Educational Psychology

An International Journal of Experimental Educational Psychology

ISSN: 0144-3410 (Print) 1469-5820 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cedp20

Mindfulness, coping self-efficacy and foreign

language anxiety: a mediation analysis

Nasser Fallah

To cite this article: Nasser Fallah (2016): Mindfulness, coping self-efficacy and foreign language
anxiety: a mediation analysis, Educational Psychology, DOI: 10.1080/01443410.2016.1149549

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2016.1149549

Published online: 07 Mar 2016.

Submit your article to this journal

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=cedp20

Download by: [University of California, San Diego] Date: 08 March 2016, At: 11:42
 Educational Psychology, 2016
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2016.1149549

Mindfulness, coping self-efficacy and foreign language anxiety: a

mediation analysis
Nasser Fallah
English Department, University of Zabol, Zabol, Iran
Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 11:42 08 March 2016

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

This study sought to explore the relationship between mindfulness, coping Received 30 March 2014
self-efficacy (CSE) and foreign language anxiety (FLA) among a sample of 295 Accepted 28 January 2016
Iranian English as a foreign language (EFL) learners. Further, the capacity of KEYWORDS
CSE in mediating the relationship between mindfulness and FLA was tested. Coping self-efficacy;
The participants were administered self-reported questionnaires. Structural foreign language anxiety;
equation modelling (SEM) was utilised. The results of SEM analysis showed mindfulness
that higher levels of mindfulness were associated with lower levels of FLA
and greater CSE. In addition, it was found that CSE could partially mediate
the relationship between mindfulness and FLA. Implications are discussed.

Introduction
Language anxiety is a prevalent phenomenon particularly in second/foreign language learning con-
text. Research shows that foreign language anxiety (FLA), the feeling of apprehension and uneasiness
experienced while using and learning a foreign language (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1994), negatively affects
foreign language learning achievement and performance (Onwuegbuzie, Bailey, & Daley, 2000) . What
is worse, the repercussions of FLA might go far beyond the classroom up to the extent that those who
continue studying a foreign language till graduation might surprisingly never use the language again
due to high rates of FLA (Dewaele, 2007). However, despite the ubiquitous presence of anxiety in for-
eign language learning settings, language learners do not experience it similarly, i.e. different learners
undergo different levels of anxiety (see Horwitz, Tallon, & Luo, 2009). This is also supported by Muris’s
(2002) argument that all individuals will experience anxious and depressing thoughts and situations
in their daily lives, but they vary in their capability to deal and cope with them. As such, it sounds
quite natural to ask why some EFL learners are less vulnerable to anxiety than others even in the same
context. In this connection, an investigation of the role of personal resources in managing and coping
with one’s affective experiences seems warranted.
Mindfulness and coping self-efficacy (CSE) are thus two of the variables which have theoretically
and empirically proven to be effective factors in managing anxiety (see Brown & Ryan, 2003; Chesney,
Neilands, Chambers, Taylor, & Folkman, 2006). Mindfulness is an enhanced awareness of and attention
to current reality (Brown & Ryan, 2003). It has been shown to be connected with better emotion regu-
lation and lower levels of different kinds of distress (e.g. fear of negative evaluation and communica-
tion apprehension) which might intensify self-judgment, self-consciousness and self-preoccupation

CONTACT  Nasser Fallah  nfallah84@yahoo.com, nfallah@uoz.ac.ir

© 2016 Taylor & Francis
 2    N. Fallah

(e.g. Andersen & Coussoule, 1980; Baer, 2003; Burton, Schmertz, Price, Masuda, & Anderson, 2013;
Roemer et al., 2009). Further, CSE, considered as a key determinant of one’s capacity for successfully
dealing with stressful emotions and situations, is another promising factor that could affect anxiety
and promote active and effective engagement in regulating emotional distress (Chesney et al., 2006;
Luberto, Cotton, McLeish, Mingione, & O’Bryan, 2013). As Bandura (1997) stated, self-efficacy plays a
vital role in self-management of emotional states. He believed that perceived inability to deal with life
events could give rise to anxiety. Along the same line, Muris (2002) noted that those who saw them-
selves as not adequately capable of coping with potentially difficult and challenging situations would
become anxious.
However, despite the potential salutary effects of these two variables on individuals’ well-being, a
review of the existing literature indicates that they have not been empirically tested yet in the context
of foreign language anxiety. Besides, despite the burgeoning publications on mindfulness, literature is
still admittedly slim on the way and process in which mindfulness could affect psychological distress.
Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 11:42 08 March 2016

Coffey, Hartman and Fredrickson (2010) argued that further elaborating on the relationship between
mindfulness and psychological distresses would enhance our understanding of mindfulness psycho-ed-
ucation and mindfulness-based interventions.
Decidedly, the paucity of research in these areas provides a cogent rationale to embark on further
investigation into exploring the associations of mindfulness and CSE with FLA and the potentiality of
CSE in explaining the relationship between mindfulness and FLA.
Taken together, for the purpose of the current study, there is a theoretical and empirical ground for
hypothesising that mindfulness and CSE are associated with lower levels of FLA. Garland, Gaylord, and
Park (2009) theorised that mindfulness, as a metacognitive form of awareness, makes an individual
aware of coping strategies already in use, and it can result in better appraisal, thereby changing coping
strategies or reinforcing previous ways of coping. Further, Luberto et al. (2013) findings revealed that CSE
could partially explain the relationship between mindfulness and emotion regulation difficulties among
undergraduate psychology students. Thus, it is also expected that mindfulness be positively related to
CSE, and CSE partially mediates the relationship between mindfulness and FLA among EFL learners.

Literature review
Foreign language anxiety
Language anxiety, as an important individual and affective factor, plays an undeniably key role in sec-
ond/foreign language learning and has thus become a popular subject pool for scholarly research for
decades (see Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope, 1986).
As a kind of situational specific psychological distress, language anxiety was conceptualised as ‘the
worry and negative emotional reaction aroused when learning or using a second language’ (MacIntyre,
1998, p. 27). FLA was also referred to as a ‘distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings, and
behaviours related to classroom language learning arising from the uniqueness of the language learning
process’ (Horwitz et al., 1986, p. 128).
In their theory of foreign language classroom anxiety, Horwitz et al. (1986) argued that FLA engen-
ders unpleasant negative emotional reactions among learners who are exposed to an alien language
and culture. Anxiety heightens affective filter which in turn, according to Krashen (1982), makes the
learner less receptive to language input. As a result, the learner cannot absorb the immediate target
language messages and language learning does not occur.
Elaborating more on this phenomenon, Horwitz et al. (1986) distinguished three components of
foreign language classroom anxiety as communication apprehension, fear of negative evaluation and
test anxiety. Communication apprehension is anxiety about or fear of communicating with other people.
Test anxiety is one kind of performance anxiety engendered by fear of doing badly or failing. Fear of
negative evaluation is then the apprehension connected with the learner’s conception of how others
(e.g. classmates, teacher) might think of him/her and the anticipation that they will evaluate his/her
language ability negatively.
 Educational Psychology   3

Research has extensively reported the exhausting effects of FLA. Nahavandi and Mukundan (2013),
for example, found that anxiety level of Iranian EFL learners was relatively high, and communication
anxiety was at the highest rate comparing with other forms of language anxiety. Further, their results
revealed negative effects of all of the sub-scales of Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale on
the learners’ language proficiency. Serraj and Noordin’s (2013) findings indicated that FLA could exert
adverse affect on EFL learners’ listening comprehension skill. Significant negative associations were also
found between FLA and integrative motivation (Rodríguez & Abreu, 2003), course grades (Elkhafaifi,
2005; Yan & Horwitz, 2008) and learners’ self-esteem and self-confidence (Izadi & Atasheneh, 2012).

Coping self-efficacy
Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief about his/her capacity to execute a particular behaviour
(Bandura, 1997). To obtain a better estimate of self-efficacy and to better appreciate its capacity in
Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 11:42 08 March 2016

predicting affective and cognitive variables, it has been suggested that self-efficacy be explored within
particular domains of functioning (Benight & Bandura, 2004). One such particular kind of self-efficacy is
CSE, which is specifically conceptualised as confidence and belief in one’s own capability to efficiently
deal with difficult and stressful events (Chesney et al., 2006).
This conceptualisation is not only rooted in Bandura’s social cognitive theory (1997) but also taps
into the premise of secondary appraisal of controllability as introduced in the stress and coping theory
(Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Within the secondary appraisal process, the individuals judge that an out-
come can be managed and controlled through coping, and focus on the question as to whether they
believe they can carry out the indispensable coping strategies (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).
Efficacy beliefs can decide whether people will exert effort, and how long they will continue their
efforts while facing barriers and unfavourable experiences (Bandura, 1997). Compared to their peers
with low levels of CSE, individuals with higher levels of CSE perceptions tend to address demanding
and threatening events persistently and actively (Chesney et al., 2006).
CSE has been related to better physiological and psychological functioning (e.g. Chesney et al., 2006;
Nicholls, Polman, & Levy, 2010; Pisanti, 2012). For example, Pisanti (2012) found that CSE moderated
the effect of job control on all distress outcomes among Italian nurses. Nicholls et al. (2010) findings
also revealed reverse significant connections between CSE and cognitive and somatic anxiety among
a sample of athletes.
Notwithstanding, research on the relationship between CSE and well-being is almost non-existent
in the realm of education in general and EFL context in particular. Thus, it seems warranted to explore
CSE construct and its potential effects in EFL context which is replete with emotional distress and
anxiety for the EFL learners.

Mindfulness
Mindfulness is conceptualised as ‘a stable individual difference construct, describing a quality of con-
sciousness characterised by clarity and vividness of current experience and functioning’ (Chatzisarantis
& Hagger, 2007, p. 665). Mindfulness is about awareness and acceptance, and also the ability to regulate
and redirect one’s attention in a helpful way (Bishop et al., 2004). Leary and Tate (2007) also referred
to mindfulness as a present-focused awareness and argued that it can benefit us in several different
ways, the most important of which are as follows: (a) it can reduce negative future and past thoughts,
self-appraisals and judgments by reducing what they called ‘self-chatter’. (b) It helps us appreciate the
present situation without adhering to it or rejecting it. Put it another way, it encourages equanimity by
seeing the present situation via the non-appraising eye lenses. (c) It can promote prosocial behaviours
and positive emotions by ameliorating more efficient ways of interacting with other individuals. (d) It
can prevent the exhaustion of self-regulatory resources of energy.
Empirical research also supports the association between mindfulness and physiological/psycholog-
ical well-being. Practices based on meditative mindfulness, for example, in school settings have been
 4    N. Fallah

helpful in assuaging stress and improving mental health in both children and adults (e.g. Baer, 2003;
Broderick & Metz, 2009). In their meta-analysis exploring the impact of mindfulness-based therapy on
depression and anxiety, Hofmann, Sawyer, Witt, and Oh (2010) found that a mindfulness-based therapy
could alleviate the patients’ anxiety and mood disorder symptoms. Previous research has also shown
that self-reported levels of mindfulness are reversely associated with different forms of psychological
distress (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Gilbert & Christopher, 2010). It has been also shown that mindfulness is
positively related to different sorts of internal coping resources such as self-efficacy for withstanding
alcohol relapse and managing pain (Chang et al., 2004; Morone, Rollman, Moore, Qin, & Weiner, 2009).
Further, Luberto et al. (2013) found that mindfulness skills directly affected self-efficacy for coping
with threatening and challenging situations among a sample of psychology students. Their findings
also showed that those with high levels of mindfulness had less difficulty in regulating their emotions.
However, despite the extensively reported positive effects of mindfulness on human functioning,
there is a glaring gap on mindfulness research in EFL context.
Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 11:42 08 March 2016

Objectives and hypotheses

As stated earlier, this study aims at exploring the association between mindfulness and FLA and the
capacity of CSE in mediating the mindfulness–FLA relationship.
Basing this work on the literature reported to this point, it is expected that higher levels of mindful-
ness will be associated with lower levels of FLA including communication anxiety, test anxiety and fear
of negative evaluation (e.g. Brown & Ryan, 2003; Hofmann et al., 2010). Mindfulness is also expected to
positively relate to CSE (Luberto et al., 2013). Furthermore, it is predicted that higher levels of CSE will
be significantly associated with low levels of FLA (Nicholls et al., 2010; Pajares & Shunk, 2001). Finally,
CSE is anticipated to mediate the mindfulness–FLA relationship (see Hofmann, Sawyer, Fang, & Asnaani,
2012; Shapiro, Carlson, Astin, & Freedman, 2006).

Methodology
Participants and procedure
The participants of this study were 295 Iranian university students who were recruited through con-
venience sampling from almost all non-English disciplines offered by the University of Zabol. They
aged between 18 and 31 years (M = 20.24, SD = 2.32). One hundred forty-four (48.8 %) students were
male, and 151 (51.2 %) were female. They were undergraduates who had never been abroad but had
studied English as a foreign language formally for 6 consecutive years in junior high school and high
school. They were all taking general English as a compulsory university course prior to their English for
specific purposes (ESP) courses.
Before the data collection, the researcher obtained consent from six related professors to administer
the questionnaires in their class hours. Then, the classes were administered the Persian versions of the
questionnaires within 2 weeks. Participants filled in the questionnaires in the classroom.
Prior to distributing the questionnaires, the researcher explained the research objectives to the
subjects and informed them of the approximate amount of time required for completing the question-
naires (about 20 min). They were also assured that their participation would be voluntary, anonymous,
confidential and at no cost to their scholastic evaluation.

Measures
Data collection was done through the Mindfulness Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS), Coping Self-
efficacy Scale (CSES) and Foreign Language Anxiety Scale (FLAS). Persian versions of these scales were
prepared by translation and back translation in this study.
 Educational Psychology   5

FLAS
Language anxiety was assessed using the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS, Horwitz
et al., 1986). It is the most widely employed FLA questionnaire worldwide (Cao, 2011). Its reliability and
concurrent validity have proved to be satisfactory in EFL context (e.g. Horwitz et al., 1986; Kim, 2002;
Liu & Jackson, 2008; Matsuda & Gobel, 2004; Toth, 2008). The scale is a 33-item self-report instrument
consisting three subscales: communication apprehension (CA) with 11 items (e.g. ‘ I start to panic when I
have to speak without preparation in language class’.), test anxiety (TA) including 15 items (e.g. ‘The more I
study for a language test, the more confused I get’.) and fear of negative evaluation (FNE) consisting 7 items
(e.g. ‘I am afraid that the other students will laugh at me when I speak the foreign language’.). Participants
indicated their answers on a five-point Likert scale varying from ‘strongly disagree’ (1) to ‘strongly agree’
(5). The higher the scores on the CA, TA and FNA subscales, the more anxiety students suffer. In this
study, reliability estimates (Cronbach’s α) for CA, TA and FNE subscales were .87, .91 and .86, respectively.
Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 11:42 08 March 2016

CSE scale
Participants’ CSE was tested via the Coping Self-Efficacy Scale (CSES) (Chesney et al., 2006). CSES con-
sists of 26 items that gauge self-efficacy for coping with threatening and stressful events. The scale
is broken down into three sub-scales, namely using problem-focused coping (UPFC, 12 items, e.g.
‘Break an upsetting problem down into smaller parts’.), stop unpleasant emotions and thoughts (SUET,
9 items, e.g. ‘Take your mind off unpleasant thoughts’.), and get support from family and friends (GSFF,
5 items, e.g. ‘Get emotional support from friends and family’.). The scale uses an 11-point scale varying
from ‘Cannot do at all’ (0) to ‘Certain can do’ (10). Higher scores represent higher levels of CSE. The CSES
reveals strong psychometric properties including concurrent validity and good reliability (Chesney et
al., 2006). Cronbach’s α values were .87, .88 and .76 for UPFC, SUET and GSFF, respectively.

MAAS
The participants’ mindfulness was gauged through Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS, Brown
& Ryan, 2003). Previous research indicated that this measure had high reliability value (α = .91) in EFL
context (Khojaste, Fallah, & Shahraki, 2014). The scale includes 15 items scored based on a 6-point Likert
scale varying from ‘almost always’ (1) to ‘almost never’ (6). A sample item is as follows: ‘I find myself doing
things without paying attention’ strong psychometric properties including convergent and divergent
validity (Brown & Ryan, 2003), discriminant validity (Zvolensky et al., 2006) and internal validity and
confirmatory factor analysis (MacKillop & Anderson, 2007) were determined. In this study, Cronbach’s
α was .81.

Data analysis
Pearson correlations were run to examine the relationships between continuous variables. Further, to
accomplish the main objectives set out, structural equation modelling (SEM) analysis was conducted
using the Amos Programme with maximum likelihood estimation. This approach examines the direct,
indirect and total effects of the links among the model variables (Byrne, 2001).

Results
Before running the main analyses, preliminary assumptions were examined to check for normality, lin-
earity, homogeneity of variance–covariance matrices, outliers and multicollinearity, with no violations
detected. Skewness and kurtosis of all items were also checked. It was found that their values (varying
from −.003 to –.446 for skewness and from –.418 to .388 for kurtosis) were statistically non-significant.
Descriptive statistics and intercorrelations between the variables are presented in Table 1. As shown,
mindfulness, CSE and FLA components are all significantly interconnected with one another. However,
age variable proved to be uncorrelated with other variables (p > 0.05).
 6    N. Fallah

Table 1. Correlation matrix (n = 295).

Variables M/SD Range 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 Mind 59.81/10.16 20–85 1.00
2 UPFC 72.99/18.45 17–120 .37** 1.00
3 SUET 57.42/16.74 6–90 .41** .66** 1.00
4 GSFF 30.05/8.99 2–50 .27** .54** .59** 1.00
5 CA 33.69/8.50 11–54 –.33** –.45** –.28** –.20** 1.00
6 TA 42.57/12.39 15–75 –.32** –.32** –.17** –.12* .51** 1.00
7 FNE 21.72/6.19 7–37 –.30** –.39** –.21** –.17** .49** .46** 1.00
8 Age 20.23/2.31 18–31 .04 .04 .03 –.01 –.05 –.08 –.08 1.00
Notes: M/SD: mean/standard deviation, Mind: mindfulness, UPFC: use problem-focused coping, SUET: stop unpleasant emotions
and thoughts, GSFF: get support from friends and family. CA: communication apprehension, TA: test anxiety, FNE: fear of negative
evaluation
*
p < .05,
**
p < .01.
Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 11:42 08 March 2016

Figure 1. The mediation model. Note: Coping SE: coping self-efficacy, CA: communication apprehension, TA: test anxiety, FNE: fear
of negative evaluation, UPFC: use problem-focused coping, SUET: stop unpleasant emotions and thoughts, GSFF: get support from
friends and family.

To examine whether the model fit the data, first, chi-square (χ2) statistic was checked. It was significant
(χ2 = 51.99, p < .05), indicating that the model failed the chi-square test. Therefore, other goodness-of-
fit measures in AMOS were utilised. Following the criteria for these fit statistics (GFI > .90, AGFI > .90,
CFI > .90, χ2/df < 3, and RMSEA < .06) set by Hooper, Coughlan, and Mullen (2008) and Wheaton, Muthen,
Alwin, and Summers (1977), it was found that the model exhibited acceptable good fit to the data set
as follows: df = 12, χ²/df = 2.01, GFI = .95, AGFI = .91, CFI = .97, RMSEA = .05.
Then, the hypothesised paths (mindfulness → CSE, CSE → FLA, mindfulness → FLA) were examined.
As Figure 1 shows, all of the expected paths were significant. Significant positive path was found from
mindfulness to CSE (standardised regression weight = .47, unstandardised regression weight = .70,
 Educational Psychology   7

p  <  .001). Significant negative paths were also found from mindfulness (standardised regression
weight = –.22, unstandardised regression weight = −.12, p < .01) to FLA and from CSE (standardised
regression weight = −.28, unstandardised regression weight = −.10, p < .001) to FLA (see Figure 1).
Further, the structural model accounted for 19 and 22 % variance in FLA and CSE, respectively.
Finally, to examine the amount of mediation, the indirect effect of mindfulness on FLA was tested
through Kline’s (2011) Sobel test. Examining an indirect effect needs statistically significant correlations
between independent variables and potential mediator also between potential mediator and depend-
ent variable. The analyses of indirect effects indicated that mindfulness could exert significant indirect
effects on FLA through CSE (Sobel test statistic = 4.55, p < .001, standardised indirect effect = −.13,
unstandardised path coefficient between the first and the second variables = .70, unstandardised path
coefficient between the second and the third variables = −.10). In other words, mindfulness (the inde-
pendent variable) influenced CSE (the mediator variable), which in turn influenced FLA (the dependent
variable).
Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 11:42 08 March 2016

Discussion
As mentioned earlier, this study aimed at examining the relationship between mindfulness, CSE, and
FLA among EFL learners. In addition, the indirect association of mindfulness with FLA was tested. Given
the values of fit indices reported, the model revealed acceptable fit to the data applicable for the EFL
learners. The findings of this study revealed significant positive correlations between mindfulness and
all of the components of CSE. Mindfulness and components of CSE were also significantly and negatively
correlated with the components of FLA, i.e. the higher the participants’ scores on mindfulness and CSE,
the lower their anxiety level. The results of SEM analysis also showed that mindfulness could positively
predict CSE and negatively FLA. CSE also negatively predicted FLA. To put it another way, higher levels
of mindfulness were associated with higher levels of CSE, and higher levels of mindfulness and CSE
were associated with lower levels of FLA. Another line of the findings indicated that mindfulness was
indirectly related to FLA through the mediation of CSE; in other words, CSE could partially mediate the
relationship between mindfulness and FLA. The findings are in accordance with previous empirical
and theoretical studies, though these are noticeably slim in the domain of education and quite novel
in foreign language learning context.
First, the finding on the relationship between mindfulness and FLA supported previous research
indicating negative associations between mindfulness and psychological distress (e.g. Brannon, 2010;
Brown & Ryan, 2003; Burton et al., 2013; Mueller, 2011). Burton et al. (2013), who were the first to inves-
tigate the connection between mindfulness and fear of negative evaluation, found that fear of negative
evaluation decreased following a course of cognitive behavioural therapy in a sample of 65 patients
with social anxiety disorders and it was reversely associated with mindfulness within the treatment
and later on. Brannon’s (2010) and Mueller’s (2011) findings also indicated that self-reported levels of
mindfulness were negatively associated with test anxiety and communication apprehension among
college students.
Mindfulness is an awareness of internal emotions, thoughts and experiences occurring in the current
moment in an accepting and nonjudgmental manner (e.g. Brown & Ryan, 2003; Kabat-Zinn, 1990).
On the contrary, high levels of fear of negative evaluation and communication apprehension tend
to result in increased levels of self-consciousness, self-judgment and self-preoccupation (Andersen &
Coussoule, 1980; Burton et al., 2013). Another plausible explanation is that high levels of mindfulness
are positively associated with increased emotion regulation ability (Brown, Ryan, & Creswell, 2007), and
as such, mindfulness may help curb negative experiences and emotions EFL learners suffer, includ-
ing those associated with test anxiety, communication apprehension and fear of negative evaluation.
These findings can also be explained in the light of the fact that mindfulness can decrease rumination
(Coffey, Hartman & Fredrickson, 2010) which is associated with anxiety and depression and referred to
as continuous, negative and self-focused thoughts about future or past (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2000). EFL
learners who become anxious while trying to speak or while studying for a test might begin to dwell
 8    N. Fallah

on thoughts of doing inefficiently; therefore, the time allotted to practicing and studying might be
wasted by brooding over negative test outcomes, non-native accent or any potential speech mistake
or error (see Fallah, 2014). However, if learners are mindful, they might be able to concentrate better on
their learning and performance and dwell less on their mistakes (see Brannon, 2010; Kabat-Zinn, 1990;
Mueller, 2011), thereby feeling less test anxiety communication apprehension. In other words, when
completely grounded in the moment, EFL learners can better stay focused on the tasks and dismiss
preoccupying thoughts, consequently calming their anxious minds.
Second, consistent with Luberto et al. (2013) findings, the findings of this study showed that mind-
fulness could significantly predict learners’ CSE. One possibility is that mindfulness can provide access
to either new or more sufficient ways of tackling stressful and anxiety-provoking situations (secondary
appraisal, Garland et al., 2009). This in turn ameliorates coping beliefs and strategies (Tharaldsen, 2012).
In other words, due to its nature, mindfulness can make individual learners more cognizant of their
capacities and coping resources including CSE. Instead of being absent and distracted from the present
Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 11:42 08 March 2016

moment and jumping mindlessly from one task or thought to another, EFL learners can better think
of their abilities and stay focused on their performance and objectives by being mindful, and they can
clearly visualise their situation and everything involved be it ideas, people, places or objects, thereby
having a better access to their CSE.
Third, the findings indicated that FLA was negatively predicted by CSE. Pajares and Shunk (2001)
opined that self-efficacy beliefs affect the amount of anxiety individuals suffer as they engage in a
task. They said that compared to individuals with low self-efficacy, highly self-efficacious people deal
with difficult and threatening activities as challenges to be overcome rather than as threats to be
eschewed. Bandura (1997) also believed that self-efficacy can significantly contribute to the self-man-
agement of affective states. He stated that when individuals see themselves not capable enough to
obtain the expected outcomes or not well equipped and prepared to cope with challenging events,
their anxiety levels will rise. Further, he argued that due to low self-efficacy, individuals might believe
that they cannot meet others’ appraising expectations and they have difficulty making positive social
connections. Similarly, as a result of lack of confidence in their own abilities in coping with difficult
and stressful experiences such as constant interactions and evaluations, EFL learners might perceive
these situations tougher and more difficult than they really are. This in turn can precipitate test anxiety
and poor perception of how to best tackle problems. They might also become more communicatively
apprehensive and self-conscious of and sensitive about others’ evaluation of them, a belief that can
foster intention to avoid social or communication opportunities, thereby feeling worried and anxious
about inadequate academic achievement and not being competitive with their peers (see Fallah, 2014).
Finally, another line of the findings revealed that the relationship between mindfulness and FLA could
be partially explained by CSE. In other words, mindful EFL learners were enjoying higher levels of CSE.
This in turn makes them suffer less FLA. This finding could be explained in the light of the hypothesised
mechanism of cognitive defusion through which mindfulness affects regulating emotions and assuaging
psychological distress (Hofmann et al., 2012). This mechanism includes perceiving thoughts as merely
thoughts and transient aspects of consciousness that do not necessarily mirror reality (Masuda, Hayes,
Sackett, & Twohig, 2004). According to previous research (Hayes & Shenk, 2004; Shapiro et al., 2006), this
defusion promotes cognitive flexibility, and increases adaptability and the range of responses to chal-
lenges and difficult situations, allowing them to be dealt with consciously rather than simply reacted to.

Conclusion, implications and limitations

This study examined the relationships between mindfulness, CSE and FLA among a group of Iranian
EFL learners. There have been numerous studies examining each of mindfulness, CSE and FLA and their
impacts on different variables in different contexts. However, this study was the first step, albeit a small
one, to examine these three constructs together in EFL context. Intriguing results were discovered that
can help direct further research and enhance realisation of these phenomena.
 Educational Psychology   9

Overall, the findings showed that EFL learners’ mindfulness was significantly associated with both
CSE and FLA. CSE also could predict FLA. Further, it was shown that CSE was able to partially mediate
mindfulness–FLA relationship.
Foreign language learning is a challenging and anxiety-provoking experience for learners. It has
been shown that almost one-third of language learners experience mild to debilitating levels of FLA
(see Horwitz et al., 2009). Therefore, to lower their affective filters, anxious language learners should
be helped to overcome their negative feelings and emotions. Following the findings of this study, it is
suggested that learners, teachers, practitioners and administrators alike be cognizant of the salutary
effects of mindfulness and CSE for both mental and physical health of the learners.
Previous research also suggests that mindfulness practices can positively affect students’ learning
and well-being. It can especially reduce the negative effects of depression, anxiety and stress (e.g.
Mental Health Foundation of New Zealand, 2012). Integrating mindfulness training into foreign lan-
guage education and improving EFL learners’ CSE would thus appear beneficial and warranted. For
Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 11:42 08 March 2016

example, guided by the promising results of previous theoretical and empirical research, language
education departments can offer extra curriculum programmes led by expert mindfulness instructors
in which EFL learners can learn practical techniques (e.g. meditation, yoga, qigong, tai chi) for creating
relaxed mental states, managing and dealing with stress, enhancing concentration, lowering anxiety,
thinking creatively, while lowering blood pressure and improving breathing (see Kabat-Zinn, 2003; The
Mindfulness in Schools Project, 2011; Walacha, Lyncha, & Marie-Louise, 2008). Furthermore, as Bandura
(1997) theorised, strategies focusing on mastery experiences, social persuasion, vicarious experience
and physiological and emotional arousal can help individuals enhance their self-efficacy beliefs.
Furthermore, the detection of the CSE capacity in mediating the relationship between mindfulness
and FLA enhances the understanding of the process through which mindfulness can diminish FLA.
Thus, when implementing mindfulness-based interventions, teachers, practitioners and clinicians are
advised to take into account CSE as one of the potential ways in which mindfulness is associated with
lower levels of FLA. During such treatments, CSE changes and the way in which these variations are
related to reduction in FLA should be inquired about.
Like any other study, this study was limited in some aspects. Using only self-reported data for all
constructs is the first limitation of this study. This study also utilised a cross-sectional design, which
could not provide evidence of causality. Mindfulness-based intervention across a course of treatment
for EFL learners with high FLA is required to establish a cause–effect relationship. Besides, the partic-
ipants of this study were all among the university students. Thus, any generalisation of the findings
to other contexts such as private language institutes and high schools should be done with caution.
This study should be replicated in other contexts with more diverse participants to see whether the
same findings could be obtained. In addition, the inclusion of further mediators in the study of the rela-
tionship between mindfulness and any potential affective and psychological variable is recommended
in foreign language learning context.

Acknowledgements
This study was supported by a research grant (No. 44-93) from the University of Zabol. Also, I would like to especially thank
Dr. Christina Luberto from the University of Cincinnati, Mr. Fathollahi from the University of Zabol and all the anonymous
reviewers for their invaluable and insightful comments on the earlier versions of the manuscript. I must also thank all
colleagues and participants for their warm cooperation during the data collection phase.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Funding
This work was supported by University of Zabol, followed by the grant number in square brackets ‘[93-44]’.
 10    N. Fallah

References
Andersen, P. A., & Coussoule, A. R. (1980). The perceptual world of the communication apprehensive: The effect of
communication apprehension and the interpersonal gaze on interpersonal perception. Communication Quarterly, 28,
44–54. doi:10.1080/01463378009369357
Baer, R. A. (2003). Mindfulness training as a clinical intervention: A conceptual and empirical review. Clinical Psychology:
Science and Practice, 10, 125–143. doi:10.1093/clipsy.bpg015
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy and agency of change. New York, NY: Raven Press.
Benight, C. C., & Bandura, A. (2004). Social cognitive theory of posttraumatic recovery: The role of perceived self-efficacy.
Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 1129–1148. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2003.08.008
Bishop, S. R., Lau, M. A., Shapiro, S. L., Carlson, L., Anderson, N. D., Carmody, J., … Davins, G. (2004). Mindfulness: A proposed
operational definition. Clinical Psychology, 11, 230–241. doi:10.1093/clipsy.bph077
Brannon, J. (2010). Mindfulness and test anxiety in college students (Unpublished master’s thesis). Kansas, KS: University of
Kansas.
Broderick, P. C., & Metz, S. (2009). Learning to breathe: A pilot trial of a mindfulness curriculum for adolescents. Advances
Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 11:42 08 March 2016

in School Mental Health Promotion, 2, 35–46.

Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 822–848. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.822
Brown, K. W., Ryan, R. M., & Creswell, J. D. (2007). Mindfulness: Theoretical foundation and evidence for its salutary effects.
Psychological Inquiry, 18, 211–237. doi:10.1080/10478400701598298
Burton, M., Schmertz, S. K., Price, M., Masuda, A., & Anderson, P. L. (2013). The relation between mindfulness and fear
of negative evaluation over the course of cognitive behavioral therapy for social anxiety disorder. Journal of Clinical
Psychology, 69, 222–228. doi: 10.1002/jclp.21929
Byrne, B. M. (2001). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum.
Cao, Y. (2011). Comparison of two models of foreign language classroom anxiety scale. Philippine ESL Journal, 7, 73–93.
Chang, V. Y., Palesh, O., Caldwell, R., Glasgow, N., Abramson, M., Luskin, F., … Koopman, C. (2004). The effects of a mindfulness-
based stress reduction program on stress, mindfulness self-efficacy, and positive states of mind. Stress and Health, 20,
141–147. doi:10.1002/smi.1011
Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Hagger, M. S. (2007). Mindfulness and the intention-behavior relationship within the theory of
planned behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 663–676. doi:10.1177/0146167206297401
Chesney, M. A., Neilands, T. B., Chambers, D. B., Taylor, J. M., & Folkman, S. (2006). A validity and reliability study of the coping
self-efficacy scale. British Journal of Health Psychology, 11, 421–437. doi:10.1348/135910705X53155
Coffey, K. A., Hartman, M., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2010). Deconstructing mindfulness and constructing mental health:
Understanding mindfulness and its mechanisms of action. Mindfulness, 1, 235–253. doi:10.1007/s12671-010-0033-2
Dewaele, J. M. (2007). The effect of multilingualism, sociobiographical, and situational factors on communicative anxiety
and foreign language anxiety of mature language learners. International Journal of Bilingualism, 11, 391–409. doi:10.1
177/13670069070110040301
Elkhafaifi, H. (2005). Listening comprehension and anxiety in the arabic language classroom. The Modern Language Journal,
89, 206–220. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.2005.00275.x
Fallah, N. (2014). Willingness to communicate in English, communication self-confidence, motivation, shyness and teacher
immediacy among Iranian English-major undergraduates: A structural equation modeling approach. Learning and
Individual Differences, 30, 140–147. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2013.12.006
Garland, E., Gaylord, S., & Park, J. (2009). The role of mindfulness in positive reappraisal. Explore, 5, 37–44. doi:10.1016/j.
explore.2008.10.001
Gilbert, B. D., & Christopher, M. S. (2010). Mindfulness-based attention as a moderator of the relationship between depressive
affect and negative cognitions. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 34, 514–521. doi:10.1007/s10608-009-9282-6
Hayes, S. C., & Shenk, C. (2004). Operationalizing mindfulness without unnecessary attachments. Clinical Psychology: Science
and Practice, 11, 249–254. doi:10.1093/clipsy.bph079
Hofmann, S. G., Sawyer, A. T., Fang, A., & Asnaani, A. (2012). Emotion dysregulation model of mood and anxiety disorders.
Depression and Anxiety, 29, 409–416. doi:10.1002/da.21888
Hofmann, S. G., Sawyer, A. T., Witt, A. A., & Oh, D. (2010). The effect of mindfulness-based therapy on anxiety and depression:
A meta-analytic review. Journal of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, 78, 169–183. doi:10.1037/a0018555
Hooper, D., Coughlan, J., & Mullen, M. (2008). Structural equation modeling: Guidelines for determining model fit. Electronic
Journal of Business Research Methods, 6, 53–60.
Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. Modern Language Journal, 70, 125–132.
doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.1986.tb05256.x
Horwitz, E. K., Tallon, M., & Luo, H. (2009). Foreign language anxiety. In J. C. Cassady (Ed.), Anxiety in schools: The causes,
consequences, and solutions for academic anxieties (pp. 95–115). New York, NY: Peter Lang.
Izadi, A., & Atasheneh, N. (2012). Communication apprehension in a foreign language: A case of Iranian EFL learners.
Advances in Asian Social Science, 1, 79–81.
 Educational Psychology   11

Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full catastrophe living: Using the wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain, and illness. New
York, NY: Delacorte Press.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: Past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology: Science
and Practice, 10, 144–156. doi:10.1093/clipsy/bpg016
Khojaste, S. N., Fallah, N., & Shahraki, A. (2014). The relationship between trilingualism and attention span. Iranian EFL
Journal, 10, 42–62.
Kim, J. H. (2002). Anxiety and foreign language listening: Toward a theoretical clarification. English Teaching, 57, 3–34.
Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Krashen, S. D. (1982). Principles and practices in second language acquisition. New York, NY: Pergamon Press.
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Psychological stress and the coping process. New York, NY: Springer.
Leary, M. R., & Tate, E. B. (2007). The multi-faceted nature of mindfulness. Psychological Inquiry, 18, 251–255.
doi:10.1080/10478400701598355
Liu, M., & Jackson, J. (2008). An exploration of Chinese EFL learners' unwillingness to communicate and foreign language
anxiety. Modern Language Journal, 92, 71–86. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.2008.00687.x
Luberto, C. M., Cotton, S., McLeish, A. C., Mingione, C. J., & O’Bryan, E. M. (2013). Mindfulness skills and emotion regulation:
Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 11:42 08 March 2016

The mediating role of coping self-efficacy. Mindfulness, 5, 373–380. doi:10.1007/s12671-012-0190-6

MacIntyre, P. D. (1998). Language anxiety: A review of the research for language teachers. In D. J. Young (Ed.), Affect in
foreign language and second language learning (pp. 24–45). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
MacIntyre, P. D., & Gardner, R. C. (1994). The subtle effects of language anxiety on cognitive processing in the second
language. Language Learning, 44, 283–305. doi:10.1111/j.1467-1770.1994.tb01103.x
MacKillop, J., & Anderson, E. J. (2007). Further psychometric validation of the mindful attention awareness scale (MAAS).
Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 29, 289–293. doi:10.1007/s10862-007-9045-1
Masuda, A., Hayes, S. C., Sackett, C. F., & Twohig, M. P. (2004). Cognitive defusion and self-relevant negative thoughts:
Examining the impact of a ninety year old technique. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 477–485. doi:10.1016/j.
brat.2003.10.008
Matsuda, S., & Gobel, P. (2004). Anxiety and predictors of performance in the foreign language classroom. System, 32,
21–36. doi:10.1016/j.system.2003.08.002
Mental Health Foundation of New Zealand. (2012). Mindfulness in education: Evidence base and implications for Aotearoa/
New Zealand. Wellington: Mental Health Foundation of New Zealand.
Morone, N. E., Rollman, B. L., Moore, C. G., Qin, L., & Weiner, D. K. (2009). A mind–body program for older adults with chronic
low back pain: Results of a pilot study. Pain Medicine, 10, 1395–1407. doi:10.1111/j.1526-4637.2009.00746.x
Mueller, K. R. (2011). Mindfulness and communication apprehension: Examining the relationship between the FFMQ and the
PRCA-24 (Unpublished master’s thesis). San Diego, CA: San Diego State University.
Muris, P. (2002). Relationships between self-efficacy and symptoms of anxiety disorders and depression in a normal
adolescent sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 337–348. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00027-7
Nahavandi, N., & Mukundan, J. (2013). Foreign language learning anxiety among Iranian EFL learners along gender &
different proficiency levels. Language in India, 13, 133–161.
Nicholls, A. R., Polman, R., & Levy, A. R. (2010). Coping self-efficacy, pre-competitive anxiety, and subjective performance
among athletes. European Journal of Sport Science, 10, 97–102. doi:10.1080/17461390903271592
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2000). The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/depressive symptoms. Journal
of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 504–511. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.109.3.504
Onwuegbuzie, A. J., Bailey, P., & Daley, C. E. (2000). Cognitive, affective, personality, and demographic predictors of foreign-
language achievement. The Journal of Educational Research, 94, 3–15. doi:10.1080/00220670009598738
Pajares, F., & Shunk, D. H. (2001). Self-beliefs and school success: Self–efficacy, self-concept and school achievement. In R.
Riding & S. Rayner (Eds.), Perception (pp. 239–266). London: Abex publishing.
Pisanti, R. (2012). Coping self-efficacy and psychological distress: Results from an Italian study on nurses. The European
Health Psychologist, 14, 11–14.
Rodríguez, M., & Abreu, O. (2003). The stability of general foreign language classroom anxiety across English and French.
The Modern Language Journal, 87, 365–374. doi:10.1111/1540-4781.00195
Roemer, L., Lee, J. K., Salters-Pedneault, K., Erisman, S. M., Orsillo, S. M., & Mennin, D. S. (2009). Mindfulness and emotion
regulation difficulties in generalized anxiety disorder: Preliminary evidence for independent and overlapping
contributions. Behavior Therapy, 40, 142–154. doi:10.1016/j.beth.2008.04.001
Serraj, S., & Noordin, N. (2013). Relationship among Iranian EFL students’ foreign language anxiety, foreign language
listening anxiety and their listening comprehension. English Language Teaching, 6(5), 1–12.
Shapiro, S. L., Carlson, L. E., Astin, J. A., & Freedman, B. (2006). Mechanisms of mindfulness. Journal of Clinical Psychology,
62, 373–386. doi:10.1002/jclp.20237
Tharaldsen, K. B. (2012). Mindful coping (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Norway: University of Stavanger.
The Mindfulness in Schools Project. (2011). The MiSP team. In the mindfulness in schools project. Retrieved from: http://
mindfulnessinschools.org/about
Toth, Z. (2008). A foreign language anxiety scale for Hungarian learners of English. Working Papers in Language Pedagogy,
2, 55–78.
 12    N. Fallah

Walacha, H., Lyncha, S., & Marie-Louise, G. (2008). Mindfulness-based coping with university life (MBCUL): A randomised
wait-list controlled study. European Journal of Integrative Medicine, 1, 40–41. doi:10.1016/j.eujim.2008.08.078
Wheaton, B., Muthen, B., Alwin, D. F., & Summers, G. (1977). Assessing reliability and stability in panel models. Sociological
Methodology, 8, 84–136.
Yan, X., & Horwitz, E. K. (2008). Learners' perceptions of how anxiety interacts with personal and instructional factors to
influence their achievement in English: A qualitative analysis of EFL learners in China. Language Learning, 58, 151–183.
doi:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2007.00437.x
Zvolensky, M. J., Solomon, S. E., McLeish, A. C., Cassidy, D., Bernstein, A., Bowman, C. J., & Yartz, A. R. (2006). Incremental validity
of mindfulness‐based attention in relation to the concurrent prediction of anxiety and depressive symptomatology and
perceptions of health. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 35, 148–158. doi:10.1080/16506070600674087
Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 11:42 08 March 2016