LABORATORY EXERCISE 12

VERTEBRAL COLUMN AND THORACIC CAGE

Learning outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Name the component bones of the vertebral column and thoracic cage; and
2. Identify the bones and markings of the vertebral column and thorax on a specimen and
in figures.

INTRODUCTION
The vertebral column, also called the spine, backbone, or the spinal column, makes up
about two-fifths of your total height and is composed of 26 bones called vertebrae [singular:
vertebra]. The vertebral column, the sternum, the ribs form the skeleton of the trunk of the
body. The vertebral column consists of bone and connective tissue; the spinal cord that it
encloses and protects consists of nervous and connective tissues. The vertebral column
functions as a strong, flexible rod with elements that can move forward, backward, and
sideways, and rotate. In addition, it also supports the head and provides attachment for the ribs,
pelvic girdle, and muscles of the back and upper limbs.

The total number of vertebrae during early development is 33. As a child grows, the sacral
and coccygeal vertebrae fuse. As a result, the adult vertebral column contains 26 bones and are
distributed as follows:
 7 cervical vertebrae [cervic means neck]
 12 thoracic vertebrae [thorax means chest]
 5 lumbar vertebrae [lumb means loin]
 1 sacrum [sacred bone]
 1 coccyx [cuckoo]

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 The cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae are movable, but the sacrum and coccyx are
not.

PARTS OF A TYPICAL VERTEBRA

Vertebrae in different regions vary in size, shape, and detail, but are similar enough to
examine the structures and functions of a typical vertebra. Vertebrae typically consist of a
vertebral body, vertebral arch, and several processes.

VERTEBRAL BODY
The vertebral body, the thick, disc-shaped anterior portion, is the weight-bearing part of a
vertebra. Its superior and inferior surfaces are roughened for the attachment of cartilaginous
intervertebral discs.

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 VERTEBRAL ARCH
Two short, thick processes, the pedicles [little feet], project posteriorly from the vertebral body
and then unite with the flat laminae [thin layers] to form the vertebral arch. The vertebral arch
extends posteriorly from the body of the vertebra. The vertebral body and arch together form the
vertebral foramen which houses the spinal cord. Collectively, the vertebral foramina of all vertebrae
form the vertebral (spinal) canal. The pedicles exhibit superior and inferior indentations called
vertebral notches. When the vertebral notches are stacked on top of one another, they form an
opening between adjoining vertebrae on both sides of the column; called the intervertebral
foramen. This permits the passage of a spinal nerve to transmit signals to and from the spinal cord.

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 PROCESSES
Seven (7) processes arise from the vertebral arch. At the point where a lamina and pedicle join,
a transverse process extends laterally on each side. A single spinous process (spine) projects
posteriorly from the junction of the laminae. These processes serve as attachment points for
muscles. The two superior articular processes of a vertebra articulate with the two inferior articular
processes of the vertebra immediately above them. In turn, the two inferior articular processes of a
vertebra articulate with the two superior articular processes of the vertebra immediately below
them. The articulating surfaces of the articular processes, referred to as facets [little faces], are
covered with hyaline cartilage. The articulations formed between the vertebral bodies and articular
facets of successive vertebrae are termed intervertebral joints.

CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
The bodies of the cervical vertebrae (C1-C7) are smaller than all other vertebrae except
those that form the coccyx. However, their vertebral arches are larger. All cervical vertebrae
have three foramina: one vertebral foramen and two transverse foramina. The vertebral
foramina of cervical vertebrae are the largest in the spinal column because they house the
cervical enlargement of the spinal cord. Each cervical transverse process contains a transverse
foramen through which the vertebral artery and its accompanying vein and nerve fibers pass.
The spinous processes of C2 through C6 are often bifid —that is, they branch into two small
projections at the tips.

The first two cervical vertebrae differ greatly from the others. The atlas (C1) is the first
cervical vertebra inferior to the skull. The atlas is a ring of bone with anterior and posterior
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arches and large lateral masses. It lacks a spinous process. The superior surfaces of the lateral
masses, called superior articular facets, are concave. They articulate with the occipital condyles
of the occipital bone to form the paired atlanto-occipital joints. These articulations permit you
to move your head to signify “yes.” The inferior surfaces of the lateral masses, the inferior
articular facets, articulate with the second cervical vertebra. The transverse processes and
transverse foramina of the atlas are quite large.

The second cervical vertebra (C2), the axis, does have a vertebral body. A peg-like process
called the dens [tooth] or odontoid process projects superiorly through the anterior portion of
the vertebral foramen of the atlas. The dens makes a pivot on which the atlas and head rotate.
This arrangement permits side-to-side movement of the head, as when you move your head to
signify “no.” The articulation formed between the anterior arch of the atlas and dens of the axis,
and between their articular facets, is called the atlanto-axial joint.

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 C3 through C6 correspond to the structural pattern of a typical vertebra. C7 is called the
vertebra prominens. It has a large, nonbifid spinous process that may be seen and felt at the
base of the neck.

THORACIC VERTEBRAE
Thoracic vertebrae are considerably larger and stronger than cervical vertebrae. In
addition, the spinous processes on T1 through T10 are long, laterally flattened, and directed
inferiorly. In contrast, the spinous processes on T11 and T12 are shorter, broader, and directed
more posteriorly. Compared to cervical vertebrae, thoracic vertebrae also have longer and
larger transverse processes. Thoracic vertebrae are easily identified by their costal facets [cost-
means rib], which are articular surfaces for the ribs.
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 The feature of the thoracic vertebrae that distinguishes them from other vertebrae is that
they articulate with the ribs. Except for T11 and T12, the transverse processes of thoracic
vertebrae have costal facets that articulate with the tubercles of the ribs. Additionally, the
vertebral bodies of thoracic vertebrae have articular surfaces that form articulations with the
heads of the ribs. The articular surfaces on the vertebral bodies are called either facets or
demifacets. A facet is formed when the head of a rib articulates with the body of one vertebra. A
demifacet is formed when the head of a rib articulates with two adjacent vertebral bodies. The
articulations between the thoracic vertebrae and ribs, called vertebrocostal joints, are
distinguishing features of thoracic vertebrae.

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LUMBAR VERTEBRAE
The lumbar vertebrae (L1-L5) are the largest and strongest of the unfused bones of the
vertebral column. Their various projections are short and thick. The superior articular
processes are directed medially instead of superiorly, and the inferior articular processes are
directed laterally instead of inferiorly. The spinous processes are quadrilateral in shape, are
thick and broad, and project nearly straight posteriorly.

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SACRAL VERTEBRAE
The sacrum is a triangular bone formed by the union of five sacral vertebrae (S1 - S5).
Positioned at the posterior portion of the pelvic cavity medial to the two hip bones, the sacrum
serves as a strong foundation for the pelvic girdle. The female sacrum is shorter, wider, and
more curved between S2 and S3 than the male sacrum.

The anterior side of the sacrum faces the pelvic cavity and is smooth and contains four (4)
transverse lines (or ridges) that mark the joining of the sacral vertebral bodies. At the ends of
these lines are four pairs of anterior sacral foramina.

The convex, posterior surface of the sacrum contains a median sacral crest, the fused
spinous processes of the upper sacral vertebrae; a lateral sacral crest, the fused transverse
processes of the sacral vertebrae; and four pairs of posterior sacral foramina. The sacral canal is
a continuation of the vertebral cavity. The laminae of the fifth sacral vertebra, and sometimes
the fourth, fail to meet. This leaves an inferior entrance to the vertebral canal called the sacral
hiatus. On either side of the sacral hiatus is a sacral cornu [cornu means horn; plural: cornua],
an inferior articular process of the fifth sacral vertebra. They are connected by ligaments to the
coccyx.

The narrow inferior portion of the sacrum is known as the apex. The broad superior
portion of the sacrum is called the base. The anteriorly projecting border of the base, called the
sacral promontory, is used as one of the points used for the measurements of the pelvis. On
both lateral surfaces the sacrum has a large ear-shaped auricular surface that articulates with
the ilium of each hip bone to form the sacroiliac joint. The superior articular processes of the
sacrum articulate with the inferior articular processes of the fifth lumbar vertebra, and the base
of the sacrum articulates with the body of the fifth lumbar vertebra to form the lumbo-sacral
joint.

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COCCYGEAL VERTEBRAE
The coccyx, or tailbone, is triangular in shape. It is formed by fusion of usually four (4)
coccygeal vertebrae, indicated as Co1 - Co4. The dorsal surface of the body of the coccyx
contains two long coccygeal cornua that are connected by ligaments to the sacral cornua. The
coccygeal cornua are the pedicles and superior articular processes of the first coccygeal
vertebra. They are on the lateral surfaces of the coccyx, formed by a series of transverse
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processes; the first pair are the largest. The coccyx articulates superiorly with the apex of the
sacrum. In females, the coccyx points inferiorly to allow the passage of a baby during birth; in
males, it points anteriorly.

HYOID BONE
The hyoid bone [U-shaped] is a unique component of the axial skeleton because it does not
articulate with any other bone. It is rather suspended from the styloid processes of the
temporal bones by ligaments and muscles. Located in the anterior neck between the mandible
and larynx, the hyoid bone supports the tongue, provides attachment points for some tongue
muscles and for the muscles of the neck and pharynx. The hyoid bone consists of a horizontal
body and paired projections called the lesser horns and the greater horns.

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THORACIC CAGE
The thoracic cage is a bony enclosure formed by the sternum, ribs and their costal
cartilages, and the bodies of the thoracic vertebrae. The thoracic cage is narrower at its
superior end and broader at its inferior end and is flattened from front to back. It encloses and
protects the organs in the thoracic and superior abdominal cavities, provides support for the
bones of the upper limbs, and plays a role in breathing.

STERNUM
The sternum, or breastbone, is a flat, narrow bonce located in the center of the anterior
thoracic wall which consists of three parts. The superior part is the manubrium [handle-like];
the middle and largest part is the body or gladiolus; and the inferior, smallest part is the xiphoid
process [sword-shaped].

The junction of the manubrium and body forms the sternal angle. The manubrium has a
depression on its superior surface, the suprasternal notch. Lateral to the suprasternal notch are
clavicular notches that articulate with the medial ends of the clavicles to form the
sternoclavicular joints. The manubrium also articulates with the costal cartilages of the first and
second ribs. The body of the sternum articulates directly or indirectly with the costal cartilages
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of the second through tenth ribs. The xiphoid process consists of hyaline cartilage during
infancy and childhood and does not completely ossify until about age 40. No ribs are attached to
it, but the xiphoid process provides attachment for some abdominal muscles.

RIBS
Twelve pairs of ribs, numbered 1–12 from superior to inferior, give structural support to
the sides of the thoracic cavity.

The first through seventh pairs of ribs have a direct anterior attachment to the sternum by
a strip of hyaline cartilage called costal cartilage. The ribs that have costal cartilages and attach
directly to the sternum are called true (vertebrosternal) ribs. The articulations formed between
the true ribs and the sternum are called sternocostal joints. The remaining five pairs of ribs are
termed false ribs because their costal cartilages either attach indirectly to the sternum or do not
attach to the sternum at all. The cartilages of the eighth, ninth, and tenth pairs of ribs attach to
one another and then to the cartilages of the seventh pair of ribs. These false ribs are called
vertebrochondral ribs. The eleventh and twelfth pairs of ribs are false ribs designated as
floating (vertebral) ribs because the costal cartilages at their anterior ends do not attach to the
sternum at all.

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 SPARKS FOR THOUGHT
Answer the activities in your manual on pages 82, 83, 85, 86, 87, and 88. Please be reminded
that you have to do your assignments in two (2) weeks or less.

SOLO LEVELING
It is now your turn to research and delve more about the bones of the vertebral column and
thoracic cage.
1. Cite at least three (3) age-related conditions involving the spinal column.
2. Why are the lumbar vertebrae the largest and strongest in the vertebral column?
3. What is the importance of keeping in mind the position of the xiphoid process during CPR?
4. What are the conditions that involve abnormal curvature of the vertebral column? Define and
describe each.
5. Define and describe spina bifida. How is it connected to a deficiency of a B vitamin?
6. Define and describe herniated disc.
7. Illustrate, define, and describe epidural, caudal, and intraspinal administration.

CURTAIN CALL
Job well done! Now, to finally end this lesson, kindly write your reflections below regarding the
skull bones.

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I am certain that I learned about
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I think there is a need for me to

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I could apply what I learned by

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REFERENCES:
Tortora, G. J. and Derrickson, B. (2017). Principles of Anatomy and Physiology 15th edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

VanPutte, C. L., et. al. (2019). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology. McGraw-Hill Education.

Marieb, E. N. and Jackson, P. B. (2018). Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology. Pearson Education, Inc.

Netter, F. H. (2011). Atlas of Human Anatomy. Saunders.

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