Cornput. Biol. Med. Vol. IO, pp. 17%188.

0 Pergamon Press Ltd. 1980. Printed in Great Britain

GENERATION OF TEMPERATURE PROFILES

FOR ELEMENTS OF THE HUMAN BODY

P. SMITH
Department of Mathematics and Computer Studies, Sunderland Polytechnic,
Sunderland SRI 3SD, England
and
E. H. TWIZELL
Department of Mathematics, Brunel University, Uxbridge UB8 3PH, England

(Received 28 November 1919; in revised form 10 March 1980;

received for publication 4 June 1980)

Ahatract-Calculation of steady-state temperature distributions throughout cylindrical elements

of the human body result in sets of data pairs (I+,ri), i = 1,2,. . . , n, where u, is the tissue
temperature at radial distance r,. A novel empirical relation of the form u = a(b - r)c is proposed
and a non-linear least squares algorithm is used to fit a curve of this form to sets of experimental
data and hence generate temperature profiles. The parameter a has a value which is close to that
of the core temperature of the element, the parameter b has a value which is very slightly larger
than the normalised radius of the element (i.e. unity), and the parameter c lies within the range
-1 <c<l.
Thermoregulation Non-linear optimization Empirical formula Computer solution Tem-
perature profiles.

INTRODUCTION: THE MATHEMATICAL

MODEL OF THE TORSO
Several studies of steady-state temperature distribution in man have been made, some
considering a single cylindrical element of the human body [6,7] and others a combi-
nation of such elements [l, 2,9]. The various approaches taken by authors have included
analytic solution of the differential equations [l, 6,9], finite difference representation [2],
and finite element representation [7]. The data used in this paper are obtained from a
finite element model developed by the authors [7] and early experimental work carried
out by Pennes [6].
The mathematical model of the present paper represents the human torso as a cylinder
and regulation of temperature within the torso is considered as being dependent upon
several factors. These include generation of heat by metabolic reactions, conduction of
heat in tissue, convection of heat by flowing blood, insulation due to a layer of fat and
skin, the geometry of the torso, loss of heat at the surface due to convection, evaporation
and radiation, and environmental conditions [9].
The torso is considered to consist of a cylinder of core and muscle surrounded by an
insulating cylindrical layer of fat and skin. The equation governing heat flow in the
model is similar to that proposed by Wissler [9] and is given by

where the subscript s denotes core or skin (s = 1, 2 respectively). It is assumed that

conductivity, metabolic heat generation and blood flow all differ between core tissue and
skin tissue. Longitudinal heat flow is neglected and hence a circular structure in two
space dimensions is considered. It is also assumed that the distribution of core and
muscle tissue, and skin and fat tissue possesses circular symmetry.
179
C.B.M.
IO/L-*
180 P. SMITH and E. H. TWIZELL

The three terms of the model equation (1) represent respectively the rate of heat
conduction, the rate of heat generation by metabolic reaction and the rate at which heat
is transferred by the blood. This equation is subject to the boundary condition

K2 2 +H(u2 - T,,) = 0

around the circumference of the cross-section of the cylinder, where n is the direction of
the outward normal to the surface. The two terms of eq,uation (2) represent the heat
transfer from the surface of the skin to the environment- which may take the form of
radiation, evaporation or convection. Finally there are the boundary conditions

K au1 -K auz
’ an 2 dn ’

tJ1 = u2, (3)

where the core and the muscle meet the insulating layer of fat and skin.
The notation used above is as follows.
U, = tissue temperature in layer s;
K, = effective thermal conductivity in layer s;
M, = metabolic rate per unit volume;
qs = product of the mass flow rate and specific heat of blood per unit volume;
T, = temperature of arterial blood entering capillary beds;
T,,= effective environmental temperature;
H = effective heat transfer coefficient of evaporation, convection and radiation.
Solving the partial differential equation (1) subject to the boundary conditions (2) and
(3) by the finite element method was discussed by Smith and Twizell[7]. The circular
cross-section was divided into elements and the unknown temperature U, was approxi-
mated by a linear function of the space variables x and y within each element. The
discretization used in the finite element model involved a central node surrounded by
four rings each containing 48 equally spaced nodes, giving a total of 193 nodes, as in
Fig. 1. The band between the two outer circles represented the insulating layer. The
values of the parameters Which were used in the finite element simulation are given in
Table 1. These values were obtained from the literature [l, 2,9].

Fig. 1. Finite element discretization for model of human torso.

 Generation of temperature profiles 181

Table 1. Basic data used in finite element simulation of

temperature distribution in human torso.

Radius of torso 13 cm

KI 0.001 cal cmm3 set-lo

K, 0.0005 cal cme3 sec-lOc”_:
Ml 0.000254 cal cm - 3 set- 1
M2 0.0000282 cal cm-j set- ’ >
41 0.001321 calcmm3 set-‘“C-’
q2 0.0007calcm-3sec-1”C-L >
T. 36.7”C

Thickness of insulating layer divided by radius of

torso = 0.13.

The finite element procedure results in a vector containing the tissue temperatures at
the nodes illustrated in Fig. 1. If, however, the environmental temperature is constant
around the circumference of the cylinder, the symmetry assumed in the model of the
torso ensures that circular symmetry is obtained and that the temperatures of all 48
nodes within each ring are equal. Thus five data pairs (Ui,ri), i = 1,2,. . . , 5 are obtained
where Ui is the tissue temperature at normalised radial distance ri, r1 = 0, r5 = 1. Ad-
ditional data pairs are obtained by varying the radii of the two inner concentric circles as
this does not affect the validity of the physical representation. The resultant set of data
pairs constitutes the tissue temperatures of the series of concentric circles depicted in
Fig. 1. Three sets of data pairs from the finite element model are used to generate
temperature profiles for the nude human torso in the present paper.
Finally, data obtained in the laboratory by Pennes [6] are used to generate tempera-
ture profiles for the resting human forearm. Pennes obtained his readings by inserting a
needle thermocouple into the arm of a subject.

THE EMPIRICAL FORMULATION

Examination of the literature [l, 2,9], the data from the finite element model [7] and
the experimental results of Pennes [6], indicate that the temperature distributions
obtained for any element of the human body exposed to an environmental temperature
which is below normal body temperature are generally of two types. In the case of the
head and torso the temperature is nearly uniform over a large proportion of the element,
falling only in that area closest to the surface. In the arms and legs, however, the
temperature falls steadily between the core and the surface. The form of these tempera-
ture distributions suggested to the authors that an empirical relation which describes
tissue temperature, u, as a function of radial distance, Y,might exist. The novel equation
u = a(b - r)c, (4)
where the parameter c lies within the range 0 < c < 1, may be used to construct tem-
perature profiles for either type of distribution. This curve is depicted in Fig. 2(a).
The dependent variable u is used to represent tissue temperature and the independent
variable I to represent the radial distance, which is normalised for convenience so that
0 < r d 1. The parameter b is equal to the value of r when u = 0. As the temperature
cannot reach zero within the range 0 G r < 1 it is necessary to consider an extrapolation
of the curve outside this range, as depicted by a dotted line in Fig. 2(b). Such an
extrapolation is of theoretical use only and has no physical significance; the theoretical
point at which u = 0 is denoted by the point X in Fig. 2(b). As the temperature falls quite
rapidly in the vicinity of the surface, particularly in the case of the torso, the value of b is
very slightly greater than unity. As a consequence, it is observed that when r = 0, (b - r)
is close to unity and hence a has a value close to that of the temperature at the centre of
the element. Parameter c is small and positive throughout.
In certain parts of the United States of America temperatures of around 40°C are not
182 P. SMITHand E. H. TWIZELL

(4 u @I
u

i
\
‘,X
‘. r

Fig.2. (a)Graphofu=a(b-r)‘,O<c<l.(b)Graphofu=a(b-r)’,O<c<l,O,<r~l,as
used to represent a temperature profile for an element of the human body. (c) Graph of
u = a(b - ry, - 1 < c < 0.

uncommon. Finite element simulation of such a situation, using the values of parameters
shown in Table 1, has indicated that on exposure to such an environment, the human
torso maintains core temperature well and tissue temperature rises only in that area
closest to the surface. The curve given by (4) may again be used to construct temperature
profiles for such high environmental temperatures. The parameter c, however, must now
lie within the range - 1 c c < 0. The curve thus obtained is depicted in Fig. 2(c). The
parameter b in this case is equal to the limiting value of Yas u increases rapidly. This, as
before, is very slightly greater than unity. The parameter a once again has a value close
to that of tissue temperature at the core of the element. If, however, u is redefined as the
modulus of the difference between tissue temperature and environmental temperature the
temperature profile for a high environmental temperature such as 40°C would be of an
identical form to that obtained for a low environmental temperature. The parameter c
would then remain positive and the parameter b would be equal to the value of r when
u = 0.
The special case represented by the curve of the form (4) with the value of the par-
ameter c set to zero is that of an element of the human body with constant tissue
temperature a. Tissue temperature is independent of the radial distance r in such a case.
A non-linear least squares algorithm is used to pass a curve of the form u = a(b - r)
through sets of experimental data and hence generate temperature profiles. Data
obtained from the finite element model [7] for low and high environmental temperatures
are used to obtain temperature profiles for the human torso and data obtained by
Pennes [6] are used to generate profiles for the resting human forearm.
Suppose the data pairs obtained from a model of temperature distribution or by
experiment are (ui, ri) where ui is the temperature at dimensionless radial distance r,;
0<riG1;i=1,2 ,..., n;na3.
 Generation of temperature profiles 183

The model equation is

‘iii= a(b - ri)c, (5)

where Ui is the value of ut predicted by the model.

If residuals are defined as
fi = Ui - Ui
the problem is to find the least value of the function

Sk, b,4 = jl _fT. (6)

Several algorithms have been proposed to minimise the sum of squares of such non-
linear functions [4] and that which is used here is based upon the Gauss-Newton
method.
Denoting a, b, c by x1, x2, x3 respectively and writing them as a vector x where
x = (xi, x2, x3)T the Gauss-Newton method of solution starts from an initial estimate
x(O)and applies a correction dck)iteratively, k = 0,1,2,. . . , until convergence to a mini-
mum value of S is obtained.
so
xW+1) = x(k) + d’k’,
(7)
where dck)is the solution to the normal equations
~(x(k))r~(x(‘))dW)= _ J(,&k’)Tf(x”‘)7 (8)
J(xck’) is the n x 3 Jacobian matrix with ijth element:

Jij(X(k)) = F
J

and f(xck))is the vector of residuals fi(xtk’), f2(xtk’), . . . , f,(~(~))~.

Levenberg [3] and Marquardt [S] have suggested algorithms which provide a bias in
the search direction towards the direction of steepest descent. Such algorithms ensure
convergence and have been applied successfully to other physical situations, such as
metal forming [8].
If the matrix .!(x(~))~J(x(~))is denoted by A(k)and the vector -J(~(~))~f(x(~)) by gCk)then
Marquardt’s algorithm uses a scaled matrix ,4*(k) with ijth element

and a scaled vector g*(k)with ith element

Slk’

A positive definite matrix is added to A*(k) and hence dtk’ is the solution to the
equations
(A*(k) + ~‘Wz)dW= g*(k), (9)
where Itk’ is positive and selected so that
SW+1) < S(k). (10)
SCk’is the value of the sum of squares at the kth iteration.
Marquardt defines his strategy as follows.
Let 0 > 1 (u = 10 is a good choice).
Let Rtk- ‘) denotes the value of 2 from previous iteration. (Initially let 2’“’ = 0.01).
184 P. SMITH and E. H. TWIZELL

Compute S(l’k- “) and S(lck- l)/u),

(1) If S(A(k-l)/~) < Sck’,let 2(k) = A’k-l)/~.
(2) If S(A(k-l)/~) > Sck’,and S(il(k-“) ,< Sck),let A(k)= A(k-‘).
(3) If S(A’k-l’/u) > Sck)and S(i’k-l)) > Sck),increase
. ,? by successive multiplication by
u until for some smallest w,

S@‘k- 1+y) < SW; let A(k) = AU- 1)p.

It is a variation of this approach which is used to minimise S.

In addition, referring to equation (5) it is necessary to impose the constraint
X(zk)
E b(k)> 1 (11)
or the expression in parentheses may become negative. To satisfy this requirement, (7) is
replaced by
x(k+ 1) = XW + ,Wd’W9
(12)
where 0 < ~l(~)< 1.
Each time d is calculated a check is made to ensure that (11) is satisfied. If it is not, d is
decreased by successive multiplication by a constant /_I (say /3 = 0.1) until for some
smallest p, x2 + BPdZ > 1; then c( = pp. This procedure is followed at every step of
Marquardt’s strategy, and hence several times within each iteration.
The iteration is taken as converged when

I@l (j = 1,2,3)
z + Ixf”‘l < E
for some suitably small E > 0 (say E = 0.00001) and some suitable r (say r = 0.001) [S].
The optimum values of a, b, and c are then contained in xck) and the non-linear least
squares curve of the form (4) is thus obtained.

NUMERICAL RESULTS
The empirical model,is used to generate temperature profiles for two elements of the
human body. Data obtained from a finite element model [7] are used to generate tem-
perature profiles for the nude human torso and experimental data [6] are used to gener-
ate profiles for the resting human forearm.

I I I I
0 0.25 05 0.75 I
r 03me~ess radial distance)

Fig. 3. Temperature profile for nude human torso subjected to an environmental temperature of
31S”C [u = 36.92(1 + 8 x 10-l’ T r)“.oo18].
 Generation of temperature profiles 185

y/40 0 25 0.5 075

r ID~mensionless radial dfetance )

Fig. 4. Temperature profile for nude human torso subjected to an environmental temperature of
30°C [u = 36.89(1 + 1 x lo-” - r)0.00’5].

Figures 3 and 4 depict the temperature profiles of the torso of nude basal man sub-
jected to an environmental temperature of 315°C and 30°C respectively. Wind speed is
taken to be 0.6096 ms- ‘, and the values for metabolic heat production, thermal conduc-
tivity and product of mass flow rate and specific heat of blood are those shown in Table 1.
The effective heat transfer coefficient for evaporation, radiation and convection is calcu-
lated using the method outlined by Wissler [9]. The data points generated by the finite
element model [7] are marked using crosses and the curves are those generated by the
empirical model. Figures 3 and 4 are typical of the results obtained from models of the
human torso. The temperature is maintained at approximately 36.9”C throughout most
of the torso and falls rapidly in that area closest to the surface, because of loss of heat by
radiation, convection, or evaporation at the surface. This indicates that the torso is able
to maintain core temperature at a comfortable level. Core temperature is maintained by
metabolic heat production, heat flow from the blood, and by the insulating layer of fat
and skin. Within the core itself, tissue temperature remains greater than arterial blood
temperature, and temperature maintainance is largely dependent upon metabolic heat
production and insulation due to the outer layer of fat and skin. It is observed that the
fall in temperature close to the surface in Fig. 4 is greater and more rapid than in the case
of Fig. 3 as a result of the lower environmental temperature. This causes the parameter b
to take a smaller value than in the case of Fig. 3; however both values are very close to
unity. Such values necessitated the use of double precision arithmetic in the FORTRAN
program. Examination of the two forms which the empirical equation u = a(b - r)f takes
confirms that the parameters a and b have values close to the core temperature and unity
respectively.
Figure 5 depicts the temperature profile for the human torso subjected to the high
environmental temperature of 40°C. The points generated by the finite element model are
marked by crosses. Once again the results highlight the fact that the torso maintains core
temperature well. This is the result of insulation, due to the layer of fat and skin, and the
flow of arterial blood. In this experiment the parameter c is small and negative.
Figures 6 and 7 depict the temperature profiles for the resting human forearm sub-
jected to an environmental temperature of 26.5”C and 26.3”C respectively. The results
obtained by Pennes [6] are indicated by crosses in the figures. Once again such sets of
data pairs are typical of those obtained for the arm, or indeed the leg. Here the fall in
temperature is steady throughout, as a result of a smaller rate of heat generation due to
metabolic reaction and a smaller rate of heat flow from the blood. This less rapid fall in
temperature results in larger values of b, although b is still very close to unity. Once
again a assumes a value close to that of tissue temperature at the core.
186 P. SMITHand E. H. TWIZELL

30 -

2
2 37-
x X---_-X i x

-0 0.25 0.5 0.75 I

r Cimensionless
radiol dlstonce 1

Fig. 5. Temperature profile for nude human torso subjected to an environmental temperature of
40°C [u = 36.89(1 + 2 x 10e9 - r)-“.oolo].

Collectively, Figs 3-7 show that parameters a, b, and c may be determined such that
the curve u = a(b - r)c may be used as a temperature profile for various elements of the
human body. Thus if a particular experiment yields a small number n of data pairs (ui, ri),
i= 1,2,..., n, n 2 3, the empirical relation may be used to compute the tissue tempera-
ture at any additional radial points, once values have been determined for the parameters
a, b, and c.

331
0 0.25 0.5 0.75
r (Mmenrbnlws radial dstcnce)

Fig. 6. Temperature profile for resting human forearm subjected to an environmental tempera-
ture of 26.5”C [u = 35.94(1.20 - r)“.048].
 Generation of temperature profiles 187

37 -

34 - \
x

\
x

I I I I
33’
0 0.25 05 075 I

r Kimemonless radtal d~stonce I

Fig. 7. Temperature profile for resting human forearm subjected to an environmental tempera-
ture of 26.3”C [u = 35.59(1.32 - r)“.oS”].

SUMMARY
A novel empirical relation of the form u = a(b - r)c has been suggested, which gener-
ates temperature profiles for elements of the human body. The dependent variable u
represents tissue temperature and the independent variable P represents radial distance.
The parameters a, b and c were found using a discrete non-linear least squares algorithm;
a was found to be close to the value of the core temperature, b was very slightly greater
than unity, and c lay within the range - 1 < c < 1. Temperature profiles were generated
for the torso and the forearm.

REFERENCES
1. S. P. Ho and S. S. T. Fan, Effect of clothing on the temperature distribution of human thermal system,
Comput. Eiol. Med. 5, 203-219 (1975).
2. F. T. Hsu, L. T. Fan and C. L. Hwang, Simulation of a steady-state integrated human thermal system,
Comput. Biol. Med. 2, 59-79 (1972).
3. K. Levenberg, A method for the solution of certain nonlinear problems in least squares, Q. appt. Maths. 2,
164168 (1944).
4. S. A. Lill, A survey of methods for minimizing sums of squares of nonlinear functions, in Optimization in
Action, L. C. W. Dixon, Ed. Academic Press, London (1976).
5. D. W. Marquardt, An algorithm for least squares estimation of nonlinear parameters, J. Sot. ind. appl.
Math. 11(2), 431441 (1963).
6. H. H. Pennes, Analysis of tissue and arterial blood temperatures in the resting human forearm, J. appl.
Physiol. l(2), 93-l 22 (1948).
7. P. Smith and E. H. Twizell, A finite element model of temperature distribution in the human torso, Appl.
math. Meddling. (to appear).
8. E. H. Twizell and I. Adak, Least squares computation of the prestrain and work hardening parameters of
sheet metal. J. Strain Anal. (to appear).
9. E. H. Wissler, Steady-state temperature distribution in man, J. appl. Physiol. 16, 734-740 (1961).

About the Author-Peter Smith received the B.Sc. degree in Combined Studies in Science, his
principal subjects being Mathematics and Computer Studies, from Sunderland Polytechnic in
1978. After graduation he joined the staff of the Department of Mathematics and Comouter
Studies at Sunderland Polytechnic as a research assistant. His research interests lie in the numeri-
cal modelling of the human thermoregulatory system, and particularly in the application of finite
difference, finite element and non-linear optimization techniques to simulate this complex mech-
anism. He expects to complete his Ph.D program in late summer 1981.
88 P. SMITH and E. H. TWIZELL

About the Author-Edward Henry Twizell received the B.Sc. degree in Mathematics from the
University of Wales in 1962. the M.A. degree in Mathematics with Computer Science from York
University, Toronto, in 1970 and the Ph.D. degree in Numerical Analysis from the Council for
National Academic Awards (CNAA) in 1977.
Dr. Twizell has taught in England. New Zealand and Canada and is at present Lecturer in the
Department of Mathematics, Brunel University, specializing in Numerical Analysis. His research
interests are in the numerical solution of differential equations, and in the application of the
techniques of numerical analysis in modelling problems in medicine and engineering.
Dr. Twizell was elected to membership of the Canadian Mathematical Society in 1969.