993; 50: 193-202.
[17] Fang-Hui Li, zhen-hua Ni, zhuang-ning Xie. Application of POD to reconstruction
of wind pressure fields on pitched roof. Engineering Mechanics 2005; S1(22): 177-
182 (in Chinese).
1662
[18] Fang-Hui Li, zhen-hua Ni, shi-zhao Shen. Application of POD to prediction of
wind pressure field of pitched roof. Engineering Mechanics 2007; 24 (1): 68-73 (in
Chinese).
[19] Chen X Z, Kareem A. Equivalent static wind loads on buildings: new mode.
Journal of Structural Engineering 2004; 130(10): 1425-1435.
[20] Chen X Z, Kareem A. Coupled dynamic analysis and equivalent static wind loads
on buildings with three-dimensional modes. Journal of Structural Engineering
2005; 131(7): 1071-1082.
1663
An algebra method of along-wind response of lattice

transmission tower based on ambient excitation testing
Huiqun LIU 1*, Minjuan HE 2
1*
1239 Siping road, Shanghai, China
Lhq021xf@163.com
2
Abstract
The wind load is the main lateral load of the transmission tower. In this paper, a
800kV ultra high voltage transmission line was studied. The ambient excitation testing
and the frequency-domain method were used to study the along-wind response of the
tower. The wind speed on the top of the tower was measured by the anemometer DT-80,
while the acceleration values of the structure and the ground vibration were measured
by the acceleration sensors simultaneously. SVSA was used to collect the acceleration
values, which also could be used to analyze the data. By knowing ground vibration, the
influence of the ground fluctuation on the structure was simulated by the soft ANSYS.
The software MATLAB was available to deduce the fundamental mode generalized
force spectrum (FMGFS). According to frequency-domain analysis theory, the complex
integral calculus was simplified by algebra operation. The along-wind root-mean-square
(RMS) response was calculated by the algebra operation. It was concluded that this
algebra method had a high precise which can meet the project requirement and the
response of the ground vibration could be neglected with the increasing of the wind
speed.
Keywords: Lattice transmission line, along-wind response, ambient excitation testing,

fundamental mode generalized force spectrum, root-mean-square of acceleration,
frequency-domain method.
1 Introduction
Lattice transmission line, which has the characters of light weight, highness and low-
damp, is sensitive to wind load. Wind load is the mainly lateral load. The scholars in the
world mainly research on the along-wind response of the structure which is based on
strip theory and quasi-stability theory.
The quasi-stability theory was proposed by Davenport firstly [1]. Davenport also
advanced that dynamic wind loading was separated into background (quasi-static) and
resonant components based on their frequency content. The gust response factor (GRF)
approach, introduced by Davenport [2] for along-wind excited buildings, has been used
worldwide in building code and standards. Based on this theory, many scholars such as
Vellozzi [3], Vickery [4] and Simiu [5] deduced the response by numerical calculation
method, which established the fundamental framework of along-wind response analysis.
Holmes [6-8] researched on the wind response and the equivalent static wind loads
1664
(ESWLs). He proposed that the equivalent pressure distribution associated with the
background response can be derived by the load-response correlation method. And the
distribution for the resonant response in the first mode can be represented as a
distribution of inertial forces over the height of the tower. These two distributions were
combined by the “root sum of squares” rule. This method has been a standard method to
calculate the ESWLs.
Based on the quasi-static theory, the influence of aerodynamic admittance on the
structure is ignored and the along-wind force spectrum is deduced from the wind speed
function straightly. However, as the force spectrum based on this theory is discrepant
with that derived from the test, the response of the structure has a large wipe between
these two methods. Shuguo Liang [9~12] had deduced the FMGFS of the lattice tower
by HFFB test, which took into account the aerodynamic admittance. The aerodynamic
admittance could be obtained by the FMGFS from the test. They found the response
from the HFFB test was very different from that obtained by the quasi-static theory.
Hence, it is meaningful to study the along-wind force spectrum based on the wind test
to calculate the structure’s response.
Chinese scholars Renle Ma and Minjuan He [13-14] obtained the full-scale dates from a
self-support transmission tower and a guyed tower in Jiangyin. The dynamic parameters
were derived from these tests. They also tested two adjacent straight towers in Hebei
[15] simultaneously. They deduced the dynamic characteristics of the two towers
coupled with the lines and studied the along-wind response of the system based on the
FMGFS that Shuguo Liang advanced [16].
In this paper, a 800kV ultra high voltage coupled transmission line was studied. The
ambient excitation testing and the frequency-domain method were used to study the
along-wind response of the coupled transmission lines. The wind speed on the top of the
tower was measured by the anemometer DT-80, while the acceleration values of the
structure and the ground vibration were measured by the acceleration sensors
simultaneously. The software MATLAB was available to deduce the fundamental mode
generalized force spectrum (FMGFS). According to frequency-domain analysis theory,
the complex integral calculus was simplified by algebra operation. The along-wind root-
mean-square (RMS) response was calculated by the algebra operation.
2. Method
2.1. Fundamental mode generalized force spectrum on along-wind

direction
Ambient excitation testing has evolved to be an effective method. It utilizes the
fluctuating wind and the fluctuating ground vibration as the input to measure the
dynamic character. The test result is used to record the time-history of the wind speed
and analyze the structure’s internal force and acceleration. In this paper, the acceleration
and the wind from the testing are used to simulate the FMGFS. The empirical formula
of along-wind FMGFS is expressed as follows:
1665
2 c( fB / VH ) 2
SF ( f )   (1)
1
f [a  b( fB / VH ) 2 ]4 / 3
1
  CM VH2 AR (2)
2
in which, SF  ( f ) refers to the FMGFS,  is root mean square(RMS) of fundamental
1
mode generalized force,  means the density of air, A is the contour area in the flow
direction, R refers to the ratio between actual area and contour area, VH denotes mean
wind speed on the top of the structure, f is frequency, a, b ,c and CM are the fitting
indexes, which are respectively 756.2584,14.5024,4.7257 and 0.088 in turn, B refers to
Bottom-width of the tower in the direction of approaching flow.
2.2. frequency-domain method

The frequency-domain method is employed to model the along-wind response of the
transmission line. The vibrate formulation of multi-degree-of-freedom system can be
given by:
My(t )  Cy (t )  Ky(t )  P(t ) (3)
According to the mode-superposition method, the displacement can be expressed as:
y(t )  q(t ) (4)
Substituting Eq. (4) into Eq. (3), and left multiplying  T ,
qj (t )  2 j j q j (t )   2j q j (t )  Fj (t ) (5)
in which, q(t ) and F j (t ) are generalized displacement and force in turn,  j ,  j are the
ratio of damping and the circle frequency of the jth mode.
2.3. The acceleration RMS

According to the random vibration theory, the displacement power spectrum of the jth-
mass point can be written as follows:

S y j ( )  R yj ( )e  i d    ja jb H a (i ) H b (i ) S Fa Fb ( ) (6)
 a b
Where, S Fa Fb ( ) is the cross-power spectral density of Fa (t ) and Fb (t ) , H a (i ) is

frequency response function.
Taking into account the small damping and discrete natural frequencies of the lattice
tower, the cross terms in Eq. (6) can be neglected. Then, Eq. (6) is approximated as:
1666
S y j ( )    ja2 H a (i ) S Fa ( )
2
(7)
a
Where, S Fa ( ) refers to the power spectral density of Fa (t ) .

According to random vibration theory, the power spectral density of the acceleration of
the jth-mass point refers as:
Sa j ( )   4 S y j ( ) (8)
And the acceleration RMS value of the jth-mass point is expressed by:
1  1 
 a2   Sa j ( )d   ja2  (2 f )4 H a (if ) S P* ( f )df
2
(9)
j
2 
a
* 2
(M aa )  a
The acceleration of the structure is composed of the background response and the
resonant part. The background pressure distribution is the quasi-static loading produced
by the fluctuations due to turbulence, but with frequencies too low to excite resonant
response. The resonant part is approximately as a narrow-band white noise with the
range of    f aa . The background acceleration is generally negligibly small as
compared to the resonant component. So, when only the resonant component is
considered, the RMS of the acceleration of the jth-mass can be estimated as follow
1  fa
 a2   ja2 (2 f a )4 SP* ( f a )a   ja2 S P* ( f a ) (10)
jr
a (M )  (2a )
 2
aa
4
a
2 a
a
 2
4( M aa ) a a
Take Eq.(1) into Eq.(10), the acceleration response can be expressed as

 f1 2 c( fB / VH ) 2
 a2j   a2jr   j21   (11)
4( M 11 ) 2 1 f [a  b( fB / VH ) 2 ]4 / 3
3. Model
Two adjacent 800kV ultra high voltage straight towers site on shanghai are tested，the
plan drawing is shown in Figure 1. The two towers are named as tower A and tower B.
The straight tower A and the angle tower B, which span the 200KV transmission line
nearby, have a height of 105m. The tower A is connected to a 48m-height angle tower
with the angle of 3 degree. The tower B is connected to a 57m-height straight tower
with the angle of 8 degree. The towers are joined by three layers lines, which are as
follows: ground wires on the top of the tower, 6-bundled conductors and grounding
electrodes.
1667
Tower C Tower A Tower B

48m angle tower 105m 105m Tower D
straight tower angle tower 57m straight tower
Fig.1: Plane drawing of the coupled system
In this study, the wind-induced results of the adjacent self-support towers are obtained
from the field tests on the bi-direction simultaneously. The along-wind response of the
straight tower coupled with the transmission lines is studied. The wind speed on the top
of the tower was measured by the anemometer DT-80, while the acceleration values of
the structure and the ground vibration were measured by the acceleration sensors
simultaneously. The along-line direction is named as x-direction, while y-direction is
perpendicular to the lines and z- is the vertical direction. SVSA soft is used to collect
the data, which also can analyze the data. The points are mainly located at the columns.
All of the points can be seen in Figure2.
Fig.2: the profile of the structure and the test points
By the using of the SVSA soft, the fundamental frequencies, model and the ratio of the
damping are derived from the acceleration results of the test. The two towers and three-
span straight transmission lines model is also used to calculate the natural vibration
characteristics by the software ANSYS. Figure 3 and table 1 summarize these
1668
parameters obtained from the test and the numerical simulation. It is concluded the
result of the test is consistent with that from the numerical simulation.
Table 1: natural vibration characteristics of the coupled system
Perpendicular-line Along-line Rotate

direction direction direction
Measured
1.2 1.37 1.76
Frequency value
（Hz） Theoretical
1.257 1.445 1.922
value
Ratio of damping（%） 2.15 1.59 1.38
120 measured value of the coupled system

theoratical value of the coupled system
100
80
height (m)
60
40
20
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
fundamental mode (along-line direction)
Fig.3: the along-line direction fundamental mode of the coupled system
The model simplified as the lumped mass model is suitable to the frequency-domain
method. The masses and the mode of the structure can be seen in Table 2. Then, the
MATLAB soft is available to simulate the FMGFS on the basis of the parameters in
Table 2, the wind speed on the top of the tower and the acceleration RMS value of the
structure.
1669
Table 2: the masses and the mode of the structure
layer Height(m) Mass(kg) mode

1 15 15371.4242 0.007382
2 24 9686.6282 0.034247
3 33.5 9453.7300 0.069863
4 43 7420.5718 0.11796
5 49 4676.0227 0.153729
6 54.5 3742.8513 0.199391
7 60.5 3733.9793 0.254186
8 66 3249.0211 0.313546
9 71 2706.5839 0.372907
10 75 2723.0143 0.427702
11 79 3019.4483 0.487062
12 82.5 2603.5418 0.546423
13 86.3 2158.2979 0.614916
14 90 1752.8670 0.689498
15 93 1337.6521 0.754947
16 96 1422.5762 0.824962
17 99 7248.8227 0.896499
18 103.4 6495.0726 1
4. Result
The mean wind speed on the tower’s top fluctuates at 0m/s~8m/s. The along-wind speed
is much higher than the across-direction value. The ground pulsation is collected
synchronously. The sampling interval of the acceleration time history is 0.02s, and total
16384 data are recorded during the time duration of about 328s.
4.1. The influence of ground vibration

The test response is induced by the wind and ground fluctuating. The acceleration
response of the jth-mass point can be written as follows:
 a2j   a2j-ground   a2j-wind (12)
in which,  a j is total root mean square(RMS) of the acceleration of the jth-mass point,
a j-ground
and  aj-wind mean the RMS value of the jth-mass point induced by the ground
fluctuating, wind, respectively. So the influence of the ground fluctuation on the
structure must be considered firstly. The along-wind response of the tower on the breeze
can be shown in Table 3. It is clear that the RMS of the acceleration response on the top
of the tower is approximately 0.00539 m/s2, when the speed is less than 1m/s. The
response of the structure can be simulated by the soft ANSYS with the known ground
vibration. 10 groups result can be shown in Table 4. It is noted that the RMS values of
1670
the tower’s top in x- and y-direction fluctuate at 0.00463，0.00245 m/s2, respectively,

which is consistent with the field test result.
Table 3: The along-wind response of the tower on the breeze
The top wind speed in x-direction

0.48 0.61 0.99 1.22 1.34 2.05
（m/s）
RMS of the acceleration
7.37 2.08 6.72 4.99 5.31 12.98
（×10-3 m/s2）
Table 4: The response of the tower’s top induced by the ground vibration
RMS （×10-3 m/s2） 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 average

x-direction 7.60 4.88 5.47 4.34 0.63 4.55 4.00 4.05 6.18 4.60 4.63
y-direction 2.13 3.27 2.54 2.05 1.63 3.12 2.58 2.79 2.07 2.30 2.45
The along-wind mean-square (MS) of acceleration of the tower’s top can be shown in
Table 5. It is noteworthy with the increase of the wind speed, the influence of the
ground vibration decreases. When the speed is greater than 4m/s, the proportion of the
acceleration MS response induced by the ground vibration is less to 4%. So the ground-
induced response can be neglected with the speed larger than 4m/s.
Table 5: the along-wind MS value from the test
MS value from the

The top wind speed RMS value from the test Ratio value induced by ground
test
(m/s) (m/s2) vibration
(m2/s4)
8.216624 0.052987 0.002808 0.76%
5.6499107 0.03296 0.001086 1.97%
5.2868367 0.031762 0.001009 2.12%
4.26945 0.023824 0.000568 3.78%
3.82868 0.013576 0.000184 11.63%
3.31659 0.018074 0.000327 6.56%
4.2. The algebra method of along-wind response

The FMGFS are simulated by the top acceleration value and the wind speed from the
ambient excitation testing. The empirical formula of along-wind FMGFS is expressed
as Eq. (1). So, according to frequency-domain method, the RMS of the acceleration of
the jth-mass can be estimated Eq. (11). The RMS values of the top acceleration from the
algebra method and the field test are presented in Table 6. This Table demonstrates that
when the wind-speed is less than 4m/s, the RMS of the top point is less than 2×10-2 m/s2
with a high error. The reason is that when the wind speed is low, the structure is much
sensible to the external interference. When the wind-speed is larger than 4 m/s, the error
is less than 5%. It is concluded that the algebra method is suitable to simulate the along-
wind response with a high accuracy.
1671
Table 6: the acceleration RMS on the top of the tower
Acceleration RMS
The top wind speed at the top point(m/s2) Relative error（%）
(m/s)
Calculated result Test result
8.216624 0.048228 0.052987 0.27
5.2868367 0.02651 0.031762 2.3
5.6499107 0.029207 0.03296 3.09
4.26945 0.019048 0.023824 0.77
3.31659 0.012396 0.018074 -7.80
3.82868 0.015905 0.013576 77.78
5. Conclusion
The analysis of the along-wind induced response established on the ambient excitation
testing and the algebra method are presented. In this context, the influence of ground-
vibration on acceleration is discussed. With the increasing of the wind speed, the effect
of the ground vibration decreases. When the mean wind speed at the tower’s top is
greater than 4m/s, it is reasonable to neglect the ground-vibration with the proportion of
5%. Meanwhile, the algebra method presented in this paper is proved to be high precise
with the error of 5%.
Acknowledgement
The support for this work was provided in part by the natural science foundation of
china, Grant No.50638010. This support is gratefully acknowledged.
References
[1] Davenport A.G. The relationship of wind structure to wind loading. Wind effects on
buildings and structures 1965; 54-102.
[2] Davenport A. G. Gust load factors. Journal of structures division 1967; 1: 11-34.
[3] Cohen E. and Vellozzi J. Gust response factors. Journal of structures division 1968;
94: 295-313.
[4] Vickery B.J. On the reliability of gust loading factors. Technical meeting
concerning wind loads on buildings and structures 1970; 296-312.
[5] Simiu E. Revised procedure for estimating alongwind response. Journal of
structures division 1980; 106: 1-10.
[6] Holmes J.D. Along-wind response of lattice towers: part I-Derivation of
expressions for gust response factors. Engineering Structures 1994; 16: 287-292.
[7] Holmes J.D. Along-wind response of lattice towers: part II-Aerodynamic damping
and deflections. Engineering Structures 1996; 18: 483-488.
1672
[8] Holmes J.D. Along-wind response of lattice towers: part III-Effective load
distribution. Engineering Structures 1996; 18: 489-494.
[9] Liang Shuguo, Zhou Lianghao, Zhao Lin et al. The along-wind generalized load
spectrum analysis of transmission tower. Journal of wind engineering and
industrial aerodynamics 2002: 270-274.
[10] Yu Xiulei, Liang Shuguo, Zhou Lianghao. Simplified evaluation of along wind
dynamic response of lattice towers, Journal of HUST. (Urban science edition)
2006;23:8~10.
[11] Liang Shuguo, Zhou Lianghao, Zhao Lin, Ge Yaojun. Analytical model of dynamic
wind loads on lattice towers. Journal of Tongji University (natural science)
2008;36:166~171.
[12] Liang Shuguo, Zhou Lianghao, Zhao Lin, Ge Yaojun. The investigation of 3-D
dynamic wind loads on lattice towers by wind tunnel test. ACTA acerodynamica
SINICA 2007; 25: 311~318.
[13] Yubin Hu, Renle Ma. Site experiment of dynamic behavior for Jiangyin 500KV
transmission tower. Structural engineers 2002; 62: 22-26.
[14] Minjuan He and Bifeng Yang. Site vibration experiment of Jiangyin 500KV guyed
transmission tower. Structural engineers 2003; 4: 74-79.
[15] Xiangmei Yan. Synchronous ambient excitation testing and vibration control of
two adjacent transmission towers. Tongji university, 2009.
[16] He Minjuan, Liu Huiqun. The simplified method of along-wind response of lattice
transmission tower based on field test. Proceedings of the International Association
for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2009; 2635~2646.
1673
Virtual design methodology for membrane structures

considering transient wind effects
A. MICHALSKI1*, P. DE KERMEL2, E. HAUG 2 , R. WÜCHNER3, K.-U.
BLETZINGER3
1*
Architekturbüro Rasch + Bradatsch
Kesslerweg 22
70771 Leinfelden Oberaichen, Germany
e-mail: michalski@sl-rasch.de, web page: http://www.sl-rasch.de
*Technical University of Munich, Chair of Structural Analysis, Prof. Bletzinger
Arcisstr. 21, D-80290 Munich, Germany
2
ESI France
e-mail: eberhard.haug@esi-group.com , web page: http://www.esi-group.com/
3
Chair of Structural Analysis, Technical University of Munich,
Arcisstr. 21, D-80290 Munich, Germany
e-mail: kub@bv.tum.de , web page: www.statik.bv.tu-muenchen.de
Abstract
This paper presents a virtual design methodology for lightweight structures under the
impact of fluctuating wind loads and provides results on the validation of the method at
real scale tests of a 29 m umbrella.
Keywords: Fluid-Structure-Interaction, wind simulation, umbrella structures, field experiment
1 Introduction
The sensitivity of membrane structures to wind loads due to their flexibility and small
inertial masses raises the question of their behaviour under natural wind conditions.
Particularly transient wind loads could lead to dynamic amplification of the structural
response. The assessment of dynamic response of membrane structures is complex due
to their special load carrying behaviour, their material properties, and their distinct
structural interaction with flow induced effects. Computational fluid-structure
interaction simulation could overcome simplifications and limitations of existing
approaches, especially small scale wind tunnel tests, and allow the assessment of all
relevant structural and fluid phenomena.
2 Methodology
The simulation methodology consisting of the numerical wind flow simulation and the
fluid-structure coupling is applied to determine the dynamic structural response of a 29
m umbrella under wind load. The FSI simulation methodology allows the realistic
description of the nonlinear structural behaviour, which is especially important in the
1674
case of textile structures, and the stochastic wind excitation, as both domains are
modelled in time domain. In this paper, the partitioned FSI solution approach realized in
the commercial PAM software environment of the company ESI Group, Paris, is
applied and extended by a pre-processing tool to generate synthetic wind flow fields
with natural wind turbulence.
Formfinding: Textile structures have, in comparison to conventional structures, a
special structural behaviour. It is characterized primarily by defining the pre-stress and
curvature conditions which determine the structural stiffness. The definition of these
properties has an effect on the structural performance under wind loading. For this
reason, shape finding has to be integrated in the numerical simulation process. The
software used is LISA (Lightweight Structure Analysis), an implicit 3D finite element
tool with special “soap film” membrane shape finding elements (Haug, Powell (1972)).
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD): For the treatment of incompressible flows, the
commercial CFD software PAM-Flow (ESI Group) is applied. The spatial discretization
is based on the finite element method on unstructured tetrahedral grids. The temporal
discretization is carried out in an explicit manner. For the modelling of turbulent flows,
a LES (large eddy simulation) with the Smagorinsky SGS (subgrid scale) model is used.
For the coupling with a structural simulation the fluid calculation is realized on moving
meshes (ALE description).
Computational Structural Dynamics (CSD): PAM-Crash is a structural simulation
software based on an explicit 3D finite element formulation, specifically designed for
the simulation of transient, non-linear response of large and complex structures. In this
work beam, cable and membrane elements are used to model the solid parts.
Fluid-Structure Interaction (FSI): The coupling of CFD and CSD codes for fluid-
structure interaction calculation is realized via a partitioned approach in an explicit
manner (Löhner et al. (1994), Wüchner et al. (2007)). The methodology allows the use
of different time steps in the fluid and structural parts for a given simulated physical
duration, using sub-cycling. Information is updated at each time step for each solver (by
interpolation) so that transient simulations are very easily achieved.
Wind simulation: In so-called “atmospheric wind tunnels” natural wind conditions are
produced by manipulating inflow obstructions in the shape of “spires” and by adjusting
the “roughness elements” of a roughness stretch ahead of the analyzed object. While
atmospheric wind tunnels can easily apply turbulent winds to reduced-scale rigid
objects, they cannot be used easily when the building deformations interact with the
aero-dynamic wind loads. This is because of conflicts of simultaneously modelling the
aero-elastic similitude of both, the air flow pattern and the structural vibrations at
reduced scales. Deterministic fluid-structure interaction simulation, however, can
overcome this handicap. In a CFD or FSI simulation, representative local wind velocity
fields can be applied directly on the inflow boundary grid of the fluid domain. Due to
the fact, that it is nearly impossible to determine spatial and time dependent wind
velocity fields from measurements, synthetic input wind velocity fields could be
generated from known statistical wind data, specified by wind norms.
Atmospheric boundary layer wind fluctuations are generated synthetically and applied
at the inflow section of the LES solver by a specific wind module, which is interfaced to
the CFD software PAM-Flow. Within a pre-processing step, time and space correlated
1675
“frozen” wind fields are generated based on the processing of statistical meteorological
data. More specifically, three-dimensional Fast-Fourier-Transformation techniques in
wave number space are realized within this study, where the atmospheric surface layer
turbulence is based on spectral tensors (Mann (1998)). With the help of Taylor's
hypothesis the velocity field at the inflow section is transformed into time series for the
CFD simulation. For detailed information refer to Michalski (2010).
The consortium formed by the company Liebherr (manufacturers) the Architectural

Office Rasch+Bradatsch and ESI France decided to validate the numerical methodology
with an instrumented 29 m high flexible umbrella prototype in an open wind-exposed
area in southern Germany (Münsingen) (see Fig. 1). The umbrella had to be modelled in
the same environment and loaded by statistical wind data derived from the measured in
situ wind data, transformed into corresponding synthetic turbulent wind time history
inputs to the PAM software package (ESI Group). The structural response in the fully
coupled FSI simulations was then compared to the measured response of the umbrella
structure. This ongoing project constitutes a unique opportunity to validate the FSI
simulation suite on a fully deformable 1:1 scale measured prototype structure in order to
apply it for the design of highly flexible, lightweight membrane structures in future
projects. An important aspect of the numerical methodology is to create a wind field as
input boundary conditions for fluid-structure interaction simulation, which represents
the previously determined statistical properties of the wind measurements at test site
with sufficient accuracy.
3 Field test
An experimental setup was implemented at a test site of the company Liebherr in which
both the aerodynamic behaviour of the 29 m umbrella in atmospheric wind flow and the
upstream located wind field was measured simultaneously, spatially and temporally
resolved (Fig. 1). The system responses of the umbrella mast, the middle, diagonal and
passive arms of the 29 m umbrella and their respective correlation to the loading process
were measured using 76 strain gauges simultaneously with the wind field. Moreover, a
photogrammetric method has been applied to capture the full three-dimensional, time-
resolved membrane movement. This procedure was implemented using four cameras
that were positioned in front of the umbrella, tracing the moving umbrella
simultaneously.
The objective to reproduce numerically the dynamic response of a membrane structure
exposed to turbulent wind flow as close to reality as possible, requires precise
knowledge of the wind field in upstream direction of the umbrella. As simple
mechanical measuring devices like cup anemometers are unable to meet the necessary
requirements, sonic anemometers of Young type have been used to measure the wind
field (Fig. 1, right, Fig. 2, left). Five masts in a grid spacing of 9 meters were installed
where the entire three-dimensional wind vector, i.e. the wind speed and direction, was
measured at 15 positions. The sample rate of the entire measurement system including
the wind speed, the steel strain and membrane deformation was 10 Hz. The
measurement uncertainty of the strain measurements was estimated to be around 5 %
1676
due to influences of temperature, long term measurement of the in situ measurement

setup, opening and closing of the umbrella etc.
Fig. 1: 29m-umbrella (left, middle), wind measurement setup on test site of the company
Liebherr (right)
3.1 Evaluation of the experimental test

90 measurement periods were recorded with a length of 10 minutes each from 11/2008
to 02/2009. To perform the desired comparison of the experimentally determined
reaction forces and deformations with results of numerical simulations, the real wind
field acting on the umbrella has to be reproduced artificially in its main statistical
properties and assigned to the numerical flow simulation as inflow conditions.
Therefore the measured wind data has to be evaluated.
Fig. 2: In situ wind measurements on 1:1 prototype umbrella (left: anemometer

locations, center: arm numbers for strain and deflection measurement)
1677
The maximum gust wind speed of one single wind record is 20 m/s in 18 m height. This
measured wind field is the target for the numerical wind field generation. The statistical
properties of the target wind field are shown in chapter 4.1 within the comparison with
the numerical results. From the evaluation of the statistical characteristics, it could be
concluded, that the measured wind data satisfies the requirements for the synthetic wind
modelling procedure outlined in chapter 3 The selected strong wind of 10 minutes
duration has been modelled within the CFD simulation.
4 Simulation results
4.1 Computational Fluid Dynamics

The described specific wind field with duration of 10 minutes is numerically generated
considering its essential properties in two different flow simulations. The results are
described below.
4.1.1 CFD simulation with a long inflow length including roughness elements
The domain of the empty channel flow simulations is shown in Figure 3 (left). It
includes the terrain profile at the measuring site with geometric imperfections
(workshop etc.) and in addition geometric roughness elements (“bumps”). These
elements are randomly distributed and were introduced in order to maintain the
introduced turbulent boundary layer, especially vertical turbulence.
Fig. 3: CFD simulation (left: flow domain, upper right: synthetic turbulent wind field,
lower right: velocity contour snapshots at different times in a longitudinal-vertical cut
plane)
The wind data of Figure 6 (lower right) are now reproduced by a synthetic wind field,
generated according to the methods described in Michalski A. (2010). Figure 3 (upper
1678
right) shows the converged resulting turbulent wind field in the empty channel, to be
superimposed to the time averaged wind field. The objective for the choice of a long
inflow section was to obtain ‘model-consistent’ turbulence at reference position
(position of the masts, see Fig. 3 (left)), based on the fact that a synthetic turbulent wind
field was applied at the inflow section. An equilibrium boundary layer should be
obtained.The number of unstructured tetrahedral elements used is about 6 million.. The
Reynolds number calculated with channel height as a reference length is Re = 50x106.
The modelling of the turbulence was performed with a LES approach using a
Smagorinsky model (Cs = 0.11). This transient simulation ran with a time step of 0.15
x10-1 seconds with a CFL condition of 1.2.
Fig. 4: Comparison of statistical wind data of LES simulation (synthetic wind field
applied at inflow section) with results from measured data (a: Mean & gust wind
speeds; b: Standard deviation of the velocity components, c: Spectral density
distribution, d: Correlation coefficient, e: Integral length scales, f: Cross correlation
coefficient)
The analysis of statistical parameters was carried out at the locations x/H = 1, ... , 3.6,
with the channel height H = 150 m, each of which contained a total of 15 measurement
positions on the heights of 9, 18 and 27 m. Statistical analysis was performed with a
total of 36 000 time steps of 540 s. Figure 4 contains comparisons of wind data derived
from the in situ wind measurements with the same data determined from the simulation
with the generated synthetic wind field. The simulation on the empty flow domain
produced the following properties of the generated wind field: Figure 4 (b) compares
the values of the standard deviations s u, s v, s w(x/H) of the wind field velocities with the
experimental values along the (normalized) channel length, x/H, where constant values
1679
Spatial Structures € Permanent and Temporary
are reached after about x/H=1.5. The drop in values along the channel•s length direction
is due to the fact that the channel flow must find its own equilibrium as dictated by
properties of the numerical model. The differences are taken into account during
calibration of the wind inflow model parameters. Compared to the in situ
measurements, the vertical and lateral fluctuating components are underestimated. The
extreme (min,max) and mean values ‚(z) of the velocity fluctuations at different
anemometer locations W1-15 are seen to agree with the experimental values (see Figure
4 a).
Fig. 5: Comparison of statistical wind data of LES simulation (synthetic wind field
applied at inflow section) with results from measured data (a: Flow domain, b: Mean &
gust wind speeds, c: Turbulence intensity, d: Integral length scales, e: Spectral density
distribution, f: Cross correlation coefficient)
The normalized correlation coefficient ƒuw(x/H) is seen to agree well with the
experimental values (Fig. 4d). Figure 4c shows the calculated normalized gust spectrum
fSu(f) which agrees with the norm Kaimal spectra in the range of the lower frequencies.
A drop in the upper frequency range occurs at approx 0.2Hz which is a result of the
spatial filtering of the LES simulation. Figure 4f, finally, compares cross correlation
coefficients ƒuiuj(y) at different lengths x/H with the experimental results. The curves of
the integral length scales (see Fig. 4e) in the different heights vary from the
experimental results. They are in general higher than the strong scattering measurements
and are therefore conservative for wind load determination.
1680
By comparing the statistical parameters of the simulation with the field measurement at
the reference position, it can be shown that the natural wind flow could be modelled for
the FSI simulation with sufficient accuracy. As can be seen in Figure 4b, the
equilibrium boundary layer is obtained at a minimum distance of three times the domain
height.
4.1.2 CFD simulation with a short inflow length
In a second flow simulation, the inflow length was decreased to a minimum value
taking into consideration the COST recommendations (Franke et al. (2004)). The
constraint modelling an equilibrium boundary layer in the LES simulation is relaxed
within this case. The reason for this is that a subsequent FSI simulation with fully
resolved turbulent scales in the high frequency range would not be feasible in terms of
CPU cost. The number of unstructured tetrahedral elements used is about 12 million
applied in a significantly smaller domain. The same numerical parameters as prescribed
in chapter 4.1.1 are used here. The time step is 0.7 x10-1seconds. Figure 5 shows a good
agreement between wind data derived from the in situ measurements and the same data
derived from the simulation with the generated synthetic wind field. The evaluation of
the gust spectra of the CFD simulation (Fig. 5e) shows a drop in the upper frequency
range around 0.5 Hz. Hence, the turbulent scales in the higher frequency range are
reproduced better than in the first simulation. The overall agreement of the synthetic
wind field is considered as good for most of the statistical quantities. The generated
wind field can now be applied in the FSI simulation of the umbrella.
4.2 Fluid-Structure Interaction Simulation

In this chapter, first results of the ongoing numerical fluid-structure interaction
simulations are presented. To determine the dynamic behaviour of the prototype, the
mass, stiffness and damping characteristics of the steel structure, the cladding and the
membrane had to be determined from preliminary experiments. Figure 6 shows the used
CSD model which consists of a total of 6612 nodes, 1536 membranes, 648 cables and
493 beam finite elements.
The CFD domain with 14.7 million tetrahedral elements of chapter 4.1.2 was applied in
order to resolve turbulent time scales up to a frequency of 0.6 Hz. Generated synthetic
wind data have been injected into the PAM-FSI model and the simulation was running
on a Linux cluster on eight processors (HP-Nehalem), where seven CPU are reserved
for the CFD solution and one for the CSD solution. For 24 seconds simulated real time,
the spent CPU wall clock time is about 24 hours. The time step in PAM-Flow is about
3.7 x10-3 seconds when a selected Runge-Kutta approach of 5th order and a CFL
condition of 1.4 is applied. Figure 6 shows that in general there is considerable
similarity between the time averaged and the fluctuating values of the experimental and
numerical results. The time averaged mast foot moments differ about 14%, the root-
mean-squares about 26% (Fig. 6b). The cantilever moment at the diagonal arm of the
FSI simulation (Marm(FSI)=118kNm) matches the experimental results
(Marm(Exp)=117kNm). There is also a correspondence of the root-mean-squares. The
1681
fluctuating values of the vertical arm tip displacement at the middle arm in windward
direction (Arm VIII, see Fig. 2 (right)) agree with the experimental results (Fig. 6d).
The time averaged of the displacement dz within a measurement period of 240s is under
predicted in the simulation. More obvious differences between full-scale and FSI
simulation were observed at the RMS values shown in Figure 6e and the peak values.
This may be due to the absence of small-scale turbulence (>0.5Hz, see Fig. 8e) in the
oncoming flow or due to the modelling of flow characteristics around the umbrella. The
normalized RMS values of the arm and mast foot moments (Marm, Mmast), the vertical
arm tip displacements (dz) and the strut Force (Fstrut) resulting from the FSI simulation
are within a range of 25% compared to the experimental results. The spectral density
distribution of the mast response (Fig. 6f) determined by the numerical simulation, here
in terms of the mast foot moment, matches the experimental results.
Fig. 6: Results of FSI simulation in comparison with measurements (a: CSD model, b:
Mast foot moment, c: Cantilever moment diagonal arm VII, d: Vertical arm tip
displacement dz at point P7, e: Comparison of normalized RMS values of FSI
simulation and experiment, f: Spectral density distribution Mast foot moment)
5 Summary
The fluid-structure interaction simulation has been applied for the determination of the
structural response of a 29m umbrella under transient wind loads. An innovative
synthetic wind velocity field generation technique (Michalski (2010)) permits to
simulate wind loads with realistic micro-meteorological statistical properties, such as
1682
they are produced by local storms. The CFD simulation results demonstrated that an in
situ measured wind field could be reproduced with its important statistical
characteristics. The simulated structural response of the umbrella is compared with
experimentally determined forces and deformations from measurements. A true
comparison, i.e. validation, can only be made in the statistical sense by comparing
statistical result data derived from long duration wind load simulations. This is because
wind loads generated by the atmospheric turbulent boundary layer are chaotic in nature,
and attempts to find repetitive deterministic intervals will fail. It is known that most of
the representative micro-meteorological statistical data can be extracted from winds
with 10 minutes duration. As results of the force and deflection measurements match
the results of the numerical simulation in a statistical manner, a great step towards the
validation of the numerical methodology for deformable wind-loaded flexible structures
has been accomplished. The evaluation of the results allows the conclusion that the FSI
simulation provides sufficient accuracy as a simulation tool for the structural design of
lightweight structures susceptible to wind-induced effects which are inaccessible in
wind tunnel experiments due to their extreme lightness and high flexibility.
6 References
[1] Löhner, R. et al., 1994. New Advances in Fluid Structure Interaction, Basel World
CFD User Days 1994, Conference Proc., 24.1-24.20.
[2] Mann, J. 1998. Wind field simulation, Prob. Engng, Mech. Vol. 13, No. 4, pp. 269-
282
[3] Wüchner, R. et al., 2007. A framework for stabilized partitioned analysis of thin
membrane–wind interaction Int. J. Numer. Meth Fluids, 2007, 54 945-963
[4] Franke, J. et al. 2004. Recommendations on the use of CFD in predicting
pedestrian wind environment COST Action C14
[5] Haug, E., Powell, G.H., 1972. Finite element analysis of nonlinear membrane
structures, Report n° SESM72-7, Struc-tural Engineering Laboratory, University of
California, Berkeley, California, February 1972
[6] Michalski, A., 2010. Simulation leichter Flächentragwerke in einer numerisch
generierten atmosphärischen Grenzschicht, Ph.D. thesis submitted at the Chair of
Structural Analysis, Technical University Munich
1683
The relationship between scale-shift and aerodynamic

characteristics on the horn-shaped membrane roof
Yuki NAGAI1*, Akira OKADA 2, Naoya MIYASATO 3, Masao SAITOH 4
1*
Graduate Student, Dept. of Architecture, Nihon University,
Research Fellow, the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science
1-8-14, Kanda-Surugadai, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 101-8308, Japan
yuki.nagai@mac.com
2
Prof., Dept. of Architecture, Nihon University, Tokyo, Japan
3
Assistant Prof., Dept. of Architecture, Nihon University, Tokyo, Japan
4
Emeritus Prof., Nihon University, Tokyo, Japan
Abstract
This study was aimed at investigating the aerodynamic characteristics around the
horn-shaped membrane roof and the relationship between the building scale and the
wind-force coefficient. In this paper, the authors define that the scale-shift has two
means, namely one means a change of the size of the one horn-unit itself, the other
means a change of the number of the horn-unit. The authors focused on the scale-shift,
and clarified to the change of the wind-force coefficient by the wind-tunnel tests.
Keywords: Membrane roof, Wind load, Wind-tunnel test
1 Introduction
In this research, the authors focus on the relationship between the scale-shift of the
horn-shaped membrane structure and the aerodynamic characteristics around the
membrane. Here, the scale-shift means that the object is the same form but it is different
scale. In this paper, the authors cover two types of the scale-shift on the membrane (see
fig. 1);
 Phase 1; About the scale-shift with changing the size of the one horn-unit.
 Phase 2; About the scale-shift with changing the number of the horn-unit.
In this report, the authors discuss about the aerodynamic mechanisms involved in the
phase 1 and phase 2, which is examined by the wind-tunnel tests.
1684
Fig. 1: The diagram of the scale-shift in this paper

2 Wind-Tunnel Tests for Phase 1 and Phase 2
There are two types of wind-tunnel test. As for phase 1, we examined about the
relationship between the Reynolds number and the wind-force coefficient from several
types of experiments. The model size is 20x20cm, 30x30cm and 60x60cm, the wind
velocity is 4, 5, 6, 7.5, 9, 10 and 15m/sec. The experimental result shows in fig. 2.
As for phase 2, the authors clarify about the relationship between the number of horn-
unit and the wind-force coefficient. The experimental condition was almost the same as
the phase1 test, but the model scale was only the 20cm x 20cm and the maximum
number of unit was 5 wide-7 bays. The measurement was carried out for 5 wide- 1 bay,
5 wide- 3 bays, 5 wide- 5 bays, 5 wide- 7 bays. The experimental result shows in fig. 3.
In this study, the authors demonstrated that there are interesting interrelationship
between the building form like horn shaped membrane and its scale-shift.
Fig. 2: The influence of Reynolds number on the wind-force coefficient.
Fig. 3: The influence of number of horn-unit on the wind-force coefficient.
1685
The effect of non-Gaussian local wind loads on structural

responses of long-span domed roofs
Ying SUN 1*, Zheng-Gang CAO, Yue WU and Shi-Zhao SHEN
1
* School of Civil Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
sunnyhit@hit.edu.cn
Abstract
Wind tunnel experiments for several large-span domed roofs were carried out in
the boundary layer wind tunnel at Tongji University. Experimental research in this
paper has shown that the Gaussian distribution can not describe the wind pressure field
correctly in some cases. In regions under vortex flows, the pressure probability density
functions are skewed such that the probabilities for large negative fluctuations are much
higher than those of Gaussian processes. It has been proved that the sharp spikes
commonly observed in separation region are mainly responsible for the non-Gaussian
features. In order to study the effect of non-Gaussian feature of wind loading on
structural responses, this paper compares nodal displacements, element stresses and
reactions under wind loads with and without the consideration of non-Gaussian nature.
Wind loads with only Gaussian distribution for all points are simulated by using the
same spectrum feature and spatial correlation with those of wind tunnel data. The
approach which bases upon the Spectral representation method by superposition waves
is used to simulate multiple variables wind pressure field with Gaussian nature. It is
shown that the non-Gaussian feature of wind pressure fluctuations will not influence the
structural response on most of elements and displacements, but will obviously influence
the element responses and nodal displacements near the non-Gaussian regions such as
in the front and back regions the influence of horse-shoe vortices and arch-shaped
vortices.
Keywords: long-span domed roof, non-Gaussian, structural response
1 Introduction
Commonly used procedures in the field of wind engineering obtain loads (pressures)
using aerodynamic coefficients that multiply the square of the wind velocity. Since the
model representing the wind is assumed to be Gaussian and the turbulence quadratic
component is neglected, the resulting wind pressures are also Gaussian signals. This
assumption has been invoked primarily for the convenience in analysis and is quite
valid for loads that involve integral effects of the random pressure field over large areas
due to the Central Limit Theorem. Nonetheless, experimental research has shown in
recent years that the Gaussian model does not correctly describe the wind pressure field
[1][2]
. Use the Gaussian assumption to simulate pressure fluctuations from non-Gaussian
zones will severely underestimate the peak suction coefficients and result in non-
conservative design[3]. The non-Gaussian effects in pressure will result in non-Gaussian
local loads, and further may give way to increased expected responses of structural
1686
elements or supporting reactions. But to what degree will this effect exist and in what
case should be paid more attentions are still unknown, which will be the main purpose
of this paper.
This paper describes the results of some basic investigations aiming at achieving a
better understanding of the wind-induced dynamic behavior of a long-span rigidly
jointed single-layer latticed dome with or without non-Gaussian local wind pressures.
For implementation of comparison with results under wind pressures in Gaussian
distribution, the time histories of loadings are generated in accordance with desired
statistical and spectral characteristics based on spectral representation method [3]. The
dynamic response of dome model is analyzed in the time domain by using the wind
pressure data obtained from wind tunnel experiments and numerical simulations,
corresponding in the wind pressure field with and without non-Gaussianity. The
deflection of the dome and the resultant member stresses, i.e. the axial and bending
stresses, are computed at each time step. Based on the results, the different
characteristics of the wind-induced dynamic response of the dome are discussed.
2 Wind tunnel experiment
2.1 Experiment arrangement

The wind tunnel test was conducted in the boundary layer wind tunnel TJ-2 in the
school of Civil Engineering, Tongji University. The wind tunnel is of the recirculating
type with a working section of 3m wide, 2.5m high and 15m long. Turbulent boundary
layers were generated on the wind tunnel floor by using a set of vorticity generators
together with a number of small cubes on the floor. The mean velocity profile and
turbulence intensity profile are simulated with the target values for a suburban terrain
category of   0.16 , whose profile is shown in Fig.1. The reference wind tunnel
speeds for the measurements were 12m/s. The pressure fluctuations were measured
simultaneously by electric pressure scanners of HyScan3000 of Scanivalve Corp. The
pressure signals were sampled at 312.5Hz for 19.2 seconds and were measured
essentially simultaneously. Assuming that the wind tunnel/full-scale velocity ratio is 1:3,
the wind velocity at the level of the eave edge is 6.7 m/s corresponding to the full scale
20m/s, and the corresponding full-scale sampling frequency is 9.37Hz. The Reynolds
number based on the base diameter and the mean wind velocity on top of model height
is 5 105 . Each time series record (0f 6000 data points) is then equivalent to 10.7
minutes in full-scale. Domes designed with base diameter of 80m and rise-span-ratio of
1/6 were simulated at a scale of 1:100, the heights of eave varied from 15~25m, as
shown in Fig.2.
2.2 Data processing

The wind pressure coefficients of roof surface are defined as
P (t )  P
C pi (t )  i (1)
P0  P
1687
C pi (t ) P (t )
where： is the pressure coefficient of tap i in the model, i is the measured
P P
pressure of tap i , 0 ,  is reference total pressure and reference static pressure. The
reference point is at roof height. The mean and fluctuating wind pressures coefficients
C pimean C pirms C (t )
, from the pi time series can be calculated by means of statistical
method.
Turbulent Intensity Iu(%)

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
0.5
Target mean wind speed

0.4 Measured mean wind speedµ
Measured turbulent intensityµ
Hight (H/Hg)
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Velocity (V/Vg)
Fig.2: Wind tunnel experimental models
● the maximum nodal displacement difference between
simulated and original results is bigger than 20%;
non-Gaussian region.
Fig.1: Wind tunnel simulation for terrain B
C
The shape of a probability density function (PDF) of the pressure ( p ) can be
characterized by its third and fourth central moments relative to the standard deviation
C C
value. The skewness coefficient psk , and the kurtosis coefficient pku , are defined,
respectively, as
C pisk  n1 [ C pi  t   C pimean  / C pirms ]3
n
i 1 (2)
C piku  n1   C pi  t   C pimean  / C pirms 

n 4
i 1 (3)
For a normal or Gaussian distribution, skewness and kurtosis coefficients are equal to 0
C C
and 3, respectively. Values of psk and pku different from 0 and 3 indicate that the
C
data sets considered may not be Gaussian. psk <0 corresponds to skewness to the left,
C
while psk >0 to the right. Large negative skewness coefficient results in probabilities
for negative pressure fluctuations much higher than those for Gaussian processes.
C pku C
>3 represents distributions more peaked than the Gaussian and pku <3
characterizes distributions flatter than the Gaussian, as shown in Fig.3. The intensity
and occurrence of pressure spikes are usually governed by the value assigned to the
1688
kurtosis. As discussed above, the skewness and kurtosis coefficients can be used to
describe the characteristics deviate from Gaussian features.
Fig.3: Statistical moments for description of non-Gaussian features
2.3 Numerical simulation for wind pressure field with Gaussian feature
In order to quantify the effect of non-Gaussian on the structural response, firstly, a
procedure to produce a random Gaussian wind pressure field with the same spatial-
temporal characteristics is proposed, based on which the wind pressure signals with
non-Gaussian features were transferred to Gaussian. The difference between the
simulated and original time series lies in moment statistics higher than second order,
that is, skewness and kurtosis coefficients. Since the wind pressures vary spatially as
well as in time, the time space correlation of the pressure fluctuations may play an
important role in the dome's dynamic response. In order to reduce this influence in this
study, the numerical simulation is based on the same correlation characteristics with that
of wind tunnel data. This simulation process is carried out by spectral representation
method, the detail process is as follows.
To simulate a set of sample functions, the two-side cross-power spectral density matrix
S  
is decomposed in such a way that
S     H    H *   '
(4)
in which ij   is the (i,j) element of   , given according to the wind tunnel data;
S  S 
*
H is a (n × n) matrix; and H is the complex conjugate of H. For the simulation purpose,
H is usually chosen to be a lower triangular matrix. A sample function of the dynamic
wind load on the jth floor can be simulated following Shinozuka [3],
w j  t     H jm i  cos l t   jm l   ml 
j N
m 1 l 1 (5)
H jm
where is the (j, m) element of the matrix H; N is the total discrete frequency points;
ml are independent random numbers uniformly distributed between 0 to 2 ;
l   l 1 
is the lth frequency with  being the sampling frequency; and
 Im H jm l  
 jm l   tan 1  
 Re H jm l   (6)
1689
2.4 Method of analysis

The model for the analysis is a rigidly jointed single-layer latticed dome with a
triangular network (see Fig. 2), the division number of the network is 6, with the same
point number with wind tunnel testing taps. The members are steel pipes specified in the
Chinese Industrial Standard. The analysis programme chosen here is ANSYS, applying
a finite element method to the latticed dome, the dynamic motion of the dome can be
represented by a linear system. Use modified Newton-Raphson method for the transient
analysis and assume that the damping matrix (Raleigh damping) is given by
C     M     K  (7)
The values of the coefficients  and  are determined such that the critical damping
ratios for the first and second modes become 0.02, which is often used in the design of
steel structures. Such an assumption may result in an overestimation or underestimation
of the response to some degree. However, the effects have not been clarified yet in a
quantitative sense.
The wind load, expressed as a concentrated load at the interior node of the network, is
given by the product of the wind pressure at the location of the node and the tributary
area of the node. The effect of the internal pressure is not considered here.
The dome’s response is analyzed for a time duration of 10.67 min in total for each run.
The result for the first 1 min is not used for the statistical analysis of the response
because of the non-stationarity. In this paper, we focus on the comparisons of maximum
deflection and the resultant member stresses.
3. Experiment and simulation results
3.1 The non-Gaussian nature of the wind pressure field

Until now, most researches about non-Gaussian feature of wind pressures are related to
the buildings with sharp edges, few concern those buildings with curve surfaces.
Different with those buildings with sharp edges, those with curve surfaces don’t have
obvious separation vortex caused by sharp edges, but with different flow vortex around
dome surfaces, such as the horse-shoe vortex in front and arch-shaped vortex at the back
side which were commonly seen in previous experiments. Those points under the
influence of vortices have obvious deviations from a Gaussian distribution as shown in
Fig.4 for some typical sample time series with obvious sharp negative spikes
intermittently displayed and in Fig.5 from the histograms of the normalized time
C  t   C pimean  / C pirms
histories  pi of the selected samples on roofs. These figures also
include the simulation results, in Fig.4 the first four moment statistics also shown, from
which the Gaussian distribution of the signals can be recognized.
1690
tap number:96
Wind pressure coefficient

tap number:84
0.2 0
target:mean:-0.18,rms:0.06,sk:-0.58,ku:4.31 target:mean:-0.61,rms:0.15,sk:-0.82,ku:4.58
0
-0.5
-0.2
-1
-0.4
-0.6 -1.5
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Time (sec) Time (sec)

0.1 0
simulate:mean:-0.18,rms:0.05,sk:0.03,ku:2.78 simulate:mean:-0.60,rms:0.14,sk:-0.06,ku:2.87
0
-0.5
-0.1
-0.2
-1
-0.3
-0.4 -1.5
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
tap number:116 tap number:121
target:mean:-0.23,rms:0.12,sk:-2.20,ku:15.43 0
0
-0.5
-0.5
-1
-1 target:mean:-0.21,rms:0.11,sk:-2.69,ku:19.76
-1.5
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
0.2 0.2
simulate:mean:-0.22,rms:0.11,sk:0.08,ku:2.94 simulate:mean:-0.21,rms:0.09,sk:-0.07,ku:3.00
0 0
-0.2 -0.2
-0.4 -0.4
-0.6 -0.6
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Fig.4: Wind tunnel and simulated wind pressure coefficient time series of some typical
taps
1691
0 0
10 10
Original signal Original signal
Simulated signal Simulated signal
-1 Gaussian -1 Gaussian
10 10
Probability
Probability
-2 -2
10 10
-3 -3
10 10
-4 -4
10 10
-12 -8 -4 0 4 -12 -8 -4 0 4
(CP-CPmean)/CPrms (CP-CPmean)/CPrms
0 0
10 10
Original signal Original signal
Simulated signal Simulated signal
-1 Gaussian -1 Gaussian
10 10
Probability
Probability
-2 -2
10 10
-3 -3
10 10
-4 -4
10 10
-12 -8 -4 0 4 -12 -8 -4 0 4
(CP-CPmean)/CPrms (CP-CPmean)/CPrms
Fig.5: PDFs of some typical taps based on wind tunnel data and simulated results
In this study, a particular roof region is considered non-Gaussian if the absolute values
of skewness and kurtosis of pressure fluctuations at various taps are greater thatn 0.2
and 3.5 respectively, detail information can refer to [5], the non-Gaussian regions are
shown in Fig.2 as inclined areas.
3.2 The verification of simulated wind pressures

As mentioned before, in order to study the effect of non-Gaussianity on the structural
responses, another wind pressure fields with Gaussian feature are simulated, with the
preconditions that the power spectral density functions and temporal-spatial correlation
characteristics should be the same. Fig.6 shows the comparison between experiment and
simulation for the spectrum function of the pressure coefficient. As shown in the figure,
the pressure fluctuations are well simulated for spectrum characteristics even in higher
frequencies. The results of cross-coefficients are shown in Fig.7 (the position of taps
shown in Fig.5), for taps close to each other the correlation fit very well, but for taps far
from each other the correlation of Gaussian field is higher than that of experiment data
in higher frequency.
1692
tap number:84 0
tap number:96
-1
10 10
Target results Target results
Simulation results -1 Simulation results
-2 10
10
-2
10
Scp(f)
Scp(f)
-3
10
-3
10
-4
10 -4
10
-5 -5
10 -2 -1 0 1
10 -2 -1 0 1
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
f(Hz) f(Hz)
tap number:116 tap number:121
-1 -1
10 10
Target results
Simulation results
-2 -2
10 10
Scp(f)
Scp(f)
-3 -3
10 10
Target results
-4
Simulation results -4
10 10
-5 -5
10 -2 -1 0 1
10 -2 -1 0 1
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
f(Hz) f(Hz)
Fig.6: Spectrum functions of some typical taps based on wind tunnel data and simulated
results
3.3 The comparison of structural responses

According to the analysis method mentioned before, the deflection of the dome, the
reaction forces and the resultant member stresses, i.e. the axial and bending stresses, are
recorded at each time step. In order to quantified the difference between results based
on wind tunnel data and simulated data, an relative difference level coefficient Diff is
defined as
Valori  Valsim
Diff  100%
Valori (8)
Valori Valsim
in which and are the results based on original experiment data and
simulated data respectively. Since designers usually just care for the maximum response
of structure, therefore only the maximum results are shown in the following context.
Fig.8 shows the results for sum of nodal displacements, which is the combination of X,
Y and Z direction. As shown in the figure, the nodal displacement under wind tunnel
data (with local non-Gaussian features) are usually larger than that of simulated results
(all in Gaussian distribution), and the average difference level is 15.9%, and those nodes
1693
with difference level bigger than 20% are shown in Fig.2 with sign ‘●’, which are
located near the non-Gaussian regions.
Fig.9 gives the results of reaction forces in Z direction, in which the node number from
92 to 110 locate in the windward face, and 111 to 127 in the leeward face. It is shown
that there is not big difference for the reaction forces, and even the reaction forces under
simulated Gaussian field are litter bigger than that of original results, expect for that in
the middle of the backward location, where the wake vortex action is strong.
tap number:84-96
tap number:84-85
Original results
Original results
Simulation results
Simulation results 0.8
0.8
correlation coefficient
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
-0.2 -0.2
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
time lag(sec) time lag(sec)
tap number:84-116 tap number:84-121
Original results Original results

Simulation results Simulation results
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
-0.2 -0.2
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
time lag(sec) time lag(sec)
Fig.7: Comparisons of correlation coefficients
1694
Maximum displacement for each node Maximum reaction force Rz

35
Maximum value of displacement (mm)
oringinal results 40 oringinal results

simulated results simulated results
30
Maximum value of Rz (kN)

35
25
30
20
25
15 20
10 15
5 10
0 20 40 60 80 100 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130
Node number Reaction node number
Fig.8: Maximum sum of nodal displacements Fig.9: Maximum reaction forces in Z

direction
Fig. 10 shows the results of member stresses, in which the maximum stress for member
section is (direct stress + bending stress) and minimum stress is (direct stress - bending
stress). The average different level is 17.1%, only those results for difference level of
stresses higher than 20% are plotted in the figures. And the positions for these elements
are also displayed in Fig.11, most of which also located near and in the non-Gaussian
regions.
Maximum stress of Element Minimum stress of Element

60 -10
oringinal results
Maximum stress of Element (Mpa)
Minimum stress of Element (Mpa)
simulated results -15

50
-20
40
-25
30
-30
20
-35
oringinal results
10 -40 simulated results
0 -45
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Element number Element number
Fig.10: Maximum and Minimum stresses of elements for difference level higher than
20%
1695
(a) Maximum stresses (b) Minimum stresses

Fig.10: Elements with difference level higher than 20% for extreme stresses of elements
4. CONCLUSIONS
This paper summarizes the non-Gaussian characteristics of measured pressure data on
long span domed roofs, and studies the effect of the non-Gaussian feature on the
structural responses. In order to do this, another wind pressure field with Gaussian
property was simulated based on spectral representation method. The results obtained
from examination reveal that wind pressure in the location of regions where the vortices
such as horse-shoe vortex in front and arch-shaped vortex in the wake region take action
has eminent non-Gaussian characteristics. The non-Gaussian nature of local pressure
will affect some of the structural responses around the region, especially for the
displacement and element stresses, but may not cause obvious difference for reaction
forces.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The supports of the National Science Foundation of China (NSFC) under project No.
90815021 and No. 50708030 are gratefully acknowledged. The assistance from Mr.
Song JinZhong, Dr. Huang Peng and Dr. Zhao Lin in Tongji University with the wind
tunnel experiments is gratefully acknowledged.
References
[1] Kumar K.S. and Stathopoulos T., Wind loads on low building roofs: A stochastic
perspective, Journal of Structural Engineering, 2000, 126(8): 944- 956.
[2] Richards P. J and Hoxey R. P, Quasi-steady theory and point pressures on a cubic
building , J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 2004, 92:1173-1190.
[3] Kurmar K.S. and Stathopoulos T., A computerized approach replacing wind
pressure time series databases, 8th ASCE Specialty conference on probabilistic
mechanics and structural reliability, 2000, PMC2000-018.
1696
[4] Shinozuka, M., Stochastic fields and their digital simulation, Lecture Notes for
CISM Course on Stochastic Methods in Structural Mechanics, Hermes, Udine,
Italy, 1985
[5] Sun Y.，Wu Y.，Shen S.Z.. The non-gaussian features of wind pressure on large-
span roofs[C]. IASS-APCS 2006, Beijing, 2006, 10:354-355.
1697
Wind force coefficients for the design of

a hyperbolic paraboloid free roof
Fumiyoshi TAKEDA1*, Tatsuya YOSHINO2 and Yasushi UEMATSU3
1*
Structural Engineer, Technical Research Center, R&D Division, Taiyo Kogyo
Corporation, 3-20, Syodai-Tajika, Hirakatashi, Osaka 573-1132, Japan
tf001163@mb.taiyokogyo.co.jp
2
Researcher, Technical Research Center, R&D Division, Taiyo Kogyo Corporation,
yt003051@mb.taiyokogyo.co.jp
3
Professor, Department of Architecture and Building Science, Tohoku University,
yu@venus.str.archi.tohoku.ac.jp
Abstract
The purpose of the present paper is to discuss the wind force coefficients of a
hyperbolic paraboloid (called „HP‟, hereinafter) free roof for the design of membrane
strictures, based on a wind tunnel experiment1) as well as on a CFD (Computational
Fluid Dynamics) analysis. We investigate the validity of analytical approach2) to obtain
the design wind force coefficients. In the present paper, the lift coefficient (CL) and the
aerodynamic moment coefficients (CMx and CMy) about two axes (x and y) are obtained.
Correlation between the wind force and moment coefficients are investigated, and
appropriate wind force coefficients are proposed for two wind direction perpendicular to
each other. In the discussion of the design wind force coefficients, the roof is assumed
rigid and simply supported by four corner columns, and the axial forces induced in the
columns are regarded as the most important load effect for estimating the design wind
loads. Two load cases generating the maximum tension and compression of columns are
considered. The roof is divided into the windward and leeward halves for each wind
direction, and the wind force coefficients on these halves are provided. Finally, the
proposed values are compared with the specifications of the Australia/New Zealand
Standard3) from the viewpoint of load effect. A comparison of the results on the wind
force and moment coefficients between wind tunnel experiment and CFD analysis
indicates a potentiality of the CFD analysis for evaluating the wind forces on HP free
roofs with various shapes, although some improvements should be made.
Keywords: HP free-standing canopy roof; Wind tunnel experiment; Computational

fluid dynamics; Design wind force coefficients; Membrane strictures
1 Introduction
Many membrane free roofs have been constructed in the world. However, it seems
suspicious to the authors whether the wind loads have been adequately evaluated in the
structural analysis, when designing such structures, because there are few data on
design wind loads in codes and standards, and even in wind tunnel experiments.
1698
Therefore, as the first step of investigation, the authors are accumulating data on wind
force coefficients for designing membrane free roofs of solid and porous types using
wind tunnel experiments1). Furthermore, considering that wind tunnel experiments are
expensive and time-consuming, we are trying to construct a CFD model for estimating
the wind force coefficients on membrane free roofs of arbitrary shape2). The present
paper shows the wind force coefficients on HP-shaped free roofs of solid type, obtained
from a wind tunnel experiment. The experimental data are compared with the
specifications in the Australian/New Zealand (called „AS/NZ‟, hereinafter) Standard.
Furthermore, a comparison is made for the mean wind force and moment coefficients
between the wind tunnel experiment and a CFD analysis to investigate the application
of the CFD analysis to the load estimation.
2 Definition of wind force and moment coefficient
2.1 Roof shapes

The subject of the study is an HP-shaped free roof.
Three models (Models A - C) with different rise/span
(or san/span) ratios are tested (see figure 2-1). The
plan of the roof is a square of 15 m by 15 m, and the
mean roof height H is 8 m in full scale.
2.2 Wind force and moment coefficients Fig. 2-1: Roof shapes
Figure 2-2 shows the definition of the wind forces and
aerodynamic moments, where L represents the lift, and Mx and My are the aerodynamic
moments about the x and y axes, respectively. These values are normalized as follows:
L Mx My
CL  CMx  CMy  (1), (2), (3)
qH S qH Sa qH Sa
where qH = reference velocity pressure at a height of z = H; S = projection area of the

roof; and a = horizontal (projection) width of the roof. For the purpose of comparison,
the design wind force coefficients on the roof are specified by two uniformly distributed
values (CNW and CNL) over the windward and leeward halves, which are defined by
NW NL
CNW  C NL  (4), (5)
qH S / 2 qH S / 2
where NW and NL represent the normal wind forces, positive downward, on the
windward and leeward halves. The coefficients CNW and CNL can be represented by CL,
CMx and CMy as follows:
1699
CNW  CL  3 2CMy CNL  CL  3 2CMy (6), (7)
x
Low
CNL CNW
y High High CNW

CNL
Low
θ=45°
Fig. 2-2: Definitions of each wind force coefficient
3 Experimental arrangement and procedure
3.1 Experimental arrangement

The experiments were carried out in a boundary
layer wind tunnel with a working section 1.4 m
wide, 1.0 m high and 6.5 m long. A turbulent
boundary layer with a power law exponent of α =
0.18 for the mean velocity profile was generated
on the wind tunnel floor. The turbulence intensity
Iu and longitudinal scale Lx of the flow at a height
of z = 100 mm are 0.17 and 0.16 m, respectively.
The power spectrum of wind velocity fluctuations
was consistent with the so-called Karman-type Fig. 3-1 Picture of Model A
spectrum, and the turbulence scale Lx was obtained
by fitting the curve of the spectrum to the experimental data. The wind tunnel models
are made of 1 mm thick acrylic plate with a geometric scale of 1/100; the surface is
nominally smooth. Figure 3-1 shows a model (Model A) mounted on a force balance
that was designed, built and gauged for the purpose of the present experiment. The three
aluminum columns which support the model are made of aluminum with the diameter
5mm. The Y-shaped force balance made of 1.2 mm thick phosphor bronze4). The
column base is pin-jointed to the leaf spring. The bending stress at the base of each leaf
spring is measured by strain gauges, from which the concentrated load at the end of
each arm is computed. The lift L and the aerodynamic moments Mx and My about the x
and y axes are computed from the concentrated loads N1 to N3 as follows:
L  ( N1  N 2  N 3 ) (8)
Mx  ( N 2  N 3 ) x3 My  N1 x1  ( N 2  N3 ) x2 (9), (10)
1700
The definition of x1, x2 and x3 are shown in figure 2-2. Note that the computed Mx and
My values include additional moments induced by the drag due to the eccentricity of the
origin of the x and y axes, because the origin is not at the center of the roof surface.
Therefore, we estimated the effect of drag on the aerodynamic moments and the load
effect, as a result.
3.2 Experimental procedure

The measurements were carried out at a wind speed of UH ≈ 6 m/s at the mean roof
height H. The design wind speed is assumed 31.5 m/s, as a typical value of strong wind
events. The geometric scale of the model is assumed 1/100, which yields a time scale of
approximately 1/19. The outputs of the strain meters were sampled simultaneously at a
rate of 200 Hz for a period of 32 sec, which corresponds to 10 min in full scale. The
measurements were repeated six times under the same condition. The statistics of the
aerodynamic coefficients are evaluated by applying ensemble average to the results of
these six runs. In the present paper, focus is on the mean peak values of the
aerodynamic coefficients and the load effects. The Reynolds number Re, defined in
terms of UH and a, is approximately 6 × 104. The wind direction θ, defined as shown in
figure 2-2, is changed from 0 o to 90o at a step of 15o.
3.3 Experimental results

3.3.1 Characteristics of wind force and moment coefficients
Figure 3-2 shows the statistical values of the lift and moment coefficients as a function
of wind direction for Model A (h/a = 1/2); the mean and the maximum and minimum
peak values are plotted in each figure. The lift coefficient becomes the maximum
(upward) for θ= 0°and the minimum (downward) for θ= 90°. This feature is related to
the increased wind velocity along the convex surface, that is, the upper surface when θ=
0°and the lower surface when θ= 90°. The magnitude of the negative peak value of CMx
becomes the maximum when θ= 90°, while that of CMy becomes the maximum when
θ= 0°. The values of CMx when θ= 0°and those of CMy when θ= 90°are relatively small
in magnitude. The variation of CMx with θ is opposite to that of CMy.
(a) CL (b) CMx (c) CMy

Fig. 3-2: Statistics of lift and moment coefficients (Model A: h/a = 1/2)
1701
4 Numerical simulation of wind flow around HP free roofs
4.1 Outline of CFD analysis

The above-mentioned wind tunnel experiments are numerically simulated by using a
CFD software named „OpenFORM (Version1.5)‟, which is known as an open source
code. Focus is on CL, CMx and CMy. A three dimensional analysis with RANS (Reynolds
Averaged Navier-Stokes ) method is made. The computational domain area is
1.0m×1.4m×3.0m (see figure 4.1-1(a)). This area simulated the dimensions of the wind
tunnel. Figure 4.1-1(b) shows HP model, and figure 4.1-2(a)-(c) shows the model grid.
The wind direction is changed from 0 o to 90o at a step of 15o in the same manner as in
the wind tunnel experiment. The calculation method is the finite volume method, and
RNG (Re-Normalization Group) k-ε equation model is used as a turbulence model. The
boundary condition is showed in Table 4.1. The turbulence intensity obtained from the
wind tunnel is used for the analyses. Table 4.2 shows the turbulence intensity.
Table 4.1 Boundary condition

Surface at Xmin Table 4.2 Turbulence intensity Iu
< Power law boundary >
( Inlet )

at inlet
 Z  Z (m) Iu
U Z  U G  
 ZG  0 ～ 0.01 0.186
Wind speed at reference height ZG : UG = 8m/s ～ 0.02 0.179

Reference height : ZG = 0.6m
～ 0.03 0.186
Power law exponent of the mean wind speed
profile : α = 1/6 ～ 0.05 0.172
< Turbulent flow > ～ 0.1 0.158

Turbulence intensity：Using experiment values ～ 0.2 0.111
(See Table4.2)
Surface at Xmax Surface pressure at outlet ～ 0.3 0.087
( Outlet ) Pressure : 0 Pa
Surface at Ymin, Free-slip wall ～ 0.4 0.063
Ymax, Zmax
Surface at Zmin No-slip wall (Power law) ～ 0.5 0.047
The number of the powers : 1/6
～ 1.0 0.035
Component surface No-slip wall (Logarithmic law)
Only panel of Solid is effective
y
x
(a) Simulated wind tunnel (b) HP model (θ = 0 degree)

Fig. 4.1-1: Numerical model (Model A)
1702
z
x (a) Side view of the simulated wind tunnel model
(b) Enlarged side view of HP (θ = 0 degree) (c) Enlarged front view of HP (θ = 0 degree)
Fig. 4.1-2: Numerical model (Model A)
4.2 Result of analysis

The results on the mean CL, CMx and CMy values for Models A, B and C are shown in
figures 4-2-1, 2 and 3, respectively. In the figures, the experimental results are also
plotted for the purpose of comparison. Figure 4-3 shows comparisons between CFD
analysis and experiment for Model A. In other words, every point on the figure 4-3
show the analytical value plotted against the experimental value of each wind direction.
The CFD results agree well with the experimental results for CL and CMy. Regarding the
mean CMx values, on the other hand, the agreement is poorer, particularly for larger θ
values, although the CFD analysis captures the general trend of the experimental results.
Similar features were observed for Models B and C. The reason for this difference is not
clear at present. There are two possible reasons. One is related to the experimental
method. The force balance to measure the wind force may affect the wind flow under
the roof. The effect of drag force, which is unavoidable in the measurements, may affect
the results for the CMx values. The other reason is related to the numerical model, such
as grid resolution around the model, turbulence model, boundary condition and others.
Further investigations are necessary to improve the agreement between the CFD
analysis and wind tunnel experiment. Furthermore, the dynamic effect should be
considered appropriately.
1703
(a) CL (mean) (b) CMx (mean) (c) CMy (mean)

Fig. 4-2-1: Analytical values of lift and moment coefficients (Model A: h/a = 1/2)

Fig. 4-2-2: Analytical values of lift and moment coefficients (Model B: h/a = 1/3)

Fig. 4-2-3: Analytical values of lift and moment coefficients (Model C: h/a = 1/6)

Fig. 4-3: Comparisons between analysis and experiment (Model A: h/a = 1/2)
1704
5 Load effects
5.1 Non-dimensional axial force

In the present study, focus is on the axial forces induced in
the columns as the most important load effect. The axial
force N induced in each column is computed from the time
history of CL, CMx and CMy, assuming that the roof is rigid
and simply supported by four corner columns (see figure
5-1). The maximum and minimum peak values of the non-
dimensional axial force N* (= N/ (qHa2/4)) among the four
columns are plotted in figure 5-2. The values of the Fig.5-1: Columns
maximum and minimum N* values generally decrease with
a decrease in h/a. The variation of the maximum tension with wind direction is
relatively small in magnitude, while that of the maximum compression is significant.
The maximum tension and compression among the all wind directions are induced
when θ= 30°and θ= 90°, respectively.
Fig. 5-2: Non-dimensional axial force (from the experiment)
5.2 Gust effect factor

In order to investigate the dynamic effect of
wind turbulence on the column axial forces,
the gust effect factor Gf, defined as the ratio
of the maximum or the minimum axial force
to the mean value induced in the column, is
computed for all models and wind directions.
Figure 5-3 shows the results for Gf plotted
against the mean reduced axial force N*mean.
When the value of |N*mean| is small, Gf
exhibits a large value. However, as |N*mean| Fig. 5-3: Gust effect factor based on the
increases, the values of Gf collapse into a load effect (from the experiment)
narrow range around Gf = 2.0, which
corresponds to a peak factor of gf ≈2.5, based on the quasi-steady assumption, i.e., Gf ≈
(1 + 2.5×0.17)2. The value of gf ≈2.5 is somewhat smaller than that for gable, troughed
1705
and mono-sloped roofs, which are approximately 3.0 (see reference 5). This difference
may be due to the effect of flow separation from the leading edges of the roof on the
wind loads. The turbulence induced by the flow separation seems lower for HP roofs
than that for the other roofs. In the following section, the value of Gf = 2.0 is used for
evaluating the design wind force coefficients that provide the equivalent static loads
together with the gust effect factor Gf.
5.3 Proposal of design wind force coefficients

The roof is divided into two areas, i.e. the windward and leeward halves, and the design
wind force coefficients CNW and CNL for these halves are specified. The design wind
force coefficients are assumed constant in these areas. They are estimated according to
the following procedure:
Step 1: The basic values of CNW and CNL, denoted as CNW0 and CNL0, are determined
from a combination of the lift coefficient (CL) and the moment coefficient (CMy or CMx)
that produces the maximum load effect for θ= 0°or θ= 90°.
Step 2: Considering that the axial force induced in the column may become the
maximum for oblique winds (see figure 5-4), a correction factor, which is defined as the
ratio of the actual peak force for θ= 0°- 45°(WD1) or θ = 45°- 90°(WD2), to that
computed from the CNW0 and CNL0 values is introduced.
Wind direction 1 (WD 1) Wind direction 2 (WD 2)

(θ= 0°±45°) (θ= 90°±45°)
Fig. 5-4: Definition of the wind direction
Step 3: The design wind force coefficients C*NW and C*NL, which give equivalent static
wind loads, are provided as follows:
C NW 0 C NL 0
C * NW  C * NL  (11), (12)
Gf Gf
Figures 5-5(a) and (b) show a phase-plane representation of the CMy –CL relation for
Model B and C when θ = 0°. The circles in the figure represent the maximum and
minimum peak values (CLmax and CLmin) during each of six runs. The envelope of the
trajectory looks like an ellipse with inclined axes, indicating a positive correlation
between CMy and CL. In the case of Model C, the CL and CMy values are well correlated
with each other. The value of CMy at the instant when CLmax or CLmin occurs is nearly
equal to the maximum or minimum value of CMy (CMymax or CMymin). The maximum load
effect may be given by a combination of the two peak values. In the case of Model B,
1706
on the other hand, the correlation between CMy and CL is relatively low. The „peak +
peak‟ combination of CMy and CL does not necessarily give the maximum load effect.
The maximum load effect is given by a certain combination of CMy and CL. The
envelope of CMy−CL trajectory for Models A and B is approximated by a hexagon
shown in figure 5-5(c). The critical condition that produces the maximum load effect
may be given by one of these six apexes. The CMx−CL relation for θ= 90°exhibits a
similar feature. From the combination of the lift and moment coefficient (CMx or CMy)
obtained above, the basic wind force coefficients (CNW0 and CNL0) are computed by
using the expression (6), (7) for two wind directions θ= 0°and 90°. For each wind
direction, two sets of the CNW0 and CNL0 values are obtained for two load cases that
induce the maximum tension (case Ι) and compression (case Π) in the columns.
Fig. 5-5: Phase-plane representation of the CL-CMy relation (θ= 0°)

The correction factor γ in the equation
(11), (12) is obtained by calculating the 2.0
Correction factor 
ratio of the actual maximum or minimum 1.5

axial force to the predicted value from 1.0
CNW0 and CNL0. Figure 5-6 shows the 0.5
results. When the h/a ratio is small, the 0.0
value of γ for WD1 is relatively large. 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 h/a
Besides these cases, the value of γ is Load case Ⅰ (WＤ 1)
Load Case Ⅱ (WD 1)
approximately 1.0. Load Case Ⅰ (WD 2)
Load Case Ⅱ (WD 2)
Fig. 5-6: Correction factor γ

6 Comparison with specifications
of the Australia/New Zealand standard
Plotted on figures 6-1 and 2 are the estimated values of C*NW and C*NL for WD1 and
WD 2, respectively. The specifications of the AS/NZ Standard (2002) are also shown by
the dashed lines. The Standard provides two values of wind force coefficients
(expressed as „positive‟ and „negative‟) for each of the windward and leeward halves;
the range of the h/a ratio is limited to 0.1 to 0.3. The values of C*NW for load cases Ι
and Π are close to the two specified values of the AS/NZ Standard. Regarding the
leeward half, on the other hand, the wind force coefficients for the two load cases are
similar to each other and nearly equal to one of the specified values of the AS/NZ
1707
Standard. These features are similar to those observed by Uematsu et al.5) for gable,
troughed and mono-sloped roofs.
1.0 1.0 Load case Ⅰ

AS/NZ (positive) Load case Ⅱ
0.5 0.5 AS/NZ (positive)
C*NW
C*NL
0.0 0.0
-0.5 -0.5 AS/NZ (negative)
AS/NZ (negative) Load case Ⅰ
-1.0 Load case Ⅱ -1.0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
h/a h/a
(a) Windward half (b) Leeward half
Fig. 6-1: Wind force coefficients C*NW and C*NL (WD 1)
AS/NZ (positive) AS/NZ (positive)
AS/NZ (negative)
AS/NZ (negative)
(a) Windward half (b) Leeward half

Fig. 6-2: Wind force coefficients C*NW and C*NL (WD 2)
AS/NZ (Max.) AS/NZ (Max.)
AS/NZ (Min.)
AS/NZ (Min.)
(a) Wind direction 1 (WD 1) (b) Wind direction 2 (WD 2)

Fig. 6-3: Reduced axial force
Load case Ι: the maximum tension

Load case Π: the maximum compression
1708
Axial forces induced in the columns are computed by using C*NW and C*NL and
compared with those predicted from the AS/NZ specifications. The results are shown in
figure 6-3. As mentioned above, the AS/NZ Standard generally provides four
combinations of the wind force coefficients on the windward and leeward halves. The
maximum and minimum axial forces among the four values are shown in the figure. It
is interesting to note that these values are consistent with the present results for load
cases Ι and Π, respectively, despite the difference in the wind force coefficients, as
shown in figures 6-1 and 2.
Overall wind forces and moments acting on an HP free roof have been investigated
experimentally and numerically. Assuming that the roof is supported by four corner
columns, focus is on the axial forces induced in the columns as the load effect for
discussing the design wind force coefficients. Based on a combination of the lift and
moment coefficients, the design wind force coefficients on the windward and leeward
halves of the roof were provided for two load cases generating the maximum tension
and compression in the columns. The design wind forces are expressed as equivalent
static loads. The values of the wind force coefficients and the resultant load effect are
compared with those obtained from the Australia/New Zealand Standard. Both the
proposed values and the AS/NZ specifications predict similar results for the axial forces
within the limits of h/a = 0.1 - 0.3, for which the AS/NZ Standard provides the
specifications of the wind force coefficients. The CFD approach may be useful for
obtaining the mean wind force and moment coefficients acting on the HP free roof.
However, it is necessary to improve the method of analysis for predicting the design
wind force coefficients more reasonably by considering the dynamic load effects of
wind forces.
References
[1] Uematsu, Y., Arakatsu F., Matsumoto S., and Takeda F., Proceedings of Seventh
Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering (APCWE-VII), November 8-12,
2009 Taipei, Taiwan.
[2] Takeda, F., Yoshino, T. and Uematsu, Y. “One consideration on the wind pressure
load acting on the surface of mesh membrane structure – Comparison of
experiment and analysis on a simple shape –” International Association for Shell
and Spatial Structures (IASS) Valencia, Spain, 28 September – 2 October, 2009.
[3] Standards Australia (2002), Australia/New Zealand Standard, AS/NZ 1170.2.
[4] Altman, D.R. (2001), Wind forces on roof canopies, M. Sc. Thesis, Clemson
University, USA.
[5] Uematsu, Y., Iizumi, E.. and Stathopoulos, T. “Wind force coefficients for
designing free-standing canopy roofs”, Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial
Aerodynamics 2007;95: 1486-1510.
1709
Aerodynamic unstable critical wind velocity for membrane

structures
De-min WEI 1*, Mei-ling ZHU 2, Di LI 2
1*
State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Building Science, South China University of
Technology
Department of Civil Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou
510640, China
dmwei@scut.edu.cn
2
Department of Civil Engineering, South China University of Technology
Abstract
In this paper, the geometric nonlinearity is introduced into the dynamic
equilibrium equation of membrane structures. The disturbances on the top and bottom
surfaces of the structure caused by the air flow are simulated by a vortex layer with
infinite thickness. The unsteady Bernoulli equation and the circulation theorem are
applied in order to express the aerodynamic pressure as a function of the vortex density.
The vortex density is obtained by means of the vortex lattice method concerning the
coupling boundary condition. According to the stability analysis of the system,
theoretical expression of the divergent unstable critical wind velocity is obtained.
Numerical results for the unstable critical wind velocity of one-dimensional membrane
structures indicate that the influence of wake cannot be ignored in aerodynamic stability
analysis.
Keywords: membrane structure, critical wind velocity, vortex lattice method
1 Introduction
With the economic development and technological improvement, people's demand for
the large-span space structure is gradually increasing. For nearly a decade, different
forms of light high-strength cable-membrane structure have been applied to a number of
major projects. Although the seismic performance of the long-span cable-membrane
structure is good, they are more sensitive to wind which is the control load in such
structural design. According to the test on the one-dimensional membrane structure,
Sygulski [1] found that the membrane structure produces divergence instability when the
wind speed reaches a certain value. Miyake’s experiment [2] also found that suspension
roof model produces aerodynamic instability. Till now, a series of theoretical researches
of the aerodynamic stability of cable-membrane properties under the wind loads have
been launched at home and abroad [3-5]. Compared to engineering applications of cable-
membrane structures, however, the wind theoretical researches of cable-membrane
structure lag behind. Many problems need to be solved， such as related wind tunnel
test results are lacking, the theoretical system of wind-induced response study is
incomplete and failure mechanism under the action of wind load is unclear.
1710
In this paper, the aerodynamic stability of thin-film structure under wind load was
studied preliminarily. The geometric nonlinearity was introduced into the dynamic
equilibrium equation of membrane structures. The disturbances on the surface of the
structure caused by the air flow were simulated by a vortex layer with infinite thickness.
The unsteady Bernoulli equation and the circulation theorem were applied in order to
express the aerodynamic pressure as a function of the vortex density. Then, the vortex
density was obtained by means of the vortex lattice method concerning the coupling
boundary condition. According to the stability analysis of the system, analytical
expression of the divergent unstable critical wind velocity was obtained. Computational
results for the unstable critical wind velocity of one-dimensional open-type flat
membrane structures show that the influence of wake cannot be ignored in the
aerodynamic stability analysis. The comparison between the numerical and the test
results in literature [1] show the correctness of the basic theory in this paper.
2 Dynamic equilibrium equation
2.1 Stresses in membrane

The lateral displacement response w is much bigger than the other two horizontal
displacement responses u and v for cable-membrane structure under loading condition,
so the impact of geometric nonlinearity should be considered in the analysis of the
structure displacement. Ignoring the contributions of u , v and shear strain, the physical
equations and geometric equations can be written in the following forms respectively [3]:
x 
E1
1  1 2
  x  2 y  y 
E2
1  1 2
1 x   y  (1)
2
1  w  1  w 
2
 x  k x 0 w      y  k y 0 w     (2)
2  x  2  y 
Therefore the membrane stresses can be expressed as:
Tx  Tx 0  Tx  Tx 0   x h Ty  Ty 0  Ty  Ty 0   y h 3)
Where E1 and E2 are elastic modulus of membrane material in latitude and longitude
directions; v1 and v2 are Poisson‘s ratios in latitude and longitude directions; Tx0 and Ty0
are the initial pretensions of membrane structure in x and y directions, Tx and Ty are
additional tensions of membrane structure in x and y directions, h is the thickness of the
material.
2.2 Surface aerodynamic forces

Assuming that the cable-membrane structure works in the incompressible non-viscous
ideal fluid, one obtains its surface aerodynamic forces and the aerodynamic pressure
difference between the upper and lower structure surfaces by the unsteady Bernoulli's
equation as follows:
1711
 * * 
pi     i  V  i  (4)
 t x 
 * *     

p  p1  p2    V       V   (5)
 x t   x t 
Where Φi* is the disturbance velocity potential; pi is the pressure on structure surface;
the index i=1, 2 denotes the upper and lower surface respectively; ΔΦ=Φ1-Φ2 is the
velocity potential difference between the upper and lower structure surfaces.
Laplace equation needs to be introduced for velocity potential solving, but the process
and results are complicated. In this paper, we employed the circulation theorem, and
turned the air pressure into the function of vortex density. According to the definition of
circulation, one gets:
  K     K     u1  u2  dx
l
(6)
0
The thin vortex layer locates on the separation surface. There exist some connections
among the upper and lower surfaces velocities u1, u2 and the vortex density γ:
u  u1  u2   (7)
So, substituting equation (5) into (7), one has:
x 
p   V      dx (8)
0 t
2.3 Dynamic equilibrium equations

Disregarding the shear force, the stress equilibrium equations of the membrane structure
on initial and any time are,
2 z 2 z
Tx 0  20  Ty 0  20  0 (9)
x y
 2 zs  2 zs 2w w
Tx   T   m   0   p (10)
x y t t
2 y 2 s 2
Where zs=z0+w is the z-coordinate of the structure after acting, z0 is the z-coordinate of
the structure at the initial state; ms is the mass of the membrane per unit area and ξ0 is
the structural damping with 0  0 .
Substituting equations (3) and (9) into (10), and ignoring the higher-order nonlinear
term, one gets:
2w 2w 2 z 2 z 2w x   x, y, t 
Tx 0  2  Ty 0  2  Tx  20  Ty  20  ms  2  V  c  x, y, t     c
dx
x y x y t 0 t
(11)
1712
3 Example analysis
For a one-dimensional flat membrane structure with simple supports at both ends, the
dynamic equilibrium equation can be expressed as:
2w 2w x   x, t 
T  2  m  2  V  c  x, t     c
dx  0 (12)
x t 0 t
x
Assuming its lateral displacement can be decomposed into w  A sin  z  t  , and one
a
x
introduced it into the equation (12). Then multiply both sides by sin , equation (12)
a
can be rewritten in the following forms by integration in [0,a]:
 2T ma  x a x  x
 Az  t    A z  t    V  c  sin
a
 dx     c
 sin  dxdx (13)
2a 2 0 a 0 0 t a
According to the Neumann coupled boundary condition, the connection between the
lateral velocity w on membrane surface and the disturbance velocity vz of fluid can be
expressed as:
w w  x x 
vz  V    VA   cos  z  t   A sin  z t  (14)
x t a a a
3.1 Vortex density
Fig. 1: schematic diagram of vortex distribution
Fig.1 shows the vortex intensity distribution。In this figure, γc=γ, γw are the vortex intensity distributing
on structure surface and in wake, respectively.
3.1.1 without considering the impact of wake
Ignoring γw, and according to the Biot-Savart law [7] , one finds that z-component of
fluid disturbance velocity of γc at any point x∈[0,a] is:
1 a  c  , t 
2 0 x  
vz ( x )   d (15)
We divide the vortex intensity into M grids in the length of the membrane structure. The
position xj of point vortex γcj is located on 1/4 length, while the control position xi is
located on 3/4 length. Based on the idea of Vortex lattice method, equation (15) can be
written into the following discrete form:
1713
a M  cj
vzi 
2 M
x x
j 1 i j (16)
On the control point, the connection between the disturbance velocity and the vortex
intensity satisfies the Neumann boundary condition.
Assuming:

 cj  AVa j 0  z  t   Aa j1  z  t 
(17)
By referring equation (14), one gets:
a M a j0  x
   cos i
2 M j 1 xi  x j a a
(18a)
a M a j1  xi
2 M
x x
j 1
 sin
a
i j (18b)
Thus, values of γcj on each vortex grids can be obtained by solving this set of linear
equations.
3.1.2 considering the impact of wake
Considering the role of γw, by the Biot-Savart law we can see the z-component of fluid
disturbance velocity of γc and γw at the point x∈ [0, a] is:
1 a  c  , t  1   w  , t 
vz ( x )   
2 0 x  
d 
2 a x  
d (19)
Considering the influence of wake in the length of l = 3a and dividing the length of the
membrane surface into M grids and the length of wake into N girds in the same way,
equation (19) can be rewritten as:
a M  cj l M  N  wj
vzi    
2 M j 1 xi  x j 2 N j M 1 xi  x j
(20)
Within length of the membrane structure, lateral disturbance velocity vzi satisfies the
Neumann coupled boundary condition. In the area of the wake, however, as the trailing
edge of the Structure is fixed, the fluid flows through the tail of the membrane structure
smoothly. So according to the Kutta flow condition, there is:
vzi  0 (M  i  M  N ) (21)
From equations (19) and (20) one can see that γcj and γw are both the functions of z(t)

and z  t  . Supposing:
1714
 
 t  


 cj  A  j0
Va  z  t   a  z
 
j1
 (22)
  A  Va  z  t   a  z  t  

 wj  j2 
 
j3
By referring equation (14), there are:

a M a j0 l M N a j2   xi
      cos ( xi  0, a )
2 M j 1 xi  x j 2 N j  M 1 xi  x j a a
a M a j1 l M N a j3  xi
 x x    sin ( xi  0, a )
2 M j 1 i j 2 N j  M 1 xi  x j a
M a j0 M N a j2
a l
 x x    0 ( xi   a, a  l )
2 M j 1 i j 2 N j  M 1 xi  x j
M a j1 M N a j3
a l
 x x    0 ( xi   a, a  l )
2 M j 1 i j 2 N j  M 1 xi  x j
The values of γcj and γw in each vortex gird can be obtained by solving this set of linear
equations.
3.2 The critical wind velocity

Introducing the density of the vortex intensity, which is obtained above, into the
equation (13), and defining z(t)=eλt, we can obtain its characteristic equation is:
b0  2  b1  b2  0 (23)
Where λ=ωa+iωa，i=√-1; ωc is the circular frequency of the structure, ωa is the

amplitude influence coefficient. The amplitude will become bigger when ωa>0.
ma a x x
b0   A     a j1  sin  dxdx ，
2 0 0 a
 a x a x x 
b1   V   a j1  sin dx    a j 0 sin dxdx  ，
 0 a 0 0 a 
 2T a x
b2   A  V 2  a j 0  sin  dx
2a 0 a
The frequency λ = 0 means the critical status of structure divergence instability. Thus
when the critical status is b2 = 0, the critical wind speed can be expressed as follows:
12
 
12
 
  2 T    T  M
2 
Vcr      (24)
x 
M
x
 2  a   a j 0  sin a 
a
 2  a   a j 0  sin  dx  2
 0 a   j 1 
1715
4 Results and discussions

The related material parameters are a=535mm, b=75mm, λ=0.14, air mass density
ρ=1.218kg/m3 and the pretension in the membrane Tx0=288N/m. Without considering
the effect of wake, the divergence instability critical wind speed of membrane structure
is Vcr=22.74m/s in the uniform flow filed solved by equation (24), while Vcr=31.20m/s
when considering the effect of wake. Comparing with the aeroelastic model wind tunnel
test results in literature [1], we can get the following conclusions:
(1). The critical wind speeds solved are Vcr=31.20m/s and Vcr=22.74m/s with and
without the effect of wake respectively. There is a clear difference between the two
cases, so the wake effect on critical wind speed cannot be ignored.
(2). When the effect of wake is considered in literature [1], the instability critical wind
is Vcr=37m/s which is greater than the result in this paper. This may be caused by the
circulation theorem introduced in the aerodynamic calculation effected the accuracy of
the calculation.
Although the results in this paper is smaller than the wind tunnel results, model in this
paper can consider the several effects on the critical wind speed such as pretension, span,
wake et, al.
In addition, the theory of one-dimensional membrane structure aerodynamic instability
in this paper can be extended to the critical wind speed calculation of three-dimensional
membrane structure.
References
[1] R. Sygulski. Stability of membrane in low subsonic flow. International Journal of

Non-linear Mechanics, 2007, 42: 196-202
[2] Miyake A, Yoshimura T, Makino M. Aerodynamic instability of suspended roof
modals. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics., 1992, 41-44:
1471-1482
[3] YANG Qing-shan，LIU Rui-xia. On aerodynamic stability of membrane structures.
Engineering Mechanics, 2006, 23(9): 18-24
[4] LI Qing-xiang，SUN Bing-nan. Aerodynamic stability analysis of small curved
membrane in uniform flow. Engineering Mechanics, 2006, 23(4): 39-44
[5] LI Qing-xiang，SUN Bing-nan. Wind-induced aerodynamic instability for closed
membrane roofs. Journal of Vibration Engineering, 2006, 19(3): 346-353
[6] R.L. Bisplinghoff and H. Ashley. Principles of Aeroelasticity. New York: John
Wiley, 1962.
[7] H.W. Forsching, Grundlagen der Aeroelastik, Berlin: Springer, 1974.
1716
Equivalent static wind loads for multiple objectives of large

span roofs
Di Wu1*, Yue Wu 1, Jian Sheng Zhang 2
1*
School of Civil Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, China
Haihe Road 202#, Nangang District, Harbin, China
forseti2001@163.com
2
School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University of Technology
Abstract
The determination of equivalent static wind loads (ESWL) for large span roofs
is a difficult problem in theoretical research of structural wind engineering. The
traditional ESWL methods are aimed at determining a specific load effect on a
structural member, but they do not definitely determine an adequate design wind load
except at the relevant largest load effect. According to the characteristics of spatial
structures, a new method is proposed to obtain ESWL for multiple equivalent objectives.
First, a multi-objective equivalent equation is proposed to make the ESWL reproduce
the maximum load effects of structure at the same time. Then a constraint equation
related to the direction of wind load is constructed in order to reduce the dimension of
ESWL vector and exclude some unrealistic and curious distributions. At last, the
method is applied to two typical large span roofs based on wind tunnel tests. The
maximum load effects reproduced by the ESWL show good agreement with those
directly estimated by frequency domain response analysis.
Keywords: large span roofs; ESWL for multi-objective; multi-objective equivalent

equations; constraint equations; wind tunnel test
1 Introduction
Equivalent static wind loads (ESWL) is the bridge to link wind engineering and design
practice. In the 1960s, Davenport proposed the concept of the ‘gust loading factor’
(GLF), which was widely used in the building codes and laws worldwide to estimate the
ESWL because of conciseness and ease of use. Recently, reasonable methods for
estimating the ESWL for a background component of response have been proposed by
Kasperski and Niemann (1992). This load-response-correlation (LRC) approach results
in a most probable load distribution for a given peak response. Holmes also proposed
some expressions for equivalent static wind load distributions, all possible combinations
of mean, background and resonant response are given (Holmes, 2002), hereafter
referred to the LRC-IWL (Inertial Wind load, IWL) method.
It should be noted that both the GLF method and the LRC-IWL method are aimed at
determining a specific load effect on a structural member or a wind force. But for large
span roofs, the largest load effects are often not completely correlated because of
multimode buffeting responses. In this case, the traditional ESWL methods could not
definitely determine an adequate design wind load. In order to solve this problem,
1717
Katsumura and Tamura (2007) proposed the concept of universal ESWL, which is
based on determination of a set of combination coefficients for eigenmodes of the
covariance matrix of the fluctuating pressure field. However, for fluctuating pressure
field, the eigenmodes are a little bit complicated and it is hard to predict the distribution
of eigenmodes, even for the first several eigenmodes with large eigenvalue. And it can
be seen that the pressure distribution of universal ESWL’s based on eigenmodes for
each kind of structure response is not regular and is a little bit hard to be used for
practice use. Hu (2006) proposed a modified universal ESWL method which makes use
of extreme pressure distributions from LRC method as the basic combination pressure
distribution set. Liang (2008) also proposed a numerical calculation method of
evaluating equivalent static wind loads on long span structures by numerical
optimization principle.
Based on the previous research, a new method was proposed to obtain ESWL for multi-
objective. First, a multi-objective equivalent equation is proposed to make the ESWL
reproduce the maximum load effects of structure at the same time. Then a constraint
equation related to the direction of wind load is constructed in order to reduce the
dimension of ESWL vector and some unrealistic and curious distributions are excluded.
2 Methodology
2.1 Establishment of multi-objective equivalent equation

Based on the principles of classical mechanics, for a static load fi acting at a point i, a
specific load effect R can be derived as shown by the following equation using the
influence function IRi:
R   I Ri fi  {I R }T { f } (1)
i
Where, I Ri is the influence function for a pressure applied at position i.

Similarly, the ESWL Fe  that reproduces largest load effect should satisfy the
following equation:

[ I R ]m3n Fe 3n  Rˆ
m
(2)
Where, [ I R ] is an influence function matrix;  R̂ is the largest load effects of all
structural members; m is the number of the equivalent objectives; n is the number of the
loading points, thus 3n is the dimension of the ESWL vector.
Eq. (2) is an inhomogeneous linear equation which can be called multi-objective
equivalent equation. The unknown number of this equation is 3n, and the equation
number is m. It can be proved from linear algebraic theory that solving this equation can
get ESWL which fit the actual peak response best. However, due to this solving process
is based on pure mathematics optimization without limitation of action mode of ESWL,
some unrealistic and curious distributions may occur. For example, the ESWL’s
pressure distributions may have some very large values at some points. To solve this
problem, it’s necessary to set limits on the affecting pattern of ESWL.
1718
2.2 Establishment of constraint equation

According to bluff body aerodynamics theory, the direction of wind force is
perpendicular to the surface of building. Obviously, the ESWL for multiple objectives
should obey this principle. In this section, a constraint equation related to the direction
of wind load is constructed in order to reduce the dimension of ESWL vector and some
unrealistic and curious distributions are excluded.
The ESWL vector acting at point o can be expressed as follows:
uuuv v v v
Fe,o  Fx,o i  Fy ,o j  Fz ,o k (3)
Supposing the direction cosine of normal vector on point o is (cos ,cos  ,cos  ) , then
the ESWL vector should satisfy the following equation:
Fx ,o Fy ,o Fz ,o
  (4)
cos  cos  cos 
Eq. (5) can be expanded as follows:
 Fx ,o cos   Fy ,o cos   0 (cos   0)
 (5)

 Fx ,o cos   Fz ,o cos   0

To facilitate the programming process, Eq. (5) is expressed into matrix representation:
 Fx ,o 
cos   cos  0    0  (6)
 cos   Fy ,o    
 0  cos     0 
 Fz ,o 
Eq. (6) defines the relationship between each components of ESWL vector, which can
be extended to the whole structure:
C 2n3n Fe 3n  02n (7)
Where, C  corresponds to constraint matrix, the rank of which is 2n. The matrix C 
can be determined from the geometry information of structure.
Eq. (7) consists of 2n linearly independent equations, hereafter referred to the constraint
equation. The constraint equation could ensure the ESWL vector sum be perpendicular
to the surface of building, and some unrealistic and curious distributions can thus be
excluded. Based on this constraint equation, the dimension of ESWL vector will be
reduced from 3n to n, and Eq. (2) can be developed into the following equation:
[ I R* ]mn Fe*  Rˆ
n
 m
(8)
Where,  F e
*
 and [ I *
R ] correspond to the ESWL vector and influence function matrix
after reducing dimensions, respectively.
If the number of wind measurement points n is equal to the number of the equivalent
objectives m, a unique solution can be obtained from Eq.(8). If n is larger than m,
several possible solution will be obtained. And if m is larger than n, no precise solution
exists; this condition is the most frequently encountered case in practice, since usually
the load effects considered are much greater than the wind measurement points. In this
case, a least square approximation solution can be obtained for ESWL vector  Fe*  .
1719
2.3 Procedure of the ESWL method

The procedure of the proposed ESWL method can be expressed as follows:
1) Analyze the wind load effects using wind tunnel tests measurements of dynamic
pressures and determine the target peak response;
2) Extract the influence function matrix of the structure in order to establish the multi-
objective equivalent equation;
3) Establish the constraint equation based on the geometry information of structure;
4) Combine and solve the multi-objective equivalent equation and constraint equation to
obtain ESWL for multiple objectives.
It’s worth mentioning that both the influence function matrix, peak dynamic response
and geometry information of structure can be obtained from common finite elements
and structural design softwares without complex mathematical methods such as POD
technique. So the new approach offers a physically meaningful ESWL of easy
understanding with great potential of design applications.
3.1 Spherical roof

In order to investigate the applicability of this method, the ESWL of two typical large
span roofs are studied by using the method proposed. The wind tunnel test of a spherical
roof was carried out in the boundary layer wind tunnel of Tongji University (Fig. 1).
The time histories of wind pressures on the roof were simultaneously sampled at the
rate of 312.5Hz with 19.2 seconds duration, through an electronically scanned pressure
measurement system. Fig. 2 gives the measured results of mean wind pressure
coefficient distributions.
A Kiewitt-6 type single-layer reticulated spherical shell was used to estimate the load
effect by fluctuating wind. Fig. 3 shows the geometry and dimensions of structure. The
structural nodes were set at the same relative positions with the wind pressure
measurement points. All members were made of steel pipes and were rigidly jointed.
The cross-sections of members were determined according to the stability requirement
(Shen Shizhao and Chen Xin, 1999). The shell was pin-supported along the boundary.
Frequency-domain analyses were carried out using the fluctuating wind force obtained
from wind tunnel tests. In order to show the validity the method proposed, a number of
approaches are discussed here. The ESWL was normalized by the design velocity
pressure at roof height. Fig. 4(a) shows the ESWL distribution simultaneously
reproducing the largest vertical displacement of all nodes. It can be seen that the ESWL
distribution exhibits a good regularity. Fig. 4(b)-(d) compares the responses under the
action of ESWL’s and corresponding actual maximum responses. In the figure, the
node/member number is given in the order of the largest load effects estimated by the
response analysis as shown by the solid line. The actual largest load effects are
compared with those estimated by the proposed ESWL in (b), the GLF method in (c),
and the LRC-IWL method in (d). It can be seen that the proposed ESWL coincide with
the actual largest displacements, but the GLF method and the LRC-IWL method vary
from the actual largest displacements. It can thus be deduced that many ESWLs have to
1720
be considered in the GLF method and the LRC-IWL method in this case. Fig. 5 and Fig.
6 show the ESWL distribution and resulting responses for member axial stress and
reaction at support as compared to their actual peak values. The load effects in all cases
coincide well with the actual largest responses.
From Fig. 4(a)-Fig. 6(a), it can be seen that the distribution of the ESWL for different
kinds of response is quite different. It indicates a little bit difficult to obtain a ESWL for
all the responses which can reproduce responses fitting the actual responses quite well
due to the variety of influence functions of responses considered. However, with the
proposed procedure only few ESWLs need to be provided for all responses with
sufficient accuracy.
Fig. 1: Wind tunnel test Fig. 2: Distribution of mean wind pressure

coefficient
13.3m
10m
80m
Fig. 3: Structural model of the spherical roof
1721
0.045
Actual peak response
ESWL
0.030
Displacement (m)
0.015
0.000
-0.015
-0.030
0 20 40 60 80 100
Node's No.
(b) Comparison of actual peak response
(a) ESWL distribution
and ESWL
0.060 0.045
Actual peak response Actual peak response
0.045 ESWL ESWL
0.030
Displacement (m)
Displacement (m)
0.030
0.015
0.015
0.000
0.000
-0.015
-0.015
-0.030 -0.030
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Node's No. Node's No.

(c) GLF (d) LRC-IWL
Fig. 4: Equivalent static wind loads and response for nodal displacement

150 ESWL
Axial stress (MPa)
120
90
60
30
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Member's No.
and ESWL
Fig. 5: Equivalent static wind loads and response for axial stress of members
1722

30
ESWL
27
24
Reaction (kN)
21
18
15
12
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Support's No.
and ESWL
Fig. 6: Equivalent static wind loads and response for reaction of supports
3.2 Harbin west railway station

Harbin west railway station is an important part of high-speed rail network in north-east
China (Fig. 2). The main waiting hall of this station consists of south and north station
building and cylindrical reticulated shell in the middle part. The roof of the waiting hall
is 192 metres east-west and north-south 309 metres, belongs to a typical large span
structure. The two lowest resonant modes of this roof were calculated to have
frequencies of 1.35 and 1.46 Hz, which indicates that this structure is sensitive to wind
load.
Wind tunnel test was carried out in the boundary layer wind tunnel at Harbin Institute of
Technology in China. The mean and standard deviation of the wind pressure coefficient
distribution on the roof is shown in Fig. 8. Due to space limitations, the results of the
most unfavorable wind direction 300°is discussed here.
Fig. 9(a) and Fig. 10(a) show the ESWL distribution for all nodal vertical displacements
and member axial stress, respectively. Fig. 9(b) and Fig. 10(b) compare the actual
largest load effects and those estimated by the representative ESWLs. For displacement
response, the responses subjected to the ESWL are consistent with the actual largest
displacements. For axial stress of members, the precise ESWL does not exist because of
the number of members is much larger than the number of degree of freedom of ESWL.
However, the proposed ESWL which agrees well with the target responses, can meet
the needs of design applications in most cases.
(a) Architectural effect blueprint (b) Structural model
1723
Fig. 7: Harbin west railway station
(a) Mean pressure (b) Fluctuating pressure

Fig. 8: Distribution of wind pressure coefficient, wind direction=300°
0.060 Actual peak response

ESWL
0.045
Displacement (m)
0.030
0.015
0.000
-0.015
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Node's No.

and ESWL
Fig. 9: Equivalent static wind loads and response for nodal displacements
1724
150
ESWL
100
Axial stress (MPa)

50
-50
-100
-150
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
Member's No.

and ESWL
Fig. 10: Equivalent static wind loads and response for axial stress of members
4 Conclusions
A new method for estimating the ESWL for multiple objectives was discussed in this
paper. The following are summarized:
1. According to wind load characteristics of spatial structure, a multi-objective
equivalent equation was proposed to make the ESWL reproduce the maximum load
effects of structure at the same time. Then a constraint equation related to the direction
of wind load is constructed in order to reduce the dimension of ESWL vector and some
unrealistic and curious distributions are excluded.
2. The ESWL of two typical large span roofs were analyzed to validate the proposed
method. The results demonstrate that with the proposed procedure only few ESWLs
need to be provided for all responses with sufficient accuracy.
Acknowledgement
This research is supported by the Key Program in Major Research Plan of National
Natural Science Foundation under Grant No. 90815021, and Foundation of National
Science & Technology Program for the 11th Five-Year Plan Period under Grant No.
2006BAJ03B04.
References
[1] Davenport, A.G., The application of statistical concepts to the wind loading of
structures. Proc. ICE , 1961; 19(2): 449-472.
[2] Davenport, A.G., Gust loading factor. ASCE Journal of the Structural Division,
1967; 93(ST3): 11-34.
[3] Kasperski, M., Niemann, H.-J., The LRC (load-response correlation) method: a
general method of estimating unfavorable wind load distributions for linear and
1725
nonlinear structural behaviour. Journal of wind engineering and industrial

aerodynamics, 1992; 43(3): 1753-1763.
[4] Holmes, J.D., Effective static load distributions in wind engineering. Journal of
wind engineering and industrial aerodynamics, 2002; 90(2): 91-109.
[5] Kasumura, A., Tamura, Y., Nakamura, O., Universal wind load distribution
simultaneously reproducing largest load effects in all subject members on large
span cantilevered roof. Journal of wind engineering and industrial aerodynamics,
2007; 95(9-11): 1145-1165.
[6] Liang Shuguo, Wu Haiyang, Guo Biwu, Zhou Xiangyan. Numerical calculation of
evaluating equivalent static wind loads on long span roof structures. J. Huazhong
Univ. of Sci.&Tech. (Natural Science Edition), 2008; 36(4): 110-114. (in Chinese)
[7] Shen Shizhao, Chen Xin. Stability of Reticulated Shells, Science Press, Beijing,
China, 1999. (in Chinese).
1726
Assessment of equivalent static wind loads on large-span roofs

based on wind-sensitivity
Jian-Sheng ZHANG 1*, Yue WU 2, Di WU 2
1*
College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University of Technology
18,Chaowang Road, Hangzhou 310014,China
jszhang@zjut.edu.cn
2
Abstract
In current wind-resistance design practice, the dynamic wind loads are described
in terms of the equivalent static wind loads (ESWL) based on the gust response factor.
However, this approach results in a distribution of the ESWL similar to the mean static
wind load distribution, which may not always be a physically meaningful and realistic
load description. Although some more efficient methods with detailed procedure have
been put forward, they seem too complex to engineers. In order to solve the previous
problem, An novel approach for the assessment of equivalent wind loads is presented in
this paper, the essential idea of this method is to provide a rational and convenient base
vector, together with three key factors between wind load and the structure, including
the size-effect factor, frequency-effect factor and mode-effect factor, which are based
on the analytical derivation and take duly into account the influence of all the significant
parameters for the wind-induced vibration. The wind-sensitivity conception of a
structure is putted forward based on these studies, and a formula for calculating the
wind-sensitivity of a structure is derived by considering the strain energy of a system as
the response index. The correlated theory is verified through the analysis of the typical
roof systems. Moreover, a general expression for ESWL is also presented in a closed
form, which can be very attractive for the wind-resistance design application. Based on
that, two case studies of cantilevered roof and single-layer reticulated shell structures
under wind actions are demonstrated as illustrative examples.
Keywords: equivalent static wind loads, base vector, size-effect, frequency-effect,

mode-effect
1 Introduction
Wind load has long been the investigation topic for wind engineers. The complication
of geometry of structures and field category makes the wind-induced vibration on
structures hard to be estimated. For simplicity, in current wind-resistance design,
spatiotemporally varying wind loads on buildings are modeled as ESWL. This loading
description serves as pivotal information for estimating the response under the
combined action of wind and other loads, through a simple static analysis procedure, to
ensure structural safety and serviceability.
1727
Studies on the ESWL have been investigated by several scholars. The traditional gust
response factor (GRF) method has been proposed by Davenport (Davenport, 1967) and
is widely used in most current building design codes and standards which results in a
pressure distribution similar to mean pressure distribution. The GRF approach is simple
to use in the building design process, however, the GRFs may vary over a wide range
for different response components of a structure and may have significantly different
values for structures with similar geometric profile and associated wind load
characteristics but different structural systems. In contrast to the GRF approach, an
equivalent static load representation in terms of background and resonant load
distributions leads to a physically meaningful and realistic load description (Davenport
1985; Holmes 1992; Kasperski 1992; Holmes and Kasperski 1996; Irwin 1998; Zhou et
al. 2000). The background component of the wind load can be treated as a quasi-static
load, and its static load distribution for a specific dynamic response depends on the
influence function and the distribution of the external wind load. It can be determined
based on the load-response-correlation (LRC) approach (Kasperski 1992; Kasperski and
Niemann 1992). The resonant load component follows the distribution of the inertial
load and can be expressed in terms of modal inertial loads (Davenport 1985; Irwin 1998;
Holmes 1999; King 1999; Chen 1999). Universal equivalent static wind load is once
proposed by Katsumura and Tamura el (Katsumura, 2005). The assumed universal
equivalent static wind load is actually a combination of POD modes of random
fluctuating pressure field. The combination coefficients are decided by least square
method and the main idea of this method is that the estimated universal ESWL will
produce responses fitting the actual response well. For design use, the equivalent static
load can be expressed in a separated form in terms of the background component and
the resonant components of structural modes. The total response is then calculated by
combining the background and resonant responses stylizing the square root of the sum
of squares (SRSS) combination approach or the complete quadratic combination (CQC)
approach. Alternatively, the ESWL can be provided as a linear combination of its
background and resonant components using a set of load weighting factors (Irwin 1998;
Holmes 1999; King 1999). The resulting structural response can be estimated by means
of a static analysis.
In this paper, an novel approach for the assessment of equivalent wind loads is
presented, the essential idea of this method is to provide a rational and convenient base
the size-effect factor, frequency-effect factor and mode-effect factor, which are based
on the analytical derivation and take duly into account the influence of all the
significant parameters for the wind-induced vibration. Such a format facilitates the
combination of wind load with other loads and is more appropriate for current design
procedures.
2 Concepts of Three Key Factors
Due to the fact that the wind-induced vibration is determined mainly by the nature of
the fluctuations, such as the space-time correlations，spectrum characteristics, load
distribution patterns, and by the properties of the structures, such as the characteristic
1728
size, natural frequencies, mode shapes etc, it is denoted by size-effect factor, frequency-
effect factor and mode-effect factor as following.
2.1 Size-effect Factor

The size-effect factor synthesizes the characteristic of natural wind and the
characteristic size of structure to take into account the load-reduction effect resulting
from the lack of full correlation of the pressure on the structure surface.
For the wind-tunnel testing, which considers the load-reduction effect automatically, the
size-effect factor s is equal to 1.0. For the quasi-steady assumption, s is defined by the
ratio between the extreme fluctuating wind load for a large structure and that of a small
structure, and its analytical derivation is as following.
The referential status of the size-effect is point-like structure. A structure can be called
point-like structure when its characteristic size is much smaller than the wavelengths of
the significant eddies in the fluctuations- another way of stating this definition is that
the structure is small enough for gusts to be regarded as fully correlated over the entire
structure. Consequently it is to be expected that spatial correlation of gust are irrelevant
to the determination of wind effects on such a structure. The variance of the fluctuating
wind load Ft is calculated by integrating the power spectrum S F  n  over all
frequencies n :

4F 2 4 F 2   u2
 F 0   2 Su  n dn 
2
(1)
0
U U2
where, F is the mean wind load,  u2 is the variance of fluctuating wind velocity, U is
the mean velocity.
Based on the fact that the extreme values of the individual surface pressures occur at
different times, and the extreme wind load can’t be calculated by a vector summation of
extreme pressure, the reduced spatial pressure correlation over the structure surface
must be taken into account for large structures. Similar to the derivation of wind load on
point-like structure, the variance of the fluctuating wind load on large structure can be
expressed as:

4F 2  nl 
 F2   2  2   Su  n dn (2)
0
U U 
 
Where,  2 nl / U is the aerodynamic admittance function, in which the argument is
the ratio between the length l of the structure and the characteristic eddy size of natural
wind U / n . Defining the background turbulence contribution k b as:
 nl nl  S  n 

kb    2  1 , 2  u 2 dn (3)
0  U U  u
The variance of the fluctuating wind load on large structure can be estimated from
equations (2) and (3):
4 F 2   u2
 F2  kb (4)
U2
1729
The size-effect factor is defined by the ratio between the extreme fluctuating wind load
for a large structure and that of a small structure, i.e.
g 
 s  p F  kb (5)
g p  F 0
It can be seen that the size-effect factor for uniform weighting is always less than or equal to 1.0,
which agrees qualitatively with the fact that the non-simultaneous occurrence of peak wind pressures on
the surface. In addition, it is obvious that when the magnitude of size-effect factor decreases, it represents
the influence of load-reduction effect significant.
2.2 Frequency-effect Factor

According to the innovative works of Davenport (Davenport 1995), the structural
response under fluctuating wind actions can be divided into two components, including
background response and resonant response. The frequency-effect factor takes into
account the magnification effect from vibrations due to the frequency content of the
turbulence close to the natural vibration frequency of the structure, and it emphasizes on
the contribution of the resonant response to the wind-induced vibration.
The referential status of the frequency-effect is quasi-static procedure. Assuming that
the contribution of the resonant component is so small that it can be ignored, it will
result in the simplified procedure and using exact quasi-static methods for wind-induced
vibration. The instantaneous value of the background response is:
L
rb (t )   F  z, t I r  z  dz (6)
0
where I r  z  is the influence coefficient. By covariance integration, the standard

deviation of the background response is given by:
1
 L L
 2
 b     F  z1  F  z2 I r  z1  I r  z2 dz1dz2 
(7)
0 0 
The resonant component of the response denotes the contribution from turbulence in
resonance with the structure, and the jth mode of the resonant response is given by:
1
 r , j    S F (n) H r , j (n) dn    j
 2 2
(8)
 0 j

where S Fj (n) is the spectral density of generalized force,  j is the mode shape, and
H r , j ( n) is the mechanical admittance for the resonant response.
Based on the expected modal strain energy of system, the frequency-effect factor is defined by the
ratio between the strain energy for resonant response of the fundamental mode Er ,1 , and the strain energy
for background response Eb , i.e.
Er ,1
f  (9)
Eb
1
 r ,1  K  r ,1  k1* qr2 ,1
1
T
Where Er ,1  (10)
2 2
1730
1
Eb   b   K  b 
T
(11)
2
2.3 Mode-effect Factor

The mode-effect emphasizes on the multi-vibration-mode contribution in the analysis of
wind-induced vibration, differentiating from the common assumption that only the
fundamental mode contributes to the resonant response. It is especially important for
the large-span roof structures, due to the characteristics of dense distribution of natural
frequencies and the complicated modes. Since the resonant response is concerned with
the structure mode, the mode-effect factor is defined by the ratio between the resonant
strain energy involving all of the dominant vibration modes Er and that of the
fundamental mode Er ,1 (as shown in equation 10), i.e.
Er
m  (12)
Er ,1
nc nc
1
Where Er   Er , j   k *j qr2 , j (13)
j 1 j 1 2
2.4 Aggregative Indicator

Based on the three key factors mentioned above, an aggregative indicator  is defined
by the ratio between the strain energy of the objective response including background
response and resonant response ET , and that of background response assumed as point-
like structure Eb 0 , i.e.
nc
ET Eb  Er Eb

j 1
Er , j
   
Eb 0 Eb 0 Eb 0 Eb 0
nc
 Er , j E
 b 1   f  m 
Eb Eb Er ,1 j 1
    (14)
Eb 0 Eb 0 Eb Er ,1 Eb 0
Due to the fact that the background response depends on fluctuating wind load and the
E
structural inertial loading effect is neglected, the ratio b can be simplified as:
Eb 0
Eb  F2
 2   s2 (15)
Eb 0  F 0
The aggregative indicator can be estimated from equations (14) and (15):
   s2 1   f  m  (16)
It can be seen that the main factors influencing the wind-induced response are grouped
to three key effects: size-effect, frequency-effect and mode-effect. Moreover, the
1731
aggregative indicator  can describe the problem about the sensitivity to fluctuating
wind loads of a structure objectively and quantitively.
3 Methodology of ESWL
3.1 Determination of Base Vector
The focus of the approach for ESWL presented in this paper is on the convenience for
the engineer, as well as the physical meaning. Due to the fact that:
(1) The previous aggregative indicator  denotes the relationship between the objective
response and background response assumed as point-like structure.
(2) The background response depends on fluctuating wind load and the structural
inertial loading effect is neglected;
(3) The root-mean-square (RMS) pressure can represent the spatial distribution of
fluctuating wind load rationally to some extent;
(4) It is convenient for the engineer to obtain the mean and RMS pressure of the wind
load.
The base vector of ESWL can be expressed by:
e   F  (17)
Where  F  =RMS values of fluctuating wind load. Thus, once the load information,
such as the mean static wind load coefficients, time history of the fluctuating wind load,
are available from wind tunnel experiment or numerical simulation, analytical
approaches can be stylized for the calculation of dynamic response and associate ESWL
distribution.
3.2 Expression of ESWL

In engineering practice, wind-induced dynamic response can be regarded as the quasi-
static response under the ESWL, i.e. any arbitrary dynamic response of interest can be
calculated through a static analysis and expressed using its influence function based on
the ESWL. Thus, based on the previous derivation of the aggregative indicator  :
E E  Er
 T  b
Eb 0 Eb 0
1 1
 b   K  b    r   K  r   2   2
T T
2 2  b 2 r (18)
1 
 b 0   K  b 0 
T
b 0
2
Assuming that the resonant response component is proportional to the background
response component, define the equivalent factor  as equation (19), and it can be
obtained by least-squares procedure.
 2  2
 2  b 2 r (19)
 b0
Consequently, the general expression of ESWL can be given as:
1732
Fe     e     F  (20)

It can be seen that approach for the assessment of ESWL presented in this paper is
convenient for the engineers, and it can be attractive for the wind-resistance design
application. Moreover, it takes duly into account the influence of all the significant
parameters for the wind-induced vibration, denoted as the three key factors.
4 Analysis of Examples
4.1 Example 1 - Cantilevered roof

The plane-size of the model is 100m×25m, the mean wind velocity is 25m/s at 10m. In
order to get fluctuating wind pressure, a wind tunnel experiment is carried out in the
boundary layer wind tunnel (TJ-2) of the State Key Laboratory for Disaster Reduction
in Civil Engineering at Tongji University in China. The geometric length scale is
targeted at 1:100, and the experimental model of the pressure tap arrangement is shown
in Fig. 1.
Fig.1 Wind tunnel experimental models and pressure tap arrangement

The three key effects factors, aggregative indicator and equivalent factor can be
calculated using previous derivation, and they are shown in Tab.1.
Tab.1 Key factors for ESWL of example 1
s f m  
1.0 1.26 1.03 2.30 1.22
Afterwards, the distribution of the ESWL can be obtained using equation (18) as shown
in Fig.2. The comparison between the extreme structural response under ESWL and that
of the exact solution by the dynamic method is shown in Fig.3, which illustrates the
availability of the assessment for ESWL.
0.05
Time-domain response analysis
ESWL
0.04
Displacement (m)
0.03
0.02
0.01
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Node's No.
Fig.3 Comparison between the extreme

Fig.2 Distribution of the ESWL
results of ESWL and exact solution
1733
4.2 Example 2 - Single-layer reticulated shell structure

The model is a rigidly jointed single-layer reticular shell of Kiewitt system (see Fig.4)
with kin supports at the surrounding, a span of 50m and rise-span ratio equal to 1/5 at a
height of 10m. And the mean wind velocity is 25m/s at 10m, the fluctuating wind action
is simulated by autoregressive moving average (ARMA) method (Chen, 2005) based on
quasi-steady assumption, and the pressure coefficient is determined according to the
《Load code for the design of building structures》 (GB 50009-2001, China).
L
Fig.4 Analytical model of single-layer reticulated shell structure
Similar to the ESWL analysis of cantilevered roof, the key factors are shown in Tab.2.
Tab.2 Key factors for ESWL of example 2
s f m  
0.62 0.25 4.32 0.79 1.52
The distribution of the ESWL is shown in Fig.5, and the comparison between the
extreme structural response under ESWL and that of the exact solution by the dynamic
method is shown in Fig6. It can be seen that the extreme results are proximate, and it is
convenient and efficient for the engineer.
0.05
Time-domain response analysis
ESWL
Displacement (m)
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0 20 40 60 80 100
Node's No.
Fig.6 Comparison between the extreme

Fig.5 Distribution of the ESWL
results of ESWL and exact solution
5 Conclusions
An novel approach for the assessment of equivalent wind loads is presented in this
paper, the essential idea of this method is to provide a rational and convenient base
1734
the size-effect factor, frequency-effect factor and mode-effect factor, which take duly
into account the influence of all the significant parameters for the wind-induced
vibration. Moreover, the weight function with aggregative indicator simplifies the
expression of ESWL, and is convenient for application.
Acknowledgements
This research is supported by the Key Program in Major Research Plan of National
Natural Science Foundation under Grant No. 90815021, and Foundation of National
Science & Technology Program for the 11th Five-Year Plan Period under Grant No.
2006BAJ03B04.
References
[1] Davenport, A. G. “Gust loading factors.” J. Struct. Engrg. Div. ASCE, 93(1): 11-
34.1967.
[2] Davenport, A.G. “The representation of the dynamic effects of turbulent wind by
equivalent static wind loads.” Proc. 1985 Int. Engrg. Symp. On struct. Steel,
Chicago, 1-13.1985.
[3] J.D. Holmes.“Optimized peak load distributions.” J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn
1992;41-44:267-276.
[4] M.Kasperski, Niemann. H.J.“The LRC (load-response correlation) method: a
general method of estimating unfavorable wind load distributions for linear and
nonlinear structural behavior.” J. of Wind Eng. and Ind. Aerodyn 1992;43:1753-
1763.
[5] Holmes.J.D and Kasperski. “Effective distributions of fluctuating and dynamic
wind loads.” Australian Civ./Struct. Engrg1996; Trans., 38:83-88.
[6] Irwin. P.A . “The role of wind tunnel modeling in the prediction of wind effects on
bridges.” Bridge aerodynamics, Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 59-85.1998.
[7] Y. Zhou, A. Kareem, M. Gu. “Equivalent static buffeting wind loads on
structures.” J. Struct. Eng2000;126 (8): 989-992.
[8] M.Kasperski. “Extreme wind load distributions for linear and nonlinear design.”
Eng.Struct 1992; 14(1):27-34.
[9] J.D. Holmes. “Equivalent static load distributions for resonant dynamic response
of bridges.” Proc., 10th Int. Conf. On Wind Engrg. Copenhagen, 907-911.1999.
[10] King. J.P.C. “Integrating wind tunnel tests of full aeroelastic models into the design
of long span bridges.” Proc., 10th Int. Conf. on Wind Engrg., Copenhagen, 927-
934.1999.
[11] Xinzhong Chen, Ahsan Kareem. “Equivalent Static Wind Loads for Building
Response of Bridges.” J. Struct. Eng. ASCE.2001; 127(12):1467-1475.
[12] Simiu, E. and Scanlan, R.H. “Wind effects on structures”, John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.1996.
[13] Davenport, A G. “How can we simplify and generalize wind loads”, J. Wind Eng.
Ind. Aerodyn1995; 54/55: 657-669.
1735
[14] Chen Bo, Wu Yue, Shen Shizhao. “Wind-induced Response Analysis of Conical
Membrane Structures.” Journal of Harbin Institute Technology 2005;12(5): 481-
487.
[15] A. Kasumura,Y. Tamura, O.Nakamura. “Universal wind load distribution
simultaneously reproducing largest load effects in all subject members on large
span cantilevered roof.” J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn2007; 95:1145-1165.
1736
Dynamic sub-grid scale model and its application in

structural wind engineering
Dai ZHOU 1*, Cheng HUANG 2
1*
School of Naval Architecture, Ocean and Civil engineering,
Shanghai Jiao Tong University
No. 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, People’s Republic of China
Email: zhoudai@sjtu.edu.cn
2
School of Naval Architecture, Ocean and Civil engineering,
Shanghai Jiao Tong University
Abstract
A stabilized finite element technique, actualized by streamline upwind Petrov-

Galerkin (SUPG) stabilized method and three-step finite element method, for large eddy
simulation (LES) is developed, which can be applied for the simulation of wind field
and wind pressure distribution around shell and spatial structures. Weak form of LES
motion equation is combined with the SUPG stabilized term for the spatial finite
element discretization. And explicit three-step scheme is implemented for the temporal
discretization where the pressure is computed from Poisson equation derived from the
incompressible condition. For the numerical example, three-dimensional wind flow
around a surface-mounted cube at Re = 3.0×104 is performed using dynamic sub-grid
scale (DSGS) model with Cabot near-wall model based on present method. And the
wind field around the surface-mounted cube with high Reynolds number is analyzed
and compared with experiment results.
Key words: wind flow, large eddy simulation, sub-grid scale model, stabilized finite
element method
1 Introduction
Arising from the importance of engineering applications of wind flow around spatial
structures, numerical computation gets more and more widely used due to the progress
in CFD technique and computer science over the past few decades. The wind field
around the obstacle on the ground consists of a very complicated three-dimensional
turbulent vortex structure.
Among a number of existing numerical techniques in CFD for predicting wind flow,
large-eddy simulation (LES) appears to be one of the most promising approaches in the
practical application. In LES, the fluctuating motions of turbulence can be computed
except for the eddies smaller than the grid size, while the smaller eddies are modeled
using eddy viscosity models. Early LES computation was based on the Smagorinsky
model for the unresolved sub-grid scales (SGS)[1].
1737
However, it is impossible to simulate the flow effectively with a single, universal

constant Cs in model, the SGS eddy viscosity extrapolated to the wall is far from
desirable, and the Smagorinsky model can not account for energy flow from small
scales to large scales. To overcome these drawbacks, dynamic SGS model has been
proposed by Germano et al.[2] and Lilly[3].
It is known that classic Galerkin FEM meets great problems for predicting when applied
to solve fluid flows with high Reynolds number. In order to overcome this drawback,
some stabilized finite element formulations have been developed by many researchers
since last decades. Among them, streamline upwind Petrov-Galerkin (SUPG) method is
a very efficient one, which was proposed by Brooks and Hughes[4] and further
developed by Tezduyar[5].
The present calculations are carried out using a stabilized finite element technique
implemented by three-step finite element method and SUPG stabilized method for large
eddy simulation to predict the wind flow with high Reynolds number. The same order
interpolations for both velocity and pressure are employed for the spatial discretization,
and the explicit three-step finite element method is applied for the temporal
discretization.
For the verification of the present numerical method, the prediction of three-
dimensional wind flow around a surface-mounted cube at Re = 3.0×104 is simulated by
present DSGS technique with Cabot near-wall model to study the wind field. And the
results predicted by present method are compared with experimental data and analyzed
for the characteristics of wind field.
2 Non-dimensionalized N-S equations

The governing equations of wind flow can be described by the continuity and
momentum equations in conservative form and are written in Cartesian tensor notation
as follows
ui
0 (1)
xi
ui ui u j 1 p  2ui
   (2)
t x j  xi x j x j
where ui is velocity in i direction, t is time, p is pressure, ν is kinematic viscosity, ρ is
the density of fluid.
By using the non-dimensionalized variables, and describing the problem by Reynolds
number, Re=UD/ν, where U and D are the characteristic velocity and characteristic
length, the non-dimensionalized Navier-Stokes equation can be written as follows
ui
0 (3)
xi
ui ui u j p 1  2ui
   (4)
t x j xi Re x j x j
1738
In large eddy simulation, the large scale quantities are resolved while the small scale
quantities are modelled. The large scale quantities are defined by the convolution of the
velocity and pressure fields with a filter function.
A grid filter G as shown in Eq.(5), denoted by an overbar, is applied to the continuity
and momentum equations respectively.
f ( x)   f ( x)G ( x, x)dx (5)
Then obtains the filtered equations of motions corresponding to Eq.(3) and Eq.(4)
ui
0 (6)
xi
ui ui u j p  ij 1  2ui
    (7)
t x j xi x j Re x j x j
The effects of the small scales appear in the sub-grid scale stress term
 ij  ui u j  ui u j (8)
which must be modeled.
3 Dynamic sub-grid scale model

In Smagorinsky model, key parameter Cs has a constant value over the whole domain
during the time marching process. By contrast, in dynamic sub-grid scale model, Cs
varies in both space and time domains without any interference of the user and is proved
to have better behavior near wall[2].
For dynamic sub-grid scale model, a test filter G is defined as
f ( x)   f ( x)G( x, x)dx (9)
Applying Eq.(9) to the Eq.(7), the second filtered Navier-Stokes equations become
ui ui u j p Tij 1  2 ui
    (10)
t x j xi x j Re x j x j
where the sub-grid scale stress becomes
ij  ui u j  ui u j (11)
and the resolved turbulent stress Lij can be defined as
Lij  ij   ij (12)
which represents the contribution to the Reynolds stresses by the scales whose length is
intermediate between the grid filter width and the test filter width, then it can also be
expressed as
Lij  uiu j  ui u j (13)
The sub-grid scale stress tensors can be modelled using traditional turbulent viscosity as,
  ij 
 ij     2C2 S S ij
3  kk (14)

  2
ij   ij kk  2C  S S ij (15)
 3 
1739
where
1  ui u j  1  u i u j 

Sij   S ij   (16)
2  x j xi  2  x j xi 

S  2S ij S ij S  2S ij S ij (17)
 is the size of grid filter G ,  is the characteristic size of the filter G , Sij and S ij are
the strain rate tensors of the velocity fields associated with the two filters, respectively.
Substituting Eq.(14-15) into Eq.(12), considering Eq.(18) and using a simple least-
squares minimization of the error firstly proposed by Lilly[3], the constant C in Eq.(14-
15) can be confirmed by Eq.(19)
M ij  S Sij   S Sij (18)
1 L M 
C 
2
  ij ij  (19)
2  M ij M ij 
where α is the square value of the filter width ratio, expressed as   (   ) 2 .
When numerically solving the LES equations, the discretization of FEM assumes the
role of the grid filter, while the test filter is applied explicitly. In general, the implicit
numerical filter is not well characterized, giving rise to an ambiguity when assuming the
filter width ratio for the dynamic model[6]. Here we set α=4 since the size of the filter
G is twice length of G .
Substituting Eq.(14) into Eq.(7) and considering the incompressible condition, motion
equations can be expressed as,
ui
0 (20)
xi
ui u P  1   ui
2
 uj i     t  (21)
t x j xi  Re  x j x j
where ui is filtered velocity of i direction, P  p   kk , and the turbulent viscosity can be
described as
 t   C  S
2
(22)
Following this procedure the length scale squared  C 2 is dynamically determined to
be a function of both space and time.
4 Finite element discretization with SUPG Method

We proceed with the stabilized finite element discretization of the filtered equation
Eq.(21) via multiplying the velocity test function δui and adding SUPG stabilized term
as follows[4]. Here we elide the superscript overbar and omit the stress boundary
conditions.
1740
  u ui   ui  nel
 ui  ui u  
Ω  i  t j x j  ij x j 
 u i
 u    dΩ     SUPG u j 
x j  t
 u j i  ij
x j x j
 dΩ  0 (23)
    n 1 Ω 
where nel is the number of elements, δui is the velocity test function, σij is the filtered
stress tensor expressed by
 1   u u 
 ij   P ij    t   i  j  (24)
 Re   x j xi 
and the stabilization parameter τSUPG is defined as follow[7],
he 1 ue he
 SUPG  z z Re e
(25)
2 ue   1 
2 2
1  
  Re e 
 2 
where he, ue and Ree represent the characteristic element size, convective velocity and
the Reynolds number of a element respectively. And β1 defines the limits of z as Ree
near to infinite and β2 defines the derivative dz/dRee at Ree=0. In this work, β1=1 and
β2=1/3 have been used, and the characteristic element size is defined as the diameter of
a sphere which volume is equal to the element volume.
The finite element discretization of Eq.(23) is performed using the same order
interpolations of velocity and pressure. For present study, four-node linear tetrahedral
element for three-dimensional model is employed. Then the values of velocity and
pressure in an element can be obtained from
ui  ΦI uiI , P  ΦI PI (26)
where uiI is the i-directional velocity at node I, PI is the pressure at node I and ФI is the
trial and test function.
Substituting Eq.(26) into Eq.(23), the finite element formulation for momentum
equation is expressed as follow,
u (27)
M IJ iJ  N IJ uiJ  GiIJ PJ  H iI  DIJ uiJ  0
t
where the basis matrices are obtained as follows,
 I (28)
M IJ    I  J d    SUPG   J  K u jK d 
 
x j
 J  I (29)
N IJ    I uiK  K d    SUPG   Lu jL  K u jK  jJ d 

xi 
x j
1  I 1  I  J (30)
  xi   xj
GiIJ   J d    SUPG  K u jK d
xi
 1   I  J (31)
H iI    vt   u jJ d 
 Re   x j xi
 1   I  J (32)
DIJ    vt   d
 Re   x j x j
5 Three-step finite element formulations

For the formulation of momentum equation with SUPG stabilized term described in
Eq.(27), we adopt explicit three-step FEM based on a Taylor series expansion in time[8].
1741
Then the formulations of the momentum equation at each step can be expressed as
follows
uiJn 1 3  uiJn (33)

M IJn   N IJn uiJn  GiIJ
n
PJn  H iIn  DIJn uiJn
t 3
uiJn  2 3  uiJn 1 3
M IJn 1 3   N IJn 1 3uiJn 1 3  GiIJ
n 1 3 n
PJ  H iIn 1 3  DIJn 1 3uiJn 1 3 (34)
t 3
uiJn 1  uiJn  2 3
M IJn  2 3   N IJn  2 3uiJn  2 3  GiIJ
n  2 3 n 1
PJ  H iIn  2 3  DIJn  2 3uiJn  2 3 (35)
t 3
where Δt represents the length of time increment, the superscripts as n+1/3, n+2/3 and
n+1denote the sub-steps of each time increment respectively. It is clear that, we can
obtain uin 1 3 from uin and P n , then obtain uin  2 3 from uin 1 3 and P n , after that we have to
compute P n1 shown as follow, finally we can get uin 1 from uin  2 3 and P n1 .
By taking the divergence of Eq.(21) and considering the incompressible condition of
Eq.(20), Poisson pressure equation can be obtained as,
 2 P n 1 1 uin   n 1 2 uin 1 2   1  
2  uin 1 2 u nj 1 2 
   u j     vt     (36)
xi xi t xi xi  x j   Re  xi x j  x j xi 
where uin1 2  (uin1 3  uin 2 3 ) / 2 .
By substituting the finite element trial function into Eq.(36), the final finite element
formulation for pressure Pn+1 is
S IJ PJn 1  QiIJ uiJn  RiIJ uiJn 1 2 (37)
where the basis matrices are obtained as,
1 ΦI ΦJ
 Ω xi xi
S IJ  dΩ (38)
1 ΦJ
QiIJ   ΦI dΩ (39)
t Ω xi
Φ ΦK n 1 2
RiIJ   I ΦJ u jK dΩ (40)
Ω
 x j xi
To verify the feasibility of present method, a three-dimensional wind flow around a
surface-mounted cube at Re = 3×104 is performed. The DSGS model based on present
stabilized FEM with Cabot near-wall model is applied for the simulation of wind flow
around a surface-mounted cube.
For the case of wind flow around a surface-mounted cube at Re = 3.0×104, the three-
dimensional computational domain and the grid discretization are shown in Fig.1(a), the
location of the three-dimensional cube and the size of the three-dimensional domain are
expressed via the slices corresponding to y=0.0 and x=0.0 shown in Fig.1(b) and 1(c)
respectively. The computational domain in present study is 22.5, 8.0 and 7.0 in x, y and
z directions respectively.
1742
No-slip boundary condition is imposed along the wall of z=0.0 and the surfaces of the
cube, u=1, v=0 and w=0 are prescribed along the inlet boundary of x=-7.0 and the upper
boundary of z=7.0, slip boundary condition is imposed along the side surfaces at y=-4.0
and y=4.0, and the outer boundary located downstream is treated with pressure to be
zero. The domain is discretized to 62 855 nodes and 356 689 linear tetrahedral elements
with fine mesh near the cube to capture the various details of turbulence. The smallest
size of the mesh is 0.05. A total time of t=200 with a time step of 0.02 is used in present
analysis.
(a) Computational domain and mesh
(b) Slice from y=0.0 (c) Slice from x=0.0

Fig.1: Three-dimensional computational model
We consider the velocity field near the cube. Fig.2 presents the time-average
streamwise velocity profiles at some typical positions around the cube, comparing the
present data with experiment results from Castro[9]. On the top of the cube at x=0.0 and
y=0.0, the predictions agree reasonable with the experiment results. At both x=1.0 and
x=2.0 of y=0.0, the streamwise velocity is not bad predicted, however, note that there
exists a discrepancy amongst the results within the near wall region. Another interesting
velocity profile at x=2.0 and z=1.0 is comparatively well with the streamwise velocity
decline in the middle discovered.
1743
3.5 3.0
2.5 Exp.
3.0
Exp. Present
Present 2.0
2.5
1.5
z
z
2.0
1.0
1.5
0.5
1.0 0.0
-0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Streamwise velocity (u) Streamwise velocity (u)
x=0.0 y=0.0 x=1.0 y=0.0
3.5 2.0
Exp. Exp.
1.5
3.0 Present Present
1.0
2.5
0.5
2.0
0.0
y
z
1.5
-0.5
1.0
-1.0
0.5 -1.5
0.0 -2.0
-0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Streamwise velocity (u) Streamwise velocity (u)
x=2.0 y=0.0 x=2.0 z=1.0
Fig. 2: Comparison between velocity prediction and experiment data around a cube
The main features of turbulent flow around surface-mounted obstacles were analyzed in
detail using smoke and oil-film visualization in the past[10]. But recently, the
application of the numerical simulation such as LES method for such problems has
become more and more popular[11]. Based on the previous investigation, the significant
vortex structure for wind flow around a surface-mounted cube was studied.
The time-averaged streamline distributions at some typical positions around a surface-
mounted cube by present method are shown in Fig.3. Fig.3(a) shows that the vortex
occurs within the windward circulation zone with the streamlines spread downstream
symmetrically along the lateral sides of the cube. The vortex on the top of the cube is
visualized from Fig.3(b) where the circulation zone on the top of the cube is caused by
the separation at the windward corner. Fig.3(c) shows the horseshoe vortex generated at
lateral sides of the cube due to the separation happening at the front of the lateral sides.
A pair of vortices behind the cube can be seen in Fig.3(d) which is caused by the
circulation from top and side faces, the axes of the vortices is not vertical but like an
1744
arch. All of these above shows there are four typical vortex structures. One is the
necklace vortex which exists at the foot of front surface spreading downstream along
both lateral faces. The second is the cylinder vortexexisting on the top face. The third is
the horseshoe vortex existing on the two lateral faces. The fourth is the arch-like vortex
structure behind the cube. These four vortex structures were also described by the study
given by Sousa[12].
wind wind
(a) In the front of the cube (b) On the top of the cube
wind wind
(c) On the lateral side of the cube (d) Behind the cube
Fig.3: Time-averaged streamline distribution around a cube
7 Conclusions
In this paper, a stabilized finite element technique is implemented by three-step finite
element method and SUPG stabilized method for large eddy simulation to predict the
wind flow in order to overcome the instabilities of the traditional FEM in prediction of
flow with high Reynolds number. Numerical prediction of three-dimensional wind flow
around a surface-mounted cube with Re = 3.0 × 104 performed by present DSGS
method with Cabot near-wall model gains stable and satisfactory solutions which show
agreements with previous experiment results. Four typical significant vortex structures
of wind field around a surface-mounted cube are predicted by the computational
simulation. It is clear that present method can appropriately model the highly turbulent
flow problems and reasonably describe the wind field around buildings with complex
geometry even under comparatively coarse mesh.
1745
Acknowledgement
Support from the Doctoral Disciplinary Special Research Project of Chinese Ministry of
Education (No. 200802480056) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(Project No. 50778111) is acknowledged.
References
[1] Smagorinsky TS. General circulation experiment with primitive equations: Part I.
Basic experiments. Monthly Weather Rev 1963; 91: 99-164.
[2] Germano M, Piomelli U, Moin P and Cabot H. A dynamic subgrid-scale eddy
viscosity model. International Journal for Physics of Fluids 1991; 3: 1760-1765.
[3] Lilly DK. A proposed modification of the Germano subgrid-scale closure method.
International Journal for Physics of Fluids 1992; A 4: 633-635.
[4] Brooks AN and Hughes TJR. Streamline upwind Petrov-Galerkin formulation for
convection dominated flows with particular emphasis on the incompressible
Navier-Stokes equations. International Journal for Computer Methods in Applied
Mechanics and Engineering 1982; 32: 199-259.
[5] Tezduyar TE. Finite elements in fluids: Stabilized formulations and moving
boundaries and interfaces. International Journal for Computers & Fluids 2007; 36:
191-206.
[6] Tejada-Martínez AE and Jansen KE. A dynamic Smagorinsky model with dynamic
determination of the filter width ratio. International Journal for Physics of Fluids
2004; 16: 2514.
[7] Dettmer W and Peric′ D. A computational framework for fluid–structure
interaction: Finite element formulation and applications. International Journal for
Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering 2006; 195: 5754-5779.
[8] Jiang CB and Kawahara M. A three step finite element method for unsteady
incompressible flows. International Journal for Computational Methods 1993; 11:
355-370.
[9] Castro IP and Robins AG. The flow around a surface-mounted cube in uniform and
turbulent streams. International Journal for Fluid Mechanics 1977; 79: 307-335.
[10] Martinuzzi R and Tropea C. The flow around surface-mounted, prismatic obstacles
placed in a fully developed channel flow. International Journal for Fluids
Engineering 1993; 115: 85-92.
[11] Kakuda K. Finite element computations of flow around a wall-mounted cube.
International Journal for Computational Fluid Dynamics 2004; 18: 393-399.
[12] Sousa JMM. Turbulent flow around a surface-mounted obstacle using 2D-3C DPIV.
International Journal for experiments in fluids 2002; 33: 838-853.
1746
Wind tunnel test on dynamic behaviors of the membrane roof

for Shanghai expo central axis
Ying ZHOU1*, Qi-lin ZHANG2, Hui-lin AI2
1*
Shanghai 200092, P.R.Chian
myownsecret@126.com
2
Abstract
Wind load is a problem that puzzles the design of the membrane structures. This
paper describes the results of wind tunnel tests performed on membrane roof for central
axis of the 2010 Shanghai Expo. Responses of the membrane in different initial stress
and in different flow are presented. Meanwhile, the wind-induced dynamic coefficient
of the membrane is displayed.
Keywords: Wind tunnel test, membrane roof, wind-induced dynamic coefficient,

Shanghai expo central axis
1 Introduction
The characteristic of the membrane structures is light weight, small rigidity and
sensitive to wind. The design of roofing system must account for the wind’s effects.
Wind effects on roofing system are dynamic, because of wind’s fluctuation in time and
space. Loading code for design used nowadays can’t provide exact wind vibration
coefficients of complicated membrane structures. Tunnel tests play critical role in
aerodynamics analysis [1] [2].
2 Wind-tunnel study
2.1 Experimental arrangements and procedures

The Sun-Valley membrane structure which is tested is the central axis of 2010 Shanghai
world expo. The plan view of the membrane structure is schematically illustrated in
Fig.1. Partial membrane is between Sun-Valley One and Sun-Valley Two region. The
geometric scaling is 1/40. The model length L is 5.812m and the span D is 3.044m,
which correspond to actual size 23.25m and 12.18m respectively.
1747
Fig. 1: Plan view of the membrane structure (cm)
Material of the membrane is 502# which is as soft as possible. Steel pipe whose
diameter is 25mm and thickness is 2mm are used to make the side and middle masts.
Hinge supports of side masts are machining ball-joints to simulate the bidirectional
hinge supports. Stainless steel cables whose diameters are 2.5mm are used to make the
notochords and valley cables. Stainless steel cables whose diameters are 4mm are used
to make the stay cables. Fixed ends of the cables are fixed with stainless steel fixtures
and adjusting ends are connected with stainless steel flower basket bolts. The shape of
the Sun-Valley is formed using pipes and membrane is covered on the pipes to form the
similar shape (Fig.2).
Fig. 2: The experiment model
Experimental response was measured using laser displacement meters and

accelerometers [3] [4]. 8 point positions were chosen as observation points which are
shown in Fig.3. One vertical displacement meter and one accelerometer were installed
on the same observation point.
The tests were carried out in TJ-3 boundary layer wind tunnel at Tongji University
Wind Engineering Research Institute which is shown in Fig.4 and Fig.5. It has a
working section 14m long, 15m wind and 2.0m high. The present experiment was
carried out in the uniform flow field and the turbulent flow field respectively. A
turbulent boundary layer with a power-law exponent of   0.21 and a thickness of
ZG  120cm was generated on the wind-tunnel floor by using a set of turbulence-
1748
generating spires and a sawtooth strip, installed at the entrance of the working section,
followed by a number of roughness blocks distributed on the floor. It is thought that the
wind tunnel flow simulates the natural wind over typical urban terrain in Shanghai. The
wind velocity scale varies from 1m/s to 17.6m/s. Responses of membrane structures are
recorded at a wind velocity of v=4m/s, 6m/s, 8m/s,10m/s and 12m/s in the present
experiments. The wind-tunnel blockage ratio is less than 1% in any case. Therefore, no
correction is applied to the results.
Fig. 3: Schematic diagram of observation points
A rotary table is installed on the floor of the wind tunnel and the experiment model was
set on the rotary table. Wind direction was changed when the rotary table rotated. Eight
wind directions were considered in the present experiment. Two kinds of initial stress
states were considered in the experiment.
Fig. 4: The turbulent flow field
1749
Fig. 5: The uniform flow field
2.2 Experimental results and discussion

Varied displacement and acceleration value of every observation point could be
calculated using data collector in different working conditions. Due to the limited space,
parts of figures are listed to show the varied values.
A compared study on the displacement mean value was given in this paper. With
different wind direction, the mean values of displacement in the uniform flow field
condition are varied [5]. Because of the funnel-shaped membrane structure and the
shelter effect of the Sun-Valley, points on the windward side move upward which
indicate that the windward side is affected by the wind suction. Identically, points on
the leeward side move downward which indicates that the leeward side is affected by
the wind pressure.
1) Wind direction 0° 2)Wind direction 90°
3)Wind direction 180° 4)Wind direction 270°
Fig.6: Average value of displacement in the uniform flow field condition when the
initial stress is 1.0×106N/m2
1750
As response of point 2# is significantly, some conclusions will be given which are

illustrated by the example of point 2#.
1)Mean value of displacement 2) Peak value of displacement 3)Displacement variance
4) Mean value of acceleration 5) Peak value of acceleration 6) Acceleration variance
Fig.7: Response of point 2# in different initial stress in uniform flow
Fig.7 shows that with the same flow, response of point 2# in weak initial stress, such as
average value of displacement, peak value of displacement, average value of
acceleration, peak value of acceleration, acceleration variance is larger than which of
point 2# in strong stress. But the displacement variance of point 2# in two different
initial stresses is almost the same. It is important to pay attention to the pre-stress
relaxation in construction and using.
Fig.8 shows that with the same initial stress, responses of the point affected by different
flows present differently. Point 2# is chosen as an example once again.
1)Mean value of displacement 2)Displacement variance 3)Peak value of displacement
1751
4) Mean value of acceleration 5)Acceleration variance 6)Peak value of acceleration
Fig.8: Response of point 2# in different flow
Mean value of displacement of the point 2# in uniform flow is larger than which in the
turbulent flow. Peak value of displacement of the point 2# in the low velocity and
uniform flow is almost as same as which in the turbulent. Meanwhile, the peak value of
displacement of the point 2# is increased dramatically with the growing velocity.
Besides, the response of point 2# in turbulent flow, such as displacement variance,
average value of acceleration, peak value of acceleration, acceleration variance is
stronger than which of point 2# in uniform flow. Membrane structure in condensed zone
is more sensitive than which in the neglected plot.
According to the Chinese building structural load code (GB50009), the wind-induced
dynamic coefficient is calculated using the displacement according to the wind-induced
dynamic coefficient formula:
U sj  U dj U dj  Uj
 Uj   1  1 ,   1.645 (1)
U sj U sj Uj
The wind-induced dynamic coefficients of each observed point could be obtained. Due
to the limitation of the content, the coefficients of some points are given as Fig.9.
1) Point 1# 2) Point 2#
1752
3) Point 3# 4) Point 4#
Fig.9: The wind-induced dynamic coefficients of some points
As the velocity is growing, the wind-induced dynamic coefficients are decreasing. The
wind-induced dynamic coefficients of the structure in the turbulent flow are higher than
the ones in the uniform. Under low velocity, the wind-induced dynamic coefficients of
the structure in the strong initial stress are higher than which in the weak initial stress in
the same flow. While under high velocity, coefficients in the different initial stress but
in the same flow tend to be uniform.
This paper presents the wind tunnel tests performed on membrane roof for central axis
of the 2010 Shanghai Expo. Membrane in the weaker initial stress is severe vibration. It
is important to pay attention to the pre-stress relaxation in construction and using.
Membrane structure in turbulent flow is more sensitive than which in the uniform flow.
At last, the wind-induced dynamic coefficient of the membrane is displayed.
4 Acknowledgements
This study was financially supported by the National Nature Science Foundation of
China (Grant No.E080502) and Kwang-Hua Fund for College of Civil Engineering,
Tongji University. The writers would like to acknowledge above supports.
References
[1] Yasushi Uematsu, Motohiko Yamada, Akira Inoue, Takeshi Hongo, Wind loads
and wind-induced dynamic behavior of a single-layer latticed dome, Journal of
Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1997;66: 227-248
[2] W.Pearce, D.M.Sykes, Wind tunnel measurements of cavity pressure dynamics in a
low-rise flexible roofed building, Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial
Aerodynamics 1999;82; 27-48
[3] Yasushi Uematsu, Theodore Stathopoulos, Eri Iizumi, Wind loads on free-standing
canopy roofs: Pert 1 local wind pressures, Journal of Wind Engineering and
Industrial Aerodynamics 2008;96;1015-1028
1753
[4] Appupillai Baskaran, Yin Chen, Wind load cycle development for evaluating
mechanically attached single-ply roofs, Journal of Wind Engineering and
Industrial Aerodynamics 1998;77&78：83-96
[5] Kinya Ando, Atush Ishi, Toshio Suzuki, Keiji Masuda, Yoshihito Saito, Design
and construction of a double membrane air-supported structure, Engineering
Structures 1999;21:786-794
1754
3.7 Dynamics and seismal design
1755
Investigation of a diagnosis and improvement method for

school gymnasiums based on seismic diagnosis data
-For steel gymnasiums-
Mako FUJIMURA1*, Ikuo TATEMICHI2, Tomohiro IWASA3, Shigehiro MOROOKA4

1*
Graduate Student, Meisei University
2-1-1 Hodokubo, Hino, Tokyo, 191-8506, JAPAN
E-Mail: makofujimura1124@yahoo.co.jp
2
Professor, Dr. Eng., Meisei University，
3
College Student, Meisei University
4
Assoc. Prof., Dr. Eng., Tokai University
Abstract
Seismic diagnosis of school gymnasium buildings which are expected to
perform as emergency shelters is proceeding apace in Japan today. However in the past
there have been many examples of gymnasiums that have been assessed to have
sufficient seismic performance being rendered unfit for emergency refuge use by a large
earthquake. In this study, the data from seismic diagnosis of 262 such structures is
sorted and analysed based on a variety of parameters. From this, we aim to understand
the present situation of seismic diagnosis and retrofitting and investigate any problems
which exist.
Keywords: seismic diagnosis, school gymnasium, steel frame, seismic load

gallery weight
1 Introduction
In earthquake-prone Japan, school gymnasium buildings are not only expected to
protect the children using them, but also to act as emergency shelters in the case of an
earthquake. The seismic diagnosis and seismic retrofitting of school gymnasiums across
Japan is proceeding rapidly. However, the relationship between current seismic
diagnosis and retrofitting methods and seismic performance, the ability of a building to
maintain functionality, is not necessarily clear.
The aim of this study is to understand, based on a large collection of school gymnasium
seismic diagnosis reports, the current state of seismic diagnosis and retrofitting, and to
point out any problem areas. This report will also introduce analysis results for steel
frame structures.
1756
2 Structural outline and seismic performance of steel frame school

gymnasiums
2.1 Structure type classification
In Japan, typical school gymnasium structures are classified as in Figure 1. Currently,

seismic diagnosis is being carried out on gymnasiums built before 1981. Figure 2 shows
a breakdown of the types of structure that make up the 262 diagnostic reports examined.
This study focuses on the most common type of steel frame gymnasium structure, type
S1, which makes represents 45% of cases
Steel frame Steel frame Steel frame Steel frame
Reinforced Reinforced Reinforced

concrete concrete concrete
□
1 Ｓ１ □
2 ＲＳ２ａ □
3 ＲＳ２ｂ □
4 ＲＳ１ａ
Steel frame Steel frame Steel frame Steel frame
Reinforced Reinforced Reinforced Reinforced

concrete concrete concrete concrete
□
5 ＲＳ１ｂ □
6 ＲＳ１ｃ □
7 Ｒ１ □
8 Ｒ２
Fig. 1: Gymnasium structure type classifications examined
R2 Other
3% 4%
R1
10% S1
RS1c
8% 45%
RS1b
23%
RS2b RS2a
2% 5%
Fig. 2: Distribution of structure types
2.2 Structural outline of the type-S1 gymnasium
1757
Figure 3 shows the frame of a typical S1-type gymnasium. The shorter axis is referred
to as the span direction, and the longer one as the ridge or longitudinal direction. In
most cases, a moment resisting frame is constructed in the span direction, and braces are
installed in the longitudinal direction.
Eaves height
dir’n ~7m
Longitudinal
Span dir’n ~30m
dir’n ~25m
Fig.3: Example of an S1-type gymnasium frame
Of the 262 cases examined, 117 of these were of the S1 type, and the various roof
structures of these S1-type buildings are shown in figure 4. H-section steel, or H-section
steel full web members on welded steel plate, make up 80% of the gymnasiums.
Oblique
truss 4%
Other
5%
Truss span
10% Open web
members
20%
Single-later
H-section
shell 9%
Full web steel
53%
members
80%
Build-up H-
section
steel 19%
Figure 4 Types of roof structure
2.3 Overview of Seismic Performance of the S1-type gymnasium

2.3.1 Seismic performance index
In Japan, when evaluating seismic performance numerically, the seismic index Is and
the index q, relating to the horizontal load carrying capacity, are used. Is can be
expressed using equation (1), where Qu is the horizontal resistance of the structure, and
W is its weight. Qu/W is the horizontal shear coefficient, and F is the ductility index.
Where an element or joint is not expected to display any ductility, i.e. to break the
moment it begins to yield, this is defined as F=1.0, and numerical values are assigned
for predicted ductility. The value q shows the strength against lateral force, and is
proportional to the coefficient Qu/W in equation (1). High values of Is and q correspond
1758
to a high degree of seismic resistance. Assessed seismic performance is related to the

risk of collapse in table 1.
Qu
Is  F (1)
W
Table 1: Example of seismic performance assessment
Is <0.3 or q <0.5 High risk
Is ≧ 0.7 and q ≧ 1.25 Low risk
Otherwise At risk
2.3.2 Minimum Is value, q value distribution
For any building, the lowest value of Is is chosen from the longitudinal or span direction,
on the first or second storey, and this is combined with its corresponding q value. Table
2 shows the number of combinations chosen in diagnosis. Of 117 cases, 96% were
categorised as "high risk" and "at risk”. It is also clear that the longitudinal direction, on
both the first and second floors, tends to determine seismic performance.
The relationship between minimum Is values and their corresponding q values is plotted
in figure 5. Seismic diagnosis results of gymnasiums without retrofitting ("before
reinforcement"), and the results of reinforcement plans based on these ("after
reinforcement") are shown. Before reinforcement, longitudinal brace connections have
poor horizontal load-carrying capacity, so many cases cluster around F=1.3. After
reinforcement, with improved horizontal load-carrying capacity joints, values cluster
around a line corresponding to F=2.2.
Table 2: Combination of chosen minimum value of Is and q

Floor, direction of minimum Is value High risk At risk Low risk
Span direction 5 11 4
Longitudinal direction, 1st floor 22 21 0
Longitudinal direction, 2nd floor 30 21 1
1759
2
High risk At risk Low risk Before
reinforcement
After
1.5 reinforcement
minimum Is
F=2.2
F=1.3
0.5
n=117
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
q
Fig. 5: Relationship between minimum value of Is and q
3. Analysis of seismic load distribution assumptions

3.1 Investigation Overview
Many gymnasiums feature a gallery running around the periphery of the arena (photo 1).
In these cases, the gallery is considered a second storey in the longitudinal direction
(Fig. 6), and the gymnasium is treated as a 2-storey structure. In many cases these
gymnasiums are treated as single-storey structures in the span direction.
The validity of assumptions regarding the number of floors has a large influence on the
validity of the seismic loads used in diagnosis. So, the span direction and longitudinal
direction are examined separately.
Gallery Gallery
A2
2nd floor
A1=1.0
1st floor
Photo 1 Fig.6: Longitudinal direction Fig.7: Span direction
3.2 Ai distribution in longitudinal direction
In Japan, the amplification of seismic loads with building height is represented by the
distribution of the value Ai. Ai is expressed in equation (2), where T is the primary
natural period, commonly approximated from the height of the eaves. The value αi is the
total weight of the floors above the ith floor divided by the weight above the 1st floor.
The value of Ai for the 1st floor (A1) is 1.0.
1760
 1  2T
Ai  1    ai  (2)
 a  1  3T
 i 
The spread of longitudinal, 2-storey Ai values used in the seismic diagnosis reports (i.e.
A2 values) is shown in figure 8. The Ai distribution shows two peaks, and these seem to
correspond to the structures using trusses or other types of open web roof members, and
those using full web roof members such as H-section steel. It is expected, then, that the
weight of roof structure has an effect on the spread of Ai, so let us look at the two
coefficients on the right-hand side of equation (2).
1 2T
 i ,   (3)
i 1  3T
β depends solely on αi, and thus on the ratio between the weights for one and two floors.
γ depends only on the natural period T, so is determined purely by the height of the
building. Thus, the relationship between the β and γ coefficients in equation (3) and Ai is
as shown in figure 9. We see that the factor β, which is determined by the relative
weights, increases proportionally with Ai, and this influences the uneven distribution of
Ai.
20
18 Full web members
16 Open web members
14
12
number
10
8
6
4
2
0
1.05
1.15
1.25
1.35
1.45
1.225
1.275
1.325
1.375
1.425
1.475
1.025
1.075
1.125
1.175
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
Longitudinal direction 2-storey Ai distribution
Fig.8: Longitudinal direction 2-storey Ai distribution

1.6
1.4 1
 i
i
1.2
1/√
1 αi…
2T
1  3T
number
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1
1.05
1.1
1.15
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.25
1.35
1.45
1.025
1.075
1.125
1.175
1.225
1.275
1.375
1.475
1.325
1.425
Longitudinal direction 2-storey Ai distribution
Fig.9: Distribution of β and γ with Ai
1761
We can see that, under these conditions, longitudinal seismic load distribution is solely
dependent on the roof construction.
3.3 Method of translating gallery floor weight to eaves position
Seismic diagnosis is often carried out in the span direction by assuming a single-storey
building. To assess Is values, then, it is necessary to consider the weight of the gallery
floor at the position of the eaves (Figure 10).
The techniques currently used in seismic diagnosis in Japan are shown in table 3. The Is
values obtained using these methods consistently follow the pattern "Method 1 <
Method 3 < Method 2", and it is considered true that as weight decreases, seismic
performance increases.
W2 We
H2 Qu2
W1 Qu
H1 Qu1
＜Two-floor model＞＜One-floor model＞

Fig.10: Gallery weight consideration
Table 3: Methods of translation to eaves position (see Fig.10)
Add whole weight of gallery floor to eaves position
Method 1
We  W2  W1
Reduce weight by proportion of gallery floor height to eaves height, add to eaves position.
Method 2 H1
We  W2    W1  
H1  H 2
Add weight to eaves position with consideration to Ai distribution
Method 3
  
We  W2    1    A2  W1    A2= 2 floor A1
The Is value distributions from the seismic diagnosis reports using each of these
methods are shown in figures 11 - 13. Of these methods, method 2 returned the highest
values of Is, and the gymnasiums examined using this method were the most numerous
at 46%. The average Is value obtained using method 2 was Is=0.86, whereas method 1
returned an average value of Is=0.47.
10
Frequency 16%
8
number
6
Method 1
4
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3
Is value
Fig.11: All weight at eaves position (Method1)
1762
10
Frequency 46%
8
number
6
Method 2
4
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3
Is value
Fig.12: Weight reduced according to height ratio (Method2)
10
Frequency 9%
8
number
6
Method 3
4
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3
Is value
Fig.13: Considering Ai distribution (Method3)

3.4 Examination of change in Is value due to differing treatments of gallery
weight
The influence of the gallery weight translation method on obtained Is values was
investigated. Again, the span direction of an S1-type frame was considered. The
assumed weight (kN) at each point mass making up the gymnasium is shown in figure
14. A model in which the weight of the roof surface is concentrated at the eaves position
is shown in figure 15. The three methods introduced in the previous section, and an
exact calculation using modal analysis, were compared.
The coefficients were chosen to produce an Is value of 0.7 from method two, and the
values calculated under these conditions using the other methods are shown in table 4.
We see that if the complete distribution of elements in the structure is considered, then,
compared to the more commonly-used method 2, the Is value obtained is 20% lower.
Numbers represent weights of point masses

41.6
42.3 42.3
33.7 42.3 42.3 33.7 139.1 139.1
23.7 23.7 23.7 23.7
Fig.14: Model with all point masses(model1) Fig.15: Four-point-mass model(model2)
1763
Table 4: Weight at eaves position from different translation methods, and

corresponding Is values
Method We (kN) Is value
Method 1 All weight at eaves position 325.6 0.64
Method 2 Weight reduced according to height ratio 299.7 0.7
Method 3 Considering Ai distribution (equation (2)) 310.3 0.68
Considering Ai distribution (model 2) 316.4 0.66
Calculated
Considering Ai distribution (model 1)) 380.4 0.55
In table 4, the weight of the gallery floor only constitutes 20% of the total weight of the
gymnasium, but the effect on Is in the case of larger relative weights is shown in figure
16.As before, variables were chosen to return an Is value of 0.7 for method 2.We see
that as the weight of the gallery floor increases, the more inaccurate method 2 becomes.
0.7
Reduction by height ratio (method 2)
全て軒位置
All weight at eaves (method 1)
0.6
Ai分布（告示）考慮
Is
Using Ai distribution (method3)

0.5 Ai分布（4質点精算）考慮
Using Ai distribution (4 point mass (model2))
Ai分布（全質点精算）考慮
Using Ai distribution (all point mass (model1))
0.4
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Gallery 中間位置重量/総重量
floor weight / Total weight
Fig.16: Is values by translation method for higher gallery weights
4 Conclusions
Analysis and investigation of seismic performance was carried out, based on a large
amount of seismic diagnosis data, on the most numerous (S1 type) steel frame school
gymnasium. The findings are shown below.
1) The seismic performance shown by the values Is and q was decided by the
longitudinal direction in 80% of cases, and 96% of the buildings examined were in need
of reinforcement.
2) To delimit the gallery floor running around the edge of the arena, a gymnasium
is often considered as a single-storey structure in the span direction and a two-floor
structure in the longitudinal direction. So, the validity of the number of floors greatly
affects the distribution of seismic load. It is also clear that the longitudinal distribution
of seismic load is dependent only on the weight of the roof structure.
3) For calculation purposes, it is necessary to consider the weight of the gallery
floor at the position of the eaves. A number of possible methods exist to accomplish this,
but the obtained seismic performance varies depending on the method used. We see that
as weight increases, the spread of Is values becomes greater. This line of investigation
can be pursued further by carrying out seismic response analysis using a detailed model.
1764
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to extend their deep gratitude to Prof. Masaya Hirosawa and
Prof. Tetsu Yamashita of Kogakuin University for their guidance and advice in this
investigation.
1765
Collapse of spatial structures under seismic forces considering

the influence of non structural elements
Agustín PÉREZ-GARCÍA1*, Adolfo ALONSO DURÁ2,
Fernando GÓMEZ MARTÍNEZ3, Isabel OURO PARDO4
1*
PhD in Architecture, Professor and Chairman,
Departamento de Mecánica de los Medios Continuos y Teoría de Estructuras,
Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Camino de Vera s/n 46022 Valencia, Spain
aperezg@mes.upv.es
2
PhD in Architecture, Professor and Chairman,
Departamento de Mecánica de los Medios Continuos y Teoría de Estructuras,
3
Architect, research scholarship holder of Dep. Mec. Med. Continuos y TªEstructuras
4
Architect
Abstract
The additional stiffness provided by non structural elements like partition and
curtain walls, roofing systems and many other non structural frames are taken into
account to analyze the load capacity and the response of spatial structures against
seismic forces.
This paper presents the results obtained in some study cases where structural model has
been carefully prepared to represent not only the structural components of the building
but also the stiffest non structural elements.
The brittle failure of some components –such as brick partition walls or glazing
systems– has been implemented using a finite element damage model. Connection
systems were also introduced considering the real construction procedures.
Dynamic and non-linear analysis were performed using EFCiD® and Architrave®. These
pieces of software implement parallel computing algorithms and have been developed
by the author’s research workgroup at the Universidad Politécnica de Valencia.
The results show that the influence of non structural elements is a mixture of favourable
and unfavourable features. On one hand, as they are so rigid, they increase strength and
load bearing capacity. On the other hand, the increasing building stiffness reduces the
period of the vibrational modes. As a result, greater horizontal forces are developed and
resonance problems can appear.
Keywords: earthquake, dynamic, non-structural, non-linear, damage, resonance.
1766
1 Introduction
We intend to analyze the structural behaviour with a more realistic approach by taking
into account non structural elements, using a detailed way of modelling. This strategy
yields interesting results when the building is exposed to lateral forces, but the most
important and non-obvious consequences appear in the case of seismic situation.
First of all we discuss on various topics: non structural elements and how it is the usual
way of modelling them; non-linear analysis and damage models; and earthquake as a
dynamic action. Next, we analyze two different prototypes of structures, which are
simplifications of real buildings. In each case we represent them in some different ways
in order to evaluate the influence of the modelling considerations about the non-
structural elements. Finally, we expose the achieved results and conclusions.
2 Non structural elements

The structure of a building is usually considered as an ensemble of conveniently placed
elements with high resistance that we trust them for carrying the loads, which is
normally its only role. However, a building includes much more constructive elements,
with different mechanical properties (rigidity, resistance, ductility…) which are not
intended to carry loads; usually we assume that they act just as dead loads.
However, this is a simplification of the matter. We are not able to decide about which
elements carry loads and which do not. Loads make their way across the building to the
foundation always through the stiffest elements [1]: the “strain compatibility” principle
leads that the most rigid elements carry with the greatest part of the loads.
The rigidity of a constructive element, in a macro-structural sense, depends on:
- the deformability of the material:
- its size, area, inertia and slenderness in relation to the direction of the loads.
- the position and orientation inside the structure.
- the design of the connections: dis/continuous, ductile/fragile, rigid/articulated…
Attending to these properties, we can separate the non-structural elements in:
- Effective ones: masonry enclosures confined in the structure with few holes,
masonry partition walls continuous to the ground and reaching the top of each
slab, rigid flooring with filled joints, curtain walls with structural anchors,
metallic sub-structure of some enclosures, continuous stringer of the stairs, etc.
- Non effective ones: soft or holey enclosures, interrupted partition walls,
discontinuous flooring or stairs, windows, etc.
3 EFCiD® and Architrave®: non-linearity, damage and dynamics

Most of those constructive elements are composed by materials that have plastic
behaviour. Thus, it becomes necessary to perform a non-linear analysis of the complete
1767
structure, by dividing the charging process in some progressive steps, taking into
account the stresses and strains due to each stage of the loading procedure. Non-
linearity can be:
- Geometrical: In each step loads are applied on the structure’s deformed shape.
- Mechanical: In each step the resistance and deformability is different.
For brittle materials as masonry, the mechanical non-linearity is called “damage model”,
and it is based on “breaking” the material sequentially when the elements develop
tension stresses or excessive compression ones. On the other hand, the most accurate
simulation of the seismic action is obtained with a dynamic analysis [2]: inertial forces
vary with time and depends on the rigidity, absorption and mass.
All the analysis have been made using EFCiD® and Architrave® , two pieces of software
for structural evaluation that implement parallel computing algorithms, developed by
the author’s research workgroup at the Universidad Politécnica de Valencia.
4 Seismic forces and resonance

A structure is subjected to several groups of forces. Most of its values do not depend on
the structural solution –except for the self weight and thermal ones. Live loads are
independent of the internal design of the structure. In these situations, an increase of the
global rigidity means with no doubt an increase of the global resistance, always in the
case that the structure has plastic behaviour [3]: the “collapse load” is higher.
However, the seismic action is largely dependent on the global rigidity and also on the
local distribution of rigidities across the structure. The “response spectrum” (Figure 1)
of the dynamic behaviour shows that the acting forces are extremely amplified when the
vibration modes have a period similar to the earthquake, which is approximately
rounding around 0,50 to 0,60 seconds [4]. The values of the modal periods are directly
related to the global and local distribution of rigidities and masses.
Fig. 1: Elastic response spectrum established by the Spanish legislation (NCSE-02)

The best strategy to deal with the earthquake is not always to enhance the bear capacity
increasing the global stiffness [5]. The strength improvement not always compensates
the greater seismic forces due to a lower oscillation period. Each structure has a
particular relationship between gains and losses of load bearing capacity while
modifying the rigidity or flexibility (Figure 2). For a single structure, to model it in such
different ways that we obtain several rigidities is equivalent to move right and left in the
graphics, with the possibility of reaching a “dangerous” point.
1768
Fig. 2: Symbolic relationship between load bearing capacity and flexibility

Our aim is to study the particular relation between gaining and losing load-bearing
capacity according to the existence of non-structural elements that modify their
mechanical properties, and also to analyze the influence of the way of modelling this
kind of elements and the corresponding levels of security obtained.
Analysis are made according to the Spanish seismic regulations [6], which establish that
the response spectrum depends on: acceleration of the shock, rigidity of the ground,
absorption and ductility of the structure.
5 Analysis of a simple framed structure

The first structure that we study simulates a common apartment building of three
identical stories (Figure 3). It is constituted by: a simple frame of columns, beams and
slabs with joists, of reinforced concrete; a rigid elevator shaft core and a continuous
stair, of reinforced concrete; a facade made of two independent layers of brick, the
exterior one completely outside the structure and the interior one embedded in the grid;
and some brick partition walls, continuous all over the stories.
Fig. 3: Floorplan and section of the analyzed building
1769
Different ways of modelling

We test four different models of the same structure in order to study their behaviour
while receiving wind and seismic loads, and also in order to compare the influence of
the modelling:
A) Only columns, beams and the elevator shaft.
B) Columns, beams, elevator shaft, stair and “virtual slabs”.
C) Columns, beams, elevator shaft, stair, “virtual slabs” and joists.
D) Columns, beams, elevator shaft, stair, “virtual slabs”, joists, walls and facades.
5.1.1 Model A (Figure 4).

This is the most common way of modelling a frame structure: only bars (columns and
beams and edge joists) and relevant elements against lateral forces, as a concrete core
elevator shaft. Modelling like this is normally a valid way, because it assumes that the
structure has much less load bearing capacity. In this case the bars need to be stronger
than in the other models. So we move in a very safe ground. But it is necessary to study
carefully when earthquake is acting, because in this case the model is unrealistically
flexible.
This way of modelling is also suitable when the rest of the non-structural elements are
not going to be carefully controlled in the construction process, so we cannot rely on
them to have a load bearing behaviour [1].
Fig. 4: Model A
5.1.2 Model B (Figure 5).
This model includes also:
- The stair: it is a very important element against lateral forces, because it creates
triangles between the floors until de foundation
- A “virtual slab”: Although the floor structure is made of parallel joists, it is
important to consider that a thin layer of concrete provides transversal continuity
1770
to the complete plane, acting as a horizontal diaphragm [1]. It is “virtual”

because we model it without any weight; all the gravitational way is applied
directly to the beams.
Fig. 5: Model B
5.1.3 Model C (Figure 6).
Joists are the only added elements in this model respect the previous one. It gives a
more accurate response to lateral and torsional forces.
Fig. 6: Model C
5.1.4 Model D (Figure 7).
This is the most precise and realistic model. It includes all the potential effective non-
structural elements:
- Facades: are composed by two layers of finite elements, linked by little metallic
connection bars without shear capacity. Windows are not considered as effective
elements.
1771
- Partition walls: they are linked to the supports by little “virtual” bars with no
shear capacity, for simulating its special behaviour: they only carry longitudinal
forces to the columns, they are not connected laterally. Except for the last story,
the relation with the slabs can be considered as a rigid one, thanks to the friction
forces that appears due to the weight [7]
- Lintels: They are modelled as metallic bars integrated within the walls
As it is explained in 5.1.1, modelling in this way implies an accurate control of the
construction process, otherwise it is not possible to rely on these brittle elements.
Fig. 7: Model D (above) and connection bars, real and “virtual” (below)
Analysis of the models and discussion of results

Next we proceed to analyze the models. We must obtain the minimum necessary
dimensions for concrete bars and also their steel reinforcement in each case. In order to
compare the results and draw conclusions about the suitability of each one, it has been
quantified the amount of steel and concrete necessary for beams and pillars, and also it
has been checked features like movements or vibrational modes periods.
We study three properties: the accuracy of the “simplified method”, the influence of the
“virtual slab” and finally the real behaviour of the structure with a “damage model”. For
1772
every analysis we use the same reference earthquake: basic acceleration, 0,30g; ground,
good quality; absorption, 5%; ductility, medium/low; direction: beam’s one.
5.2.1 Method of the “equivalent forces”

First of all, we compare the results for model A calculating the earthquake forced using
two different methods: the simplified method of the “equivalent forces” (from the
Spanish legislation [6]) and the more accurate dynamic response. The method of the
“equivalent forces” transforms the dynamic problem in a static one, by converting
movements in static “equivalent forces” (Figure 8).
Fig. 8: Equivalent forces for the current structure

These forces depend on the behaviour and period of real buildings, obtained by
experimental formulas that take in account their whole rigidity. This is how the
legislation has taken in account the issue of the resonance. It is important to realize that
then the accurate way of analyze the structure with this equivalent forces should be done
taking into account every non-structural element for including their stiffness and load
bearing capacity on the structural model [8].
In fact, we can see in Table 1 that the simplified method requires 29.11 % more amount
of concrete than the dynamic response method. It shows that the simplified way is more
reliable because only incorporates the adverse effect of stiffness gaining.
Table 1: Evaluation of model B under seismic forces
Concrete Steel in Concrete Steel in Mod.1
Concrete Excess
Model in Pillars Pillars in beams beams Period
(T) (%)
(m3) (kg) (m3) (kg) (s)
B-seismic 72,89 4,30 1438 24,84 3499 0,790 -
B-simplified
94,11 6,02 1646 31,63 4202 0,190 29,11
seismic
1773
5.2.2 Influence of the “virtual slab”

Next, we compare the results obtained in the wind and seismic analysis of models A and
B, to evaluate the real influence of the “virtual slab” in the model. We observe in Table
2 that the saving is bigger in the seismic situation (22.55%) than in the wind situation
(16.47%), because the seismic torsional effects become so strong for the model A. In
this case the bigger level or stiffness has acted as a profitable factor. This is because the
first modes of vibration, which are the main responsible for the seismic forces, have a
very similar period in both models (0.80 and 0.79 s), although for the second and third
the difference is bigger (0.43 and 0.27; 0.33 and 0.27).
Table 2: Evaluation of models A and B under wind and seismic forces
Lateral
Concrete Steel in Concrete Steel in Mod.1 Mod.2 Mod.3
Concrete max. Saving
Model in Pillars pillars in beams beams period period period
(T) mv. (%)
(m3) (kg) (m3) (kg) (s) (s) (s)
(cm)
A-wind 71,15 4,13 834 24,33 3058 1,18 - - - -
B-wind 59,43 3,41 829 20,37 2827 1,15 - - - 16.47
A-seismic 92,96 5,94 1751 31,25 4353 - 0,800 0,430 0,330 -
B-seismic 72,89 4,30 1438 24,84 3499 - 0,790 0,270 0,270 22.55
Fig. 9: Deformed shape of models A and B under seismic loads
5.2.3 The damage model for brittle failure

Finally, we try to study the phenomenon with the most accuracy as possible: we
compare the results obtained for model C and model D, in order to extract the clues
about the real influence of non-structural elements in the load-bearing capacity and the
global behaviour of the ensemble.
For model D we use a “damage non-linear analysis” (see point 3), so that the oscillation
is divided into several steps. In each steps the efforts in brick walls are evaluated, and if
some finite element develop tension stresses or compression ones exceeding the
material strength, the software considers that they are not rigid any more for the rest of
the iterations. We can see in Figure 10 the evolution of the process by showing the
1774
“efficient” finite elements at some of the intermediate situations. The process finishes
when it converges: successive iterations show similar behaviour.
Fig. 10: Broken nodes in the first iteration and deformed shape in the second iteration
(above); sequence of efficient finite element at some intermediate situations (below)
The final results (Table 3) clarify the issue:

- The process converges when the loss of brick elements reach the 71.35%.
- This leads to a decrease in stiffness that causes a progressive increment of the
vibration periods (in first mode from 0.123 to 0.465 s) and so a decrease of the
seismic loads.
- The initial period is similar to that calculated using the “experimental”
simplified method (see point 5.2.1): 0.120 and 0.190 s, respectively. And it is far
away from the periods calculated with the model A and B: 0.800 and 0.790 s.
- The saving of material between model C and D in the two studied situations
(wind and earthquake) are, respectively, 27.00 and 20.48 %. The clue is that in
the intermediate steps, the reasoned relationship between stiffness, period and
seismic forces causes a “waste” of strength that does not occur in the wind
situation.
- It is important to realize that the reduction of the displacements between model
C and D is very high (79.50%), much more than the increase of resistance.
Table 3: Evaluation of models C and D under wind and seismic forces
1775
lateral
Concrete Steel in Concrete Steel in Mod. 1 Mod. 2 Mod. 3
Concrete max. Saving
Model in Pillars pillars in beams beams period period period
(T) mov. (%)
(m3) (kg) (m3) (kg) (s) (s) (s)
(cm)
C-wind 98,12 3,56 830 35,69 4481 1,07 - - - -
D-wind 71,63 3,74 858 23,21 3226 0,23 - - - 27,00
C-seismic 109,45 4,43 822 39,35 4952 - 0,790 0,280 0,270 -
D-seismic 87,03 3,64 1038 30,32 3820 - 0,465 0,261 0,247 20,48
6 Analysis of a geodesic double-layered triangulated dome

The last studied example is a 75m-diameter geodesic hemispherical dome composed by
two triangulated layers of steel bars; the interior grid has double density of partitions.
The distance between both layers is 1.13 m, and they are linked by little perpendicular
bars coinciding with every node of the exterior layer. This is a structure inspired on that
in Figure 11.
Fig. 11 : References for the second structure:

external view and detail
The interior layer is covered by a glass curtain wall of “structural glass”: pieces of glass
are linked to the steel bars by branched anchorages, and those are interconnected by
structural silicone.
Different ways of modelling

For this kind of structures, again the usual way of modelling is to consider that only the
triangulated layers are the load bearing elements. But, as explained, it is not clear
previously if the strength provided by the curtain wall is enough to compensate the
increase of the seismic loads due to its higher stiffness.
For that aim we prepare three different models (Figure 12):
A) Only composed by the 2 triangulated layers and the connection bars
B) Simulating with accuracy the position and connections of the curtain wall
C) Assuming (mistakenly) that the glass is rigidly embedded in the interior grid.
1776
Fig. 12 : External view of model A and details of curtain wall simulation in model B
Analysis of the models and discussion of results

The results of the analysis of the three models in wind and seismic situation (Table 4)
show that:
- The decrease of the efforts in the bars in the model B is very high: 75.90 and
70.83 % for wind and seismic situation, respectively. That is because glass is a
very resistant material as well as being highly rigid, so the pieces do not get
“broken” if we consider that they work with the global structure. These pieces
are normally dimensioned to load bear local bending forces, and lateral global
forces as wind or seismic ones mainly produce axial forces (tension and
compression), which are easily resisted by the glass.
- The difference of the saving in amount of material between wind and seismic
situation (5 % more in the first one) is due to the decrease of the vibrational
period (0.54 to 0.34 s); it makes that the amplification of the seismic forces is
56.9 %.
- Definitively, the model C is extremely unsuitable for simulating the real
behaviour of the structure: we obtain a reduction of 75.58 % over model B and
92.87 % over model A, which is highly unsafe.
Table 4: Evaluation of models C and D under wind and seismic forces

Mod. 1 Mod. 2 Mod. 3
Model Steel (T) Saving %
period (s) period (s) period (s)
A-wind - - - 75,97
B-wind - - - 18,31 75,90
C-wind - - - 4,92 93,52
A-seismic 0,54 0,54 0,40 36,94
B-seismic 0,34 0,34 0,26 10,77 70,83
C-seismic 0,13 0,13 0,13 2,63 92,88
1777
7 Conclusions
After studying carefully these two structures with all their possible ways of modelling,
we can conclude that:
- Not always is secure to “despise” non-structural elements in seismic situation.
Although in our two cases the gains are bigger than the losses, the results are
highly unpredictable.
- When the non-structural elements are made of brittle materials, the uncertainty is
higher.
- Simplified method is usually secure and provides a more accurate vibrational
behaviour.
- Modelling non-structural elements should be done with higher accuracy, using
proper software, and its real construction must be well controlled.
- Some simple strategies of modelling provide more economic structures.
References
[1] De Miguel, J. L. Structures in architecture. Structures II, UPM, 1994
[2] Pérez García, A., Alonso Durá, A. EFCiD, user manual. InterTécnica, 2003
[3] Heyman, J. The science of structural engineering. Imperial College Press, 1999
[4] De Miguel, J. L. Seismic action on buildings. UPM, 2000
[5] Akiyama, H. Earthquake-resistant design method for buildings based on energy
balance. Reverté, 2003
[6] Various authors. Seismic construction legislation, NCSE-02. Official Spanish State
Document, 2002
[7] De Miguel, J. L. Vademecum. Structures II, UPM, 1994
[8] De Miguel, J. L. Reflections around seismic modeling, UPM, 2008
1778
Experimental Study on Safety of Suspended Ceilings

in Large Rooms
Ken’ichi KAWAGUCHI1*, Takumi UCHIDA 2, Yoshiro OGI1 and Shunji OHYA1
1*
Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo
4-6-1, Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8505, Tokyo, Japan
Email kawaken@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
East Japan Railway Company
Abstract
Failure of suspended ceilings is dangerous to the users especially in the large
rooms with high ceilings. In order to investigate the impact of failed ceiling boards to
human body a series of free fall tests of ceiling board to dummy head is carried out. The
results are reported and the scheme to evaluate the impact level using the human
tolerance concepts is introduced and discussed.
Keywords: Non-structural components, ceiling board, earthquake, human tolerance,

impact, HIC
1 Introduction
Although the mechanical stability of structural skeletons is the first requirement for the
safety of the people using the room it is not the sufficient condition. The authors have
investigated many damaged public spaces with large roofs, such as public halls, sports
arenas, swimming pools and stations, mainly after earthquakes, and reported that
vulnerability of non-structural components, especially suspended ceilings, caused
considerable danger in the spaces1,2. When the room is comparatively large suspended
ceilings and other non-structural components are set at height place. However usually
the users, and even the architects, do not realize the danger until the failure occurs.
Therefore it is important to recall the existence of such danger and to know the level of
danger brought about the failure of suspended ceilings. In the paper a series of
experiments to know the impact level of some ceiling boards is firstly reported. The
ceiling boards were freely fallen onto a dummy head and the level of impact was
recorded. Then the scheme, using human tolerance concepts, how to evaluated the
results is discussed.
2 Failure of suspended ceilings

Non-structural components are usually supported with less strength in comparison with
the structural elements and they often fail easily. The causes of such failure are not
always earthquakes only. For example degradation of material by aging, wind load,
1779
humidity and rain leaking from the roofs also causes such failure. Therefore failure of
ceilings occurs everywhere in the world regardless whether the area is seismic or not.
(a) Failure of suspended ceilings (b) Failure of suspended ceilings

in Kobe earthquake, 1995 in Niigataken-Chuetsu earthquake, 2004.
(c) Sudden collapse of suspended ceiling (d) Sudden collapse of suspended ceiling
in a swimming pool (no earthquakes), in a swimming pool (no earthquakes),
2005. 2008.
Fig. 1: Failure of ceilings
Since many functions are usually required for ceiling boards various types of material
are employed. When incombustibility is required economic and incombustible, but
heavy and hard, material, such as calcium silicate, is often used. Failure of such heavy
hard boards often brings about serious injury, e.g. cerebral contusion, when they fall
onto the head of people staying at the floor level.
Therefore it is important to grasp the level of potential danger that may happens in the
room by knowing the impact of the board falling from the ceiling height of the room. If
we know the level of danger then we can prepare appropriate and effective preventions.
1780
3 Experiments
The harmfulness of failed ceiling boards to human bodies varies due to many factors.
However the most substantial factor is the height from where the boards start to fall and
material properties, e.g. weight, strength and hardness, of the board.
3.1 Experiment set-up

In order to investigate the impacts of the ceiling boards falling from heights to human
bodies, a series of experiments, releasing ceiling boards from various heights to a
dummy head, has been carried out. Ceiling boards were raised up to various heights, 2m
- 20m, by a hoist and dropped to a dummy head by cutting the suspender. The dummy
head was a JIS standard product made of magnesium alloy, usually used for car crush
tests or safety tests of helmets. A load cell was attached just below the dummy head to
measure the impact load to the dummy head. A speed gun was also set just adjacent to
the dummy head to record the velocity of the falling boards. The set-up of the
experiment is indicated in fig.3. A tall alcove space of a building in the university was
utilized.
In this experiment four types of ceiling boards were prepared and tested as shown in
table 1. These ceiling boards are all commonly used in Japan. Three specimens were
prepared for each type and tested.
Table 1: Ceiling boards investigated in the experiment
Type Ceiling board size (mm) Weight Falling

(kg) height
Rock wool board 300x600 2-20m
Rw (Mineral fiber 0.7
t=12 by 2m
acoustical board)
Calcium silicate 910x910 2-20m
Cs 5.5
board t=8 by 2m
Rock Wook lined 4.5-300x600, 2-20m
rw+cs with calcium t=12 9.5 by 2m
silicate board 910x910, t=8
Rock Wook lined 4.5-300x600, 2m,10m
with calcium
rw+cs+bar t=12 10.5 ,
silicate board and 910x910, t=8 20m
metal furring bar
1781
Dummy head
Ceiling Hoist
クレーン
人頭模型
board Suspender
Load cell
Frame members
アルミ角管
12
ロードセル (Φ80・100)
100×100×6 M8 (深さ8・12)
300
スピードガン
Speed gun
Guide cables
Ｈ: 300×300×12×12×300(約35kg)
ガイドワイヤーアングル: 300×5×5
12
10 Section view
150 300 250
300
Dummy head M6
Plan view
スピードガン
Bldg. Bldg. Steel plate base, t=10

鉄板: 300×600×10
150 50 250
(a) Section view of the general set-up 80
ロードセル用計測機器
Recorders (c) Details of the sensors
PC for Speed
スピードガン用 PC gun
Dummy人頭模型
head
Bldg. Bldg.
(b) Plan view of the general set-up (d) General view of the sensors
Fig. 3: Set-up for the experiment
3.2 Results of the experiment

The relationships between the falling height and the final velocity, the velocity just
before the hit to the dummy head, are shown in fig.4. Each plot corresponds to the mean
value of the results of three specimens. The heavier boards reach the larger final
velocity. In each case the final velocity seems to converge a certain level as the falling
height becomes higher because of the existence of dumping force of the air. For “rw”
and “cs”, the velocity of either type converges to a certain velocity level before 20m,
respectively. For “rw+cs” and “rw+cs+bar” the velocity seems to keep increasing after
20m.
1782
14
velocity(m/s)
12
10
8 rw
cs
-
6
rw+cs
4 rw+cs+bar
2
height(m)
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Fig. 4: Falling heights and final velocity of ceiling boards
(a) rw (2m) (b) rw (6m) (c) rw (20m)
(d) cs (2m) (e) cs (6m) (f) cs (20m)
(g) rw+cs (2m) (h) rw+cs (20m) (i) rw+cs+bar (2m) (j) rw+cs+bar (20m)
Fig. 5: Fracture mode of ceiling boards
1783
Some pictures of the fracture modes of the ceiling boards are shown in fig.5. For “rw”,
“cs” and “rw+cs” bending fracture mode is observed for low height (2m) but as the
falling height increases the punching fracture mode appears. For “rw+cs+bar” punching
mode is observed even at the low height. Since the boards of “rw+cs+bar” are
reinforced by furring bars the fracture pattern is limited in the area bounded by the bars.
4 Evaluation of the impact loads

The recorded maximum impact loads are plotted in fig.6. Generally, the heavier boards
give the higher impact. As the height increases the impact load becomes larger.
Obviously the characteristics of the curves are similar to those indicated in fig.4. Similar
to the final velocity the maximum impact load of “rw” and “cs” converges to a certain
level.
For the evaluation of these impact loads in the respect of harmfulness to the human
body several criteria has been proposed in the field of human tolerance, which is usually
applied for the safety evaluation related to the vehicles. For example, the maximum
acceleration during impact is used in ECE 94 (Economic Commission for Europe) and
FMVSS 208 (Federal Motor Vehicle Standards) and the limit acceleration to heads is
specified as 80G(=784 m/s2). Evaluation according to this criterion is indicated in fig.6.,
where the acceleration is calculated by dividing the maximum impact load by the
weight of the dummy head, 5.4kg.
The Wayne State Tolerance Curve (WSTC) was the first attempt of such criteria
expressed by impulse3. The Head Injury Criteria has been developed after (WSTC),
which is defined by
2 .5
 t2 
HIC =

 t1 ∫
adt 
 (t 2 − t1 ) (1)
 t 2 − t1 
 
 
where a is the acceleration, expressed by gravity acceleration unit G, of the head and t1
and t2 are the time that maximize HIC 3. The limit of HIC is proposed as 700. The
evaluation of the impact by HIC is indicated in fig.7
The limit impact load was proposed by Nahum 3. The load level according to the
fracture force of the parietal bone in Table 2 is indicated in fig.8
Table 2:Fracture force proposed by Nahum (1968)
Frontal bone Parietal bone Zygomaticum bone

Fracture force (N) 4890 2445 1223
1784
1400
acceleration(m/s2)
1200
1000
ECE, FMV Standard
800 、 rw
cs-
600
rw+cs
400 rw+cs+bar
200
height(m)
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Fig. 6: Evaluation of impact by maximum acceleration
100
90
80
HIC
70
rw-av
60
50 cs-av
40 cs＋rw-av
30 bar＋cs＋rw-av
20
10
0 height(
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Fig. 7: Evaluation of impact by HIC
7000
F(N)
6000
5000
4000 rw
Parietal bone cs
3000
Fracture (Nahum)
cs+rw
2000
cs+rw+bar
1000
height(m)
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Fig. 8: Evaluation of impact by maximum impact load
1785
In the real case of ceiling failure, in which many people were injured, one man was
heavily injured to cerebral contusion being hit by failed ceiling board on his head. The
type of the ceiling board was “rw+cs+bar” and falling height was about 6m. The point
correspond to this injury is plotted by a red circles in figs. 6-8.
Considering the consistency with this point the limit line of HIC in fig.7 is too loose
since it includes the point in the safety range. On the other hand the limit lines of ECE
and FMV for maximum acceleration and Nahum’s maximum fracture force seem
reasonable since they exclude the point from their safety range.
5 Conclusions
The results of experiment of ceiling boards fallen from various heights are reported. The
maximum impact load varies according to the weight and material of the board. Some
criteria for the evaluation of the safety level were introduced and discussed. ECE and
FMV standard and Nahum’s fracture force seem to give reasonable evaluation.
References
[1] Kawaguchi K. A Report on Large Roof Structures Damaged by the Great Hanshin-
Awaji Earthquake. International Journal of Space Structures, 1997; Vol.12,
Nos.3&4: 134-147.
[2] Kawaguchi K. and Suzuki Y. Damage Investigations of Public Halls in Nagaoka
City after Niigata-Chuetsu Earthquake 2004 in Japan 2005, 9. Proceedins of
IASS2005, Theory, Technique, Valuation, Maintenance, Mircea Mihailescu and
Calin Mircea (eds.), Bucharest, Romania, Vol.1: 421-428.
[3] Japan Automobile research Institute, inc(JARI),Handbook of Human Tolerance,
1976.
1786
Investigation of transient responses of composite plates under

low-velocity impact load considering various thicknesses
Suk-Jun KWON1*, Seung-Deog KIM 2, Chui-Kyoung CHOI3
1*
Graduate school, Dept. of Architectural Engineering, Semyung University,
304-1 Yigonghakgwan, Semyung University, Jecheon 390-711, Korea
escoleo2002@yahoo.co.kr
2
Prof., Dept. of Architectural Engineering, Semyung University, Korea
3
Prof., Dept. of Architectural Engineering, Kyungwon University, Korea
Abstract
Advanced composite materials have been successfully employed as structural
materials. The properties of these composites have shown their superiority over metals
in applications requiring high specific strength, high specific stiffness, and low weight.
However, their relatively poor resistance to impact load has recently become a major
concern. In this study, transient responses of a composite plate under low-velocity
impact load were investigated at various plate thicknesses. A nine-node finite element
was developed based on the Mindlin plate theory and von Karman’s large deflection
assumption. The Newmark time integration algorithm is used to calculate responses of
the plate and the impactor. The transient responses of the composite plate under low-
velocity impact load at various thicknesses are discussed.
Keywords: Finite element method, Laminated composite plate, Low-velocity impact,

Contact
1 Introduction
Generally speaking, composite materials have higher specific modulus, specific strength,
damping and thermal characteristics than metal materials [1]. For this reason, composite
materials have recently been used not only in architectural engineering, civil
engineering and marine engineering, but also in motor industry, conveyance industry,
aerospace engineering and so on. However, as unlike typical metal materials, composite
materials have little plastic deformation, they have problems related to the absorption of
energy. In other words, if they suffer mechanical energy over an elastic range from
outside the object, they will absorb the energy with elastic deformation energy and
damage without plastic range. This means that they have poor resistance to impact
compared to typical metal materials [2]. Therefore, it is very important to investigate the
impact behaviour of composite materials.
Impact damage is limited by the size of the area involved in the contact surface. The
extent of the damage is dependent on the contact force between the outside object and
the composite materials. Many theoretical studies have been done in this area. To solve
the theoretical difficulty, Hertz attempted an engineering approach by obtaining a static
solution to the ellipse frictionless contact problem. The contact law between the sphere
1787
and the plate is defined by assuming the radius of the one sphere to be infinite. To
calculate contact force for anisotropic laminated composite plate in the impact problem
analysis, a few studies were used Hertzian law which can be applied to the static contact
problem of isotropic object. Also, other studies were used modified Hertzian law [3, 4].
In this study Hertz, Sun’s contact laws are used as theoretical law. And Sun and Yang,
Sun and Tan’s indentation laws are used as experimental law. Using finite element
method is applied these laws, we investigate transient responses of composite plates
under low-velocity impact load considering various thicknesses.
2 Geometrically nonlinear theory of laminated plate

Consider a composite plate consisting of thin homogeneous orthotropic layers, oriented
arbitrarily and having a total thickness h. Let the x-y plane coincide with the middle
plane of the plate with the z-axis oriented in the thickness direction. In Mindlin plate
theory, the displacement components of a laminated plate are assumed to be of the form
u ( x, y, z, t )  u0 ( x, y, t )  z x ( x, y, t )
v( x, y, z, t )  v0 ( x, y, t )  z y ( x, y, t ) (1)
w( x, y, z, t )  w( x, y, t )
Where, u 0 , v0 and w are mid-plane displacements in the x-, y- and z- direction,
respectively. Also,  x and  y are rotations of the cross-sections perpendicular to the x-
and y-axes, respectively. By invoking the von Karman large deflection assumptions, the
Green-Lagrange strains become
 xx 
 
 yy    z  
    xy    p    b    L  (2)
   0    s   0 
 yz 
 xz 
Where ,
 u0 
 
 x 
 v0 
 p    
 y 
 u0  v0 
 y x 
1788
  x 
 
 x 
  y 
 b     (3)
 y 
  x  y 
 y  x 
 
 w 
 y 
 y 
 s    
 w   x 
 x 
and
 1  w  2 
   
 2  x  2 
 
 L    1  w  
 2  y  
 w w 
 x y 
 
are the in-plane linear strains, bending strains, transverse shear strains and nonlinear
parts of in-plane strains, respectively.
By integrating the stresses and the stresses multiplied by z across the thickness of the
plate, we obtain the laminate constitutive relations
 N   A B 0   p   L  
        
 M    B D 0    b    0   (4)
 Q   0 0 H      0  
     s    
In Eq. (4), N i , M i and Qi are the in-plane stress resultants, stress moments and
transverse shears, respectively. Aij , Bij , Dij and H ij are extensional stiffnesses,
extension-bending coupling stiffnesses, bending stiffnesses and transverse-shear
stiffnesses, respectively [5, 6].
3 Total Lagrangian virtual work equation

To develop the finite element equations of motion of an initially stressed composite
plate impacted by a mass, we consider a system consisting of the pre-stressed plate and
mass from time 0 to time t . Under the assumptions of small strain and energy
conservation, the virtual work equation for the system at time t  t is written in a
Lagrangian coordinate system, as follows
1789
 uˆ ˆ uˆdA   ˆ ˆ dA   uˆ Pds  w m w  F  0
T T T
s s s (5)
A0 A0 s
Where A0 and s are the undeformed plate area and the edge length, respectively. ̂  is
the laminate mass matrix. P and  are the static generalized edge force vector and
s are the mass, displacement and acceleration
the variation, respectively. m s , ws and w
of the impactor, respectively. F is the contact force between the plate and the impactor.
And  is the indentation defined as
  ws t  t   wd x0 , y0 , t  t  (6)
In which wd is the dynamic plate deflection at the impact point x0 , y 0  . It should be
noted that û, ˆ, ̂ , ws , F and  in Eq. (6) are presented at time t  t .
Because the static displacements are specified before the subsequent dynamic problem
is considered, the variations of the total displacement, total strain and the acceleration of
the total displacement become
uˆ uˆ d 
ˆ ˆ d  (7)
uˆ uˆ 
d
So, Eq. (5) can be rewritten as
 uˆ  ˆ uˆ dA   ˆ  ˆ dA   uˆ  Pds  w m w  F  0
d T d d T d T
s s s (8)
A0 A0 s
4 Finite element formulation

The nine-node Lagrangian element is used in this paper. The plate displacement field in
the element can be expressed in terms of the nodal variables as
9
uˆ  i I i  (9)
i 1
Where  i  are the nodal displacements at node i , I  is the 5 5 identity matrix, and
 i are the interpolation functions. Eq. (9) is rewritten simply as
û  (10)

If the above finite element model is employed for both the initial static problem and the
subsequent dynamic problem, the generalized strains and their variations can be
expressed in terms of nodal displacements. Terms for the initial static deformation are
as Eq. (11)
1790
uˆ   
s s
ˆ   B   12 B  
s
0
s
L
s
(11)
 
And, terms for subsequent dynamic problem are as Eq. (12).
uˆ   
d d
ˆ   B   12 B  
d s d
L
d
(12)
 
ˆ  B   B  
d s d
L
s
Where,
 
B s  B0   BLs   (13)
 
In Eq. (11), B0  and BLs are the linear and nonlinear strain transformation matrices,
 
respectively. It is noted that the matrix BLs is linearly dependent upon s  . The matrix
   
BLd in Eq. (12) is the same as BLs except that the static displacements in BLs are  
replaced by the dynamic displacements.
Using the incremental method, Eq. (6), (7) and (12), we can re-express Eq. (8) as Eq.
(14) below.
  (M    B  ˆ dA   B   B  ˆ dA

d T d
A0
d T
L
s
A0
s d
L
T d
(14)
  B  ˆ dA     Pds)  w F  w m w
s T
  F   0
s T d
s s s
A0 s
Where M  is the mass matrix, as shown in Eq. (15).
M  A T ˆ dA (15)

0
By assuming the incremental dynamic displacements to be small compared with the

static displacements, and considering d  and ws to be arbitrary, Eq. (14) is
partitioned into two sets of equations
 B  ˆ dA    Pds  0

s T s T
(16)
A0 s
and
s  F  0
ms w (17)
M d  A BLd T ˆ s dA  A B s T ˆ 0di dA  F  (18)

0 0
Where
1791
ˆ  Dˆ ˆ  ˆ 

d
0i
d
0 i
d
(19)
Eq. (16) governs the static behavior of the initially stressed plate, while Eqs. (17) and
(18) govern the impact response. Note that the impact load vector F  must be
calculated before the plate motion can be analyzed, using Eq. (18) [8].
5 Impact analysis using contact law

Substituting the constitutive relations for  d  and Eq. (13) for ˆ d  into Eq. (19)
yields
M d  K 0   Ks   K Ls d   F  (20)
   
Where K 0  , K s and K Ls are the constant linear elastic stiffness matrix, initial stress
matrix and initial displacement matrix, respectively. The stiffness matrix in Eq. (20) is
the tangent stiffness matrix of a buckled plate at the final static state. Consequently, we
may solve for the impact response, provided that the impact load is given. It should be
noted that if the pre-stressed condition does not cause buckling, then the initial
 
displacement matrix K Ls in Eq. (20) is neglected. Eq. (20) can also be used for
studying small amplitude free vibration of an initially stressed plate by setting F  as
equal to zero.
When a composite plate is impacted by a mass, contact force occurs. The contact force
should be calculated before the plate motion can be analyzed using Eq. (20). The
evaluation of the contact force depends on a contact law which relates the contact force
with the indentation. Contact laws used in this paper are Hertzian law, Sun’s law, Sun &
Yang’s law and Sun & Tan’s law.
First, classical Hertzian law is as shown in Eq. (21) below.
F  k 1.5 (21)
Where F and  are contact force and indentation, respectively. k is related with the
coefficients and shapes of material. k of Hertzian law is as in Eq. (22). And k of
Hertzian law is modified by Sun, as in Eq. (23).
4 1  ( r ) 2 1  ( p ) 2 
k r /   (22)
3  Er E p 
4 1  ( r ) 2 1 
k r /   (23)
3  Er E p 
However, it was verified by Sun and Yang’s static indentation tests using steel balls as
indentors that the anisotropic laminated composite still cannot use the above expression
[7]. This contact law accounts for permanent indentation after unloading cycles. The
1792
modified version obtained by Tan and Sun is also used in this paper [4]. The contact law
is given as follows.
Loading :
F  k n (0     m ) (24)
Unloading :
  0 q
F  Fm ( ) (25)
m  0
Reloading :
   0 1.5
F  Fm ( ) (26)
m  0
Where, Fm is the maximum contact force at the beginning of unloading,  m is the
maximum indentation during loading, and  0 is the permanent indentation in a loading-
unloading cycle.  0 is given by
 0   ( m   p ) [if m   p ]
(27)
0  0 [if m   p ]
Where  p is the critical indentation. When  m is less than  p ,  0 equals zero. On the
other hand, when  m is more than  p ,  0 linear relates with the difference between
 m and  p [4], in which constants  and  p were used as 0.094 and 1.667  10 3 cm ,
respectively. For the steel ball of 1.11cm diameter, the contact coefficient k and power
index q of the unloading law were used as 1.26 10 6 N / cm1.5 and 2.5 , respectively.
The contact law of Eq. (24), (25) and (26) is incorporated into Eq. (17) and (20) to solve
for the impact responses. To solve the equations of motion, the Newmark constant
acceleration integration procedure is employed. Eq. (20) may be written in the iterative
form at each time step, as in [7].
t 2
K  d i 1
t  t  F it t  M bt (28)
4
Where, K  and bt are presented in Eq. (29) and Eq. (30), respectively.
K   t K   K   K   M 
2
s s
0  L (29)
4
bt  d t  t d t  t  

2
d
t (30)
4
1793
The same expressions for the displacement, velocity and acceleration of the impactor
can be obtained to solve the equation of motion of the impactor, i.e. Eq. (17). In Eq.
(28), the load vector depends on deflection. Thus, the equations are to be solved
iteratively until the equilibrium is satisfied at each time step.
6 Numerical example
Total models of the numerical example are shown as Table 1. Thickness of each ply of
Model A is 0.0188cm and the total thickness is 0.1504 cm . Thickness of each ply of
Model B is 0.02115cm and the total thickness is 0.1692 cm . These dimensions are
decided by standard Model C. Total thickness of Model A is 80% for total thickness of
Model C, and total thickness of Model A is 90% for total thickness of Model C. On the
other side, total thickness of Model C and Model D are 110% and 120% for total
thickness of Model C, respectively.
Table 1: Analysis Models
Thickness of a ply (cm) Total thickness (cm)

Model A 0.01880 0.1504
Model B 0.02115 0.1692
Model C 0.02350 0.1880
Model D 0.02585 0.2068
Model E 0.02820 0.2256
The shape of the analysis models is shown in figure 1. Length of x-axis direction is
35.4 cm , and length of y-axis direction is 7.6 cm . The number of total nodes is 261 , the
number of total elements is 56. Boundary condition of x-axis direction is simply
supported, and boundary condition of y-axis direction is clamped. Left sensor and right
sensor to evaluate strain of composite plate are at node 59 and 131, respectively [8, 9].
Impact location is at node 131, which is the middle of the composite plate. Falling
height of steel ball is 30 cm .
Fig. 1: shape of numerical example
The required coefficients for impactor, indentation and composite plate are as follows in
tables 2, 3 and 4, respectively.
1794
Table 2: Material properties of composite plate
E x  E y Gpa  G xy Gpa  Gxz Gpa   xy   yx  0 g / cm3 

75 .8 5.51 4.07 0.05 1.57
Table 3: Material properties of impactor
Massg  Radiuscm E x  E y Gpa  

75 .8 5.51 4.07 0.05
Table 4: coefficients of indentation law
Contact coefficientk  1260800

Power index of loading n  1.5
Constant   0.094
Critical indentation  
p 0.001667
Power index of unloading q  2.5
Used tolerance and time interval in analysis are 1.0 104 and 2.0  sec , respectively.
The number of total steps is 1000, and time of total analysis is 2000 sec [10].
7 Result
Fig. 2-1: Displacement of composite plate
Fig. 2-2: Displacement. of composite plate
1795
Fig. 3-1: Contact force of composite plate
Fig. 3-2: Contact force of composite plate

The laminated composite plates considered are 8-ply 0 / 90  2 s laminate with 
graphite/epoxy. Displacement of the plate is presented in Fig. 2. Also, contact force
between the plate and the impactor is presented in Fig. 3.
Maximum contact force by contact law in each model is as follows in Table 5. The
results obtained using Herzian law and Sun’s law are very close to each other. Also, the
results obtained using Sun & Yang’s law and Sun & Tan’s law are very close to each
other. But it is noted that the difference between the result of Herzian law or Sun’s law
and the result of Sun & Yang’s law or Sun & Tan’s law is not small. As the calculation
methods of contact loads are different in each contact law, errors occurred. That is, in
terms of calculating phases, the contact loads are sorted into phases of loading,
unloading, and reloading, unlike theoretical contact law. In particular, the error of the
analysis model A is presented as greater than 40%.
Table 5: maximum contact force by contact law in each model
Herz Sun Sun&Yang Sun&Tan Max  Min / Max

Model A 188.7 188.5 112.6 112.6 0.4033
Model B 201.5 201.3 126.4 126.4 0.3727
Model C 212.0 211.8 144.3 144.0 0.3208
Model D 229.3 229.2 162.7 163.0 0.2905
Model E 251.4 251.3 181.3 181.2 0.2792
Strain x and strain y of the plate are presented in Figs. 4 and 5, respectively. Location of
left sensor and right sensor are nodal numbers 56 and 203, respectively. Impact location
is the middle of the plate, and the locations of sensors are in symmetry each other.
Therefore, the result of strain gauge at each sensor is the same.
1796
Fig. 4-1: Strain x of composite plate
Fig. 4-2: Strain x of composite plate
Fig. 5-1: Strain y of composite plate
Fig. 5-2: Strain y of composite plate
8 Conclusion
In this paper, transient responses of composite plates under low-velocity impact load at
various plate thicknesses were investigated by using finite elements in consideration of
contact law. The analysis adapted the contact laws that Hertz, Sun, Sun & Yang and
Sun & Tan presented in the past. The effects of plate thickness on the contact force
1797
history and transient response of the plate are presented. The following could be
concluded from the results of the numerical example.
As the thickness of the impacted plate increases, the displacement of the plate and initial
contact force between the impactor and the plate become bigger, while the displacement
response period of the plate and the contact time become shorter.
References
[1] D. G. Lee and et al 5 people., Composite Materials. HongLeung, 2007.

[2] I. H. Choi., Nonlinear Analysis of Composite Laminates Subjected to Low-
Velocity Impact. Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, 1989.
[3] Werner Goldsmith., Impact. Dover, 1960.
[4] T. M. Tan and C. T. Sun., Wave Propagation in Graphite/Epoxy Laminates Due to
Impact. NASA CR-168057, 1982.
[5] J. K. Chen., Nonlinear analysis of composite laminates. Purdue University, 1984.
[6] S. H. Yang and C. T. Sun., Indentation law for composite laminates. ASTM, STP
787, Ed. I. M. Daniel, 1982, pp. 425-49.
[7] J. K. Chen and C. T. Sun., Analysis of Impact Response of Buckled Composite
Laminates. Composite Structures 1985; 3:97-118.
[8] R. M. Jones., Mechanics of composite materials, McGraw-Hill, 1975.
[9] S. J. Kwon, J. H. Jeon and S. D. Kim., A study on the dynamic transient responses
of composite laminated plates considering indentation. IASS 2007; 213-214.
[10] S. J. Kwon, J. H. Jeon and S. D. Kim., Investigation of Impact Behavior by
Thickness variation of Laminated Composite Subjected to Low-Velocity Impact.
KASS 2008; 5: 74-9.
[11] S. J. Kwon and S. D. Kim., Investigation of low velocity impact behavior of
composite plates considering the number of stacking. KASS 2010; 7: 121-126.
1798
Free vibration analysis of laminated composite plates

using assumed strain plate FE based on higher order shear
deformation theory
Sang Jin LEE 1*, Ha Ryong KIM 2
1*
Associate Professor, Dept. of Architectural Eng., Gyeongsang National University,
900 Gajwa-dong, Jinju, 660-701 South Korea
LEE@IASS.KR
2
Ph.D. Candidate, Dept. of Architectural Eng., Gyeongsang National University
Abstract
A free vibration analysis of laminated composite plates is carried out in this
study. A four-node plate finite element (FE) is developed by using the assumed strain
method with higher order shear deformation theory (HSDT) to investigate vibration
characteristics of laminated plates. It is well known that the HSDT can represent the
transverse shear deformation of the plate in realistic way. However, the plate FE based
on HSDT produces spurious transverse shear locking phenomenon. Therefore, assumed
strains are introduced to rectify this problem. Numerical examples are carried out for
thin and thick laminated plates and their results are compared with the existing
reference solutions. We found that the present FE is turned out to be very effective on
removing the locking phenomenon inherited in the standard plate FE based on HSDT.
Keywords: Laminated Finite Element, Free Vibration Analysis, HSDT, Assumed Strain
Method
1 Introduction
Laminated plates have been extensively used in many engineering disciplines such as
architectural engineering, civil engineering, marine engineering and aerospace
engineering due to its high stiffness (or strength) to weight ratio and excellent corrosion
resistance. With the growing use of laminated plates, it becomes very important to
conduct an accurate numerical analysis of laminated plates and to use the resulting
information in the structural design process. The HSDT do not required shear correction
factor and strictly represent zero transverse shear stress values on the top and bottom
surfaces of the plate. Some early but important works on HSDT can be found in the
open literatures [1]. So far, there have been a few research works [2-6] for the free
vibration analysis of laminated plate using HSDT with assumed strains [7] compared to
the stress analysis. Therefore, we here provide the formulation and its numerical results
of four-node lower order laminated plate FE with seven degrees of freedom per node
based on the assumed natural strains and HSDT.
1799
2 Numerical example
In other to show the accuracy and reliability of the newly developed laminated plate
element HSA4, numerical result for symmetric laminated plates is provided.
2.1 Symmetric cross-ply 𝟎°/𝟗𝟎°/𝟗𝟎°/𝟎° square laminated plate

A four-layer symmetric cross-ply 0°/90°/90°/0° laminated composite plate is
analyzed to investigate the performance for proposed FE on the variation of thickness
values. For this purpose, we use five different aspect ratios such as
𝑎 ℎ = 4, 10, 20, 50, 100 with the 16 × 16 FE mesh. Numerical results are summarized
in Table 1 and it is compared with the solutions produced by elasticity solution [11],
analytical solution [2, 8] and numerical solution [3, 4, and 6]. It is found to be that the
present FE HAS4 has a good agreement with reference solutions not only thick plate but
thin plate as shown in Table 1. In other words, the present plate element alleviates the
shear locking phenomenon very effectively with full integration and enhances its
performance in great manner.
Table 1: The non-dimensional fundamental frequency of a simply supported

symmetric cross-ply 0°/90°/90°/0° laminated plate.
a/h
Theory
4 10 20 50 100
Present(HSA4) 9.2987 15.1536 17.7219 18.7593 18.9251
Elasticity [11] 9.3949 15.1426 17.6596 18.6742 18.8362
HSDT * [2] 9.2870 15.1048 17.6470 18.6720 18.8357
HSDT **[2] 9.2710 15.0949 17.6434 18.6713 18.8355
Reddy and Phan [8] 9.3235 15.1073 17.6457 18.6718 18.8356
Aydogdu [3] - 15.1070 17.6460 19.6710 18.8360
Matsunaga [4] - 15.0720 17.6370 18.6700 18.8350
Zhen and Wanji [6] 9.2406 15.1658 17.8035 18.9022 19.1566
3. Conclusions
A four-node assumed strain HSDT laminated composite plate element having seven
degrees freedom per node is formulated to assess the free vibration characteristics of
laminated plate. The accuracy and reliability of new laminated plate element is tested by
using symmetric and unsymmetrical laminated plates. From numerical results, the
present laminated plate element does not have any transverse shear locking
phenomenon and show good agreements with other reference solutions.
References
All references can be found in the full paper.
1800
Seismic response of a hybrid spatial structure subjected to

spatially variable ground motions
Xilin LU1*, Feng LIU 2
1*
State Key Laboratory for Disaster Reduction in Civil Engineering, Tongji University
1239 Siping Road, Shanghai, 200092, P.R. China
lxlst@tongji.edu.cn
2
College of Civil Engineering, Shandong University of Science and Technology
579 Qianwangang Road Economic & Technical Development Zone, Qingdao,
Shangdong Province, 266510, P.R. China
tjfliu@yahoo.com.cn
Abstract
Shanghai Pudong international airport terminal building 2 has total floor area of
400 thousand square meters. Its total length and width are 414 and 150 meters,
respectively. The construction site of the terminal building locates on the irregular
topography and its alluvium achieves about 300 m in thickness. It could be classified as
a hybrid spatial structure due to irregular distribution of the transverse stiffness. Up to
now, no Chinese Design Code can be applied efficiently to this type of structure.
The objective of this paper is to study the seismic performance of this structure by
means of nonlinear time history analyses when subjected to spatially variable ground
motions. Firstly, The surface spatial variable ground motions are calculated under
incidence of the spatially correlative seismic motion by 2D finite element method
considering nonlinear properties of the soil. Then, the customer material is developed
based on the FE software ABAQUS for the nonlinear time history analysis. Lastly,
some important responses such as internal force, displacements are monitored and
compared between the uniform and the multiple input cases.
The comparative analysis of the terminal building shows that the uniform ground
motion input cannot provide conservative seismic demands for all structural
components—in a number of cases it results in lower response than that predicted by
spatially variable motions. Consequently, spatially variable input motions need to be
applied as excitations at the spatial structure supports.
Keywords: spatially variable ground motion, hybrid spatial structure, vertical regularity,
nonlinear analysis, seismic performance
1 Introduction
During the past two decades, the effect of the spatial variability of earthquake ground
motions on the response of extended structures has been investigated extensively:
Bogdanoff [1] investigated travelling wave effects on the seismic response of structures;
Zerva [2] and Harichandran [3] examined the effect of spatial variability on the response of
bridge models; Zerva [4] studied the quasi-static and dynamic response of bridge models
1801
using different coherency expressions; Harichandran [5] analyzed the response of long-
span bridges to spatially varying excitations; Monti [6] conducted nonlinear seismic
analysis of bridges subjected to multiple support excitations; Price [7] studied an
idealized two-span symmetric beam bridge model to non-uniform excitation; and
Lou [8] analyzed the effects of spatially variable ground motions on the seismic response
of a skewed, multi-span, reinforced concrete highway bridge.
All aforementioned studies indicated that the effects of spatial as well as temporal
variation of earthquake ground motion to be a potentially destructive factor for large
size structures. The multi-support excitation or non-synchronous input can induce a
seismic response very different from that calculated considering the same ground
motion at each support, which are the current practices of seismic structure analysis.
It should be noted that in the past, the effect of spatially ground motion were taken into
account almost concentrate on bridge models, and the large span spatial structures are
hitherto ignored or inadequately taken into account. In addition, when dealing with
analysis model, most of these studies utilize simple models. The present analysis in
attempting to quantify the effect of the spatial variation of seismic ground motions on
the linear elastic and nonlinear inelastic response of realistic large span spatial structure
models, and attempts to investigate the weak point and accumulates the analytical
evidence for establishing related design guidelines for more complex hybrid spatial
structures in the future.
2 Description of the Structure
Steel roof
Y-shaped steel column
RC Frame
Fig. 1: Panorama of Pudong international airport
40.0m
Steel roof
32.205m 32.205m
27.706m 33.941m 33.941m 27.706m
YC-3 YC-3 C-1
YC-1 YC-2 YC-2 19.52m
Y-shaped column 18.472m 13.52m 18.472m 13.52m
10.08m
5.853m Z X3 section 5.92m 9.35m 5.92m Y3 section RC frame
X SRC column 0.08m
1.5m SRC-C1 SRC-C3 2.08m
SRC-C2
1/0A 6.2m 6.6m G H J K 1/K
2/0A A B C D E F
Fig. 2: Elevation and major component of terminal building 2
1802
The target spatial structure considered in this study is terminal building 2 in Shanghai
Pudong international airport as shown in Fig. 1～2. Pudong International Airport has
total floor area of 400 thousand square meters and constitutes a terminal building, a
boarding hall and mass transit stations (Fig. 4). Terminal building 2 consist of 25 planar
frames with 18m spacing. 3 hybrid columns (in 0/1A, A and G axis) and 1 pin-pin
supported steel column (in K axis) serve as horizontal resistance together with beam
string system.
In addition, it is a hybrid structure, in which the Upper steel roof and lower RC frame
are assembled with Y-shaped hybrid columns. Terminal building 2 could be classified
as a vertically irregular structure due to SRC column, Y-shaped steel column and steel
roof along the height. The unique design of its RC frame and Y-shaped steel column
make it become an exceptional structure. Up to now, no Chinese Design Code can be
applied efficiently to this type of structure.
The irregularity and complexity of the structure brings big challenges to engineers,
since their structural behaviours are difficult to predict and analyze.
3 Generation of Spatially Variable Ground Motions

The construction site of the terminal building locates on the irregular topography, and
the alluvium achieves about 300 m in thickness. The construction site of the terminal
belongs to site IV. Fig. 3 shows the site geological profile of the irregular topography.
Thus, the spatial correlation of seismic motion and the effect of irregular topography
should be considered to generate input motion for seismic analysis of the long-span
terminal.
Z
28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
Y
65m
150m 27m 36m 36m 36m 36m 36m 36m 36m 36m 36m 36m 27m 150m
Silt Muddy Clay Clay Sand Represent the input position of the structure
Fig. 3: Geological profile of irregular topography
In this paper, the engineering bedrock is assumed about 65m below the surface of
[9]
irregular topography, and a simplified procedure proposed by Xing , is used to obtain
the response spectrum of the engineering bedrock. The spectrum is then used to
generate the sets of spatially correlative horizontal and vertical seismic motions. The
surface ground motion was calculated under incidence of the spatially correlated
seismic motion by 2D FEM model considering nonlinear properties based on the
equivalent linear method.
As shown in Fig. 3, the length of 2D model is 414 m with 150 m added to each side of
the terminal site, and the 25 nodes corresponding to the positions of structural
foundation are served as the output points of seismic motion. The 2D FEM model is
1803
established by using 4-nodes plane strain element of ANSYS. According to the

condition that the dimension of FEM mesh should be less than 1/8 wavelength, the
length of mesh is taken as 3 m, and the height of mesh about 1–2m. In order to certify
the stability of the computing process, the time length is taken as 0.01 s.
The FEM analysis of wave travelling problem must make the artificial boundary to
simulate the propagating of wave into far field. By secondary development of ANSYS,
Viscous-elastic boundary is widely applied in this study by using elements of damping
and spring.
[10]
A simulation method of spatial correlative ground motion is proposed by Hao based
on the studies of random vibration theory and SMART-1 station record.
The analysis section and the supports subjected to spatially variable ground motions
were shown in Fig. 4～5.
The time histories of ground motions at some supports based on the frequent 7 and
seldom 7 levels are selected and shown in Fig. 6 and 7. The Comparison of the
acceleration spectra with the code of Shanghai are illustrated in Fig.8.
Connectiong corridor
Airport lounge
Terminal building 2
Overhead road
Analysis section
Fig.4: The analysis section in the present study
36
37
38
Axis-Y
39
40
41
42 X
Y
1/0A 2/0A A B C 1/C D 0/D E 2/E F G H J K 1/K
Axis-X
Fig. 5: The supports subjected to spatially variable ground motions of terminal 2
building
1804
0.04
36-1/0A
0
-0.04
0.04
38-A
Acceleration (g)
-0.04
0.04
40-F
0
-0.04
0.04
42-K
0
-0.04
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (s)
Fig. 6: Simulated spatially variable ground motions at some supports at the level of
frequent 7
0.25
36-1/0A
0
-0.25
0.25
38-A
Acceleration (g)
-0.25
0.25
40-F
0
-0.25
0.25
42-K
0
-0.25
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (s)
Fig. 7: Simulated spatially variable ground motions at some supports at the level of
seldom 7
0.12 0.12
36-1/0A 40-F
38-A 42-K
0.1 Code of Shanghai 0.1 Code of Shanghai
Response spectrum (g)
Response spectrum (g)
0.08 0.08
0.06 0.06
0.04 0.04
0.02 0.02
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Period (s) Period (s)
Fig. 8: Comparison of the acceleration spectra with the code of Shanghai Code
1805
4 FE Model of the Hybrid Spatial Structure

4.1 Customer developed material subroutine in ABAQUS
Many different models have been proposed so far for the stress-strain relationship of the
material used in an RC member. In general, for each material the model for the
monotonic response of the material serves as the envelope curve for the hysteretic
behaviour model.
Numerous tests have shown that the monotonic stress-strain curve for reinforcing steel
can be described by three well-defined branches. This is generally the case for
approximately all kinds of the reinforcing steel used in RC members. Moreover,
Concrete is composed of two parts, confined concrete and cover concrete. Various
models have been proposed to model the stress-strain relationship of confined and in
turn unconfined concrete. The model employed in theoretical predictions plays a basic
role in the compatibility of the data with the test results. Each model seems to have
efficiency for a specific situation, while not for others. The models as shown in Figure 9
are used in the present paper. The typical hysteretic response of the cover and confined
concrete when subjected to reverse loading is plotted in Figure 10.
 
f cc
Confined concrete
f su
Ec
E sh
fy f co Cover concrete
Es
Esec
y  sh  su   co 2 co  cc  cu 
Fig. 9: Model for monotonic response of the steel and concrete

40 60
50
30
Stress (Mpa)
Stress (Mpa)
40
20 30
20
10
10
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
Strain x 10
-3
Strain
Fig. 10: Typical hysteretic response of the cover and confined concrete
4.2 FE model of terminal 2 building
3D beam elements are selected for the beams and columns, and shell elements are used
for the floor slab, respectively. Detailed information of the analytical model is listed in
Table 1. The Full analytical FE model is illustrated in Fig.11.
1806
Table 1: Information of the finite element model
Model information Beam elements Link elements Shell elements Nodes
Number 8785 764 4576 11957
Fig. 11: Full analytical FE model of terminal building 2
5 Response of Structure to Spatially Variable Ground Motions

5.1 Dynamic characteristics of the structure
Table 2 lists the analytical results of the first three frequencies. In addition, the
comparisons between the analytical results with those results extrapolated from the
shaking table test are also presented. Due to the complexity of the structure, they are
agreeing with each other in an acceptance level.
Table 2: Experimental and analytical results of the prototype structure
Mode Experiment (Hz) Numerical analysis (Hz) Error

1 0.594 0.574 3.37%
2 0.891 0.801 10.1%
3 1.018 0.984 3.34%
5.2 The cases of excitation and strategy of the comparison of the seismic response
According to China code, frequent, basic and seldom occurrences represent three peak
levels of ground motions with intensity less than, equal to and higher than the design
intensity, respectively. Three different requirements related to the three levels, are set to
evaluate the overall capacity of structure under corresponding intensity. Since the
seismic design intensity in Shanghai is specified as 7, the analysis is carried out in two
phases representing frequent and seldom occurrences of seismic design intensity 7. The
1807
peak value of acceleration is 0.035 and 0.20g, respectively. In addition, in the analysis,
the slab was assumed to be elastic and the damping ratio to be 0· 035.
Two cases of ground motions were considered in present paper and described hereafter:
(1) Uniform excitations at the level of frequent and seldom 7 level;
(2) Multiple excitations at the level of frequent and seldom 7 level;
Node_Yc3_A Node_Yc3_G
Node_Yc1 Node_C1
Node_Yc2_A Node_Yc2_G
E_Yc2_A E_Yc3_A E_Yc3_G E_Yc2_G

E_Yc1
Node_Yc1
SRC-3
Z
SRC-2
SRC-1 X
1/0A A G K
Fig. 12: Typical node and element in the axis 39
The typical nodes and elements as shown in Fig.12 are selected in the next comparisons,
and the value shown in the following formulation is defined as the index:
Maximum value induced by multiple excitation  Maximum value induced by uniform excitation
 100% (1)
Maximum value induced by uniform excitation
It should be noted that the case 1 is a general procedure in almost all current codes.
Comparing the seismic response induced by case 2 with the case 1, the effects of
spatially variable can be assessed accurately.
5.3 Level of Frequent Seismic Intensity 7
In this case, the generated spatially variable ground motions in section 3 at the level of
frequent seismic intensity 7 are inputted at each supports. The typical time histories of
displacement and internal force are plotted in Fig. 13～15.
It is clear from the figures that the times histories is quite similar but not the same due
to the incoherency of the ground motions.
100
Displacement (mm)
Uniform input
Multiple input
-100
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (s)
100
Displacement (mm)
Uniform input
Multiple input
-100
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (s)
Fig.13: Time history of displacement at N_Yc1 and N_Yc3_G
1808
Bending Moment (kNm) 1000

Uniform Input
Multiple Input
0
-1000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (s)
1000
Uniform Input
Axial Force (kN)
Multiple Input
0
-1000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (s)
Fig.14: Time history of internal force at E_Yc2_A

1000
Bending Moment (kNm)
Uniform Input
Multiple Input
0
-1000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (s)
1000
Uniform Input
Axial Force (kN)
Multiple Input
0
-1000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (s)
Fig.15: Time history of internal force at E_Yc3_G
Table 3: Comparison of Drift Ratio
Input Cases SRC-1 SRC-2 SRC-3 YC1 YC2-A YC3-A YC2-G YC3-G C1
Uni_input 1/1017 1/2199 1/1619 1/213 1/242 1/237 1/272 1/254 1/193
Mul_input 1/898 1/1849 1/1241 1/207 1/230 1/230 1/265 1/236 1/206
 13.25 18.92 30.45 2.89 5.21 3.04 2.64 7.62 -6.31
Table 4: Comparison of Bending moment ( kN  m )
Input Cases YC1 YC2-A YC3-A YC2-G YC3-G

Uni_input 906.5 986.6 1103.8 766.2 876.7
Mul_input 984.8 966.9 1063.5 791.2 858.3
 8.63 -1.99 -3.65 3.26 -2.09
Table 5: Comparison of Axial forces (kN)

Uni_input 313.5 889.9 973.4 430.2 527.4
Mul_input 322.2 888.8 983.8 414.7 645.6
 2.77 -0.12 1.06 -3.60 22.41
1809
Table 6: Comparison of Torsional Response
Input Cases X3-Section Y3-Section Steel Roof

Uni_input 1/9437 1/11906 1/5575
Mul_input 1/5707 1/8019 1/3864
 65.35 48.47 48.91
The maximum value of the drift ratio, internal force and torsional angel are illustrated in
the Table 3～6. Meanwhile, the value of  are also calculated and shown in the given
tables.
It is shown in Table 3 that the response of drift ratio is quite different between the SRC
columns and the Y-shaped steel column due to the irregular distribution of the vertical
stiffness. In addition, almost all the  grater than 0 and the biggest  value can reach
30%, which illustrate the harmful effects induced by the spatially variable ground
motions.
The similar phenomenon can be found in the table 4 and 5. It is important to notice that
even in the torsional response as shown in Table 6. The value of  can reach 65.35%,
which indicate the traditional uniform input will underestimate the trosional response
for such spatial structures greatly. The existence of this phenomenon is due to the
irregular structural layout and the non-uniformity of the ground motions.
5.4 Level of Seldom Seismic Intensity 7
In this case, the generated spatially variable ground motions in section 3 at the level of
seldom seismic intensity 7 are inputted at each supports. The typical time histories of
displacement and internal force are plotted in Fig. 16～18. The maximum value of the
drift ratio, internal force, torsional angel and  are illustrated in the Table 7～10.
1000
Displacement (mm)
Uniform input
Multiple input
-1000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (s)
1000
Displacement (mm)
Uniform input
Multiple input
-1000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (s)
Fig. 16: Time history of displacement at N_Yc1 and N_Yc3_G
1810
Bending Moment (kNm) 5000

Uniform Input
Multiple Input
0
-5000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (s)
2000
Uniform Input
Axial Force (kN)
Multiple Input
0
-2000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (s)
Fig. 17: Time history of internal force at E_Yc2_A

10000
Bending Moment (kNm)
Uniform Input
Multiple Input
5000
-5000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (s)
10
Axial Force (kN*103)
Uniform Input
Multiple Input
0
-10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (s)
Fig. 18: Time history of internal force at E_Yc3_G
Table 7: Comparison of Drift Ratio
Input Cases SRC-1 SRC-2 SRC-3 YC1 YC2-A YC3-A YC2-G YC3-G C1
Uni_input 1/382 1/1367 1/1758 1/51 1/30 1/30 1/31 1/31 1/26
Mul_input 1/406 1/965 1/1060 1/36 1/27 1/27 1/29 1/28 1/23
 -5.91 41.65 65.84 41.66 11.11 11.11 6.89 10.71 13.0
Table 8: Comparison of Bending moment ( kN  m )

Uni_input 3048.3 5184.8 6899.3 4646.9 5350.7
Mul_input 3347.1 5202.7 7068.5 4714.4 5736.7
 9.80 0.34 2.45 1.45 7.21
Table 9: Comparison of Axial forces (kN)

Uni_input 1542.8 4764.2 5246.8 1774.2 1996.2
Mul_input 1556.3 5098.2 5512.2 1882.1 2132.3
 0.87 7.01 5.05 6.08 6.81
1811
Table 10: Comparison of Torsional Response
Input Cases X3-Section Y3-Section Steel Roof

Uni_input 1/1501 1/5957 1/1426
Mul_input 1/694 1/1153 1/463
 116.28 416.65 207.99
The similar conclusion can be drawn as the level of seldom seismic intensity 7, but the
value of  is larger than the level of frequent seismic intensity 7, which means that the
effects of the spatially variable ground motions are more significant in the case of
nonlinearity.
6 Summary
Computations were performed to investigate the effects of spatially variable ground
m

Proceedings of The IASS Symposium 2010, Shanghai PDF

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Proceedings of The IASS Symposium 2010, Shanghai PDF

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Proceedings

Editors: Qilin ZHANG, Lianping YANG, Yuyin HU

China Architecture & Building Press

The New Structuralism …………… 757

Membrane Structures -Environment and Technology

Keywords: Membrane, Environment, Structural-safety, Heat-insulation

2 Membrane structures and regional environment

of luxury. New membrane structure technology needs to be understood so that there is

3 Heat insulation and interior brightness of membrane structures

(Open dome: without external walls)

▪ Translucent thermal insulation materials such as mineral fiberous insulating material

4 Structural safety of membrane structures

4.1 Cases of actual damages/failures of membrane structures

4.1.1 Cases of heavy snow fall : Ponding problems

Wind Drifted snow

4.1.2 Cases of Typhoon

・Falling glass chips.

(Case 1: Internal pressure)

(Case 2: Falling objects/debris on membrane surface)

Fig.4-5: Propagated rips Fig. 4-6 :A glass chip penetrates membrane

(Case 4: Deterioration of membrane materials due to abrasion)

4.2 Problems of membrane fabric materials considered the cause of failures

The winding-type clamping part is used,

When the loading ratio (Continuous

Fig.4-12:Creep rupture curve

Strength retention rate %

Fig.4-14:Strength retention rate of Typical PVC coated polyester fabric

Personal experiences in Structural Architecture: from form

Keywords: structural architecture, wide span structures, reliability, experimental

Fig. 2: 1973 IBM 2250 - 2010 PC Windows XP

Fig. 3: Form Finding for cable and membrane structures

2 The IASS tradition: morphology and structural analysis

Now we live in the era of «language metamorphosis», as it was called by E. Benvenuto

3 Some experiences in Theoretical & Experimental analysis of Spatial

Fig. 5: Dynamic analysis in T domain Fig. 6: Wind Velocity Simulation [18]

- the snow distribution and accumulations on large covering areas in function of

Fig. 7: Montreal Olympic Stadium. A Fig. 8: Comparative analysis of snow loading

Cable Deformation Standard Deviation c 5

d -0.30000 -0.20000 -0.10000 0.00000 0.10000 0.20000 0.30000 0.40000

- the wind pressure distribution on large areas considering theoretical and

Results and specifications:

And some problems detected during global forces measurements:

The aerodynamic behaviour shows a clear shedding phenomenon [ 15 ] [ 16 ]. The

Fig. 17: Relative contribution of Fig. 18: Taps location

- the local and global structural static and dynamic stability;

- reliability and safety factors of new hi-tech composite materials;

Fig. 25: Graphic representation of stresses

4 Some experiences in Structural conceptual design and realizations

Some typical gridworks [18]

Typologies of cable structures [19]

Convertible roofs [26]

4 Actual trends in Structural Architecture: the Free Form Design

“Halfway through the journey we are living

Fig. 26: IT(Informatics Technology) resources for FFD

Phenomenological uncertainty may be considered to arise whenever the form of

Fig. 27: Some actual examples of Free-Form-Design

 As shown in Fig. 28, the use of conventional steel profiles, conceived to be

 An interesting contribute to generate structural composite steel plated elements able

 ULS verification of free form member steel sections.

 Structural optimization methods to increase reliability in FFD. An optimization

Topology optimization: initial solution

Topology optimization. Final result

Combined optimization. Final result