FORWARD LINK CODE CHANNELS

Code Channels.

A code channel is a stream of data designated for a specific use or pe rson and is separated
A channel may be for voice, data or overhead control data.
by a code.

Pilot

The pilot channel is continuously transmitted. The mobile uses the pilot signal to acquire
the system. After the mobile has acquired the system, the pilot is used for a signal
strength measurement

The pilot contains no information but is essential for system acquisition and is the
strongest signal on the forward link. In a fully loaded cell the pilot will be 20 percent of
the total transmitted power.

Sync

The sync channel is constantly transmitted, providing critical timing information to the
mobile.
The mobile will decode the sync channel message during the power up sequence.
Once the mobile is synchronized with the base station the sync channel is ignored.
Paging Channel
The paging channel is used to transmit overhead information (that is, commands and
pages) to the mobile.
When a call is being set up the commands and traffic channel assignment are sent on the
paging channel.
Once a traffic channel is established, the mobile ignores the paging channel.

Forward Traffic
The forward traffic channel is used to pass voice and data after a call has been
established.

REVERSE LINK CODE CHANNELS

Access Channel
The access channel is used by the mobile when not assigned to a traffic channel.
The access channel is used by the mobile to register with the network, originate calls,
respond to pages and commands from the base station, and transmit overhead messages
to the base Station

Reverse Traffic Channel

The reverse traffic channel is used when there is a call. Voice or data to be transmitted to
BTS.

CDMA(IS-95) architecture does not use separate channel for Signaling.

The signaling bits are sent on the same traffic Channel on which the conversation
continues.

CALL PROCESSING STATES

Initialization State
• Mobile acquires system via Pilot code channel. Mobile synchronizes with system via
Sync code channel.
Idle State
• Mobile obtains overhead information via the Paging code channel.
• The mobile will periodically monitor the Paging code channel for mobile
directed messages and commands.
• The mobile goes into a sleep mode when not monitoring the Paging code channel.
The mobile receives messages on the Paging code channel only when it is NOT using
a Traffic code channel.
Access State
• Mobile accesses the network via the Access code channel while listening for
acknowledgement on the Paging code channel

• The mobile may transmit on the Access code channel for registration, during call
setup, or other mobile-directed messages.

• The mobile transmits on the Access code channel only when it is NOT using a
Traffic code channel.

Traffic State

Land-to-mobile call – when an individual places a call to someone with a mobile, the
mobile will receive a page on the Paging Channel .The mobile responds on the Access
Channel, and Traffic Channels are established.

Mobile-to-land call – when an individual places a call from a mobile, a message goes out
on the Access Channel requesting service.
The base station responds on the Paging Channel and Traffic Channels are established.
Features of CDMA

Frequency Reuse

Cell Interference
It is important to understand the interference caused due to improper frequency planning.
If cell A and B were on the same frequency in a conventional cellular system, area C
would have a frequency conflict and interference.

With the deployment of a FDMA or TDMA networks, channel (frequency) reuse is

required.

In the FDMA and TDMA systems adjacent cells can not use the same channel
(frequency) because there will be interference which can severely affect the system.

It results in using 7 Cell cluster for FDMA or

TDMA .
That means that all the cells shall be using different frequencies
FDMA and TDMA Frequency Planning

Frequency Reuse of 7 : To avoid conflict between cells, FDMA and TDMA

systems use a reuse factor of seven (six cells surrounding each cell cannot use the same
frequency). Adjacent cells will be assigned to separate channels (frequencies).
As capacity requirements increase, additional clusters will be added to the network.

Cell Separation :
A channel (frequency) can be used again within the network but cells using the same
channel must be separated by an appropriate distance.

CDMA Universal Frequency Reuse

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) has a frequency reuse of one.
Each BTS in the network uses the same frequency, eliminating the need for frequency
planning.
In a CDMA network the capacity of the network can be increased by sectorizing each
cell.
If additional cells are required, then the cell sites can be installed without having to worry
about complex frequency management.
In loaded CDMA networks, additional CDMA carriers can be added by adding
additional hardware to the Base Station Transceiver Subsystem (BTS).

Propagation Characteristics In A Cell Coverage Area

Since all the cell sites use the same frequency and all the mobiles use the same frequency,
the noise level in a CDMA system could quickly become intolerable.

The capacity requirements for a CDMA cell dictates that all the signals from mobiles
arrive at the BTS at the same signal strength. This is not easy because of the following
issues.

• Near-Far Problem –If all mobiles transmitted at the same power level, then the
BTS will only be able to demodulate signals from the closest mobiles.
• The signals from distant mobiles will be over powered.

• Path Loss –The greater the distance between the BTS and a mobile, the weaker
the received signal becomes.
• Fading and Shadowing –Fading occurs when two or more signals from the same
transmitter are received due to multi-path. Each signal arrives with a slight time
delay causing a cancellation of other signals.
• Shadowing occurs when the signal from the transmitter is blocked by buildings or
terrain.
• When this occurs the only usable signal is a multi -path signal that will be
significantly weaker.
Power Control

The objective of power control is to ensure that signals from all mobiles are received at
the Base Station with the same received power. The CDMA network independently
controls the power of each mobile.

Reverse Link Power Control

Open Loop

Open loop is an estimate of what power the phone should use to transmit.
The estimate is determined based on the strength of the mean signal power received by
the mobile.

Fast Closed Loop

Fast closed loop is used when there is a call.
The network will send a command to the mobile to either increase or decrease power.
The command is determined on the quality of the information received at the BTS. Power
control commands are sent to the mobile 800 times per second.

Forward Link Power Control

The BTS independently adjusts the power for each forward traffic channel based on
information received from the mobile.
Multi path Effect

What Is Multi-path?
Multi paths are similar to echoes.
Transmitted signals may take a direct path to the mobile (the shortest distance).
The signal may also bounce off objects before arriving at the receiving antenna. The
bouncing signals travel a longer distance before arriving at the receiver. This distance has
a time delay when compared to other received signals.
There will be several signals at the receiver with different time delays. Each signal carries
the same information and is referred to as a multi-path.

Effects of Multi-path Signals

Multi-path signals are narrow band signals, such as FDMA and TDMA, may cause a
loss of the signal.

This loss of signal is caused by the time delay of the same signal. The time-delayed
signal cancels the other signals and may cause the call to drop.

Multi path signals are used to increase the quality of the signal in cdmaOneTM systems.

This is possible because cdmaOne™ systems have a wideband signal.

This gives cdmaOne™ systems an advantage over narrow band systems. This advantage
is exploited by use of a Rake Receiver.

CDMA Advantage

• Better voice quality

• Reduced power requirement to maintain link

Rake Receivers
The rake receiver is multiple receivers in one. There is a rake receiver at both the mobile
and BTS. Each receiver may be assigned to a received signal.

The cdmaOne ™ systems have the advantage of both a wideband signal (1.25 MHz) and
a frequency reuse of one.
These advantages allow for multiple received signals at both the BTSs and the mobiles.
Each received signal is independently demodulated by a receiver. The demodulated
signals are then combined, reducing the errors.

This reduction in errors will have a corresponding reduction in the power required.
The lower power used results in a decrease in the level of interference, resulting in an
increase in the system capacity.

The Rake Receiver has a Searcher that is continuously seeking both strong pilot signals
and multi-path signals associated with the traffic channel.
The Rake Receiver allows the subscriber to perform a soft handoff.
Handoffs
As the phone moves through a network, the system controller will transfer the call from
one cell to another .This process is called handoff .Handoffs may be done with the
assistance of the mobile or the system controller will control the process exclusively.
Why Handoff

• Handoffs are necessary to continue the call as the

phone travels from one cell site to another.

• The term handoff describes the process of

transferring a call from one cell to another.

Break-Before-Make
In a “hard ” handoff, the mobile must disconnect (or
break) its connection with the current cell before
connecting to the new cell.
A “hard ”handoff will also occur when the mobile
moves from the coverage of one network to another .
FDMA and TDMA systems only use this type of
handoff.
cdmaOneTM Traffic Handoffs

The term “soft handoff” is used to describe the

“make-before-break” process, which takes place
while in the Traffic State.
This is possible because CDMA cells use the same
frequency and the mobile uses a Rake Receiver.
A soft handoff process begins while the mobile,
communicating on a traffic channel with one BTS,
detects the strong pilot of an adjacent BTS
It reports the pilot strength to the Base Station
Controller (BSC) .
The base station then establishes a new traffic
channel for the mobile through the new BTS.

• Soft Handoff –involves traffic channels from

more than one BTS

• Softer Handoff –involves traffic channels from

two sectors of one BTS

•Soft/Softer Handoff –involves more than one

BTS and two sectors of one BTS
Advantages of Soft Handoff

• Reduces interference.

• Increases reverse link capacity.

• Reduces dropped calls

• Improves voice quality

Hard Handoff
The term “hard handoff ” is used to describe the
“break-before-make ” process, which takes place
during the Traffic State.
The mobile must break the communications link
before establishing the new connection.

CDMA Hard Handoffs

A hard handoff in a CDMA system may occur when
the mobile is moving from the coverage of one
network to another network.
ADVANTAGE CDMA

The 6 Cs
 Coverage

 Capacity

 Clarity

 Cost

 Compatibility

 Customer Satisfaction
 COVERAGE

FDMA / TDMA / CDMA Coverage

Coverage Issues

Providing adequate coverage is a basic requirement

of a wireless system.
Coverage of a BTS or network is impacted by the
capacity requirements of the system, terrain of the
area, and power of the base station and mobiles.
CDMA Advantage
Forward and reverse link power control helps a
CDMA network to dynamically expand the coverage
area.
Under line of sight conditions CDMA has a 1.7 to 3
times more coverage than TDMA.
FDMA
CAPACITY

CDMA Capacity with 8k Vocoder

For cellular and PCS, a CDMA system may have a
capacity of 22 simultaneous calls per sector.
When the BTS has 3 sectors 66 simultaneous calls
can be accommodated on 1.25 MHz of spectrum.

For wireless local loop, a CDMA system may have a

capacity of 45 simultaneous calls per sector.

When the BTS has 3 sectors 135 simultaneous calls

can be accommodated on 1.25 MHz of spectrum.
CDMA Capacity with 13k Vocoder

14 simultaneous calls per sector.

When the BTS has 3 sectors 42 simultaneous calls

can be accommodated.

For wireless local loop, 30 simultaneous calls per

sector.

When the BTS has 3 sectors 90 simultaneous class

can be accommodated.
FDMA capacity
An FDMA system can have only 6 calls for the same
amount of spectrum used by one CDMA channel.
TDMA capacity
Only 18 calls for the same amount of spectrum
used by one CDMA channel.

CLARITY
What aid better clarity in CDMA
Rake Receiver : Combines multipath and softer
handoff signals to reduce errors.

Variable Rate Vocoder : The dynamic rate of the

vocoder reduces the amount of data transmitted for
each person and reduces the interference.

Soft Hand-off : The soft hand off in CDMA reduces

the interference and power requirements for
maintaining the link.
Multiple received signals can be combined to reduce
the possibility of errors resulting from interference
and fading.
Power Control : Dynamic power control reduces
errors by keeping the power at an optimal level.

Wideband Signal : CDMA’s wideband signals does

not suffer from the same effects of fading experience
in an FDMA or TDMA system.
Encoding and Interleaving : Strong encoding and
interleaving reduces the effects of fading.
COST

Cost Comparison

What Makes CDMA Cheaper

Cell Coverage

Because of increased coverage for each BTS in a

wireless network, fewer BTSs are required in the
network to cover a given area.
More Subscribers

CDMA can support more subscribers in a system,

increasing the service providers revenue potential.

More coverage and more capacity mean lesser

number of cell sites, lesser hardware and lesser
technical & maintenance staff which lead to lesser
overall cost.

COMPATIBILITY.

CDMA 2000 is backward compatible with cdma One

networks as both use the same RF band.

Change from TDMA network to CDMA network is

cheaper for the operator as the change over can be
implemented using the existing back bone
infrastructure.

CUSTOMER SATISFACTION