284

CHAPTER (6)
Meditations: In Other Traditions
6.1. Introduction
We have elaboratively discussed about the Buddhist method and

theory of meditation and how Moe Gok Sayadaw has interpreted and

preached it without deviating from the original Pali texts. In this chapter

we propose to present the same as discussed in the other traditions, namely

Jainism and Hinduism. The theory and method of Yoga and meditation

method in particular as employed by the Hindu philosophers must be

recorded here. ' Yoga' having meditation as its prime object developed to

an independent system in Indian philosophy. But due to my limited access

the Sanskrit and Prakrit texts, I shall present here a short account of

meditation of these two traditions on the basis of secondary sources. Let

me start with the Jain philosophy first.

6.2. Dhyana: A Jain Perspective /

Jainism was born on the intellectual soil of India and it is still

flourishing within the boundary of it. It is regarded that Jainism is older

than Buddhism. Jainism was founded by Mahavlra. They have employed

the term Dhyana for meditation. Jainism has given much importance to

meditation is a means to attend liberation.

Dhyana means the instrument of attaining the ultimate goal of human

existence-i.e. liberation and it is defined as the concentration of mind on a

 285

particular object. In this ciiapter an attempt is made to present a picture of

the physics and chemistry of Yoga in the light of Jain philosophy based on
TOM

some Jain philosophical texts and tradition.

6.2.1. Classification of Dhyana

Subhacandara classifies Dhyana into Prasasta and Aprasasta. The former

represents the psychological view where as the latter, the practical or

ethical view. The former category is divided into two types, namely,

Dharma-Dhyana and Sukla-Dhyana and the latter, also into two types,

namely, Arta-Dhyana and Raudra-Dhyana?"^^^

The Prasasta category of Dhyana has been deemed to be potent

enough to make the aspirant realize the emancipated status. On the

contrary, the Aprasasta one forces the mundane being to experience

worldly suffering. Thus those who yearn for liberation should abjure Arta

and Raudra Dhyana and embrace Dharma and Sukla ones.^^'

6.2.1.1. Aprasasta Dhyana (Non-virtuous Meditation)

It can be divided into two types, namely arta dhyana (sorrowful

meditation) and raudra dhyana (inclement meditation). Herein, the world

arta implies anguish and affliction, and the dwelling of the mind on the

thoughts resulting from such a distressed state of mind is to be regarded as

''' Raiava.Viil/-i.p.27,
-'"' Karti.p.469; Talvarlhasa,Vol.y.p.2S.
•" ' Saravtha.Vol.O.p.Z'): Tlvanuuasana.p..^4.
 286

arta-dhyana. Again it can be categorized into four types, namely, Anista-

samyogaja, Ista-viyogaja, Vedana-janita, and Nidana-janita. Herein, the

discomposure of mind results on account of the baneful association of

disagreeable objects is called Anista-samyogaja; the parting with the

agreeable objects that occasions discomposure of mind, Ista-viyogaja; the

constant occupation of mind to remove the distressing state of mind

resulting from the diseased condition of body, Vedana-janita; to yearn for

agreeable pleasures and to contrive to defeat and slander the enemy is

called Nidana-janitar '

The second one is raudra- dhyana, which also admits of your kinds.

To kill living beings, to seek ill of others, and to collect the implement of

Himsa etc. are called Hitiisanandi Raudra-Dhyana; the individual who

desires to entangle the world in troubles by dint of propagating vicious

doctrines, who takes pride and pleasure in cheating the simple and the

ignorant through the fraudulent language etc. may be considered as

Mrsanandi Raudra-Dhyana. Dexterity in theft, zeal in the act of thieving,

and the education for theft should be regarded as Cauryanandi Raudra-

Dhyana. The endeavour a man does to guard paraphernalia and a pleasure

of the senses is called Visayunanandi Raudra-Dhyana.

6.2.1.2. Prasasta Dhyana (Virtuous Meditation)

Next in order comes the Prasasta Dhyana, which is conductive to Moksa of

Sarvaratha.Vol.9.p.34; Jnana.Vol.25.p.37; TatvarathaA.Vol.Q.p.30-32; Jnana.Vol.25.p.36;

Jnana.Vol.26.p.4.9.10,11.13.15.16.17.18.20.22.24; .lriana.Vol.21.p.29.
 287

final release. Before this Prususta Dhyana is directly embarked up, it is of

primary and radical importance to delineate their pre-requisites. The

necessary pre-requisites of Dhyana, in general, may be enumerated by

saying that the subject must have the ardent desire for final liberation, be

non-attached to worldly objects, posses unruffled and tranquil mind, and be

self-controlled, stable, sense-controlled, patient and enduring. Besides, one

should steer of (1) the worldly, (2) the philosophic ethical, (3) the mental

distractions, and look to the suitability of (4) time, (5) place, (6) posture

and (7) to the attainment of mental equilibrium, before one aspires to

Dhyana conductive to liberation." Practitioner can apply a number of

meditation techniques known as pindastha-dhyana, padastha-dhyana,

rupastha-dhyana, rupatita-dhyana, savirya-dhyana, etc.

In pindastha-dhyana one imagines oneself sitting all alone in the

middle of a vast ocean of milk on a lotus flower, meditating on the soul.

There are no living beings around whatsoever. The lotus is identical to

Jambudvipa, with Mount Meru as its stalk. Next the meditator imagines a

16-petalled lotus at the level of his navel, and on each petal are printed the

(Sanskrit) letters "arham" and also an inverted lotus of 8 petals at the

location of his heart. Suddenly the lotus on which one is seated flares up at

the navel and flames gradually rise up to the inverted lotus, burning its

petals with a rising golden flame which not only burns his or her body, but

also the inverted lotus at the heart. The flames rise further up to the throat

-"•* Jnana. Vol.4.p.6.

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whirling in the shape of a swastika and then reach the head, burning it

entirely, while taking the form of a three-sided pyramid of golden flames

above the head, piercing the skull sharp end straight up. The whole

physical body is charred, and everything turns into glowing ashes. Thus the

pinda or body is burnt off and the pure soul survives. Then suddenly a

strong wind blows off all the ashes; and one imagines that a heavy rain

shower washes all the ashes away, and the pure soul remains seated on the

lotus. That pure Soul has infinite virtues, it is Myself. Why should I get

polluted at all? One tries to remain in his purest nature. This is called

pindastha dhyana, in which one ponders the reality of feeling and

experiencing.

In padastha dhyana one focuses on some mantras, words or themes. Couple

of important mantra examples are, OM - it signifies remembrance of the

five classes of spiritual beings (the embodied and non-embodied Jinas, the

ascetics, the monks and the nuns), pronouncing the word "Arham" makes

one feel "I myself am the omniscient soul" and one tries to improve one's

character accordingly. One may also pronounce the holy name of an arliat

and concentrate on the universal richness of the soul.

In rupastha dhyana one reflects on the embodiments of arihants, the

svayambhuva (the self-realized), the omniscients and other enlightened

people and their attributes, such as three umbrellas and whiskers — as seen

in many icons — unconcerned about one's own body, but almighty and

benevolent to all living beings, destroyer of attachment, enmity, etc. Thus

 289

the meditator as a human being concentrates his or her attention on the

virtues of the omniscients to acquire the same virtues for himself.

Rupatita dhyana is a meditation in which one focuses on bodiless objects

such as the liberated souls or siddhas, which stand individually and

collectively for the infinite qualities that such souls have earned. That

omniscient, potent, omnipresent, liberated and untainted soul is called a

niraujana, and this stage can be achieved by right vision, right knowledge

and right conduct only. Right vision, right knowledge and right conduct

begin the fourth stage of the 14-fold path. The ultimate aim of such yoga

and meditation is to pave the way for the spiritual elevation and salvation

of the soul. Some yogis develop their own methods for meditation.

After that, Prasasta Dhyana can be divided into two: Dharma Dhyana

(righteous meditation) and Sukla Dhyana (spiritual meditation). Among

them, the first one, Dharma Dhyana is of four types of Dhyana:

(l)When the aspirant finds no one to preach, lacks subtle wit, is

obstructed by the rise of Karmas, is encountered with the

subtleness of objects and experienced the deficiency of evidence

and illustration in upholding and vindicating any doctrine, he

adheres to the exposition of the Arahanta after believing that the

-"Sarvarth;i.".p. 10: Yogasara.p.MS; .Inaiia.37.p.2.4-Q. 10-19.20-23.24-27.28-30.31.1.1-.8.42-43.16;

www.Wikipodia.org/wiki/.com
 290

Arahanta does not misrepresent things. The aspirant is said to

have performed AJna- vicaya Dharma Dhyana.

(2) To ponder over the adequate ways and means of emancipating

the souls from the worldly suffering caused by the perverted

belief, knowledge and conduct and to mediate on the means of

ascending the ladder of spiritual welfare, are designated as

Apaya-vicaya Dharma Dhyana.'

(3) Vipaka-vicaya Dharma Dhyana implies the reflection on the

effects which Karmas produce on the diverse empirical souls.'^^**

(4) The reflection on the nature and form of this universe constitutes

what is called Samsthana-vicaya Dharma Dhyana.^'^'^

The second one is Sukla-Dhyana which can be divided into the four

types of Sukla-Dhyana:

(l)The first type (Prthaktvavitarka-vicara) is associated with

Prthaktva, Vitarka and Vicara, i.e., with many-ness, scriptural

knowledge, and transition from one aspect of entity to another,

for example, substance to modifications and vice versa, from one

verbal symbol to another, and from one kind of Yoga (activity)

to another."

-'" Saivartha,Vol.9.p.36.
-•" Mula,p,400.
-"^ Sarvarha,Vol.9.p.36.
'"' Ibid.
^"''Jnana.l3.p.l3.15.17.
 291

(2) In the second type {Ekatva-avicara) is absent, and consequently

oneness displaces many-ness. The mind shortens its field of

concentration to the effect that the Yogi meditates upon on

substance, an atom, or a modification of substance with

assistance of only one kind of Yoga. Hence the second type of

Dhyana is associated with Vitarka and ekatva, i.e., with scriptural

knowledge and oneness. With the performance of this second

type of Dhyana the Yogi reduces to ashes of the four types of

obscuring {ghatin) Karmas. In consequence the Yogi experiences

infinite intuition, knowledge, bliss and energy. Thus the state of

Jlvanmuki is attained.

(3) The omniscient occupies himself with the third type of Sukla-

Dhyana {Suksmakriyapratipatin), when an Antarmuhurta remains

in final emancipation. After establishing himself in the activity,

he makes the activities of mind and speech subtle. Then after

renouncing the bodily activity, he fixes himself in the activity of

mind and speech, and makes the gross bodily activity subtle.

After-wards mental and vocal activities are stopped and only

subtle activity of body is left. '

(4) In the last type of Sukia- Dhyana ( Vyuparakriyanivartin) even the

subtle activity of body is stopped. The soul now becomes devoid

of mental, vocal and physical vibrations, and immediately after

'"' Jnana.l.lp.lS.
'"-Ibid. 13.19.
 292

the time taken to pronounce five syllables it attains disembodied

303
liberation.

6.3. The Comparisons of Buddhist meditation and Jain Dhyana

Buddhist Meditation Jain Dhyana

In Jain Dhyana there is no differ-

In Buddhism meditation there are rence between samatha meditation

two types of meditation: Samatha and vipassana meditation. The way

meditation and Vipussa meditation. how to practise Dhyana is as

Herein, the first one is of 40 types follows:

of meditation and second one is of Prasasta < • Dharma and Sukla,

four types of meditation. Dharma < • 4 types of Dhyana

Sukla -*—• 4 types of Dhyana

Dharma dhyana is the only way to

Mindfulness meditation is the only relieve oneself from Arta and

way to get Nibbana. Raudra dhyanas. Sukla dhyana is the

only way to get liberation.

Dhyana is Jhana. This Jhana focused When the meditator practises Dhya-

the mind firmly on the meditation na and get the step of Samadhi, he

subject and purifies the mind to be or she will take the soul to status of

free from all defilements such as complete freedom from bondages.

greed {lobha), hatred {dosa) and

'"•' Jnana. 13.p.20 Dalai. B.K. "Dhyana: A .Iain Perspeclive,"'p.l44-157

 293

ignorance {motiu). So the mind is

very calm, tranquil, peaceful and

blissful. The mind becomes very

powerful and radiates very bright

and penetrative light. When one gets

rupu-jhana and passed away, one

will be in rupabhumi (the material

world); when one get arupajhana

and passed away, one will be in

arupabhumi (the immaterial world),

no more or no less.

There is no the idea of permanent There is the idea of soul. It is the

soul. soul which is liberated.

The final aim is Nibbana which is The aim is to take the soul to status

free from suffering. of complete freedom from bond-

ages.

The concentration of mind is sama- The one pointedness of mind in

dhi. If the meditator get samadhi, single object is Dhyana, meditation.

the hindrances such as craving, If the meditator practises Dhyana,

hatred etc. do not come to him. His he will realize the soul and attain

mind is totally purified and calm at liberation.

that moment. But he does not see the

true nature of the arising and

 294

disappearing of mind and matter.

And then, he cannot get Nibbana.

Only when he continue to practise

meditation (insight meditation), he

will see the true nature of arising

and disappearing of mind and

matter. Finally he will realize

Nibbana.

6.4. Introduction: Dhyana in Hinduism

Yoga is generally done to prepare one for meditation, and meditation

is done to realize union of one's self, one's atman, with the omnipresent

and non-dual Brahman. This experience is referred to as moksa by Hindus.

The earliest clear references to meditation in Hindu literature are in the

middle Upanishads and the Mahabharata, which includes the Bhagavad

Gita. According to Gavin Flood, the earlier Brihadaranyaka Upanisad

refers to meditation when it states that "having becoming calm and

concentrated, one perceives the self {atman) within oneself."'"'^ Yoga was

born on the intellectual soil of India. According to Yogatattva, it is divided

into four forms— Mantrayoga, Hathayoga, Layayoga and Rajayoga.

Alezader Wynne, "The Origin of Buddhist Meditation,"p.52; The earliest reference is actually in the
Moksha dharma, which dates to the early Buddhist Period.
' Flood Gavin (1996), "An Introduction to Hunduism", Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, p.94-95.
 295

6.5. The Four Types of Yoga

Mantra is a sound, syllable, word, or group of words that is

considered capable of "creating transformation" (spiritual transfor-

mation).'"'^' hs use and type varies according to the school and philosophy

associated with the Mantra. Mantras originated in the Vedic tradition of

India, later becoming an essential part of the Hindu tradition.

Mantras were originally conceived in the Vedas. Most Mantras

follow the written pattern of two line "slokas" although they are often

found in single line or even single word form. The most basic Mantra is

Om, which in Hinduism is known as the "Pranava mantra," the source of

all mantras. The Hindu philosophy behind this is the idea of nama-rupa

(mind-body), which supposes that all things, ideas or entities in existence,

within the phenomenological cosmos, have name and form of some sort.

The most basic name and form is the primordial vibration Om, as it is the

first manifested nama-rupa of Brahman, the unmanifest reality/unreality.

Essentially, before existence and beyond existence is only One reality,

Brahma, and the first manifestation of Brahma in existence is Om. For this

reason, Om is considered to be the most fundamental and powerful Mantra,

and thus is prefixed and suffixed to all Hindu prayers. While some Mantras

may invoke individual Gods or principles, the most fundamental Mantras,

' ' F-cucislciii.Cl. "Tlic Deeper Dinienlmn ol Yoga". Sliambula Publication. Bostom.MA.ZOO.'?. htlp://riiipa
wii<i.oi-g/inciex.phd?litle-Manlra''r7C.
Khaiiiia. Madhu (200.1). ^•a^l^a: "Tlie Traniic Symbol Cosmic Unity. Inner Traditions.p.21.
hup: ww w nu'tinatioiulcn.com
 296

like 'Om/ the 'Santi Mantra: the 'GayatrlMantra'and others all ultimately

focus on the One reality. In the Hindu Tantra the universe is sound. The

supreme (para) brings forth existence through the Word (Shabda). Creation

consists of vibrations at various frequencies and amplitudes giving rise to

the phenomena of the world. The purest vibrations are the varna, the

imperishable letters which are revealed to us, imperfectly as the audible

sounds and visible forms. Varnas are the atoms of sound. A complex

symbolic association was built up between letters and the elements, gods,

signs of the zodiac, parts of the body — letters became rich in these

associations. For example in the Aitareya-aranya-Vpanh'dd we find: The

mute consonants represent the earth, the sibilants the sky, the vowels

heaven. The mute consonants represent fire, the sibilants air, the vowels

the sun? The mute consonants represent the eye, the sibilants the ear, the

vowels the mind. In effect each letter became a mantra and the language of

the Vedas, Sanskrit, corresponds profoundly to the nature of things. Thus

the Vedas come to represent reality itself. The seed syllable Om represents

the underlying unity of reality, which is Brahman. There are .several forms

of Mantra:

(l)Bhajana: spiritual songs,

{2)Kirtana: repetition of God's name in songs,

(3) Prayer: a way of communing with God,

(4) Healing Mantra,

(5) Guru mantra: first initiation given by the master to the disciple,
 297

(6) Bija mantnv. a bija mnntra represents the essence of a Mantra (e.
308
g. Om)

Thus, Mantrayoga in general and Mantradhyana in particular have a great

significance for the beginner of Sadhana.

Mantra japa was a concept of the Vedic sages that incorporates

mantras as one of the main forms of puja, or worship, whose ultimate end

is seen as inoksa liberation. Essentially, mantra japa means repetition of

mantra, and it has become an established practice of all Hindu streams,

from the various Yoga to Tantra. It involves repetition of a mantra over

and over again, usually in cycles of auspicious numbers (in multiples of

three), the most popular being 108. For this reason, Hindu malas (bead

necklaces) developed, containing 108 beads and a head bead (sometimes

referred to as the 'meru', or 'guru' bead). The devotee performing japa

using his/her fingers counts each bead as he/she repeats the chosen mantra.

Having reached 108 repetitions, if he/she wishes to continue another cycle

of mantras, the devotee must turn the mala around without crossing the

head bead and repeat. To attain single-pointedness of mind, repetition of

mantra's can be done in the following ways:

Manik Shrinanda Thakar Dr.Mrs/'Dhyana in Yoga Trandition", p.23-32. http:// www.

nu;pa\viki. oru index.php?titlc Mantra"o7C; http://'www.meditationden.com; questions/
vvhal-is-a-manlra/
 298

(1) Mantra Yoga (chanting)

{TjJapa Yoga:

(1) Vaikharl Japa (speaking)

(2) Upariisu Japa (whispering or humming)

{3) Manasika Japa (mental repetition)

(4) Likhita Japa (writing)

It is said that through japa the devotee attains one-pointedness, or

extreme focus, on the chosen deity or principal idea of the mantra. The

vibrations and sounds of the mantra are considered extremely important,

and thus reverberations of the sound are supposed to awaken the Kundalini

or spiritual life force and even stimulate chakras according to many Hindu

schools of thought. Any sloka from holy Hindu texts like the Vedas,

Upanisads, Bhagavad GltFt. Yoga Sutra, even the Mahabhrata, Ramayana,

Durga saptasati or Chandi are considered powerful enough to be repeated

to great effect, and have therefore the status of mantra.

Hathayoga (Sanskrit: hathayoga, also called Hatha vidya , is a system

of yoga described by Yogi Swatmarama, a Hindu sage of 15th century

India, and compiler of the Hathayoga Pradipika. The Sanskrit term Hatha

refers to the use of persistence or force, and Hathayoga is translated by the

Monier-Williams dictionary as "a kind of forced Yoga or abstract

meditation (forcing the mind to withdraw from external objects; treated of

'"A Diclioiiaiy o[ 1 liiulusiiii". Vhirgarcl and .lames Stutley (Mushiram Manoharlal Pblishers),
1981. P.57..'S8.66.126.156. Radha Swanii Sivananda. Mantra; "Words of Power", Timelesse Books.
Canada.p.54.
 299

in the Ha ha-pradpik by Sv tm r ma and performed with much

self-torture, such as standing on one leg, holding up the arms, inhaling

smoke with the head inverted &c.).""

Swatmarama introduces his system as preparatory stage of physical

purification that the body practices for higher meditation or Yoga. It is

based on asanas and pranayama (breathing techniques, also known as

satkarma). Hatha- yoga became popular in the west beginning in the second

half of the 20th century, and is often referred to simply as " Yoga" in the

context of health and physical exercise.

Traditional Halhayoga is a holistic yogic path, including disciplines,

postures (asana), purification procedures (satkriya), gestures {mudra),

breathing {pranayama), and meditation. The Hathayoga predominantly

practised in the West consists of mostly asanas understood as physical

exercises. It is also recognized as a stress-reducing practice. Hathayoga is

one of the two branches of yoga that focuses on the physical culture, the

other one being Rajayoga. Both of these are commonly referred to as

sadahgayoga, i.e., yoga of six parts {'sad meaning six and 'aiiga meaning

limbs). The six limbs are described below in detail. Svatmarama

emphasizes many times in his Hafhapradfpika text that there is no raja yoga

without Halhayoga and no Halhayoga without Rajayoga. The main

difference is that Rajayoga uses asanas mainly to get the body ready for

prolonged meditation, and hence focuses more on the meditative asanas:

Ciaiuihari Diciionary Project. "'A Sankrii hnglish Dictionary-Moneir Moneir-Williams.201 l.p.

 300

Lotus Posture (padmasanu). Accomplished Posture {siddhasana). Easy

Posture (sukhasana) and Pelvic Posture (vajrasana). Hatbayoga utilizes not

only meditative postures but also cultural postures. Similarly, Rajayoga's

use of pranayama is also devoid of extensive locks (bandha). Hatha

represents opposing energies: iiot and cold (fire and water, following

similar concept as yin-yang), male and female, positive and negative. Hatha

yoga attempts to balance mind and body via physical postures or "asanas",

purification practices, controlled breathing, and the calming of the mind

through relaxation and meditation. Asanas teach poise, balance and strength

and are practiced to improve the body's physical health and clear the mind

in preparation for meditation. However if an individual has too much

phlegm or fat then purification procedures are a necessity before

undertaking pranayama. Asianga is the yoga of Patafijali, the compiler of

the Yoga Sutras. It is composed of eight limbs: yama and niyama, which

are ethical observations; asana; pranayama, which is breath control;

pratyahara, which is sense withdrawal; dharana, which is concentration;

dhyana, which is meditation; and samadhi, which is a high state of

concentration, mastery of the mind. The eight limbs are more precisely

viewed as eight levels of progress, each level providing benefits in and of

itself and also laying the foundation for the higher levels. Frequently

Aslariga yoga of Pataiijali is being confused with raja yoga, Patafijali

nowhere in his sutras uses the term Rajayoga. Hathayoga consists of six

limbs focused on attaining samadhi. In this scheme, the six limbs of

Hathayoga are defined as asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana

 301

and samadhi. The basic text of Hathayoga is Hathapradipika by

Swatmarama, a grand disciple of Sahajananda (from the lineage of Sopana,

the younger brother of Dnyaneshwar Maharaj of Alandi near Pune). An

important part of Hatha practices is awakening of Kundalinl. The signs of

success in Hatha yoga are slenderness of the body, cheerful face, hearing

mystical sound, bright eyes, sense of well-being, control over the bindu,

increase in gastric fire and purification of the nadis.^"

Yogas combined focus on mindfulness, breathing and physical

movements brings health benefits with regular participation. Yoga

participants report better sleep, increased energy levels and muscle tone,

relief from muscle pain and stiffness, improved circulation and overall

better general health. The breathing aspect of yoga can benefit heart rate

and blood pressure. The 2008 " Yoga in America" survey, conducted by

Yoga Journal, shows that the number of adult practitioners in the US is

15.8 million, and 9.4 million people will definitely try yoga within the next
312
year.

Layayoga from Sanskrit Laya means: dissolution merging; in Yoga,

absorption of breath and mind in the heart.""^ Also called Kundalinlyoga, is

the practice whereby the Kundalini energy is raised, and which is attainable

through deep meditation {Dhyana). Laya yoga helps the aspirant to attain

union with the supreme consciousness. If the body is not kept purified both

Dr. Mrs. Mitiiik Shriiiand Thiikar "Dhynna in Yoga Tradition", p.101-123; en.wikipedia. org/wiki/
laloha, "A Nursing Standartl". 201 lA'ol.Z.^.p 20-21. en.wikipedia. org/wiki/
<i,-1-
Sankrit Cilossary. www.seit'discovcr^poilal.coni/cmsankril.htm
 302

externally and internally through the practices of Hathayoga, the

succeeding steps of Layayoga would yield no result.'"'^

According to yogic philosophy, Layayoga or kundalini is a spiritual

energy or life force located at the base of the spine. It is conceptualized as

a coiled up serpent. Literally, kundulini ov kundala is that which is coiled

(Sanskrit kund, to burn; kunda, to coil or to spiral). It is believed that

Kundalini yoga is that which arouses the sleeping kundalini Sakti from its

coiled base through the 6 chakras, and penetrate the 7th chakra, or crown.

This energy is said to travel along the ida (left), pingala (vighl) and central,

or susbumnanadi - the main channels of pranic energy in the body. This

process can be seen depicted even today in modern medical iconography as

two snakes spiraling a central staff, and although the origin of this image is

more directly derived from the Caduceus of the Greek god Hermes, it may

express the same or a similar principle.

As popularly taught in the under the system of Yogi Bhajan, the

system is tailored as a comprehensive spiritual system for personal growth

using kriya exercises, pranayama, and meditations along with mantras and

dharmic teachings relating to Sikhism. A common mantra used in this form

is that of "Sat Nam" - meaning "I am truth". The yoga form was originally

shared as alternative and transformational technology for self-development,

Jonn Mumford . " A Chkra and Kundaliiiy workbook: psycho-spiritaul technicques for health, rejuven-
ation. psychic powers and spiritual realization". Llewellyn Worldwide.1995.p.73.
" Swarmi Shivanaiida. '"Kundalini ^oga". Di\ine Lite Society.2007.p.12.
'"' A.K. Batlacharya. "Isolation Guidelines for Hospitals'", JIACM.2006.p.l08.
 303

and to counter the drug abuse of the 60's, but has emerged as a
• 317
comprehensive spiritual practice with global popularity.

KundalinT energy is technically understood as being sparked during

yogic breathing when prana and apana blends at the 3rd chakra (naval

center) at which point it initially drops down to the 1st and 2nd chakras

before traveling up to the spine to the higher centers of the brain to

activate the golden cord- the connection between the pituitary and pineal

glands - and penetrate the 7 chakras." Borrowing and integrating the

highest forms from many different approaches, KundalinT Yoga can be

understood as a tri-fold approach of Bhakti yoga for devotion, Sakti yoga

for power, and Raja yoga for mental power and control. Its purpose

through the daily practice of kriyas and meditation in sadhana are

described a practical technology of human consciousness for humans to

achieve their total creative potential."'"'^

According to one school of thought, there being four main forms of

yoga, Mantrayoga, Halhayoga. Layayoga and Raja yoga; kundaliniyoga is

really considered a Layayoga. Yogi Bhajan refers to kundaliniyoga as a

Laya form of yoga and taught many Laya form practices in his compilation

of kundaliniyoga. '"Mainstream traditions propose that kundalinT energy

Yogi Bhajan. 75, "'Boss of Worlds ot' Spiritual Capitalistic", Douglas Martin, New York Times.October,
9.2004. iittii: \\ uw.yoizaioiiriiai.ciiin basics 13,Vi hltp: ihomas.loc.gov/'cgi-bin/querv/z'.'cl08:H.CON.
RES.512
'** Yogi Bhajan. The Aquarian Teacher. KRl International Teacher Training in Kundalini Yoga as Taught
by Yogi Bhajan. Kundalini Rearch In.stute. 4"' Edition, 2007,p. 176-179.
•''*' Ibid.p.20.
'"" Swarmi Shi\ananda. ••Kundalini ^•oga•". Divine Life Society,2007.p.32.
 304

can be awakened and enlightenment attained by practicing a combination

of yogic techniques-idealiy following the guidance of a certified teacher-

including the use of mantra, prana and breathing techniques, sadhana, asana

practice, meditation, or purely through devotion and prayer. According to

some Hindu traditions, kundalinlyoga is considered a highly developed

spiritual awakening which relies upon a technique called saktipat to attain

enlightenment under the guidance of a spiritual master.

In the classical literature of Kashmir Saivism kundalinli^ described

in three different manifestations. The first of these is as the universal

energy or para-kundalinl. The second of these is as the energizing function

of the body-mind complex or para-kundalini. The third of these is as

consciousness or shakti-kundalini. which simultaneously subsumes and

intermediates between these two. Ultimately these three forms are the same

but understanding these three different forms will help to understand the

different manifestations of kundalini. The path of kundalini is said to

proceed from the Muladhara Cakra at the lower end of the spinal column

up to the Sahasara Cakra at the top of the head. But its awakening is not

thought to be a physical occurrence; it consists exclusively of a

development in consciousness. According to some claims, awakening of

kundalini brings with it pure joy, pure knowledge and pure love. The word

kundalini can be traced to the Sanskrit word 'kundala', which means

'coiled'. Kundalini can therefore be used by believers to refer to the latent

321
htlp://www.cccs.berkeley.eclu/rikcut/.cr/kundalini/kundalini-yoga.html#4
 305

energy within the human body which is constantly trying to manifest as our

insight, power and bUss.

According to one author, the word kundalini literally means "the

curl of the lock of hair of the beloved." It is a metaphor, a poetic way of

describing the flow of energy and consciousness which already is said to

exist within each person. The practices are said to enable the person to

merge with or "yoke" the universal self. This merging of individual

consciousness with the universal consciousness is said to create a "divine

union" called "yoga". ~~

Rajayoga ("royal yoga", "royal union", also known as Classical Yoga

and Aslaiiga Yoga) is concerned principally with the cultivation of the

mind using meditation (dhyana) to further one's acquaintance with reality

and finally achieve liberation. Rajayoga was first described in the Yoga

Sutras of Patanjali, and is part of the Samkhya tradition.^^^

In the context of Hindu philosophy Rajayoga is known simply as

yoga. Yoga is one of the six orthodox (astika) schools of Hindu philosophy

and forms an integral part of the spiritual practices of many Hindu

traditions. The term is also used as the title of an entirely unrelated practice

"'^^ Dr.Mrs.Sharinand Thakar. "Dhyana in Yoga Tradition",p.l25-150; Paramhans Swa-

miMaheshwarananda. " The hidden power in humans, Ibera Verlag", p.47-48. Swami
Sivananda Radha. "KundaJi/n Yoga for the West, timeless", 2004, pages 13, 15.
hltp://cn.wikipcclia.ori:/ wiki/ kuuc/u/i/if Yozd
K.A.Jacobscn& G J Larson " Theory ^inl Practice of Yosa" in Honour of Gerald James Larson, p. 4.
 306

by the Brahma Kumarls and Prajapita Brahma.^^'^

The term Rajayoga is a retronym, introduced in the 15th-century

Halhayoga PradipikS to distinguish the school based on the Yoga Sutras of

Patanjali from the more current school of Hathayoga expounded by Yogi

Swatmarama. Currently (2011 C.E.) the term is also used to describe the

meditation practice of the Brahma. Rajayoga is traditionally referred to as

Astaiiga (eight-limbed) yoga because there are eight aspects to the path to

which one must attend. Patanjali uses the expression 'Kriya- yoga' in his

first sutra of the second chapter: Tapas svadyaya Jshvarapranidhanani

kriyayogah (2:1), "Discipline, insight, and devotion are the pillars of

Kriyayoga". This is not to be confused with the Ashtanga Vinyasayoga of

K. Pattabhi Jois. The Kriya yoga propounded by Paramahansa Yogananda

is closely related.

Rajayoga is so-called because it is primarily concerned with the

mind. The mind is traditionally conceived as the "king" of the psycho-

physical structure which does its bidding (whether or not one has realized

this). Because of the relationship between the mind and the body, the body

must be first "tamed" through self-discipline and purified by various means

(see Hathayoga). A good level of overall health and psychological

integration must be attained before the deeper aspects of yoga can be

pursued. Humans have all sorts of addictions and obsessions and these

324

The Yoga Sutras of Maharishi Patanjali - A Translation and commentary by Yogacharya Shivaji
Mizner"
 307

preclude the attainment of tranquil abiding (meditation). Through restraint

iyamn) such as celibacy, abstaining from intoxicants, and careful attention

to one's actions of body, speech and mind, the human being becomes fit to

practice meditation. This yoke that one puts upon oneself (discipline) is

another meaning of the word yoga. Every thought, feeling, perception, or

memory you may have causes a modification, or ripple, in the mind. It

distorts and colors the mental mirror. If you can restrain the mind from

forming into modifications, there will be no distortion, and you will

experience your true Self.

-Swami Satchidananda Pataiijall's Yoga Sutras begin with the statement

" Yoga limits the oscillations of the mind". They go on to detail the ways in

which mind can create false ideations, and advocate meditation on real

objects. This process, it is said, will lead to a spontaneous state of quiet

mind, the "NirbTja" or "seedless state", in which there is no mental object

of focus. Practices that serve to maintain for the individual the ability to

access this state may be considered Rajayoga practices. Thus Rajayoga

encompasses and differentiates itself from other forms of Yoga by

encouraging the mind to avoid the sort of absorption in ob.sessional

practice (including other traditional yogic practices) that can create false

mental objects. In this sense Rajayoga is called the "king among yogas": all

yogic practices are seen as potential tools for obtaining the seedless state,

itself considered to be the starting point in the quest to cleanse Karma and

obtain moksa or Nirvana. Historically, schools of yoga that label

themselves "Raja' offer students a mix of yogic practices and (hopefully or

 308

students a mix of yogic practices and (hopefully or ideally) this

philosophical viewpoint. Lord Krishna describes the yogi as follows: "A

yogi is greater than the ascetic, greater than the empiricist, and greater than

the fruitive worker. Therefore, O Arjuna, in all circumstances be a

yogi .

Rajayoga aims at controlling all thought-waves or mental modify-

cations. While a Halhayogi starts his Sadhana, or spiritual practice, with

Asanas (postures) and Pranayama, a Rajayogi starts his Sadhana with the

mind as well as a certain minimum of asanas and Pranayama usually

included as a preparation for the meditation and concentration. In Samadhi

Pada I, 27 it is stated that the word of Ishvara is OM, the Pranava. Through

the sounding of the Word and through reflection upon its meaning, the

Way is found. In the Jangama dhyana technique of Rajayoga, the yogi

concentrates the mind and sight between the eyebrows. According to

Patafijali, this is one method of achieving the initial concentration {dharana:

Yoga Sutras, III: 1) necessary for the mind to go introverted in meditation

{dhyana: Yoga Sutras, III: 2). In deeper practice of the Jangama Dhyana

technique, the mind concentrated between the eyebrows begins to

automatically lose all location and focus on the watching itself. Eventually,

the meditator experiences only the consciousness of existence and achieves

Self Realization. In his classic Rajayoga, Swami Vivekananda describes the

process in the following way: When the mind has been trained to remain

fixed on a certain internal or external location, there comes to it the power

"' Bhagava gita,Vol.6.p.46.

 309

of flowing in an unbroken current, as it were, towards that point. This state

is called dhyana. When one has so intensified the power of dhyana as to be

able to reject the external part of perception and remain meditating only on

the internal part, the meaning, that state is called Samadhi.

6.6. Astanga Yoga

Patafijali's yoga as the name suggests has eight limbs leading to moksa.

These are:

Sanskrit Enghsh

Yama Moral code,

Niyama Personal disciplines,

Asana Physical posture,

Priinayama Breath control

Pratyahara Withdrawal from the senses,

Dharana One-pointedness of mind,

Dhyana Meditation

Samadhi Salvation.

"'' Swarmi Vivekenanda "Dhyana and 5c/;);a//;/"".Vol.1.Chapter.VII. Dr.Mrs.Manik Shrinand Thakar

"Dhyana in Yoga Tradition". 151-177: hup:;'/cii.\vikipcdia.org/ wiki/ Raja Yoga
 310

Yama is the first stage of Astangn yoga. It means restraining,

controlling.^ It consists of five part: Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truth-

fulness), Asteya (non-stealing), Bralmmclmrya (sexual abstinence), and

Aparigrraha (con-covetousness). " The practice of Yama-^ basically is

meant for a psychological restraining, for pacifying the mind and making it

ready for the further spiritual developments of Yoga which lead to

Samadhi. '

Niyama is restraining. As to dictionary 'Nf means 'Moksa\ Ya

means-restrain and "Ma means-binding. ' In Yoga Sutras Niyamas are

stated as follows: Cleanliness, contentment, religious zeal, self-study and

surrender of the self to the supreme sefl or God. The meditator who wants
-2-3 1

to attain the state of Samadhi will accurately have to practise this stage.

Asana is the third stage of Astanga Yoga. It means posture, the

position of the body as a whole with the involvement of the mind and

soul." The word Asana is derived from the root M s a ' a n d that means to

be present, or to exist, or to inhabit, to sit, tosit down etc.

Pranayama is the fourth stage of Aslaiiga Yoga. The word Prana-

yama is formed by combining two words- "Prana' and 'Ayama' which

means controlling of vital air. The word 'Prana' is to breathe in, or to

"'"^ Anuradha Oak. Dr., "Yoga of the Millenium", p.60.

•'-* YogastJtra. Vol.3. p.30.
'•' Anuradha Oak. i3r. "Yoga of Ihe Millenium". p.6().
"'" Ibid. p.84.
'•'' Yogas|Dtra,Vol.2.p.32
" - Ibid.p.29.
'•'' Anuradha Oak. Dr. "Yoga of the Millenium", p. 105.
^'"'M.M. Williams. "Sanskiit-English Dielionary.p. 159.
"'Yogastjlra, Vol.2.p.29.
 311

inhale, to blow ( as the wind respirantion etc.). The term 'A/a/77^" derived

from the root Ayam, means to stretch or lengthen out. So Ayama means

stretching, extending. Thus one can understand the meaning the term Pran-

ayama as breathing control through various types of breathing exercise.

Pratyahara is the fifth stage of Astaiiga Yoga and the position of the

term is appropriate and essential.^^^ At that stage when the meditator is on

the urge of going towards higher steps of Yoga, controlling the mind is

very important. And before that attainment of last stage of Pranayama i.e.

keval kumbhaka is also essential, which is control over Pram.' So for

Dharann, Dhyana and Samacihi, Pratyahara is the prerequisite. Then only

mind will be able to stay at the given object and the steadiness of mind

helps the meditator in the process of Dharana.

Dharana means collection or concentration of the mind joined with

the retention of breath.' " Moreover, Yoga cudamanipanjsaddescribes it as:

By Dharana i.e. firmly fixing the mind, he attains mental fortitude.

The seer further says: "With twice six Pratyahara is generated auspicious

Dharana": " Here one observes, that the seer describes Dharana, which is

based on Pratyahara. so it is clear that for the attainment of Dharana one

has to withdraw one's senseorgans from the objects, then only mind will

"""M.M. Williams. "Sanskrit-English Dictionary.p.7()l.705.148.706.

''"Yogas|Dtra,Vol.2.p.29.
""ibid. Vol.3.p.].
"'ibid.Vol. 1.53.
M.M. Williams, •'Sanskril-English L)ic-lionaiT.p.515.
•^'' Yogacudamani Upamshad. \'.No.-]l(). .Anuradha Oak. Dr -Yoga o/ the Millenium" n lOS
Ibid. Vss.l 11. ./ • ..
 312

turn towards themself. Therefore, through the practise of Pratyahara one

attains control of mind which estabhshes the state of Dharana/"^'^

The word Dhyana is derived from the root: Dhya Dhyaiyati and

meaning of the term is meditation or mental representation of the personal

'I A A

attributes of a deity. It is perfect contemplation. It involves concentration

upon a point of focus with the intention of knowing the truth about it. The

concept holds that when one focuses their mind in concentration on an

object the mind is transformed into the shape of the object. Hence, when

one focuses on the divine they become more reflective of it and they know

their true nature. "His body, breath, senses, mind, reason and ego are all

integrated in the object of his contemplation — the Universal Spirit."'^"^^

During dhyana, the consciousness is further unified by combining

clear insights into distinctions between objects and between the subtle

layers of perception. "We learn to differentiate between the minds of the

perceiver, the means of perception, and the objects perceived, between

words, their meanings, and ideas, and between all the levels of evolution of
1.346
nature.

As we fine-tune our concentration and become more aware of the

nature of reality we perceive that the world is unreal. "The only reality is

the universal self, or God, which is veiled by Maya (the illusory power).

•^''•' Yogacudamani Upanishad. V.N0.-IO8.

'"'"' M.M. Williams. -Sanskrit-English Diclionary.p.209.
' ' lycnger B.K.S. "Light on Yoga", p.^1.
' William.Dr.,I.D. Doran. "The Core o,''^'oga".p.7-S.
 313

As the veils are lifted, the mind becomes clearer. Unhappiness and fear —

even the fear of death — vanishes. This state of freedom, or Moksa, is the

goal of Yoga. It can be reached by constant enquiry into the nature of

., • M347

thmgs.

Samadhi is the final step in the eight-fold path of Yoga?^^ Samadhi

means complete absorption and Yoga means Union of body, mind and

soul with God, So Yoga and Samadhi are one and same. ^'^ Yoga Upanisads

explain Samadhi differently; still the end result is similar to Yoga SQtra?^^^

Patanjaii defines Samadhi thus: "When the attentive flow of consciousness

merges with the object of meditation, the Citta of the meditator i.e. the

subject appears to be dissolved in the object. This union of subject and

object becomes Samadhi. Here object can be anything and oneness with

that object of the subject, through the meditation is the state of Samadhi.

Therefore there are various types of object from gross to subtle and

various types and levels of Samadhi also. When the object is gross, the

level of that state of Samadhi is primary and when the subtleness in the

object increases, there is the advancement in the level of Samadhi, which

leads to liberation. "'

lyengcr R.K.S. "Light on Yoga" p.48.

.148
Yogasfjlra, Vol 2.p,29.
.W?
Anuradha Oak. Dr. "Yoga of the Millenium", p.225.
''° Sandilya Upanishads. Chap. Vol.1.p. 11.
" ' Yogas|3tra ,Vol 3.p.3.
 314

6.7. The Comparisons of Buddhist meditation and Hindu Dhyana

Buddhist Meditation Hindu Meditation

There are three kinds of step: There are four kinds of step, namely

{\)Danu (giving), (2) Slla (moral (l)Mantra yoga, (2) Hatha yoga, (3)

conduct), (3) 5/7ara/7a (meditation). Layayoga and (4) Rajayoga.

The final one is divided into two:
{{)Samatha bhavanai concentration
meditation) and Vipassana bhavana
(insight meditation). The meditator
who wants to realize
The eight limbs of Ashtangayoga
are included in the final one. The
meditator who wishes to unite his
soul with Brahman's soul or get
Nibbana final liberation should practise the

should follow the three kinds of step aforesaid four ways. Thus, he will

above. Thus, he will attain Nibbana. get the final liberation.

There is no idea of soul or God There is Soul and God.

The final goal of Buddhism is The final goal of Hinduism is the

Nibbana. union of one's soul with the

Supreme Brahman.

Buddhism emphasis on Vipassana Hinduism emphasis on Samadhi.

meditation (Insight meditation).

Samadhi can make the impurities Samadhi can make the impurities

(KiJesa) calm momentary but Vipas- calm totally.

sana can make them tranquilized

totally.
 315

The meditator should practise The meditator should practise

Samatha bhavana (concentration Mantrayoga to get the calmness of

meditation) to get the concentration mind. Since the mind wanders so

of mind. much, the music of a mantra easily

rescues the mind and brings it back

to the object of one's meditation.

Buddhism defines Samadhi as one- Hinduism explains Dharana as one-

pointedness of mind. pointedness of mind.

There is no strict steps. There are Eight Steps in order of

Superiority.

There is no concept of Pranayana Pranayana plays an important role.

(breath control) but awareness of It is identified with the God.

breathing in and breathing out.

There is no concept of Nadi There establish on the process of

Sodhana but purified mind. NadlSodhana

There are four types of asana. There are various types of asana.