Element 8

Element 8
Physical and Psychological Health

Hazards and Risk Control
Green World Group | 207

DRAFT PAGE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.1 NOISE�� 210

1. Anatomy of Ear��210
2. Health Effects of Noise��211
3. Noise Related Terms��212
4. Noise Assessments��213
5. Noise Control��214
6. Health Surveillance��217
8.2 VIBRATION �� 219

1. Terms and Definitions��219
2. Health Effects��219
3. Vibration Assessment��220
4. Action Values��220
5. Vibration Control Measures��221
RADIATION�� 222
1. Types of Radiation��222
2. Ionising Radiation – Effects and Controls��222
3. Non-Ionising Radiations – Effects and Controls��225
4. Monitoring and Health Surveillance��227
STRESS�� 228
1. Causes and Effects��228
2. Stress Risk Assessment��229
3. Control Measures��230
SUMMARY�� 231
REFERENCES�� 231

8.1 NOISE
1. Anatomy of Ear
The ear consists of three essential parts – being the outer, middle and inner ear.
Each part of the ear serves a particular purpose in the task of detecting and interpreting sound.
The Outer Ear - The outer ear helps to collect and channel sound to the middle ear.
The Middle Ear - The middle ear assists to change the energy of an acoustic wave into the internal vibrations of the
bone structure of the middle ear and ultimately alter these vibrations into a compressional wave in the inner ear.
The Inner Ear - The inner ear serves to change the energy of a compressional wave within the inner ear fluid into nerve
impulses which can be transmitted to the brain.
Source: Anatomy Human Body Organs
210 | Green World Group

UNIT GC2: CONTROLLING WORKPLACE HAZARDS
2. Health Effects of Noise

Extended exposure to noise can result in:
• Permanent hearing loss

• Tinnitus (ringing of bells sound in the ears)
• Tiredness and stress
• Loss of balance or awareness
• Impairment of speech
If high noise levels are present, the first thing to check would be that the machinery is operating correctly and that all
other conditions are correct, e.g. the work-piece and tool are both adequately clamped.
Typical Noise Hazards
These are created by high-frequency noise generated by cutting, grinding, drilling, milling and compressed air tool
operation. Percussive noise from road drills and compactors, stamping, pressing, riveting, stapling, nailing and panel
beating operations. Explosive noise from cartridge fixing tools and pressure venting systems. High levels of general
plant or machinery noise.
Noise-induced Hearing Damage
Permanent and irreversible hearing damage may result when workers are habitually subjected to excessive noise
exposure at work. The degree of hearing loss causing from excessive exposure is dependent upon such factors as the
noise level and exposure duration noise, and upon the individual’s susceptibility to noise-induced hearing damage.
Deafness usually occurs over many years as a gradual onset of noise-induced hearing loss; the effect may not be
detected immediately. There are, however, some sudden noises, such as explosions, gunfire and other very high-level
impulsive noise sources sometimes found in heavy industrial situations, which can cause immediate hearing damage to
the unprotected ear.

There is also a natural hearing loss that occurs with ageing, and this loss is additional to any loss caused by exposure to
high noise.
3. Noise Related Terms

Noise - Noise is defined as unwanted sound. The ‘quality’ of the noise is also conditioned by the general level of
background noise, which is often itself conditioned by the time of day.
Sound Pressure - Pure noise energy is a unit of pressure measured in Pascal’s (Pa).
Atmospheric pressure has an atypical value of 100,000 Pa, whereas normal sound pressures detectable by the human ear
are a small fraction of a Pascal (as low as 0.00002 Pa at some frequencies).
Intensity - a number of pressure changes in the noise determine its amplitude and intensity – this being perceived by
the listener as loudness.
When measuring sound, therefore, we are not so much interested in the actual magnitude of the pressure, we are really
interested in the magnitude of variations in pressure. To this end, we use a ratio based on the lowest detectable pressure
change or the threshold of hearing.
Frequency - Frequency is perceived by the listener as pitch or tone. It is measured in cycles per second (Hz). The human
hearing mechanism does have a finite range of perception of pitch and this varies between 20 Hz to 20KHz (20 kHz),
but it is most sensitive at around 4,000 Hz – this being the frequency of human speech.
The Decibel Scale - Although noise is measured as sound pressure, the units of pressure are not used in most
circumstances. This is because the range of pressures which could be measured varies from 0.00002 up to 200 Pascals.
It was decided that such a range was unwieldy and difficult to accommodate on a single scale.
The range was compressed by taking logarithms, and it was agreed that the new logarithmic unit would be called the
decibel, or dB for short.
The decibel level is usually taken to mean sound pressure although it is used in general parlance to describe noise
intensity and loudness.
dB( A) - A’ Weighting is basic weighting of the audible frequencies developed to show the response of the human ear
to noise. At low and high frequencies, the human ear is not really delicate, however, in between 500 Hz and 6 kHz, the
ear is much more delicate.
The ‘A’ weighting filter covers the full frequency variety of 20 Hz to 20 kHz, however the shape estimates to the
frequency level of sensitivity of the human ear. The A-weighted value of a sound source is an approximation to how the
human ear perceives the sound.
dB(C) - ‘C’ Weighting is a standard weighting of the audible frequencies commonly used for the measurement of Peak
Sound Pressure level.
Measurements made using ‘C’ weighting are usually shown with dB(C) to demonstrate that the information is ‘C’
weighted decibels or, for example, as LCeq, LCPeak, LCE, etc. where the C shows the use of ‘C’ Weighting.
Action Level
Internationally there are differing levels of noise at which some countries deem to consider non-harmful for an average
8-hour exposure. You need to establish what this level is at your workplace based on their national / local legislation.
The level of noise and/or duration of exposure should not exceed the limits established by the competent authority or
other internationally recognised standards.

The UK Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005, regulation 4 sets out exposure limit values and action values.
LEPd of 80 dB(A)
Lower Action Level
Peak Sound Pressure of 135 dB (C)
LEPd of 85 dB(A)
Upper Action Level
LEPd of 87 dB(A)
Exposure Limit (Ceiling)
Table Source: GWG
Where the direct exposure of an employee to sound varies significantly from day to day, a company may use weekly
personal noise direct exposure in place of daily personal noise exposure for the purpose of compliance with these Laws.
4. Noise Assessments
Measurements should be taken at the workstations of the
employees closest to the source of the noise and over as long
a period as possible, particularly if there is a variation in noise
levels during the working day.
The measurements should be taken at the worker’s ear level.
Noise Assessment Objectives
A noise assessment, carried out by a ‘competent person’, is

required in those situations where it is likely that any worker is
exposed to noise at or above the first action level.
The objectives of the assessment are:
• To identify which employees are exposed to noise at or

above these levels;
• To determine the LEPd, of all those likely to be exposed
to noise at or above the first action level, and the peak
Source: Apple Environmental
noise exposure of those liable to be exposed at or above
the peak action level
• To provide the employer with a record of information about the noise and detailed guidance on the appropriate
measures to take to reduce the noise exposures.
Preliminary Assessment of Situation
It is often possible to decide whether a noise assessment is needed without making detailed noise measurements in the
first instance. It is likely that noise levels are excessive and potentially hazardous to hearing in places where people have
to shout to communicate or experience difficulty in hearing someone who is about two metres away.
Scope of Assessment
The employer must consider within the assessment the noise exposure of all workers, together with that of visitors,
contractors, maintenance personnel and others within the premises, and also any noise exposure of employees required
to work at other locations, including employees who work at home.

Keeping Records of Assessments
Record of the sound assessment should be recorded in an intelligible and accessible kind. The record should include,
the details in the following list.
• The workplaces, locations, jobs and individuals examined

• The noise measurement locations, duration of measurements, and keeps in mind describing any noise control
steps applied at the time,
• The operate in progress at the time of the measurement,
• The work patterns and computations of day-to-day direct exposure
• All day-to-day personal exposures found at or above the 1st action level
• Peak sound direct exposure levels
• Identification of sources contributing to the examined extreme noise levels
• Any suggestion for measures to minimise the noise exposure
• The date and times of the sound measurements
• The person( s) responsible for the measurements and evaluations.
5. Noise Control
The employer should recognise which of the suggestions are fairly practicable to impact sound reduction by engineering
implies, and establish top priorities for the sound control action.
The engineering noise control actions should be performed according to a programme designed to achieve the optimum
benefit, with a factor to consider of key elements such as:
• The number of workers secured

• The magnitude of the existing noise exposure levels prior to action;
• The cost and practicability of the control actions proposed; and
• Those scenarios where the usage of individual hearing defence is Impracticable or unwanted.
Prior to thinking about techniques of sound control, it is crucial to keep in mind that the noise at any point may be
because of more than one source, in addition, it may be intensified by noise shown from walls as well as the sound
radiated directly from the source.
Source: personal.cityu.edu.hk
With any noise problems there are the three distinct elements, being:
• Source,
• Path and
• Receiver.

Where a problem is evident, there are 3 orders of priority for a solution:
• Engineer the problem out by buying low sound equipment, altering the procedure or altering running treatments.
• Apply standard methods of sound control such as silencers or enclosures.Staff rotation
Where neither of the above approaches can be used, the last resort of providing personal protection should be considered.
Source Control
Although the control of noise at source is the most apparent solution, the expediency of this method is typically restricted
by device design, procedure or operating practices. While instant benefits can be gotten, this approach needs to be
considered a long-lasting solution. A number of practical Upkeep with regular lubrication for both oil and grease.
Elimination strategy can be utilised as part of typical day-to-day functional and upkeep procedures that will achieve
substantial decreases in the noise released, will cost nothing or hardly any to carry out such as:
• Tighten loose guards and panels.

• unnecessary compressed air and steam leaks, silence air exhausts.
• Inspect and maintain properly adjusted to manufacturer’s instructions.
• Use damped or rubber line containers for catching components.
• Switch off the plant, not in use, especially fans.
• Use rubber or plastic bushes in linkages, use plastic gears.
• Specify noise emission levels in orders, i.e. 85 dB(A) at 1 metre.
• Check condition and performance of any installed noise control equipment.
Path Control
Orientation and location
Control might be attained by moving the source away from the noise sensitive location. In other cases where the maker
does not radiate similarly in all directions, turning it round can achieve substantial reductions.
Enclosure
Enclosures are the most satisfactory solution since they will control both the direct field and reverberant field noise
components. In enclosing any source, the provision of adequate ventilation, access and maintenance facilities must be
considered. The main features are surrounding the noise source with walls of sound insulating material.
Silencers
Silencers are used to suppress the noise generated when air, gas or steam flow in pipes or ducts or are exhausted to
atmosphere. They generally operate by using absorbent material or baffles.
Absorption
This is a reduction in sound energy by surrounding/obstructing noise source with porous absorbent materials such as
foam, mineral wool or other suitable materials.
Damping
Reduction in structure born sound by usage of rubber/cork, springs, etc. in noise course e.g. panels, motors, etc. or by
reducing vibration.
Isolation
Protection of persons from noise source by distance or sound proofed rooms.

Lagging
On pipes carrying steam or hot fluids Insulation of pipes to reduce sound transmission.
Screens
Acoustic screens placed on the path are useful in reducing the direct field component noise transmission. However, they
are of maximum benefit at high frequencies, but of little effect at low frequencies and their effectiveness decreases with
distance from the screen.
Target/Person Control
The types of protection available fall into two broad categories, the use of
which may be determined by the work activity. These are:
• Ear Muffs: Can either fit over the head or are attached to a safety
helmet. In both instances, the protector covers the ears. (Ear
Defenders)
• Ear Plugs: Can be either pre-moulded or expandable and are
inserted into the auditory canal.
Under exceptional circumstances, a combination of both can be used.
Whichever type is used a high degree of cleanliness is necessary,

particularly so with ear plugs. Protectors should also be checked on a
frequent basis for signs of deterioration, which will subsequently reduce
their effectiveness. Source: Suojalaite Oy
While hearing protection is manufactured to a set standard the degree

of protection afforded varies considerably. Obviously, an engineer testing jet engines require better protection than
someone working a lathe, etc.
As previously mentioned the type of protector used could depend on the work being carried out by the wearer. Ear
muffs, for example, could interfere with the use of other personal protection. They can also be uncomfortable if worn
for prolonged periods, particularly in hot conditions. Long hair and spectacles can also reduce efficiency. They do have
the advantage of affording excellent protection if selected correctly and can clearly be seen to being used.
Ear plugs do not generally interfere with other protection and arguably are more comfortable. Care, however, is need
when fitting them and training is generally necessary. Hygiene is also an important factor. Whenever feasible personal
choice should be considered, it is far better to provide an item which is personally acceptable to the user
Selection of Hearing Protection
When selecting hearing protection, be it muff or plug, there are fundamental questions which need to be answered. “Will
the protection reduce the risk to an acceptable level?” This will typically be determined from the findings of a noise
survey which should define both the level and frequency range of the sound being produced. Both must be compared
with the attenuation data provided by the protection manufacturer to determine the protector most suited to the situation.
Other factors to consider when selecting hearing protection include:
• Comfort and fit

• Maintenance and care
• Training, information and instructions
• Issue to visitors – also consider hygiene issues
• Personal choice
• Noise reduction

Maintenance of Hearing Protection
Proper care and maintenance of earplug or earmuff are necessary to ensure optimal fit and protection over time.
Maintenance could be done by the wearer, however intricate or specialise maintenance must be performed by a trained
and competent specialist.
Attenuation
Information on the levels of noise reduction (attenuation) associated with ear protectors is provided by the manufacturer
of the product. The type of information includes HML (High, Medium, Low) values; SNR (Single number rating)
values and Octave band mean attenuation and the standard deviation
6. Health Surveillance
It is about putting in place systematic, regular and appropriate procedures to detect early signs of work-related ill
health, and acting upon the results. The aims are primarily to safeguard the health of workers (including identifying and
protecting individuals at increased risk), but also to check the long-term effectiveness of measures to control risks to
health.
Health surveillance for noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) usually means regular hearing checks (audiometric testing)
to measure hearing sensitivity.
Source: Asian Yamuna Vihar
It should consist of informing employees about the state of their hearing and the keeping of records. Supply health
security to employees often exposed above the upper direct exposure action levels.
Where exposure is in between the lower and upper exposure action limits, or where employees are just sometimes
exposed above the upper direct exposure action limits, health monitoring will just be needed if info emerges that a
person might be particularly sensitive to NIHL.

This may be from past medical history, audiometric test results from previous jobs or other independent assessments.
When deciding which workers will require health surveillance, you should consider patterns of work.
You would not be expected to provide medical surveillance, for example, to employees whose noise exposure exceeds
the upper exposure action values by a small margin, and only on one or two days a week.
However, if exposure is frequently above the upper exposure action values, then health surveillance would be appropriate.
Records
Management ought to keep a current health record for each individual as long as they are under health monitoring. These
records need to consist of:
• Employee identifications
• The employee’s history of exposure to noise;
• The outcome of previous health monitoring in terms of fitness for work, and any restrictions required.
All medical information must be kept in confidence in the medical record held by an occupational health professional in
charge of the audiometric testing programme.

8.2 VIBRATION
1. Terms and Definitions

‘Daily exposure.’
It implies the amount of mechanical vibration to which an employee is exposed during a working day, normalised to an
8-hour referral duration, which appraises the magnitude and period of the vibration.
‘hand-arm vibration’ (HAV)
It means mechanical vibration which is transmitted to the hands and arms during a work activity.
‘whole-body vibration’ (WBV)
It means mechanical vibration which is transmitted into the body when seated or standing through the supporting
surfaces, during a work activity
2. Health Effects
It is generally the lower frequency vibrations that offer an increase in physical pain. Low-frequency vibration (3-- 6 Hz)
can cause the diaphragm in the chest region to vibrate in sympathy triggering a sensation of queasiness.
The use of vibratory hand tools, such as jack hammers and drills which run at greater frequencies, can cause ‘vibration
induced white finger’ (VWF).
The impacts of vibration on the body will depend on the frequency, amplitude and direct exposure duration and thus it
is challenging to generalise on what they will be. Nevertheless, it is beneficial keeping in mind that in addition to the
physiological results vibration can likewise have mental impacts such as loss of concentration. Individuals who are
regularly exposed to high vibration can have conditions such as ‘dead finger’ or ‘dead hand’ which is brought on by
damage to the capillary or blood supply.
Damage to nerves of the finger triggering permanent loss of sensation and other damage to muscles and bone may also
contribute to pain and tightness in the wrists and hands. Entire body vibration can also trigger damage to the spine or
vertebrae after extended direct exposure.
Hand Arms Vibration
Any job, including those involving vibration, must be considered during

any risk evaluation. Various tools and operations within the industry can
expose workers to hazards from vibrations such as:
• Road and concrete breaking and Concrete Vibro-thickeners

• Chisels (air or electric) and Compressor guns
• Pneumatic drills, Angle mills and Cut-off wheels
• Chainsaws and Woodworking equipment.
The risk of their triggering vibration-related injury depends on a variety

of concerns:
• The vibration magnitude and frequency.

Source: iHasco
• How long the equipment is utilised and the conditions of usage

• The posture of the operative

• The temperature at which work is performed
Whole Body Vibration
Whole-body vibration is experienced when vibration from a vehicle or device a person is standing or sitting on is
transmitted to the torso through the feet or butts.
The most common complaint from WBV is persistent back pain, but it may also cause digestive disorders, cardiovascular
stress and dizziness or motion sickness, due to balance organ or sensory system disorder.
Work activities of greatest risk for WBV consist of the use of agricultural and forestry lorries and equipment - tractors,
etc.; Building and construction and quarrying lorries and equipment - diggers, dumper trucks, etc.; Haulage automobiles
- roadway, rail, buses, etc.; Commercial trucks - forklifts, straddle carriers, and so on
3. Vibration Assessment
If any of the following conditions exist, you might have a significant vibration risk. You then require examining the
extent of the problem. You can work on the anticipation that vibration is excessive and present control measures without
bringing out an in-depth assessment.
If workers using hammer action tools for more than a couple of minutes per day or using rotary action tools for over
half an hour each day, there is an increased risk. If the manufacturers of equipment define vibration risks, the assessment
must consider it.
If it is a known hazard in similar industries who carry out similar work and if any of the employees have in the past
shown symptoms of vibration related illness, the assessment must be carried out.
Data on the amount of vibration generated by equipment is available from manufacturers. But it cannot be assumed that
laboratory experiments with equipment resemble the work processes in your business.
This needs to be confirmed by the manufacturer. If this cannot be confirmed, you may need to have the vibration levels
measured by a competent person. You will also need to know the ‘trigger time’, which is the time your workers are
handling the equipment and the equipment is operating to produce vibration.
An operator who uses a disc sander, hammer drill, etc. is unlikely to use it continuously for the whole time they are
holding the equipment. When workers are exposed to vibration from different pieces of equipment in their working day,
each piece of equipment must be assessed separately. With this data, it is possible to calculate the daily exposure.
4. Action Values
The UK Control of Vibration at Work Regulations 2007 sets exposure limit values and action values for hand arm
vibration (HAV) as well as whole body vibration (WBV). These are used here as a guide to best practice.
Exposure Action Value (EAV)
Similar to noise, if the daily dose of vibration is above this level, management needs to ensure measures to control
exposure. The greater the exposure level, the higher the risk and the more action organisations will need to take to reduce
the chance.
Exposure Limit Value (ELV)
This is the ceiling level of vibration measured by the accelerometer, above which no employee must be exposed to on
any single 8-hour shift.

5. Vibration Control Measures

The development of an effective strategy by employers to reduce vibration is essential if the exposure of operatives to
the effects of vibration is to be reduced.
Risk assessments of all work tasks should be carried out, during which the following issues should be addressed:
• Eliminate the use of vibrating tools.

• Ensuring that any new tools have vibration controls built in.
• All tools, whether supplied new or second-hand, should be safe to use and handle.
• Alternative Work Methods and Equipment Selection
• Purchasing Policy For Replacing Equipment And Tools
• Workstation Design and Equipment Maintenance
• Work Schedules and Clothing.
Providing health surveillance
Health monitoring should be undertaken for all employees who, regardless of the actions to manage the risk, are most
likely to be frequently exposed above the direct exposure action value or are considered to be at risk for any other
reason. The purpose of health monitoring is to, find out who are exposed or going to be exposed to hand-arm vibration
who may be at particular risk, for example, people with blood circulatory diseases such as Reynaud’s Disease.
It helps to find out any vibration-related disease at an early stage in employees regularly exposed to hand arm vibration.
It helps prevent disease progression and eventual disability; help people stay in work and check the effectiveness of
vibration control measures.

RADIATION
1. Types of Radiation
Radiation may be defined as the process of emitting energy as waves or particles. In the context of potential hazards,
radiation has become confined to ‘Ionising Radiation’ and ‘Non-Ionising’ Radiation. This radiation can also be split into
‘particulate’ and ‘electromagnetic’ according to its nature.
Ionising radiation is the energy produced from natural and man-made radioactive materials. It is present in the
environment because of naturally occurring radioactive minerals remaining from the very early formation of the planet
earth. This leads to exposure to gamma rays and radioactive radon gas from certain rocks and from radioactive material
in food and drink. Exposure also occurs from natural ionising radiation that passes through the atmosphere from outer
space, the so called ‘cosmic radiation’.
Main sources of man-made ionising radiation. Firstly, it is used in medicine for treating cancer and for the diagnosis
of many diseases. They are used in industry, primarily for measurement purposes and for producing electricity. Both
medical and industrial uses of radiation produce radioactive waste. The fall out from previous nuclear weapon explosions
and other accidents / incidents worldwide.
The damaging effects of ionising radiation coming from the packages of high energy that are released from radioactive
material.
Radiations in the environment can come from sunlight, power lines, electrical equipment and mobile phone systems do
not have enough energy to produce ionisation. Therefore, they are called non-ionising radiations.
Ionising and non-ionising radiation
Non-ionising radiation is electromagnetic e.g. visible light, ultra-violet light, etc. which could deposit thermal energy in
the body or have no effect at all.
Ionising radiation is not electromagnetic but is particulate, e.g. alpha, beta, gamma, neutron and x-ray radiation, has
enough energy to effect chemical changes to biological molecules, which can lead to ill-health effects. Significant
exposure to ionising radiation may damage cells or tissues. Sources of ionising radiation are radioactive materials and
x-ray machines.
Ionising Radiation can be defined as radiation that produces ionisation in the matter. This can be electromagnetic (as
with X and Gamma) or particulate (as with Alpha and Beta particles), Ionising Radiation has the ability to enter the
atomic structure of matter.
2. Ionising Radiation – Effects and Controls

Ionising Radiation includes:
• Alpha, Beta and Gamma radiation (as emitted by radio active materials such as radon)
• X – Radiation (generated by electrical devices)
• Neutron Radiation (as emitted in fission)
Radiation is very easy to detect, using unique instruments such as Geiger counters. Even tiny amounts of radiation can
be detected. A Geiger counter actually counts every particle which enters it.

Source: Chemistry LibreTexts
Alpha - Is a particle radiation consisting of two protons and two neutrons bound together. Penetration is approximately
2 cm in air. Used for smoke detection
Beta - Is a particle radiation consisting of high-speed electrons. Penetration is approximately 800 mm in the air. Used
for thickness measurement equipment
Gamma - Is a ray consisting of high energy electromagnetic wave emissions. Penetration is approximately 30 metres
in the air. Used for Radiation Photography (Non-Destructive Testing)
X-Rays - X radiation is emitted when certain changes occur in the energy levels of the orbiting electrons. It is very
similar to Gamma radiation in its properties because it is pure electromagnetic energy but generally has lower energy
than Gamma rays. Used for Medical Photography
Neutrons - Neutrons are elementary particles with unit atomic mass and no electric charge. The most powerful source
of neutrons is a nuclear reactor. Neutrons are very penetrating but can be stopped by very thick layers of concrete or
water. By-product of a Nuclear Reaction
Radon - Radon is produced by the decay of the unstable isotope radium, which is present wherever uranium is found for
example in mines, stone quarries, soil, rocks and even radon abundant ground water. It seeps out of uranium-containing
soils and may concentrate in well-sealed homes. Radon gas is a cause of lung cancer. The primary routes of entry are
inhalation and ingestion.
Uses of Radioactivity
Several properties of radiation make it useful:
• Easy to count/detect, even in tiny amounts. This makes it easy to locate the radioisotopes that are giving out
the radiation.
• Radiation can be very penetrating. It can be used to look through solid objects, in the same way, that X-rays
are used
• Radiation can destroy living cells. This makes it dangerous, but also useful for sterilising things by killing
micro organisms
• Cancer cells are more easily killed by radiation than healthy cells. By aiming Gamma rays very accurately at
cancer growths, doctors can try to destroy cancer without affecting the rest of the body. Gamma radiation from
Cobalt is often used.

Harmful Health Effects of Ionising Radiation
Damages caused by radiation could be classified into two categories:
• Somatic in which the damage shows to the exposed person and

• Genetic in which the damage occurs to the offspring of the exposed.
The effects can also be classified as acute effects and chronic effects.
Acute Chronic
There is an increased
These can occur after a few hours or weeks following the
risk of Cancer which can
exposure.
include Leukaemia, cancer
The acute effects of general exposure can range from mild
of an organ (lung, bone,
nausea to severe illness with vomiting (known as Radiation
liver, etc.) depending on
Sickness), diarrhoea, headaches and death depending on the
Somatic the organ irradiated and
exposure.
the mode of entry of the
Local exposure may result in reddening of the skin with
radioactive material. An
ulceration in some cases. Even when the dose is small, over
example of this is the case
an extended period, the exposure can cause local loss of
of lung cancer amongst
hair, and fibrosis of the skin is known to occur.
uranium miners.
The genetic effects of
Radiation can damage the structure of reproductive cells exposure to small doses
Genetic within the body and can cause an increase in the numbers of over long periods would
still births and malformations within the children of those be that the offspring might
who have been exposed to radiation. suffer abnormalities.
Table Source: GWG
Occupational Sources of Ionising Radiation
• Exposure to ionising radiations in the workplace includes:

• Non-destructive testing of welds
• Density measurement
• Workers in nuclear power stations
• Medical diagnosis and treatment
• Sterilisation of equipment
• Underground miners (natural radiation example Radon gas)
• Air crew (natural radiation)
Controlling Exposure to Ionising Radiation
The basic control principles are commonly applied:
Time
The length of time that persons are exposed to ionising radiation must be kept to the minimum. One of the main
control measures for radiation is to ensure that the dose to which individuals at risk have been exposed is continuously
monitored. Once the dose limit has been reached, they must be removed from exposure
Distance

Most forms of radiation used in industry will only travel short distances. Therefore barriers, restricted areas and other
controls are required mainly to protect those not involved in the actual operation. Distance must be maximised.
Shielding
This is the best method of protection as it results in safer working conditions. Shielding involves placing a physical
barrier between the source and the individual.
Protection Strategies
Basic Radiation Protection Strategies Including the Role of the Competent Person in the Workplace. Radiation protection
plans for ionising radiation are more accurate and reflect the principles and recommendations made. The three basic
principles of radiological protection are:
• Justification of activities that could cause or effect radiation exposures

• Optimisation of protection in order to keep doses as low as reasonably achievable
• The use of dose limits.
The recommendations of the ICRP include establishing responsibilities, assessing risk, developing prevention/control
measures and conducting health surveillance.
A competent person such as Radiation Protection Advisor (RPA) should be appointed to assist the employer with the
radiation protection program.
3. Non-Ionising Radiations – Effects and Controls

Non-Ionising Radiation includes:
Ultra-Violet Radiation (UVR)
Ultra-violet radiation is produced naturally by the sun and artificially by processes such as welding. The two primary
hazards of ultra-violet radiation are effects upon the skin and eyes. Sunburn is a common example and can range from
simple reddening to severe blistering of the skin depending on exposure. Prolonged exposure to UVR especially in fair
skinned people can lead to skin cancer.
Exposure of the eyes to UVR will produce inflammation and conjunctivitis and is extremely painful. This is often
observed in the welding industry and causes the condition known as ‘arc eye’. All workers exposed to UVR must
wear the correct type of eye protection and protective clothing, during arc welding precautions must be taken for the
protection of passersby.
Infra-Red Radiation (IRR)
Infra-red radiation is emitted by a large variety of sources such as the sun, furnaces, heated metals, welding arcs, etc.
The primary effect of IRR is heated and although skin burns are possible the skin usually provides a warning mechanism.
However, the eye does not have such a warning mechanism and work associated with the powerful sources of IRR such
as glass making carries the risk of cataracts. Control measures should be the correct type of eye
protection with proper filtration. Shields which deflect the heat away from the worker may also be used.
Lasers
The word laser stands for ‘light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation’. Basically, a laser is an electro-
optical device for concentrating light into a narrow beam of intensely high energy. The uses for lasers include reference
lines in the construction industry, welding and surgery. The eye is the most vulnerable to damage from mild retina burns
to permanent blindness.

Use of the correct eye protection will protect the worker from this danger. Other controls include enclosure of the work
area and warning signals to the employees when the beam is in use.
Microwave
Microwaves are very high-frequency radio waves which possess sufficient energy to cause modular vibration (heat) in
certain materials including tissue. Microwaves are used in radar and certain drying processes as well as the standard
microwave oven. Human exposure to such radiation may cause ‘cooking’ of the exposed human and the risks of burns
to the skin and eyes.
The only fair control measure is complete enclosure adequately shielded, and this is relatively straightforward as
microwaves cannot penetrate thin metal.
Occupational Sources of Non-Ionising Radiation
Type of Non-Ionising Radiation Example of Commercial Use

Microwaves Signal transmission, food preparation.
Infra Red Heating and Brazing.
Commercial tanning, curing of glues, inks, etc., arc
ultraviolet welding, dental procedures such as hardening of fillings in
a tooth cavity.
Lasers Bar code readers, surveying, cutting.
Radio transmissions, radar, welding of plastics (RF
Radio frequencies
welding).
Table Source: GWG
Controlling Exposures to Non-Ionising Radiation
• Elimination: Avoid exposure to non-ionising radiation.

• Substitution: The magnitude of the risk from non-ionising radiation can often be reduced by aiming to operate
at the lowest power levels possible in order to lessen the degree of radiation.
• Engineering Controls: In the form of interlocks and shielding such as flight tubes for lasers to enclose the raw
beam. Warning signs can be provided to indicate that the beam is energised particularly with non-visible rays.
Equipment can be re-designed to control hazardous optical radiation. Provision of emergency stops that have a
fast response and will stop all services in the hazard zone. The trip switch can be located on any moving parts
which sense unexpected proximity such as a toggle switch, safety bar or rod.
• Administrative Controls: Safe systems of work to limit access, use of interlocks, signage, decontamination
facilities. The provision of information, training, instruction and supervision in particular on hazard awareness,
use of risk controls, and the importance of exposure limits.
• PPE: PPE is used where other methods have not reduced the risk of exposure to an acceptable level.
Protection for the skin: Protective gloves for hands, forearms can be protected by use of long sleeves. Barrier cream is
containing UV filter.
Protection for the eyes: Eye protection includes: UV glasses, face shields and goggles offering protection during
welding.

4. Monitoring and Health Surveillance

The role of radiation monitoring is to ensure that radiation working conditions in workplaces exposed to radiation are
kept under review and that current levels of radiation exposure of workers are known.
The primary functions of monitoring are to:
• Check that area have been correctly designated for the hazards that exist.
• Identify any changes to radiation exposure levels so that appropriate control measures for restricting exposure
can be proposed.
• Detect breakdowns in controls or systems, so as to indicate whether conditions are satisfactory for continuing
work in that area
• Ensure workers use the controls provided and report any defects
• Ensure employees use personal protection where its use is designated as mandatory
• Provide information on those who may be at risk and in need of health surveillance.
The role of health surveillance is to provide the identification of symptoms and early detection of ill health arising from
exposure to occupational sources of radiation.
Health monitoring can be part of a prevention strategy, allowing interventions to be made that limit further exposure
beyond acceptable limits.

STRESS
1. Causes and Effects
Source: The Today Show
Stress can is termed as a disease; it is the natural reaction to excessive pressure.
Stress can lead to improved productivity in short time, but is not a good thing, since it is likely to result in both physical
and mental ill-health, such as:
• High blood pressure,

• Peptic ulcers,
• Skin disorders and
• Depression.
Most people experience stress at some time during their lives, illness or death of a close relative or friend. However,
recovery generally occurs after the particular crisis has passed.
Stress can be caused by various factors, but two major areas are obviously Home and Work.
Effects of stress
Stress is not an illness, but when prolonged or particularly intense, it may lead to increased health problems including:
• Physical effects - heart disease, back pain, gastrointestinal disturbances and various minor illnesses
• Psychological effects - anxiety and depression
• Other behaviours - skipping meals, drinking too much alcohol and excessive smoking.

Stress can also have consequences at work. It can lead to:
• An increase in sickness absence, Reduced staff morale

• Reduced staff performance
• Staff seeking alternative employment giving organisations the expense of recruiting, inducting, and training
replacement staff.
2. Stress Risk Assessment

These seven risk factors are inter-related, and so the UK HSE recommends thinking of the issue of ‘job design’ as a
whole, instead of taking action on one element at a time:
Factor 1: Culture of the organisation and how it approaches work-related stress:
• Is stress considered as an issue?

• Poor communication.
• Lack of staff consultation.
• No emotional and mental support for staffs
• Excessive working hours and taking work home.
Factor 2: Demands
• Overload – where personnel has too much work to do or insufficient resources, including the physical or mental
ability.
• Under load – routine, boring and unchallenging work.
• Physical environment – exposure to noise, vibration, high and low temperatures, etc.
• Exposed to violence and bullying.
Factor 3: Control
• Work planning – too little or no input into how a job is to be completed.

• Use of acquired skills – or only one way to finish a job.
• Output monitoring is stressful.
Factor 4: Relationships - between employees:
• Physical violence – threatened or actual.

• Verbal abuse – repeated shouting and swearing, malicious gossip.
• Victimisation – excessive supervision, unjustified picking of faults, prevention of career development.
• Sexual harassment.
• Discrimination due to gender, race or disability.
Factor 5: Change - how organisational change is managed and communicated in the organisation:
• New technology.
• Restructuring.
• Redundancies.
• Unclear objectives.
Factor 6: Role - whether the individual understands their role in the organisation and whether the organisation ensures
that the person does not have conflicting roles:
• Conflict – different job demands – either working for more than one manager or task perceived not to be part
of the role.
• Ambiguity – unclear picture of role, responsibilities and expectations.

Factor 7: Individual factors unique to the individual:
• Support not available, including social support.

• Lack of Training in the role.
• No Clear job description.
• Lack of honest and open feedback on work and role.
3. Control Measures
Stress control measures would start from a strong stress management policy, where management makes it clear to
everyone that Stress is a significant issue that management does not accept, and thereafter put in measures to avoid and
minimise the above-mentioned factors that increase stress.
The controls could focus on the individual, the job design and orientation and the organisational means. Typical controls
could be summarised as follows:
• Selecting suitable employees

• Training and development of staff
• Clearly defined roles
• Clearly, work objectives
• Comfortable working environment
• Good lines of communication
• Realistic work schedules
• Employee involvement
• Grievance procedure
• Impartial investigation of stress
• Policies to deal with stress
• Management support
• Consistency of treatment
Source: University of Alberta

SUMMARY
This element discussed the health hazards associated with physical energies and psychosocial factors. In particular:
• The physical and psychological effects on hearing of exposure to noise. The meaning of terms commonly used
in the measurement of sound; sound pressure, intensity, frequency; the decibel scale, dB(A) and dB(C)
• The need for assessment of exposure; comparison of measurements to exposure limits established by competent
national authorities or internationally recognised standards;
• Basic noise control measures (isolation, absorption, insulation, damping and silencing) the purpose,
application and limitations of personal hearing protection (types, selection, use, maintenance and attenuation
factors).
• Role of health surveillance- Occupations with potential noise exposure problems: eg, construction, uniformed
services, entertainment, manufacturing, call centres.
• Vibration- The effects on the body of exposure to vibration, with particular reference to hand-arm vibration
and whole body vibration;
• The need for assessment of exposure; comparison of measurements to exposure limits established by competent
national authorities or internationally recognised standards;
• Basic vibration control measures including choice of equipment, maintenance, limiting exposure (including
duration and magnitude, work schedules / rest periods, clothing to protect against cold)
• The types of, and differences between, non-ionising and ionising radiation (including radon) and their
health effects.
• Typical occupational sources of non-ionising and ionising radiation (including radon).
• The basic means of controlling exposures to non-ionising and ionising radiation (including radon)
• Basic radiation protection strategies including the role of the competent person in the workplace.
Meaning of ‘work related stress’ - Causes, effects and control measures (demand, control, support, relationships, role,
change).
REFERENCES
UK references
1. Statutory provisions
2. The Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005
3. The Control of Vibration at Work Regulations 2005
4. The Ionising Radiations Regulations 1999
5. The Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations 1992 (as amended)
Other references
1. Controlling Noise at Work, The Control of Noise at Work Regulations, Guidance on
2. Regulations, second edition 2005, L108, HSE Books, ISBN: 978-0-7176-6164-4
3. www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/priced/l108.pdf
4. Health and Safety Toolbox, online resource, HSE, www.hse.gov.uk/toolbox/index.htm
5. Hand-arm vibration, Control of Vibration at Work Regulations 2005, Guidance on
6. Regulations, L140, HSE Books, ISBN: 978-0-7176-6125-1
8. HSE Stress Management Standards www.hse.gov.uk/stress/standards
9. Managing the causes of work-related stress; A step by step approach to using the
10. management standards, HSG218, second edition 2007, HSE Books, ISBN: 978-0-71766273-9

11. www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/priced/hsg218.pdf
12. Personal Protective Equipment at Work (second edition), Personal Protective Equipment at
13. Work Regulations 1992 (as amended), Guidance on Regulations, HSE Books,
14. ISBN: 978-0-7176-6139-3 www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/priced/l25.pdf
15. Radon in the workplace: http://www.hse.gov.uk/radiation/ionising/radon.htm#testingradon
16. Upper Limb Disorders in the Workplace – A Guide, second edition 2002, HSG60, HSE
17. Books, ISBN: 978-0-7176-1978-8 www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/priced/hsg60.pdf
18. Whole-body vibration; The Control of Vibration at Work Regulations 2005, Guidance on
19. Regulations, L141, HSE Books, ISBN: 978-0-7176-6126-8
EU/International references
1. Ambient factors in the Workplace, International Labour Organisation (ILO) Code of Practice
2. (CoP), ISBN 92-2-11628-X
3. http://www.ilo.org/safework/info/standards-and-instruments/WCMS_107729/lang--en/index.htm
4. Radiation Protection C115 and R114, 1960
5. http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C115
6. http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:R114
7. Radiation protection of workers, ionising radiations, ILO CoP, 1987, ISBN: 9-22-105996-0
8. http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/--safework/documents/
normativeinstrument/wcms_107833.pdf
9. Working Environment (Air, Pollution, Noise and Vibration) C148 and R156, 1977;
10. http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C148
11. http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:R156

Element 8

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Element 8

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Element 8

Physical and Psychological Health

Green World Group | 207

Green World Group | 209

Source: Anatomy Human Body Organs

210 | Green World Group

2. Health Effects of Noise

• Permanent hearing loss

Typical Noise Hazards

Noise-induced Hearing Damage

Green World Group | 211

3. Noise Related Terms

212 | Green World Group

Table Source: GWG

The measurements should be taken at the worker’s ear level.

Noise Assessment Objectives

A noise assessment, carried out by a ‘competent person’, is

The objectives of the assessment are:

• To identify which employees are exposed to noise at or

Preliminary Assessment of Situation

Green World Group | 213

Keeping Records of Assessments

• The workplaces, locations, jobs and individuals examined

• The number of workers secured

214 | Green World Group

Where a problem is evident, there are 3 orders of priority for a solution:

• Tighten loose guards and panels.

Orientation and location

Protection of persons from noise source by distance or sound proofed rooms.

Green World Group | 215

Under exceptional circumstances, a combination of both can be used.

Whichever type is used a high degree of cleanliness is necessary,

While hearing protection is manufactured to a set standard the degree

Selection of Hearing Protection

Other factors to consider when selecting hearing protection include:

• Comfort and fit

216 | Green World Group

Maintenance of Hearing Protection

Source: Asian Yamuna Vihar

Green World Group | 217

218 | Green World Group

1. Terms and Definitions

‘hand-arm vibration’ (HAV)

‘whole-body vibration’ (WBV)

Hand Arms Vibration

Any job, including those involving vibration, must be considered during

• Road and concrete breaking and Concrete Vibro-thickeners

The risk of their triggering vibration-related injury depends on a variety

• The vibration magnitude and frequency.

Green World Group | 219

• The posture of the operative

Whole Body Vibration

Exposure Action Value (EAV)

Exposure Limit Value (ELV)

220 | Green World Group

5. Vibration Control Measures

• Eliminate the use of vibrating tools.

Providing health surveillance

Green World Group | 221

Ionising and non-ionising radiation

2. Ionising Radiation – Effects and Controls

222 | Green World Group

Source: Chemistry LibreTexts