Abstract

It is quite evident to many that there is a problem of abuse of Marijuana by youth and college
students in the Caribbean and Guyana in particular. According to OAS/PAHO, 12% of students
in Guyana have smoked Marijuana, and according to the 2019 Report of the U.S. Department,
the abuse of Marijuana among Guyanese youths (18-35 years) was prevalent. Due to the
existence of the problem of Marijuana abuse in Guyana a literature review will be used, to
determine its prevalence so that solutions can be developed to address the existing problem.

Marijuana is currently the most used drug on college campuses. According to several studies
Marijuana use among college students worldwide is increasing, and many students begin using
Marijuana during college. The goal of this study was to investigate predictors of lifetime
Marijuana use at college entry and initiation during freshman year. Marijuana use among college
students, for instance, often begins in adolescence by the age of 16 and is associated with leaving
school at the undergraduate level, although including factors such as peers and family
undermines this relationship.

Much of the literature addressing Marijuana focuses on measuring detrimental effects in users,
especially in relation to academic performance and achievement, mental and physical health, and
risky or deviant behaviours, with an emphasis on other drug use and dependency. Marijuana use
is associated with lower academic performance and higher rates of truancy and drop-out among
high school students, whereas its impact on academic performance among older users seeking
higher education is less certain.1 A review of the literature revealed a complexity of issues
associated with truly understanding the impact of Marijuana use on the individuals who use it,
partly due to the influence of regulatory systems on its lawfulness.

1
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306460313003201A
 Introduction/Background to the Problem

According to Ritchie and Roser (2020), over 11.5 million people globally die of drug abuse.
Marijuana is the most abused drug. In the present decade, Cannabis abuse has grown more
rapidly than cocaine and opiate abuse and is common among youths and college student Ritchie
and Roser 2020.

Marijuana had the lowest average age of first use for illegal drugs. An analysis, by the Guyana
National Household Drug Prevalence Survey Report 2016 shows that the average age of first use
for crack was 19.8 years, 23.8 years for ecstasy, 18.9 years for Marijuana, 22.6 years for cocaine.
The modal value for a joint of Marijuana was GUY$500 which is approximately US$2.50. Only
34.3 per cent of respondents who smoked Marijuana bought it themselves, while most of the
respondents (59.0 per cent) got it free from someone else. The main area where Marijuana was
purchased was in a public/open area (46.7 per cent). Of those who got Marijuana for free 33.4
per cent got it in a public area and 30.9 per cent said they got it in a home/apartment/dorm. It
could be seen that 57.1 per cent of respondents who bought Marijuana said they purchased it
from the same the dealer. The report indicated that 76.5 per cent of the respondents who received
Marijuana free said that they got it from a friend. Further, 2.9 per cent of respondents said they
used Marijuana for a medical condition. Respondents reported that they used Marijuana for a
range of conditions including asthma, pneumonia, cold, pain, malaria, glaucoma, and diabetes.
The majority of respondents who used Marijuana for medical purposes reported that they used it
for asthma, to bring relief to sufferings from a cold and relieve pain. The data also show that 3.6
per cent of respondents used Marijuana in drinks and 1.9 per cent respondents used Marijuana in
edibles. The data revealed that the lifetime prevalence rates for cocaine and crack were very low
at 0.7 per cent and 0.3 per cent, respectively.

For Marijuana smoking, lifetime prevalence was 6.6 per cent in 2013 compared to 11.2 per cent
in the 2007 survey; one-year prevalence rate was 3.8 per cent and the one-month prevalence rate
was 2.2 per cent. This can be compared to 2007 when the one-year prevalence rate for Marijuana
use was 6.5 per cent and the one-month prevalence rate was 3.8. Lifetime prevalence rates for
crack and cocaine in 2015 were 1.9 per cent and 1.4 per cent respectively.
The use of Marijuana for various reasons, including smoking, is not new. Historically,
Marijuana has been planted in various parts of the world for many years, and for various reasons,
which include food, textile, recreational, religious, and economical. In a study done in Asia,
Tengwen (2017) says that for a country like Japan, Marijuana cultivation could have started
around 8,000 BC and that archaeological findings suggest that Marijuana was cultivated for its
fibers and as a food source and possibly as a psychoactive material. In Korea, Marijuana
cultivation could have started around 3,000 BC and could have used for textile and fabric Duvall
(2014). In the Middle East, primarily Iraqi, the BBC World Service noted that Marijuana use was
introduced in that country around 1230 A.D. by Syrian travelers and that Marijuana was used for
recreational purposes BBC (2005). In China, archaeological findings revealed the presence of
Marijuana seeds as far as 6,000 BC, and that Cannabis seeds were used for food in China. Later,
in 4,000 BC, China started to use Cannabis for textiles BBC (2005). In Central Eurasia, the
Scythia tribes, a nomadic group of people who occupied most of the present-day Central
Eurasian, namely Iran, used Marijuana as an offering-incense during worship. In the book
"Budtender Medical Cannabis Certification Program," the author, Brown (2015), writes that
"around 500 B.C., excavation findings suggest that a Scythian couple died and were buried with
two small tents covering containers for burning incense. Attached to one stick was a decorated
leather pouch containing wild Cannabis seeds, pg. 11". It is believed that the Scythians
introduced Marijuana to the rest of Europe (BBC, 2005). Some authors, namely Hui- Lin (1974),
have termed Marijuana an Asiatic plant, and the author contends that in Asia, Marijuana is still
used for medicinal reasons.

Besides Asia, literature shows that Marijuana could have been introduced on the African
continent around the 12th Century in Egypt during the reign of the Ayyubid dynasty (BBC,
2005). According to Robin (2018), Marijuana is not a native plant in Africa. However, around
1700 A.D., the Khoikhois of South Africa were already using Cannabis as a recreational drug.
They called it Dagga.

Marijuana is currently the most used drug on college campuses. Marijuana use among college
students is increasing, and many students begin using Marijuana during college. 2 The goal of this

2
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306460313003201A
study was to investigate the prevalence of Marijuana use among students of the Faculty of Health
Sciences at the University of Guyana.

Statement of the Problem

According to OAS/PAHO it is quite evident that there is a problem of abuse of Marijuana by

youth and college students in the Caribbean and Guyana in particular. For this reason a review of
literature will be used, to determine its prevalence so that solutions can be developed to address
the existing problem.
Research Question

A review of literature to determine the Prevalence of Marijuana use among students of the
Faculty of Health Sciences at the University of Guyana.

Objectives of the study

1. Determine the prevalence of marijuana use in college.

2. Detect patterns of use of the substance.

3. Describe aspects related to the use of substances: exposure to supply and use, health risk.

4. Determine attitudes towards Marijuana legislation and its impact on the society.

Definition of key terms

Marijuana – is a psychoactive drug from the Cannabis plant used for medical or recreational
purposes (WHO, 2016).

Prevalence – the fact of something existing or happening often

Drug abuse - The use of illegal drugs or the use of prescription or over-the-counter drugs for

purposes other than those for which they are meant to be used, or in large amounts.
Youth: the U.S. Department report classifies a youth as someone between 18-35 years (U.S.
Department Report, 2019)

LITERATURE REVIEW

Throughout this study the researcher will be reviewing literature to determine the Prevalence of
Marijuana use among Students of the Faculty of Health Sciences at the University of Guyana.

Previous related research is as followed:-

Marijuana represents the most widely used illicit drug on college campuses. A study on
Cannabis use among middle and high school students in Ontario: a school-based cross-
sectional study was reviewed. The survey shows that data were obtained from the 2015
Ontario Student Drug Use and Health Survey, a province-wide school-based survey of
students in grades 7 through 12. An analysis of the study included a representative sample of
9920 middle and high school students. Bivariate cross-tabulations and logistic regression
analyses were used to investigate the factors associated with Cannabis use. An analysis of the
results indicated than an overall, 21.5% and 13.9% of students reported using Cannabis in the
previous year and previous month, respectively. The conditional probability that an
adolescent who reported Cannabis use in the previous year would report daily use was
12.5%. There was a significant dose-response gradient with age, with older students being
more likely to use Cannabis than younger students. The findings suggest that Cannabis use is
prevalent among middle and high school students in Ontario and is strongly associated with
tobacco cigarette smoking. Future research should document trends in Cannabis use over
time, including its risks, especially when the legalization of recreational Cannabis comes into
effect.3

3
Cannabis use among middle and high school students in ....
https://ruor.uottawa.ca/bitstream/10393/39072/1/E50.full.pdf
 In another study of the “Prevalence of Marijuana Use at College Entry and Risk Factors for
Initiation During Freshman Year,” the researchers used responses from the first two
semesters of a longitudinal study of 3,146 students from 11 colleges in North Carolina and
Virginia. Random-effects logistic regression models were constructed to identify factors that
predict lifetime Marijuana use at college entry and initiation during freshman year. They
found that nearly 30% of students reported ever having used Marijuana at college entry.
Among students who had never used Marijuana prior to college, 8.5% initiated use during
freshman year. In multivariable logistic regression models, having at least $100 per month in
spending money; attending church rarely or never; current use of cigarettes, alcohol, and
hookah tobacco; lifetime use of other illicit drugs; and a higher propensity toward sensation
seeking were associated with a higher likelihood of having used Marijuana at least once at
college entry. Hispanic ethnicity, living on campus, and current use of cigarettes and alcohol
were associated with a higher likelihood of initiating Marijuana use during freshman year.4

According to the Drug Demand and Reduction Programme in Guyana, a look at the
Guyanese society shows the use drugs by different groups of persons. It was noted that
youths are highly represented among population groups who use drugs. Studies have
provided strong evidence that friends play a central role in individual's initiation, escalation
and short term temporal variations in substance use.5 A review of literature has shown similar
findings to that of studies done in Guyana. In a study done on the “Recurrent Cannabis use
among Norwegian students,” a methodology of public and private university students,11,236
in Bergen, Norway, participated in an online survey during autumn 2015. Binary logistic
regression was run to identify individual characteristics related to recurrent Cannabis use.
Tests were conducted to investigate differences in substance use (alcohol, nicotine, and illicit
drugs) between recurrent Cannabis users and Cannabis abstainers/low-frequency users. The
results indicated that a total of 4.0% of the students reported recurrent Cannabis use. Students
born in North America, non-Christians (compared to non-religious students), and men were
4
Prevalence of marijuana use at college entry and risk ....
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306460313003201A

Phenomenology of Marijuana Use Among Graduate Students.

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/20797222.2016.1164997
5
http://nana.gov.gy/drug-use-among-secondary-school-students-in-guyana.pdf
 more likely to be recurrent users.6 Recurrent Cannabis users scored higher on extroversion
and intellect/imagination compared to abstainers/low-frequency users. Male and female
recurrent Cannabis users had somewhat different characteristics (e.g., agreeableness scores
were negatively associated with recurrent use among females but not among males).
Recurrent Cannabis use was overall strongly associated with polysubstance use.

Numerous theoretical frameworks have been used to explain the process by which social
relationships affect a person's substance use, among such is the Primary socialization theory,
and the social development model. The Primary socialization theory distinguishes between
various forms of peer influence, including peers in the general environment, peer lifestyle
groups and peer clusters. Peer clusters include best friends, small groups of close friends and
couples. as cited by argued that there are strong selection factors in the formation of peer
clusters. Such include similarity of attitudes, interests, and abilities. The Social Development
model is an integrated theory that purports to explain the development of both pro-social and
antisocial behaviors over the life course. This model recognizes that individuals learn
behaviors through socialization. The social learning process produces positive or problematic
behaviors, recognizing that many individuals experience both positive and negative
influences. One study looked at “To compare the rate of drug use prevalence and to
investigate opinions regarding such use among undergraduate students at the University of
São Paulo.” Their methodology revealed that both studies followed the same procedures of
sampling and data collection. A random sample of undergraduate students, divided into the
areas Humanities, Exact Sciences and Biologic Sciences, responded to an anonymous and
self-report survey regarding the use of licit and illicit drugs within the last 30 days, within the
last 12 months and over the lifetime of the subject. The two surveys were compared through
the construction of (95%) confidence intervals for the prevalence differences for each
substance by area and by total number of students. Results indicated that there was a high
approval of regularly trying and using cocaine, crack, amphetamines, and inhalants was
observed. The drugs that showed statistic significant increasing were: lifetime use: alcohol,

6
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 tobacco, Marijuana, inhalants, hallucinogens, amphetamines, anticholines, barbituric and any
illicit drug;last-12-month use: Marijuana, inhalants, amphetamines, hallucinogens and any
illicit drug;last-30-day use: Marijuana, inhalants, amphetamines and any illicit drug.

Another review of literature shows a study done on the phenomenology of Marijuana use
among graduate students by Emily Garner. The methodology used to capture as fully as
possible, the experience of being a graduate student who uses Marijuana, a hermeneutic-
phenomenological approach was chosen. Individual interviews were conducted with seven
graduate students who identified themselves as users of Marijuana, yielding qualitative data
in the form of rich narrative descriptions of their experience. The method of the current study
was phenomenological in that it sought to explicate the lived experience of individuals in a
particular world situation or context, and hermeneutic in that it was primarily concerned with
construing the meaning of life-text data. The results revealed: The analysis of the interview
data revealed five main themes essential to the experience of being a graduate student who
uses Marijuana: (1) stereotype, stigma, and secrecy, (2) openness, acceptance, and
community, (3) self-care and self-reflection, (4) reciprocal shaping, and identity and
persona. The findings of the current study are consistent with findings of previous studies
reported in the literature.7

“Prevalence and predictors of alcohol and drug use among secondary school students in
Botswana: a cross-sectional study,” was another study reviewed. For the methodology a
survey was done on a 72-item cross-sectional survey of students in 17 public secondary
schools in Gaborone, Lobatse, Molepolole and Mochudi, Botswana. The World Health
Organization’s (WHO) Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test (AUDIT) was used to
define hazardous drinking behavior. Using Jessor’s Problem Behavior Theory (PBT) as their
conceptual framework, they culturally-adapted items from previously validated tools to
measure risk and protective factors for alcohol and drug use. Between-group differences of
risk and protective factors were compared using univariate binomial and multinomial-ordinal
logit analysis. Relative risks of alcohol and drug use by demographic, high risks and low
7
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4098711/ 26 July 2020
protections were calculated. Multivariate ordinal-multinomial cumulative logit analysis,
multivariate nominal-multinomial logit analysis, and binominal logit analysis were used to
build models illustrating the relationship between risk and protective factors and student
alcohol and illicit drug use. Clustered data was adjusted for in all analyses using Generalized
Estimating Equations (GEE) methods. The results revealed of the 1936 students surveyed,
816 (42.1%) reported alcohol use, and 434 (22.4%) met criteria for hazardous alcohol use.
Illicit drug use was reported by 324 students (16.7%), with motokwane (Marijuana) being the
most used drug. Risk factors more strongly associated with alcohol and drug use were
reported alcohol availability, individual and social vulnerability factors, and poor peer
modeling. Individual and social controls protections appear to mitigate risk of student alcohol
and drug use.

Substance use is a major public health issue affecting the health and well-being of millions of
Americans. Medical students follow general young adult patterns and are not exempt from
the consequences of substance use. These patters may include but are not limited to injuries,
work and social impairment, violence, risky sexual behavior, cardiovascular disease, cancer,
and death. Studies assessing the prevalence of increased substance use among medical
students in the United States suggest that as many as 58% of medical students may binge
drink monthly, one in three medical students have used illicit drugs in the past year use
typically begins during high school or college, and that alcohol and Marijuana are the most
commonly misused substances. Although many studies examining medical student substance
use have been published in recent years, the most comprehensive research in this area was
conducted over 25 years ago. An investigation was done to assess the prevalence and
consequences of medical student alcohol and drug use. The researchers used a total of 855
medical students representing 49 medical colleges throughout the United States participated
in an online survey between December 2015 and March 2016. In the results the data showed
that 91.3% and 26.2% of medical students consumed alcohol and used Marijuana
respectively in the past year, and 33.8% of medical students consumed five or more drinks in
one sitting in the past two weeks. Differences in use emerged regarding demographic
 characteristics of students. Consequences of alcohol and drug use in this sample of medical
students included but were not limited to interpersonal altercations, serious suicidal ideation,
cognitive deficits, compromised academic performance, and driving under the influence of
substances. Forty percent of medical students reported being unaware of their medical
institution’s substance-use policies.8

Previous research on Cannabis use among students has primarily focused on either lifetime
use or regular/heavy use (i.e., daily or almost daily). Regular, albeit not necessarily daily,
Cannabis use has received less scientific attention. Studies have found the prevalence of
Cannabis use at least once in the last month to range from 1.5% to 32.6% among South and
North American students (Allen & Holder, 2014; Hynes, Demarco, Araneda, & Cumsille,
2015; Johnston, O’Malley, Bachman, & Schulenberg, 2011). The variance in prevalence
estimates across student populations may imply the influence of social and cultural factors on
Cannabis use. Research done on the phenomenology of Marijuana use among graduate
students by Emily Garner shows a study done on the “Prevalence and Attitudes Regarding
Marijuana Use Among Adolescents Over the Past Decade.” The methodology used was data
from the annual, nationally representative Monitoring the Future study from 1991 to 2016, in
which 1 100 000 US students in eighth, 10th, and 12th grade was surveyed. In the results we
can see that the entire sample was stratified into 3 mutually exclusive and exhaustive groups
based on cigarette and alcohol use. Within each of the 3 groups, Marijuana prevalence
increased from 2005 to 2016. Paradoxically, when the 3 groups were combined into 1
analysis pool, overall Marijuana prevalence did not increase. The seeming paradox results
from a decline in the percentage of adolescents who used cigarettes; as this group grew
smaller, so too did its disproportionately large contribution to overall Marijuana prevalence.
Perceived risk of harm from Marijuana remained a strong indicator of use throughout 2005 to
2016.

8
https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanpsy/article/PIIS2215-0366(15)00217-5/fulltext 26 July
2020
 Whether medical Marijuana laws are associated with increased use of Marijuana by
adolescents has been debated. Some commentators have suggested that these laws have no
effect or discourage use. Others suggest that these laws increase adolescent use of Marijuana
through various mechanisms, such as sending a message that use is acceptable. A review of
literature shows research done on “Medical Marijuana laws and adolescent Marijuana use in
the USA from 1991 to 2014: results from annual, repeated cross-sectional surveys.” Using a
multistage, random-sampling design with replacement, the Monitoring the Future study
conducts annual national surveys of 8th, 10th, and 12th-grade students (modal ages 13–14,
15–16, and 17–18 years, respectively), in around 400 schools per year. Students complete
self-administered questionnaires that include questions on Marijuana use. An analysis of data
from 1, 098, 270 adolescents surveyed between 1991 and 2014 revealed that the primary
outcome of this analysis was any Marijuana use in the previous 30 days. The researchers
used multilevel regression modelling with adolescents nested within states to examine two
questions. The first was whether Marijuana use was higher overall in states that ever passed a
medical Marijuana law up to 2014. The second was whether the risk of Marijuana use
changed after passage of medical Marijuana laws. Control covariates included individual,
school, and state-level characteristics.

The findings revealed that, Marijuana use was more prevalent in states that passed a medical
Marijuana law any time up to 2014 than in other states (adjusted prevalence
15·87% vs 13·27%.) However, the risk of Marijuana use in states before passing medical
Marijuana laws did not differ significantly from the risk after medical Marijuana laws were
passed (adjusted prevalence 16·25% vs 15·45%. Results were generally robust across
sensitivity analyses, including redefining Marijuana use as any use in the previous year or
frequency of use, and reanalyzing medical Marijuana laws for delayed effects or for variation
in provisions for dispensaries.9

9
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 A review of literature on “Substance use by adolescents in Capetown, prevalence and
correlates,” using a methodology of a multistage sampling procedure produced a sample of
2930 students in grades 8 and 11 at 39 high schools in Cape Town, who completed a self-
administered questionnaire. The questionnaire contained items about whether the students
had used various substances and that addressed the potential correlates of interest. We
calculated prevalence rates with 95% confidence intervals and constructed a set of
generalized estimating equations of use in the past month of cigarettes, alcohol, or Cannabis
on the hypothesized correlates. The findings revealed that the prevalence rates for the use of
cigarettes, alcohol, and Cannabis were 27%, 31%, and 7%, respectively. Rates were low for
black females. Recent use of each of the substances was significantly associated with the
number of days absent and the number of years lived in a city. Repeating a grade was
significantly associated with previous month use of cigarettes and alcohol by colored
(derived from Asian, European, and African ancestry) students and alcohol use by black
grade 8 students (race classifications “colored” and “black” are as defined by the repealed
population Registration Act of 1950). Not being raised by both parents was significantly
associated with cigarette smoking by black and colored students, alcohol use by colored
students, and Cannabis use by female students. It was inversely associated with cigarette use
by black students.10

10
https://www.jahonline.org/article/S1054-139X(02)00445-7/fulltext 26 July 2020
 Discussion

Marijuana use among college students has been identified as the most prevalently used illicit
substance in Guyana among other countries. With 8.1 million individuals aged 12 or older in
2013 there is an almost daily use of it (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
Administration [SAMHSA], 2014). In comparison with legal drugs, Marijuana use is exceeded
only by that of aspirin, alcohol, and tobacco (Booth, 2003).11

Much of the literature addressing Marijuana focuses on measuring detrimental effects in users,
especially in relation to academic performance and achievement, mental and physical health, and
risky or deviant behaviours, with an emphasis on other drug use and dependency. Marijuana use
is associated with lower academic performance and higher rates of truancy and drop-out among
high school students, whereas its impact on academic performance among older users seeking
higher education is less certain (Cox, Zhang, Johnson, & Bender, 2007; Fergusson, Horwood, &
Beautrais, 2003; Lynskey, Coffey, Degenhardt, Carlin, & Patton, 2003).12 Although it can be
assumed that Marijuana use exists in graduate school settings, given the high rates of reported
use among undergraduates, relatively few studies have addressed Marijuana use among this
specific population (Boniatti et al., 2007; Lipp, Benson, & Taintor, 1971; Schaps & Sanders,
1970; Seiden, Tomlinson, & O'Carroll, 1975).13

11
Booth, M. (2003). Cannabis: A history. New York, NY: Picador.         [ Links ]

12
Fergusson, D. M., Horwood, L. J., & Beautrais, A. L. (2003). Cannabis and educational
achievement. Addiction, 98(12), 1681-1692. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-
0443.2003.00573.x        [ Links ]

13
Boniatti, M. M., Zubaran, C., Panarotto, D., Delazeri, G. J., Tirello, J. L., Feldens, M. de O., &
Sperotto, V. F. R. (2007). The use of psychoactive substances among medical students in
southern Brazil. Drug and Alcohol Review, 26(3), 279-285. doi:
10.1080/09595230701247715        [ Links ]

Cox, R. G., Zhang, L., Johnson, W. D., & Bender, D. R. (2007). Academic performance and
substance use: Findings from a state survey of public high school students. Journal of School
Health, 77(3), 109-115. doi: 10.1111/j.1746-1561.2007.00179.x        [ Links ]
A review of the literature revealed a complexity of issues associated with truly understanding the
impact of Marijuana use on the individuals who use it, partly due to the influence of regulatory
systems on its lawfulness. Specifically, while historically Marijuana had numerous uses in
countries worldwide, this drug now tends largely to be addressed in relation to the legal systems
limiting its use (Booth, 2003; Hermes & Galperin, 1992; Marshall, 1988).14 Today, Marijuana is
classified as a Schedule I drug in the United States, (where its growth, importation, possession,
sale and use are all regulated at the federal level), even though individual states such as
Washington and Colorado have legalized its use by adults aged 21 and older (Healy, 2012).
Essentially, any substance that is used illegally brings with it the negative associations of a
stigma, thus diminishing a true understanding of the utility of its use based on classification. It
would, therefore, be valuable to look through other lenses to gain a clearer understanding of the
experiential reality of Marijuana use.

For example, it is believed that early Marijuana use may lead to an increased risk of adverse
cognitive and neurological sequelae (pathological condition) in adolescents, especially when
necessary structural changes are occurring in the brain (Solowij et al., 2011; Yucel et al., 2010). 15
While low academic achievement, depression and anxiety have all been associated with
adolescent use, the directionality of this relationship is nevertheless called into question by the
added consideration of social environment (Brook, Stimmel, Zhang, & Brook, 2008; Choo, Roh,
& Robinson, 2008; Marmorstein et al., 2010; Ryan, 2010). Research has shown that family,
community, and peer involvement serves to protect against adolescent use, such that youth with a
sense of safety and purpose may be less likely to try Marijuana or become heavy users (Dunn,
Kitts, Lewis, Goodrow, & Scherzer, 2011; Fredricks & Eccles, 2010; Lac et al., 2011; Nalls,

14
Booth, M. (2003). Cannabis: A history. New York, NY: Picador.         [ Links ]

15
Solowij, N., Jones, K. A., Rozman, M. E., Davis, S. M., Ciarrochi, J., Heaven, P. C., Lubman,
D. I., & Yücel, M. (2011). Verbal learning and memory in adolescent cannabis users, alcohol
users and non-users. Psychopharmacology, 216(1), 131-144. doi: 10.1007/ s00213-011-2203-
x        [ Links ]
Mullis, & Mullis, 2009). It is thus important to consider the power of environmental factors and
the impact these may have in the case of the individual, even while investigating either the
incidence or the experience of using Marijuana within specific age groups or populations.16

Marijuana use among college students, for instance, often begins in adolescence by the age of 16
and is associated with leaving school at the undergraduate level, although including factors such
as peers and family undermines this relationship (Fergusson et al.,2003; Gledhill-Hoyt, Lee,
Strote, & Wechsler, 2000).17

Patterns of use indicate that young adults with a family history of conflict, mental illness and
substance abuse are more likely to use Marijuana and to report psychological symptoms, since
their motives for use may be more oriented toward coping (Bonn-Miller, Vujanovic, &
Zvolensky, 2008; de Dios et al., 2010; Martinotti et al., 2011). While twin studies suggest that
environmental factors moderate the role of gene expression among young adult users, other
research highlights user attitudes and perceptions as highly influential in determining whether or
not users may experience Marijuana as harmful (Agrawal et al., 2010; Haberstick et al., 2011;
Palamar, Kiang, & Halkitis, 2012; Simons, Neal, & Gaher, 2006).

A relationship between mental illness and Marijuana use has been shown to have no specific
directionality, and studies investigating motives for Marijuana use suggest that it may be a means
of self-medicating rather than a catalyst for psychiatric symptoms (Latt et al., 2011; Machielsen,
van der Sluis, & de Haan, 2010; Schofield et al., 2006; Simonetto, Oxentenko, Herman, &
Szostek, 2012).18 As Marijuana use in all age categories is highly associated with tobacco and
16
Dunn, M. S., Kitts, C., Lewis, S., Goodrow, B., & Scherzer, G. D. (2011). Effects of youth
assets on adolescent alcohol, tobacco, marijuana use, and sexual behaviour. Journal of Alcohol
and Drug Education, 55(3), 23-40.         [ Links ]

17
Fergusson, D. M., Horwood, L. J., & Beautrais, A. L. (2003). Cannabis and educational
achievement. Addiction, 98(12), 1681-1692. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-
0443.2003.00573.x        [ Links ]

18
Latt, N., Jurd, S., Tennant, C., Lewis, J., Macken, L., Joseph, A., Grochulski, A., & Long, L.
(2011). Alcohol and substance use by patients with psychosis presenting to an emergency
department: Changing patterns. Australasian Psychiatry, 19(4), 354-359. doi:
alcohol use, it is difficult to isolate the root cause of any apparent psychological, relational,
and/or academic dysfunction among users (Brook, Lee, Finch, & Brown, 2010; Lopez-Quintero
et al., 2011; Reed, McCabe, Lange, Clapp, & Shillington, 2010). For example, while driving
under the influence of Marijuana may be more common than driving under the influence of
alcohol, Marijuana intoxication appears to engage compensatory neurological and psychological
systems and is not associated causally with a higher rate of mortality (McGuire, Dawe, Shield,
Rehm, & Fischer, 2011; Muhuri & Gfroerer, 2011; Schweinsburg, Schweinsburg, Nagel, Eyler,
& Tapert, 2010).

The focus of Marijuana-related research has primarily been on appraising a multitude of

dysfunctions in the user, often by measuring physical and mental health variables, and
behavioural patterns and performance. The literature reviews revealed that sample populations
usually comprise high school and college students, or individuals identified with either
psychiatric disorders or some other measurable form of debilitation and have rarely to date
included or specified populations of graduate students. Most often, hypotheses relate to negative
effects associated with Marijuana use. For example, the gateway hypothesis holds that Marijuana
use leads to the use and abuse of other drugs, such as cocaine and heroin. Subsequent studies
have, however, called the validity of this theory into question (Choo et al., 2008; Iversen, 2008;
Zimmer & Morgan, 1997). In addition, the literature tends to associate Marijuana use with
deviance and dysfunction, especially among school-aged youth and adults with psychological
symptoms (Finn, 2012; Legleye, Janssen, Beck, Chau, & Khlat, 2011; Machiel-sen, et al., 2010;
Riehman, Stephens, & Schurig, 2009; Scholes-Balog & Martin-Iverson, 2011).

It could be seen that most studies to date are quantitative investigations designed to test for the
role different variables play in various dysfunctions among Marijuana users. Qualitative studies
probing the Marijuana user's subjective experience have essentially been ignored (Hammersley
& Leon, 2006; Lorencova, 2011; Osborne & Fogel, 2008). In looking to measure the effects of
Marijuana use, quantitative approaches often fail to target specific populations of users. If one
were to assume, for example, that Marijuana users only dropped out of school, broke the law, or
were either incarcerated or institutionalized, graduate school would be an unlikely place to seek
10.3109/10398562.2011.579971        [ Links ]
out study participants. As Marijuana use continues to increase, it is necessary to diversify the
research questions accordingly, to investigate whether Marijuana users create a homogenous
group, and to invite a rich self-report of how users understand and navigate their use as they live
in the world. The studies reported here thus set out to explore the lived experience of graduate
students who use Marijuana.

Conclusion
The findings of the studies indicate that several protective, prosocial, and functional aspects of
Marijuana may motivate its use among graduate students. While research studies have most often
favoured topics involving measurable dysfunction and maladjustment, researchers have to date
neglected to look at Marijuana use within populations where functionality, performance and
achievement are relatively high. This may in part be because the response rate for studies of this
kind is low given that Marijuana use is illegal in most countries. Additional research questions
regarding the role of stereotype, stigma, and secrecy, and the relationship of these factors to
issues of legality and social tolerance, are ripe for the asking with regard to Marijuana use and
other "closeted" behaviours and practices among college students.19

A review of the literature was very useful and allowed the researcher to analyze the broad
spectrum of Marijuana use. With the knowledge garnered the researcher was able to answer most
of the objectives set out. The research question has been vastly reviewed by several researchers
and so the literature review lent credence to it, with the only limitations to the study being the
varying objectives and methodology.

19
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306460313003201A
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https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1455072517743427 26 July 2020

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4098711/ 26 July 2020

https://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1516-44462005000300006 26 July
2020

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10872981.2017.1392824 26 July 2020

https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/140/6/e20170982 26 July 2020

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2020

https://www.jahonline.org/article/S1054-139X(02)00445-7/fulltext 26 July 2020

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