EP 222: Classical Mechanics

Tutorial Sheet 1
This tutorial sheet contains problems on the Newton’s laws of motion and Lagrangian
formalism.

1. Show that for a single particle with a constant mass the equation of motion implies
the following differential equation for the kinetic energy:
dT
= F · v,
dt
while if the mass varies with time the corresponding equation is

d(mT )
= F · p.
dt

Soln: (a) We know T = 21 mv 2 = 21 mv · v. Thus, if m is constant

dT dv
=m · v = ma · v = F · v
dt dt

(b) For a variable mass particle, let us consider

   
d(mT ) d 1 2 dm 2 dm
= m v·v =m v·v+m v·a= v + ma · (mv) = F · p,
dt dt 2 dt dt
dp dm
because for a variable mass particle dt
= dt
v + ma.

2. Prove that the magnitude R of the position vector for the center of mass from an
arbitrary origin is given by the equation
X 1X
M 2 R2 = M mi ri2 − 2
mi mj rij
i
2 i,j

Soln: R is defined as
P
mi ri i
R=
XM
=⇒ M R = mi ri
i
X X
2 2
=⇒ M R = ( mi ri ) · ( mj rj )
i j
X X X
2 2
=⇒ M R = mi mj ri · rj = m2i ri2 + mi mj ri · rj
i,j i i6=j

1
 Using
2
rij = (ri − rj )2 = ri2 + rj2 − 2ri · rj
1
=⇒ ri · rj = (ri2 + rj2 − rij 2
),
2
we obtain
X 1X
M 2 R2 = m2i ri2 + mi mj (ri2 + rj2 − rij2
)
i
2 i6=j
X 1 X 1X 1X
= m2i ri2 + mi mj ri2 + mi mj rj2 + − 2
mi mj rij
i
2 i6=j 2 i6=j 2 i6=j
X X 1X
= mi mj ri2 + m2i ri2 − 2
mi mj rij
i6=j i
2 i6=j
X X 1X
=( mj )( mi ri2 ) − 2
mi mj rij
j i
2 i6=j
X 1 X
= M( mi ri2 ) − 2
mi mj rij
i
2 i6=j
X 1 X
= M( mi ri2 ) − 2
mi mj rij
i
2 i,j

In the second sum on the RHS, we can perform unrestricted sum over i and j, because
for i = j, rij = 0.

3. Show that the Lagrange equations

 
d ∂T ∂T
− = Qj ,
dt ∂ q˙j ∂qj

can also be written as

∂ Ṫ ∂T
−2 = Qj .
∂ q˙j ∂qj
These are sometimes called the Nielsen form of Lagrange equations.

Soln: Assuming that

T = T (qi, q˙i , t),
we have
dT X ∂T X ∂T ∂T
Ṫ = = q̈i + q̇i +
dt i
∂ q̇i i
∂qi ∂t
so that
∂ Ṫ X ∂ 2T X ∂ 2T ∂T ∂ 2T
= q̈i + q̇i + +
∂ q̇j i
∂ q̇j ∂ q̇i i
∂ q̇j ∂qi ∂qj ∂ q̇j ∂t

2
 leading to
∂ Ṫ ∂T X ∂ 2T X ∂ 2T ∂ 2T
− = q¨i + q̇i +
∂ q̇j ∂qj i
∂ q˙j ∂ q˙i i
∂ q̇j ∂qi ∂ q̇j ∂t
X ∂        
∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T
= q̈i + q̇i +
i
∂ q̇ i ∂ q̇ j ∂q i ∂ q̇ j ∂t ∂ q̇j
 
d ∂T
=
dt ∂ q̇j
Substituting this on the LHS of Lagrange equation, we obtain
 
d ∂T ∂T
− = Qj
dt ∂ q˙j ∂qj
∂ Ṫ ∂T ∂T
=⇒ − − = Qj
∂ q̇j ∂qj ∂qj
∂ Ṫ ∂T
=⇒ −2 = Qj
∂ q̇j ∂qj

4. If L is a Lagrangian for a system of n degrees of freedom satisfying the Lagrange

equations, show by direct substitution that
0 dF (q1 , . . . , qn , t)
L =L+
dt
also satisfies Lagrange’s equations where F is any arbitrary, but differentiable, func-
tion of its arguments.

Soln: We have
dF X ∂F ∂F
= q̇i + .
dt i
∂qi ∂t
Therefore
0 dF (q1 , . . . , qn , t) X ∂F ∂F
L =L+ =L+ q̇i + ,
dt i
∂q i ∂t
so that 0
∂L ∂L ∂F
= + ,
∂ q̇j ∂ q̇j ∂qj
leading to
 0     
d ∂L d ∂L d ∂F
= +
dt ∂ q̇j dt ∂ q̇j dt ∂qj
 X 2
∂ 2F

d ∂L ∂ F
= + q̇i +
dt ∂ q̇j i
∂q i ∂q j ∂t∂qj
∂ 2F ∂ 2F
  X
d ∂L
= + q̇i +
dt ∂ q̇j i
∂q j ∂q i ∂qj ∂t

3
 and 0
∂L ∂L X ∂ 2 F ∂ 2F
= + q̇i + .
∂qj ∂qj i
∂q j ∂q i ∂q j ∂t

Thus
0 0
d

∂L

∂L d

∂L
 X ∂ 2F ∂ 2F ∂L X ∂ 2 F ∂ 2F
− = + q̇i + − − q̇i −
dt ∂ q̇j ∂qj dt ∂ q̇j i
∂qj ∂qi ∂qj ∂t ∂qj i
∂qj ∂qi ∂qj ∂t
 0  0  
d ∂L ∂L d ∂L ∂L
=⇒ − = − =0
dt ∂ q̇j ∂qj dt ∂ q̇j ∂qj

QED.

5. Obtain the Lagrange equations of motion for a spherical pendulum, i.e., a point mass
suspended by a rigid weightless rod.

Soln: It is best to use spherical polar coordinates here. In the lectures we showed
that the kinetic energy of a particle in spherical polar coordinates is
1  2 2 2 2 2 2

T = m ṙ + r θ̇ + r sin θφ̇ .
2

If length of the rod is l, then r = l, and ṙ = 0, we are left with two generalized
coordinates (θ, φ), with
1 2 2 2 2 2

T = m l θ̇ + l sin θφ̇ ,
2
and using the point of suspension as the reference for potential energy, we have

V = −mgl cos θ.

4
 Thus
1  
L = T − V = T = m l2 θ̇2 + l2 sin2 θφ̇2 + mgl cos θ.
2
Now the two Lagrange equations are
 
d ∂L ∂L
− =0
dt ∂ θ̇ ∂θ
1
=⇒ ml2 θ̈ − ml2 sin 2θφ̇2 + mgl sin θ = 0
2
and

d∂L ∂L
− =0
dt
∂ φ̇ ∂φ
d(ml2 sin2 θφ̇)
=⇒ = 0.
dt

6. Obtain the Lagrangian and equations of motion for a double pendulum, where the
lengths of the pendula are l1 and l2 with corresponding masses m1 and m2 , confined
to move in a plane.

Soln: As discussed in the lectures, this system has two generalized coordinates θ1
and θ2 , the angles which the upper and the lower pendula make with respect to the
vertical.

With the motion of the pendula confined in a plane (say, xy plane), then the Cartesian
coordinates of the two particles can be written as

x1 = l1 sin θ1
y1 = −l1 cos θ1

and

x2 = x1 + l2 sin θ2 = l1 sin θ1 + l2 sin θ2

y2 = y1 − l2 cos θ2 = −l1 cos θ1 − l2 cos θ2

5
So that
1 1
T = m1 (ẋ21 + ẏ12 ) + m2 (ẋ22 + ẏ22 ).
2 2
Now

ẋ1 = l1 cos θ1 θ̇1

ẏ1 = l1 sin θ1 θ̇1
ẋ2 = l1 cos θ1 θ̇1 + l2 cos θ2 θ̇2
ẏ2 = l1 sin θ1 θ̇1 + l2 sin θ2 θ̇2

Easy to verify

ẋ21 + ẏ12 = l12 θ̇12 ,

ẋ2 + ẏ 2 = l2 θ˙2 + l2 θ̇2 + 2l1 l2 θ̇1 θ̇2 cos(θ1 − θ2 ).
2 2 1 1 2 2

With this
1 1
T = (m1 + m2 )l12 θ̇12 + m2 l22 θ̇22 + m2 l1 l2 θ̇1 θ̇2 cos(θ1 − θ2 ),
2 2
and

V = m1 gy1 + m2 gy2
= −(m1 + m2 )gl1 cos θ1 − m2 gl2 cos θ2 ,

so that

L=T −V
1 1
= (m1 + m2 )l12 θ̇12 + m2 l22 θ̇22 + m2 l1 l2 θ̇1 θ̇2 cos(θ1 − θ2 )
2 2
+ (m1 + m2 )gl1 cos θ1 + m2 gl2 cos θ2 .

θ1 equation of motion  
d ∂L ∂L
− = 0,
dt ∂ θ̇1 ∂θ1
leads to
d  
(m1 + m2 )l12 θ̇1 + m2 l1 l2 θ̇2 cos(θ1 − θ2 ) + m2 l1 l2 θ̇1 θ̇2 sin(θ1 − θ2 ) + (m1 + m2 )gl1 sin θ1 = 0.
dt
Upon taking the time derivative, we obtain the final form

(m1 + m2 )l12 θ̈1 + m2 l1 l2 cos(θ1 − θ2 )θ̈2 + m2 l1 l2 sin(θ1 − θ2 )θ̇22 + (m1 + m2 )gl1 sin θ1 = 0

For θ2  
d ∂L ∂L
− = 0,
dt ∂ θ̇2 ∂θ2

6
 which yields
d  
m2 l22 θ̇2 + m2 l1 l2 θ̇1 cos(θ1 − θ2 ) − m2 l1 l2 θ̇1 θ̇2 sin(θ1 − θ2 ) + m2 gl2 sin θ2 = 0.
dt
Upon taking the time derivative, we obtain the final form
m2 l1 l2 cos(θ1 − θ2 )θ̈1 + m2 l22 θ̈2 − m2 l1 l2 sin(θ1 − θ2 )θ̇12 + m2 gl2 sin θ2 = 0

7. If we want to obtain the equations of motion for a charged particle of mass m, moving
in an electromagnetic field (E, B), the potential in the Lagrangian has to be velocity
dependent U = qφ − qA · v, where q is the charge of the particle, and φ, and A,
respectively, are the scalar and vector potentials of the electromagnetic field so that
∂A
E = −∇φ −
∂t
B = ∇ × A.
Show that using this Lagrangian, we obtain the correct equations of motion for the
particle.

Soln: Using Cartesian coordinates and the fact that v = ẋî + ẏ ĵ + ż k̂, and A =
Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂, we have
1
L = m(ẋ2 + ẏ 2 + ż 2 ) − qφ + q(Ax ẋ + Ay ẏ + Az ż).
2
Lagrange equation for x component
 
d ∂L ∂L
− =0
dt ∂ ẋ ∂x
d ∂φ ∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az
=⇒ (mẋ + qAx ) + q − q ẋ − q ẏ − q ż =0
dt ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
dAx ∂φ ∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az
=⇒ mẍ = −q −q + q ẋ + q ẏ + q ż
dt ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
But
dAx ∂Ax ∂Ax ∂Ax ∂Ax
= ẋ + ẏ + ż + ,
dt ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
so that
 
∂φ ∂Ax ∂Ax ∂Ax ∂Ax ∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az
mẍ = q − − −q ẋ − q ẏ − q ż + q ẋ + q ẏ + q ż
∂x ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂x
 
∂φ ∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az ∂Ax ∂Ax
=q − − + q ẏ + q ż −q ẏ − q ż
∂x ∂t ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z
Using the fact that
∂A
E = −∇φ −
∂t
B = ∇ × A,

7
 we obtain above
mẍ = qEx + q(v × B)x ,
which is the x component of the Lorentz force equation. Using the same procedure for
y and z components, we obtain

mr̈ = qE + q(v × B).

8. The electromagnetic field is invariant under a gauge transformation of the scalar and
vector potential given by

A → A + ∇ψ(r, t),
∂ψ
φ → φ− ,
∂t
where ψ is arbitrary (but differentiable). What effect does this gauge transformation
have on the Lagrangian of a moving particle in the electromagnetic field? Is the equa-
tion of motion affected?

Soln: On performing the gauge transformations, we have

0
A → A = A + ∇ψ(r, t),
0 ∂ψ
φ → φ =φ− ,
∂t
0 1 0 0 ∂ψ
L → L = m(ẋ2 + ẏ 2 + ż 2 ) − qφ + qA · v = L − qv · ∇ψ − q
2 ∂t
Or
 
0 ∂ψ ∂ψ ∂ψ ∂ψ
L =L−q ẋ + ẏ + ż +
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
dψ
=L−q
dt
Because L0 differs from L by the total time derivative of a differentiable function
ψ = ψ(r, t), hence, from the result of Prob 4, it will lead to the same Lagrange
equations as L.