Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
–Unit 1
Laws and Practices
Related to Librarianship
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Retired librarians can be members of the board if they are still active in the practice of librarianship.
Furthermore, under RA 9246, age is no longer one of the qualifications of members of the board. Under RA 6966, a
librarian must be at least 40 years of age at the time of appointment.
The chairperson and members of the board shall hold office for a term of three (3) years renewable for
another term of three (3) years but in no case shall the whole term exceed six (6) years. The members, like in other
regulatory boards are selected though the provision in Executive Order (EO) No. 496, s. 1991, which instituted
procedures and criteria for the selection and the recommendation of nominees for appointment to vacant positions
in the Professional Regulatory Board.
The PRB for Librarians embody their decisions and actions in the exercise of its powers and functions
through Board Resolutions. The Implementing Rules and Regulations (IRR) of RA 9246 is the first PRB for
Librarians Resolution issued in 2004. Incumbent members of PRB for Librarians are:
Perla Garcia (Chairman)
Cora Nera
Elizabeth Peralejo
2.6 RA 8047
On June 7, 1995, RA 8047, the Book Publishing Development Act was signed into law. The law is geared
at promoting the growth and development of book publishing. It envisions the promotion of book readership among
Filipinos, particularly the young through book fairs, exhibits, or programs which enhances literacy and good
reading habits.
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To pass the licensure examination, an examinee must obtain a weighted general average (WGA) of 75%
with no grade lower than 50% in any subject.
In RA 6966, there is no grade requirement in its provision, instead it was provided in its IRR – WGA of
75% and a disqualifier of below 60%. Further, the new law deleted the provision on repeaters under RA 6966,
which was 3 to 4 times.
The percentage distribution of the licensure examination is indicated in the IRR of RA 9246. On the other
hand, the weighted general average of passing grades for candidates for professional librarians is indicated in RA
9246 itself.
3.5 Registration Without Examination
Sec. 19 of RA 9246 which state that “upon application and payment of the required fees, certificates of
registration will be issued without the necessity of licensure examination to qualified applicants,” is a grandfather
clause. A grandfather clause is a provision in a new law or regulation exempting those already in or part of the
existing system which is being regulated.
The Board shall issue a Certificate of Registration and Professional Identification Card without
examination to an applicant who, on the date of effectivity of RA 6966, is:
a practicing librarian who has completed at least a bachelor’s degree and a librarian or supervising
librarian eligible;
a practicing librarian who has completed at least a bachelor’s degree, eighteen (18) units of library
science, five (5) years experience in librarianship, and a first grade eligible or its equivalent;
a practicing librarian who has completed a masteral degree in Library Science or Library and
Information Science, and a first grade eligible or its equivalent; or,
a practicing librarian who has completed at least a bachelor’s degree, eighteen (18) units of library
science, and seven (7) years experience in librarianship.
Qualification must have been present on December 5, 1990 (effectivity date of RA 6966). Application to avail of
this section is three years from the effectivity of this law on March 16, 2004. The first three are also those qualified
under RA 6966, and the fourth are those who were left out under RA 6966 because they are not civil service
eligible.
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5.2 CONSAL
The Congress of Southeast Asian Librarians (CONSAL) was formed in August 1970. CONSAL convenes
a general conference at least once in three (3) years in each member country by rotation. In 2006, CONSAL XIII
will be held in Manila. Likewise, CONSAL II and VII were held in the Philippines.
The following are the present members of CONSAL:
Brunei Philippines
Indonesia Singapore
Laos Thailand
Myanmar Vietnam
Malaysia Cambodia
5.4 NCLIS
The National Commission on Libraries and Information Services (NCLIS) is a committee under the Sub-
Commission on Cultural Heritage of the NCCA which is tasked to formulate policies for the development of
culture and arts by libraries, librarians, and library educators.
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5.5 PLAI
On October 23, 1923, the Philippine Librarians’ Association, Inc. (PLAI) was established. PLAI has a
National Board of Trustees elected by the House of Delegates. Its officers may serve for not more than three terms.
The PLAI Secretariat on the other hand, is responsible in providing administrative and technical support to the
organization, headed by an Executive Officer.
There are two (2) big annual celebration of PLAI mandated:
Proclamation No. 109, s. 1936 designated the period from November 24-30 each year as National
Book Week.
Proclamation No. 837, s. 1931 declared the month of November 1991 and every year thereafter as
“Library and Information Services Month.” Agencies tasked to spearhead this celebration are The
National Library and the National Committee on Library and Information Services (NCLIS) of the
National commission on Culture and Arts (NCCA).
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––––– –Unit 2
Management: Theory and Practice for Library and
Information Science Professionals
Chapter 6 – Defining Management
6.1 What is Management?
6.2 Management – Art or Science?
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measurement of all organizational tasks. Tasks were standardized as much as possible. This approach appeared to
work well for organizations with assembly lines and other mechanistic, routinized activities.
The systems approach is divided into three movements – decision theory movement, general systems
theory movement, and psychological theory movement. The term systems as used here is different from that of
the organization and system movement. Systems approach regards the organization as a total system. This approach
encompasses management science and operations research.
1. Decision theory movement
This is primarily concerned with the study of rational decision-making procedures and the way
managers actually make decisions. This movement introduced mathematical methods and quantitative
models to serve as the basis for all management decisions. Major by-products of decision theory
management are management information systems (MIS) and decision support systems (DSS).
2. General systems theory movement
General systems theory movement integrates knowledge from the biological and physical
sciences.
Ludwig van Bertlanffy is the father of this movement. He was the first to talk about the “system
theory of organisms.” At this point, system refers to a set of elements standing in interrelation among
them and with the environment.
3. Psychological theory movement
Based upon the personality theory, this movement views the human being as a complex organism
metamorphosing through physiological and psychological stages to maturity.
This movement includes contingency approach/management-situational approach.
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Cost – Much time, energy, and money is needed in making group decisions.
Compromise – There is forced compliance to uniformity and majority rule.
Indecision – It is inevitable that there are delays in reaching a final decision because of lengthy
deliberations.
Power – It is possible for one individual to emerge as a leader who can influence the whole or
majority or of the process.
Authority – Groups are frequently used to make decisions beyond their authority and this can cause
delay if the decision is rejected by the managemen
9.2 Organizing
Organizing determines the specific activities necessary to accomplish the planned goals. It is aimed to
group the activities into a logical framework of structure, assigning authority and responsibilities to people for their
accomplishment.
Certain principles are employed in organizing.
Departmentation – This is the basis on which work and individuals are grouped into manageable
units.
Scalar principle of hierarchy – This determines the chain of authority ranging from the ultimate
to the lowest ranks.
Delegation – This is the downward transfer of formal authority from one person to another
within prescribed limits.
Centralization – This indicate that authority is concentrated at the topmost level of the hierarchy
and that most decisions are made by those at the top.
Decentralization – Contrast to centralization, authority to make decisions is pushed down in the
organizational structure.
Line and staff positions – Line positions are responsible and accountable for the organization’s
primary objectives. Staff positions provide advice and support to the line position.
Span of control – This refers to the number of people and/or activities a manager can efficiently
manage.
Unity of command – The main idea here is that every person within the organization should
orders from and report to only one person.
9.3 Staffing
Staffing is the function that involves recruitment, selection, hiring, placement, and development of human
resources required by the organization.
Recruitment – This is a process of attracting the appropriate number of qualified individuals to apply
for vacant positions in an organization. There are three fundamental factors that need to be considered
in this process:
job analysis
job description
source of applicants
Selection – This process follows after recruitment. In this process, information gathering about
the applicants is executed upon the objective of arriving at a decision to hire personnel. Selection has
its very essential elements:
application forms
examinations
interviews
hiring/placement
The staff should be provided with knowledge and skills that are directly related to their responsibilities in
the organization. Training and staff development is a broad range of activities that may include any of the
following:
orientation
on-the-job training
counseling
seminars
workshops on topics as diverse as the techniques of supervision, performance evaluation,
communication, and so on.
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9.4 Directing
Directing is the managerial function that enables managers to communicate with and influence
subordinate towards the achievement of organizational goals. An important ingredient of this function is
motivation – the willingness to exert high levels of effort towards organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s
ability to satisfy some individual needs.
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1. Source – This is the sender of the message. The source has some thought, need, or information to
communicate.
2. Message – The source has to encode the information in some form that can be understood by both
sender and receiver.
3. Channel – This is the link between the source and the receiver.
4. Receiver – This is none other than the recipient of the message.
5. Feedback – This is the receiver’s response and the nature of action carried out by the receiver.
Communication comes in various forms.
Written communication – This form of communication provides a lasting record and
ensures uniformity in matters like policy.
Oral/verbal communication – In this form of communication, there is instant feedback
through which clarifications can be accomplished.
Non-verbal communication – Unwritten or unspoken, this can provide many clues to an
observer. Body language is a particular type.
Communication flows in any of three directions.
Downward – This is the most common type of communication within an organization. It
flows from superiors to subordinates.
Upward – This consists of messages that flow from subordinates to superiors. Most of these
messages ask questions, provide feedback, or make suggestions.
Horizontal – This is the lateral exchange of information within an organization. In
competitive organizations, information is not always shared because the employee who
possesses the information wants to retain a competitive advantage over the others.
9.5 Controlling
Controlling is the function of monitoring performance and undertaking corrective action(s) to assure the
attainment of pre-determined goals and objectives of the organization.
There are several techniques employed in controlling.
1. Evaluation – This identifies areas needing improvement with an aim toward corrective action.
2. Cost-benefit analysis – This is a systematic approach which seeks to
determine whether or not a particular program or proposal is justified,
rank various alternatives appropriate to a given set of alternatives, and
ascertain the course of action needed top attain these objectives.
3. Management information system (MIS) – This is a technical tool to gather data, summarize it, and
present it as an information to be used in the control process and for decision-making.
4. Decision support system (DSS) – As an extension of MIS, it takes advantage of the continuous
development in the database management and modeling arena to offer software that support
computerized decision-making.
5. Operations research – This is an experimental and applied science devoted to observing,
understanding, and predicting the behavior of purposeful systems. Operations researchers are
actively engaged in applying the knowledge to practical problems.
6. Program evaluation and research technique (PERT) – PERT is a method of planning and
scheduling work which involves identifying all the key activities in a particular project, devising
the sequence of activities, and arranging duration of time for the performance of each phase of the
work to be done.
A special part of the controlling function is budgetary control – the method of rationalization whereby
estimates covering different periods of time are, by the study of statistical records and analytical research of all
kinds, established for all, and everything that affects the life of a business concern can be expressed in figures.
There are various techniques in budgeting that an organization can consider. Here are some of them.
1. Line-item budgeting – This is the most common technique. In this technique, the budget is divided
into broad input classes or categories (such as salaries or wages, materials and supplies,
equipment, capitals and expenditures, and miscellaneous), with further subdivisions within these
categories. It can be inflexible, unless the system allows the reallocation in cases where there is
need to do so. This budget is easy to prepare. Most of the allocations are done by simply
projecting current expenditures to next year, taking cost increases into account. However, this
technique has almost no direct correlation with the organization’s objectives.
2. Lump sum – In this technique, there is a certain allocation given by the parent institution to its sub-
units and it is up to the manager of each sub-unit to decide how the sum will be broken into
categories.
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3. Formula budgeting – This uses pre-determined standards for allocation of financial resources. It is
expressed in terms of a percentage of the total institutional budget.
4. Program budgeting – Here, the budget is concerned with a particular program with its set of
activities and not with the individual items or expenditures. It maintains that it is possible to relate
to the programs to accomplishments to time/action objectives or activities that are stated in output
terms in the strategic planning process.
5. Performance budgeting – In this technique, expenditures are based on the performance of activities
and the efficiency of operations. Therefore, it weighs more on quality over quantity of service. It
is based on cost-benefit analysis.
6. Planning Programming Budgeting System (PPBS) – This was developed in the US by Rand
Corporation and was introduced to the Department of Defense by Robert McNamara in 1961.
At that time, President Lyndon B. Johnson directed all government agencies including
government-ran universities and colleges to implement it. By 1965, it was used by all agencies.
The technique combines the best of both program budgeting and performance budgeting. The
emphasis is on planning and evaluation. It begins with the establishment of goals and objectives
and introduces controlling measures. PPBS has the following specific steps:
Identifying the objectives of the organization
Presenting alternative ways to achieve objectives with cost-benefit ratios presented for each
Identifying activities that are necessary for each program
Evaluating the result so that action can be taken
It combines the function of planning (stating objectives), translating into a program, and stating
requirements in budgetary terms (financing). The key to success is the selection of criteria for
evaluating each alternative against relevant objectives.
7. Zero-based budgeting – This focuses on two basic questions:
Are the current activities efficient and effective?
Should current activities be eliminated or reduced to fund higher priority new programs or
to reduce current budget?
It requires organizations to review and evaluate each of their service programs and activities
on the basis of both output measures as well as costs.
9.6 Marketing
Marketing is the analysis, planning, implementation, and control of carefully formulated programs
designed to bring about voluntary exchange of values with target markets for the purpose of achieving the
organization’s objectives. The marketing mix consists of the following:
1. Product – This is the tangible commodity, or the intangible service that an organization offers to its
customers/clients.
2. Price – This refers to the amount of money customers/clients are willing to part with to avail or use a
product or service being offered.
3. Promotion – This is the provision of relevant information to perspective customers/clients to persuade
them to patronize a product/service.
4. Place – This determines the availability in the right direction of an organization’s product/service and
the accessibility of channels of distribution.
Not all library managers probably appreciate the significance of marketing, but that does not invalidate the
premise that this function is central to the library as an organization. If the library is to be a responsive organization,
one whose primary goals relates to satisfying the information needs and wants of its real and potential clients, then
librarians would do well to consider the contribution of a marketing program to the achievement of that goal.
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–Unit 3
Library Management Episode 1:
Academic Libraries
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regulations, but the librarian must see to it that she has control over the minutes. It is very important for the
librarian to secure the minutes by any means.
In academic settings, certain questions are asked, such as:
To whom is the librarian directly responsible?
Who chooses library staff?
Who controls the budget?
Who represents the staff outside the institution?
The librarian needs control over all of these areas for effective management.
Threats in relationships with the academic community include influencing academic decisions in areas
outside the library, and indifference of the faculty, in action of the chief librarian. The chief librarian must act as
leader for his/her staff and library matters. It is crucial for him/her to be identified with the library. He/She must
display good judgment over organizational and professional matters, and must take risks when necessary. In most
academic settings, the chief librarian must be able to relate well with the board of trustees, the president, the library
committee, the dean, the faculty, the students, and the finance officer. If relationship with these people is not good,
the librarian will find himself/herself members of groups such as the school forum, the administrative council, or
the curriculum committee among others, and will be appointed to represent the library outside the institution.
10.4 Problems Faced by Academic Librarians
The main problem facing academic libraries is their inability to maintain their acquisitions and services at
previous levels due to:
budget cuts and inflation
staff cuts and competencies
more resource allocations for ICT than acquisitions
inadequate space
absence of a strategic development plan
low image of librarians as compared with the faculty, which might be the reason for lack of
cooperation of faculty
administration’s lack of knowledge and appreciation about the importance of the library to
education
11.2 Planning
Planning establishes goals, and develops policies, procedures, and programs to achieve them. It is the
process of getting an organization to where it is to where it wants to be in a given period of time by setting it on a
pre-determined course of action.
Planning is working out in the broad outline of things that must be done and the methods of doing them in
order to accomplish the organizational purposes.
The construction of a strategic development plan with a long term vision and a short-term plan is also
involved. The plan will set out the aims and objectives of the organization and decide where the library would want
to be in certain time and indicate how to get there through various activities. Targets and performance measure for
each activity must be set.
11.3 Organizing
Organizing is grouping activities and establishing organizational structures and procedures to
ensure that activities are performed. It is the process by which the manager brings order out of chaos, removes
conflicts between people over work or responsibility, and establishes an environment suitable for teamwork.
Organizing ensures the establishment of the formal structure of authority through which work subdivisions
are arranged, defined, and coordinated for the defined objectives. Organically oriented systems/organizations are
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where authority and power are delegated and dispersed. Collaboration and consultation are emphasized, and the
organizational chart features a wide span of control.
11.4 Staffing
Staffing is the process of obtaining and training personnel to work in the organization in order to
achieve goals and objectives. This is the whole personnel function of bringing in and training the staff and
maintaining favorable conditions of work.
11.6 Budgeting
Budgeting is what encompasses fiscal planning, accounting, and control. It is the primary means by
which formulated plans can be carried out.
Several techniques can be considered in budgeting. However, academic libraries must follow the budget
cycle and the budgeting scheme of the parent institution. Finances must not only be based on the allotment of the
parent institution alone, but the library must find other ways of securing funds and securing them in an account that
will be used for library operations.
The final outcome of budgeting is accounting and reporting. Outputs include monthly income
statement or balance sheet and formal written reports.
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12.3 Collection
Since financial resource is finite in academic libraries, academic librarians have to make decisions
regarding the collection. The collection must be guided by the nature of the academic library and the mission and
vision of the parent institution. Some issues related to content are:
collection versus services
librarian or faculty selection
print or online
balance between books and journals (60:40 or 40:60)
balance between acquisition and preservation (should binding be less than twenty percent (20%)
of combined acquisition and preservation expenditures?)
preservation or weeding
completeness versus resource sharing
security
collection development policies
involvement of the faculty and the students in the selection of materials
12.4 Services and Use
The idea of service is essential to identify the right objectives. The academic library ideally is
customer/client-based, concerned with and for its staff, efficient in its use of resources, imaginative in its use of
technology, well managed, and visibly and demonstrably a first class service.
Services in an academic library include cataloging and classification, circulation and reserve, serials
management, and reference service to external users.
Several issues concerning different areas in library use and services must be taken onto account.
1. Cataloging and classification
manual versus automated
use of online facilities
usability
in-house creation
quality control
access
presentation
2. Reference and information services
limitation to own stock versus resource sharing
document delivery service (DDS)
inter-library loan (ILL)
level of service
3. Circulation and reserve
lending policy (category of use, lending time, number of maximum loans)
retention of stock
manual versus automated
user interface
4. Services to external users
size of stock
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–Unit 4
––––– Library Management Episode 2:
Special Libraries
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In the Philippines, Rufo Buenviaje is considered as the father of special librarianship. Juan C.
Buenrostro, Jr. was the writer of the first book published in the Philippines in 1995 entitled “The management of
Special Libraries and Information Centers.”
The growth of special libraries is owed to three basic factors:
information explosion
advances in computer and information technologies
the existence of an information society
The flourishing of special libraries and information centers is a reflection of their success in responding to the
recent trends and the needs of their parent organizations for efficient and effective information handling and
management.
There are many associations of special libraries throughout the different parts of the world. In the United
States, The Special Libraries Association (SLA) is the most prominent. The SLA publishes a directory of special
libraries and information centers.
Also, there are locally-established special libraries associations in the Philippines. The Association of
Special Libraries in the Philippines (ASLP) may be the most popular. Angelina Cabanero was the first ASLP
president. ASALP has its own publication – the ASLP Bulletin. Other local special libraries associations are the
Medical and Health Librarians’ Association of the Philippines (MAHLAP) and the Agricultural Librarians’
Association of the Philippines (ALAP).
The following are the well-known special libraries or parent institutions of special libraries in the
Philippines.
Asian Development Bank (ADB)
Asian Institute of Management (AIM)
Energy Research and Development Center (ERDC) under the Philippine National Oil Company
(PNOC).
International Center for Living and Aquatic Resources (ICLAR)
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) Library and Documentation Center
MERALCO
Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research (PCARR)
Population Center Foundation (PCF)
Philippine Nuclear Research Institute (PNRI)
San Miguel Corporation Human Resource Library Division
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC)
Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization Regional Center for Education Innovation
and Technology Resource Center (SEAMEO-INNOTECH)
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This mission, which is “information service tailored to fit the needs of the organization” is the
reason why they exist.
2. Location
Special libraries are usually found in private and business organizations while others serve the
state and its government, or in non-profit organizations, and so on. They are considered as units of
larger organizations.
3. Client
Special libraries serve a well-defined group of users.
4. Subject scope/orientation
Special libraries are oriented to a single subject or related subjects. This is determined by the
field of activity or interests of the parent organization.
5. Size (smallness)
Usually, special libraries consist of lean personnel, small space, and small collection.
6. Presence of a professional librarian and the variety of his/her responsibilities
It is the expertise of the librarian which distinguishes the active special library. Responsibilities
include reference service, cataloging, selection and acquisition, management, subject expertise, and so
on.
7. Salary
Typically, the salary and compensation offered to the special library staff are higher than other
types of libraries. There are opportunities for career advancement in a short span of time, and other
benefits are fringed like busying stocks, holiday cash bonuses, educational support, payment of
expenses for professional conferences, travel, and more.
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Published information (print or non-print; electronic; information sources that are publicly
available like books, journals, and vertical file materials; CD-ROM; microforms; maps; and so
on)
Internal information (information or materials produced or generated internally like research
reports, technical memoranda, working papers, correspondences, newsletters, etc.)
Outside resources
2. Organization
Cataloging and classification
Indexing
Abstracting
3. Dissemination
Readers’ services
Reference and research service
Current awareness service (CAS) – routing, acquisition bulletin, library display, newsletters,
selective dissemination of information (SDI)
The following table features the various functions in a special library (or in any other library) according to
certain degree.
Levels Acquisition Organization Dissemination
collects, shelves books maintains a
receives, and in simple and logical collection of
checks order reference materials
publications in the arranges answers simple
organization periodicals by title and factual
keeps and date questions
abreast of the establishes a identifies title of
organization’s filing system for publications and
interests and pamphlets, clippings, verifies references
MIMINUM needs for materials etc. knows the
reviews, makes a card resources of other
selects, and orders or computer record libraries
materials of all major directs users to
provides publications in the other sources of
access to library information sources
appropriate outside the library
databases for the routes new
organization magazines or
incoming materials
to internal clients
interested
keeps develops a gathers
informed in the card or computer- research materials
information needs based catalog with pertinent to a query
of the organization subjects and submits them to
selects and adopts a requesters
develops published expands public
collections in line classification scheme relations and
with organizational adopts a marketing activities
information needs published subject prepares
establishes heading list for selective
contacts with cataloging and bibliographies
dealers or jobbers indexing undertakes
begins comprehensive
INTERMEDIATE acquiring special devises filing literature searches
collections and finding systems distributes lists
creates and for special collections of current literature
maintains complete (sometimes with
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with other persons and their work while retaining objectivity, and a sincere desire to work with
and assist others in furthering the organization’s goals.
Professional specialties – I he/she a technical specialist (good cataloger, indexer, database expert,
records manager, archivist, system analyst)? Or a subject specialist (reference librarian, database
searcher, bibliographer, translator, abstractor, etc.)?
Since the daily functions of the library require clerical and routine work (receipt and routing of
publications, typing, filing, data entry, clipping, etc.), the organization may hire a clerk to do all these tasks.
Good information service begins with a professional librarian planning and supervising clerical and
support work to be able to achieve the library’s more extensive goals.
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cataloging tools
facilities
photocopying equipment
supplies
services
travel and continuing education
equipment
furnishing
Potential sources of funds for the library are:
parent organization
grants and donations
fee-based services
projects
14.6 Evaluation and Measurement
Evaluating the library’s collection and services are needed to be able to monitor how far the library has
gone in fulfilling its objectives. Therefore, evaluation should be related to objectives.
There are several methods that can be considered in performing evaluation.
1. User surveys (formal or informal) – Formal user surveys can be conducted by the management or
outside groups. Informal user surveys can be based on daily interaction with clients.
2. Statistics – This is accomplished by recording all library usage like types of materials borrowed,
frequency of use of a certain material, number of reference questions answered, etc.
3. Objectives – Evaluation must be qualitative rather than quantitative, and must be against accepted
guidelines.
4. Annual reports – This compares the library’s performance from the previous year in terms of projects
accomplished, objective achievements, etc.
5. Valuing library services – This is defining the economic value of information and information
services and the value added by the information professionals.
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document delivery
cooperative acquisition
cooperative storage facilities
shared cataloging
creation of records
staff training
sharing management information
There are also problems or disadvantages in forming library networks. Some of them are
confidentiality
need for standardization
governance and structure
need for legal identity
turf (area of expertise) production
financing
Here are some known library networks in the Philippines.
Academic Libraries Acquisition Services Association, Inc. (ALBASA) – This is composed of
libraries in colleges and universities in Visayas and Mindanao.
Association of Academic and Research Library Information Network (ARALIN) – This network
provides access to online union catalogs of Filipiniana materials in private tertiary schools.
Department of Science and Technology Engineering and Science Education Program (DOST-
ESEP)
Inter-Institutional Consortium (IIC) – This was formed by academic institutions located along Taft
Ave, Manila for cooperative cataloging and indexing union list of serials. The head institution is
De La Salle University (DLSU) in this consortium.
Mendiola Consortium – This is composed of four (4) institutions along Mendiola St. in Manila with
activities like union cataloging of books of member institutions, and annual publication of Index
to Selected Philippine Periodicals (ISPP).
Ortigas Center Group – This is composed of special libraries within Ortigas Center Complex in
Pasig City. It has activities like interlibrary loan and cooperative indexing of periodical
subscriptions on Philippine business, industry, and trade.
15.2 e-Libraries
With the gaining popularity and usage of information and communications technologies, libraries or
learning resource centers have been greatly affected. While others may have already adopted the concept of an e-
library, others are still left on the crossroad: will they espouse on the idea of an electronic environment, or will they
gear away from this and continue doing what they have been traditionally accustomed to? There is indeed a big
question between traditional and electronic resources.
While the concept of an e-library amazes almost everyone with its advantages of making available to
users or clients the information they need whenever and wherever, it has some management issues that need to be
considered.
Expensiveness (hardware, software, and peopleware)
Challenge in the library collection development (challenge to the librarian and to the integrity
and quality of the whole collection)
Requirement of good marketing strategies (price versus usage)
Automation in libraries is worthy of implementation, probably not in totality. There should be a balance of
the traditional resources and the new ones. In this age, there has been a shift from collection to the needs of the
users. The information need of the client is what matters most. If the need requires an electronic resource that
cannot be provided by the traditional print ones, then so be it. However, the creation of e-libraries should be a
unified decision of both the library and the parent institution. Thus, management and financial support are of
utmost importance.
15.3 Flexible Library Services
Flexible library service refers to the kind of service that the library offers to its clients, which is
adoptable and very accommodating to the needs of the clients. This covers maintaining both traditional and
electronic resources, getting digital and virtual, more access to databases and electronic document delivery, use of
mobile text messages, referrals, and more use of the internet.
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–Unit 5
––––– Library Management Episode 3:
School Libraries
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In order that the function of the school library is executed and its purpose be realized, there is a need for a
competent, effective librarian to administer the library. The librarian should not be only educationally qualified but
must also possess
leadership skills mental alertness
initiative creativity
ability to manage tact
enthusiasm love for books
friendliness passion for children and adults as
cooperative attitude well, and
variety to interests
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a teaching load, which makes him/her different from the school librarian. It is advisable to prepare a schedule that
will indicate the work assignment of each library staff.
The library can organize a Book Lovers’ Club among students. Students who are members of the club can
serve as student assistants who will perform library chores that can be assigned to them such as cleaning and
shelving of library materials.
Typically, the school librarian is expected to perform the following tasks.
1. Organization of materials for library use
This will include procurement, processing, classifying, and cataloging of materials. This applies also
to non-book materials.
2. Instructing library users
An orientation for new students and teachers as to the location of the library, services offered, and
library rules and regulations must be conducted. The school librarian must also educate the users on
classification of materials, using card catalog, bibliographies, reference books, and library
equipments.
3. Provide reading guidance
This can be done through book talks, bulletin and book displays, reading lists, discussion groups,
conference with teachers and students, assistance in the selection of teaching materials, maintaining a
reader interest file and records for library users.
4. Preparation and dissemination of library handbooks to students
5. Organizing library tours
The school librarian can organize library tours to other school libraries or public libraries.
6. Encouraging observance of special events
The National Book Week and book fair are among special events that the library can spearhead.
7. Consulting other school libraries
The school librarian can consult other school libraries on the availability of books. Cooperation
between the school library and other libraries can also be considered to maximize library resources.
17.4 School Library Collection
Selection and acquisition of books and other library materials is a cooperative endeavor of the librarian,
faculty, and head of school. This should be based on a list of approved textbooks, teacher’s manuals, and
supplementary materials. Teachers may recommend books and other instructional materials needed in the
classroom.
Supplementary materials are also intended to be present in school library collections. These are materials
other than textbooks and teachers manuals which aid in the teaching and/or learning of certain concepts and skills
for reinforcement, enrichment, and mastery. They can either be print or non-print materials.
The school library must contain the following materials in its collection:
1. General reference
These materials provide a variety of information on topics of general interest. These include
Encyclopedia Globe
Dictionary Map(s)
Atlas Almanac
Additional general reference materials for grade school
Supplementary readers in English and Filipino which may be utilized for remediation,
reinforcement, and enrichment of skills developed using the basic textbooks
Additional general reference materials for high school
Book of knowledge Manuals
Philippine yearbook Literary classics
Book of facts Book of etiquette
Thesaurus Book of world records
Handbooks Fiction books
2. General collection (subject area specific references)
This comprises of references to support the different subject areas, including professional books for
teachers and other employees, recreational hobby books, etc. They provide information on selective
topics which are useful to specific subject areas. These include
Books on history Workbooks
Books on special sciences Reviewers
Skillbooks
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1. Instructional Materials Council (IMC) – This office is responsible for the approval of all instructional
materials used in government schools. For printed supplementary materials, the IMC Secretariat
(IMCS) shall be responsible for content evaluation of all submitted materials. Evaluation of
prices for these materials is under the jurisdiction of the Price Committee under the DepEd Office
of the Undersecretary for Administration and Finance. The IMC gives the approval on the
procedures followed by the Price Committee and CET in evaluating prices of materials submitted
IMC finalizes the decision on all evaluated materials by the IMCS, Price Committee, and CET.
2. Center for Education and Technology (CET) – This separate office is responsible for content and
price evaluation of non-profit supplementary materials.
18.2 Status of School Libraries in the Philippines
Recent emphasis on reading, mastery of subject matter, individualized instruction, independent learning,
and other practices that lead to the development of each student to the maximum of his/her potentials have brought
about an increase in awareness of the need for adequate school library services. This is evidenced by the frequency
with which the school library has been equated with high pupil performance. These emphases in education have
certainly addressed the responsibilities of the school library.
The Department of Education for its part has continuously implemented various programs for the
establishment and enhancement of school libraries in the government schools. One very important program for the
improvement of the school library is the establishment of Learning Resource Centers (LRC’s) in the 70’s. In most
cases, they started as a library, where old and new instructional materials were stored. With the introduction of new
technologies like slides, film strips, transparencies, and audio-visual materials, the LRD has expanded to include
media services.
It is very unfortunate that many of the LRC’s established in the 80’s and early 90’s do no longer exist due
to lack of funds. With the issuance of Order No. 6, s. 1998 of the Department of Education (Department of
Education, Culture, and Sports or DECS at that time) entitled “Policies and Programs for School Library
Development”, it is hoped that every school will strive to have a functional school library.
–Unit 6
––––– Library Management Episode 4:
Public Libraries
Chapter 19 – The Philippine Public Library System
19.1 The Public Library: Its Objectives and Mission
19.2 Historical Development of Philippine Public Libraries
19.3 Public Libraries Categorized
19.4 Legislations Relevant to Public Librarianship
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replaced the Standards for Public Libraries published in 1977. These missions relate to information, literacy,
education, and culture and should be the core of public library services.
creating and strengthening reading habits in children from an early age
supporting both individual and self-conducted education as well as formal education at all levels
providing opportunities for personal creative development
stimulating the imagination and creativity of children and young people
promoting awareness of cultural heritage, appreciation of the arts, scientific achievements, and
innovations
providing access to cultural expressions of all performing arts
fostering inter-cultural dialogue and favoring cultural diversity
supporting the oral tradition
ensuring access to citizens to all sorts of community information
providing adequate information services to local, enterprises, association, and interest groups
facilitating the development of information and computer literacy skills
supporting and participating in literary activities and programs for all age groups, and initiating
such activities if necessary.
The Manifesto proclaims UNESCO’s belief in the public library as a living force for education, culture,
and information, and as an external agent for the fostering of peace and spiritual welfare through the minds of men
and women. UNESCO therefore encourages national and local governments to support and actively engage in the
development of public libraries.
The public library is the local center for information, making all kinds of knowledge and information
readily available to its users. The services of a public library are provided on the basis of equality of access for all,
regardless of social and cultural background. Specific services and materials must be provided for those users who
cannot use the regular services and materials for reasons like linguistic minorities, people with disabilities, people
in hospitals and prisons, and other relevant reasons.
All age groups must find materials relevant to their needs. Collections and services have to include all
types of appropriate media and modern technologies as well as traditional materials. High quality and relevance to
local needs and conditions are fundamental. Materials must reflect current trends and evolution of society, as well
as the memory of human endeavor and imagination. Collections and services should not be subject to any form of
ideological, political, or religious censorship, nor commercial pressures.
The Public Research Group of London and Home Counties Branch of the Library Association of United
Kingdom set out in 1971 the following objectives for the public library services.
1. Education – to foster and provide means for the self-development of the individual/group at whatever
stage4 of education, closing the gap between the individual and the recorded knowledge.
2. Information – to bring the individual/group accurate information quickly and in-depth particularly on
topics of current concern.
3. Culture – be one of the principal centers of cultural life, and promote a keener participation,
enjoyment, and appreciation of the arts.
4. Leisure – to play a part in encouraging a positive use of leisure and providing materials for change
and relaxation.
In 1977, The Public Library Association of the American Library Association (ALA) issued the Mission
Statement for Public Libraries in the United States. In 1987, ALA published Planning and Role Setting in Public
Libraries, a manual devised by the Public Library Association to help public libraries identify their priority roles
and plan, measure, and evaluate services to suit these roles. These public libraries include the Community
Activities Center, Formal Education Support Center, Independent Learning Center, Popular Materials Library,
Preschoolers’ Door to Learning, Reference Library, and Research Center.
IFLA Publications No. 27 entitled The Public Library Service: IFLA/UNESCO Guidelines for
Development prepared by a working group[ chaired by Mr. Philip Gill on behalf of the Section of Public Libraries
and which came out in 2001, is primarily aimed at librarians, for them to use in fighting for improved library
services. The publication is not only confined to standards but also recommendations to provide public librarians
the assistance in any situation to develop an effective public library service related to the requirements of their local
community.
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222 which was passed on September 6, 1901, it became the American Circulating Library Division of the Bureau of
Education. Henceforth, several laws were enacted relevant to the development of public libraries and The National
Library.
The first effort to establish a public library outside Manila was made on June 21, 1904 with the enactment
of Act No. 1175, AN Act Authorizing the Establishment of a Circulating Library in the Province of Albay. No
provision was given for the implementation of the Act, thus the library did not materialize. It was in 1955 when
Albay Provincial Library was organized. Iloilo Provincial Library was the first to earn the distinction of being the
first regular provincial library established in the Philippines; it was organized on October 29, 1916.
March 200 marked the centennial celebration of the public library system in the Philippines. A nationwide
search for Outstanding Public Libraries was conducted. Fifteen (15) public libraries (three provincial libraries, six
city libraries, five municipal libraries, and one regional library) were awarded.
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RA 7160 – otherwise known as the Local Government Code. One of the provisions of the law is
the establishment of public libraries in the municipalities. The law also puts the administrative
supervision of public libraries under the legislative branch of the local government, or its
Sangguniang Panlalawigan, Panlungsod, or Bayan.
Civil Service Office Memorandum No. 99, s. 2001 – issued on July 18, 2001, this strictly
implements the provisions of RA 6966 specifically Sections 11 and 12 about Inhibition Against the
Practice of Librarianship. The memorandum signed by CSC Chairperson Karina Constantino-David
requires appointees to librarian positions eligibility, pursuant to RA 1080, in addition to meeting other
requirements for the position in terms of education, training, and experience.
Other relevant laws – these include
RA 6966 and RA 9246 – laws that regulate the practice of librarianship in the
Philippines.
RA 8392 – known as the Intellectual Property Code. Book IV of the Code is about
Copyright and Neighboring Rights which is implemented by The National Library.
Chapter 20 – Standards for Philippine Public Libraries
20.1 Operation and Management
In the Philippines, public library service is discharged jointly by respective local government units (LGUs)
under the technical supervision of The National Library. Even before the enactment of the Local Government Code
or RA 7160, the law which called for the devolution of powers, duties, and responsibilities from national to local
government, appointment of public librarians was the responsibility of local officials. This started when
Decentralization Law took effect in early 1960s. Most public libraries at present are under the legislative branch of
the local government, the Sangguniang Panlalawigan, Panlungsod, or Bayan, as the case may be. As local
government entities, they shall have, as their immediate superior, the local chief executive or any legally designated
local official in accordance with RA 7160 (Local Government Code).
To monitor affiliated public libraries, the Public Libraries Division of The National Library requires them
to submit a monthly report of activities and accomplishments. Also expected from them are annual inventory report
of collections and annual report of activities. These are required because of the Property Accountability set by the
government.
A clear policy must be formulated defining objectives, priorities, and services in relation to the local
community needs. The public library has to be organized effectively and professional standards of operation must
be maintained. According to the Minimum Standards for Public Libraries, public library services in the Philippines
are aimed to
provide library and information service responsive to the nees of the community
build within each library an information center about the library’s respective community – its
resources, history, customs, traditions, etc.
develop a national network and linkage among public libraries with The National Library as
the center in order to facilitate research and reference needs of patrons.
Cooperation with relevant partners – for example user groups and other professionals at local, regional,
national, as well as international – has to be ensured.
Services have to be physically accessible to all members of the community. This requires well suited
library buildings, good reading and study facilities, as well as relevant technologies and sufficient opening hours
convenient to users. It equally implies outreach services for those unable to visit the library.
The library must be adapted to the different needs of communities in urban and rural areas. The librarian is
an active intermediary between users and resources. Professional and continuing education of the librarian is
indispensable to ensure adequate services. Outreach and user education programs have to be provided to help users
benefit from all the resources.
Formulation of public library standards reflects the fresh concept of public library service and
organizational goals to stimulate new developments and focus attention in the field. Standards are used as guides
when implementing goals for development and setting directions for the future. The UNESCO Public Library
Manifesto is a broad charter of public library goals. It states that public libraries are local centers of information,
making all kinds of information readily available to its users. It does not cover the full variety of purposes and
activities that a public library can serve, but it does identify the most fundamental and common. These are
to contribute to lifelong education
to facilitate appreciation of the achievement of human knowledge and culture
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to be the principal means whereby the record of man’s thought and ideas, and the expression of
his creative imagination, are made freely available to all
to refresh the human spirit by the provision of books and other media for relaxation and pleasure
to assist students
to provide technical, scientific, and sociological information
With the development of new public library standards, the tendency towards qualitative measure became
noticeable. Traditionally, standards are measured and expressed in numerical terms such as number of staff, books,
etc. Modern standards start with the proposition that the public library system should themselves determine what is
appropriate in their particular circumstances. A good example of a traditional form of library standards is the
Standards for public libraries issued by IFLA in 1973. Modern library standards include Staffing for Public
Libraries, A Planning Process for Public Libraries, and Output Measure for Public Libraries.
The Standards for Public Libraries was issued in 1988 and had its revisions in 2001. The revised edition
was submitted to the PRC Board for Librarians for review, evaluation, integration, and implementation in its
project – Standards for Philippine Libraries.
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20.4 Collection
Collection development in public libraries, which is mainly selection and acquisition of books and other
library materials, is rested on the librarian with the assistance of professional staff. The clientele can also
recommend materials that can be considered. The collection must reflect the library’s objectives and the needs of
the community served. The collection must include books, ephemeral materials, non-print material in various
formats like electronic databases and computer software application, audiovisual materials and the like, and non-
book materials like periodicals, maps, pamphlets, etc. It is also their responsibility to have collection of materials
on local history.
The size of the library collection is directly influenced by the allocation from The National Library and
annual appropriations from the local government units. Every year, The National Library allocates books and other
forms of library materials to operational public libraries. To be entitled with the allocation, the local government
unit has to signify through formal communication its intention to register its public library. A Memorandum of
Agreement (MOA) to be executed by the above mentioned offices serves as the binding document which defines
their responsibilities and/or obligations.
Regardless of population, a minimum of 3,000 volumes of books is deemed as initial collection for public
libraries in the regions, provinces, cities, and first class municipalities. For public libraries in lower class
municipalities, an initial collection of 2,000 volumes is recommended while 500 in barangay reading centers. In
any public library, a provision of at least 10% increase in the collection must be regarded.
Aside from books and other library materials allocated by The National Library, collections in public
libraries also come from their local government units.
20.5 Physical Facilities
Public libraries must be centrally located within the community they serve. The library must be accessible
to all users by all means of transportation. The library building must provide access to physically disabled
individuals. They must have provisions for future growth and expansion. The library must be a component of an
integrated cultural complex in the development plan of the local government unit.
The size of any public library building must consider the following:
community population
growing library collection
size of staff
services to be offered
Public libraries must provide adequate space for reading areas, stack areas, work rooms, multimedia rooms, storage
rooms, staff lounges, toilets for the library staff and the public, and for other facilities. A minimum seating capacity
of 48-60 people at any one time is recommended for regional, congressional district, provincial, city, and first class
municipality libraries; at least 36-48 for lower class municipalities; and 12-24 for barangay reading centers.
Functional equipment and furniture must be adequate to generate an environment conducive for pleasant and
effective use of materials and services, and help in the efficient operation of the library to keep abreast with the
time. Layout of equipment and furniture must permit smooth mobility of users, library personnel, and the materials.
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20.8 Networks
To ensure nationwide library coordination and cooperation, legislation and strategic plans must also be
defined and promote. A library network must be promoted based on agreed standard of service. The public library
network must be designed in relation to national, regional, research, and special libraries as well as libraries in
schools, colleges, and universities.
In order to efficiently maximize the services of public libraries to their clientele, public libraries are
encouraged to organize the Friends Group. This is an organization of volunteer workers in the community whose
activities and projects supplement and augment the library’s activities. They also raise funds for the public library.
Membership comes from retired professionals and also from other community members who love to assist in
library work including those from civic organizations.
The library may as well initiate the organization of groups or volunteers to handle fund raising to
financially support the library and handle activities in line with library programs and services.
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Insulis, known as the first book printed book about the Philippines. The Filipiniana Division keeps an extant copy
about Magellan’s expedition which was written in Spain in 1522 and was published in France the following year.
The 30-paged copy measured 7.5 by 15 cm. Also kept in The National Library is a facsimile of Doctrina Christiana,
the first book printed in the Philippines. Original copies of the work are kept in the Library of Congress in the
United States and in few libraries in Spain.
Continuous acquisition of government publications is also done since The National Library is also
mandated to collect, organize, and preserve all government publications of the different government branches and
agencies. In organizing these collections, The National Library and other libraries employs a tool in collecting and
organizing Philippine government documents – The Classification Scheme for Government Publications. This was
revised in 1994 and was prepared by the Special Committee on the revision of PHILDOC Classification Scheme.
Aside from government publications and documents, The National Library keeps in custody the collection
of Presidential Papers, which was initiated by President Manuel L. Quezon when he donated his official and
personal papers. This was followed by Presidents Sergio Osmeňa, Manuel Roxas, and Carlos Garcia.
The National Library launched the Library for the Blind Division which aims to cater to special clientele
who are blind or visually handicapped. The collections contained in this division are Braille materials, large print
materials, and talking books (audio books). With support from Resources for the Blind Foundation, a complete set
of computers equipped with necessary software and accessories for visually-impaired and blind individuals, like
synthesizer and machine for enlarging fine printed materials.
The National Library employs staff development and continuous professional education. Members of its
staff are encouraged to take up further studies for professional growth.
The National Library is responsible in implementing laws related to librarianship practices such as RA
7743 and RA 8293 (otherwise known as the Intellectual Property Code under which is the Copyright Law). It
implements Book IV of the Copyright Law (under RA 8293), which took effect in 1999. Safeguards and safety
measures on copyright were formulated.
–
––––– Unit 7
Collection Development
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Chapter 26 – Publishing
26.1 A General Perspective of Publishing
26.2 Types of Publishing Firms
26.3 Standard Publication Numbers
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Collection development also identifies the strengths and weaknesses of the library’s holdings in terms of
patron needs and community resources and attempting to correct existing weaknesses.
The following is a summary of the general principles of collection development.
1. Collection development should be geared primarily to identified needs rather than abstract standards
of quality.
2. To be effective, collection development must be responsive to the total community needs, not
confined to those of current or active users.
3. Collection development should be carried out with complete knowledge and participation of
cooperative programs at the local, regional, national, and international levels.
4. Collection development should consider all formats of information resources in the collection.
5. Collection development was, is, and will always be a subjective, biased work. The intervention of the
selector’s personal values into the process can never be avoided.
6. Collection development is not something that one learns entirely in the classroom or from reading.
Only through practice and the encounter of mistakes will a person become proficient of developing a
collection.
There are certain rules that govern collection development in relation to the size of a library’s service
community.
The size of the service community is directly proportional to the degree of divergence in individual
information needs.
The degree of divergence in individual information needs is directly proportional to the need for
cooperative programs of information materials sharing.
It will never be possible to completely satisfy all the information needs of any individual or class of
clientele in the service community.
23.2 Information Needs Assessment
Information needs assessment entails the process of knowing or identifying the community the library
serves, gathering data on the type of information it needs. This is a valuable mechanism for patron input.
Information needs assessment considers the wants, needs, use, and demands from the community. In any
setting, needs assessment basically seeks the following information:
why the patron community does or does not use a particular product or service
how the patron community uses the product or service
where the patron community acquires and use the product
what is good and bad about the product or service
what new products or services would be of interest
how much would the patron community be willing to expend, in terms of time, money, and
effort, for a product or service.
An information needs assessment project will include the following elements.
Aims and objectives – the importance of the project to be conducted
Personnel – defines who will perform the project (committee constituted of paid or unpaid workers
within the organization, or outside consultants)
Main subject of the study – this includes
historical data
geographic information
transportation availability data
legal research
political information
demographic data
economic data
communication systems
social and educational organizations
cultural and recreational organizations
community information services
Data sources – can be from key informants and social indicators
Data collection methods – can be through community forums and field surveys
Data interpretation – interpreting in terms of social needs (normative or comparative; felt or
expressed)
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contains articles by several contributors. Newspapers whose chief function is to disseminate news,
and the memoirs, proceedings, journals, etc. of societies are not considered periodicals.
Journals are periodic publications especially dealing with matters of current interest. They are often
used for official or semi-official publications of special groups.
Magazines are distinctive type of periodical that usually contains a miscellaneous collection of
articles, stories, poems, and pictures. They are generally directed at the general reading public.
Memoirs are a biography or an account of historical events, especially one written from personal
knowledge. A memoir can be a short essay, article, or report on a scholarly subject, usually one in
which the writer is a recognized specialist.
Proceedings are published records of the business and discussions of a learned society.
Reports are detailed periodic account of a company’s activities, financial condition, and prospects that
is made available to shareholders and investors
Annuals are a book or magazine published yearly. Reports can also be considered as annuals if they
are yearly published.
Just like any other information resource material, several selection criteria also apply for serials.
1. Purpose, scope, and audience – This can be determined by examining the table of contents, the range
of writers, authors, and editors, as well as the vocabulary used in the article.
What is the purpose of the periodical?
What does the periodical actually include?
Who is the intended audience?
2. Accuracy – Content should be factually correct and relatively objective. This can be determined by
evaluating the writers, the publisher, and the subject matter. For more technical periodicals, an
expert opinion is a good aid.
How accurate is the material in the periodical?
3. Local interest
Does the title have some interest to the local community?
4. Format issues
What is the quality of the printing and the paper?
Are illustrations of good quality?
Does there seem to be more ads than text?
5. Indexing
Is the title indexed in a service to which the library subscribes?
6. Cost
How much does the subscription cost?
Will back issues be needed? If so, how much will be expended for binding or transferring to
microforms?
7. Demand
Will a title be used enough to justify subscription?
8. Availability
Is the title readily available through interlibrary loan of from a library which you have a resource
sharing agreement?
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Does the electronic version have retrospective data? Most electronic sources do not include data
prior to 1970s or 1980s.
How complete is the electronic database, especially when compared to its printed counterpart?
Some electronic resources do not include information on the same extent that print resources do.
For example, graphical information may not be included on CD-ROMs due to space
considerations.
Does the electronic resource offer any special features that are not available in the print version?
For example, most electronic resources offer multiple access points to the data that are not
possible with print resources, and some electronic sources can provide full text contents.
How often is the information updated? While it is generally assumed that electronic resources are
more up-to-date than print resources, this is not always the case (especially with CD-ROMs).
This may be true for online resources.
2. Access
How will these resources be accessed and what will be the implication for other library services?
For example, it is common for libraries that acquire a CD-ROM version of a particular index to
experience an increase in number of interlibrary loan for periodical titles they do not have.
How many users will the electronic resource accommodate at one tome?
Will the resource be available to an individual on a single computer terminal, or to multiple users
in a local area network (LAN), and/or to remote users from their home or offices? Your decision
on what kind of access to provide will depend on the amount of demand expected for the
resource.
How can the content of the electronic database be accessed? What type of search options does the
resource provide? The user interface and search strategies vary widely from one product to
another.
3. Technical support
How much training will library personnel need to feel comfortable using the product and how
much time will it take to train users?
How detailed are the instructions that come with the product? Are there online help screens?
How reliable is the producer? Do new systems mean reconfiguration of the system or network?
Will library employees and users be retrained to use the latest version of a product?
Is the system prone to technical problems?
Is the product compatible with existing hardware? Is the publisher’s technical support helpful and
easily accessible when needed?
4. Cost
How much do acquisitions and updates to the product cost?
What type of licensing agreement will be made?
Will there be an extra pay in installing/placing the product multiple computer terminals or
within a local area network? Pricing structures vary significantly depending on the type of license
arranged. A license for single computer terminal installation will be considerably less expensive
than a license for multiple or network access.
What kind of charges can the library expect for initial connections or from
telecommunications providers?
What are the expected printing costs? Will patrons be charged for printing to help
compensate for these expenses?
5. Legal considerations
The library should carefully review licensing terms before purchasing a product, since it is
responsible for meeting all the terms of a signed agreement. Different companies and products
may have significant variations in licensing agreements, which all library staffs should know.
Agreements often include provisions for payment and delivery of the product, warranties and
limits, termination of the agreement, customer service information, and responsibility of the
license for the security of the product. The library should post signs to remind users of copyright
restrictions.
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Internet and World Wide Web resources have been the subjects of debates in the library world today. The
basic issue is how to incorporate a vast, constantly changing, unstructured, and unregulated conglomeration of
information into our understanding of library services.
There are three basic criteria in evaluating or selecting internet resources.
1. Content
Authority
Is the page signed?
Are the credentials of the author given? If so, are they sufficient to convince you that the
author is a reliable source of information on this subject?
Publishing body
Is the author of the page affiliated with the organization that published the page?
Is the organization a recognized source of reliable information?
Verifiability/accuracy
Are there any obvious inaccuracies and/or grammar or spelling errors?
Is it possible to verify non-published information by contacting the source?
Can the information be verified in other published, reliable sources?
Currency
Is there a publication date? If so, is the information too old to be useful?
Can it be determined when and how often the page is revised?
Balance
Is bias hidden by not identifying the author, organization, or publishing body?
Does the page present an authoritative position, whether conventionally accepted,
controversial, or politically influenced?
Appropriateness of format
Would the material be better if presented in a different format?
Audience
What is the intended audience for the web site?
Purpose
Is the web site intended to be educational, informational, or entertaining?
Is the material successful in serving its purpose?
How does it compare with other internet and print resources covering the same
information?
2. Access
Searching
If appropriate, does the site provide a mechanism for searching the content of the site?
How ell does it work?
Organization
How clear or confusing is the site? Is it well organized?
Is the information needed easily reached by minimum navigation between pages or
links?
Download time
How long does it take to load the site?
Is it worth the wait?
Stability
Does the URL change frequently? If changes are made, is the new address made easily
available?
Links
Are appropriate, working links provided?
Are the links annotated?
3. Design
Construction
Is the page easily navigated, or are you forced to scroll through pages of text?
Are there sections which are “under construction” or otherwise not working?
Instructions
Are essential instructions available and easily understood?
Graphics
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These materials are intended for non-current reviews. They can be used as checklists to see
to it that no good book has been missed. If the selectors know that the library community’s
reading choices are influenced by recommendations, they may want to consider
recommended lists in the book selection process. Examples of web sites that contain such
lists are
o Literary Lists at
http://www.stat.wharton.upenn.edu/~seller/litlists.html
o Oprah’s Recommended Books at
http://www.2think.org/oprah/oprah.shtml
c. Subject lists
2. Comprehensive resources include such listings as all of the books published in the United States, in a
bookstore inventory, by a particular publisher, and so on. They can be useful for verifying the
bibliographic and purchasing information for a book, for identifying new book publications, for
facilitating the purchasing and ordering process, and for keeping up with publishing trends. Included
in the category are:
a. Publisher sources
These resources include catalog, flyers, and announcements to libraries from publishers to
publicize their publications. They may also be web sites of publishers that contain the most
current information about their publication. Examples of these web links are:
o AcqWeb’s Directory of Publishers and Vendors at
http://www.acqweb.library.vanderbilt.edu/acqweb/pubr.html
o Publishers’ Catalogues Home Page at
http://www.lights.com/publisher
o Bookwire at
http://www.bookwire.com/bookwire
b. Online bookstores
Online bookstores allow the selector to search and purchase print books over the internet.
They can provide a quick and easy way to find publication information for a wide range of
books. Online bookstores facilitate a convenient method for purchasing books urgently
needed. Example are:
o Amazon.com at http://www.amazon.com, the largest online bookstore in the world.
It is a full-service online bookstore providing lists of book sellers, award-winners,
and excerpts from review sources.
o Barnes and Noble at http://www.barnesandnoble.com, which offers over one million
books that can be searched for and purchased over the internet.
o Alt.bookstore at http://www.altbookstore.com, which claims two million books in
its inventory and allows searching of books by title.
c. Directories of in-print and out-of-print books
These are resources for finding bibliographic and purchasing information of books that are
available for purchase, are about to be published, or are no longer being printed. Examples of
titles included in this category are
o Forthcoming Books
o Weekly Records
o Books in Print
d. National bibliographies
National bibliographies can be useful for checking what library owns a particular work in a
particular country. Such resources are usually published by national libraries or state
libraries. Examples of titles in this category include
o British National Bibliography
o National Union Catalog
o Bibloiographie Nationale Française
o Deutsche Nationalbibliographie
25.2 Selection Tools for Audiovisual Materials
Audiovisual materials fall under the genre of non-book library materials. It may be further broken down
into two narrower categories – audio and video materials. The term audiovisual relates to sound and vision,
especially when combined, for example in a presentation using both film and sound recordings.
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In aid the librarian in selecting audio materials, there are printed publications that contain reviews of audio
materials which may help. Some of these titles include
Publisher’s Weekly
AudioFile
Wilson Library Bulletin
Library Journal
Audiobook Review
Parent’s Choice
The internet is also a good source of audio reviews. Examples are
Book Aloud from Simon and Schuster at
http://www.simonsays.com/subs/index.cfm?areaid=45
The Best Book Review Audio at
http://www.bookwire.com/bookwire/
There are numerous printed and online sources that offer reviews of videos. Amazon.com is the most
popular among the online sources. Printed materials that can help in selecting video materials include:
Choice
Library Journal
Video Librarian
Video Review
Video Source Book
Film and Video Finder
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Chapter 26 – Publishing
26.1 A General Perspective of Publishing
Publishing is the heart of book trade, the manufacture, publication, and distribution of published materials.
The origins of the book trade can be traced to the graven clay and stone tablets and the polygonal cylinders of the
ancient Assyrian and Babylonian kingdoms, or the bound bamboo strips of the earliest Chinese scribes, but most
authorities consider the papyrus scrolls of antiquity the true progenitors of the book.
The following summarizes the procedures accomplished by publishers in the book trade.
Publishers tap sources of materials (manuscripts).
Publishers raise and supply the capital to make publications.
Publishers aid in the development of the manuscript.
Publishers contract for the manufacture of the publications (printing and binding of the
materials).
Publishers market their finished products (distribution, promotion, and advertising).
Publishers maintain records relating to the production and sales of publications (records of sales,
contracts, and correspondences).
26.2 Types of Publishing Firms
The following are brief descriptions of different types of publishing firms.
1. Trade publishers produce a wide variety of titles, both fiction and non-fiction, that have wide sales
potentials. Many of these publishers have many divisions that produce specialty titles. They have
three major markets – bookstores, libraries, and wholesalers.
Examples: HarperCollins, Alfred A. Knopf, Doubleday, Macmillan
2. Specialty publishers have outputs restricted to a few areas of subjects. Compared to trade publishers,
their audiences are smaller and more critical. These areas include reference, paperback, children’s,
and music.
Example: Gale Research
3. Textbooks publishers target the primary and secondary schools. They develop a line of textbooks for
several grades. They are in one of the highest-risk areas in publishing.
Examples: Ginn or Scott, Foresman & Company
4. Subject specialty publishers focus their marketing efforts on a limited number of buyers. They require
expensive graphic preparation or presswork.
Examples: Harry N. Abrams, E. C. Schimer, Academic Press
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5. Vanity presses receive most of their operating funds from authors whose works they publish. They
offer editing assistance for free and can arrange to print as many copies as the author can afford.
Example: Exposition Press
6. Private presses, basically, are not for profit ventures. In many instances, they are more on an
avocation rather than vocation for the owners. The3 owners do not sell their products, but give them
away. Most of these presses are owned by individuals who enjoy fine printing and experimenting with
different fonts and designs.
Examples: Henry Morris, Bird, Poull Press
7. Scholarly publishers are mostly non-profit organizations and receive subsidies from usually, the
academic institution, research institution, or learned society they are part of. These presses are
established by scholars to produce scholarly books that would not be acceptable for many for-profit
publishers since scholarly books have limited sales appeal.
Example: University of California Press, American Philosophical Society
8. Government presses are the world’s greatest publishers. Their publishing activity now goes beyond
the printing of legislative hearings and executive materials. They also publish essential and
inexpensive materials on nutrition, farming, building trades, travel, etc.
9. Paperback publishers produce two types of work – quality trade paperbacks and mass-market
paperbacks. Usually, they are a division of trade publishers that issue paperbound versions of books
previously issued in hardbound editions. Their distribution price is usually lower and is based on the
concept of mass sales.
10. Newspapers and periodicals publishers retain reporters or writers as members of their staffs.
Supplying current information is their primary objective.
11. Reprint publishers focus their efforts on reprinting titles no longer in print. Libraries and scholars are
their sales targets. Many of the titles they reprint are no longer in the public domain; that is, no longer
covered by copyrights.
12. Small presses print a limited quantity of titles. They are thought as literary presses by some. These
presses are usually operated by one person doing sidelines in publishing.
26.3 Standard Publication Numbers
Standard publication numbers are numbers that serve to identify every book at every library or bookshop
in the world. The two standard publication numbers are the International Standard Book Number (ISBN), the
International Standard Serial Number (ISSN), and the International Standard Music Number (ISMN). In order to
ensure that each number issued is unique, standard publication numbers are administered by a central agency, based
in Berlin, with national bodies (such as the United Kingdom's Standard Book Numbering Agency based in London)
taking care of specific regions.
1. ISBN
ISBN is a unique 10-digit standard number assigned to identify a specific edition of a book or
other monographic publication issued by a given publisher, under a system recommended for
international use by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1969. In the ISBN
system, media such as audiorecordings, videorecordings, microfiche, and computer software are
considered monographic publications, but serials, music sound recordings, and printed music are
excluded because other identification systems have been developed to cover them. The ISBN is
usually printed on the verso of the title page and on the back of the dust jacket of a book published in
hardcover, or at the foot of the back cover in paperback editions. In AACR2, the ISBN is entered in
the standard number and terms of availability area of the bibliographic description.
The ISBN is divided into four parts separated by a space or hyphen: a group number identifier
one to five digits in length identifying the national, language, geographic, or other area in which the
edition is published; a publisher prefix one to seven digits in length uniquely identifying the publisher;
a title number one to six digits in length identifying the title, volume, or edition of the work; and a
check digit that allows any transcription errors in the preceding sequence to be detected by a
computer. For example, in the ISBN 0-8389-0847-0, the 0 at the beginning identifies the United
States as the country of publication, the second element (8389) identifies the American Library
Association as the publisher, the third element (0847) identifies the 2003 edition of the book Metadata
Fundamentals for All Librarians by Priscilla Caplan, and the 0 at the end is the check digit. When a
calculated check digit is the number 10, the letter X is used, but in the other parts of the ISBN only the
arabic numerals 0-9 are used.
The 10-digit ISBN system has a theoretical numbering capacity of 1 billion. Over the past 35
years, numbers have been assigned in over 150 countries and the rate of depletion has accelerated
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with the proliferation of new publishing formats. To increase numbering capacity, ISO has announced
a transition to a 13-digit ISBN, to be implemented worldwide on January 1, 2007. The 13-digit
number will be identical to the Bookland EAN barcoded version of the current 10-digit ISBN, which
has an added 3-digit prefix and a recalculated check digit. In the United States, allocation of publisher
prefixes and assignment of ISBNs is managed by R. R. Bowker. ISBN codes for publishers are listed
in the Publishers' International ISBN Directory available from Bowker.
2. ISSN
ISSN is a unique eight-digit standard number assigned by the International Serials Data System
(ISDS) to identify a specific serial title. For example, ISSN 0363-0277, identifies the publication
Library Journal. In 2001, the scope of the ISSN was extended to cover continuing resources in
general. The ISSN is usually given in the masthead of each issue or on the copyright page of each
volume or part of a series. When a continuing resource undergoes a title change, a new ISSN is
assigned. The ISSN International Centre located in Paris, France, maintains a Web site at:
http://www.issn.org/.
3. ISMN
This is an alphanumeric code assigned to identify printed music available for sale, hire, or free of
charge. Used in music publishing, the music trade, and libraries, the ISMN uniquely identifies a title
issued by a given publisher in a particular edition. The ISMN is not used for sound recordings
(audiotapes, CDs, etc.), videorecordings, or books about music. Music publications issued in series
can have both an International Standard Serial Number and an ISMN, the ISSN identifying the
ongoing serial and the ISMN an individual title in the series. When both are assigned, the two
numbers are printed clearly on the copyright page.
Composed of the letter M followed by nine digits, the ISMN is divided into four parts (two of
which are of variable length) separated by the hyphen. In the example M-2306-7118-7, the letter M
distinguishes the code from standard numbers used to identify other types of material, the second part
(2306) is a unique publisher identifier assigned by an ISMN agency coordinated by the international
ISMN Agency in Berlin, the third part (7118) is an item identifier assigned by the publisher, and the
fourth part (7) is a computer-generated check digit that allows any errors in the preceding sequence to
be detected. R .R. Bowker is also the independent agent for the ISMN system in the United States.
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2. Conspectus – This is a comprehensive survey instrument. It was first developed by Research Library
Group to record current collection strengths collection intensities, and intended future intensities.
It is sometimes called collection mapping or inventory profiling.
––––– –Unit 8
Cataloging and Classification Episode 1 -
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Original cataloging is performed when no record exists or no record is accessible to the library or
cataloging agency. The cataloger supplies all the bibliographic and other data needed to describe the
materials.
29.3 A Brief History of Cataloging
Cataloging has already been a practice since the ancient period. Greeks were already applying the
principle of author entry then. The most famous library at that time which practiced cataloging is the Alexandrian
library under the librarianship of Callimachus, a scholar of Alexandria who reputedly wrote more than 800 books.
Of his learned works in prose one of the most important was the Pinakes, a huge catalogue of the works contained
in the Alexandrian library.
The medieval period was marked with significant developments. Inventories and lists for librarians’ use
gained more importance. Union lists for English libraries came during the 13 th century. The use of location codes
similar to the call numbers we use today marked the 14th century. The periods from 15th to 18th centuries bequeathed
further progress in cataloging. Librarians began to use cross references. Johann Tritheim introduced his concept of
bibliography in chronological order. Konrad Genser, considered as the “father of bibliography” advocated the
compilation of a bibliography by author with a subject index. An early scheme of classification and call numbers as
well as the use of multiple entries was introduced by Florian Trefler. Andrew Maunsell, an English bookseller,
advocated that entry for personal name be made under surname. He also set up uniform entries for the Bible. Sir
Thomas Bodley did an inverse of Genser’s work. He advocated the classified arrangement of a catalog with an
alphabetical index of authors by surname. Gabriel Naude recommended the compilation of a divided catalog. He
also promoted the use of catalogs as retrieval device and an expansive shelf arrangement. The French were the
pioneer in using catalogs in the library.
As the modern period came, more significant developments in cataloging arrived. More libraries realized
the importance of Library catalogs. Sir Anthony Panizzi formulated the British Museum Cataloging Rules in 1939
for the British Museum. Later in the United States (1853), Charles C. Jewett developed a code for the catalog of the
Smithsonian Institution. This code, known as the Jewett’s Rules originated the principle of corporate author and
“US” as the author of public documents. In 1908, American and British libraries started to adapt author and title
entries in their cataloging rules (through AA 1908). In Europe two cataloging systems became popular – the
Prussian Instructions and the Vatican Code. The Prussian Instructions was originally developed as a standardized
system of cataloging for Prussian libraries. It was adopted by many libraries in Germanic and Scandinavian
countries. The Vatican Code, on the other hand, were developed for the purpose of compiling a general catalog of
printed books in the Vatican Library after its reorganization in the 1920s. It has been called an “international code
with a definite American bias”.
The American Library Association (ALA) issued in 1941 the ALA draft of ALA Catalog Rules: Author
and Title Entries. It was in 1949 when ALA adopted the Rules for Descriptive Cataloging on the Library of
Congress. Later, ALA released ALA Catalog Rules which was edited by Clara Beetle.
In 1961, the International Conference on Cataloging Principles was held. The major product of this event
was the Paris Principles, a set of statements drew heavily from Lubetzky’s 1960 draft code. This made a major
influence in AACR’s principles on entry and headings.
In 1969, the International Meeting of Cataloging Experts took place in Copenhagen, Denmark. The event
gave birth to the International Standard Bibliographic Description (ISBD), a document that advocated the use of
special punctuation marks to distinguish bibliographic elements. The document was adopted in 1971 by the
International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA).
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A second edition (AACR2) was published in 1978. This edition was edited by Michael Gorman and Paul
W. Winkler. This was published under the auspices of ALA, British Library, Canadian Committee on Cataloging,
and the Library Association (UK).
AACR2 was revised by the same editors in 1988 (AACR2R) to reflect changes in information formats.
The 1998 revision includes changes and corrections authorized since 1988 by the Joint Steering Committee for
Revision of AACR (JSC), including amendments authorized through 1997. Member organizations in the JSC are
the same as those in the 1978, with the addition of Australian Committee on Cataloging,.
Additional amendments were issued in 1999 and 2001. The current version, Anglo-American Cataloguing
Rules, Second edition, 2002 Revision (AACR2 2002), includes extensive revisions to chapter 12 on continuing
resources (formerly known as serials). AACR2-e is a hypertext version published by ALA Editions that includes all
amendments through 2001.
In addition to AACR is the International Standard Bibliographic Description (ISBD), a set of standards
adopted in 1971 by the International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA), governing the bibliographic
description of items collected by libraries. The general standard ISBD(G) serves as a guide for describing all types
of library materials. Standards have also been developed for specific formats: ISBD(CM) for cartographic
materials, ISBD(PM) for printed music, ISBD(S) for serials, etc. ISBDs have been integrated into several catalog
codes around the world, including AACR2.
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The title proper is the chief name of an item, including any alternative title but excluding parallel
titles and other title information. An alternative title is the second part of the title proper that is
consisted of two parts, joined by the word or. The title may also appear repeatedly, in full or
abbreviated form, at the head or foot of each page or leaf. This is known as the running title.
Example: Crushed violet, or A servant girl’s tale
2. General material designation (GMD)
This indicates the broad class of material to which the item belongs. This element is enclosed in
square brackets.
Example: [text]
3. Parallel title
This is the title proper in another language. This element is preceded by the equals sign (=).
4. Other title information
This is a borne by an item other than the title proper, parallel title, or series title. This is any
phrase appearing in conjunction with the title proper, indicative of the character, contents, etc. of the
item, or the motives for or occasion of its production or publication. This element is preceded by a
space-colon-space (“ : “).
Example: The Philippine islands : a history
5. Statement of responsibility
This is a statement transcribed from the item being described, relating to persons responsible for
the intellectual or artistic content of the item, to corporate bodies from which the content emanates, or
to persons and corporate bodies responsible for the performance of the content of the item. This
element is preceded by a space-slash-space (“ / “). If there are subsequent statements of
responsibilities, each is preceded by a space-semicolon-space (“ ; “)..
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1. Musical presentation
This, obviously, is for music materials. It indicates whether the material is a miniature score,
playing score, part score, full score, etc.
2. Mathematical and other specific data
This applies for cartographic materials (maps, atlases, globes, etc.). It indicates data like
statements of scale, projection, coordinates, and equinoxes.
3. File characteristics
This is for computer files. In AACR2 R1998, this indicates information about computer data,
computer program, or both computer data and program; in AACR2 R2002, it indicates information
electronic data, electronic programs, or both electronic data and programs.
4. Numeric and/or alphabetic, chronological or other designation, or numbering area
This applies for continuing resources like serials and integrating resources.
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This indicates the number of physical units or parts (e.g. 3 x 3), or pagination (e.g. 150 p.).
2. Other physical detail
This gives information about illustrative matter in the materials (transcribed as “ill.” or “col. ill/”
for colored illustrative matter). This element is preceded by a space-colon-space (“ ; “).
3. Dimension
This is the height of the book given in centimeters rounded off to the next whole centimeter if not
an exact value (e.g. 24.3 cm. is transcribed as 24 cm.). This element is preceded by a space
semicolon-space (“ ; “).
4. Accompanying material\
This is a material issued with and intended to be used with the item. Accompanying materials are
usually in a different medium such as electronic formats. This element is preceded by a space-plus
sign-space (“ + “).
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The standard number and terms of availability area is the area of bibliographic description in which the
standard number (unique identification number assigned to an edition at the time of first publication, in accordance
with an internationally standardized identification system, usually appearing somewhere on the item like ISBN,
ISMN, ISSN, etc.), list price, and any other terms under which the item is available are entered. This area is always
transcribed as a new paragraph after the notes area.
Standard numbers that appear in this area include
1. International Standard Book Number (ISBN)
2. International Standard Serial Number (ISSN)
3. International Standard Music Number (ISMN)
A corporate body is an organization of group of persons that is identified by a name or the acts and may
function as an entity like any of the following.
business firms
local and national governments and their agencies
churches
associations (clubs and societies)
institutions *museums and libraries(
international agencies
conferences (meetings of individuals or representatives of various bodies for the purpose of
discussing and/or acting on topics of common interest, or meetings of representatives of a
corporate body that constitutes its legislative or governing body)
exhibitions
expeditions and festivals
performing groups
The following are chosen sections from AACR in name authority control for corporate bodies.
1. General rule (Rule 21.1B2)
Enter a work emanating from one or more corporate bodies under the heading for the appropriate
corporate body, if it falls in one or more of the following categories.
those of an administrative nature dealing with the corporate body itself,
or its internal policies, procedures, finances, and/or operations
or its officers, staff, and/or membership (e.g. directories)
or its resources (e.g. catalogs, inventories)
some legal, government, or religious works of the following types
laws
decrees of the chief executives that have the force of law
administrative regulations
constitutions
court rules
treaties, etc.
court discussions
legislative headings
religious laws (e.g. canon laws)
liturgical works
those that record the collective thought of the body (e.g. reports of commissions, committees,
etc.; official statements of positions on external policies)
those that report the collective activity of a conference (e.g. proceedings, collected papers),
of an expeditions ( e.g. results of exploration, investigations) , or an event (e.g. exhibitions,
fairs, festivals) falling within the definition of a corporate body, provided that the conference,
expedition, or event is named in the item being cataloged
those that result from the collective activity of a performing group as a whole where the
responsibility of the group goes beyond that of mere performance, execution, etc.
(publications resulting from such activities include sound recordings, films, video recordings,
and written records of performances)
cartographic materials emanating from a corporate body other than a body that is merely
responsible for their publication or distribution
2. Works emanating from a single corporate body (Rule 21.4B)
Enter a work, collection of works, or selection from a work or works by one corporate body (or
any reprint, reissue, etc. of such a work) under the heading for the body if the work or collection falls
into the categories mentioned.
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the work has more than three authors and none of them is the principal author, and no corporate
body is responsible (this rule appears in AACR2 R1988 and absent in AACR2 R1998 and AACR2
R2002)
the item is a collection, or a work produced under editorial collection and has a collective title
the item is not by a person or persons, and is issued by a corporate body but is not one of the
types of publications listed previously
it is a sacred scripture (such as the Bible, the Koran, or the Talmud), or an ancient anonymous
work (such as Beowulf, or the Arabian Nights)
31.5 Works of Shared Responsibility
Works of shared responsibility are works produced by the collaboration of two or more persons or
corporate bodies who performed the same kind of activity.
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For translations: Enter a translation under the heading appropriate to the original and an added
entry under the heading of the translator.
For items published with biographical/critical material: If a work or works by a writer
accompanied by (or interwoven with) biographical or critical material by another person is presented
in the chief source of information of the item being cataloged as a biographical or critical work, enter
it as such with an added entry appropriate to the work or works included.
2. Mixed responsibility in new works (Rule 21.24)
For collaborations between an artist and a writer: Enter a work that is a work of collaboration
between an artist and a writer under the one who is named first under the chief source of information
of the item being cataloged unless the other’s name is given greater prominence by the wording or
layout, and make an added entry under the heading for the other one.
For reports of interviews ort exchanges: If a work is essentially the work of the person(s)
interviewed or of the participants in an exchange (other than reporter), enter under the principal
participant, participant named first in the chief source of information of the item being cataloged, or
title, and make an added entry under the heading for the reporter if he or she is named prominently in
the item.
31.7 Forms of Headings
Headings are terms placed at the head of a catalog entry or listed in an index, to provide an access point.
They can be name of a person, corporate body, or geographic location; the title proper of a work; or an authorized
content descriptor (subject heading). The following is a differentiation among types of headings and the
corresponding AACR provisions for each.
1. Headings for persons
Choice of name (Rule 22.1)
In general, choose as the basis of the heading for a person, the name by which he or she is
commonly known. This can be the person’s real name, pseudonym, title of nobility, nickname,
initials, or other appellations. Determine the name by which a person is commonly known from
the chief source of information or works by that person issued in his/ her language.
Entry element (Rule 22.4)
If a person’s name consists of several parts, select the entry element that part of the name
under which the person would normally be listed in authoritative alphabetic list in his/her
language or country of residence or activity.
Here are specific rules for the order of elements.
i. If the entry element is the first element of the name, enter the name in direct order
Example: Ram Gopal
ii. If the first element is a surname, follow it by a comma (,).
Example: Chiang, Kai-shek
iii. If the entry element is not the first element in the name, transpose the elements of
the name preceding the entry element and follow the entry element by a comma (,).
Example: Cassat, Mary
iv. If the entry element is the proper name in a title of nobility, follow it by the
personal name and the part of the title denoting rank by commas (,).
Example: Caradon, Hugh Foot, Baron
2. Geographic names
General rule (Rule 23.2)
Use the English form of the name of a place if there is one in general use (determine this
form gazetteers and other reference sources published in English-speaking countries). Use the
form in the official language in the country if there is no English form in general use.
3. Headings for corporate bodies
General rule (Rule 24.1)
Enter the corporate body directly under the name by which it is commonly identified, except
when under the name of a higher or related body or under the name of a government (specific
rules apply for such cases).
4. Uniform titles
A uniform title is a title that brings together entries for different publications of the same work,
when those publications have different titles proper.
If the entry is under a name heading, place the uniform title between the name heading and the
title proper, and enclose the uniform title in square brackets.
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––––– –Unit 9
Cataloging and Classification Episode 2 -
Subject Cataloging
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when there is no English term for the concept and the concept is normally expressed in
foreign terms even in English language works and reference sources (e.g. Bonsai, Coups
d’ etat)
Technical/scientific or popular terms
Choice of terms must be different between libraries serving the general public and libraries
serving specialists.
Example: Lizards instead of Lacertilia
Obsolete or current terms
In establishing a new heading, a current term must be chosen over an obsolete term.
Example: Computers instead of Electronic-calculating machines
4. Unique heading
Each heading should represent only one subject and this concerns the presence of homographs.
Example: Rings (Jewelry)
Rings (Geometry)
Rings (Gymnastics)
5. Specific entry and co-extensivity
The principle of specific entry means that the item is entered under its subject heading0, not
under the heading of the class which includes the subject.
Example: “The Cat”
Subject headings: Cats (specific direct entry)
Zoology – Vertebrates – Mammals – Domestic animals –
Cats (specific indirect entry)
There are several factors considered in defining “specificity”.
hierarchical structure of a particular indexing language
collection being indexed (literary warrant)
document being indexed
depth of indexing
6. Pre-coordination and post-coordination
In pre-coordinate systems, multiple terms representing a topic and its aspects are pre-combined in
the source vocabulary or by the cataloger or by the indexer as the time of cataloging or indexing using
prepositions or other devices to show how the terms are interrelated.
On the other hand, in post-coordinate systems, terms for the main subject and its aspects are
simply listed separately and the searchers combine the terms at the point of retrieval.
32.3 Types of Catalogs
Basically, there are five (5) basic types of catalogs – classed/classified catalog, alphabetical specific
catalog, dictionary catalog, divided catalog, and online catalog.
1. Classed/classified catalog
In this type of catalog, a classed entry begins with the term at the top of the hierarchy to which
the subject being represented belongs, with each level in the hierarchy included in the subject heading.
Such catalogs usually use symbols, letters, and/or numbers so that closely related classes are brought
together in sequence. This type is also known as class catalog, classified subject catalog, or systematic
catalog.
Example: Plants – Trees – Evergreens – Pines – Southern pines
2. Alphabetical specific catalog
Entries in catalogs of this kind follow the principle of specific and direct entry. The entries are
arranged alphabetically without regard to their subject relationships or hierarchical status. This type is
also known as alphabetical subject catalog.
Example: (Based from the previous example)
Southern pines
3. Dictionary catalog
In a dictionary catalog, entries (for author, title, subject, series, etc.) and the cross references are
interfiled in one alphabetical sequence.
4. Divided catalog
In a divided catalog, entries are divided into separate files according to some criteria (i.e. author
entries form one distinct file and subject entries as another file).
5. Online catalog
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i. Mythological characters that are not gods are established in the form of
[Name of character] ([Ethnic adjective] mythology)
e.g. Lilith (Semitic mythology)
ii. The qualifier (Legendary character) is used with headings for legendary
characters.
e.g. Robin Hood (Legendary character); Hamlet
(Legendary character)
iii. The qualifier (Fictitious character) is used with names of characters of
literary or artistic invention, as opposed to legendary characters originating from
myths, legends, or folklore.
(e.g. Bond, James (Fictitious character); Tarzan
(Fictitious character)
iv. Names of comic characters are also established n the form of
[Name of character] (Fictitious character)
e.g. Snoopy (Fictitious character; Spider man
(Fictitious character)
v. Biblical figures are established with appropriate qualifiers.
e.g. Moses (Biblical leader); Abraham (Biblical patriarch)
Names of gods and goddesses are established in the form of
[Name of god or goddess] ([Ethnic adjective] deity)
e.g. Apollo (Greek deity); Minerva (Roman deity)
b. Corporate Bodies
Works related to origin, development, activities, and functions of individual corporate bodies
are assigned subject entries under their names. These headings include public and private
organizations, societies, institutions, associations, government agencies, commercial firms,
churches, and other groups identified by a name, such as conferences and exploring expeditions.
e.g. Rand Corporation; Philippine Heart Center
c. Geographic names
There are two basic types of geographic names – jurisdictional and non-jurisdictional
geographic names.
Jurisdictional geographic names are names of countries and political or administrative
divisions within countries such as cities, provinces, towns, etc.
e.g. London (England); Alaminos (Laguna, Philippines)
Non-jurisdictional geographic names are names of natural features or man-made structures
associated with places. Names of the following are also non-jurisdictional geographic names.
o archaeological sites, historic cities, etc.
o areas and regions
o canals
o city sections
o dams
o farms, ranches, gardens
o forests, grasslands
o geographic features (e.g. caves, desserts, lakes, mountains, etc.)
o parks, reserves, recreation areas, etc.
o roads, streets, rails
e.g. Oregon National Historic Trail; Pinatubo, Mount;
Grand Canyon (Ariz.)
There are specific important things to consider about geographic names.
The English form of the geographic name is preferred unless there is no English name in
common use.
e.g. Spain not Espaňa;
Germany not Deutschland
West Lake (China) not His-hu
The vernacular form is chosen when there is no English form in general use or it is
widely accepted in English-language works.
e.g. Rio de Janeiro (Brazil)
Rio de la Plata (Argentina and Uruguay)
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For entries located in two jurisdictions, the name of both jurisdictions are added in
alphabetical order unless the entry is located principally in one of the jurisdictions,
which will then be the one listed first...
e.g. Everest, Mount (China and Nepal);
Black Creek (New Mexico and Arizona)
For a river, the place of origin is always listed first.
e.g. Wye River (Wales and England)
Note that international bodies of water are not qualified.
e.g. English Channel
For an entity that spreads over three or more jurisdictions, no qualifier is added unless
there is a conflict or the name is ambiguous.
e.g. Amazon River;
Caribbean Sea, West (United States)
Individual non-jurisdictional islands or island groups that lie near a land mass and are
under its jurisdiction, as well as individual islands that form part of a jurisdictional
island cluster, are qualified by the name of the country or first-order political division.
e.g. Elizabeth Islands (Massachusetts)
Santa Catalina Island (California)
If the island does not lie near its controlling jurisdiction, but a part of an island group,
the name of the island group is used as the qualifier.
e.g. Palma (Wales and England)
Note that international bodies of water are not qualified.
e.g. English Channel
Qualifiers are not used for isolated islands or isolated groups of islands that are not
associated with a mainland country, or with islands that comprise more than one
autonomous jurisdiction.
e.g. Islands of the Pacific
Midway Islands
Natural features (lakes, hills, etc.) located within cities are qualified by the name of the
larger jurisdiction rather by the name of the city, except in cases of conflict.
e.g. West Lake (China)
Headings for districts, quarters, sections, and other man-made structures located within a
city, such as buildings, cities, plazas, parks, bridges, monuments, etc. consist of the
name of the entity qualified by the name of the city. The name of a borough, city
section, or city district is included in the qualifier only if it is necessary to resolve a
conflict between entities with identical names.
e.g. Times Square (New York, N. Y.)
Forbidden City (Beijing, China)
Hotel de ville (Lausanne, Switzerland)
Hotel de ville (Lyon, France)
d. Other proper names
These include names of animals, languages, ethnic groups, roads, events, etc.
e.g. Squirt (Dolphin) [animal]
Persian Gulf War, 1991 [historical event]
National Book Week [event]
Nobel Prizes [prize, awards]
Christmas [holiday]
Chinese [language]
Tiruray [ethnic group]
Buddhism [religion]
Filipino language [language]
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Example: Poetry
RT Literature
NT Classical poetry
Lyric poetry
3. General reference
This type directs he user to a group or category of headings instead of to individual members of
the group or category. It is sometimes called a blanket reference and is represented by the symbol
“SA”.
Example: Atlases
SA subdivision Maps under names of countries, cities,
etc. and under topics.
Rule of three
If a broad heading exists but includes more than two or three topics in question, assign two or
three headings, not the broader heading.
Example: Infants, children, and adolescents / Laura E. Berk
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For works about internet or web resources, the topical subdivision – Computer network
resource is used.
Example: European history highway : a guide to internet resources
[Subjects] Europe – History – Research
History – Computer network resources
Internet
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o Read through the other parts of the item (e.g. introduction, preface, table of
contents, etc.) in order to identify and express the specific contents of the item. This is called the
expressive title. Below are the parts of an item that will be useful in doing this step.
Item Part Remarks
Title may or may not be helpful
Subtitle often more useful
Author may provide an identification of the broad topic if the
author is already established in publishing in the area
Foreword, preface, usually state the author’s intention
introduction
Publisher may give an introduction if the publisher specializes in
a particular subject area
Series may sometimes be useful
Comments and index usually indicate the main topics
Text confirms ideas about the subject
Catalog in publication (CIP) useful but must be used with care
From the above example, a possible expressive title will be
How to manage barangay finances in the Philippines
(Underscored items are not included in the raw title.)
o Write down the kernel title by retaining the substantive or kernel terms which
denote each of the substantive ideas and dropping the auxiliary words and connectives such as
articles prepositions, and conjunctions.
The kernel title for the above example will be
Manage, Barangay finances, Philippines
o Write down the transformed title by rearranging the kernel terms in a sequence that
would show which concept is the most significant.
The transformed title will be
Barangay finances, Philippines, Manage
o Using standard terms lists or controlled vocabulary lists, verify the terms and make
the necessary modifications.
Subject headings:
Local finances – Philippines – Management
Finance, Public – Philippines – Handbook, manuals, etc.
Translation takes place at the stage when standard terms contained in the controlled
vocabulary are used to represent the subject heading of an item.
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––––– –Unit 10
Cataloging and Classification Episode 3 -
Classification
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This theory also provides listing of all subjects and their subdivisions and provides ready-made
symbols for them; such scheme is known as enumerative scheme. An example of this type of
classification scheme is the Library of Congress Classification System (LCCS).
2. Modern classification theory
This theory places an emphasis on facet analysis and synthesis. Analysis is the breaking up of a
subject into its component parts, while synthesis is the reassembly of those parts as required by the
document to be represented. In this theory, the basic components of subject are identified, and provide
lists of elements or aspects that are topically important under each discipline or main class. For
example, the topic Education may have the following facets.
Educational institutions
Persons taught
Subjects taught
Method of instruction, etc.
A system based on these principles is called a faceted or analytico-synthetic classification. A good
example of this type is the Colon Classification.
3. Close classification
In this theory, the content of a work is specified by notation to the fullest extent possible.
4. Broad classification
This system means that a work is placed in a broad class by use of notation that has been
logically abridged. For example, a work on French cooking is classed closely by the Dewey Decimal
Classification System at 641.5944 (641.59 corresponds to Cooking by place, and from Table 2, 44 is
assigned to France), or broadly at 641.5 (under Cooking).
35.4 Notation
Notation is a device consisting of numerals, letters, and/or symbols used to represent the main and
subordinate divisions of a classification scheme.
There are several types of notation. If classified according to the kind of symbols used, they may either be
pure notation or mixed notation.
Pure notation – a notational system that uses one kind of symbol only (i.e. purely alphabetic or
numeric)
Mixed notation – a notation system using a combination of two or more kinds of symbols (i.e. a
combination of letters and numbers)
Notation may also be classified according to the system they employ on how to represent subjects.
Hierarchical notation – this notation reflects the structural order or hierarchy of the classification
scheme; it may be either in pure or mixed notation
Expressive notation – this reflects the relationship among coordinate subjects; may also be either
in pure or mixed notation
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work on a particular subject written with a bias toward, or aiming at a specific group of reader
under the very subject, not the element towards the work is biased.
Example: Psychology for College Students
Classify under Psychology, not college students.
Phase relations may also reflect one subject being used as a tool or as a method of applying
another subject. In such case, classify under the subject, not the tool.
Example: Chemical calculations: an introduction to the use of
mathematics in chemistry
Classify under chemistry, not mathematics.
If a number of subjects are being compared from one another, classify under the subject being
emphasized, or to the first subject being dealt by the material if emphasis cannot be ascertained.
2. Classify the multi-topical material under the first subject that is being dealt with in case when the
dominant subject cannot be ascertained. This applies for works treating two or more subjects
separately, or in comparison without any indication of preponderance.
3. Class under the broader subject of a work if it deals with two or three subjects that are subdivisions of
a broader subject and together they constitute the major portion of the subject.
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These notes instruct the classifier not to use all or part of the regular standard
subdivision notation or an add-table provision, in favor of a special or standard subdivisions
at a broader number.
Example: [374.809] Historical, geographic, person treatment
Do not use class 374.9.
37.2 Library of Congress Classification System
The Library of Congress Classification System (LCCS) was developed by J. C. M. Hanson, and Charles
Martel, using Cutter’s Expansive Classification as basis.
Notation
LCCS uses a mixed notation of letters and Arabic numerals to construct call numbers. The
notation in LCCS uses a three-element pattern:
first element – single capital letters for main classes (e.g. H for Social Science), with one
or two capital letters for their subclasses (e.g. HA for Statistics)
second element – Arabic integers from 1 to 9999 for subdivisions, and,
third element – Cutter numbers for individual books.
In many schedules, the single letter stands for the class as a whole, as well as for its subclass (e.g.
class N for Fine Arts; subclass N for Visual arts: General).
The use of the second and third elements were allowed to accommodate expansion. The divisions
are represented by Arabic integers from 1 to 9999 with possible decimal extensions, and/or with
further indicated by Cutter numbers.
Example: Z [One capital letter]
8587 [Integer from 1 to 9999]
.8 [Decimal extension]
.A46 [Book number]
1991
Classes, subclasses, and divisions
LCCS has twenty-one (21) main classes displayed on over (40) separately published schedules.
The organization of divisions within a class, subclass, or subject originally followed a pattern known
as Martel’s seven points:
general form subdivisions
theory philosophy
history
treatises and general works
law regulation/state relations
study and teaching
special subjects and subdivision of subjects
The following table lists the main classes in the LCCS, as indicated below by
capital letters.
Main Class Class Title
A General Works
B Philosophy, Psychology, Religion
C Auxiliary Sciences of History
D History (General) and History of Europe
E History: America
F History: America
G Geography, Anthropology, Recreation
H Social Science
J Political Science
K Law
L Education
M Music and Books on Music
N Fine Arts
P Language and Literature
Q Science
R Medicine
S Agriculture
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T Technology
U Military Science
V Naval Science
Z Bibliography, Library Science, Information
The main classes are further subdivided into subclasses. The following are the
subclasses of class M.
Subclass Subclass Title
M General Geography, Atlases, Maps
ML Cartography, Mathematical Geography
MT Physical Geography
The each subclass has its own divisions that represent the components of the
subclasses. For example, the subclass Human Geography (GF) has the following
divisions.
Subclass Division Division Title
ML 1-3930 Literature of Music
48-54.8 Texts for Music
110-158 Bibliography
155-158 Sound Recordings
159-3799 History and Criticism
410 Composer Biographies
459-1380 Instruments and Instrumental Music
1100-1380 Chamber and Orchestral Music, Band (Military Music),
Electronic Music
1400-3275 Vocal Music
1500-1554 Choral Music (Sacred and Secular)
1600-2881 Secular Vocal Music
2900-3275 Sacred Vocal Music
3400-3465 Dance Music
3469-3541 Popular Music
3544-3776 National Music
3800-3923 Philosophy and Physics of Music
3928-3930 Juvenile Literature
Each of the divisions, in turn, has subdivisions specifying the different aspects of the subject,
such as form, time, place, and more detailed subject subdivisions.
Tables
The LLCS contains two primary categorical groups of tables. Each main group is
classified further into specific genres, as shown in this table.
Primary Table Sub-tables and Their Description
Tables for Tables for geographic division by means of Cutter
General numbers
Applications One particular table belonging in this group (Regions and
Countries in One Alphabet) provides alphabetical arrangement
of countries by subject. It is used whenever the schedule gives
the information “By country, A-Z” or “By region, A-Z”.
Biography table
This is used for works about a person, including
autobiographies, letters, speeches, and biographies.
Tables of Limited Tables applicable to an individual class or subclass
Applications This group includes the following.
Table 5 Author titles used throughout the schedules for class
P.
Language and literature
Form tables used in in the schedules of class K, Law
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X Biography
Brown advocated the principle of “one-place” classification – “concrete” subjects should have
only one place, qualified by “standpoints”. For example, “Rose” could be qualified by its standpoints
(i.e. Biological, Botanical, Horticultural, Historical, Geographical, Ethical, Decorative, Legal,
Emblematical, Bibliographical, Poetical, Musical, Sociological, and so on to any extent).
This idea carried out in the classification by three kinds of notational synthesis:
1. Intra-class synthesis – synthesis from two sections of the same main class achieved by + and
omission of the main class letter.
Example: Cats and dogs = F952 + F918 = F952 + 918
There is no preferred citation order.
2. Inter-class synthesis – synthesis from two main classes by + and retention of the main
class letter
Example: Logic and rhetoric = A300 + M170
Gambling in dog racing = L933 + F944
Such are called “composite subjects” or “composite books”. In this notational synthesis,
there is no preferred citation order.
3. Categorical table – a table of forms, phases, standpoints, qualifications, etc., which apply
more or less to every subject or subdivision of a subject; it is in two parts
Notational order (e.g., .25 Diaries)
Alphabetical order (e.g., Art .116)
Numerical notation preceded by a dot, which is not a decimal (.). There is no synthesis
within the Categorical Table. Categorical Table numbers are added to any notation from
the schedules.
Examples: Economics of universities = A180.760
Universities = A180 [schedules]
Economics = .760 [Categorical Table]
Economics of musical competitions = C798.760
Musical competitions = C798 [schedules]
Economics = .760 [Categorical Table]
These synthetic notations provided more flexibility than any classification of its time (except
UDC, which had the same auxiliary tables for synthesis it has now).
Colon Classification
This classification system was developed by S. R. Ranganathan, although Ranganathan was not
the inventor of facet analysis. He is credited as the first to "systematize and formalize the theory". It is
said that his idea of a faceted classification scheme is inspired by a Lego-type toy set. Seeing that the
salesperson can build different toys just by combining the same pieces in a different way, he builds
his classification scheme by this analogy.
The Colon Classification, just as other classification schemes, starts with a number of main
classes (42), which represent the fields of knowledge. Each class is then analyzed and broken down
into its basic elements, grouped together by common attributes, called facets. Upon examining all the
facets, Ranganthan notices that there are five main groups into which the facets fall, and he calls these
the fundamental categories, represented by the mnemonic PMEST in an order of decreasing
concreteness.
Personality
- can be understood as the primary facet.
- the most prominent attribute
Matter
- physical material
Energy
- action
Space
- location
Time
- time period
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There are also facets that are common to all the classes. These are called common isolates.
Examples include form and language. The same facet can be used more than once.
Notations, such as numbers and letters, are used to represent the facets, while punctuation marks
are used to indicate the nature and type of the following facets. The classifier's job, therefore, is to
combine the available terms that are appropriate in describing the information package in hand.
Let us consider the construction of a notation using the Ranganathan's Colon Classification.
Suppose we have a book that is about "research in the cure of tuberculosis of lungs by x-ray
conducted in India in 1950" (Glassel, 1998). The call number will be as follows:
L,45;421:6;253:f.44'N5
The notations represent
[Medicine,Lungs;Tuberculosis:Treatment;X-ray:Research.India'1950]
It is amazing how the notation covers all the significant aspects of the subject of the item. Such a
classification scheme is considered to be "hospitable" to all sorts of complex topics. It is therefore a
"dynamic" scheme.
––––– –Unit 11
Cataloging and Classification Episode 4 -
Non-Book Materials
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The following is an enumeration of non-book materials taken from the AACR2R 2002.
Category Definition/Description Examples
Cartographic materials These are materials relating to maps, or in globe, map, atlas
the form of a map
Manuscripts These are materials that contain text diaries (written by hand)(,
written by hand, especially one written typescript, lecture notes
before the invention of printing,
Music This refers to printed music (either various types of music
published or unpublished). scores
Sound recordings These are materials that contain disc, roll, tape (open, reel
registration of sound by mechanical or to reel, cartridge, and
electronic means so that the sound cassette)
may be reproduced.
Motion pictures and Motion pictures are films with or loop, cartridge, cassette,
videorecordings without sound, bearing a sequence of kinescope, stock shot,
image that creates the illusion of trailer, betamax, VHS,
movement when projected. video CD, DVD
Videorecordings are materials
designed for television playback on
which both picture and sound have
been registered electronically.
Graphic materials These are materials that are products picture, photograph,
of any of the artistic processes such as painting, drawing,
drawing, calligraphy, engraving, and illustration chart, filmstrip,
printmaking that are based on the use of slide, transparency
lines rather than color.
Electronic resources These refer to materials that use or are any computer data or
(including electronic being controlled by a computer or program
serials) computer network, or relate to the use of
computers in accessing them.
Three-dimensional An artifact refers to diorama, game, model,
artifacts and realia an object made by a human being, specimen
especially one that has archaeological or
cultural interest
A realia is an actual object.
Microforms These are materials that contain a microfilm, microfiche,
miniature reproduction of printed or micropaques, aperture
other graphic matter which cannot be card
utilized without magnification.
Multimedia items (kits) These refer to sets of materials kit
composed of several textual parts, or,
two or more media, no one of which is
identifiable as the predominant
component of the item.
Continuing resources These are materials published newspaper, journal,
(printed serials) published at regular intervals and are magazine, newsletter,
intended to continue indefinitely. yearbook/annual, gazette
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As new types of media are acquired, the library will soon run out of distinctive colors.
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Many materials are sold in sets and can be processed either as units or as separate items with a
series added entry indicating their relationship. In deciding whether to keep a set together or to break
it up and catalog each item separately, the cataloger must consider the type of materials, the library or
the media center, and the needs of the user. This decision is often affected by subject analysis. If each
item within a set would have significantly different classification numbers and subject headings, it
may be advantageous to catalog each part of the set separately. On the other hand, if the items within
the set have the same classification and subject headings, it is more efficient to catalog the series as a
unit.
Added entries
The purpose of added entries is to enable the user to find a particular item by some name or title
other than the selected as the main entry heading. Added entries also add group materials in useful
ways, e.g. by director. The number and kind of added entries required depend on the catalog use in
each library or media center. The following policy should be considered when establishing a policy
for added entries.
An added entry policy should be applied consistently to book and non-book materials.
The policy should be keeping with the chosen level of description, e.g. more added
entries in third level description than in first level description.
Only names, titles, and series listed in the catalog are traced. Added entries may be made
for any one of all of these if the cataloger believes that a patron may search for an item under
a particular heading.
Designation of function
If a media center has special requirements for the retrieval of particular information, such as the
quick identification of a person’s function or the need to group functions, a designation chosen from a
standard list may be added to a heading.
40.2 Subject Analysis for Non-book Materials
The subject analysis chosen by a library for its book collection should be used for all media.
Subject headings
Preference should be given to a subject heading system which is comprehensive and is
periodically revised. The systems most commonly used by certain types of libraries and media centers
are the Library of Congress Subject Headings and the Sears List of Subject Headings. Special libraries
devoted to specific disciplines may use specialized subject authority lists, such as the Medical Subject
Headings (MeSH) for health science collections. When appropriate, these subject heading lists can be
supplemented with other subject authority list titles.
Media form subdivision
The terminology used for media form of subdivision is the same as that in the list of general
material designations. The use of such subdivisions has its own advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages
In a long sequence of items listed under a heading, items in a particular format
may not be found readily. Media form subdivision can draw attention to various formats of
an extensively covered topic.
In a library where more requests link subject matter to format, subdividing the
sequence may make such information more accessible.
Disadvantages
The segregation of item in the catalog into format groupings erodes the concept
of an integrated collection, which promotes the idea that information comes in all forms, the
information being more important than the format.
In both a general material designation and a medium form subdivision are listed
in the record, the same information is given twice. This increases costs and is unnecessary in
some automated systems.
Classification or accession number for information retrieval
The use of some classification scheme for all media materials is suggested for the following
reasons.
o Library or media center patrons find it easier to become acquainted with and use one
system.
o Whenever possible, materials of the same subject are stored together.
o Emphasis is given on content rather than form.
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o Centralized cataloging and processing services do not assign non-standard call numbers
or accession numbers.
o Computer-based all-media bibliographies can be made available easily from the catalog
data.
o Some computer-based systems use classification numbers for circulation control.
o Computer-based systems may use classification numbers to help with collection
development by organizing holdings and usage data by subject area.
Classifying materials for integrated collections necessitates flexible storage and trained personnel.
On the other hand, the cataloger may choose to store materials according to accession numbers. Note
that accession numbers may or may not be relative to classification of materials by subject; therefore,
it has its set of drawbacks.
o Materials on the same subject are not housed together because there is no relationship
between accession number and subject.
o Added copies of a particular item may have different accession numbers and will be
stored in different locations.
o The only subject access for the materials is through the catalog.
o Call numbers must be assigned by individual resource centers, thereby diminishing the
economy of centralized services or derived cataloging.
Classification
The librarian or the media specialist should choose a classification scheme which is
comprehensive, continuously revised, and proven in day to day use by libraries of a similar size and
type. The selection of a particular scheme may be based generally on the anticipated size of the
collection and the degree of specificity required in classification. The schemes most commonly used
by certain types of libraries and media centers are the Library of Congress Classification System and
the Dewey Decimal Classification System. Libraries with more specialized collection on a specific
discipline are advised to use subject-oriented classification schemes, e.g. National Library of
Medicine Classification System.
Call letters, identification numbers
The decision, whether to use call letters or specific numbering systems (e.g. Cutter numbers) will
generally depend on the size of the collection. Unique call letters or identification numbers are
important, especially to some automated circulation systems, and such identification codes used in
conjunction with copy numbers can eliminate the expense of assigning accession numbers for exact
identification.
Special aspects of subject analysis for non-book material
Librarians and media specialists had been concerned about certain aspects of subject analysis for
non-book materials.
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The musical presentation statement area for printed music describes the physical form of the
presentation, whether it is a full score, miniature score, piano score, vocal score, etc.
Publication, Distribution, etc. area
This is formerly known as the imprint. This area records all information about the place, name,
and date related to publication, distribution, releasing, and issuance activities. Also included in this
area are information relating to the manufacture of the item.
An optional addition which may be made in this area is the recording of the statement of function
of the publisher, distributor, producer, or production company. This may be necessary for some non-
book materials where the producer or the production company and the distributor are different entities
and their respective functions need to be specified.
Example: New York : Encyclopedia Britanica Files
[production company] ; London : Educational
Service [distributor], 1975.
Where the publication or the production date differs from the date of distribution, the latter may
be added if it is considered to be significant by the cataloging agency. If the publisher and distributor
are different, the dates must be given after the names to which they apply.
Example: New York : American Broadcasting Co., 1975 ; San
Francisco : Released by Pyramid Films, 1972.
In the description of art originals and other unpublished graphic materials, only the date is given
in this area. Neither the place of publication nor the name of publisher is given. This is also true for
naturally occurring objects or realia, other than those mounted for viewing or packaged for
presentation, and artifacts not intended primarily for communication such as models, dioramas, and
games. In the case of naturally occurring objects other than those mounted for viewing or packaged
for presentation, not even the date is given. But for artifacts, it is given as the first element in this area.
The place and name of manufacture follows, enclosed in parentheses.
Example: The heart [model]. – 1962 (Philadelphia : DCA
Educational Products)
Physical description area
This area is formerly known as the collation, and it consists of four elements.
o Extent of item – This element is expressed in number of units of the item being described and
the material designation.
Examples: 3 filmstrips
1 sound disc
4 microfiches
If the material has a playing time like in motion pictures audio recordings, and
videorecordings, the duration or running time is given enclosed in parentheses.
Example: 1 film reel (24 mins.)
o Other physical details – The extent or duration is not covered here. This element varies with
form or type of material of the item. Thus for instance in sound recordings or video
recordings, appropriate details about the type of recording, playing speed either in
revolutions per minute (rpm) or unit length per minute (e.g. inches/centimeters per minute,
track configurations, number of sound channels (e.g. mono, stereo, quad.., etc.) and
recording and reproduction characteristics should be given in that order. A filmstrip, on the
other hand, will need indication of sound only if the sound is integral, as well as the color
(col. or b & w).
This element is preceded by a colon, and within it, the items are separated by commas.
Example: 1 sound tape reel (50 mins.) : 1 7/8 ipm., 2 tracks,
mono.
o Dimensions – This would again vary with the form of the materials as diameter for discs
(given in in.), width for filmstrips, motion pictures, or microfilms (given in mm.), width for
videotapes (given in in.), height and width for transparencies, charts, pictures, microfiches,
and slides (given in cm.). This element is preceded by a semi-colon.
o Accompanying materials – Such materials may be in printed formats (e.g. booklet, pamphlet,
guide), or in other formats . Optionally, the physical details of the accompanying material
may be given.
Example: 1 microfilm reel : 16 cm. + 1 pamphlet (20 p. ; ill. ;
28 cm.)
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Series area
If applicable, a series statement in parentheses follows the physical description area. The series
area includes the following elements.
o title proper of series
o parallel title
o other title information
o statement of responsibility
o International Standard Serial Number (ISSN)
o numbering within series
o subseries and its parallel titles, other title information,. and statement of responsibility
o ISSN of subseries
o numbering of subseries
If an item belongs to more than one series titles rather than a series and a subseries, each series is
enclosed within its own parentheses. Series statements may be omitted. However, series statements to
be traced and those which add substantially to an understanding of the catalog record should be listed.
Notes area
Notes give useful descriptive information that cannot be fitted into other areas of bibliographic
description. Notes that may be contained in this area vary for different kinds of materials. Notes may
be considered optional in that their inclusion in the entry depends on the nature of the item described
and the purpose of the entry concerned. Some items may need several notes while other may only
need one or two. When appropriate, several types of notes may be combined into one note.
Some important notes which ought to be given for non-book materials are:
o nature of artistic form of the item
o language, translation, and/or adaptation
o source of title proper
o variations in title
o parallel title and other title information (if not listed in the title and statement of
responsibility area)
o statements of responsibility (credits or performers notes; may include additional
information not listed in the title and statement of responsibility area or statements of
responsibility not taken from the chief source of information)
o edition and history
o material specific details
o additional information about publication, distribution, etc.
o additional information concerning physical description, particularly if such information
affects the item’s use (e.g. notes about system requirements for electronic resources)
o accompanying materials and supplements (if not listed elsewhere)
o additional information about series
o intended audience
o other formats
o brief objective summary of the contents of the item (unless another area gives enough
information)
o full or partial contents
o numbers associated with the item other than standard numbers
o peculiarities of the particular copy the library or media center holds (e.g. incomplete
holdings, restrictions on use, other formats of the same item available in the library or media
center)
o “with” notes (for items that consists of separately titled parts and has no collective title)
o information concerning the originality or the reproduction (either reproduction from
another copy or formats, or reproduction to other copies or formats)
The provision of such notes will preclude the unnecessary handling of the material and assist the
reader in his choice of materials through the catalog.
Standard numbers and terms of availability area
This area gives the international standard numbers (e.g. ISSN and ISMN) of the item being
described, if they are available. Standard numbers are transcribes exactly as the way they appear in
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the materials, as to the correct abbreviations and hyphenation of the numbers. If two standard numbers
appear on the item, list the one that applies to the item being cataloged. In a multipart item, list the
one that applies to the whole item. In serials, the key title of the serial follows the ISSN. This is
separated by space-equals sign-space. The key title is not listed if no ISSN is found. If there are two
standard numbers, a brief qualification (enclosed in parentheses) follows each number.
The terms of availability, an optional element, gives the terms on which the item is available. It is
preceded by a space-colon-space. Such terms may be the unit price of the item (if the item is for sale),
or a brief statement of other terms (if the item is not for sale). Special terms of availability are also
qualified.
The following are schematic diagrams that can be used for describing usual non-book materials.
Notes
Standard numbers : terms of availability
Tracings
Call
Number Title proper [GMD] = parallel title : other title information / first statement
of responsibility ; subsequent statement of responsibility. – Edition
statement / statement of responsibility relating to edition ; subsequent
statement of responsibility relating to edition. – Material specific details. –
Place of publication : publisher, date of publication (place of manufacture :
name of manufacturer, date of manufacture)
Extent of item : other physical details ; dimensions + accompanying
material. – (Series statement ; numbering within the series)
Notes
Standard numbers : terms of availability
–––––
Tracings
–Unit 12
[Entry for title]
Reference and Information:
Sources and Services
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These reference materials are used most often in answering ready reference questions (a
reference question that can be answered by the reference librarian in just a few moments by providing
a fact or piece of information found in a single source). These include the following.
encyclopedias atlases, gazetteers, travel
dictionaries guidebooks)
thesauri serials (e.g. magazines,
general factbooks journals, periodicals, newspapers,
handbooks etx.)
manuals government publications
concordances company and trade literature
directories technical reports
biographical information standards
sources (e.g. biographies) specifications
geographical information dissertations
sources (e.g. maps, theses
The following titles are examples of guides to reference sources.
Guide to Reference Books
Walford’s Guide to Reference Materials
Gale Directory of Databases
The next three chapters are dedicated to control-access-directional reference sources. The succeeding ones
will cover ready reference sources.
41.2 Bibliographies
Strictly speaking, a bibliography is a systematic list or enumeration of written works by a specific author
or on a given subject, or that share one or more common characteristics (language, form, period, place of
publication, etc.). When a bibliography is about a person, the subject is the bibliographee. A bibliography may
be comprehensive or selective. Long bibliographies may be published serially or in book form. The person
responsible for compiling a bibliography is the bibliographer.
In the context of scholarly publication, this refers to a list of references to sources cited in the text of an
article or book, or suggested by the author for further reading, usually appearing at the end of the work.
Bibliographies are covered in greater detail in the next chapter.
41.3 Library Catalogs
Library catalogs are comprehensive lists of the books, periodicals, maps, and other materials in a
given collection, arranged in systematic order to facilitate retrieval (usually alphabetically by author, title, and/or
subject). In most modern libraries, the card catalog has been converted to machine-readable bibliographic records
and is available online. The purpose of a library catalog, as stated by Charles C. Cutter in Rules for a Dictionary
Catalog (1904), later modified by Bohdan S. Wynar in Introduction to Cataloging and Classification (8th ed.,
1992), is to offer the user a variety of approaches or access points to the information contained in the collection.
Specifically, they aim the following::
To enable a person to find any work, whether issued in print or in nonprint format, when one of the following is
known:
a. The author
b. The title
c. The subject
1. To show what the library has
d. By a given author
e. On a given and related subjects
f. In a given kind of literature
2. To assist in the choice of a work
g. As to the bibliographic edition
h. As to its character (literary or topical)
The preparation of entries for a library catalog (called cataloging) is performed by a librarian known as a
cataloger. Particulars about library catalogs and aspects of cataloging are already covered in the previous chapters.
41.4 Indexes and Abstracts
An index is a tool used to locate information in a document or in a group of documents. It is an
alphabetically arranged list of headings consisting of the personal names, places, and subjects treated in a written
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work, with directional indicators (page numbers or some other sort) to refer the reader to the point in the text at
which information pertaining to the heading is found. In single-volume works of reference and nonfiction, any
indexes appear at the end of the back matter. In a multi-volume work, they are found at the end of the last volume.
In very large multivolume reference works (such as encyclopedias), the last volume may be devoted entirely to
indexes.
Works of fiction are rarely indexed. The publisher of a periodical may provide an index to each volume at
the end of the last issue of the publication year. For best results, indexing should be done by a professional indexer.
Index also refers to an open-end finding guide to the literature of an academic field or discipline (e.g.
Philosopher's Index), to works of a specific literary form (e.g. Biography Index) or published in a specific format
(e.g. Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature), or to the analyzed contents of a serial publication (e.g. New York
Times Index). Indexes of this kind are usually issued in monthly or quarterly paperback supplements, cumulated
annually. Citations are usually listed by author and subject in separate sections, or in a single alphabetical sequence
under a system of authorized headings collectively known as controlled vocabulary, developed over time by the
indexing service. I
An abstract is somehow the same as an index. However, it has a brief, objective summary of the essential
content of a book, article, speech, report, dissertation, or other works, presenting the main points in the same order
as the original but with no independent literary value. An abstract can be indicative, informative, critical, or written
from a particular point of view (slanted).
41.5 Encyclopedias
An encyclopedia is a book or numbered set of books containing authoritative summary information about
a variety of topics in the form of short essays, usually arranged alphabetically by headword or classified in some
manner. The term encyclopedia is derived from the Greek word (enkyklios paideia (all-embracing education).
The encyclopedia is an effort to bring together information from all branches of knowledge or from a
single subject area and arrange it in an alphabetical order for ready reference. An entry may be signed or unsigned,
with or without illustration or a list of references for further reading. Headwords and text are usually revised
periodically for publication in a new edition. In a multivolume encyclopedia, any indexes are usually located at the
end of the last volume.
Encyclopedias may be general (e.g. Encyclopedia Americana) or specialized, usually by subject (e.g.
Encyclopedia of Bad Taste) or discipline (e.g. Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science).
The oldest complete encyclopedia extant is the Historia Naturalis (Natural History, c. ad 79) of Pliny
the Elder. It is an encyclopedia of natural science. Another encyclopedic work held in great esteem for many
centuries is the Etymologiarum, seu Originum Libri XX (Twenty Books of Etymologies, or Origins), compiled in
623 by the Spanish ecclesiastic and scholar Isidore of Seville. The modern encyclopedia began with the 21-volume
Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des Sciences, des Arts, et des Métiers, compiled and edited by Denis
Diderot and Jean d'Alembert, an expression of the rationalism of the 18th-century Enlightenment (Cornell
University Library). In electronic publishing, encyclopedias were one of the first formats to include multimedia and
interactive elements (e.g. Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia).
There are many companies who are responsible in publishing encyclopedias. Among them are the
following:
Encyclopedia Britanica Educational Corp.
World Book International
Grolier, Inc.
Macmillan Educational Corp.
Funk & Wagnalls
Encyclopedias can be grouped according to the following categories. Each group enumerates a few
famous titles.
Adult encyclopedias
The New Encyclopedia Britanica
(familiarly known as Britannica 3, which consisted of three parts – Propaedia, which outlines the
“circle of modern knowledge”; Micropaedia which contains ready reference entries; and
Macropaedia, which contains longer articles offering “knowledge in depth”)
The Encyclopedia Americana
Popular adult and high school sets
Academic American Encyclopedia
Collier’s Encyclopedia
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the original but omits the less important passages of text and usually any illustrations, notes, and appendices. Often
prepared by a person other than the original author or editor, an abridged edition is generally intended for readers
unlikely to purchase the unabridged version because of its length, complexity, or price. The following are some
sample titles of unabridged and abridged dictionaries.
Unabridged dictionaries
Webster’s 3rd New International Dictionary
The Random House Dictionary
Abridged dictionaries
The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language
Webster’s 9th New Collegiate Dictionary
Webster’s New World Dictionary of the English Language
The Random House College Dictionary
Dictionaries that are limited to a maximum of 60,000 entries are referred to as reduced word dictionaries.
Specialized dictionaries are more inclined to a specific aspect of language, languages used in specific disciplines,
or to a special interest on a certain language. Example titles of these two are given as follows.
Reduced word dictionaries
Oxford American Dictionary
Specialized dictionaries
Dictionary of American Regional English
The Random House Cross-Word Puzzle Dictionary
There are certain types of specialized dictionaries. Etymological or diachronic dictionaries provide
information about the history of each word in their entries. Slang dictionaries are dictionaries that deal with the
variations of meaning of a given slang terms or words and trace their history. They can define an expression well,
aiding authors in finding words which will convey the background, class, or occupation of a given character in their
work. Slang dictionaries are also just for curiosity and interest about popular slang words used in a given society.
There are also dictionaries for abbreviations and acronyms. Subject dictionaries explain particular meanings for
particular words/items for professions, occupation, or areas of subject interest. Foreign language dictionaries deal
with languages other than the English language. The following enumerates some sample title of these types.
Etymological/diachronic dictionaries
The Oxford English Dictionary(20 vols.)
Slang dictionaries
Dictionary of American Slang
Thesaurus of Slang
New American Dictionary of American Slang
Subject dictionaries
Harrod’s Librarian’s Glossary of Terms
Dictionary of Library and Information Science
Foreign language dictionaries
Casell’s series
Dictionary of Foreign Phrases and Abbreviations
Dictionaries published by Larrousse
Dictionaries classified as encyclopedic dictionaries do not only define words but also explain things
(though the explanations are relatively short compared to those found in encyclopedias).
Although similar to the general form of a dictionary, a thesaurus can be treated as a reference distinct
from dictionaries. A thesaurus is basically a reference that lists words related to each other in meaning, usually
giving synonyms and antonyms. They can either be dictionary in form or in a classified form (arranged according
to some scheme of classification).
Here are sample titles of encyclopedic dictionaries and thesauri.
Encyclopedic dictionaries
Grand Dictionnaire Universel (17 vols., 1865-1890)
Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia (revised ed., 12 vols., 1911)
Thesauri
Roget’s International Thesaurus
Roget’s Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases
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cooperation of its subject, may be less critical than an unauthorized biography. A person may also write about his
own life history; is such case, the product will be an autobiography.
The literary form was pioneered by the Roman historians Plutarch, Tacitus, and Suetonius English literary
biography began with James Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson, published in 1791. Modern biographers tend to be
objective in approach, but classical and medieval biographers often wrote to confirm a thesis or illustrate a moral
principle.
Biographical information sources may either be in a directory or in a dictionary format. Biographical
directories are presented in a data-type format (just like in a bio-data). Biographical dictionaries present their
literature in essay form. Biographical dictionaries may be general, subject-specific, or limited to persons of a
specific nationality, race, field or profession, or period or gender.
Biographical information sources can also be classifies as current and retrospective. Current biographical
information sources deal with persons who are still living, while retrospective biographical information sources are
on the subject of deceased persons.
The following is a classified list of some popular biographical information sources.
Current biographical directories
Who’s Who in America
Who’s Who
Current biographical dictionaries
Current Biography
The New York Times Biographical Service
Newsmakers (Gale Research Co.)
Retrospective biographical dictionaries
McGraw Hill Encyclopedia of World Biography
Webster’s New Biographical Dictionary
New Century Cyclopedia of Names
Retrospective biographical dictionaries (national)
Dictionary of American Biography
National Cyclopedia of American Biography
Who Was Who in America
Dictionary of National Biography
Who Was Who
41.12 Geographical Information Sources
Geographical information sources are usually graphical representations of a geographical unit, region, or
area. They are used to answer geographical questions. Usually, they deal with a time period; they may either be
current or historical. Included in this genre are maps, atlases, globes, gazetteers, and travel guidebooks. These
are defines as follows.
A map is any two-dimensional graphic representation of the physical
features (natural or man-made) of all or a portion of the surface of the earth or another celestial body,
the heavens, or an imaginary geographic area. Maps are categorized by the type of content and
method of presentation (e.g. base map, cadastral map, cartogram, chart, city map, compiled map,
computer-generated map, geologic map, historical map, location map, pictorial map, political map,
road map, schematic map, thematic map, topographic map, world map, etc.).
An atlas is a collection almost entirely of maps. Traditionally, atlases have
been collections of maps about related themes with most of the maps on a common scale. Most, but
not all of them, have the maps bound together in a book.
A globe is a spherical map of the earth or the sky. The terrestrial globe
(spherical map of the earth) is the only true cartographic representation of the Earth and possesses
several advantages over flat maps: distances, directions, and areas are shown without distortion. A
celestial globe (spherical map of the sky) takes the Earth as its imaginary centre in showing the
positions of the stars.
A gazetteer is a geographical dictionary in which political and physical
features of the Earth, such as countries, cities, rivers, and mountains, are listed alphabetically, and
some information, usually descriptive and statistical, is given about them.
A travel guidebook is a handbook that provides useful current information
for travelers to a city, state, region, country, or other geographic area or for visitors to a museum,
park, historical site, etc.
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Maps and atlases can be thematic; meaning, they focus on a particular aspect of geographic interest. Such
interest may be historical, economic, political, and related matters which may be shown graphically in a map.
The following is a classified list of some titles of geographical information sources.
Major-size world atlases
Time Atlas of the World (London: Times Newspaper)
The New York Times Atlas of the World
The New International Atlas (Rand McNally)
Intermediate to small-scale atlases
Gold Medallion World Atlas
Citation World Atlas
National Geographic Atlas
Ran McNally New Cosmopolitan World Atlas
Thematic atlases
The Times Atlas of World History
William Shepherd’s Historical Atlas
Rand McNally World Atlas of History
41.13 Serials
Serials are publications in any medium (print, electronic, micro-format, etc.) issued under the same title in
a succession of discrete parts, bearing numerical or chronological designations, and appearing at regular or irregular
intervals with no predetermined conclusion. In AACR2 2002, serials are classified as a type of continuing resource.
The serials genre includes specific types of publications. They are the following.
Periodicals – a serial appearing or intended to appear indefinitely at regular or stated intervals,
generally more frequently than annually, each of which is numbered or dated consecutively and
normally contains separate articles, stories, or other writings.
Magazine – a periodical for general reading containing articles on various subjects by different
authors.
Journal – a periodical, especially one containing scholarly articles and/or disseminating current
information on research and development in a particular subject field.
Monographic series (series) – a group of separate bibliographic items related to one another by the
fact that each item bears, in addition to its own title proper, a collective title applying to the group
as a whole.
Conference proceedings – considered as serials if they have the same name and are differentiated
only by number, place, and date, and the titles proper of the publications themselves must vary
only slightly, if at all.
Annual (report, yearbook, etc). – a publication issued yearly.
Continuing directories – any directory that is being published into successions to be continued
indefinitely.
Newsletter – a printed report or letter containing news of interest to a particular group, for example
the members of a society or employees of an organization, circulated to them periodically.
The following is a listing of some bibliographic materials and databases for serials.
Ulrich’s International Periodical Directory (R.R. Bowker)
The Serials Directory (EBSCO)
The Standard Periodical Directory (Oxbridge Communications)
Magazines for Libraries
Union List of Serials in Libraries of the US and Canada (H.W. Wilson)
New Serial Titles
41.14 Government Publications
The general definition that can be given for government publications is “any publication originating in, or
issued with the imprint of, or at the expense and by the authority of, any office of a legally organized government
or international organization.” Under Title 44, Section 1901 of the United States Code, a government
publication is defined as "information matter" published as a separate document at government expense or as
required by law. Section 1902 states that government publications, except those "required for official use only or
for strictly administrative or operational purposes which have no public interest or educational value and
publications classified for reasons of national security," are to be made publicly available to depository libraries by
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the Superintendent of Documents. The term is also used in a broader sense to include documents published by
local, state, territorial, and foreign governments.
The following are some titles of retrieval tools for government publications.
Monthly Catalog of United States Government Publications
Monthly Checklist of State Publications
LEXIS/NEXIS
NTIS
41.15 Company and Trade Literature
This genre of reference source materials includes the following specific materials.
Trade literature – a catalog or any other material produced by an organization containing information
about its products and services; this is used for choosing suitable products, materials, equipment
or service, by providing information about products and services and on rival products and
services (e.g. school catalog, product catalog, etc.).
Business and financial reports – a detailed periodic account of a company’s activities, financial
condition, and prospects that is made available to shareholders and investors.
Campaign literature – documents that contain data intended to persuade voters to vote for a particular
politician or party.
41.16 Technical Information Sources
Technical information sources are materials highly relevant to or specializing in industrial techniques or
subjects or applied science. These are in several varieties.
Technical reports – scientific papers or articles describing research or other significant developments
in a field of the applied sciences.
Standards – a technical publication which state how materials and products should be made,
measured, tested, or described; these are established by computers trade associations representing
industries, government departments, and national and international standards associations (e.g.
ISO).
Specifications – a concise, legally binding statement of a set of requirements to be satisfied by a
product, a material, or a process indicating, whenever appropriate, the procedure by means of
which it may be determined whether the requirements given are satisfied.
Patents – official or legal grant issued by a government giving the inventor the right to exclude all
other from making, using, or selling an invention for a specific period of time.
Trademark – any word, name, symbol, or device, or any combination thereof adopted and used by a
manufacturer or merchant to identify his goods and distinguish them from those manufactured or
sold by others.
41.18 Dissertations and Theses
A dissertation is a lengthy, formal written treatise or thesis, especially an account of scholarly
investigation or original research on a specialized topic, submitted to a university in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for a Ph.D. degree. Dissertations submitted at universities in the United States, Canada, Great Britain,
and other European countries are indexed and abstracted in Dissertation Abstracts International (DAI), available in
print, on CD-ROM, and online from ProQuest.
A thesis is a proposition advanced and defended in a formal disputation, especially by a candidate in
partial fulfillment of university requirements for a master's degree or bachelor’s degree. Master's theses are indexed
annually by discipline, subject, and author in Master's Theses Directories and in Disseration Abstracts International.
They can also be located in the WorldCat database in OCLC FirstSearch. For digital theses, it can be accessed
through Networked Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (NDLTD).
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Upon further inquiry, what at first appeared to be a simple query may turn out to be an opening
gambit in a more extensive search, once the nature of the information need is fully understood. These
queries are now in the form of research queries.
Either in the point of view of the reference librarian or the library user, there is a conscious approach to
decision-making in order to achieve certain specified objectives, known as the search strategy. There are two
(2) possible approaches to this. Either
the user is enabled to exploit bibliographic structure in order to achieve an
objective, or
the reference librarian will be the one to exert all efforts to help the user
achieve his/her objective.
In ether way, the query can be treated in any of these two approaches in order to achieve the desired
endpoint.
specific to general (citation pearl-growing)
general to specific
Rothstein enumerated three different varieties of reference service.
Information Service
This provides the answer to a question or information need regardless of its complexity or the
length of time it takes to find the answers.
Instructional Service
This teaches individuals how to locate information themselves, or assists them in understanding
and using reference tools whether these are reference books, databases, or card/online catalogs. It also
teaches users how libraries and the information that they hold are organized and how librarians can
assist them.
Guidance
This service advises and assists the user in the identification and selection of appropriate
materials about a particular topic rather than teaching specific skills.
42.2 Computer-Aided Search
A very helpful means of locating the desired answer to reference queries is through computer-aided
search. Through the computer systems, a user can choose any from three (3) computer resources to find the
particular information they want – online information systems (online databases), reference sources in CD-ROMs,
and the internet (through various search engines and online directories).
The most prominent computer-aided searching is through databases. A database is a large, regularly
updated file of digitized information (bibliographic records, abstracts, full-text documents, directory entries,
images, statistics, etc.) related to a specific subject or field. It consists of records of uniform format organized
for ease and speed of search and retrieval and managed with the aid of database management system (DBMS)
software. A database searcher can browse through national bibliographic utilities, distant library catalogs, electronic
files accessible via the internet, or locally produced databases.
42.3 Information Services
Information service is rendered through different means.
Answering ready-reference questions
Through various reference source materials, a a ready-reference question be answered by a
reference librarian in one or two minutes by providing a fact or piece of information found in a single
source.
Bibliographic verification
This type of information service provides facts about publication rather than information about
events, people, places, and organizations. This ensures that the user accesses the right materials to
answer his/her queries in case the user wishes to do so.
Interlibrary loan (ILL) and document delivery service
(DDS)
There are certain instances when the library does not have enough resources to address the
information needs of its users. If library is a member of a group of libraries sharing resources, the
library may borrow some materials from any of the other libraries within the group which has the
material needed. When this material is handed to the reference librarian, the information needed by
the user is delivered through any of the different channels of document delivery service (fax, e-mail,
postal service, etc.).
Answering research questions
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Research questions are the most complex in nature compared to the other types of queries. It
entails a systematic, painstaking investigation of a topic, or in a field of study, often employing
hypothesis and experimentation, undertaken by a person intent on revealing new facts, theories, or
principles, or determining the current state of knowledge of the subject. The reference librarian does
not really conduct the research himself/herself, but provides the researcher useful information for the
completion of the research work.
Current awareness service
This service is designed to keep library users aware of new materials acquires, new services, or
any other developments in the library. This can be through public bulletin, library publication, or any
other possible means.
Selective dissemination of information (SDI)
This is a customized service offered most frequently to researches in academic or special
libraries. This aims to review newly available documents and select most relevant items to the needs
of an individual or group and recording them so that notification may be sent to them. A library that
offers this type of service maintains records of users’ profiles (description of users’ needs and
interest, usually transcribed in machine-readable form) and document records (description of the
materials in machine-readable form). Through these records, the reference librarian determines the
hit – the positive matching of a user’s and document’s discipline.
Database searches
The library may allow the user to search databases available for access in the library. There are
two basic types of library databases.
1. Bibliographic databases contain data on how to identify and access the appropriate material
that can help the user. These are generally the machine-readable form of indexes, abstracts,
and catalogs.
2. Non-bibliographic databases are a variety of databases distinguished from bibliographic
databases by content, style, and format.
a. Full text databases – The base record in these databases is the full paper, document,
or article itself, with the associated bibliographic information rather than a citation to a
paper or other documents located outside the database.
b. Numeric databases – The base record in such databases are statistical tables, along
with the citation to the printed counterpart from which these table have been drawn.
c. Graphics databases – The key element in the base records here are in graphic
representations.
d. Directory/addresses databases – In such databases, the base record is a name,
address, and telephone number. Business directories have additional information related
to business activities, employees, etc. in their base records.
Nowadays, information is considered by many as a commodity that can be bought, sold, and traded for
gain. People who deal with specific problems to come up with citations and documents which will aid the user in
the solution of a problem are known as information brokers. Their services is usually for a fee.
42.4 Instructional Services
There are several means of giving instructional service to library users. These include the following.
Library orientation
According to James Rice, this is the first level of giving instructional services to library users. It
comprises service activities designed to welcome and introduce users and potential users to library
services, collection building layout, as well as the organization of materials.
Library instruction
Considered as the 2nd level in instructional services, this aims to give instructions in the use of
libraries with an emphasis on institution-specific procedures, collections, and policies. It
concentrates on tools and mechanics, including techniques in using periodical indexes, reference
sources, card and online catalogs, and bibliographies.
Bibliographic instruction (BI)
This is any activity designed to teach users how to locate information they need. In contrast to
library instruction, it goes beyond the physical boundaries of the library and beyond institution-
soecific confines. Bibliographic instruction intends to teach principles of information organization and
retrieval to provide learners with the knowledge to function in a broad range of information situations
and environments.
Information management education
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This term emerged from medical librarianship in the 1980s. It refers to instructing the users in the
identification, retrieval, evaluation, and use of information. This education demands that librarians
depart from their traditional roles as mere providers of information, by instructing users how to use
and manage information.
42.5 Guidance
The following are varied types of services that aim to advise and assist users in the identification and
selection of appropriate materials about a particular topic or subject,
A Filipiniana reference source may be the scholarly work of a native Filipino individual or organization,
or of foreign authors. It may also be published within or outside the country.
The following are the general categories of Filipiniana reference and information sources.
encyclopedias and multivolume works
dictionaries and thesauri
almanacs
yearbooks
handbooks
manuals
geographical information sources (maps, gazetteers, etc.)
directories
biographical information sources
indexes
electronic resources (CD-ROM and other electronic formats)
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Volume 8-9– Narration of the various armed struggles against Spain and the US, the
peaceful political; struggle , followed by World War II, until the gaining of Philippine
Independence in 1946.
Volume 10 – Index
The Philippine Encyclopedia of Social Work (editor: Leonora De Guzman. Manila: Philippine
Association of Social Workers, 1977. 692 p.)
The encyclopedia attempts to present a clear picture of the purpose and function of social work
profession. It is divided into five parts.
Part 1 – consists of 60 articles on social work, social welfare, and other related topics
Part 2 – compendium of social statistics for development planning
Part 3 – directory of facilities and resources
Part 4 – overview of 14 international organizations on social welfare in the Philippines
Part 5 – glossary, which is a compilation of technical terms commonly used by social
workers
Sports Encyclopedia (Manila: M.A.K, c1978. 76 p.)
This fully illustrated work lists 17 priority sports and games profounded by different
agencies/associations on Philippine sports. Sports are presented by type or classification: indigenous
sports, individual sports, individual sports with weight classification, and team sports. Rules and
regulations on sports are included.
Bayang Magiliw: ang Pilipinas at ang Mamamayang Pilipino: Gabay sa Mag-aaral (Quezon
City: Instructional Materials, Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports, 1986. 2 v.)
This work deals on our country’s people, geography, history, culture, economy, and political and
social institutions. The 4,000 entries are based on knowledge and events up to 1986, arranged
according to the Filipino alphabet.
Philippine Legal Encyclopedia (Jose Agaton Sibal. Quezon City: Central Lawbook, c1986. 1187
p.)
Philippine Science Encyclopedia (National Research Council of the Philippines. Bicutan,
Taguig: NRCP, [198-]-1986. 8 v.)
Considered as the first of its kind in the country and the biggest project of the NRCP in its more
than 50 years of existence, the eight-volume set covers these broad subjects/divisions.
Volume 1 – Governmental, educational, and international policies
Volume 2 – Physical and mathematical sciences
Volume 3 – Medical science
Volume 4 – Chemical and pharmaceutical science
Volume 5 – Biological; science
Volume 6 – Agriculture and forestry
Volume 7 – Engineering industrial research
Volume 8 – Social science.
Each division has a project leader, usually the chairman of the division, a number of contributors,
and an editor or editors.
Documentary Sources of Philippine History (compiled, edited, and arranged by Gregorio F.
Zayde. Manila: National Book Store, 1990. 12 v.)
This 12-volume monumental work contains a total of 725 historical documents. The first
document is “A.D 982: First Authentic Date in Sino-Philippine Relation”, and the last document is
“The 1986 Constitution of the Philippines”. It is arranged according to the dates when the dates
occurred or when they were written or published.
Encyclopedia of Philippine Folk Beliefs and Customs (compiled and edited by Francisco R.
Demetrio, assisted by Marcelino B. Panis, Jr. … [et. al.]. Enl. and rev. ed. Cagayan de Oro City:
Xavier University, c1991. 2 v.)
This is a revised and enlarged edition of the four-volume encyclopedia published in 1970. The
encyclopedia puts together the folk beliefs and customs from published works or field works from
1967 to 1987. It consists of 25 chapters numbered sequentially. Volume 1 has 20 chapters covering
actions, amulets and talismans, animals, aswangs or witches, birth, death, direction, diseases and
sicknesses, engkantos and spirits, and feasts and celebrations. It has an appendix on the distribution of
folk beliefs and customs from the different provinces. References included published and unpublished
works. The index is by chapter, alphabetically arranged by subject or topic.
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about diamonds and typewriters, codes, astrology, boxing tips, selected words for scrabble, Christmas
songs, the Philippine National Anthem, Philippine presidents, and commonly used abbreviations.
Ticzon Herbal Medicine Encyclopedia (Romeo R. Ticzon, edited by Carolina Elayda. Antipolo,
Rizal: Romeo R. Ticzon, publisher, c1996. 205 p.)
This work is divided into three parts.
Part 1 – Introduction of objectives of the encyclopedia, which claims to be the in
Philippine herbology
Part 2 – Compilation of excerpts from the author’s “Philippine Herbal Medicine” (with
version in Filipino) which includes sketches of Philippine indigenous plants
Part 3 – Comprehensive research on the use of specific herbal plants with their scientific
names and sketches
Kasaysayan: the Story of the Filipino People ([Mandaluyong City]: Asia Publishing Co. Ltd.,
c1998. 10 v.)
This work is claimed as “a comprehensive, readable, and reliable history of the Filipino people”,
because each volume is written by one or more of the country’s most authoritative experts in the field.
There is an index and a list of all sources at the end of each volume. The 10 th volume is a general
glossary. The following are the titles of each volume with their respective authors.
Volume 1 – The Philippine archipelago / Raymundo S. Punongbayan, Precillano S.
Zamora, [and] Perry S. Ong
Volume 2 – The earliest Filipinos / Fr. Gabriel Casol, Eusebio Z. Dizon, Wilfredo P.
Ronquillo, [and] Cecilio S. Salcedo
Volume 3 – The Spanish conquest / Jose S. Arcillo, SJ
Volume 4 – The life in the colony / Maria Serena I. Diokno [and] Ramon N. Villegas
Volume 5 – Reform and revolution / Milagros C. Guerrero [and] John N. Schumacher
Volume 6 – Under stars and stripes / Milagros C. Guerrero
Volume 7 – The Japanese occupation / Ricardo T. Jose
Volume 8 – Up from the ashes / Ma. Serena I. Diokno
Volume 9 – A nation reborn / Alexander R. Magno
Volume 10 – A timeline of Philippine history / Henry S. Totanes, research editor
(The timeline starts from the formation of planet Earth 4.5 billion years before prehistory and
ends with February 25, 1986, the date when former President Corazon C. Aquino took her
oath of office as duly elected President of the Philippines.)
Encyclopedia of Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars (Jerry Keenan. Santa
Barbara, CA: ABC CLIO., c2001. xxxii, 467 p.)
This work provides basic information about the Spanish-American and Philippine-American wars
ranging from names, dates, and summaries of the significant events related to those wars. Entries are
arranged alphabetically; however, there is a chronology of events from October 10, 1868 to April 7,
1903. It has a bibliography and an index.
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fisheries
population density
vegetation
land classification
Ins and Outs of Metro Manila (Edmundo R. Abigan, Jr. Manila: Manila Philippine
Guide, Inc., 1997-1998. 235 p.)
This work presents sectional maps and street directory of the 13 cities and 34 towns of Metro
Manila.
Environment and Natural Resources Atlas of the Philippines (produced by the
Environmental Center of the Philippines Foundation in cooperation with the DENR; edited by
Gregorio Loarca Magdaraog. Quezon City: ECPF, 1998. 395 p.)
This atlas presents the natural and socio-anthropological history of the Philippines. It is divided
into nine (9) chapters. The first chapter defines what an atlas is, gives background information on
maps and map-making, identifies uses of maps, and gives an overview of the succeeding chapters.
The topics in the next eight chapters are contributed by experts on the field of the subtopics covered.
The Philippine Atlas (Manila: The Philippine Guides, Inc., c1998. 216 p.)
This reference provides basic facts and figures about the country and profiles of the 16 regions
and 78 provinces of the archipelago. It also features special events in Philippine history,
commemorating the first 100 years of Philippine independence. Maps are printed in color.
E-Z Philippine Travel Atlas (Ken Buchanan. Angeles City: United Tourist Promotion,
c1999, 2000. 105 p.)
This is the first comprehensive atlas covering all parts of the nation. The accompanying text and
directory provides information about foods, accommodation, shopping, nightlife, major attractions,
and recreational activities.
Citiatlas Metro Manila (Mandaluyong City: Asia Type, Inc., c2000, 118 p.)
This atlas features streets and landmarks in Metro Manila. It includes subdivisions, bridges, major
buildings, churches, hospitals, and malls. It has an alphabetical general index of areas.
The Ins and Outs of Metro Manila: Street and Building Guide (Corazon de Jesus.
Bacoor, Cavite: Philippine Guide, Inc., 2003.)
This work features more than 5,000 buildings and landmarks, 142 sectional maps of Metro
Manila, 32 detailed maps, and commercial centers.
43.6 Directories
The following directory titles cover a wide range of subject areas about the Philippines.
Cornejo’s Commonwealth Directory of the Philippines (Encyclopedic ed. Manila: M.R.
Cornejo, [1918-?].)
Directory of Libraries in the Philippines (edited by Marina G. Dayrit, [et. al.]. Diliman,
Quezon City: U.P. Library, c1973. 131 p.}
Directory of Publishers and Printers (compiled by Iluminada A. Del Rosario. Manila:
Bibliography Division, TNL, 1978. 86 leaves.)
Philippine Directory of Financial Institutions (Manila: Sinag-Tala, c1979-.)
Directory of Librarians in Southeast Asia (Marina G. Dayrit, editor. Quezon City:
Published for the Congress of Southeast Asian Libraries by the U.P. Library, 1980. 140 p.)
Directory of Librarians in the Philippines (editors: Eleanor G. Arriola, Corazon M.
Nera. [Manila]: Philippine Library Association, 1980. 114 p.)
A Directory of Linguists and Language Education Specialists in the Philippines
(compiled by Andrew Gonzales, Arlene Matocinos. Manila: Linguistic Society of the Philippines,
1981. 133 leaves.)
Metro Cebu Business Directory (compiled and edited by Research Library and
Information Division, National Research Council of the Philippines; Romeo F. Abarquez, project
leader. Taguig: NRCP, [1982?]. 260 p.)
Directory of Resource Agencies for Philippine NGOs (Rev. ed. Makati: PHILDHRRA,
c1988. 62 p.)
The New ZIP Code Directory of the Philippines (Manila: Pride Pub., 1988. 32p.)
Philippine Computer Directory (Quezon City: Computer Connection, 1988.)
Directory of Philippine NGOs (Manila: Philippine Partnership for the Development of
Human Resource in Rural Areas, 1988. 144 p.)
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The Philippine Congress, 1987-1992. (Manila: Executive Computech Pub., 1988. 387
p.)
A Directory of Cooperatives, Self-Help Groups, Samahang Nayons, Associations, and
Federations (Quezon City: Cooperative Foundations Philippines, c1989.)
Philippine Government Directory (Manila: Diplomatic Post, 1989-.)
Women Research Directory (Manila: National Commission on the Role of Filipino
Women, c1989. 246 p.)
Directory of Government-Developed Software (Quezon City: Information Technology
Resource Research Unit, National Computer Center, 1990-.)
Directory of Information Technology Specialists in the Government (Quezon City: IT
Resources Research Unit, National Computer Center, 1991. 150 p.)
Philippine Manufacturers Directory (Manila: Pacific Pub. House, c1991-.)
Directory of Specialists (Makati: Fund for Assistance to Private Education, c1992. 331
p.)
Philippine Company Profiles (Michael G. Say, editor/publisher. Manila: The Mahal
Kong Pilipinas Foundation, c1987-1993.)
Philippine Fax Directory (1993-1994 ed. Manila: Mahal Kong Pilipinas, Inc. 199-.)
Media Directory of the Philiuppines (Makati: Diplomat Post Pub., c1995.)
Special Libraries and Information Centers (Manila: ASLP, c1995.)
Philippine Export Directory, 1996 (Makati: Pacific Trade Media Publications, c199-.)
Katutubo Directory (Manila: Global Indigenous Cultural Olympics Summit (GICOS),
[1996?]. 110 p.)
Philippine Construction Directory, 1997 (Makati City: Pacific Trade Publications,
[1997]. 238 p.)
Philippine Electronics Guide (1997 ed. Makati City: Belgosa Business Publications,
Inc., 1997.)
2000 NBDB Directory of Registrants as of June 15, 2000 (Manila: National Book
Development Board, 2000. 243 p.)
Directory of Licensed Librarians in the Philippines (compiled and edited by Dante O.
Perez. makati City: LISCO multi-Purpose Cooperative, 2002. 361 p.)
43.7 Biographical Information Sources
The following is a chronological listing of biographical information sources.
Directorio Biographico Filipino (ed. P. Reyes. Manila: Imp. y Litografia “Germania”
Alix, 1908. 59 p.)
This is a compilation of biographies of famous Filipinos who lived in the 19 th century. Among
those included are Mariano Abella, Macario Adriatico, Cayetano Arellano, Sergio Osmeňa, Felipe
Calderon, Emilio Aguinaldo, and Jose I. Paterno.
Builders of a Nation: Series of Biographical Sketches (Morilla M. Norton. Manila:
1914. 266 p.)
Featured in this work is a collection of biographies of the leading figures in the Philippines at
their time. It includes writings of Mariano Ponce about the Philippines,; Epifanio de los Santos on
literature; Gregorio Nieva on the Philippine assembly; and Austin Craig on the history of the
University of the Philippines.
Galeria de Filipnos Ilustres: Biografias a Cantor Desde los Primeraos Tiempos de la
Dominacion Hispana, de los Hijos Pais que en sus Respectivas Profesiones Descollaron a Hayan
Alconzado algun Puesto de Distincion en Sociedad (Manuel Artigas y Cuerva. Manila: Imp. Casa
Editora Renacimiento, 1917-18. 178 p.)
This work showcases an alphabetic biographical sketches of Filipinos who have excelled in their
respective professions from the Spanish times to the early 1900s.
Sons of the Philippine Revolution: Lives and Memoirs (Rafael C. Londres; foreword
by E. Finley Johnson. Manila: National Federation of Filipino Teachers, [1923], 178 p.)
This reference is divided into three parts.
Part 1 – The government of the revolution
Part 2 – Biographical sketches
Part 3 – Rise and fall of the Philippine Republic (by Apolinatio Mabini)
Who’s Who in the Philippines (Rodrigo C. Lim. Manila: Claudio Nera, [c1929]. 213 p.)
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This is a compilation of biographies, with portraits of successful men and women of the
Philippines at that time.
Who’s Who in the Philippines (ed. by Rodrigo C. Lim. Chinese ed. Manila: U,P, Press,
1930. 212 p.)
These are biographies of over 100 Chinese residents in the Philippines grouped under Manila,
Cebu, Iloilo, etc., with the oldest and/or most important persona presented first.
Men of the Philippines (George F. Nellist. Manila: Sugar News Co., 1931.)
This work is patterned under “Men of Hawaii”, and contains biographies and portraits of many
individuals, who, through thei personal and community efforts, have contributed to the material and
cultural advancement of the Philippines.
Leaders of the Philippines: Inspiring Biographies of Successful Men and Women of
the Philippines Zoilo M. Galang. Manila: National Pub., 1932. 324 p.)
This provides original biographies and portraits of people who have led colorful and successful
lives. It includes officials of the government from the Governor-General down to the municipal
officials and other persons who have contributed to the development of the Philippines.
Who’s Who in the Philippines: a Biographical Dictionary of Notable Living Men of
the Philippine Islands (Franz J. Weisblatt. Manila: McCollough Printing, 1937. 2 v.)
This work contains biographies of notable living men in the Philippines, including foreigners,
before World War II. It gives general information and statistics about the Philippines.
The Philper :or Philippine Personalities and Other Features ([Manila: Melicor
Enterprise, 1947-.)
This consists of biographical sketches of Philippine personalities in the government from Manuel
Roxas to the various congressmen. It includes inspirational verses, stories, esays, and anecdotes.
Masonic Personalities (Mauro Baradi. Manila: Villamanr Pub., 1952. 147 p.)
This is a collection of the author’s editorials published in “Cable Tow”, the official organ of The
Most Worshipful Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons of the Philippine Islands. It contains
biographical sketches of men who served the fraternity and the country.
Men of Destiny (Alejandro P. Capitulo. Manila: 1953?.)
This work was serialized daily in 1953 by “The Manila Chronicle”. It provides biographies of
famous men and women all over the world.
Dictionary of Philippine Biography (Espiridion Arsenio Manuel. Quezon City:
Filipiniana Publications, 1955-.)
This is a dictionary of biographical sketches of deceased men and women who have made
significant contributions to Philippine life and progress. The information includes names, tes of birth,
parentage, occupation and distinction of ancestors, education, activities, family data, and bibliography
of works. Each volume has a separate name and subject index.
Philippines Who’s Who (Isidro L. Retizos and D.H. Soriano. Quezon City: Capitol Pub.
House, [c1957]. 327 p.)
This is a collection of 400 living Filipinos and members of the foreign community.
Tableau: Encyclopedia of Distinguished Personalities in the Philippines (Ed
Godofredo Jacinto, et. al. Manila: National Souvenir Pub., 1957. 658 p.)
This work features biographical sketches and portraits of eminent Filipinos of the age. It has two
parts – The first lists the pioneers, while the second gives the personalities.
Our Presidents: Profiles in History (Jesus V. Merritt. Manila: Filipino Pub. Co., c1962.
126 p.)
This work gives information about the personal and political lives of Philippine presidents from
Quezon to Macapagal. It includes articles about the presidents, their letters, speeches, messages, and
administrative and executive orders which marks the highlights of their administration.
The Philippine Presidents from Aguinaldo to Marcos: Their Lives and Messages
(Eufronio M. Alip. New rev. ed. Manila: Alip and Sons, 1967. 156 p.)
This contains a compilation of the inaugural addresses of the Philippine presidents together with
their short biographical sketches, the country’s condition during their times, as well as problems and
their corresponding solotions.
Eminent Filipinos ([by] Hector K. Villegas [and others]. Manila: 1965. 294 p.)
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This work compiles biographical sketches of men and women who became prominent during
their time because of their significant contributions to the country through their respective
professions. It starts with Jose Abad Santos and ends with Clemente Zulueta.
Know Them: a Book of Biographies (Wilfredo P. Valenzuela, editor. Manila: Dotela
Pub., 1966. 236 p.)
This is composed of biographies of Jose Rizal and government officials from the president down
to the congressmen before 1966.
Women of Distinction: Biographical Essays on Outstanding Filipino Women of the
Past and the Present (Jovita Varias de Guzman, [et. al.]. [Manila: Bukang Liwayway, c1967] 243 p.)
This contains biographical essays of Filipino women who have shown heroism and leadership in
their chosen professions and have had outstanding achievements worthy of emulation by every
Filipino.
Great Filipinos in History: and Epic of Filipino Greatness in War and Peace
(Gregorio F. Zayde. Manila: Verde Book Store, 1970. 675 p.)
This reference has biographies of Filipino men and women who in time of war have
demonstrated their courage and love of country as well as Filipinos who in time of peace have
contributed significantly to the growth and development of the country through their respective
professions or areas of specializations. Some entries include photographs.
The Outstanding Leaders of the Philippines 1980 (Manila: Asia research Systems.
c1980)
This gives brief but comprehensive information about the leading figures from the upper echelons
of the government, business, industry, and the professions at the time of its publication. It includes the
portraits of featured persons.
Filipino Writers in English: a biographical and Bibliographical Directory (Florentino
Valeros. Quezon City: New Day, 1987. 286 p.)
This presents the life, works, prizes, and awards of some 500 Filipino literary writers in English.
The VIPs of Philippine Business (edited by Michael say and assisted by Luz P. Say,
Divine Grace L Tauro. Manila: Mahal Kong Pilipinas Charitable Foundation, 1987. 377 p.)
This contains more than 500 biographical entries, including information on names, addresses,
educational background, family history, extent of corporate holdings, achievements, and rewards,
together with photographs with the most famous and distinguished business people of the Philippines.
Filipinos in History (Manila: national Historical Institute, 1989-. 4 v.)
This is a continuing compilation of biographies of noted whose lives, works, deeds, and
contributions to the historical development of the country serve as inspirations to every Filipino.
Mga Pangulo ng Pilipinas: mga Saligang Aklat (Lydia Gonzales-Garcia. Pasig, Metro
Manila: Anvil Publishing, c1991. 106 p.)
This contains biographical entries of 12 Philippine presidents from Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo to
Fidel V. Ramos.
UMPIL (Unyon ng mga Manunulat sa Pilipinas) Directory of Filipino Writers
(editors, Romulo P. Baquiran, Jr., et. al. Quezon City: UMPIL, 1991. 203 p.)
This contains over 300 biographical entries of living Filipino writers who have published short
stories, poems, plays, novels, literary essays, criticisms, or anything of literary nature. It includes
portraits and list of Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature from 1959 to 1989, Talaang Ginto from
1969 to 1990, and CCP Literary Contest Awards from 1987 to 1990.
GUMIL Filipinas Directory of Ilocano Writers (compiled by Reynaldo A. Duque;
edited by Honor Banco Cabie. Manila: El Niňo Pub. House, c1992. 181 p.)
This covers more than 200 living and dead Ilocano writers (e.g. fictionists, essayists, poetsm
playwrights, etc.) who have contributed to the enrichment of Ilocano literature. Entries include
portraits and are arranged alphabetically.
Who’s Who in Philippine History (Carlos Quirino. Manila: Tahanan Books, c1995. 227
p.)
This is a biographical dictionary of more than 500 Filipino men and women who have made
significant contributions to Philippine history from the pre-colonial times to the death of Ninoy
Aquino. It provides basic facts like birth and death dates, occupation/profession, major contribution to
history, etc. It includes graphic icons before each entry to identify the major field categories where the
person belongs.
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Great Women of our Time (Ireneo B. Angeles. Quezon City: Grecor and Sons
Printhouse, c1996. 176 p.)
This is a compilation of biographies of great women from the different parts of the contemporary
world. It includes women heads of states – presidents, prime ministers, and reigning queens.
Interesting Bicolanas (Teresa O. Aureus. Naga City: Handog Pub., 1997. 214 p.)
This is a gallery of brief biographies of outstanding Bicolanas from the political and socio-
economic, cultural and educational, religious and civic, and governmental and non-governmental
fields.
Kababaiyan: Kababaihan Para sa Kalayaa: Filipino Women in the Struggle for
Freedom (Manila: Socio-Pastoral Institute, c1997. 124 p.)
This offers glimpses of what a few brave and inspiring women did for the country in its struggle
for freedom and independence.
Pulang Hantik ([Reynaldo T. Jamoralin], patnugot. Sorsogon, Sorsogon: Bikol Agency
for Nationalist and Human Initiatives, 1997. 132 p.)
This features the life and death of bikolanos and Bikolanas who at their tender age offered their
lives for the good of the country during the martial law years. It contains short biographies of the
authors and editors. It includes illustrations and portraits.
Cockers Directory (Nid A. Anima. [s. l.]: N. Anima, c1998. 154 p.)
Aside from the directory, this features biographical essays and folio of noted men and women
gamecock breeders and cockers. It provides tips on how to become a gamebird breeder and a good
cocker.
The National Artists of the Philippines (Pasig City: Anvil Publishing, 1998. 392 p.)
This features Filipino national artists, presented in alphabetical order. It includes biographical
sketches, accomplishments, and list of major works.
Filipino Women Writers and Their Works (Manila: National Centennial Commission –
Women sector, Task force for the Librarians Group, c1999. 574 p.)
This is the fourth of a centennial series of five volumes on Filipino women. This work highlights
the lives of 520 Filipino women from varied fields who have led exemplary lives as evidenced by
their outstanding achievements and roles in our history and nation building.
Liping Kabitenyo: Talambuhay ng mga Kilala at Di-kilalang Kabitenyo (tinipon at
isinalin sa Filipino ni Emanuel Franco Calairo. Dasmariňas, Cavite: Cavite Studies Center, De La
Salle University, 1999. 202 p.)
This contains the biography, with black and white portraits, of some 99 known and unknown
living and deceased Caviteňos.
Philippine Presidents: 100 Years (Rosario M. Cortes. Quezon City: New Day Pub.,
1999. 210 leaves.)
This contains information, including photographs of the Philippine presidents from Aguinaldo to
Estrada. It includes an index, bibliography, and short biographies of the writers involved in the book.
The Chief Justices of the Supreme Court of the Philippines Corazon L. Paras. Pasig
City: Anvil Publishing, c2000. 149 p.)
This contains biographical information of the 20 Chief justices of the Supreme Court from 1901
to 1999. It also covers the associate justices.
100 Taon: 100 Filipino sa Digmaan at Kapayapaan (Leonardo N. Camacho. Quezon
City: SBA Printers, c2000. [248 p.])
This work is about 100 Filipinos who played significant roles in the Philippine history. Their
portraits are also included.
The Presidents of the Senate of the Republic of the Philippines Corazon L. Paras.
Quezon City: Giraffe Books, c2000. 152p.)
This features the biographical sketches of the 17 senate Presidents of the Philippines from 1916
to 1999. The officials are arranged in their sequence of service.
Philippine First Ladies Portraits (Jose R. Rodriguez. Manila: Tantoco Rustia
Foundation, 2003. 143 p.)
This is a portrait collection and insight into the lives of 12 First ladies of the Philippines from
Hilaria del Rosario-Aguinaldo to Luisa Pimentel-Ejercito Estrada.
43.8 Bibliographical Information Sources and Government Documents
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These bibliographical information sources include bibliographies and catalogs (including union catalogs).
Government documents that function as are also covered in this section.
Biblioteca de Filipina: a Sea, Catalogo Razonada de los Impresos, Tanto Insulares
con Eztranjeros, Relativos a la Historia, la Etnografia, la Linguistica, la Botanica, la Fauna, la
Flora, … (Trinidad Pardo de Tavera. Washington: Government printing Office, 1903. 3 v.)
Aparato Bibliografico de la Historia General de Filipinas: Deducido de la Coleccion
que Posee en Barcelona la Compania General de Tabacos de Diches islas (Wenceslao E. G. Retano.
Madrid: Imprenta de la Sucesora de M. Minuesa de los Rios, 1906. 3 v.)
Bibliography of the Philippine Islands, Printed and Manuscripts, preceded by a
Descriptive Account of the Most important Archives and Collection Containing Philippina (James
A. Robertson. Ohio: The Arthur H. Clark Co., c1908. Reprinted by Kraus, Co., 1979.)
Checklist of the Publications of the Government of the Philippine Islands, September
1, 1900 to December 31, 1917 (compiled by Emma O. Elmer, Legislative Reference Division,
National Library of the Philippine Islands. Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1918. 288 p.)
Legal Bibliography (Vicente J. Francisco. [Revised]. Manila: East Pub., 1959. 345 p.)
Checklist of Philippine Government Documents, 1917-1949 (Consolacion B.
Rebadavia. Quezon City: University of the Philippines, 1960. 817 p.)
Bibliography of Philippine bibliographies ([compiled by] Gabriel A. Bernardo. Quezon
City: Ateneo University Press, 1968. 192 p.)
Philippine Libraries and Librarianship: a Bibliography (Filomena C. Mercado.
Manila: 1969. 58 p.)
Guide to Doctoral Dissertations in Microfilm, 1937-1968 (Concepcion S. Baylon.
Manila: National library, Filipiniana Division, 1971. 92 leaves.)
Philippine Ethnography: a Critically Annotated and Selected bibliography (Shiro
Saito. Honolulu: The University of Hawaii Press, 1971. 512 p.)
Filipiniana Materials in the National Library ([compiled by] Isagani Medina. Quezon
City: national Library of the Philippines and University of the Philippines Press, c1972. 352 p.)
Catalog of Filipiniana at Valladolid (edited by Helen R. Tubangui. Quezon City:
Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1973. 364 p.)
Philippine National Bibliography (The national Library of the Philippines. Manila:
TNL, 1974-.)
Checklist of Philippine Government Documents, 1949-1962 (Divina Cuňada.
Unpublished MLS special problem, University of the Philippines, 1977. 2 v.)
Muslim Filipinos: an Annotated Bibliography (Alfredo Tiamson. Makati: Filipinas
Foundation, Inc., 1979. 386 p.)
Checklist of Philippine Government Documents, 1963-1973 (Carmelita Austria.
Unpublished MLS thesis, University of the Philippines, 1985. 3 v.)
Chinese in the Philippines: a Bibliography (Chinben See and Teresita Ang See.
Manila: Chinese Studies Program, de La Salle University, c1990. 208 p.)
Bibliography of Philippine Languages (Rex Johnson. Manila: Linguistics Society of the
Philippines, 1996. 355 p.)
43.9 Indexes
These Filipiniana indexes cover a broad range of disciplines, from medicine and law to arts and letters.
Philippine Index Medicus (Manila: Medical Library, College of Medicine, U.P. Manila,
and the Philippine Council for Health Research Development, 19-.)
Supreme Court Reports Annotated (compiled and edited by the Editorial Staff of the
Central Lawbook Publishing Co. Manila: Central Book Supply, 19-.)
Index to Philippine Republic Acts Nos. 1- (prepared by Isabela C. Moran; assisted by
Sixto de la Costa. Manila: PJL Publications, c1935.)
Index to Philippine Periodicals (Quezon City: University of the Philippines Library,
U.P. Diliman, 1946-.)
U.P. Theses and Dissertations Index, 1946-1968 (Quezon City: The Library,
University of the Philippines, 1969. 367 p.)
Accounting to Auditing Index: an Updated Compendium of Laws, Rules, Regulations,
and Digests of Selected decisions, Prewar to 1968 (by Patricia C. Fernando and Mena M. Caparros.
Quezon City: Manlapaz Pub., 1971. 697 p.)
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Subject Guide to Supreme Court Decisions, 1 st – 1973- (Quezon City: law Center,
University of the Philippines, [1974-].)
Guide to Presidential Decrees and Other Presidential issuances (Myrna Feliciano.
Quezon City: Law Center, University of the Philippines, 1975. 523 p.)
Philippine Short Story index (compiled by Maria Nena Mata. Quezon City: Rizal
Library, Ateneo de Manila University, 1976.)
Index to Philippine Plays, (1923-1983) (Manila: national Book Store, c1984. 67 p.)
Index to Philippine Poetry in English, 1905-1950 (compiled by Edna Z. Manlapaz,
Gemino Abad. Metro Manila: National Book Store, c1988. 746 p.)
43.10 Electronic Resources
The following is a listing of Filipiniana reference sources in electronic formats, primarily in CD-ROM.
Some of these titles were previously issued in printed formats.
Bulacan 2000 Interactive CD-ROM (2nd ed. Malolos, Bulacan: Compulogic, c2000.)
This is an interactive information source on the province of Bulacan. It provides general
information, history, tourism and culture, and business of the province. Extensive information about
the municipalities is also available.
Castles of the Sea: a Story of the Manila Galleon ([s. l.]: Ayala Foundation, Inc.
c1997.)
This is the story of the giant ships that for 250 years have sailed the length of the Pacific from
Manila to Acapulco, which carried vital global commerce from the east to the west part of the world.
This formed a link in a chain of trade that brought Asia, Europe, and the Americas together. The
reference focuses on how the ships were built and what and who they carried.
CCP Encyclopedia of Philippine Art ([Manila]: Cultural Center of the Philippines,
c1998.)
This was previously published in a 10-volume set in 1994. The CD-ROM edition of the
encyclopedia provides an enriching multimedia tour of the Philippine cultural landscape, as lived and
practiced by the Filipino people, expressed in music, dance, literature, architecture, visual arts, film,
and theater.
The Compleat Island Traveler: a Multimedia Carousel on Philippine Travel ([Manila]:
Department of Tourism, [c1998].)
This is a visitor’s guide to the Philippines as it tells them where to go, how to get to a certain
place, what to see and where to stay, dine, and shop. It showcases over 500 images and over 50 video
clips.
Discover the Philippine Islands ([Pasig City]: Philippine Business Profiles and
Perspectives, Inc., [20-].)
This contains essential information and actual footages of the Philippine islands. It gives access
to detailed directories on online bookings, transportations, accommodations, foreign embassies, and
other information relevant to traveling in the country. It has an updated online counterpart
(www.filonline.com/travel).
Filipinas: Isang Kasaysayan ([Metro Manila]: Ayala Foundation, Inc., c1997.)
This unveils Philippine history from the Tabon caves to the Spanish conquistadores, and the
American colonial period, to revolution and independence using the dioramas of the Ayala Museum
as guide.
Filipiniana Reference Sources Database (Nathalie Dela Torre, editor: Institute of
Library and Information Science, University of the Philippines, Diliman, 2003.)
This bibliographic database contains 1,746 titles of Filipiniana reference sources in the sciences,
the social sciences, and the humanities, with publication dates from 1880 to 1988. Using the Micro-
CDS/ISIS software, the database is searchable by name of author, title, subject, call number, or
publication date. Each entry is complemented with an abstract.
Filipino Philosophy: a Critical Bibliography, 1774-1997 (Rolando M. Gripaldo. 2nd ed.
Manila: De La Salle university Press, c2000.)
This reference is presented in three parts. Prt 1 is composed of nine essays that include a
discussion on the bibliography on Filipino philosophy from 1774 to 1997 and on the state of
philosophy in the Philippines today. Part 2 is the bibliography proper of the original work (1774-
1992), and continues in Part 3 (1993-1997).
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––––– –Unit 13
Bibliographies and
the Development of Books and Libraries
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clay). These were used by the Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and other peoples of ancient Mesopotamia.
These people used a writing instrument known as stylus. Libraries were also born, but they are limited to the
following types: temple, government, private, and royal (e.g. libraries of Teloh, Borisppa, and Nineveh). The
famous Code of Hamurabi is an example of writing produced during this period.
At around 3000 B.C., Egyptians, on the other hand, used materials that were much more closely related to
the modern book – the scrolls (book rolls). These were also used by ancient Greeks, and Romans. They consisted of
sheets of papyrus, a paper-like material made from the pounded pith of reeds growing in the Nile River delta,
formed into a continuous strip and rolled around a stick. The text contained in those materials was written in
hieroglyphics (writing system of ancient Egypt that uses symbols or pictures to denote objects, concepts, or
sounds). An alphabet which consisted of 24 consonants was used. Scrolls were tagged with the title and the author's
name. Professional scribes reproduced works either by copying a text or by setting it down from dictation. Athens,
Alexandria, and Rome were great centers of book production and exported books throughout the ancient world. In
these societies, the royal type of library is less famous The famous libraries then were the libraries of Gizeh and
Thebes. Famous writings in scrolls are Prisse Papyrus, Harris Papyrus, and Inscriptions. Phoenicains at around
2756 B.C. also developed their own alphabet that is made up of 22 consonants.
During the period of antiquity, books were owned chiefly by temples, rulers, and a few rich people. Most
education at that time and for centuries thereafter, was by oral repetition and memorization. Papyrus did not last
long since the material was brittle; in damp climates it disintegrated in less than 100 years. Thus, a great part of the
literature and records of the ancient world has been irretrievably lost.
Some of the book rolls produced during the ancient world were made from parchment and vellum
(especially prepared animal skins – parchment was from sheep skin and velum was from calf skin). These materials
did not have such drawbacks. Other peoples of the ancient Middle East where papyrus did not grow had used
scrolls made of tanned leather or untanned parchment for centuries. The production of parchment was improved by
King Eumenes II of Pergamun in the 2nd century B.C. By the 4th century A.D., parchment had almost entirely
supplanted papyrus as a medium for writing.
The 4th century also marked the culmination of a gradual process in which the inconvenient scroll was
replaced by the rectangular codex (Latin, “book”), the direct ancestor of the modern book. The codex, as first used
by the Greeks and Romans for business accounts or school work, was a small, ringed notebook consisting of two or
more wooden tablets covered with wax, which could be marked with a stylus, smoothed over, and reused many
times. Additional leaves of parchment were sometimes inserted between the tablets. In time the codex came to
consist of many sheets of papyrus or, later, parchment, bound in a way somewhat similar to how present books are
bound. The codex made it easier for readers to find their place or to refer ahead or back, particularly useful in the
observance of the Christian liturgy.
44.3 Books in Medieval Period – Europe
In the early Middle Ages in Europe, books were written chiefly by Churchmen for other Churchmen and
for rulers. Most were portions of the Bible, commentary, or liturgical books, although some were copies of classical
texts. The books were laboriously written out with a quill pen by monastic scribes working in the scriptoria (Latin,
“writing rooms”) of monasteries.
At first, scribes used a variety of local styles in capital letters only, a custom carried over from classical
scrolls. As a result of the revival of learning initiated by Charlemagne in the 8 th century, scribes shifted to capital
and minuscule (small) letters, which eventually inspired the typographers of the Renaissance. After the 12 th century,
however, bookscript deteriorated into the black letter style, which consisted of narrow, heavily drawn, angular
letters crowded close together in thin columns that were difficult to read.
Many medieval books were brilliantly illuminated in gold and colors to indicate the start of a new section
of text, to illustrate the text, or to decorate the borders. Medieval books had wooden covers, often strengthened with
metal bosses and fastened with clasps. Many covers were bound in leather, sometimes richly adorned with gold and
silver work, enamels, and gems. Such beautifully produced books were works of art, which, by the late Middle
Ages, were usually created by professional scribes, artists, and jewelers. Books were few and costly; they were
commissioned by the very small percentage of the population that could afford them and that knew how to read.
The printing of books from wood blocks, a technique probably learned from contact with the East, began
in the late Middle Ages. Block books were usually religious works with heavy illustration and scanty text.
44.4 Development of Books in the Orient
Perhaps the earliest form of book in the Far East was wood/bamboo tablets tied with cord. This had been
used as early as the 3 rd millennium B.C. Chinese used ideographic characters in their writing system. Another early
form was strips of silk/paper, a mixture of bark and hemp invented by the Chinese in the 2 nd century A.D. At first,
the strips, written on one side only with a reed pen or brush, were wound around sticks to make scrolls. Later they
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were also folded like an accordion and stitched on one side to make a book, which was glued to a light paper – or
cloth-covered case. Libraries in ancient China are confined within temples alone.
In 6th century A.D., printing from carved wood blocks was invented in China. The first book known to
have been printed from wood blocks was a Chinese edition of the Diamond Sutra, a Buddhist text, dating from 868.
The Tripitaka, (another Buddhist scripture), which ran to more than 130,000 pages, was printed in 972. Printing
from reusable blocks was a much more efficient method of reproducing a work than copying by hand, but each
block took a long time to carve and could be used only for that one work.
In the 11th century the Chinese also invented printing from movable type, which could be reassembled in
different orders for numerous works. They made little use of it, however, for the great number of characters
required in Chinese writing made movable type impracticable.
44.5 Books in the Renaissance Period
In the 15th century two new technological developments revolutionized the production of European books.
One was paper, which Europeans learned about from the Muslim world (which had acquired it from China). The
other was movable metal type (which Europeans invented independently). The German printer Johann Gutenberg
pioneered the use of movable type of printing. He is also sometimes identified as the first European to print with
hand-set type cast in moulds.
The first major book printed in movable type was the Gutenberg Bible (1456). These innovations
simplified book production and made it economically feasible and relatively easy. At the same time, public literacy
increased greatly, in part as a result of Renaissance scholarship and exploration, and in part as a result of the
Protestant Reformation tenet that every believer should be able to read the Bible. Consequently, in the 16th century
both the number of works and the number of copies of them increased enormously, further stimulating the public
demand for books.
Italian Renaissance printers of the 16th century set traditions that have persisted in book publishing since
that time. Among them were the use of light pasteboard covers, often bound in leather, regularized layouts, and
clear Roman and Italic typefaces. Woodcuts and engravings were used for illustrations. Another tradition was the
designation of book sizes as folio, quarto, octavo, duodecimo, 16mo, 24mo, and 32mo. These designations signify
the numbers of leaves (each side counting as a page) formed by folding a large sheet of book paper. Thus, a sheet
folded once forms two leaves (four pages), and a book made of sheets so folded is called a folio. A sheet folded
twice forms four leaves (eight pages) and a book made of sheets so folded is a quarto. Modern European publishers
continue to use these terms.
Renaissance books also established the convention of the title page and the preface, or introduction.
Gradually the table of contents, list of illustrations, explanatory notes, bibliography, and index were added.
44.6 Contemporary Books
Since the Industrial Revolution, book production has become highly mechanized. The more efficient
manufacture of paper, the introduction of cloth and paper covers, high-speed cylinder presses, the mechanical
casting and composing of type, phototypesetting, and photographic reproduction of both text and illustration have
made possible the production in the 20th century of vast numbers of books at a relatively low price. The subject
matter of books has become literally universal.
While books as a means of communication have been challenged by such 20 th century technological
devices as the Internet, radio, television, films, and tape recorders, they remain the primary means for dissemination
of knowledge, for instruction and pleasure in skills and arts, and for the recording of experience, whether real or
imagined.
44.7 The Evolution of the Book and Libraries
The following table summarizes all the important events that took place along the
development of the book.
People Approximate Writing system and forms of Status of Libraries
Dates the book
PREHISTORY
People used pictographs and
landmarks to convey ideas (e.g.
cave paintings). Communication
is chiefly in oral form.
ANTIQUITY
Sumerians, 3600-626 B.C. People used clay tablets, clay Libraries were in four types –
Babylonians, cylinders, and stylus in writing. temple, government, private,
Assyrians The predominant writing system and royal (e.g. libraries of
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MEDIEVAL
Monasteries in 400 A.D. – The modern alphabet became Aside from royal and private
England, Ireland 1200s widely used, along with the ownership, libraries became
and Western development of various part of religious domain in
Europe handwriting styles in each churches and monasteries.
monastery. Book rolls and
codexes were still the forms of
the book. The Book of Kells is a
known product of literature at this
period.
RENAISSANCE
1200s-1500s The modern book started to In addition to private, royal,
flourish, though it was and religious libraries,
handwritten. Greek and Latin university libraries were born.
was the medium. People still An example is University of
used parchment and velum. Paris Library.
Notable writings produced during
these period include the Book of
Hours.
1500s This period was marked with the Public libraries started to serve
invention of printing with movable communities which private,
types. Paper was used in royal, and government libraries
addition to parchment and velum. did not.
Books came both in handwritten
and printed forms. Leaflets and
calendars also gained popularity.
The Guttenberg Bible may be the
most popular book product at this
point.
MODERNITY
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Europeans 1500s and Paper became the major writing National libraries started to rise
1900 medium. Books that are in addition to public, private,
produced all in printed forms, university, royal, and religious
though there are still handwritten libraries. Ther Vatical Library,
books. Other materials like university libraries of Oxford
periodicals, maps, pamphlets, and Cambridge, Library of the
and newspapers became British Museum, and
significant.. Bibliotheque Nationale in
France were the famous
libraries that rose during this
period.
Americans 1607-1776 Paper and printing with movable College libraries in addition to
types was brought to America university libraries started to
(1639). This brought about the support academic instruction.
publication of almanacs, These included libraries in the
magazines, government, universities of Yale, Harvard,
publications, pamphlets, and and Princeton, and the library
broadsides. The Bay Psalm Book in the College of William and
is one of the popular publications Mary.
produces during this period.
1700s-1800s Publishers started to produce Public and government libraries
books in paperbacks. started to flourish. Included are the
Library of Congress and the
Boston Public Library.
1900s-present Aside from printed resources, other Libraries were classified in the
media were introduces. These following categories – academic,
include materials that presented special, public, school, research,
information in video, audio, or private, government, and rare-
audiovisual formats. Examples are book archives. Among libraries of
films, tapes, discs, microforms, etc. present time, the most popular
The invention of the computer gave nowadays may be the Library of
birth to electronic and digitized Congress..
information resources, such as
databases, CD-ROMs, CD-I,
electronic books and serials, etc.
Chapter 45 – Bibliographies as Sources of Information
45.1 Introduction to Bibliographies
Bibliographies are information sources that belong to control-access-directional type. The term
bibliography is derived from two Greek words – biblion (book) and graphien (write). Originally, it meant the
writing or copying of books. Eventually, it signified a list of books, or a critical and historical study of books and
other materials. Since the mid-18th century, the word has come to mean a list of books or other forms of written
material on a subject, or the technique of compiling such a list.
Formally speaking, bibliography is a systematic description of books, manuscripts, and other publications
as to authorship, title, edition, imprint, and subject, and their enumeration and arrangement into lists for purposes of
information.
Bibliographies are used in:
locating materials on the subject in question
providing means for verifying author’s name, complete title of the work, place of publication,
name of publisher, date of publication, edition, number of pages, price, etc.
indicating the scope of the work and the manner in which the subject is treated, if annotated
obtaining comments on the usefulness of certain materials, if annotation is critical and evaluative
grouping works according to form, location, and period
A bibliography has the following qualities and characteristics:
completeness
easy access to a part
varied forms (systematic enumerative, selection aids, bibliography of bibliographies)
facilitates precise identification and accurate verification of materials
provides information about location of materials
aids in selection of materials for the library and the library user
45.2 Types of Bibliographies
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Bibliography may be divided into two broad types: analytic (sometimes called critical) and descriptive.
Analytic bibliography is concerned with books as objects; it uses the evidence of physical
features (e.g. the kind of paper and printing idiosyncrasies) to establish authorship or judge the
reliability of variant texts.
Descriptive bibliography is the systematic enumeration of publications; it is, in turn, divided into
three – systematic enumerative, selective, anf bibliography of bibliographies..
The three (3) major types of descriptive bibliographies is further subdivided into more specific types, as
shown in the succeeding discussions.
1. Systematic enumerative bibliographies
Universal bibliographies
These bibliographies include everything published, issued, or printed in the fields of
communication from the beginning through the present to the future.
The most popular titles for this category will include Bibliotheca Universalis (4 vols., 1545-
1549) by Conrad von Gesner, the known as the father of Universal Bibliography. Another is a
listing of the world's rare and noteworthy books, Manuel du libraire et de l'amateur de livres (3
vols., 1810; 5th ed., 9 vols., 1860-1890), compiled by the French scholar Jacques Charles Brunet.
The British Library (formerly the Library of the British Museum) in London has so large a
collection that its General Catalogue of Printed Books (108 vols., 1881-1905; reissued and
updated in 263 vols., 1959-1966) can almost be called a universal bibliography. It is certainly one
of the most important general bibliographies extant, as are the catalogues of the holdings of the
Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris and the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.
National and trade bibliographies
National bibliographies
A national bibliography aims to enumerate systematically works which are limited to
materials within a given country. A national bibliography is prepared by a national library by
requiring publishers in the country to provide free copies of their publications, known as
legal deposit. The records contained in a national bibliography must have been obtained from
direct examination of the materials.
Examples of national bibliography titles are
Canadiana - This is the national bibliography of Canada.
British National Bibliography (BNB) – This is based on the books deposited with
the British Copyright Office, limited to works published within Great Britain. It
is arranged according to DDC with author, title, and subject indexes.
Bibliographie Nationale Française (BNF) – This was published since 1811,
recording all titles received by Bibliotheque National (National Library of
France) through legal deposit.
Philippine National Bibliography (PNB) – This is a quarterly publication of The
National Library with annual cumulation. Since 1985, it is issued in two parts
(Part 1 –books, music scores, government publications, periodicals, conference
proceedings; Part 2 – theses and dissertations). It is classified according to
DDC and includes author, title, series, and subject indexes.
National library catalogs
This is a list of all the works cataloged and/or owned by a national library and other
member libraries; therefore, they are not limited to works published within the country alone.
Example titles of national catalogs are the following.
National Union Catalog (NUC) of the Library of Congress – This was issued in
microfiche in 1983. It has an online version which is MARC, which can be
accessed through DIALOG (n).
National Union Catalog: Pre-1956 Imprints (London: Marsell, 1968-1981) – This
is available on microform and online via REMARC (Retrospective MARC)..
Trade bibliographies
The primary objective of these is to list commercial publications to aid in the selection
and acquisition of recently published materials, specifically trade books. Information
presented in such bibliographies is gathered from the publisher and is not examined by the
bibliography compiler. Example titles include the following.
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Books in Print (R.R. Bowke, 1948 ff.) – This can be accessed through printed, online
(through database vendors like DIALOG), CD-ROM (Books in Print Plus), and
microfiche versions
Publishers Weekly (1872 ff.)
Cumulative Book Index (1933 ff.)
Publishers' Trade List Annual (1873 ff.);
Subject Guide to Books in Print (1957 ff.)
Biblio (1935 ff.) - This is one among the French trade bibliographies. Since 1972
has been continued by Bibliographie de la France—Biblio.
Deutsche Nationalbibliographie (Leipzig, 1931 ff.) – This is one of several German
trade listings
British Books in Print (1874 ff.)
British National Bibliography (1950 ff.)
Subject bibliographies
These bibliographies list materials that relate to a particular topic. They are intended for
research workers and others in special areas. An example title is
The Humanities: A Selective Guide to Information Sources (by Ron Blazek and
Elizabeth Aversa)
Guides to reference materials
These bibliographies include the “best” works for a given situation or audience (e.g. guides
to reference books, special reading lists by a library and items devoted to the best works for a
particular group of people). They aim to introduce the user to general reference sources which
will be of assistance in research in all fields, and specific reference sources which will aid in
research in particular fields. Example titles of these are the following.
Guide to Reference Books (compiled by Eugene P. Sheehy – Chicago: ALA)
This publication concentrated on American, Canadian, and some British titles,
divided into five (5) major areas.
Guide to Reference Materials (edited by Albert J. Walford – London: LA)
This one is concentrated on British and European reference works.
American Reference Books Annuasl (by Bohdan A. Wynar)
This provides a record of the reference books published or distributed in the US and
Canada during the preceding year. It has annotations which are signed, critical, and more
expository than those found in Sheehy or Walford.
Analytical and textual bibliographies
Analytical Bibliographies are generally concerned with the physical description of books.
Textual bibliographies highlight certain textual variations between a manuscript and the printed
book.
Daily-use bibliographies
These bibliographies direct the user to an item and are primarily used to find a specific use of
article.
2. Selective bibliographies (selection aids)
These bibliographies are generally used in selection and acquisition of library materials. Trade
bibliographies are also considered under this category. Here are some popular titles.
Choice (Chicago: ALA, 1964 ff.)
Choice evaluates a number of reference titles of value to all libraries (approximately
68,000 reviews are for reference titles). Choice is published monthly.
Library Journal (New York: R.R. Bowker, 1876 ff.)
This semi-monthly publication is a yearly review of reference titles, usually written by
librarians and teachers.
RQ (Chicago: ALA 1960 ff.)
This quarterly publication that reviews 140,000 to 150,000 titles yearly, with around 200
words for each review.
Reference Books Bulletin, In Booklist (Chicago: ALA, 1905 ff.)
This semi-monthly publication provides current, accurate, and in-depth reviews of
general reference works.
Wilson Library Bulletin (New York: H.W. Wilson, 1970 ff.)
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This publication is issued monthly. It devotes one section to “Current Reference Books”.
Since only one author is responsible for the reviews, only about 20 to 30 are reviewed each
month.
Reference and Research Book News (Portland, OR: Book News, 1985 ff.)
This monthly publication provides full bibliographic information and a short (about 50
to 70 words) annotation.
3. Bibliography of bibliographies
These are listings of bibliographies that were created as a means pf bibliographic control. Some
popular titles are listed below.
World Bibliography of Bibliographies and of Bibliographical Catalogs Calendars,
Abstracts, Digests, Indexes, and the Like or Besterman (by Theodore Besterman – Lausanne:
Societas Bibliographica, 1965-1966)
This is the best-known and greatest non-specialist bibliography of bibliographies. It is
comprised of four (4) volumes and covers about 117,000 volumes of separately published
bibliographies in more than 40 languages. The entries are international in scope and are
classified under 16,000 subject headings. Besterman included other substantial
bibliographies but were not current. It lists separately published bibliographies only. The last
edition covers materials through 1963. This was supplemented by Alice F. Toomey’s World
Bibliography of Bibliographies (1964-1974). This supplement was compiled from Library of
Congress printed cards and arranged by subject according to LCSH.
Bibliographic Index
This is a subject index to bibliographies, which have been published in books,
pamphlets, and periodicals. This is an excellent source for beginning a search for scholarly
and/or popular works in many subjects. Each entry gives complete information on the
bibliography and indicates whether it is annotated or not. Entries are arranged according to
LCSH. Bibliographic Index has an online counterpart (WILSONLINE) , which covers
bibliographies from 1984 onwards.
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Educational Film and Video Locator (New York: R.R. Bowker, 1980 ff.)
This publication is used to locate a particular film or video in another library or collection. It
contains 52,000 items located in 46 libraries. This is issued in two (2) volumes – volume 1 is a
list of subject headings and the particular titles under each, and volume 2 is an alphabetical list of
titles.
Guide to Microforms in Print (New York: Bowker-Saur, 1961 ff.)
This publication considers sixteen (16) different types of microform. It lists works by author,
by title, and by subject (according to LCSH).
For periodicals and newspapers
Ulrich’s International Periodicals Directory (New York: R.R. Bowker, 1982 ff.)
This is a guide to currently available periodicals (about 120,000). Entries are arranged under
600 broad subject headings. It includes a title index.
Since 1988, it incorporated the Irregular Serials and Annuals, thus providing publication and
ordering information for most directories, almanacs, and yearbooks. Aside from print format, this
publication is available in various formats – cd-rom (Ulrich’s Plus), microform (Ulrich’s Plus in
Microfiche) and online (Ulrich’s Online, which is available through DIALOG, ESA-IRS, and
BRS).
The Serials Directory (Birmingham, AL: EBSCO Pub., 1986 ff.)
This annual publication was developed out of the firm’s list of periodicals which it sells as a
jobber to libraries, bookstores, and corporations. It covers 130,000 periodical titles and about
5,000 newspapers worldwide. It also indicates major indexing services for each title, but adds
dates for coverage of the particular item.
The Standard Periodicals Directory (New York: Oxbridge Communications, 1964 ff.)
This biannual publication lists about 75,000 periodical titles in the US and Canada, including
consumer and special interest magazines, newsletters, house organs, directories, government
publications, bulletins, yearbooks, and religious associations publications.
Magazines for Libraries (edited by Bill Katz and Linda Katz – New York: R.R. Bowker,
1992)
This provides an annotated list of magazines for the general reader and for school, junior
college, college, university and public libraries. It provides complete bibliographic information
and indicates availability of items in other formats other than print.
Comparative Online Serials Program (CONSER)
This is an online serials union list operated by the Library of Congress as an extension of
National Union Catalog.
45.4 Current and Retrospective Bibliographies
Another way of classifying bibliography is by grouping the whether they are current or retrospective.
Current bibliographies list materials close to the time at which they are being published. Retrospective
bibliographies, on the other hand, cover materials published during an earlier time period.
In the following list are examples of current and retrospective bibliographies.
Current bibliographies
Cumulative Book Index (New York: Wilson, 1898 ff.)
This is issued monthly except on August. It is an author-title-subject international list of
books published in the English language. It provides information on author’s full name, complete
title, edition, series, number of pages, publisher, date of publication, price Library of Congress
call number, and ISBN. It can be accessed online through Wilsonline. It also has a CD-ROM
version entitled Wilson-Disc.
American Book Publishing Record (New York: R.R. Bowker, 1961 ff.)
This monthly publication provides complete cataloging records for books as they are
published. It excludes government publications, subscription books, pamphlets, and dissertations.
Entries are arranged according to DDC with author and title indexes.
Retrospective bibliographies
American Bibliography (by Charles Evans – New York: Evans, 1903-1934)
This 14-volumework lists books, pamphlets, and periodicals published in the US from 1639
to 1806. The titles are listed in chronological order by date of publication. Included are indexes to
authors, printers, and publishers.
Early American Imprints (produced by Readers Microprint)
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This is a microform set of the full-texts of the non-serial titles in Evan’s work.
American Bibliography: A Preliminary Checklist
This covers publications dating from 1801 to 1819.
Bibliotheca Americana (by Joseph Sabin)
This lists books relating to the US from its European discovery (October 12, 1942) dating to
1868. It provides complete bibliographic description and locations of copies as well as references
to reviews.
A Short Title Catalogue of Books Printed in England, Scotland, and Ireland, and of
English Books Printed Abroad (by A.W. Pollard and G.R. Redgrave – 2 nd ed. London:
Bibliographical Society, 1976-1991)
This is a three-volume work whose first and second volumes include about 37,000 titles
arranged alphabetically by author. The third volume provides a comprehensive index, which
includes printers, publishers, and geographic names.
Short Title Catalogue of Books Printed in England, Scotland, Ireland, Wales, and
British America, and of English Books Printed in Other Countries (by compiled by D.G. Wing –
2nd ed., rev. and enlarged, New York: Index Committee of the Modern Language Association of
America, 1972-1988)
This is also a three-volume work which covers 120,000 entries arranged by author.
Eighteenth Century Short Title Catalogue (London: British Library)
This can be accessed online through BLAISE-Line and RLIN and also in CD-ROM as
ESTC.
45.5 Electronic Access to Bibliographic Sources
and Guides to Bibliographic Databases
Aside through print medium, bibliographies and bibliographic guides can be accessed electronically. A
very popular electronic media of bibliographies is the CD-ROM, a high-capacity read only optical disk that is
intended for publishing data and information. It can be intended for database publishing and distribution. It may
also contain databases of bibliographic records that are distributed to customer sites. Some databases available in
CD-ROM are listed below.
Bibliofile (Library Corporation)
Bibliofile is a MARC database management utility that provides access to catalog records by
main entry, title, ISBN/ISSN, and LC call number.
CD-MARC Bibliographic
This is an implementation of the LC-MARC Database in CD-ROM.
Laser Quest (from General Research Corporation)
SuperCat (from Gaylord Research Corporation)
CD-CATSS (from Utlas)
CAT-CD450 (from OCLC)
Laser Cat (from Western Library Network)
Precision (from Bodart)
Alliance Plus (from Follett Software)
Listed below are some titles of printed guides to bibliographic databases.
Bibliofile
This consists of two volumes and is published semi-annually. It contains about 6,000 entries
arranged alphabetically by database name. It identifies databases that are bibliographic in nature. The
first volume covers online databases, while the second lists databases in CD-ROM, diskettes, and
magnetic tapes. This is also available online through DataStar and in CD-ROM from Silver Platter.
The CD-ROM Directory (London: TFPL, 1986)
This annual publication is limited to sources in CD-ROM format.
CD-ROMs in Print: An International Guide to CD-ROM, Multimedia, and Electronic
Book Products (Westport, Conn.: Mecklemedia, 1987 ff.)
This is also published annually. It covers all electronic sources in various formats.
45.6 Bibliographic Utilities and Networks
A bibliographic utility is an organization that provides access to and support for bibliographic databases
directly to member libraries or through a network of regional bibliographic service centers, usually via a proprietary
interface. It may also refer to a large database for shared cataloging information created by the combined efforts of
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large libraries. Such databases are used to identify cooperatively-based online systems in the sharing of cataloging
data.
Relying on machine-readable cataloging provided by the Library of Congress, the major bibliographic
utilities offer
software for downloading, editing, and local record creation
authority control utilizing the Library of Congress authority files; and
services to facilitate interlibrary loan based on holdings information included in each
record.
The largest bibliographic utilities known are the following
Online Computer Library Center (OCLC)
This was formerly known as the Ohio College Library Center (1967). OCLC is the largest
bibliographic utility. Its network and services link 36,000 libraries in the US and 74 countries and
territories.
Research Libraries Information Center (RLIN)
RLIN started in 1967. The organization responsible for its existence is Research Libraries Group.
Utlas
This was formerly University of Toronto Library Automation System (1973). Later, it was
acquired by Information System Management (ISM) in 1992. This is now Utlas International Canada
since it was acquired by International Thomson Organization.
Western Library Network (WLN)
This was previously known as Washington Library Network since it was initially installed in
Washington to give a comprehensive record to public and private libraries. It acquired its present
name in 1985. Membership to WLN is restricted to the Pacific Northwest.
A-G Canada Ltd.
Bibliographic utilities are significant for the following reasons.
rapid location of a material or article
acquisition of materials through either direct or indirect file use
circulation control and remote catalog access
shared cataloging
online access to LC Name Authority File
answering bibliographic verification and location queries
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8. Bibliographical references to periodicals retain the parentheses around the dates of publication when
these follow volume number.
9. Page numbers are listed in bibliographical entries when the main item is part of a whole work. When
given, page numbers must be inclusive (first and last page of the cited section). In journal articles,
when an article is continued somewhere else in the journal, only the first page is to be given.
10. Bibliographical entries are arranged alphabetically by author’s family name, letter by letter.
11. In a succession of works by the same author, the name is given for the first entry and an eight-space
line of underscore ending with a period takes place in subsequent entries.
12. Titles of works edited by the author or written by the author in collaboration with others should not be
alphabetized along with works written by the author alone. Put edited titles after those written by the
author using an eight-space line of underscore for the author’s name, followed by a comma, a space,
and[No
“ed.”
author]
13. Co-authored works follow edited works, but the author’s name must be repeated in them.
The following illustrates
The Lottery. someJ.sample
London: Watts, bibliographical
[1732]. citations.
Books article
Journal
[One author]
Weinert,
Anderson,Regina.
W.D. “The
MusicRole
andof Formulaic
Musicians in Language in Second
Ancient Greece. Language
2nd ed. Ithaca, Acquisition:
NY: Cornell A
Review.” Applied Linguistics.
University Press, 1994. 16 (1995): 180-205.
MagazineHakemi,
article A. Shahdad: Archaeological Excavations of a Bronze Age Center in Iran. Translated
by S.M.S> Sajjadi. New Delhi: Instituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, 1997.
Jackson, Richard. “Running Down the Up-Escalator: Regional Inequality in Papua New
Guinea.”
[Edited Australian Geographer. 14 (May 1979): 175-84.
work]
Langdon,
Newspaper article S., ed. From Pasture to Polis. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1995.
[Two, three,
Manegold, or moreS.authors]
Catherine “Becoming a Land of the Smoke-Free, Ban by Ban.” New York
Times. 22 Mar. 1994, late ed. A1.
Lynd, Robert, and Helen Lynd. Middletown: A History in American Culture. NY:Harcourt,
Brace and Worls, 1929.
Unpublished materials
Christianson, Elin B., David E. King, and Janet L. Ahrensfeld. Special Libraries: A Guide for
Hoff, M.C. “The Roman Agora at Athens.” Ph.D. diss., Boston University, 1988.
Management. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: SLA, 1991.
Barradas, Josephine Cecilia L. “The Organization of Philippine Vocal and Instrumental
Pahlen, Kurt, et. al. The World of the Oratorio: Oratorio, Mass, Requiem, Te Deum,
Scores in Selected Academic Music Libraries in Metro Manila: A Survey.” MLS graduate
Stabat Mater and Large Cantatas. Aldershot: Scolar, 1990.
thesis, University of the Philippines, Diliman, 2000.
Government documents
United Nations, Center on Transnational Cooperations. Foreign Direct Investment, the Service
Sector, and International Banking. (New York: United Nations, 1987) 4-6.
Electronic sources
Oxford English Dictionary Computer File: On Compact Disc. 2nd ed. CD-ROM. Oxford:
University Press, 1992.
Schneiderman, R.A. (1997). Libraries can make sense of the Net. San Antonio Business
Journal, (11)31, pp. 58+. Retrieved January 1999 from EBSCO Database (Masterfile) on
the World Wide Web: http://www.ebsco.com
American Psychological Association. (1995, September 15).APA public policy action alert:
Legislation would affect grant recipients [Announcement]. Washington, DC: Author.
Retrieved January 25, 1996 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.apa.org/ppo/istook.html.
Mitchell, William J. City of Bits: Space, Place, and the Infobahn [Book online]. Cambridge,
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MA: MIT Press, 1995, accessed 25 September, 1995: available from
http://www-mitpress.mit.edu:80/City_of_Bits/Pulling_Glass/index.html; Internet.
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–Unit 14
Indexing
–––––
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An index is made up of index entries (individual records in the index). An index entry has several
elements. The basic ones include the following:
Index heading – This is a term chosen to represent in the index the item or concept
derived from the material being indexed.
Index subheading – This refers to the heading that is subsumed under a heading to
indicate a modifying or subordinate relationship.
Qualifier – This is a term added to a heading, but separated from it by punctuation
(preferably parentheses) in order to distinguish the heading from homographs in the same index.
Scope note – This pertains to the explanation added to a heading to clarify the range of
the subject matter encompassed, or the usage of the heading within the index.
Locator – This element leads the user directly to the part of the document or collection
containing the information to which the index heading refers.
One of the primary objectives of an index is to be part of the library’s information system (collection,
processing, storage, dissemination, and use of information). An index is a useful tool in information retrieval
(process of searching some collection of documents in order to identify those documents which deal with a
particular subject, or the process of recovering or retrieving documents from a given collection relevant to a
request). The index is a very important element of a library’s information retrieval system, the set of operations and
associated equipment, procedures algorithms, and documentation by which documentary units are indexed and the
resulting records are stored and displayed, so that selected records (and/or the documentary units they represent)
can be retrieved.
46.2 Functions and Uses of an Index
The functions and uses of an index are as follows.
An index identifies potentially relevant information in the document or collection being
indexed.
An index analyzes concepts treated in a document so as to produce suitable index
headings based on its terminology.
An index indicates relationships among topics.
An index groups together information on topics scattered by arrangement of the
document or collection.
An index organizes headings and their modifying subheadings into index entries.
An index directs users seeking information under terms not chosen as index headings to
headings that have been chosen, by means of See references.
An index suggests to users of a topic to also look up at related topics through See also
references.
46.3 Types of Indexes by Arrangement
The following is a listing of the various types of indexes classified according to the arrangement of their
entries.
Alphabetical index
This index is based on the orderly principles of letters in the alphabet and is used for the
arrangement of subject headings, cross references, and qualifying terms, as well as main headings. It
is more convenient to use since it follows an order that is familiar to any user. However, problems of
synonymy and scattering may arise. Scattering means that subcategories of a subject are not drawn
together under the generic term, but are frequently cross referenced from the not preferred terms to the
preferred ones. Users might be slowed in their searches since there is always a possibility of searching
under the not preferred term. For example if a user wishes to get information about “national
libraries”, what term does the user search – libraries or national libraries?
Classified index
The classified index has its contents arranged on the basis of relation among concepts represented
by headings (e.g. hierarchy, inclusion, chronology, and other association). Classified indexes are often
based on existing classification schemes(e.g. DDC).
Such indexes are useful for generic searches when retrieval is aiming for classes of documents.
Since the hierarchy is clearly presented, the user is immediately made aware of terms closely related
to a concept. They bring similar things together.
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Looking at the other side, classified indexes are usually difficult to use for some users primarily
because they do not know how they are constructed. To identify the right position of an item in the
classified list, a secondary file which is an alphabetical list is needed. For entries which follow the
sequence of notational symbols, one cannot enter to the item directly as one can with alphabetical-
sequenced listing. A conversion table must be consulted first in order to translate natural language
words into their notational equivalents.
Entries in classified indexes may appear under highly specific class numbers derived from a
general or specific-purpose classification scheme. Otherwise, they may be grouped under relatively
broad subject categories and subcategories.
Concordance
A concordance is an alphabetical index of all the principal words appearing in a single text or in
the multi-volume work of a single author with a pointer to the precise point at which the word occurs.
The index shows very contextual occurrence of a word.
The need for indexes was first felt when the English Bible was made available to ordinary people.
This paved the way for Alexander Cruden in 1737 to prepare The Concordance of the Bible.
A concordance is used to
to locate a partly or completely remembered passage
to assemble subject matter
to compare and analyze word meaning and usage
Numerical or serial order
Included in this group are patent-number indexes (e.g. The Numerical Patent Index of Chemical
Abstracts) and table indexes.
46.4 Types of Indexes by Type of Material Indexed
Indexes are also classified by the type of material being indexed, such as the following.
Book index
The book index, or back-of-the-book index, is an alphabetical list of words, or group of words at
the back of the book giving a page location of the subject or name associated with each word or group
of words. A book index is prepared in order to
reduce the frustration of information overload
permit a browser in a bookstore to compare books prior to purchase
collect the different ways of wording the same concept
provide well-worded sub-entries (rather than long strings of unanalyzed
page references
guide a user directly to a specific aspect of a topic
filter information for the reader
The contents of the index must satisfy the following conditions.
It must bring together references to similar concepts that are scattered in
the text
All significant items in the text must appear in the index.
Items and concepts in the text must be represented by appropriate, precise,
accurate unambiguous headings.
Index entry headings should be consistent in form and in usage.
The book index should represent the text and is not a vehicle for
expressing the indexer’s own views and interests.
A book index has the following components.
Entry – This is the principal subdivision of the index.
Heading – This identifies the subject and is the top line in the index entry hierarchy.
Subentry/subheading – This is a line of indented text that immediately follows the
heading. It usually represents some aspect of the main heading.
Locator – This tells the reader where to find the item or material pertaining to the
subject.
Cross reference – This is an internal index navigation guide. They usually take the forms
See and See also.
The following
Dogs is a sample entry from a book index.
breeding of, 134-139
breeds listed, 15-19
longevity, 22-25
nutritional requirements, 90-93
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whelping of puppies, 142-145
See also American Kennel Club
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Periodical index
The periodical index is based on the same principles and has the same general objective as a book
index but has a broader scope. Periodical indexes are open-ended projects usually performed by a
group of people. Each issue of a periodical may deal with unrelated topics by several authors, written
in different styles and aimed at different users.
The following table summarizes the major distinctions between the book and periodical indexes.
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The following indexes are classified by the type literature in the material being indexed, with an example
title for each type.
Index to short stories
Example: Short Story Index (NY: H.W. Wilson, 1953 ff.)
This index lists stories in both book and periodical collections. It provides entries for author, title,
and subject. This index is issued annually, with over 3,000 stories included each year. Short story
index provides a list of books and periodicals that were analyzed. Five-year cumulation issues are also
provided.
Index to plays
Example: Play Index (NY: H.W. Wilson, 1953 ff.)
Unlike Short Story Index, this index is published irregularly. It provides author, title, and subject
index entries to individually published plays and play collections. An author entry contains the full
name of the author, title of the play, a brief description note, the number of acts and scenes, the size of
the cast, and the number of sets required. It contains a cast analysis that helps a librarian locate plays
for a number of players required.
Index to Poems
Example: The Columbia Granger’s Index to Poetry. 9th ed. (NY: Columbia University
Press, 1990. 2048 p. Also available in CD-ROM)
This publication indexed close to 400 poetry anthologies. It provides four (4) indexes: by first
line, author, subject, and title. It serves as a guide in locating a poem in a particular anthology. It is
also valuable in locating elusive quotations either by first line or by subject. The index provides
access to over 40,000 poems.
: The Columbia Granger’s Guide to Poetry Anthologies (NY: Columbia
University Press, 1991)
This publication provides an annotated, descriptive, and critical appraisal of all the anthologies
indexed in the 9th edition of The Columbia Granger’s Index to Poetry, with attention given to the
audience for the particular works. The annotations were prepared by William and Linda Katz.
Index to Essays
Example: Essay and General Literature Index (NY: Columbia University Press, 1990 ff.)
This index consists of analytical subject entries to the contents of approximately 300 collected
works on every subject from art to medicine. It is useful in approaching an author’s work via his/her
name, as well as in locating criticism of the author’s individual efforts. Regular issues of four-year
cumulation for the previous index issues are provided.
46.6 Types of Indexes by Physical Form and Other Categories
Indexes are also classified by their physical form These include the following.
Card indexes (e.g. card catalog)
Printed indexes (e.g. indexes in printed book or serial formats) – These indexes
contain indexer’s markings on the items. They are constructed through the use of bibliographic
worksheets.
Microform indexes
Computerized indexes (e.g. online indexes, indexes in CD-ROM)
The intervention of computers in indexing can either be automated or computer-assisted. In automated
indexing, the computer is left to construct the index without human intervention. In computer-assisted indexing,
humans are responsible for the intellectual part of the task while the mundane work is done by computers (e.g.
sorting, organizing, etc.).
Indexes can also be categorized by the type of index headings they contain. These include the following.
Subject index
This index provides access to the topics treated in documents and/or features of documentary
units (e.g. genre, format, etc.). Index subject headings are arranged alphabetically or in other
systematic order.
Author index
This index provides access to information on documents cited by the author’s name in the
indexed document, or it lists documents distinguished by author’s name in the indexed collection.
Name index
The name index provides access to names contained in documents, whether or persons,
organizations, or other animate or inanimate objects which are identified by a proper name.
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`This diagram illustrates the concept that summarization leads to document retrieval and depth
indexing leads to information retrieval. The line that runs halfway in between suggests that it is
possible to have a subject analysis system that is halfway between the two extremes.
Specificity
This principle refers to the extent to which a concept or topic in a document is identified by a
precise term in the hierarchy of its genus-species relationship. If the heading used is parallel to the
concept contained in the item and represents this concept correctly, then the level of specificity is
high.
Example: An information resource about musicians is entered under
Musicians and not Performing artists.
Coextensive entry
It should be noted that this concept is not exactly the same as the concept of specificity.
Coextensive entry means that the subject heading will cover all, but not more than, the concepts
covered in the document.
Example: For a document that deals both with musicians and dancers,
should be Musicians and dancers.
However, if a controlled vocabulary is used, there is no specific entry that can be assigned.
Instead, several entries are provided (Musicians and Dancers for instance in the above example). An
example of an indexing system that attempts to make subject headings coextensive with the concepts
covered in the document analyzed is The Preserved Context Indexing System (PRECIS).
Consistency
This refers to the extent to which agreement exists on the terms to be used to index some
documents. It requires that items on the same subject be conceptually analyzed and translated in the
same way. There are two types of consistency level.
Inter-indexer consistency refers to the agreement between or among indexers
working as a team.
Intra-indexer consistency refers to the extent to which one indexer is consistent
to himself/herself.
Many studies identified two factors that influence indexing consistency.
Number of concepts represented – Consistency diminishes as more concepts
are represented. That is, the higher the Exhaustivity, the lower the consistency, and vice versa. It
has been observed that typically, indexers usually choose the same first term for the major subject
of the document, but consistency decreases as they choose more terms.
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Maintenance – Repairing
Indexing languages are of different types.
Natural language
This type of language uses significant terms or words occurring in the text as is as index entries.
Words extracted from the text that use natural language for indexing purposes are often called
keywords.
Natural language has several characteristics.
Natural language tends to improve recall because it provides more access points
but reduces precision.
In natural language, redundancy is greater.
Natural language uses more current terms.
Natural language tends to be favored by subject specialists or the end-user.
Controlled vocabulary
Controlled vocabulary makes use of authority lists that enable an indexer to establish a standard
description for each concept and use that description each time it is appropriate. It serves several
purposes.
It controls synonyms by choosing one form as the standard term.
It makes distinctions among homographs.
Example: Security (Law)
Security (Psychology)
It establishes the size or scope (e.g. whether the word baseball would include
softball).
It usually records hierarchical and affinitive/associative relations.
It controls variant spellings.
Controlled vocabulary uses several syndetic devices.
USE and USE FOR (for synonymy)
USE indicates that another term is to be used in preference.
UF (Used for) indicates that a term is used instead of another.
BT, NT, and RT (references for differing levels specificity and certain near
synonyms and antonyms.
BT - indicates that the term is broader in scope in relation to other
termsd within the unit.
NT – suggests that the term is narrower in scope
RT – indicates availability of related terms to the term in the unit.
parenthetical qualifiers (for semantic ambiguities)
Example: Mercury (Planet)
Mercury (Chemical element)
Mercury (Mythology)
Controlled vocabulary offers advantages for the indexer and the user of the index.
It increases the probability that both indexer and searcher will express a
particular concept in the same way, so as to improve the matching processand enable the
searcher to find what is being looked up to.
It increases the probability that both indexer and searcher can be led to a
desired topic by the syndetic features.
It increases the probability that the same term will be used by different indexers
or by the same indexer at different times to ensure consistency.
It helps to speed the indexing process and especially the searching process by
making it unnecessary to imagine and to look up possible or likely synonyms if the term
looked up is not in the database.
It helps searchers to focus their thoughts when they approach the information
system without a full and precise realization of what information they need.
Coupled with these advantages are some disadvantages.
Indexing with controlled vocabulary can mean high input costs, since it is
usually done by people who must read the document, discern the various ideas it contains,
then match these with appropriate terms in the authority lists.
Controlled vocabulary indexing is prone to human error in interpreting a
document’s subject matter.
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Differences
Subject heading lists Thesauri
Subject heading lists Thesauri are
have phrases and other pre-coordinated terms made up of single terms and bound terms
in addition to single terms representing single concepts. Bound terms
occur when some concepts can only be
represented by two or more words (e.g.
Type A personality).
Entries in subject Entries in thesauri
heading lists are called subject headings. are known as descriptors.
Entries in subject Thesauri are more
heading lists exhibit various types of strictly hierarchical. Because they are made
relationships (hierarchical, associative, etc.). up usually of single terms, each term usually
has only one broader term.
Subject heading lists Thesauri are
tend to be more general in scope, covering a narrow in scope. They are usually made up
broad subject area, or the entire scope of of terms from one specific subject area.
knowledge.
Subject heading lists Thesauri are more
are generally unilingual. likely multilingual. Because single terms are
used, equivalents in other languages are
easier to find and maintain.
Chapter 48 – Indexes and Indexing Systems
48.1 Title-Based Derivative Indexes
A title-based derivative index is generated merely by obtaining and analyzing contexts present in
document or article titles. There are two (2) known indexing systems that are centered in this principle.
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KWIC (Keyword in Context) indexing was introduced by Hans Peter Luhn in 1959.
It is a rotated index commonly derived from the titles of documents. Each keyword appearing in the
title becomes an entry point and highlighting in some way by setting it off at the center of the page.
KWIC indexing employs the following principles.
Titles are generally informative.
The words extracted from the title can be used effectively to guide the user to
an article or a paper likely to contain desired information.
Although the meaning of the word viewed in isolation may be ambiguous or
too general, the context surrounding the word helps to define and explain its meaning.
KWOK (Keyword Out of Context) indexing system is also a rotated index, but uses a
different method. Keywords that become the access points are set off on the left hand margin of the
page or sometimes, they are used as though they were subject headings. A keyword used as an entry
point in a KWOC index is not usually repeated in the title but is replaced by an asterisk (*) or some
other symbols.
Below are some examples how KWIC and KWOC indexes are constructed.
Examples: Document titles – Blue-Eyed Cats in Texas
The Cat and the Fiddle
Dogs and Cats and Their Diseases
The Cat and the Economy
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1. Each indexed term normally has a number of index entries containing at least one of
the same terms.
2. Computer software (index string generator) generates the description part (index
string) of each index entry according to regular and explicit syntactical rules.
Examples of string indexes are the following.
PRECIS (Preserved Context Index System)
This is a method of subject indexing developed by Derek Austin for the British National
Bibliography (1971-1973) in order to produce printed alphabetical subject entries. It involves
determining the subject content of the document
analyzing the subject statement to determine the role of each significant term (action
term, location term, an agent or object of the action)
computer manipulation of the coded string to produce index entries
determining the relationship of the term to other terms in the database and how should
all these terms be linked
PRECIS is based on citation order principle of context-dependency. The first principle governs
what terms are placed together in the citation order; the second, which is placed first. The principle of
context states that a term should be adjoined by those other terms which serve most to narrow its
scope or to qualify it. On the other hand, the basic principle of the dependency principle is that the
more dependent of two linked terms should normally be cited after the less dependent. The following
illustrates how a string orf terms is organized according to this principle.
Example: A>B>C>D
Philippines > Paper industries > Personnel > Selection
Note that a PRECIS indexer must use “operators” (codes tacked onto component terms) in order
to represent term relationships unambiguously.
Example: Topic: Selection of personnel in paper industries in the
Philippines
Input string: (O) Philippines
(I) paper industries
(P) personnel
(2) selection
where 2 = transaction action
P = object of action
O = location
I = key system (object of transitive action)
From the above example, the operators show the role that a term plays in relation to other terms
and thus can be regarded as role indicators or role operators. Below is an example of a PRECIS
index.
Example: Topic: Selection of personnel in paper industries in the
Philippines
Entries: Philippines
Paper industries. Personnel. Selection.
Paper industries
Personnel. Selection.
Personnel. Paper industries. Philippines
Selection. Personnel. Paper industries. Philippines
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Examples: HENDIADYS
English literature
Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Use of HENDIADYS. Source in
Vigil. Linguistic approach.
LINGUISTIC APPROACH
English literature. Tragedy. 1500-1599
Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Use of Hendiadys. Source in
Vigil. LINGUISTIC APPROACH.
Permuted indexes are created by systematically rotating information-conveying words in the title as
subject entry points in the index.
Through permuted indexing, indexing can be done easily at minimum cost. It does not need the expertise
of a professional indexer because it is entirely done by a computer. However, it has some drawbacks. Some
documents may not be accurately reflected accurately in this type of index since titles sometimes do not exactly
reflect the subject content of the work. The limited number of terms restricts complete subject indication. Most title
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indexes are unappealing to the eye and are difficult to scan. The lack of vocabulary control can increase the
retrieval of irrelevant documents. Due to this, permuted indexes usually employ stop lists (words that are not
suitable as subject indicators).
48.3 Faceted and Chain Indexes
Faceted indexes are products of a type of systematic classification that is often called as analytico-
synthetic system. A facet analysis is a tightly controlled process by which simple concepts are organized into
carefully defined categories buy connecting class numbers on the basic concepts.
A faceted index is pre-coordinated at the time of indexing and is arranged in classification order rather
than straight alphabetical order. Faceted classification system was introduced by S.R. Ranganathan by publishing
his basic works in the system on the 1930s.
Chain indexes are prepared though a simple technique of constructing an organized set of entries for an
alphabetical subject index of a classified catalog. They provide that every concept becomes linked, or chained, to its
directly related concept in the hierarchy system.
Chain indexing involves the creation of multi-level headings that consist of “chains” of terms extracted
from a classification scheme, arranged in an inverse citation order of facets to that of the classification scheme
itself. This was also introduced by S.R. Ranganathan as part of his Colon Classification, which uses synthesis or
number building. The number that represents some complex subject is arrived at by joining the notational elements
that represent more elemental subjects.
Example: Topic : Victorian period English poetry
Hierarchy:
8 Literature
2 English
1 Poetry
8 Victorian period
Chain index entries:
Victorian period: Poetry: English: Literature 821.8
Poetry: English: Literature 821
English Literature 820
Literature 800
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Subject determination
At this point, the indexer determines the aboutness of the document. It entails the formulation of a
concept list. The following guidelines must be observed.
Choose the concept which would be regarded as the most appropriate by a given
community of users, bearing in mind the purpose of the index.
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If necessary, modify both indexing tools and procedures as a result of feedback from
inquiries. Such modification should not be taken to a point where the structure or logic of the
indexing language is distorted.
No arbitrary limit should be set on the number of terms or descriptors which can be
assigned to a document. This should be determined entirely by the amount of information
contained in the document, related to the expected needs of the users of the index.
Concepts should be identified as specifically as possible. More general concepts may be
preferred in some circumstances, depending upon the following factors.
Extent to which the indexer considers that over-specificity might adversely affect the
performance of the indexing system – For example, an indexer might decide that very
specific models of equipment may be represented by more general terms such as the
name of the maker and perhaps of the family of models, especially when these concepts
occur in the fringe areas of the subject field covered by the index.
Weight attached to a concept by the author – If an indexer considers that an idea is not
fully developed, or is referred to only casually by the author, indexing at a more general
level might be justified.
Conversion to the index language
Terms in the concept list must be matched against those available in the controlled vocabulary.
The following practices must be observed in the translation process.
Concepts which are already translated into indexing terms should be translated into their
preferred terms.
Terms which represent new concepts should be checked for accuracy and acceptability in
reference tools such as:
dictionaries and encyclopedias recognized by authorities in their fields
thesauri (especially those constructed in accordance with ISO 2788 or ISO 5964)
classification schemes
subject specialists (especially those with some knowledge in indexing or documentation)
If the concepts are not yet present in an existing thesaurus or classification scheme, these may be
expressed by terms or descriptors which are admitted to the indexing language immediately, or
they may be represented temporarily by more general terms, the new concepts being proposed as
candidates for later addition.
Preparation of index entries
The indexer may use a pre-printed form or bibliographic sheet encoding to prepare and organize
the index entries obtained. The process of editing index elements (e/g/ cross references, spelling,
punctuation, headings, subheadings, missing entries, and unnecessary entries) is also undertaken at
this point.
In organizing the index entries, the indexer may opt to arrange the entries alphabetically (either
word by word or letter by letter), or in a classified system.
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After completing and checking all the entries, read quickly through the pages again to determine
if anything indexable has been omitted.
Arrange the entries in alphabetical order.
All entries are arranged in alphabetical groups by initial letter.
Entries within each letter group are arranged alphabetically, following either word-by-word or
letter-by-letter mode.
Examples:
Letter-by-letter Word-by-word
weatherproofing, 212 We Five, 101
Weather Underground, 143 Weather underground, 143
weaverbird, 119 weatherproofing, 212
Weaver,
Edit the entries. James Baird, 47 Weaver, James Baird, 47
We Five, 10
Decide which entries should be the main headings and which weaverbird,
should be119
the subheadings.
Decide whether certain entities will be treated as main entries orknitting,
weft knitting, 68 weft 68
subentries.
Entries within each letter group are arranged alphabetically, following either word-by-word or
letter-by-letter mode.
Example: painting Handicrafts
pottery making or painting
weaving pottery making
wood carving weaving
wood carving
Main entries unmodified by subentries should not be followed by long rows of page numbers.
Provide at least one subentry for a heading that has more than five references.
Subentries must be concise and informative and begin with a keyword or phrase.
Make a final choice among synonymous terms (e.g. being, life, or existence).
Provide adequate but not excessive cross-referencing.
Examples: Cars See also Trucks Trucks See also Cars
Chevrolet, 224 Dodge Ram, 219
Mazda, 146 GMC (Jimmy), 143
Volkswagen, 168 Mercedes Benz, 144
Observe correctness in punctuation.
The inversion of a phrase used as a heading in a main entry is punctuated by a comma.
If the heading is followed immediately by page references, a comma is used between the
heading and the first numeral and between subsequent numerals.
If the heading is followed immediately by run in subentries, a colon precedes the first
subheading. All subsequent subentries are preceded by semicolons.
Example: payments, balance of; definition of, 16
importance of, 16
Determine the design of the index after the compilation of the entries.
Decide whether subentries will follow an indented or run-in style.
The index should be balanced and should not be overloaded with too many subentries.
Typography should be used to differentiate between types of headings and to distinguish item
from numerals indicating volumes, parts, and pages.
Type or encode the index using a word processor. After typing, proofread the typescript
against the cards. Check the alphabetical order of all entries and conduct a final review.
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Letter to the editor, if considered indexable, should be indexed by topic, not under a
caption that may have been assigned by the editor. It is advisable to index at least the name of the
person who criticized an article as well as the author’s response.
Example: Author entry:
Doe, John. “Effects of magnetic fields” 37-43
errors (H. Smith) 75; corrections, 185
Letter writer’s index entry
Smith , Henry. “Effects of magnetic fields”
(John Doe pp. 37-43): errors, 75
Book reviews are indexed by the title of the book, followed by the name of the author,
the locator, and the designation (R), unless all book reviews are listed under the class heading “Book
Reviews” or in a separate index.
Example: Guide to reference books, 10th ed. (Sheehy) 68 (R)
The name of the reviewer should be included in the author name index.
Example: Dixon, Geoffrey 68 (R), 92-96, 123
49.5 Indexing Schemes for Fiction
and Other Imaginative Works
Indexing fiction and other imaginative works has an entirely different discipline among others. The
following is a scheme used for indexing such materials.
Determine the subject matter. This will include the following.
action and course of events
psychological development and description
social patterns
Note the timer and place frames covered in the material.
time frame (past, present, future)
place frame (geographical, social environment, profession)
Know the author’s intention in writing the text. It may fall under any of the following.
emotional experience
cognition and information
Define the accessibility of the material. The following elements will count on this.
readability
physical characteristics
literary form
49.6 Choice and Form of Headings
The following guidelines in the choice and form of index headings are based on ISO 999.
Personal names
Personal names should be provided in as full form as possible to give the users of the index the
most complete information available. Personal names should take the form used in the document but
if the text is not consistent, the indexer should adopt one form.
Choose the most commonly known, or the most commonly used form of personal name as the
heading and add See cross reference from other forms.
Example: Clemens, Samuel Langhorne See Twain, Mark
Where surnames are in common use, the entry should be the surname, followed by any given
name or initials. When surnames are not used, the name that customarily comes first should properly
be used as the entry word.
Example: Inuran Khan
Persons identified only be a given name or forename should be indexed under that name,
qualified if necessary, by a title of office or other distinguishing epithet.
Examples: Boudicca, Queen of the Iceni
Leonardo da Vinci
Persons normally identified by a title of honor or nobility should be indexed under that title,
expanded if necessary by their family name.
Examples: Dalai Lama
Marlborough, John Churchill, first Duke of
Compound and multiple surnames, whether hyphenated or not, should be indexed under the first
part.
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This determines whether to freely admit new terms or changes in terminology, and also to
respond to new needs of users.
49.8 Evaluating Indexes
The process of evaluating indexes is to determine their effectiveness, efficiency, and value. The following
guidelines will help the indexer, librarian, or even the user to determine the quality of an index.
Subject errors
Are there errors in choosing subject descriptors?
Are there any errors related to omissions?
Are some particular entries too broad or too narrow for the concept they intend to
reflect?
Generic searching
Alphabetical indexes have always presented difficulties in promoting generic searching.
Terminology
If writers and users reject the terminology contained in a thesaurus, the quality of the index will
suffer from their frame of reference.
Internal guidance
Are there printed instructions on how to use the index?
Cross references
Does the index allow cross referencing?
Accuracy in referring
Are the bibliographic citations and cross references correct and accurate?
Entry scattering
Are terms which are related in some way gathered together by certain means?
Example: College libraries School libraries
National libraries Special libraries
Public libraries
Entry differentiation
An entry that has five or more locations must be broken down.
Example: Libraries, 1-2, 28-31, 42, 53-60, 82,
109-11, 131-40, 310, 342-50
Spelling and punctuation
Are there errors in spelling and usages of punctuation?
Filing
Are the entries filed letter-by-letter or word-by-word?
Layout
Can entries and elements of each entry be distinguished form one another?
Example: [Main headings]
[Subheading]
[Cross reference]
Length and type
The following are the suggested lengths of indexes for various types of materials.
o Non-fiction book – 3-5% of the total number of pages
o History or biography – 5-8% of the total number of pages
o Reference books – 15-20% of the total number of pages
Cost
Is the price of the index reasonable for its content?
Standards
Does the index conform with prevailing recognized standards (e.g. ISO)?
There are two highlighted aspects that should be looked at in evaluating the quality of an index.
Recall ratio
This is the ratio of relevant documents retrieved to the total number of relevant documents
potentially available in the file. Recall depends on the level of Exhaustivity allowed by the indexing
policy.
Relevance ratio
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This refers to the ratio of relevant documents to the total number of documents retrieved.
Relevance or position depends on the terminology of the text being indexed and the specificity of the
indexing language used.
49.9 Indexing Software Applications
Whether in doing computer assisted or automated indexing, the indexer has a broad range of indexing
software application he/she can choose from. Some of these are listed as follows, with some basic descriptions on
their features.
Aythex Plus (Teeswater, ON: Reference Press)
This was primarily developed for newspaper and magazine indexing. This software requires the
intellectual input and labor of an indexer. The indexer must decide how to classify articles and build a
database of citations and headings. The software sorts the inputs, add cross references, and formats
pages. Authex Plus can also be used for bibliographies, abstracts, vertical file indexes, thesaurus
construction, community information databases, library patron databases, and local history indexes.
CINDEX (New York: Indexing Research)
This program is uniquely capable for preparing book indexes and indexes to newspapers and
other periodical publications. It performs sorting, checking, cross-referencing, and formatting.
MACREX (Daly City, CA: Wise Bytes)
This software was designed to assist the indexer working from printed proofs, text on disk, the
author’s manuscript, or an already completed book. This software performs routinary tasks such as
sorting, printing, repagination, etc.
SKY Index ™ (Winchester, VA: SKY Software)
This so9ftware employs spreadsheet approach to data entry and editing. It contains special
features for sorting order, including frequency of use, and last time of use. The software works for
cross references and it can even be used as a controlled vocabulary tool. It allows the indexer to
specify index entries that will be automatically double-posted and how they will be posted. SKY
Index also allows dragging of entries from the program to word-processed documents.
wINDEX (for DOS) (Waltham, MA: Susan Holbert Indexing Services)
This software is capable of alphabetizing, placing of punctuation marks, combining of identical
entries, and formatting instantaneously and correctly. It alphabetizes entries either letter-by-letter or
word-by-word. The indexer can specify what characters to ignore when alphabetizing. He/she may
also specify what words to ignore in alphabetizing subentries. The indexer can choose from either
paragraph style or line-for-line formats. The indexer can also choose whether to apply standard
numbering or chapter-page styles of manuals. Entries and subentries can be sorted by page number or
alphabetical order. The indexer working with this software can make notes on other word-processing
applications without leaving the indexing program. This software also permits the creation of
wINDEX files on word processing applications and merging indexes contained in separate files.
HTML Indexer (by David M. Brown – Portland, OR: Brown, Inc.)
This program serves as a tool for creating and maintaining real indexes for websites, intranets,
and documents in HTML, Help, JavaHelp, etc.
49.10 Institutions for Standardizing Indexes
There are local and international institutions that serve as models or guidelines for the analysis of
documents, construction and organization of indexes, indexing terminology, construction and use of thesauri, etc.
These institutions promote consistency and uniformity. Among these institutions are the following.
International Organization for Standardization
ISO is a network of the national standards institutes of 146 countries, on the basis of one member
per country. The Central Secretariat which coordinates the system is based in Geneva, Switzerland.
The following are the ISO documentations that concern the practice of indexing.
ISO 2788-1996 – Documentation – Guidelines for the establishment and development of
monolingual thesauri
ISO 5964-1985 – Documentation – Guidelines for the establishment and development of
multilingual thesauri
ISO 5963-1985 – Documentation – Methods for examining documents, determining their
subjects, and selecting indexing terms
ISO 999-1996 – Information and documentation– Guidelines for the content, organization,
and presentation of indexes
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ISO 4-1997 – Information and documentation – Rules for the abbreviation of title words and
titles of publications (It publishes List of Serial Title Word Abbreviations which includes
title word abbreviations in over 50 languages.)
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––––– –Unit 15
Abstracting
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Abstracting is simply the process of preparing abstracts, abbreviated, accurate representations of the
significant contents of a document. Usually, it is accompanied by an adequate bibliographic description to enable
the user to trace the original document, which qualifies it as a document surrogate.
Aside from the abstract, there are other types of document surrogates which are often found relatively
similar to abstracts. These are the following.
Annotation
This is a one-sentence description or explanation of a document.
Extract
An extract is an abbreviated version of a document that is produced by drawing out sentences
from the document itself.
Summary
This is the restatement of the document’s salient findings and conclusions. It is intended to
complete the orientation of a reader who has read the preceding text. Summaries are usually found at
the end of texts.
Terse literature
This type of document surrogate is a highly abbreviated statement that encapsulates the major
points of a document. They are quite rarely used.
50.2 Uses of Abstracts
In principle, abstracts are complement to indexes. Abstracts also serve as retrieval devices, just like
catalogs, indexes, bibliographies, etc. The following are the specific uses of abstracts that qualify them both as
retrieval tools and document surrogates.
Promote current awareness – They keep people informed of and updated on newly
published literature in their fields of interest.
Save reading time of the user – Though abstracts are smaller in size than the original
document, yet nit can provide as much information as the user needs without going into the full text.
Facilitate selection – Abstracts help users decide whether a particular document is likely
to be of interest or not.
Help overcome the language barrier – Abstracts enable users to find out what studies
and researches have been published in languages he/she may not understand.
Facilitate literature searches – Abstracts can also serve for the identification of relevant
documents, especially in computer-based retrieval systems.
Improve indexing efficiency – Since the abstract accurately provides information on what
a document is all about, the indexer may index from the abstract instead from the original document,
taking less time.
Aid in the4 preparation of reviews and bibliographies – Since abstracts are brief,
accurate representations of original documents, abstracts can also facilitate the preparation of reviews
and bibliographies of the actual document.
50.3 Types of Materials Abstracted and Qualities of Abstracts
The following are the usual materials from which articles are abstracted.
Journals – These are the main sources of publications for most of the primary literature.
Technical reports – Primarily, these are reports required by recipients of federal grants
and those coming from foreign researches.
Dissertations – These are sources of original researches.
Monographs/books – These publications which are abstracted usually deal with a single
topic.
Patent specifications – These are essential to persons or organizations concerned with
patents.
Conference and symposium proceedings – Abstracts are useful in accurately describing
events like lectures and discussion, meeting of representatives of organization, meeting of two
legislative committees, area organization of churches, legal action brought against somebody, etc.
Reviews – These may be book reviews, movie or film reviews, and so on.
Abstracts must possess three basic qualities in order to serve their purpose effectively.
Accuracy – As far as practicable, abstracts should avoid errors in representing the actual
document. The information delivered by abstracts must be confined within what is contained in the
actual document, and what information is really important on the original document.
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Brevity – Apparently, an abstract should be much shorter that the original document
from which they are derived. . This saves the users’ time in searching and retrieving their desired
information, and lowers the cost of producing abstracts as well. To achieve this, loss of novelty should
not be sacrificed. Brevity should also mean the prevention of redundancy.
Clarity – This quality ensures that abstracts should be free from all sorts of ambiguities.
As much as possible, an abstract is written in a language and style clearly understood by the user.
Chapter 51 – Types of Abstracts
51.1 By Type of Information
Abstracts can be classified into four (4) according to the type of information they contain.
1. Indicative (descriptive) abstract
This abstract simply describes or indicates what the document is about. Its main purpose is to
indicate to the reader of the abstract whether or not he/she would want to read the original document.
2. Informative abstract
This provides readers with quantitative and qualitative information in the present document.
Ideally, such an abstract obviates the necessity to refer to the original. It is intended for experimental
studies but not for theoretical studies or opinion articles.
An abstract can also become indicative-informative if it has the qualities of both.
3. Critical abstract
This abstract does not only describe the document content but also evaluates the work and its
presentation. It indicates the depth and extent of the work. The abstractor expresses views on the
quality of work of the author and compares/contrasts it with other works.
Examples: Abstracts found in the following publications:
Applied Mechanics Review
Referativnyi Zhurnal Mekhanika
Mathematical Reviews
At times, this abstract makes value judgment or editorial comment on general papers with broad
overviews, on reviews, and on monographs. If it is heavily editorial, it cannot convey much basic
information and is really just a review of the document rather than a true indication of the contents of
the document.
4. Slanted or special purpose abstract
There are two types.
Discipline-oriented abstract – This one is in which the information or description reported in
a document is oriented to a specific discipline to which the abstracting service is devoted. In
this type of abstract, emphasis may be given to the collateral information like modification of
methods, new instruments, newly discovered documents or data sources, or findings that
were only incidental to the author’s major purpose.
Mission-oriented abstract – This abstract is written to support application activities that may
or may not be interdisciplinary in nature. It highlights or concentrates on a selected portion of
a document’s subject content. Mission-oriented abstracts are produced to meet the needs of a
particular industry or group of individuals whose interests are more homogenous and
specialized.
Indicative abstracts should preferably be prepared only when the nature or length of the document being
abstracted will not permit the writing of an informative or informative-indicative abstract. The following are some
typical examples for each type.
Indicative abstract
ADVANCES IN THE CONSTRUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF TANK CARS 3:
THE DESIGNER’S VIEWPOINT
A brief survey covers the gradual development of tank car design from low capacity riveted two-axle
tanks to the two-truck, four axle high-payload cars of today; tank cars designed for the transportation
of class IIIa liquid productsat 1 atm., including the required wall thickness, quality of steel, manner of
construction, accessories, pressure tests of the welded seams, maximum capacity, and load;
pressurized cars for carrying class Id liquefied gases, including the materials specifications, steel
components, X-ray testing of welds, safety valves, level gauges, hydraulic pressure testing, and
separate draining equipment for the liquid and gas phases; frame construction (central guider or side
frame); truck construction (springs and shock absorbers); and trends towards unified European
regulations covering transportation by tank cars, higher speeds and loads, and automatic coupling.
Informative abstract
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Indicative-informative abstract
DIAGNOSING INTERDEPARTMENTAL CONFLICT
Resolution on interdepartmental conflicts that decrease productivity may require structural
reorganization to reduce authority-prestige ambiguity and internal social instability, and/or
may require inter-group training to reduce and counseling to reduce point-of-view conflicts.
A thorough study is needed of the goals and environment of the organization as a whole.
Experience (cited at numerous case histories) has demonstrated that three conditions must
be established to reduce these interdepartmental conflicts. Each group must have internal
social stability, including common interests and promotion opportunities. Groups in close
contact must share external values through common training and point of view. Authority,
as indicated by work flow and control, must follow prestige lines to be legitimate.
Critical abstract
1989. Pao, Y.C., Dept. of Eng. Mech.., Univ. of Nebr., Lincoln, Shy, D.S., et. al., On
relationship between bulk modulus and relative volume of lung during inhalation-
deflation maneuvers, p. 136-142, Journal of Biochemical Engineering, Transactions of
the ASME v 104, n 2 (May 1982)
The paper presents an equation relating the bulk modulus of the lung to the relative volume
during inflation and deflation. The average bulk modulus of the lung was obtained by injecting a 6-
mm.-i.d. cannula in the main lobar bronchus. “Regional lobe” volume changes were measured by
roentgen-videographically determined placement of 25 metal markers implanted in the excised lower
lobes of three dogs. Whole lobe volumes at various transpulmonary pressures were measured by
water displacement. Pressure and volume measurements were used to calculate bulk modulus
(K=AVP/AV). The “most satisfactory least squares curve fit” of bulk modulus (K) vs. relative
volume (V/Vmax) was obtained with the equation K=C(1-V/Vmax). Substituting for bulk modulus with
the equation K=VdP/dV, and integrating enabled computer-generated pressure-volume plots, this
equation provided a better pressure-volume curve fit than previously obtained, especially at low
values of pressure and volume. Also, as expected, the bulk modulus was smaller at low volume, but
the rate of change of modulus was greater during deflation than during inflation.
The authors assumed, without giving sufficient justification that the “regional lobe” (the area
bounded by the 25 markers) included a higher density of airways tha the rest of the lobe. Using this
assumption, the authors claimed that the modulus and rate of change of modulus were different for
parenchyma tissue and the airways during both inflation and deflation. No mention, however, was
made of paired t-tests or any other statistical tests. In fact, if they had done a paired t-test, they would
have discovered that none of these differences were significant, even at the 90 percent confidence
level.
Other sources of error which were not addressed include : the difference in the properties of
excised lung and intact lung due to blood in the vessels, surrounding tissue, negative pressure, etc.;
the effect of strain rate in the modulus of lung tissue, which is a viscoelastic material; the difference
between the true regional AV and the measured AV; and the differences between the mechanical
properties of dog and human lung tissue.
Despite its limitations, the paper presents a step forward in the understanding of mechanical
properties of the lung, and, thus, lung diseases. Therefore, it should be of benefit to researchers
interested in respiratory mechanics and physiology.
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Annotation
A model was developed for charring and melting a composite4 material with glassy
ablation combined with char-layer-molten-glass reaction.
Indicative
Variables in ablasion of a fiberglass-phenolic resin composite include glass ablation
and plastic pyrolysis, flow of melt, mass loss, reaction-heat absorption, mass injection, and
coupling between pressure and chemical reaction. Mathematical developments and
approximations are discussed. Parametric examinations are made.
Informative
Melting and pyrolysis and other chemical reactions are considered in this theory of
ablation of phenolic-resin fiberglass composite. In this theory, reaction occurs in a surface
film in which carbon from pyrolysis of the resin reacts with the glass. For IRBM reentry,
there is little temperature drop in the reaction zone, usually less than 1% and 6% maximum.
Depth of the reaction zone was one thousandth that of the thermal thickness. The
unreacting runoff in the melt was 40-80% and was a function of the possible reaction-
enthalpy level. More than 89% of the material reaching the reaction zone was affected. At
1000-2000OC, the reaction assumed was: SiO2 + 3C → SiC + 2O. Up to a 25% increase in
the ablation rate appeared only at lower reaction rates. Changing reaction enthalpy three
times changed the reaction rate less than 10%. The value calculated according to this theory
for peak reentry ablation rate was 38% below experimental value,
Critical
This theory of ablation of carbon-contaminated glass extends the work of Bethe and
Adams (Cr. Avco-Everett Research Laboratory, Research Report No. 38, 1958) on glasses.
Experimental ablation was 38% greater than the calculated by this theory. Thorough error
analysis was not included. Spalding (Aero Quarterly 223-74 (Aug. 1961)), and Scala
(General Electric Co. MSVD. report R59SD401 (July 1959); ARS Journal, 917-24) have
treated similar problems.
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3. Structured abstract
This refers to an abstract in non-narrative form wherein the abstractor lists the
items in a worksheet or template as these are found in the document. This kind of
abstract works well only for a subject area in which the essential elements/items are
more or less the same from one study to another. This abstract may also take a form
in which subheadings (e.g. background of the study, objectives, methods, results, and
conclusion) are included to facilitate scanning. Such type is commonly used in
abstracting medical journals. Below is an example of a structured abstract.
BACKGROUND: Structured abstracts – which, like the present one, contain several
subheadings – have replaced traditional abstracts in most medical journals. Evaluation
studies have shown that such abstracts provide more information, are of a higher quality,
facilitate peer review, and are generally welcomed.
AIM: The aim of the studies reported here was to investigate a possible advantage for
structured abstracts – namely: whether or not they are easier to search.
METHOD: Two studies are reported. In study 1, using an electronic database, 52 readers
were asked to find the answers to two questions for each of eight abstracts set in the other
format (say, traditional, followed by two questions for each of eight abstracts set in the
other format). Time and error data were recorded automatically. In Study 2, using a printed
database, 56 readers were asked to find five abstracts that reported a particular kind of
study (e.g., studies with school children and reading tests) and then to find five more that
reported another kind of study. Again, the order of presentation of the format of ther
abstracts was counterbalanced. Time and error data were recorded manually.
RESULTS: In Study 1, the participants performed significantly faster and made
significantly fewer errors using the structured abstracts. There were, however, some
unexplainable practice effects. In Study 2, the participants again performed significantly
faster and made significantly fewer errors with the structured abstracts. In Study 2,
however, there were asymmetrical transfer effects; participants who responded first to the
structured abstracts responded more quickly to the following traditional ones than did those
participants who responded first to the traditional abstracts.
CONCLUSIONS: The overall findings, notwithstanding certain caveats, support the
hypothesis that it is easier for readers to search structured abstracts than it is to search
traditional ones.
4. Mini abstract
This is a highly-structured abstract designed primarily for computer-aided searches. It actually is
an index-cum-abstract rolled into one. The terms used in this abstract are drawn from a controlled
vocabulary and are arranged in a specific sequence nearly approximating that of a sentence structure.
It is also known as machine-readable index-abstract.
Example: Statement: A method is described for the determination
of strontium and barium in human bone by radioactive
analysis.
Mini abstract: /METHOD/DETERM/STRONTIUM/BARIUM/
BONE/HUMAN/RADIOACTIVATION/
ANALYSIS
5. Telegraphic abstract
This document representation is presented in complete sentences which resemble a telegram. At
times, it is just a string of terms without syntax. It originated in the early computerized retrieval
system development at Western Reserve University.
Chapter 52 – Abstracting: Techniques, Methods, and Standards
52.1 Abstracting Plan
An abstracting plan is a record of basic abstracting decisions. It should be developed in advance of any
actual abstracting activity. This should be maintained, revised, and updated periodically. There are some reasons
why an abstracting plan should be developed.
to ensure that the principles of abstracting (i.e. accuracy, brevity, and clarity) are always borne in
mind in order that researchers will be lead to the relevant documents
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Objective or purpose – This should be stated unless this is already clear from the title of the
document or can be derived from the remainder part of the abstract.
Methodology – The techniques of approaches employed should be described but only to the
degree necessary for comprehension. New techniques should be identified clearly and the basic
methodological principle, the range of operation and the accuracy obtained would be described as
well.
Results and conclusion – Results and conclusions should be clearly presented. These may be
abstracted jointly to avoid redundancy.
In the presentation of data for scientific abstracts, the main findings must be highlighted. Furthermore,
collateral and additional information may be added. Collateral information includes findings or information
incidental to the main purpose of the study, including modification of methods, new instruments, new compounds,
and newly discovered documents or data sources. Additional information includes tables, illustrations, and
references. These may be included in an abbreviated form within parentheses at the end of the abstract.
Example: 4 tab., 5 fig., 10 ref.
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–Unit 16
IT for LIS Episode 1:
Computers and Data Resource Management
–––––
Chapter 53 – The Development of Computers and Information Systems
53.1 Pre-Computer Age and Calculating Machines
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advancing the wheels by a correct number of teeth. In the 1670s the German philosopher and mathematician
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz improved on this machine by devising one that could also multiply.
It was in 1820 when the next generation of calculating devices was invented, the artithometer, by Charles
Xavier Thomas of France. It combined the features of the Leibnitz calculator with newer engineering techniques.
The first mechanical calculator produced in the US was developed in 1972 by Frank S. Baldwin. Improving the
Leibnitz design, it made a much smaller and lighter calculator. The first commercial calculator that was both a
calculating and a listing machine was developed in 1886 by William Seward Burroughs, an American bank clerk.
53.2 Punched Card Information Processing and the
Analytical Engine
The French weaver and inventor Joseph-Marie Jacquard, designed an automatic loom (Jacquard’s loom),
which used thin, perforated wooden boards to control the weaving of complicated cloth designs. The concept of
recording data in the form of holes punched in cards was used in the design of punched card information processing
equipment. Another lesson from Jacquard learned from Jacquard was that work can be performed automatically if a
set of instructions can be given to a machine to direct it in its operations. This was the fundamental for the
development of computers.
During the 1880s the American statistician Herman Hollerith who worked in the US Bureau of Census,
conceived the idea of using perforated cards (punch cards similar to Jacquard’s boards) for processing data.
Employing a system that passed punched cards over electrical contacts, he devised the Hollerith’s punched-cards
tabulating machine, which he used to speed up the compilation of statistical information for the 1890 United States
census. Hollerith went on to establish the Tabulating Machine Company to manufacture and market his invention,
which IN 1911 merged with other organizations to form the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company.
In 1924, after further acquisitions, Computing-Recording-Tabulating Company absorbed the International Business
Machines Corporation (IBM) and assumed that company's name. Thomas J. Watson, Sr. arrived that same year and
began to build the foundering company into an industrial giant. IBM soon became the country's largest
manufacturer of time clocks and developed and marketed the first electric typewriter. In 1951 the company entered
the computer field. The punched-card technology was widely used until the mid-1950s.
Also in the 19th century, the British mathematician and inventor Charles Babbage (referred to as the
Father of the modern computer) worked out the principles of the modern digital computer. He conceived a number
of machines, such as the Difference Engine and Analytical engine, the forerunners of the modern computer, that
were designed to handle complicated mathematical problems. One of Babbage’s designs, the Analytical Engine,
had many features of a modern computer. It had an input stream in the form of a deck of punched cards, a “store”
for saving data, a “mill” for arithmetic operations, and a printer that made a permanent record. Babbage failed to
put this idea into practice, though it may well have been technically possible at that date.
Many historians consider Babbage and his associate, the mathematician Augusta Ada Byron, Countess of
Lovelace and daughter of the poet, Lord Byron, the true pioneers of the modern digital computer. The latter
provided complete details as to exactly how the analytical engine was to work. Because she described some of the
key elements in computer programming, she was referred to as the “world’s first computer programmer”.
53.3 Early Computers
Analogue computers began to be built in the late 19th century. Early models calculated by means of
rotating shafts and gears. Numerical approximations of equations too difficult to solve in any other way were
evaluated with such machines. Lord Kelvin built a mechanical tide predictor that was a specialized analogue
computer. During World Wars I and II, mechanical and, later, electrical analogue computing systems were used as
torpedo course predictors in submarines and as bombsight controllers in aircraft. Another system was designed to
predict spring floods in the Mississippi River basin.
In the United States, a prototype electronic machine had been built as early as 1939, by John Atanasoff
and Clifford Berry, at Iowa State College. This prototype and later research were completed quietly for the
development of the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC). This is considered as the first electronic computing machine.
It could only perform addition and subtraction, and never became operational because of the involvement of the
inventors in US military efforts in World War II.
In 1944, Howard Aiken completed the MARK I computer (also known as the Automatic Sequence
controlled Calculator), the first electromechanical computer. It can solve mathematical problems 1,000 times faster
than existing machines.
The first electronic computer to be made operational was the Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Calculator (ENIAC). It was built in 1946 for the US Army to perform quickly and accurately the complex
calculations that gunners needed to aim their artillery weapons. ENIAC contained 18,000 vacuum tubes and had a
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speed of several hundred multiplications per minute, but originally its program was wired into the processor and
had to be manually altered.
The scientists of the Cambridge University in England designed the world’s first electronic computer that
stored its program of instructions, the Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC). This gave more
flexibility in the use of the computer. Two years after (1951), machines were built with program storage, based on
the ideas of the Hungarian-American mathematician John von Neumann of Pennsylvania University. The
instructions, like the data, were stored within a “memory”, freeing the computer from the speed limitations of the
paper-tape reader during execution and permitting problems to be solved without rewiring the computer. This
concept gave birth to the Electronic Discreet Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC).
During World War II a team of scientists and mathematicians, working at Bletchley Park, north of
London, created one of the first all-electronic digital computers: Colossus. By December 1943, Colossus, which
incorporated 1,500 vacuum tubes, was operational. It was used by the team headed by Alan Turing, in the largely
successful attempt to crack German radio messages enciphered in the Enigma code.
53.4 First Generation of Computers
The first generation of computers (1951-1959) is characterized by use of the vacuum tube and were very
large in size (a mainframe can occupy the whole room).
The first business computer, the Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC I), was developed in 1951. It
was invented to improve information processing in business organizations.
In 1953, IBM produced the first of its computers, the IBM 701—a machine designed to be mass-produced
and easily installed in a customer’s building. The success of the 701 led IBM to manufacture many other machines
for commercial data processing. The IBM 650 computer is probably the reason why IBM enjoys such a healthy
share of today’s computer market. The sales of IBM 650 were a particularly good indicator of how rapidly the
business world accepted electronic data processing. Initial sales forecasts were extremely low because the machine
was thought to be too expensive, but over 1,800 were eventually made and sold.
The invention of the integrated circuit (IC) by Jack S. Kilbey of Texas Instruments in 1958 is considered
as a great invention which changed how the world functions. It is the heart of all electronic equipment today.
Between 1959 and 1961, (COBOL) was invented by Grace Murray Hopper. It is a verbose, English-like
programming language. Its establishment as a required language by the United States Department of Defense, its
emphasis on data structures, and its English-like syntax led to its widespread acceptance and usage, especially in
business applications. It is a champion of standardized programming languages that are hardware independent.
COBOL is run in many types of computers by a compiler that is also designed by Hopper.
53.5 Second Generation of Computers
The invention of the transistor marked the start of second generation of computers (ca. 1954-1964) which
were smaller in size (a mainframe can be the size of a closet). Second generation computers were smaller, faster,
and more versatile logical elements than were possible with vacuum-tube machines. Because transistors use much
less power and have a much longer life, components became smaller, as did inter-component spacings, and the
system became much less expensive to build. The Honeywell 400 computer is the first in the line op of second
generation computers.
In the 1950’s and 1960’s, only the largest companies could afford the six to seven digit tags of mainframe
computers. Digital Equipment Corporation introduced the PDP-8, which is generally considered as the first
successful transistor-based microcomputer. It was an instant hit and there were tremendous demands from business
and scientific organizations.
53.6 Third Generation of Computers
Even if the first IC was invented earlier during the era of first generation computers, it was only in late
1960s when it was introduced, making it possible for many transistors to be fabricated on one silicon substrate, with
interconnecting wires plated in place. The IC resulted in a further reduction in price, size, and failure rate. This was
the start of third generation computers (mid-1960s to mid 1970s).
Some historians consider the IBM System/360 of computers the single most important innovation in the
history of computers. It was conceived as a family of computers with upward compatibility, when a company
outgrew one model it could move up to the next model without worrying about converting its data. This made all
previous computers obsolete.
In 1964, Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code (BASIC). a high-level programming language,
was developed by John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz at Dartmouth College. BASIC gained its enormous popularity
mostly because it can be learned and used quickly. The language has changed over the years, from a teaching
language into a versatile and powerful language of both business and scientific applications.
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In 1969, two Bell Telephone Labs software engineers, Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thompson, developed a
multi-user computer system named Multics (Multiplexed Information and Computing Service). They eventually
implemented a rudimentary operating system they named Unics, as a pun of Multics. Somehow, the name became
UNIX. The most notable feature of this operating system is its portability: the operating system can run in all types
of computers, is machine-independent, and supports multi-user processing, multitasking, and networking. UNIX is
used in high-end workstations and servers. This is written in C language, which was also developed by Ritchie and
Thompson.
53.7 Fourth Generation of Computers
The introduction of large-scale integration of circuitry (more circuits per unit of space) is the mark of the
beginning of fourth generation of computers. The base technology, though, is still the IC, had significant
innovations after two decades have passed. The computer industry actually experienced a mind-bogging succession
of advancements in the further miniaturization of circuitry, data communications, and the design of computer
hardware and software. The microprocessor became a reality in the mid-1970s with the introduction of the large-
scale integrated (LSI) circuit.
Bill Gates and Paul Allen revolutionized the computer industry. They developed the BASIC programming
language for the first commercially-available microcomputer, the MITS Altair. After successful completion of the
project, the two formed Microsoft Corporation in 1975. Microsoft is now the largest and most influential software
company in the world. Microsoft was given an anonymous boost when its operating system software, MS-DOS was
selected for use by the IBM PC. Gates, now the wealthiest person in the world, provides the company’s vision of
new product ideas and technologies.
One important entrepreneurial venture during the early years is the Apple II personal computer, which was
introduced in 1977. This event has forever changed how society perceives computers: that computing is made
available to individuals and very small companies.
IBM tossed its hat into the personal computer ring with its release of the IBM personal computer in 1981.
By the end of 1982, 835,000 units had been sold. When software vendors began to orient their products to the IBM
PC, many companies began offering IBM PC-compatibles or clones. Today, the IBM PC and its clones have
become a powerful standard in the microcomputer industry.
In 1982, Michael Kapor founded the Lotus Development Company, a subsidiary of IBM. It introduced an
electronic spreadsheet product (Lotus 123) and gave IBM PC credibility in the business marketplace. Sales of IBM
PC and Lotus 123 soared.
In 1984, Apple Macintosh introduced the Macintosh desktop computer with a very friendly graphical user
interface (GUI). This was a proof that computers can be easy and fun to use. GUI began to change the complexion
of the software industry. They have changed the interaction between the user and the computer from a short,
character-oriented exchange modeled from the teletypewriter to the now famous WIMP interface (WIMP stands for
windows, icons, menus, and pointing devices).
It was in 1985 when Microsoft adopted the GUI in its Windows operating system for IBM PC compatible
computers. Windows did not enjoy widespread acceptance until 1990, with the release of Windows 3.0. It gave a
huge boost to the software industry because larger, more complex programs could not be run on IBM-PC
compatibles. Subsequent releases made the PC even easier to use, fueling the PC explosion in the 1990s.
In 1991, Linus Torvalds developed LINUX, a reliable and compactly designed operating system that is an
offshoot of UNIX and can be run on many different hardware platforms. It is available free or at very low cost.
LINUX was used as an alternative to the costly Windows Operating System.
In 1993, the IBM-PC compatible PCs started out using Intel microprocessor chips, then a succession of
even more powerful chips. But not until the Intel Pentium and its successors did PCs do much with multimedia (the
integration of motion, video, animation, graphics, sound, and so on). The emergence of the high-powered Intel
Pentium processors and their ability to handle multimedia applications changed the way people view and use PCs.
It was also in this year when millions of people began to tune into the Internet for news. The World Wide
Web (WWW), one of several internet-based applications, came of age as Web traffic grew 341.634%. The web is
unique that it enabled Web pages to be linked across the Internet. A number of Internet browsers were introduced
(e.g. Mosaic and Netscape Navigator which were developed by Marc Andreesen, and Internet Explorer by
Microsoft Corporation). These browsers enabled users to navigate the World Wide Web with ease. Today, WWW
is the foundation for most Internet communications and services. The World Wide Web was actually created in
1991 by Tim Berners-Lee, an engineer in Geneva, Switzerland.
53.8 Fifth Generation of Computers
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The fifth generation of computers is characterized by the very large-scale integrated (VLSI) circuit
(microchip), with many thousands of interconnected transistors etched into a single silicon substrate. It is also
characterized by network computers of all sizes, the Internet, Intranets, and Extranets.
The year 1996 marked the 50th year of computer history. The US Postal service issued stamps that
commemorated the 50th anniversary of ENIAC, the first full-scale computer and the 50 years of computer
technology that followed. It was during this year when the handheld computer was introduced and signaled to the
world that you can place a tremendous computing power at the palm of your hand. Nowadays, millions of people
rely on handhelds for a variety of personal information management applications, including e-mail.
In the year 1999, the world was threatened by the Y2K problem, known as the millennium bug. It may
have been one of the biggest challenges ever to confront the businesses of the world. For most of the 20 th century,
information systems had only two digits to represent the year (e.g. 99 for 1999). But what would happen when the
20th century ended and a new one begins is that non-compliant computers would interpret the date 01-01-00 for
January 1, 2000 as being January 1, 1900. Y2K heightened management’s awareness of how critical information
technology is to the operation of any organization.
Jack Kilbey’s first IC contained a single transistor. Tens of thousands engineers around the world have
built on his invention, such that each year, our society is the beneficiary of smaller, more powerful, cheaper chips.
One continuing trend in computer development is microminiaturization, the effort to compress more circuit
elements into smaller and smaller chip space. In 1999, scientists developed a circuit the size of a single layer of
molecules, and in 2000 IBM announced that it had developed new technology to produce computer chips that
operate five times faster than the most advanced models to date. Also in 2000, scientists discovered a way to
transfer information on an atomic level without relying on traditional wires or circuits. This effect, dubbed the
quantum mirage, describes how an atom of matter placed in an elliptical-shaped structure on a solid surface reflects
itself at other points within the ellipse, thereby relaying information. Researchers are also trying to speed up
circuitry functions through the use of superconductivity, the phenomenon of decreased electrical resistance
observed in certain materials at very low temperatures.
Whether we are moving into a fifth generation of computing is a subject of debate since the concept of
generations may no longer fit the continual, rapid changes occurring in computer hardware, software, data, and
networking technologies. But in any case, we can be sure that progress in computing will continue to accelerate and
that the development of Internet-based technologies and applications will be one of the major forces driving
computing in the 21st century.
53.9 Computers and Information Systems
A computer can be defined as an electronic device that has the ability to accept data, store and execute a
program of instructions, perform mathematical and logical operations on data, and report the results. A computer
system has the following common features regardless of brand, type, or size.
input and output devices
primary and secondary storage
processor and control unit
peripheral devices
Modern digital computers are all conceptually similar, regardless of size. Nevertheless, they can be
divided into several categories on the basis of cost and performance.
Mainframe computer – This is a large, expensive machine with the capability of serving the needs
of major business enterprises, government departments, scientific research establishments, or the like.
Midrange computer or minicomputer – This is a middle-sized computer that is capable of
supporting the computing needs of smaller organizations or of managing networks of other
computers. It is generally too expensive for personal use, and has capabilities suited to a business,
school, or laboratory
Microcomputer – This is a small computer used in systems for universities, factories, or research
laboratories. Under this category are the following:
personal computer – a relatively low-cost machine, usually of desktop size (though
laptops are small enough to fit in a briefcase, and palmtops can fit into a pocket, or even wearable
PCs);
server – computer that is specifically optimized to provide software and other resources
to other computers over a network; and
server farm – a large group of servers maintained by a commercial vendor and made
available via subscription for electronic commervce and other activities requiring heavy use of
servers.
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manner. Some mouse units feature a scroller, which provides a better way of scrolling through
documents vertically and/or horizontally. The latter optomechanical mouse eliminates the need for
many of the wear-related repairs and maintenance necessary with purely mechanical mice.
.Joystick – This performs the same function as the mouse. It is favored for computer games. A
joystick usually has a square or rectangular plastic base to which is attached a vertical stem. Control
buttons are located on the base and sometimes on top of the stem. The stem can be moved in all
directions to control the movement of an object on the screen. The buttons activate various software
features, generally producing on-screen events. A joystick is usually a relative pointing device,
moving an object on the screen when the stem is moved from the centre and stopping the movement
when the stem is released. In industrial control applications, the joystick can also be an absolute
pointing device, with each position of the stem mapped to a specific on-screen location.
Trackball – This can be roughly described as a mouse on its back. It consists of a ball resting on
two rollers at right angles to each other, which translate the ball's motion into vertical and horizontal
movement on the screen. It typically has one or more buttons to initiate other actions. The only
functional difference between a mechanical mouse and a trackball is in how the ball is moved. With a
trackball, the housing is stationary, and the ball is rolled with the hand. A trackball is useful for fine
work because the user can exert fingertip control. Another major advantage of a trackball is that it
takes up little desktop surface. This replaces the mouse on some laptop computers.
Graphics tablet – This pointing device is also called a digitizing tablet. It is a flat plastic rectangle
with subsurface electronics, used in conjunction with a pointing device in many engineering and
design applications as well as in illustration work. When a pointing device, like a puck (or even the
finger), is moved on the surface of the tablet, the location of the device is translated to a specific on-
screen cursor position.
Puck – This is often used in engineering applications. It is a mouse-like device with buttons for
selecting items or choosing commands and a clear plastic section extending from one end with cross
hairs printed on it. The intersection of the cross hairs on the puck points to a location on the graphics
tablet, which in turn is mapped to a specific location on the screen. Since the puck's cross hairs are on
a transparent surface, a drawing can easily be traced by placing it between the graphics tablet and the
puck and moving the cross hairs over the lines of the drawing.
Scanner – This input device uses light-sensing equipment to read information in paper or another
medium, and translate the pattern of light and dark (or color) into a digital signal that can be
manipulated by either optical character recognition software or graphics software. A frequently
encountered type of scanner is flatbed, meaning that the scanning device moves across or reads across
a stationary document. Another type of flatbed scanner uses a scanning element placed in a stationary
housing above the document. Other scanners work by pulling in sheets of paper, which are scanned as
they pass over a stationary scanning mechanism, as in the common office fax machine. Some
specialized scanners, like barcode readers, work with a standard video camera, translating the video
signal into a digital signal for computer processing. Another popular type of scanner is the hand-held
scanner, a scanner held in the user’s hand is moved over the document to be scanned.
Light pen – This is a pointing device in which the user holds a wand, which is attached to the
computer, up to the screen and selects items or chooses commands on the screen (the equivalent of a
mouse click) either by pressing a clip on the side of the light pen or by pressing the light pen against
the surface of the screen. The light pen doesn't require a special screen or screen coating, as does a
touch screen, but its disadvantage is that holding the pen up for an extended length of time is tiring to
the user.
Touch screen – This is a computer screen designed or modified to recognize the location of a
touch on its surface. By touching the screen, the user can make a selection or move a cursor.. The
touch screen's popularity with personal-computer users has been limited because users must hold their
hands in midair to point at the screen, which is prohibitively tiring over extended periods. Also, touch
screens do not offer high resolution—the user is not able to touch only a specific point on the screen.
Touch screens are, however, immensely popular in applications such as information kiosks because
they offer pointing control without requiring any movable hardware and because touching the screen
is intuitive
Card reader – This is a device that can acquire and process information stored in electronic cards
like ATM cards, ID cards, special privilege cards, credit and debit cards, and so on. It commonly
found in commercial establishments where transaction cards are swiped to obtain necessary
information about the customer or client.
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Voice recognition system – It may be any device and software which together, take spoken words
and translate them into digital signals for the computer. A typical device used in speech recognition is
a microphone. Speech recognition is the ability of a computer to understand the spoken word for the
purpose of receiving commands and data input from the speaker. This method is also fairly reliable
provided the speaker's speech patterns are consistent. Speech recognition also allows full speech-to-
text conversion.
Storage devices can also be used to input data into the processing unit. An example is the transfer of data
from an external storage device to the computer, such as an external disk drive, digital camera with stored images,
or any other external storage device.
54.3 Central Processing Unit
The central processing unit (CPU) is the part of the computer system where manipulation of data,
(symbols, numbers, and letters) occurs. It also controls other parts of the system.
The CPU may be a single chip or a series of chips that perform arithmetic and logical calculations and that
time and control the operations of the other elements of the system. Contemporary CPUs use semiconductor chips
called microprocessors, common in personal computers, which integrate all the memory, logic, and control circuits
for an entire CPU onto a single chip. The development of the microprocessor was made possible through
miniaturization and integration techniques.
The speed and performance of a computer’s microprocessor help determine a computer’s processing
power. These are based on the following.
Word length – This refers to the number of bits that the computer can process at one time (e.g. a
64-bit chip can process 64 bits, or 8 bytes in a single cycle). The larger the word length, the greater
the computer’s speed.
Cycle speed – This is measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). This indicates the
number of cycles per second (e.g. a 500 MHz Intel Pentium III processor will have 500 million cycles
per second).
Data bus width – This acts as a superhighway between the CPU, primary storage, and other
devices, which determines how much data can be moved at one time. the 8088 chip having 16-bit
word length but only an 8-bit data bus width can process data in 16-bit chunks but could only be
moved 8 bits at a time).
Most CPU chips and microprocessors are composed of four functional sections:
Arithmetic/logic unit – This gives the chip its calculating ability and permits arithmetical and
logical operations.
Registers – These are temporary storage areas that hold data, keep track of instructions, and hold
the location and results of these operations.
Control section - The control section has three principal duties.
It times and regulates the operations of the entire computer system
Its instruction decoder reads the patterns of data in a designated register and translates
the pattern into an activity, such as adding or comparing
Its interrupt unit indicates the order in which individual operations use the CPU, and
regulates the amount of CPU time that each operation may consume.
Internal bus. – This segment of a CPU chip or microprocessor is a network of communication
lines that connects the internal elements of the processor and also leads to external connectors that
link the processor to the other elements of the computer system. There are three types of CPU buses
Control bus – This consists of a line that senses input signals and another line that
generates control signals from within the CPU.
Address bus – This is a one-way line from the processor that handles the location of data
in memory addresses.
Data bus – This is a two-way transfer line that both reads data from memory and writes
new data into memory.
There are certain ways that can speed up processing.
Reduced instruction set computing (RISC) – This technology is used to enhance the speed of
microprocessors by embedding only the most frequently used instructions on a chip.
Parallel processing – This is a type of processing in which more than one instruction can be
processed at a time by breaking down a problem into smaller parts and processing them
simultaneously with multiple processors.
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Massively parallel processing – This is similar to parallel processing, only that hundreds or
thousands of processing chips are used to attack large computing problems simultaneously.
The manner in which data are input into the computer affects how the data can be processed. Information
systems collect and process information in one or two ways.
Batch processing – This is a method of collecting and processing data in which transactions are
accumulated and stored until a specified time when it is convenient or necessary to process them as a
group.
On-line processing – This In this method, transactions are entered directly into the computer
system and processed immediately.
Aside from the computer’s CPU, another computer hardware that can be considered under this category is
the motherboard (or the main board). This is the main circuit board containing the primary components of a
computer system. This board contains the microprocessor, main memory, support circuitry, and bus controller and
connector. Other boards, including expansion memory and input/output boards, may attach to the motherboard via
the bus connector.
54.4 Primary Storage
Primary storage refers to temporary storage of data and program instructions during processing. It is also
known as internal storage since it stores data in the computer memory. There are two types.
RAM (Random Access Memory) – These are chips that are mounted directly on the computer’s
main circuit board, or in chips mounted on peripheral cards that plug into the computer’s main circuit
board. They are called so because the computer can directly access any randomly chosen location in
the same amount of time. These RAM chips consist of millions of switches that are sensitive to
changes in electric current. So-called static RAM chips hold their data as long as current flows
through the circuit, whereas dynamic RAM (DRAM) chips need high or low voltages applied at
regular intervals—every two milliseconds or so—if they are not to lose their information. RAM is
used for short-term storage of data or program instructions. It is volatile – meaning its contents will be
lost when the computer’s electric supply is turned off.
ROM (Read-Only Memory) – These chips form commands, data, or programs that the computer
needs to function correctly. RAM chips are like pieces of paper that can be written on, erased, and
used again; ROM chips are like a book, with its words already set on each page. ROM is non-volatile.
ROM can only be read from it; it cannot be written to. ROM chips come from manufacturers with
programs already burned in or stored. ROM is used in general-purpose computers to store important
or frequently-used programs. Like RAM, ROM chips are linked by circuitry to the CPU.
Primary storage has three main functions.
They store all or part of the software program that is being executed.
They store the operating system programs that manage the operation of he computer.
They hold the data that the program is using.
Computer storage is measured in bytes. A byte is equivalent to a string of eight bits. If byte is prefixed
with kilo (i.e. kilobyte), it becomes 1,000 bytes; such that 100 kilobytes (KB) is 100,000 bytes. Megabyte (MB) is
1,000,000 bytes; gigabyte (GB) is 1,000,000,000 bytes; and terabyte (TB) is 1,000,000,000,000 bytes.
54.5 Secondary Storage
Secondary storage stores data and instructions when they are not used in processing. Relatively, they are
long-term, non-volatile storage of data outside the CPU or primary storage. Secondary storage is also known as
external storage because it does not use the computer memory to store data. External storage devices, which may
actually be located within the computer housing, are external to the main circuit board. These devices store data as
charges on a magnetically sensitive medium such as a magnetic tape or, more commonly, on a disk coated with a
fine layer of metallic particles.
The most popular secondary storage devices include the following.
Magnetic disks – This broad category includes the following.
Floppy disk – The floppy disk in normal use stores about 800 KB or about 1.4 MB.
ZIP disk – A ZIP disk is much like a floppy disk but has a greater capacity.
Hard disk – Hard, or “fixed”, disks cannot be removed from their disk-drive cabinets,
which contain the electronics to read and write data on to the magnetic disk surfaces. Hard disks
currently used with personal computers can store from several hundred megabytes to several
gigabytes.
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Print technology – Chief among these, with microcomputers, are pin dot-matrix, ink-jet,
laser, thermal, and (although somewhat outdated) daisy-wheel or thimble printers. Pin dot-matrix
printers can be further classified by the number of pins in the print head: 9, 18, 24, and so on.
Character formation – Fully formed characters are made of continuous lines (for
example, those produced by a daisy-wheel printer) versus dot-matrix characters composed of
patterns of dots (such as those produced by standard dot-matrix, ink-jet, and thermal printers).
Laser printers, while technically dot-matrix, are generally considered to produce fully formed
characters because their output is very clear and the dots are extremely small and closely spaced.
Method of transmission – This is parallel (byte-by-byte transmission) versus serial (bit-
by-bit transmission). These categories refer to the means by which output is sent to the printer
rather than to any mechanical distinctions. Many printers are available in either serial or parallel
versions, and some printers offer both choices, yielding greater flexibility in installation options.
Method of printing – This can either be character by character, line by line, or page by
page. Character printers include standard dot-matrix, ink-jet, thermal, and daisy-wheel printers.
Line printers include the band, chain, and drum printers that are commonly associated with large
computer installations or networks. Page printers include the electrophotographic printers, such
as laser printers.
Print capability – Printers may print in either text-only or text-and-graphics modes.
Text-only printers, including most daisy-wheel and thimble printers and some dot-matrix and
laser printers, can reproduce only characters for which they have matching patterns, such as
embossed type, or internal character maps. Text-and-graphics printers—dot-matrix, ink-jet, laser,
and others—can reproduce all manner of images by “drawing” each as a pattern of dots.
Computer-output microform – These are outpot devices that can render microscopic format of
documents.
54.7 Communication Devices
Communication devices control the passing of information to and from communication networks. It
consists of both physical devices and software that link the various pieces of hardware and transfer data from one
physical location to another. Computers and communications equipment can be connected in networks for sharing
voice, data, images, sound, video, or even a combination of all these.
The most familiar communication device in a typical computer is the modem. a device that converts
between analogue and digital signals. The modem works by, and derives its name from, a process of modulating
and demodulating. In the first instance, the digital signal is used to vary an analogue carrier signal. In the second,
the variations in the analogue carrier signal are translated into digital signals. Modems are most frequently used to
enable computers to communicate with each other across telephone lines. For instance, a modem can be used with a
personal computer (PC) to connect to the Internet via an Internet service provider. The service provider’s premises
are equipped with banks of modems so that many users can gain access. If each pair of modems transmits data to
each other simultaneously, the modems are operating in full duplex mode; if only one modem can transmit at a
time, the modems are operating in half-duplex mode.
Some modems have become specialized in terms of function. For instance, one of the cards available for a
PC is a facsimile transmission (fax) modem that allows the PC to talk directly to fax machines and to send and
receive fax messages. High-speed modems have been developed that work at speeds of 2 megabits per second.
These are used as components in leading-edge communications services.
Telecommunication, which is communications over a distance using technology to overcome that distance,
has the following system components.
Computer terminals which process information
Input and output devices that send or receive data
Communication channel. which include the telephone line, fiber-optic cables, coaxial cables, and
wireless transmission technologies like infra-red (IR) and Bluetooth technologies
Communication processors such as modems, multiplexers, controllers, and front end processors
Communication software, which control input and output activities and manage other function
networks in the communication networks
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Personal information management software – These are equipped with appointment scheduling
systems, calendars, contact lists, e-mail browsers, and other applications used for orfganizing personal
data and information.
Examples: MS Outlook
Palm OS
Electronic mail software – These programs facilitate computer-to-computer exchange of messages.
Web browsers and PC software suites also have e-mail capabilities.
Examples: MS Outlook
Mozilla
Eudora
Pegasus
Web browsers – These are easy-to-use software tools for accessing information in the World Wide
web and the Internet.
Examples: MS Internet Explorer
Netscape Navigator
Opera
Web authoring software – These are intended in the creation of high quality Web pages and Web
sites. They usually apply a WYSIWYG working environment, allowing the less skilled Web
developers to come up with competitive work results.
Examples: MS FrontPage
Adobe GoLive
Image processing software – These are intended in producing and editing high-quality images and
photos, which can be used in other works or can be shared online or through devices like digital
cameras.
Examples: Adobe Photoshop
Correl Draw
Reference suite software – These are the electronic counterpart of the printed reference sources
known, like encyclopedias, dictionaries, atlases, and so on.
Examples MS Encarta Reference Suite
Compton’s Interactive Encyclopedia
Media authoring software – These are intended to be used in producing various types of media like
video, music, animations, and so on.
Examples Pinnacle
Cakewalk Studio
Sonic Foundry Acid Pro
Macromedia Flash
Music notation software – These are chiefly intended for the production of printed music. Some music
notation software applications are integrated with features that function like media authoring software.
Examples Finale
Voyetra MusicWrite
Cakewalk Score Writer
Media players – These are intended to playback media files like music files (e.g. audio tracks, mp3
files, MIDI sequences, wav files, etc.), and video files (MPEG files, avi files, etc.). They are also used
to access the media content of optical discs (e.g. VCD, DVD, audio CD) or other storage devices that
contain media.
Examples Windows Media Player
Cyberlink Power DVD
Creative Media Center
Computer aided design software – These are highly specialized software used in creating designs like
architectural and engineering designs. They are capable of rendering three-dimensional images.
Example: Autodesk AutoCAD
The following are features common to all application software programs.
55.4 Contemporary Tools for Software Development
Here are some of the tools and approaches commonly used nowadays in the design, creation, and
development of computer software applications.
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Object-oriented programming – This is an approach to software development that combines data and
procedures into a single object. The object combines data and program code. It has spawned a new
programming technology known as visual programming. Visual Basic (VB) is a widely used visual
programming tool to run on Windows platforms.
JAVA – This is a programming language that can deliver only the software functionality needed for a
particular task. such as a small applet downloaded from a network. JAVA can rin on any computer or
operating system.
HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) – This is the standard text formatting language for documents
on the World Wide Web since 1989. HTML documents are text files that contain two parts: content
that is meant to be rendered on a computer screen; and markup or tags, encoded information that
directs the text format on the screen and is generally hidden from the user. HTML is a subset of a
broader language called Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML), which is a system for
encoding and formatting documents, whether for output to a computer screen or to be printed on
paper.
XML (Extensible Markup Language) – This was created to structure, store, and send electronic
information. In appearance, XML is similar to the familiar HTML used to create pages on the World
Wide Web. The main difference between the two is that HTML is used to describe how Web pages
should look while XML is designed to describe what the information on a Web page actually means.
Put another way, HTML is about displaying information, while XML is about describing information.
XML is not a replacement for HTML; it was designed for a specific purpose with an overall intent
that it should complement HTML.
Chapter 56 – Data Resources Management
56.1 Databases: Some Concepts and Terminologies
The management of data and information in computers typically involves databases. A database is a
collection of data organized for storage in a computer memory and designed for easy access by authorized users. It
serves many applications efficiently by centralizing the data and minimizing redundant data. The data may be in the
form of text, numbers, or encoded graphics.
Since their first, experimental appearance in the 1950s, databases have become so important in industrial
societies that they can be found in almost every field of information. Government, military, and industrial databases
are often highly restricted, and professional databases are usually of limited interest. A wide range of commercial,
governmental, and non-profit databases are available to the general public and may be used by anyone who owns or
has access to the equipment that they require.
The organization of data in databases involves some terminologies.
character – consists of a single alphabetic, numeric, or other symbol
field – a grouping of characters into a word, a grouping of words, or a complete number; such as a
person’s name or age
record – a group of related fields
file – a group of records of the same type, or rewcords that are somehow related
entity – a person, place, thing, or event about which information must be kept
attribute – a piece of information describing an entity
key field – a field in a record that uniquely identifies instances of that record so that it can be retrieved,
sorted, or updated
query - a statement defined by the user, which instructs the database management system (DBMS)
the find and retrieve the wanted record or information
tuple – a row or record in a relational database
56.2 Databases: Management, Design, and Structure
Database management system (DVMS) is a special software or a computer program that controls the
creation, maintenance, and use of a database of an organization and its end users. It has three (3) components:
a data definition language
a data manipulation language
a data dictionary
Many database management software packages make use of SQL (Structured Query Language). It is the
most prominent data manipulation language today.
A typical database consists of several database objects. The following objects are the usual components of
a database. Other database management programs may use a different name for some of the objects.
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Table
A table is the basic unit for storing a collection of data. A table’s definition consists of a list of
fields, each of which stores a discrete piece of information for a single record.
Queries
Queries enable the user to extract a subset of data from a single table, from a group of related
tables, or from other queries, using criteria you define. By saving a query as a database object, the
query can be run at any time, using the current contents of the database. They may sometimes look
exactly like a table; the crucial difference is that each row of the query’s results may consist of fields
drawn from several tables. A query may also contain calculated fields, which display results based on
the contents of other fields.
Forms
Forms enable users to enter, view, and edit information, generally one record at a time. They can
closely resemble paper forms such as invoices and time sheets; or they are organized for data entry
with data validation rules. A form may also include a subforin that displays information from a related
table.
Reports
Reports enables the user to present data from one or more tables or queries in a readable style and
a professional format, generally for printed output. A report may include detailed lists of specific data,
with each row consisting of a single record, or it may provide a statistical summary of a large quantity
of information. A report design can include grouping and sorting options.
Macro
A macro is a set of one or more actions that perform a particular operation, such as opening a
form or printing a report. Macros can help to automate common tasks. For example, the user can run a
macro that prints a report when a user clicks a command button. A macro can be one macro composed
of a sequence of actions, or it can be a macro group.
Module
A module is essentially a collection of declarations, statements, and procedures stored together as
one named unit to organize Visual Basic code or nay other code used by the database which are
generated by other programming languages.
In designing a database, the following steps should be applied.
Determine the purpose of your database.
The first step in designing a database is to determine its purpose and how it's to be used.
Talk to people who will use the database.
Brainstorm about the questions you and they would like the database to answer.
Sketch out the reports you'd like the database to produce. Gather the forms you currently
use to record your data.
As you determine the purpose of your database, a list of information you want from the database
will begin to emerge. From that, you can determine what facts you need to store in the database and
what subject each fact belongs to. These facts correspond to the fields (columns) in your database, and
the subjects that those facts belong to correspond to the tables.
Determine the fields you need in the database.
Each field is a fact about a particular subject. For example, you might need to store the following
facts about customers: company name, address, city, state, and phone number. You need to create a
separate field for each of these facts.
Determine the relationships between tables.
Now that you've divided your information into tables and identified primary key fields, you need
a way to tell the database how to bring related information back together again in meaningful ways.
To do this, you define relationships between tables.
Refine the design.
After designing the tables, fields, and relationships needed, it's time to study the design and detect
any flaws that might remain. It is easier to change the database design at this point than it will be after
you have filled the tables with data.
Test the design.
Enter enough sample data in your tables so as to test the design. To test the relationships in the
database, see if you can create queries to get the answers you want. Create rough drafts of forms and
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reports and see if they show the data expected. Look for unnecessary duplications of data and
eliminate them.
Enter data and create other database objects.
If table structures meet the design principles described and is determined to serve its purpose
effectively, then it's time to go ahead and add all existing data to the tables. Other database objects can
already be created at this point, such as queries, forms, reports, macros, modules, and other available
objects.
56.3 Classifying Databases
Databases can be classified in different ways. They can be classified by their intended use and function, or
by their structure.
By intended use and function
Operational databases (e.g. HR database, inventory database, customer database)
Distributed database – This is a replicate copy or a part of a database to network servers
at a variety of sites.
External database – This database is designed to be published in the World Wide Web
which can be accessed through the Internet, with charge or free.
By structure
Relational DBMS – This is a type of a logical database model that represents all data in
the database as simple two-dimensional tables called relations. The tables appear similar to flat
files but the information in one file can be easily extracted and combined.
Hierarchical DBMS – This is an older logical database model that organizes data in a
treelike structure. A record is subdivided into segments that are connected to each other in one-to-
many parent-child relationships.
Network DBMS – This is also an older logical database model that is useful for depicting
many-to-many relationships.
Object-oriented DBMS – This is a database for storing graphics and multimedia and has
the capabilities of a relational DBMS for sorting traditional information.
56.4 Trends in Database Management
The notable factor to the trends in database programming and management is the continuous advancement of
information management practices. Listed below are some of these trends.
Multidimensional data analysis
This is the capability for manipulating and analyzing large volumes of data from multiple
perspectives. It is also known as on-line analytical processing (OLAP).
Data warehouses
A data warehouse is a database, with reporting and query tools, that stores current and historical
data extracted from various operational systems and consolidated for management reporting analysis.
Data mining
This is the analysis of large pools of data to find patterns and rules that can be used to guide
decision making and predict future behavior.
Hypermedia databases
These are common in the Web. Hypermedia was used as an approach to data management that
organizes data as a network of nodes linked in any pattern the user specifies. The nodes can contain
text, graphics, sound, full-motion video, or executable programs.
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you pay a small fee if you like the program or use it on a regular basis. Freeware is often made
available on bulletin boards and through user groups. An independent program developer might offer
a product as freeware either for personal satisfaction or to assess its reception among interested users.
Piracy
Software piracy is a crime of robbery for private ends. Software programs are reengineered and
redistributed by unauthorized bodies for their own gains. They usually unlock the software by
providing passwords, serial numbers, or codes required for installation. There are also times at which
they unlock the software by using cracking program tools.
Computer viruses
A computer virus is a program that “infects” computer files (usually other executable programs)
by inserting copies of itself in those files. This is usually done in such a manner that the copies will be
executed when the file is loaded into memory, allowing them to infect still other files, and so on.
Viruses often have damaging side effects, sometimes intentionally, sometimes not. PC users can
safeguard their files using anti-virus software packages such as Norton Anti virus, McAfee Virus
Scan, AVG Anti-Virus, and so on. These programs can detect viruses, and often repair the damage
done by them.
The increase in transactions over the Internet has greatly increased the chance of virus infection,
so anti-virus measures have been introduced to promote the growth of electronic business. Digital
certificates can be used to validate the identity of people and organizations on the Internet, digital
signatures can prove the identity of an individual, and Secure Electronic Transaction (SET)
mechanisms have been developed to allow safe credit card transactions.
E-mail viruses remain a major threat, however—during 2000, many large organizations were
brought down by a virus attached to an e-mail message entitled "I Love You". In 2002 a new type of
virus appeared that allowed unauthorized users to access private information (such as credit card
details). This virus, known as “Bugbear”, was carried via e-mail and affected many users.
Data theft
This is a more serious problem than software piracy. Computer system hackers (or crackers)
mutilate the encryption of restricted databanks and databases and make unauthorized use of the
information/data contained in them. The use of these data may be intended for unlawful activities like
theft.
Spam and junk mails
Spam or unsolicited e-mail is the electronic equivalent of junk mail. People usually send spam in
order to sell products and services, to draw traffic to Web sites, or to promote moneymaking schemes.
Unlike physical junk mail, spam does not stop if it is unsuccessful. When marketing departments send
junk mail they incur some expense, so give up if they do not succeed. Spam costs virtually nothing to
send and so it persists, whatever the recipient does.
Spam can easily be confused with legitimate bulk e-mail. According to Mail Abuse Prevention
System (MAPS), an electronic message is regarded as spam only if the recipient's personal identity is
irrelevant because the message is equally applicable to many others; the recipient has not granted
permission for it to be sent; and the message appears to the recipient to give a disproportionate benefit
to the sender. Spam has become a big problem over the past few years as it consumes large amounts
of the recipient’s time and Internet capacity. It is also an enduring problem as it is virtually impossible
to determine where it originates. The first spam was sent as long ago as 1978 by a Digital Equipment
Corporation sales representative to advertise a computer equipment demonstration.
The initial defense against spam was to block mail from domains that are known to be senders
but it is relatively easy for spam senders to send from a new domain. The most effective measure now
available is to use one of the e-mail filters on the market that saves the user from having to manually
sift though his or her inbox.
Legislation introduced in the European Union in December 2003 makes it a criminal offence to
send spam unless the recipient has agreed in advance to accept it. Similar legislation was signed into
law in the US in the same month.
Obsolescence of hardware and software
The very fast developments in computer technology mean the very quick obsolescence of
computer devices. Both hardware and software are subject to this problem. This can be resolved by
downloading software updates from the Internet. Unused computers which are left because of
purchasing newer one can be donated to charitable institutions so that they become useful once more.
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Computers drain critical resources such as electricity and paper. They also produce unwanted
electrical and chemical, and bulk-waste side effects. As a society, we should adopt a more
environmentally position with respect to use, manufacture, and disposal of computer equipment and
devices. This is known as green computing (environmentally sensible computing).
High costs in electricity
A computer will never work without electricity. The electrical consumption of computers
becomes a big deal if the institution has many computer units which are run simultaneously. Always
set the computer to a mode at which the monitor and the hard drive is automatically turned off when
not in use. Green computing is also a solution to this problem.
Health issues
Ergonomics (or human factor engineering), the science and technology emphasizing the safety,
comfort, and ease of use of human-operated machines such as computers,. Its goal is to produce
systems that are user-friendly, safe, comfortable, and easy to use.
Institutions which make use of computers in their daily activities should consider using
ergonomically correct furniture (e.g. chairs and tables) and devices (e.g. mouse, keyboard, etc.).
57.2 Trends and Future Developments
The following are just some of the trends in the development of information technology.
Computer system capabilities
Computers continue to become smaller, faster, more reliable, less expensive to purchase and
maintain, and more interconnected within computer networks and other electronic gadgets and
devices.
Input technology trends
Input devices are becoming more natural and easy to use. Even programming languages are
becoming to be structured like human language, making them easier and faster to learn.
Output technology trends
Output devices are geared toward direct output methods that communicate naturally, quickly, and
clearly.
Trends in storage media
The capacity of data storage media is continuously growing. Primary storage media are starting to
use microelectronic circuits while secondary storage media are using magnetic and optical media.
One continuing trend in computer development is microminiaturization, the effort to compress more
circuit elements into smaller and smaller chip space. Researchers are also trying to speed up circuitry functions
through the use of superconductivity, the phenomenon of decreased electrical resistance observed in certain
materials at very low temperatures. As the physical limits of silicon-chip computer processors are being
approached, scientists are exploring the potential of the next generation of computer technology, using, for
instance, devices based on deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
The fifth-generation computer effort to develop computers that can solve complex problems in ways that
might eventually merit the description “creative” is another trend in computer development, the ideal goal being
true artificial intelligence. One path actively being explored is parallel processing computing, which uses many
chips to perform several different tasks at the same time. Parallel processing may eventually be able to duplicate to
some degree the complex feedback, approximating, and assessing functions of human thought. One important
parallel processing approach is the neural network, which mimics the architecture of the nervous system. Another
ongoing trend is the increase in computer networking, which now employs the worldwide data communications
system of satellite and cable links to connect computers globally. There is also a great deal of research into the
possibility of “optical” computers—hardware that processes not pulses of electricity but much faster pulses of light.
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–––– –Unit 17
IT for LIS Episode 2:
Internet and Networks
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In 1990 ARPANET was replaced by the National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET) to connect its
supercomputers to regional networks. NSFNET now operates as the high-speed backbone of the Internet.
58.2 The Birth of the Internet and the World Wide Web
The Internet technology was created by Vinton Cerf in early 1973 as part of a project headed by Robert
Kahn and conducted by ARPA. In 1984 the technology and the network were turned over to the private sector and
to government scientific agencies for further development. The growth has continued exponentially, from four
computers of the ARPANET in 1969 to over 300,000 computers by 1990. The distribution and decentralization of
the Internet is actually a strategic move to avoid unwanted events that might harm and destroy the technology.
Service-provider companies that make “gateways” to the Internet available to home and business users
enter the market in ever-increasing numbers. In the 1990s, the US government eased restrictions on commercial
activities on the Internet. Much of the Internet became privatized and commercial activities increased. The number
of hosts grew dramatically, and Internet traffic consisted of other types of information media, such as graphics,
sound, and video).
In 1991, Tim Berners-Lee and Robert Calliau created the World Wide Web (WWW) at the European
Laboratory of Particle Physics (CERN), an international research centre straddling the French-Swiss border west of
Geneva. It is a system of hyperlinked documents created in HTML.
By 1993, web browsers were introduced to Internet users. Mosaic, a graphical Internet browser, was
released by Marc Andreesen at the National Center for Supercomputer Applications (NCSA) in the University of
Illinois at Urbana, Champaign. It was immediately followed in 1994 by Netscape, also by Marc Andreesen with
Jim Clark. By 1996, 75% of Internet surfers use Netscape. In 1998, America On-Line (AOL) bought Netscape for
US$4.2 billion.
By early 2000, access was available in over 200 countries and encompassed around 100 million users. The
Internet and its technology continue to have a profound effect in promoting the sharing of information, making
possible rapid transactions among businesses, and supporting global collaboration among individuals and
organizations.
In 1999, 205 countries and territories in the world had at least one connection to the Internet. The
development of the World Wide Web is fuelling the rapid introduction of new business tools and activities that may
by then have led to annual business transactions on the Internet worth hundreds of billions of pounds. The potential
of web-based commerce is immense. Techniques that allow safe transactions over the Net (for payment and funds
transfers), the construction of faster, more secure networks and the development of efficient search techniques
make the Internet an ideal trading medium
Future concerns are focused in a number of areas, including the efficiency of search engines—even the
most efficient of them cover less than a sixth of all publicly available pages—as well as privacy, security, and
Internet piracy. By its very nature, the Internet does not cope well with traffic that requires a dedicated link between
two points (such as voice) as end-to-end delay cannot readily be controlled. Several protocols that allow greater
predictability are being developed to guarantee an assured quality of service. The ability to integrate applications is
of increasing importance. Common data formats allow e-business applications to cooperate and services such as
Internet phones that are easy to install are being refined and deployed.
In addition to these extra features, the core of the Internet—the network hardware that connects everyone
together—is undergoing an overhaul that will enable it to cope with ever-increasing traffic loads. The “Internet 2”
project has been under way for several years now and is building faster links and bigger switches that will power
the Internet for years to come.
58.3 Cyber Crimes
There are several kinds of cyber crimes that take place nowadays. Computer networks, specially the
Internet, are the usual commonplaces of these. Below are some of these cyber crimes.
Internet worm and computer viruses
A virus that propagates itself across computer networks, usually via e-mail, is sometimes referred
to as a worm, especially if it is composed of many separate segments distributed across the network.
In 1988, Robert Morris, a Computer Science graduate of the Cornell University, wrote an
experimental, self-replicating, self-propagating program, which was called worm. This was distributed
to over 6,000 of 60,000 computers hooked in the Internet at that time. Morris was sentenced of three
years of probation, 400 hours of community work, and a fine of US$10,050.
A known virus is the Trojan Horse, though technically not a virus, is a program disguised as
something useful, which when run does damage to the computer system while appearing to do
something else. Another is the Melissa virus, a virus that invades computers via e-mail and IRC
(Internet relay Chat). It is a distinct program which can run unaided.
Hackers, hacking and cracking
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use, it may also determine speed of transmission, particularly for large data files (graphics, audio, video, etc.)
known as bandwidth hogs. On the Internet, the fiber-optic backbone has highest bandwidth.
59.2 Internet Connection
There are several ways on how to get hooked in the Internet. Connect to the Internet is provided by any of
the following.
ISP (Internet Service Provider)
This is a business that provides access to the Internet, usually for a monthly fee. Some large
providers offer users a wide range of news, information, and entertainment services
Cable Television
Also known as cable, this is a television system in which signals are sent to a central antenna and
then transmitted by cable to subscribers.
Connection to an ISP can be through dial up, which uses a telephone line to connect, or LAN (Local Area
Network) in schools or offices. Other channels that can facilitate Internet connection are the following.
Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS)
This is a simple connection to the public telephone system with no special features, as
distinguished from a private line or high-speed network connection. Dial-up connection to the Internet
uses the POTS.
DSL (Digital Subscriber Line)
This is a high-speed telephone line that can supply television, video, Internet access, and video
telephoning, often over standard copper wire. It has recently been introduced and is capable of
operating at up to 2 Mbps. In its most common format
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
ISDN is an all-digital network that allows a whole host of services to be carried together on the
same circuits. It can be regarded as an extension of the public switched telephone network, the key
similarity to that being that it permits any two compatible pieces of connected equipment to talk to
each other. It can transmit both voice and data messages.
ADSL (Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line)
This is a technology that enables high-speed data to be carried between modems located at the
customer site and local telephone exchange via the twisted-pair copper local loop normally used for
telephone calls. It provides up to 512 kbps downstream and 128 kbps upstream.
T1 and T3 (synonymous with DS7 and DS3 respectively)
T1 is a term introduced by AT&T to refer to a dedicated digital circuit provided by the telephone
companies capable of transmitting data point-to-point at the rate of 1.544 Mbps, containing 24
individual channels, each capable of transmitting voice or data at the rate of 64 kbps. Individuals may
purchase one of these channels in an arrangement known as fractional T1 access. Businesses and
academic institutions lease T1 lines to connect to the Internet and may also use them for local area
networks. The monthly charge is usually determined by distance. T1 lines are also used by Internet
service providers to provide Internet access to individuals and small businesses.
The Internet backbone is constructed of higher-speed T3 lines. T3, also introduced by AT&T, is
capable of transmitting data point-to-point at the rate of 44.736 Mbps, used mainly by Internet service
providers to connect to the Internet backbone and for the backbone itself. A T3 line contains 672
individual channels, each capable of transmitting 64 Kbps.
Wi-Fi and WiMax
Wi-Fi (wireless fidelity) is a technology that uses radio waves to connect notebook computers
and personal digital assistants (PDAs) to the Internet without cables, at least within 200 meters to a
wireless access point. Its higher version, called WiMax can reach as far as several kilometers.
Satellite connection
This connection is governed by an object put into orbit around Earth or any other planet in order
to relay communications signals or transmit data. It has a very wide coverage.relative to other network
connection media.
59.3 Modem
A modem is a device that converts between analogue and digital signals. Digital signals, which are used by
computers, are made up of separate units represented by a series of 1s and 0s (bits). Analogue signals vary
continuously; an example of an analogue signal is a sound wave. The modem works by, and derives its name from,
a process of modulating (the digital signal is used to vary an analogue carrier signal) and demodulating (the
variations in the analogue carrier signal are translated into digital signals).
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Modems are most frequently used to enable computers to communicate with each other across telephone
lines. For instance, a modem can be used with a personal computer (PC) to connect to the Internet via an ISP. The
service provider’s premises are equipped with banks of modems so that many users can gain access. If each pair of
modems transmit data to each other simultaneously, the modems are operating in full duplex mode; if only one
modem can transmit at a time, the modems are operating in half-duplex mode.
Modern modems are faster, cheaper, and much more widely available. Speeds of over 56 kbps can be
achieved with commercial modems over normal telephone lines, and can take the form of cards small enough to fit
inside a PC. Modems can use coaxial cables to carry TV signals and high-speed Internet access.
Modems using ISDN lines or other forms of fast data transmission are capable of even higher speeds. A
standard known as PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card International Association) has evolved to cover
internal PC modems. PCMCIA type 2 specifies a 5 mm card that can be plugged into a PC slot.
Some modems have become specialized in terms of function. For instance, one of the cards available for a
PC is a facsimile transmission (fax) modem that allows the PC to talk directly to fax machines and to send and
receive fax messages. High-speed modems have been developed that work at speeds of 2 Mbps. These are used as
components in leading-edge communications services and are not as yet commercially available.
59.4 Broadband
Broadband is a communications channel that can support a wide range of frequencies or data rates. A
broadband connection can transfer information at a rate of at least 2 Mbps. This is almost 40 times faster than a
standard narrowband 56 kbps modem connection. Some broadband services can even offer 10 Mbps connection
but, in practice, most transfer information at a rate of around 512 kbps when downloading, and 128 kbps when
uploading.
There are a number of options for providing broadband. All involve some sort of link between an end user
and a switch connected to a wide area network (WAN).
The simplest option is to install a dedicated link between the two and install suitable
transmission equipment at each end. This allows very high-speed operation but is usually expensive.
A more affordable approach is to reuse existing telephone lines by adding technology
that enhances the rate at which information can be transferred over them. There are several ways in
which this can be achieved.
ISDN – This is widely available and allows connection speeds of up to 128
kbps.
DSL – This has recently been introduced and is capable of operating at up to 2
Mbps. In its most common format,
ADSL – This provides up to 512 kbps downstream and 128 kbps upstream.
This means faster download and slower download.
Etherloop – This shares many characteristics of DSL but which follows the
format of the ubiquitous local area network technology, Ethernet. Its performance is a little better
than DSL.
Cable modems, which are offered by cable providers for Internet access via existing cable television lines.
Although capable of connection speed up to 2 Mbps, cable modems operate over shared media and are therefore
liable to slow down when many users are active.
The real attraction of broadband from a user’s point of view is that it provides true multimedia (for
example, voice, data, and video) without the delay that a narrowband connection incurs.
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The IP address is separated by dots and is composed of four groups – for example, 198.105.232.1. The
range of each group is from 0 to 255. The IP address is divided into two parts – the network number and the host
number.
Example: The IP address for agronet.com is 198.70.185.3
Network number – 198.70
Host number – 185.3
The process of transmitting a data packet from a source to the destination via a series of intermediate
stations is called IP routing. IP routing works as follows. Each data packet is labeled with the IP address of the
destination host. Each data packet can contain 1,500 bytes of data. If the data is huge, it is disintegrated into small
packets, each attached with a sequence number, which determines which portion of the data is in the packet. The
disintegrated packets are rejoined once they are delivered to their destination.
60.2 TCP/IP
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a set of international standards that enables
different types of computers and networks on the Internet to communicate with one another. TCP/IP was originally
developed by the United States Department of Defense for computers using the UNIX operating system, but it is
now used by every computer, regardless of operating system, on the Internet.
TCP/IP is actually a duplex protocol. A protocol is a collection of rules for formatting, ordering, and error-
checking of data sent across a network. TCP defines how data are transferred across the Internet to their destination.
It takes charge of breaking up the data into packets and then the reassembly when the packets reach their
destination. IP defines how data are divided into packets, and how they are transmitted, determining the path each
packet takes between computers. In other words, TCP places the messages in an envelope. IP would be in charge of
addressing the envelope and makes sure the package arrives its proper destination.
TCP/IP was invented by Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn. This has been used as a standard protocol for the
Internet. Its significance was the reason why Cerf, together with Kahn, is considered as the Father of the Internet.
60.3 Packet Retransmission and Checksums
During the transmission process, it is possible that a packet may be lost across the Internet. This may be
caused by a link failure, or because the host is down. If the destination host has been waiting for a particular packet
for a certain time (known as timeout), the destination host will request the source host to retransmit the packet.
There is no need to retransmit all data packets. Instead, only the missing packet (which is identified by the sequence
number) needs to be retransmitted.
Even if a data packet is received by the destination successfully, transmission error may also occur. There
is a method to detect possible transmission errors. At the destination, checksum is recalculated based on the
received data. The attached checksum and the newly recalculated checksum are compared. If there is a mismatch,
transmission error has occurred.
60.4 DNS
For obvious reasons, the IP address has become known as the “dot address” of a computer. Although very
simple and effective for network operation, dot addresses are not very user-friendly. For the convenience of users,
names were given to each computer in the Internet. The names are known as DNS (Domain Name System). Like IP
address, DNS is also a method of translating Internet addresses so that computers connected in the Internet can
locate each other. A DNS server translates a numerical IP address assigned to a computer (such as 123.456.78.90)
into a sequence of words, and vice versa.
A DNS name, written in lowercase letters with words separated by full stops, takes the form of
[username]@[hostname].[zone name] (for example: president@whitehouse.gov). Username is the name or account
number used to log on. The hostname (whitehouse in the example above) is the name of the computer or Internet
provider; it may consist of several parts. Zone name indicates the type of organization. Common zone names
include:
.com (commercial organization)
.edu (educational)
.gov (government)
.co (company),
.org (non-profit organizations)
.net (networking organization)
.info (informational sites)
.biz (business
.name (for for individuals to register their name for a Web site or for an e-mail address)
.museum (museum)
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this text to a special file, known as a mailbox. The first e-mail message was sent in 1971 by an engineer named Ray
Tomlinson, one of the pioneers of the Internet.
Practical e-mail systems have only a few, simple components. At the user end is a piece of software
known as an e-mail client. Examples of e-mail clients are:
MS Outlook
Eudora
Pegasus
The client allows the user to create mail messages, to view the contents of the mailbox, and to read
incoming mail.
At the other end from the client is the e-mail server. This is a computer, typically one provided by an ISP
that is dialed up when messages are sent and received. The server has a list of e-mail accounts, each of which has a
text file where all of the messages for that account are stored.
Despite the fact that e-mail only works for text, a variety of file types (for instance, images, sounds,
spreadsheets, and so on) can be attached. An e-mail that contains these is known to have an attached file. A
program called uuencode turns all attachments into text so that they can be transmitted across a network. When the
message which could be some words plus an attachment rendered into text by uuencode is received, the client
invokes uudecode to restore the original.
A newsgroup is a topic-specific forum where people can post questions, news, and comments, or read and
respond to such postings left by other users on the Internet and other networks. Most publicly available newsgroups
are Usenet newsgroups, so-called because they use software originally designed for creating, managing, and
distributing discussion areas on a network called Usenet.
61.3 World Wide Web
The World Wide Web (WWW) is a library of resources available to computer users through the global
Internet. It enables users to view a wide variety of information, including magazine archives, public and college
library resources, and current world and business news.
WWW resources are organized so that users can easily move from one resource to another. The
connections to different source computers, or servers, on the network are made automatically without being seen by
the user. These connections are made with the use of hypertext (system of storing images, text, and other computer
files that allows direct links to related text, images, sound, and other data) and hypermedia (a hypertext system that
supports the linking of graphics, audio and video elements, and text).
Users generally navigate through information on the WWW with the aid of a program known as a WWW
browser, or client. The browser presents text, images, sound, or other information objects on the user's computer
screen in the form of a page, which is obtained from a WWW server. The user can navigate through information by
pointing to specially designated text or other objects on the screen. These objects link the user to other WWW
pages on the same server or on any other accessible WWW server on the network. The WWW links exist across the
global Internet, forming a large-scale, distributed, multimedia knowledge base through related words, phrases, and
images. Smaller-scale implementations are present on the enterprise internets used by businesses. These
implementations, known as intranets host private data and applications and can be protected from public access
through a device known as a “firewall”.
WWW pages are formatted using HTML, and WWW communication among computers uses the
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), or Wireless Access Protocol (WAP) for mobile phones. This communication
is usually through the Internet via Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) connections, but almost any kind of
connection can be used.
The further development of the WWW is guided by the WWW Consortium based at Massachusetts
Institute of Technology. Current concerns include the efficiency of search engines, the security of transactions and
privacy of users, as well as preventing Internet piracy. The main prospect for WWW is its development to form a
basis for electronic business. Many applications have been developed to add payment, reservation, and other
interactive facilities to WWW pages.
61.4 Gopher, Ethernet, and Extranet
Gopher is system that enables computer users to find servers and files on the Internet. Developed at the
University of Minnesota in 1991, Gopher presents menus and submenus that users can select to specify their
searches. Each Gopher server contains menus for local servers and files and is linked to other Gopher servers; its
menus change as the resources available to the system change. There are hundreds of Gopher servers around the
world. The system of all Gopher servers is called Gopherspace.
Ethernet is a local area network (LAN) system developed by the Xerox corporation in 1976, originally for
linking minicomputers at the Palo Alto Research Center. A widely implemented network from which computer
industry standards for networks were developed, Ethernet uses a bus configuration and relies on the form of access
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known as CSMA/CD to regulate traffic on the main communication line. Network nodes are connected by coaxial
cable (in either of two varieties, known as thin and thick) or by twisted-pair wiring. Information on an Ethernet
network is sent in variable-length frames containing delivery and control information plus up to 1,500 bytes of data.
The original Ethernet standard provides for baseband transmission at 10 Mbps.
Extranet is an extension of the intranet of a company or organization. An extranet gives authorized
outsiders, for example customers, suppliers, or business partners, controlled access to parts of the intranet
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White pages are Web services that allow a user to look up for information about individuals. Just like the
white pages of the telephone directory, they can be used to track down the telephone numbers, e-mail addresses,
and other personal data of particular persons.
Not all people wish to be included in white pages. Some think that they are a form of invasion to their
privacy. Some people can abuse white pages. However, they actually serve a good purpose. It is possible to contact
a long-lost person through white pages, if ever they are entered in this service. Popular white pages are:
Bigfoot (www.bigfoot.com)
Yahoo! People Search (www.people.yahoo.com)
Yahoo (www.yahoo.com)
WhoWhere (www.whowhere.com)
If a telephone directory has yellow pages, same is true for the Web. Web yellow pages, kust like the
yellow pages in the telephone directory contain information about business. They usually serve as portals to Web
sites maintained by businesses. Otherwise, they provide basic contact information of businesses.
Yahoo! Yellow Page (www.yp.yahoo.com)
SuperPages (www.superpages.com)
e-Tello Pages (www.eyp.com)
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incomplete sentence
disjoint phrases
nonsense words
From this type of query, the search engine tries to extract a collection of keywords, which are then
matched to possible hits. This query may use the plus sign (+) for required keywords and the minus
sign (-) for prohibited keywords. The “+” and “-“ are placed before their respective keywords.
Boolean query – This consists of keywords and logical operators (AND, OR, NOT, and NEAR).
Boolean queries wok in ways similar to the following illustrations.
A AND B (A & B) – This will return URLs that contain both A and B.
A OR B (A | B) – This will return URLs that contain either A or B.
A NOT B (A ! B) – This will return URLs that contain A but do not contain B.
A NEAR B (A ~ B) – This will return URLs that contain A that is related to B.
63.3 Search Strategies
In order to increase the chances to getting accurate hits in searching, find a search tool (specially a search
engine) that meets the following conditions.
It has a user-friendly interface.
It has a documentation that is easy to understand.
It is convenient to access.
It has a large indexed database.
it is good in assigning relevance scores.
If there are few or even no exact hits match the query, the query might need to be generalized. For pattern
matching queries, eliminate and change one of the more specific keywords to a more generic keyword. For
Boolean, queries, remove keywords with AND operator, or even keywords with operator NOT. If there is still no
desired URL match the modified query, try using a directory or a metasearch engine.
If the query returns too many hits, there is a need to specialize the query. For pattern nmatching queries,
add more keywords, or use the “-“ for prohibited keywords. For Boolean queries, use the AND operator with other
keywords, or add NOT to exclude some unwanted keywords. Try capitalizing proper nouns and names, or use
proper capitalization as necessary. A directory yields a more specific return for this case.
In doing a Web information search, the following tips will help.
Be natural. For example, if you wish to find information on whether cell phones are harmful, you
may query the search engine with “cell phone AND harmful”.
It is advisable to always type queries in the lower case. At some specific instances, use
appropriate capitalization. .
Think of uncommon but valid keywords. The use of uncommon keywords will yield the more
specific results.
For a required keyword, add “+” before the keyword. The keyword will be returned in every
match. To eliminate unwanted words from the returns, add “-“ before the keyword.
Beware of the differences in spelling (e.g. American and English spellings). Use the OR operator
for such instances (e.g. color OR colour).
Ignore the use of stop words like the, is, of, etc. These are ignored by the search engine, unless
the search engine features an advanced search option which can accommodate these stop words. Add
more relevant keywords as long as necessary.
The use of wildcards also helps. An example of a wildcard is the asterisk(*). For example, the
query “funk* “ will return funk, funky, and funkies.
It is a normal occurrence to obtain a dead link. For example, if the URL
http://www.hit.com/A/B/C.htm refers to a dead link, try http://www.hit.com/A/B or http://hit.com/A.
63.4 Search Mechanisms in Search Engines
The search engine is very complex. In order to understand how it works, it needs to be broken down into
its different components and examine the mechanism of each.
User interface
This provides a mechanism for a user to submit a query to the search engine. It uses a search
form. It is user-friendly since it is quite easy to use – just type in the query, press the search button
and the search results are displayed in a very convenient fashion. A summary of each hit is also
included.
Searcher
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This is a program that uses the search engine’s database (which holds an extremely large number
of indexed Web pages) to locate the matches for a specific query. Ahighly efficient search algorithm
is necessary. The searching and sorting methods of a search engine was developed by computer
scientists for years.
Evaluator
Not all hits returned after generating the search are exactly relevant to the query. Search engines
rank the returns according to their relevance score. A more relevant hit is given a higher rank and is
usually displayed before other less relevant hits. The calculation of the relevance score varies with
different search engines. This depends on any of the following.
the number of ties the word appears
the query words that appear in the title
the query words that appear in the META tag (special keywords embedded in
the header of the Web page)
Gatherer
This is also known in any of these names – bot, crawler, robot, spider, and worm. This is a
program that traverses the Web and gathers information about Web documents. It runs at short and
regular intervals. It returns information that will be indexed by the database.
Indexer
This organizes the data by creating a set of keys or an index. Indexes need to be rebuilt frequently
in order to ensure that the URL returns are not out-of-date. Some search engines use full-text indexes
(every word on every page is included during searching).
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(Interactive Mail Access Protocol). IMAP also encrypts passwords so that the others who try to sniff in the network
cannot directly obtain the passwords.
A special kind of e-mail, known as a POP mail is also used nowadays. With POP mail, the user does not
have to know the name or address of the receiver. A POP mail server installed on a computer automatically runs
whenever the computer is turned on. The POP mail facilitates a graphical interface in accessing the e-mail. Once an
e-mail is received in the computer, it is popped in the computer monitor.
E-mail clients can either be Web-based or non-Web-based (HTTP-based). Web-based e-mail servers
deliver e-mails in web pages when the user accesses his/her account in the e-mail server’ Web site. A particular
example is Yahoo! Mail. Many still view POP and IMAP mail more reliable than HTTP mail.
One key feature of the e-mail is its ability to include an attached file (or simply attachments). The protocol
responsible for this is the MIME (Multi-purpose Internet Mail Extension). MIME is a protocol that transmits non-
text information across the Internet. It is a specification that automatically for automatically sending objects other
than text in e-mail messages. MIME is usually associated with multimedia (e.g. images, audio, and video).
Basically, MIME converts non-ASCII data to ASCII data for transmission. The data is reconverted back to its
original form when it reaches the receiver. Additional hardware and helper software is required for MIME. Almost
all e-mail clients and servers nowadays are MIME compliant.
There are two protocols that govern how real e-mail systems work. The first is SMTP (Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol), which is used to determine how to route the message through the Internet and then send the
message. The other is POP3 (Post Office Protocol), which handles incoming mail, simply appending incoming
messages to a user’s file. The POP3 server holds the message until the recipient retrieves the e-mail in his/her
mailbox.
There are several problems that arise in the e-mail.
Bouncing mails
There are some instances when a mail sent is not successfully sent. Usually, a notification e-mail
confirms this occurrence. There are several possible reasons why this happens.
The address us badly encoded (either the user name, domain name, or both).
The domain name server is down for quite some time.
Some other malfunctions which may be caused by too large files to transmit or
other reasons may also fail the sending of the message.
E-mail viruses
E-mails are often the medium of transmission of viruses in computer networks. They are bound to
e-mail messages as attachments. On May 24, 1999, a virus, named Melissa virus, spread over the
Internet as an RTF file attachment to e-mails. 100,000 hosts in 300 organizations were affected. It was
reported that within 45 minutes, 32,000 copies of the infected e-mail was distributed. This virus is not
a worm. It requires user interaction in order to propagate. The name of the virus was derived after the
ati-virus software vendor which was able to eliminate the virus.
Spamming
Spam refers to unsolicited often commercial message transmitted through the Internet as a mass
mailing to a large number of recipients. They get into a user’s mailbox because their sender was able
to obtain the user’s e-mail address from
name cards, letter heads, published papers
search engine in online bulletin boards, newsgroups, directories, and similar sources
dumping of full user list in a server
The intrusion of spam in mailboxes is solved by filtering e-mail messages. Filtering is already
nowadays a feature embedded in e-mail clients and servers.
Spam is really a problem because
they are usually fraudulent (they are not really advertisements and are intended toi pull
the wool over the reader’s eyes)
they are wasting other’s resources (“stealing” of bandwidth
the displace the normal e-mail (they actually destroy the usefulness and effectiveness of
the e-mail)
they violate cyber ethics
There are several considerations that one has to take in constructing an e-mail message Internet etiquette
(Netiquette) must be observed, not only in composing e-mail but also in participating in discussion boards and
newsgroups. Basically, the etiquette observed in writing a post mail applies in constructing an e-mail message..
Use uppercase text with caution. Note that UPPERCASE LETTERS YELL AT PEOPLE.
Never leave the subject line blank. Indicate a proper subject for the e-mail.
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Include your e-mail address in the body, particularly in the signature part.
Avoid sending flames (abusive insulting messages).
Use emoticons, abbreviations, and acronyms.
There are some instances when a mail sent is not successfully sent. Usually, a notification e-mail
confirms this occurrence. There are several possible reasons why this happens.
The address us badly encoded (either the user name, domain name, or both).
The domain name server is down for quite some time.
Some other malfunctions which may be caused by too large files to transmit or
other reasons may also fail the sending of the message.
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