'

I1 X I2

'
V1 V2

In other words, the transformer can be replaced by an equivalent impedance, or just

an equivalent reactance.
3. PER-UNIT (P.U.) SYSTEM
• Power transmission lines are operated at very high voltage levels (kilovolts). Due
to the large amount of power transmitted, megawatts & megavoltamps are
commonly-used terms!
• It therefore would be more meaningful to scale down all physical values of , A,
kV, MVA, MW using scaling factors called based values. For example, if a base
voltage of 100 kV is selected, then physical system voltages of 80 kV, 110 kV &
100 kV become 80 , 110 & 100 per unit respectively!
100 100 100

15
• The per-unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of the actual quantity to
an “arbitrarily” chosen value (base or reference) of the same dimensions.
physical quanity
 Quantity in per unit =
base value
physical quantity
& Quantity in percent =  100
base value
• Percent system should be used with caution (due to mult. factor of 100)
• Per-unit system is preferred in power system calculations as it offers the
following advantages :

Advantages of Per-unit System

• Analysis is greatly simplified, e.g. all impedances of a given equivalent CKT can
be directly added without considering system voltages.
• Use of “3” is eliminated! The base values account for these easily.
• Manufacturers of electrical equipment usually specify the impedance in per unit
or percent of nameplate ratings.

16
• Electrical machines & transformers have widely varying internal impedances with
size & rating. However, it turns out that in the p.u. system, these impedances fall
within a fairly narrow range. Hence, if the actual impedance of a machine is not
known, its per unit value can be easily assigned!
• Circuit analyst is relieved of the worry of referring quantities to one side or other
side of transformer, especially in large networks containing many transformers of
different turns ratios.
Eliminates the possible cause of making serious calculation mistakes!
• P.U. values are more convenient in simulating machine systems on digital
computers.
Significant advantage : Per unit impedance of transformer is the same on both sides
of the transformer!
Per Unit (p.u.) Quantities in 3-phase Power System
 There are 4 base values
1. Power base Sb, usually in MVA.
2. Impedance base Zb, usually in OHMS.
3. Current base Ib, usually in A.
4. Voltage base Vb, usually in kV.
17
 In 3-phase systems, usually
 S, P, Q are three-phase powers in MVA, MW & MVAr respectively
 Voltages considered are line-to-line values
 Currents considered are line values
 Impedances considered are phase values of equivalent star (Y) configuration
(This means that all impedances in  must be converted to equivalent Y
value in , before converting to its p.u. value)
 The 4 base values (Sb, Zb, Ib & Vb) are related as follows :
Vb I b
Sb  3 MVA (1)
1000
where Vb is line-to-line base voltage in kV & Ib is the line current in AMPS.
Sb  1000
 Ib  (2)
3  Vb

(Vb / 3)
Next, Zb   1000  (3)
Ib

18
 Vb
Note : is the phase voltage of the equivalent Y system.
3
Substituting (2) in (3), we get :
(Vb / 3)
Zb   1000
 Sb  1000 
 
 3  V b 

Vb 2
 Zb   (4)
Sb
• From the above, it is clear that we need to select only 2 base values, instead of all 4.
For example, if Sb & Vb are selected, then Ib & Zb can be calculated using equations
(2) & (4) respectively!
• Vb (and consequently Zb & Ib too) changes from transformer primary to secondary
as follows :
Vb (primary) No. of turns (primary)

Vb (sec ondary) No. of turns (secondary)
N1
 (line  to  line turns ratio, a)
N2
19
• Per unit values of Z, R, X & I are the same on either side of the transformer, but the
actual values are not!
 Per unit quantities can now be evaluated as :
Z() I(AMPS)
Zp.u.  ; I p.u.  ;
Z b () I b (AMPS)
V(kV) P(MW)
Vp.u.  ; Pp.u. 
Vb (kV) Sb (MVA)
 If necessary, actual voltages/currents/ohms etc. can also be obtained as :
Actual value = Base value  p.u. value
General Guidelines for Obtaining P.U. Values
Objective : To reduce the number of computations by selecting suitable values for
Vb & Sb.
• Base MVA (Sb) is the same for all parts of the system. Normally Sb in MVA is used.
• Base kV (Vb) is selected in one part of the system; for other parts base kV is
obtained according to the line-to-line voltage ratios of transformers.

20
• Base impedances will be different in different parts of the system.
• In general, the p.u. (or %) impedances of electrical equipment are specified in
terms of their own MVA & kV ratings. These values need to be converted to the
system bases selected in (1) & (2) above. This conversion is done using the
following formula :
Z
Zp.u. NEW  ACTUAL
Zb NEW

ZACTUAL
Zp.u. OLD 
Zb OLD

Manufacturer’s base (Equipment base)
where : Zb NEW = Base impedance selected in that part of the system where this
component is placed
(Vb NEW ) 2
=  these are base values in that section
Sb NEW
(Vb OLD ) 2
& Zb OLD   these are component bases/ratings
Sb OLD

21
 Zp.u. NEW Zb OLD (Vb OLD ) 2 / Sb OLD
  
Zp.u. OLD Zb NEW (Vb NEW ) 2 / Sb NEW
2
V  S 
 Zp.u. NEW  Zp.u. OLD   b OLD    b NEW  (*)
 Vb NEW   Sb OLD 
Example 1 : A component rated for 13.2 kV, 30 MVA & with Z = 0.2 p.u. (on its
own ratings) is placed in a power system portion where Vb = 13.8 kV
& Sb = 50 MVA. What is the new p.u. Z of the component?
Here, Sb NEW = 50 Sb OLD = 30
Vb NEW = 13.8 Vb OLD = 13.2
Zp.u. OLD = 0.2 Zp.u. NEW = ?
2
13.2   50 
 Zp.u. NEW  0.2        0.306 p.u.
13.8   30 
• If a transformer impedance is given in p.u., then this value is based on the MVA
rating of the transformer.
 Use equation in (*) above to convert this given p.u. to the new p.u. on the
system base kVA, Sb.

22
• If the Sb (base MVA) is not specified (and that is usually the case), the system
component that has the largest MVA rating is chosen to give us the base MVA.
Occasionally, a nice round number such as 100 MVA is selected as the base MVA!
Example 2 : For the power system shown below,
(i) Find appropriate voltage bases by selecting Vb = 18 kV at the
generator terminals.
(ii) Find all impedances in p.u. Use Sb = 100 MVA.
TR 2
b
TR 1 400 MVA
250 MVA 345/230 kV
18 kV GEN a
X = 18% TR 3 X = 10%
250 MVA c
18/345 kV 200 MVA
X = 15% 345/138 kV
X = 10%
Solution : Given Vb, GEN = 18 kV (generator circuit)
Base voltage at point a = Vb, a
345
= Vb, GEN   345 kV 23
18
 230
Base voltage at point b = Vb, b  Vb, a  = 230 kV
345
138
Finally, base voltage at point c = Vb, c  Vb, a  = 138 kV
345
Next, assuming a power base of Sb = 100 MVA, let us find all the impedances in p.u.
2
V  S
ZGEN,NEW p.u.  ZGEN,OLD p.u.   b OLD,GEN   b NEW
 Vb,GEN  Sb OLD,GE
2
 18   100 
 0.18        0.072 p.u.
 18   250 
2
V   S 
ZTR1,NEW p.u.  ZTR1,OLD p.u.   b OLD,TR1    b NEW 
 Vb,GEN   Sb OLD,TR1 

Calculated on the primary side
2
18   100 
 0.15     
18   250 
 0.06 p.u.
24
 2
 Vb OLD,TR2   Sb NEW 
ZTR 2,NEW p.u. = ZTR2,OLD p.u.     
 V b,a   Sb OLD,TR2 

Calculated on the primary side

2
 345   100 
 0.10   
 345   400 

 0.025 p.u.

2
V   100 
ZTR3,NEW p.u.  ZTR3,OLD p.u.   b OLD,TR3    
 Vb,a   200 

Calculated on the primary side

2
 345   1 
 0.10     
 345  2
 0.05 p.u.

25
 Vb = 18 kV Vb = 345 kV Vb = 230 kV
b

X = 0.072 p.u. X = 0.025 p.u.

GEN a Vb = 138 kV
X = 0.06 p.u. c

X = 0.05 p.u.
Vb = 345 kV
Example 3 :
Transformer
Load
x y Feeder c 10 MVA
Supply in ZF = (0.726 + j0.847)  0.8 pf lag
per phase 11 kV
60 MVA
33/11 kV
Y/
ZT = (0.2723 + j0.726)  per phase (Referred to H.V. side)
Calculate the input & output line voltages of the 3- transformer i.e. voltages at x and y.
Solution : Let base MVA = Sb = 60 MVA (constant throughout the system)`

26
Transformer H.V. side
Base kV, Vb x = 33 kV (assumed)
Vb x 2 332
Zb primary of trans. = Zb x =   18.15   Zb pri
Sb 60
ZT actual pri 0.2723  j0.726
 ZT p.u.    0.015  j0.04  0.042769.44 p.u.
Zb pri 18.15
Transformer L.V. side
11
Base kV = Vb y = Vb x =11 kV
33
(Vb y ) 2 112
 Zb y    2.017 
Sb 60
Z () 0.726  j0.847
 ZF p.u.  F  = 0.36 + j0.42 = 0.5532 49.4 p.u.
Zb y 2.017
 Total impedance
ZTOT p.u.= ZT p.u. + ZF p.u. = 0.593550.81 p.u.
SLoad = 10 MVA, 0.8 pf lag = 1036.87o MVA
27
 SLoad 1036.87
 SLoad p.u.    0.166736.87 p.u.
Sb 60
VLoad 11
VLoad  11 kV  VLoad p.u.    1.00o p.u.
V b c 11
 Load current
SLoad p.u. 0.166736.87
*
I Load p.u.    0.166736.87 p.u.
VLoad p.u. 10
 I Load p.u. = 0.1667 -36.87o p.u.
 Voltage at the L.V. side of transformer
Vy p.u. = (ILoad p.u.)(ZF p.u.) + VLoad p.u.
= (0.1667-36.87)(0.553249.4) + 10 = 1.091.05 p.u.
Actual voltage Vy = Vy p.u. x Base voltage at y = 1.09 x 11 kV ~ 12 kV
Finally, voltage at H.V. side of transformer
Vx p.u. = (ZT p.u.)(ILoad p.u.) + Vy p.u.
= (0.042769.44)(0.1667-36.87) + 1.091.05 = 1.09631.24 p.u.
Actual voltage, Vx = Vx p.u. x Base voltage at x
= 1.0963 x 33 = 36.18 kV
28