Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
The cardiovascular system is a closed system of the heart and blood vessels. Wherein the
heart pumps blood and the blood vessels allow blood to circulate to all parts of the body.
The function of the cardiovascular system is to deliver oxygen and nutrients and to remove
carbon dioxide and other waste products.
THE HEART
The heart is approximately the size of a person’s fist, the hollow, cone-shaped heart weighs
less than a pound.
· The heart is in the thoracic cavity between the lungs, deep and slightly to the
left of the sternum.
· The base of the heart, located deep to the sternum, extends superiorly to the
second intercostal space, and the apex of the heart is located deep to the fifth
intercostal space, approximately 7–9 cm to the left of the sternum where the
midclavicular line intersects with the fifth intercostal space.
o Fibrous pericardium – the tough, fibrous connective tissue outer layer which
helps protect the heart and anchors it to surrounding structures, such as the
diaphragm and sternum.
o Serous pericardium - the inner layer of flat epithelial cells, with a thin layer of
connective tissue which is consists of two layers.
· Right and left ventricles - extend from the base of the heart toward the apex and are
discharging chambers. The right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary trunk, and the
left ventricle, which has a thicker wall, pumps blood into the aorta.
The septum that divides the heart longitudinally is referred to as either the i nterventricular
septum or the interatrial septum, depending on which chamber it separates.
External Anatomy
· The atria are separated externally from the ventricles by the coronary sulcus. The
right and left ventricles are separated externally by the interventricular sulci.
· The inferior and superior vena cava enter the right atrium. The four pulmonary
veins enter the left atrium.
· The pulmonary trunk exits the right ventricle, and the aorta exits the left
ventricle.
Heart Valves
The heart is equipped with four valves, which allow blood to flow in only one direction through
the heart chambers—from the atria through the ventricles and out the great arteries leaving the
heart.
· Atrioventricular valves - are located between the atrial and ventricular chambers
on each side. These valves prevent backflow into the atria when the ventricles
contract.
o Tricuspid valve - has three flaps and separates the right atrium and the right
ventricle.
Tiny white cords, the chordae tendineae anchor the flaps to the walls of the ventricles.
· Semilunar valves - guards the bases of the two large arteries leaving the ventricular
chambers.
o Pulmonary valves
o Aortic valves
Coronary Circulation
Although the heart chambers are bathed with blood almost continuously, the blood contained
in the heart does not nourish the myocardium.
§T
he functional blood supply that oxygenates and nourishes the heart is provided
§ The coronary arteries branch from the base of the aorta and encircle the heart in the
coronary sulcus (atrioventricular groove) at the junction of the atria and ventricles.
§ T
he coronary sinus, in turn, empties into the right atrium.
o The left coronary artery has three major branches: the anterior
o The r ight coronary artery has two major branches: the posterior
interventricular and the right marginal arteries.
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HEART
Cardiac Cycle
The term cardiac cycle refers to the events of one complete heartbeat, during which both
atria and ventricles contract and then relax. Systole and diastole mean heart contraction
and relaxation, respectively.
· Mid-to-late diastole. The atria contract and force the blood remaining in their
chambers into the ventricles.
· Ventricular systole. Blood pressure builds before ventricle contracts, pushing out
blood. The atria are relaxed, and their chambers are again filling with blood.
· Early diastole. The atria finish re-filling and ventricular pressure is low.
Heart Sounds
When using a stethoscope, you can hear two distinct sounds during each cardiac cycle.
These heart sounds are often described by the two syllables “lub” and “dup”.
· The first heart sound (lub) is caused by the closing of the AV valves.
· The second heart sound (dup) occurs when the semilunar valves close at the end
of systole. The first heart sound is longer and louder than the second heart sound,
which tends to be short and sharp.
Abnormal heart sounds, called murmurs, can result from incompetent (leaky) valves or
stenosed (narrowed) valves.
Cardiac Output
Cardiac output (CO) is the amount of blood pumped out by each side of the heart (actually
each ventricle) in 1 minute. It is the product of the heart rate (HR) and the stroke volume (SV).
o CO = HR x SV
· Stroke volume is the volume of blood pumped out by a ventricle with each
heartbeat.
Cardiac output varies with the demands of the body. It rises when the stroke volume is
increased or the heart beats faster or both; it drops when either or both of these factors
decrease.
BLOOD VESSELS
Blood circulates inside the blood vessels, which form a closed transport system, the so-called
vascular system. There are five types of blood vessels: arteries, arterioles, capillaries,
venules, and veins.
· The heart pumps blood through elastic arteries, muscular arteries, and arterioles
to the capillaries.
· Blood returns to the heart from the capillaries through venules, small veins,
medium-sized veins, and large veins.
· Except for capillaries and venules, blood vessels have three layers:
o Tunica externa - the most superficial layer, is formed of dense irregular
connective tissue that includes both collagen and elastic fibers. Its function is
basically to support and protect the vessels.
o Tunica media - the middle layer, usually is the thickest layer. It consists of
smooth muscle cells that encircle the blood vessel. It supports and produces
changes in the diameter of the blood vessel by contraction or relaxation.
o Tunica Intima - the deepest layer, forms the internal lining of blood vessels. It
consists of a simple squamous epithelium, called the endothelium, supported
by thin layers of areolar connective tissue containing elastic and collagen
fibers.
Arteries
· Large, elastic arteries have many elastic fibers but little smooth muscle in their walls.
They carry blood from the heart to smaller arteries with little decrease in
pressure.
· The walls of muscular arteries have much smooth muscle and some elastic fibers.
They undergo vasodilation and vasoconstriction to control blood flow to
different regions of the body.
· Arterioles, the smallest arteries, have smooth muscle cells and a few elastic fibers.
They undergo vasodilation and vasoconstriction to control blood flow to local areas.
Veins
· Venules are composed of endothelium surrounded by a basement membrane.
· Small veins are venules covered with a layer of smooth muscle and a layer of
connective tissue.
· Medium-sized and large veins contain less smooth muscle and fewer elastic fibers
than arteries of the same size.
· Valves prevent the backflow of blood in the veins
· Veins use the milking action of muscles to help move blood
Capillaries
· Capillaries consist of only endothelium and are
surrounded by a basement membrane and loose
connective tissue.
vessels
PULMONARY CIRCULATION
Blood travels to the lungs to pick up oxygen and release carbon dioxide. As the blood moves
from the heart, to the lungs, and back again, it proceeds as follows:
1. Unoxygenated blood travels from the right ventricle through the pulmonic
valve into the pulmonary arteries.
2. Blood passes through progressively smaller arteries and arterioles into the
capillaries of the lungs.
3. Blood reaches the alveoli and exchanges carbon dioxide for oxygen.
4. Oxygenated blood then returns via venules and veins to the pulmonary veins,
which carry it back to the heart’s left atrium.
SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
Blood pumped from the left ventricle carries oxygen and other nutrients to body cells and
transports waste products for excretion.
The major artery, the aorta, branches into vessels that supply specific organs and areas of the
body.
The aorta springs upward from the left ventricle of the heart as the ascending aorta, arches to
the left as the aortic arch, and then plunges downward through the thorax, following the spine
(thoracic aorta) finally to pass through the diaphragm into the abdominopelvic cavity, where it
becomes the abdominal aorta.
Most deep veins follow the course of the major arteries, and with a few exceptions, the naming
of these veins is identical to that of their companion arteries.
The veins converge on the venae cavae, which enter the right atrium of the heart.
Veins draining the head and arms empty into the superior vena cava, and those draining the
lower body empty into the inferior vena cava.
The brain is supplied by two pairs of arteries, the internal carotid arteries and the vertebral
arteries.
The vertebral arteries join to form the basilar artery.
Branches of the internal carotid arteries and the basilar artery supply blood to the brain and
complete a circle of arteries around the
pituitary gland and the base of the brain called the cerebral
arterial circle (circle of Willis).
· The liver is a key body organ involved in maintaining the proper glucose, fat, and
protein concentrations in the blood.
· The veins of the hepatic portal circulation drain the digestive organs, spleen, and
pancreas and deliver this blood to the liver through the hepatic portal vein.
· As blood flows slowly through the liver, some of the nutrients are removed to be
stored or processed in various ways for later release to the blood. The liver is
drained by the hepatic veins that enter the inferior vena cava.
Fetal Circulation
Because the lungs and digestive system are not yet functioning in a fetus, all nutrient, excretory,
and gas exchanges occur through the placenta.
Nutrients and oxygen move from the mother’s blood into the fetal blood, and fetal wastes move
in the opposite direction.
The umbilical cord contains three blood vessels: one large umbilical vein and two smaller
umbilical arteries.
· The umbilical vein carries blood rich in nutrients and oxygen to the fetus.
· The umbilical arteries carry carbon dioxide and debris-laden blood from the fetus to
the placenta.
The immature liver is mostly bypassed through the ductus venosus which enters the inferior
vena cava.
PHYSIOLOGY OF CIRCULATION
Adequate blood flow is required to provide nutrients and O2 to the tissues and to remove the
waste products of metabolism from the tissues. A fairly good
indication of the efficiency of a person’s circulatory system can be
obtained by taking arterial pulse and blood pressure
measurements.
Arterial blood pressure (BP) is directly related to cardiac output (CO) and peripheral resistance
(PR).
BP = CO x PR
· Peripheral Resistance is the amount of friction the blood encounters as it flows
through the blood vessels.
o Neural factors: the autonomic nervous system.
§ The major action of the sympathetic nerves on the vascular system is to
cause vasoconstriction, or narrowing of the blood vessels, which
increases the blood pressure.
o Renal Factors: the kidneys.
§ The kidneys play a major role in regulating arterial blood pressure by
altering blood volume.
§ When arterial blood pressure is low, certain kidney cells release the
enzyme renin into the blood. Renin triggers a series of chemical
reactions that result in the formation of angiotensin II, a potent
vasoconstrictor chemical.
o Temperature.
§ Cold has a vasoconstricting effect.
§ Heat has a vasodilating effect.
o Chemicals.
§ Various substances can cause increases or decreases (e.g.
Blood pressure varies considerably from one person to another and cycles over a 24-hour
period. It also varies with age, weight, race, mood, physical activity, and posture.
§ Normal - Systolic blood pressure varies between 110 and 140 mm Hg, and diastolic
pressure between 70 and 80 mm Hg.
shock, a condition in which the blood vessels are inadequately filled and
lood loss.
blood cannot circulate normally. The most common cause is b
The substances to be exchanged diffuse through an intervening space between cells filled with
interstitial fluid (tissue fluid). Substances entering or leaving the blood may take one of four
routes across the plasma membranes of the single layer of endothelial cells forming the
capillary wall.
1. Direct diffusion through membrane - substances can diffuse directly through
(cross) their plasma membranes if the substances are lipid-soluble. (e.g. oxygen and
carbon dioxide)
2. Diffusion through intercellular clefts - Limited passage of fluid and small solutes is
allowed by intercellular clefts
3. Diffusion through pores - Very free passage of small solutes and fluids is allowed
by fenestrated capillaries. These unique capillaries are found where absorption is a
priority (intestinal capillaries or capillaries serving endocrine glands) or where
filtration occurs (the kidney).
4. Transport via vesicles - Certain lipid-insoluble substances may enter or leave the
blood and/ or pass through the plasma membranes of endothelial cells within
vesicles, that is, by endocytosis or exocytosis.
Fluid moves out of or into capillaries according to the net difference between blood pressure
and osmotic pressure. Solutes diffuse out of or into capillaries according to each solute’s
concentration gradient.
BLOOD
Blood is unique: It is the only fluid tissue in the body. Although blood appears to be a thick,
homogeneous liquid, the microscope reveals that it has both solid and liquid components.
Functions of Blood
· Blood transports gases, nutrients, waste products, processed molecules, and
regulatory molecules.
· Blood regulates pH as well as fluid and ion balance.
· Blood is involved with temperature regulation and protects against foreign
substances, such as microorganisms and toxins.
· Blood clotting prevents fluid and cell loss and is part of tissue repair.
Blood is a complex connective tissue in which living blood cells, the formed elements, are
suspended in a nonliving fluid matrix called plasma.
· It is composed of plasma (55%) and formed elements (45%). Red blood cells
constitute nearly all of the formed elements.
· It is heavier and about five times more viscous than water, and it is slightly alkaline
(pH between 7.35 – 7.45).
· About 8% of the body weight consists of blood and blood volume ranges between 4
and 6 liters.
·
Depending on the amount of oxygen it is carrying, the color of blood varies from scarlet
(oxygen-rich) to a dull red (oxygen-poor).
PLASMA
Plasma, the liquid portion of the blood, consists of over 90% water along with a variety of
solutes, including nutrients, nitrogenous wastes, proteins, electrolytes, and respiratory gases.
Plasma proteins are the most abundant solutes in plasma. There are three major types of
plasma proteins:
· Albumins are most numerous. Their major
functions include the transport of hydrophobic
substances and helping to maintain the
osmotic pressure and pH of the blood.
· Alpha and beta globulins transport lipids and
lipid-soluble vitamins. Gamma globulins are
antibodies that are involved in immunity.
· Fibrinogen is a soluble protein that is
converted into insoluble fibrin during
coagulation.
FORMED ELEMENTS
Erythrocytes
Erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBCs) are biconcave discs that lack nuclei and other organelles
and contain a large amount of hemoglobin.
Their primary function is the transport of respiratory gases.
Hemoglobin, an iron-bearing protein, transports the bulk of the oxygen that is carried in the
blood and it also binds with a small amount of carbon dioxide
· RBCs are unable to synthesize proteins, grow, or divide. They live about 120 days
before they are destroyed by macrophages in the spleen and liver. Hemoglobin is
broken down, iron and amino acids are reused, and heme becomes bilirubin that is
secreted in bile.
· The rate of production is controlled by the oxygen concentration of the blood via a
negative-feedback mechanism. A decreased oxygen concentration stimulates kidney
and liver cells to release erythropoietin, which stimulates increased production of
RBCs by red bone marrow.
Leukocytes
Leukocytes, or white blood cells (WBCs) are the only complete cells in blood; that is, they
contain nuclei and the usual organelles. White blood cells protect the body against
microorganisms and remove dead cells and debris. They are able to move into and out of blood
vessels (diapedesis) and most of their activities occur within body tissues. WBCs are classified
into two major groups:
o Granulocytes have visible cytoplasmic granules.
§ Neutrophils - are the most numerous of the WBCs. These phagocytic cells
engulf, ingest, and digest foreign materials. Neutrophils are the first cells
to arrive at the site of injury.
§ Eosinophils - help to reduce inflammation and destroy parasitic worms.
§ Basophils - have histamine-containing granules which initiates
inflammation.
o Agranulocytes lack visible cytoplasmic granules.
§ Lymphocytes - are involved in antibody production and other immune
system responses.
§ Monocytes - become macrophages that ingest microorganisms and
cellular debris.
· The formation of leukocytes is stimulated by hormones.
· Colony stimulating factors (CSFs) and interleukins which are released in response to
specific chemical signals in the environment, such as inflammatory chemicals and
certain bacteria or their toxins to prompt red bone marrow to turn out leukocytes.
Platelets
Platelets are small, colorless, disk-shaped cytoplasmic fragments split from cells in bone
marrow called megakaryocytes. These fragments, which have a life span of approximately 10
days, perform three vital functions:
o initiating contraction of damaged blood vessels to minimize blood loss
o forming hemostatic plugs in injured blood vessels
o with plasma, providing materials that accelerate blood coagulation
Undesirable Clotting
Undesirable clotting may be caused by anything that roughens the endothelium of a blood
vessel and encourages clinging of platelets, such as severe burns, physical blows, or an
accumulation of fatty material.
· Thrombus – is a clot that develops and persists in an unbroken blood vessel. If the
thrombus is large enough, it may prevent blood from flowing to the cells beyond the
blockage.
· Embolus – is a thrombus that breaks away from the vessel wall and floats freely in
the bloodstream. These emboli can later clog vessels in critical areas such as the
brain.
proteins
· Nonsteroid Hormone Action
o Hormone binds to a membrane receptor
o Hormone does not enter the cell
o Sets off a series of reactions that activates
an enzyme
o Catalyzes a reaction that produces a second
messenger molecule
o Oversees additional intracellular changes to
promote a specific response
(HUMORAL)
§ Capillary blood contains low concentration of Ca2+, which
stimulates…secretion of parathyroid hormone (PTH) by parathyroid
gland
o Neural Stimuli of Endocrine Glands (NEURAL)
§ Nerve impulses stimulate hormone release
§ Most are under control of the sympathetic nervous[u1] system
- Preganglionic SNS fiber stimulates adrenal medulla cells to
secrete catecholamines
· Major Endrocrine Organs
o Pineal Gland
o Hypothalamus
o Pituitary Gland
o Thyroid Gland
o Adrenal Glands
o Ovary (female)
o Testis (male)
· Pituitary Gland
o Size of a grape
o Hangs by a stalk from the hypothalamus
o Protected by the sphenoid bone
o Has two functional lobes
§ Anterior pituitary – glandular tissue
§ Posterior pituitary – nervous tissue
o Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
§ Six anterior pituitary hormones
· Two affect non-endocrine targets
· Four stimulate other endocrine glands (tropic hormones)
§ Characteristics of all anterior pituitary hormones
· Proteins (or peptides)
· Act through second-messenger systems
· Regulated by hormonal stimuli, mostly negative feedback
§ Growth Hormone (GH)
· General metabolic hormone
· Major effects are directed to growth of skeletal muscles and
long bones
· Causes amino acids to be built into proteins
· Causes fats to be broken down for a source of energy
§ Functions of Other Anterior Pituitary Hormones
· Prolactin (PRL)
o Stimulates and maintains milk production following
childbirth
o Function in males is unknown
· Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
o Regulates endocrine activity of the adrenal cortex
· Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
o Influences growth and activity of the thyroid
· Gonadotropic hormones
o Regulate hormonal activity of the gonads
§ F ollicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
o R
oles of the Hypothalamus and Adrenal Glands in the Stress Response
Pancreatic Islets
o The pancreas is a mixed gland
o The islets of the pancreas produce hormones
§ Insulin – allows glucose to cross plasma membranes into cells from
beta cells
§ Glucagon – allows glucose to enter the blood from alpha cells
§ These hormones are antagonists that maintain blood sugar
homeostasis
o Pancreatic Hormones and Blood Sugar
· Pineal Gland
o Found on the third ventricle of the brain
o Secretes melatonin
§ Helps establish the body’s wake and sleep cycles
§ May have other as-yet-unsubstantiated functions
· Thymus
o Located posterior to the sternum
o Largest in infants and children
o Produces thymosin
§ Matures some types of white blood cells
§ Important in developing the immune system
· Hormones of the Ovaries
o Estrogens
§ Produced by Graafian follicles or the placenta
§ Stimulates the development of secondary female characteristics
§ Matures female reproductive organs
§ Helps prepare the uterus to receive a fertilized egg
§ Helps maintain pregnancy
§ Prepares the breasts to produce milk
o Progesterone
§ Produced by the corpus luteum
§ Acts with estrogen to bring about the menstrual cycle
§ Helps in the implantation of an embryo in the uterus
· Hormones of the Testes
o Interstitial cells of testes are hormone-producing
o Produce several androgens
o Testosterone is the most important androgen
§ Responsible for adult male secondary sex characteristics
§ Promotes growth and maturation of male reproductive system
§ Required for sperm cell production
· Other Hormone-Producing Tissues and Organs
o Parts of the small intestine
o Parts of the stomach
o Kidneys
o Heart
o Many other areas have scattered endocrine cells
· Endocrine Function of the Placenta
o Produces hormones that maintain the pregnancy
o Some hormones play a part in the delivery of the baby
o Produces HCG in addition to estrogen, progesterone, and other hormones
· Developmental Aspects of the Endocrine System
o Most endocrine organs operate smoothly until old age
§ Menopause is brought about by lack of efficiency of the ovaries
§ Problems associated with reduced estrogen are common
§ Growth hormone production declines with age
§ Many endocrine glands decrease output with age
THE NERVOUS SYTEM
Structural Classification
Two subdivisions
•The central nervous system (CNS) - consists of the brain and spinal cord, which occupy
the dorsal body cavity and act as the integrating and command centers of the nervous
system.
•The peripheral nervous system (PNS) - is the part of the nervous system outside the
CNS. It consists mainly of the nerves that extend from the brain and spinal cord.
Neurons - also called nerve cells, are highly specialized to transmit messages (nerve
impulses) from one part of the body to another. All neurons have a cell body, which
contains the nucleus and is the metabolic center of the cell, and one or more slender
processes extending from the cell body
Terminology
Functional classification groups neurons according to the direction the nerve impulse is traveling
relative to the CNS.
Sensory (afferent) neurons - Neurons carrying impulses from sensory receptors (in the
internal organs or the skin) to the CNS.
-The cell bodies of sensory neurons are always found in a ganglion outside the CNS.
-Their dendrites are associated with sensory receptors or are specialized to detect
changes directly.
-Most sensory neurons are unipolar neurons, although bipolar neurons are found in
special sense organs.
Cutaneous sense organs - sensory receptors in the skin
Proprioceptors - sensory receptors in the muscles and tendons which detect stretch
or tension
Motor (efferent) neurons - Neurons carrying impulses from the CNS to the viscera and/or
muscles and glands.
- Their cell bodies and dendrites are located within the CNS, while their axons are
located in cranial and spinal nerves.
- Motor neurons are multipolar neurons.
Interneurons (association neurons) - They connect the motor and sensory neurons in
neural pathways.Their cell bodies are typically located in the CNS. They are responsible
for the processing and interpretation of nerve impulses by the CNS.
Nerve Impulse
Resting membrane is polarized.
In the resting state, the external face of the membrane is slightly positive;
its internal face is slightly negative.
The chief extracellular ion is sodium (Na+), whereas the chief intracellular
ion is potassium (K+).
The membrane is relatively impermeable to both ions.
Stimulus initiates local depolarization.
A stimulus changes the permeability of a local "patch" of the membrane,
and sodium ions diffuse rapidly into the cell.
This changes the polarity of the membrane (the inside becomes more
positive; the outside becomes more negative) at that site.
Depolarization and generation of an action potential.
If the stimulus is strong enough, depolarization causes membrane polarity
to be completely reversed and an action potential is initiated.
Propagation of the action potential.
Depolarization of the first membrane patch causes permeability changes
in the adjacent membrane, and the events described in local
depolarization (2) are repeated. Thus, the action potential propagates
rapidly along the entire length of the membrane.
Repolarization.
Potassium ions diffuse out of the cell as the membrane permeability
changes again, restoring the negative charge on the inside of the
membrane and the positive charge on the outside surface.
Repolarization occurs in the same direction as depolarization.
Initial ionic conditions restored.
The ionic conditions of the resting state are restored later by the activity of
the sodium-potassium pump.
Three sodium ions are ejected for every two potassium ions carried back
into the cell.
Physiology: Reflexes
Reflexes are rapid, predictable, and involuntary responses to stimuli. Reflexes occur over neural
pathways called reflex arcs and involve both CNS and PNS structures.
Reflex arcs can be a two-neuron reflex arc (involves the synapses) or a three-neuron reflex
arc (involves an interneuron).
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The CNS includes the brain and the spinal cord. Encased by the bones of the skull and
vertebral column, the CNS is protected by the CSF and the meninges.
BRAIN
The brain is the largest and most complex mass of nervous tissue in the body. Four major
regions of the brain include:
Cerebral Hemispheres (cerebrum) - The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It houses
the nerve center that controls sensory and motor activities and intelligence.
• The entire surface of the cerebral hemispheres exhibits elevated ridges of tissue
called gyri.
• It is separated by shallow grooves called sulci.
• The deeper grooves which separate large regions of the brain are called fissures.
• The cerebral hemispheres are separated by a single deep fissure called the
longitudinal fissure.
• Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into four lobes, based on anatomic landmarks
and functional differences.
• These lobes— the frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital—are named for the
cranial bones that lie over them.
• The cerebrum interprets sensations; initiates voluntary motor responses; and is
involved in will, personality traits, and intellectual processes.
• The left cerebral hemisphere is dominant in most people.
•
• Each cerebral hemisphere has three basic regions:
Cerebral Cortex (Gray matter) - Speech, memory, logical and emotional
response, as well as consciousness, interpretation of sensation, and
voluntary movement, are all functions of neurons of the cerebral cortex.
• Sensory areas occur in the parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes.
• Motor areas occur in the frontal lobe.
• Association areas occur in all lobes of the cerebrum.
Cerebral White Matter - is composed of fiber tracts carrying impulses to, from,
or within the cortex.
• The corpus callosum arches above the structures of the brain stem
and allows the cerebral hemispheres to communicate with one
another.
• Association fiber tracts connect areas within a hemisphere.
• Projection fiber tracts connect the cerebrum with lower CNS
centers.
Basal Nuclei – are several patches of gray matter buried deep within the
white matter of the cerebral hemispheres.Help regulate voluntary motor
activities by modifying instructions sent to the skeletal muscles by the
primary motor cortex.
Diencephalon - sits atop the brain stem and is enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres. The
major structures of the diencephalon are:
The thalamus - is a relay station for sensory impulses passing upward to the sensory cortex.
Encloses the shallow third ventricle of the brain.
As impulses surge through the thalamus, we have a crude recognition of
whether the sensation we are about to have is pleasant or unpleasant.
Brain Stem - The brain stem lies immediately below the cerebrum, just in front of the
cerebellum. It continues from the cerebrum above and connects with the spinal cord
below. The brain stem consists of:
The midbrain - It extends from the mammillary bodies to the pons inferiorly.
The cerebral peduncles – Has two bulging fiber tracts that convey ascending
and descending impulses and is located anterior of the midbrain.
The corpora quadrigemina - Has four rounded protrusions and are reflex
centers involved with vision and hearing and is located dorsal of the
midbrain.
The pons - is the rounded structure that protrudes just below the midbrain.
Involved in the control of breathing.
The medulla oblongata - is the most inferior part of the brain stem. It merges into the
spinal cord below without any obvious change in structure.
The area where the important pyramidal tracts cross over to the opposite
side.
Contains many nuclei that regulate vital visceral activities.
The medulla oblongata contains three integration centers that are vital for
homeostasis:
• The respiratory rhythmicity center controls the basic rhythm of
breathing by triggering each cycle of inhale and exhale. It is also
involved in associated reflexes such as coughing and sneezing.
• The cardiac control center regulates the rate and force of heart
contractions.
• The vasomotor center regulates blood pressure and blood flow by
controlling the diameter of blood vessels.
The fourth ventricle lies posterior to the pons and medulla and anterior to the
cerebellum.
Reticular Formation - is a diffuse mass of gray matter extending the entire length of
the brain stem
Involved in motor control of the visceral organs.
Reticular activating system plays a role in awake/sleep cycles and
consciousness
Cerebellum - is the brain’s second largest region. It lies behind and below the cerebrum.
Like the cerebrum, the cerebellum has two hemispheres, a convoluted surface, outer
cortex made up of gray matter and an inner region of white matter.
Provides the precise timing for skeletal muscle activity and controls our balance and
equilibrium.
PROTECTION OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Nervous tissue is very soft and delicate, and the irreplaceable neurons are injured by even the
slightest pressure. To protect the brain and spinal cord, they are enclosed within bones (the
skull and vertebral column), membranes (the meninges), and a watery cushion (cerebrospinal
fluid).
Meninges - the three connective tissue membranes covering and protecting the CNS
structures.
Dura mater - is a double-layered membrane where it surrounds the brain and is the
outermost layer.
Periosteum (periosteal layer) - attached to the inner surface of the skull.
Meningeal layer - forms the outermost covering of the brain and continues as the dura mater
of the spinal cord.
The dural layers are fused together except in three areas where they separate to enclose
dural venous sinuses that collect venous blood.
The inner dural membrane extends inward to form a fold that attaches the brain to the
cranial cavity.
Arachnoid mater - is a thin, web-like membrane and is the middle meningeal layer.
Between the pia mater and the arachnoid mater is the subarachnoid space,
which contains cerebrospinal fluid.
Specialized projections of the arachnoid membrane, arachnoid villi, protrude
through the dura mater.
Pia mater – is the very thin, deepest membrane.
It tightly envelops both the brain and the spinal cord and penetrates into each
groove and depression.
It contains many blood vessels that nourish the underlying brain and spinal
cord.
•Cerebrospinal Fluid - is a clear, colorless body fluid found in the brain and spinal cord.
o
oSimilar makeup to blood plasma but contains less protein and more vitamin C, and
its ion composition is different.
oFormed by the choroid plexus
oForms a watery cushion to protect the brain
oCirculated in arachnoid space, ventricles, and central canal of the spinal cord
oThe Blood-Brain Barrier - neurons are kept separated from bloodborne substances by the
blood-brain barrier that is composed of the least permeable capillaries in the whole body.
oMetabolic wastes, such as urea, toxins, proteins, and most drugs, are prevented
from entering the brain tissue.
oWater, glucose, and essential amino acids pass easily through the walls of these
capillaries.
oThe blood-brain barrier is useless against fats, respiratory gases, and other fat-
soluble molecules that diffuse easily through all plasma membranes.
This explains why bloodborne alcohol, nicotine, and anesthetics can affect
the brain.
SPINAL CORD
The spinal cord is a cylindrical structure in the vertebral canal that extends from the foramen
magnum at the base of the skull to the upper lumbar region of the vertebral column.
oWhite matter – surrounds the gray matter and contains ascending and descending tracts of
myelinated and unmyelinated axons.
oThe central canal extends the length of the spinal cord and contains CSF.
Spinal Nerves
The 31 pairs of human spinal nerves are formed by the combination of the ventral and dorsal
roots of the spinal cord.
•Spinal nerves are named for the region from which they arise.
•Each spinal nerve divides into dorsal and ventral rami.
•The rami contain both motor and sensory fibers.
Autonomic Nervous System
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) consists of portions of the central and peripheral nervous
systems and functions without conscious control.
•Consists of two motor neurons
opreganglionic neuron
opostganglionic neuron
oDivided into two divisions:
oSympathetic division - mobilizes the body during extreme situations. Often referred
to as the “fight-or-flight” system.
Nerves of the sympathetic division arise from the thoracic (T1) and lumbar
(L2) segments of the spinal cord
Short pre-ganglionic neuron and long postganglionic neuron transmit
impulse from CNS to the effector
Norepinephrine and epinephrine are neurotransmitters to the effector
organs
Remember as the “E” division = exercise, excitement, emergency, and
embarrassment
• Choroid Layer
o Blood-rich nutritive tunic
o Pigment prevents light from scattering (opaque- blocks light from getting in, has melanin)
o Modified interiorly into two structures
§ Cilliary body – smooth muscle (contracts to adjust the shape of the lens)
§ Iris- pigmented layer that gives eye color (contracts to adjust the size of the pupil-
regulates entry of light into the eye)
§ Pupil – rounded opening in the iris
• Sensory Tunic (Retina)
o Contains receptor cells (photoreceptors)
§ Rods
§ Cones
o Signals leave the retina toward the brain through the optic nerve
• VISUAL PIGMENTS
o Rhodopsin- visual purple, in high concentration in RODS
o Composed of opsin and retinal (a derivative of vitamin A) proteins
o When light hits the protein it “bleaches”- turns yellow and then colorless. It straightens
out and breaks down into opsin and retinal.
o There are three different other opsins beside rhodopsin, with absorption for yellowish-
green (photopsin I), green (photopsin II), and bluish-violet (photopsin III) light.
• COLORBLINDNESS
o An inherited trait that is transferred on the sex chromosomes (23rd pair)- sex-linked trait
o Occurs more often in males
o Cannot be cured or corrected
o Comes from a lack of one or more types of color receptors.
o Most are green or red or both and that is due to a lack of red receptors.
o Another possibility is to have the color receptors missing entirely, which would result in black
and white vision.
Lens
• Biconvex crystal-like structure
• Held in place by a suspensory ligament attached to the ciliary body
• Refracts light greatly
Internal Eye Chamber Fluids
• Aqueous humor
o Watery fluid found in chamber between the lens and cornea
o Similar to blood plasma
o Helps maintain intraocular pressure
o Provides nutrients for the lens and cornea
o Reabsorbed into venous blood through the canal of Schlemm
o Refracts light slightly
MYOPIA
• Nearsightedness, or myopia is the difficulty of seeing objects at a distance.
• Myopia occurs when the eyeball is slightly longer than usual from front to back. This causes light
rays to focus at a point in front of the retina, rather than directly on its surface.
• Concave lenses are used to correct the problem.
HYPEROPIA
• Hyperopia, or farsightedness, is when light entering the eye focuses behind the retina.
• Hyperoptic eyes are shorter than normal.
• Hyperopia is treated using a convex lens.
Images Formed on the Retina
• If the image is focused at the spot where the optic disk is located, nothing will be seen. This is
known as the blind spot. There are no photoreceptors there, as nerves and blood vessels pass
through this point.
Visual Pathway
• Photoreceptors of the retina
• Optic nerve
• Optic nerve crosses at the optic chiasma
• Optic tracts
• Thalamus (axons form optic radiation)
• Visual cortex of the occipital lobe
Eye Reflexes
• Internal muscles are controlled by the autonomic nervous system
o Bright light causes pupils to constrict through action of radial (iris) and ciliary
muscles
o Viewing close objects causes accommodation
• External muscles control eye movement to follow objects- voluntary, controlled at the
frontal eye field
• Viewing close objects causes convergence (eyes moving medially)
Anatomy of the Ear
Anatomy of the Ear
• The ear is divided into three areas
• Outer (external) ear
• Middle ear
• Inner ear
The External Ear
• Involved in hearing only
• Structures of the external ear
o Pinna (auricle)- collects sound
o External auditory canal- channels sound inward
• The External Auditory Canal
o Narrow chamber in the temporal bone- through the external auditory meatus
o Lined with skin
o Ceruminous (wax) glands are present
o Ends at the tympanic membrane (eardrum)
• The Middle Ear or Tympanic Cavity
o Air-filled cavity within the temporal bone
o Only involved in the sense of hearing
Mechanisms of Hearing
• Vibrations from sound waves move tectorial membrane (pass through the endolymph fluid filling
the membranous labyrinth in the cochlear duct)
• Hair cells are bent by the membrane
• An action potential starts in the cochlear nerve
• The signal is transmitted to the midbrain (for auditory reflexes and then directed to the auditory
cortex of the temporal lobe)
• Continued stimulation can lead to adaptation (over stimulation to the brain makes it stop
interpreting the sounds)
Organs of Equilibrium
• Receptor cells are in two structures
o Vestibule
o Semicircular canals
• Equilibrium has two functional parts
o Static equilibrium- in the vestibule
o Dynamic equilibrium- in the semicircular canals
Static Equilibrium
• Maculae – receptors in the vestibule
o Report on the position of the head
o Send information via the vestibular nerve
• Anatomy of the maculae
o Hair cells are embedded in the otolithic membrane
o Otoliths (tiny stones) float in a gel around the hair cells
o Function: Movements cause otoliths to bend the hair cells (gravity moves the
“rocks” over and pulls the hairs)
• Dynamic Equilibrium
o Whole structure is the ampulla
o Crista ampullaris – receptors in the semicircular canals
• Tuft of hair cells
o Action of angular head movements
• The cupula stimulates the hair cells
• Movement of endolymph pushes the cupula over and pulls the hairs
• An impulse is sent via the vestibular nerve to the cerebellum