CASE STUDY

- FUEL OIL -

Prepared by : Mark Chuang

Refinery and HFO
Refinery and HFO - Summary

¾ Crude oil refining – produces a range of useable products ranging from gases
through base oils, distillates to residual products.
¾ Straight run refining – only uses distillation process, atmospheric and vacuum,
and residue known as straight run fuel.
¾ Secondary refining – additional processes after distillation to increase yield of
distillate products and reduce amount of residual fuel.
¾ Fuel from secondary refining compared to straight run fuel:
1. Increase in density.
2. Increase in micro-carbon value.
3. Possible increase in compatibility and sediment problems.
4. Possibility of contamination by catalyst fines.
TOTAL Marine Residual Fuels - Classification
Fuel Oil - Characteristics

A range of intermediate fuels is often available which

have a higher viscosity than the cheapest distillate fuel
available. They are supplied to a stated viscosity. Such
products are given different designations depending on
the supplier and include such terms as light marine fuel,
intermediate fuels, thin fuel oils and interfuels. The
maximum viscosity at 50°C in centiStokes is often
suffixed to the designation IF. For example, IF 180
would be an interfuel with a maximum viscosity of 180
cSt at 50°C. The figure shows the fuel names used by
some major oil companies.
MGO: marine gas oil, does not contain any residual fuel components.
MDO: marine diesel oil, blended diesel oil does contain some residue.
HFO: residual fuels are the highest viscosity, names the terms bunker C fuel, heavy
fuel oil, bunker fuel oil and marine fuel oil.
Characteristics – Viscosity
Characteristics – Viscosity

¾Knowledge of the viscosity is important for several reasons, as it determines the

temperature for handling, the size of the centrifuges and the temperature at which
the fuel is injected into the engine. It is well known that as the temperature of the fuel
is increased, the viscosity is reduced.
¾For example IF 180 - this means that the viscosity is a maximum of 180 cSt at 50°C.
¾The table shows the temperatures required for a range of viscosities for injection at
13 cSt and 17 cSt for diesels.
Characteristics – Flash Point

The flash point of a fuel is the temperature at which vapor given off will ignite when
an external flame is applied under standardized conditions. A flash point is defined to
minimize fire risk during normal storage and handling. The minimum flash point for
fuel in the machinery space of a merchant ship is governed by international
legislation and the value is 60°C. For fuels used for emergency purposes, external to
the machinery space, the flash point must be greater than 43°C. The normal
maximum storage temperature of a fuel is 10°C below the flash point, unless special
arrangements are otherwise made.

Even when residual fuels are at a temperature below their measured flash point they
are capable of producing light hydrocarbons.
Characteristics – Pour Point

¾The pour point is the lowest temperature at which a fuel can be handled without
excessive amounts of wax crystals forming out of solution. If a fuel is below the pour
point, wax will begin to separate out and this will block filters.
¾Also, the wax will build up on tank bottoms and on heating coils. When heat is
reapplied difficulties may be experienced in getting the wax to re-dissolve because of
its insulating nature. In extreme cases, manual cleaning of tanks may be necessary.
¾To avoid the operational difficulties just described, it is necessary to store the fuel at
least 10°C above the pour point. The transfer pumps in the fuel system are usually
designed to operate at a maximum viscosity of 800 – 1000 cSt.
Characteristics – Carbon Residue

The carbon residue of a fuel is the tendency to form carbon deposits under high
temperature conditions in an inert atmosphere.
The carbon residue value of a fuel depends upon the refinery processes employed in
its manufacture. For straight run fuels, the typical value is 10-12% m/m, whilst for
fuels derived from secondary conversion processing the value depends upon the
severity of the processes applied. On a global basis, this is typically 15-16% m/m.

Injector nozzles can become fouled using high MCR fuel. Careful control of nozzle
cooling temperature can help reduce this.
Characteristics – Ash

The ash value is related to the inorganic material in the fuel oil. The actual value
depends upon three factors, firstly the inorganic material naturally present in the
crude oil, secondly the refinery processes employed, and thirdly, upon possible
subsequent contamination due to sand, dirt and rust scale.
The ash level of distillate fuels is negligible. Residual fuels have more of the ash-
forming constituents as they are concentrated in the residue from the crude oil
refining processes. Vanadium and other materials such as silicon, aluminium, nickel,
sodium and iron are the main contributing components.
Typically, the ash value is in the range 0.03-0.07% m/m.
Characteristics – Ash

During onboard treatment, ash level may be reduced as a result of the settling tank
and the centrifuges. This is because of the partial removal of catalyst fines
(aluminium and silicon), sodium if in the form of salt water and iron if in the form of
debris.
High ash levels may be associated with waste lube oil in the fuel. If there is any doubt,
if other parameters are also high (eg. water) or the estimated lube oil content is >5%
then fuels containing waste lubes should be rejected.

Generally acceptable to process a fuel with ash content 25% above the limit. V, Zn +
Mg are generally oil soluble and cannot be reduced. Be careful if Na:V is 1:3.
Characteristics – Water

Usually the level of water in the fuel is very low and 0.1- 0.2% by volume is typical.
The introduction of water can come from a number of sources, which include tank
condensation, tank leakage or deliberate adulteration. Where steam is used for tank
heating purposes, heating coil leakage is another potential source of water. A further
potential source is the purifier itself if the gravity disc is incorrect for the density of fuel
being treated.
In practice, the nature of the actual water present may be fresh, brackish or salt
depending on the level of sodium as determined by elemental analysis. On a world-
wide basis the salt content of sea water varies, but usually in first order terms
100mg/kg of sodium is associated with 1% of sea water. Gross water contamination
will be removed in the settling tanks with the final water being removed by the
centrifuge.
Characteristics – Water

¾Water can be introduced into the fuel supply chain from a number of sources
including tank condensation, tank leakage or deliberate contamination.
¾Water will damage fuel injection equipment, cause corrosion and failure to exhaust
valves and turbochargers.
¾The settling tank will remove gross water as long as it is not emulsified. Warm fuel
will shed water faster than cold fuel in the settling tanks. The drains should be
checked regularly, especially on first use of a new fuel delivery.
¾A well-operated centrifuge should achieve water removal efficiency of above 90%.
However, the effectiveness will be less for very viscous fuels.
¾Operation in series as a purifier and clarifier assures maximum water removal.
Operating temperatures in the centrifuge should be maintained as high as possible,
usually around 95° - 98°C. Up to 5% fresh water or 3% salt water can be removed in
an effective fuel treatment system provided the water is not emulsified.
Characteristics – Vanadium & Sodium

Vanadium is a metal that is present in all crude oils in an oil-soluble form. The levels
found in residual fuels depend mainly on the crude oil source. The majority of
residual fuels have vanadium levels of less than 150mg/kg. There is no economic
process for removing vanadium from either the crude oil or residue.

In general, fuel as delivered contains a small amount of sodium, and typically this is
below 50mg/kg. The presence of sea water increases this value by approximately
100mg/kg for each per cent sea water. If not removed in the fuel treatment process,
a high level of sodium will give rise to post-combustion deposits in the turbocharger.
These can normally be removed by water washing.

Vanadium and sodium in combination and at high levels can result in high
temperature corrosion damage to valve and turbocharger components.
Characteristics – Vanadium & Sodium

High temperature corrosion and fouling can be attributed to vanadium and sodium in
the fuel. During combustion, these elements oxidise and form semi-liquid and low
melting salts which adhere to exhaust valves and turbochargers. In practice, the
extent of hot corrosion and fouling are generally maintained at an acceptable level by
employing the correct design and operation of the diesel engine. Temperature control
and material selection are the principal means of minimizing hot corrosion. It is
essential to ensure exhaust valve temperatures are maintained below the
temperatures at which liquid sodium and vanadium complexes are formed and for
this reason valve face and seat temperatures are usually limited to below 450°C.
Characteristics – V & Na Eutectic Points

530 C
Characteristics – Aluminium & Silicon

It is generally accepted that an indication of aluminium represents the potential

presence of catalyst fines. These fines are particles of spent catalyst arising from the
catalytic cracking process in the refinery. The fines are in the form of complex
alumino-silicates. If not reduced by suitable fuel treatment, the abrasive nature of the
fines does damage to the engine, particularly fuel pumps, injectors, piston rings and
liners.
The generally accepted way of limiting the amount of catalyst fines is by limiting the
combination of aluminium and silicon in elemental form to 80mg/kg. The percentage
removed by fuel treatment depends upon the size and density of the particulate
matter.
Operational experience has shown that if there are greater than 80mg/kg of
aluminium and silicon in the fuel before treatment, it is likely that the fuel treatment
plant will not be able to reduce the level sufficiently and abrasive wear will
take place.
Characteristics – Catalyst Fines

Fuels with fines levels significantly above 80mg/kg should be rejected.

Reduction of catalyst fines to an acceptable level for inlet to the engine takes place in
the settling tank and the centrifuge. The extent of this reduction depends on the water
content of the fuel as catalyst fines are “hydrophilic”, in that they attract water and
become contained in a water shell. Inclusion in the fuel of significant volumes of used
lube oil may also limit the effective removal of fines.
The rate of settling is determined by Stokes’ Law which takes account of the particle
size, difference in density of the catalyst fine and the fuel, and the viscosity of the fuel.
Various values are quoted for the density of catalyst fines, but in reality they may be
likened to honeycombed structures, which retard the rate of separation. This is further
hindered by the outer shell of water by virtue of the close proximity of the density of
water to that of the fuel.
Characteristics – Sediment & Compatibility

Sediment by extraction defines the insoluble residues remaining after extraction by

toluene. These insoluble residues are contaminants such as sand, dirt and rust
scale, and are not derived from the fuel.
Stability of residual fuel may be defined as the ability of a fuel to remain in an
unchanged condition despite circumstances which may tend to cause change; or
more simply, as the resistance of an oil to breakdown. Conversely, instability would be
the tendency of a residual fuel to produce a deposit of asphaltenic sludge as a
function of time and/or temperature. The effects of unstable fuel cover sludges,
blocked filters, overloaded fuel pumps leading to damaged points, rings and liners.
Characteristics – Instability
Characteristics – Instability

Fuel is a mixture of oil, resins and asphaltenes. The critical part of this mixture is
asphaltenes that are not soluble in the oil part, but "peptized" by means of resins. An
unstable fuel is a fuel whose viscosity will change in the course of time and, at the
worst, will generate flocculation because of the asphaltenes that flocculate and
precipitate. Therefore, deposits will be more or less extensive on storage, causing the
sludging of centrifuges and rapid fouling of the filters.
Cracking units modify the nature of the maltenes (oils and resins) and visbreaking
units modify the structure of the resins by shortening the long cycloasphaltic chains.
If there are not enough maltenes or if the shortening of the lateral resin chains is
excessive, asphaltenes not stabilized in the oil medium will tend to agglomerate
(flocculation) and precipitate.
Characteristics – Instability
Characteristics – Sediment & Compatibility

Incompatibility is the tendency of a residual fuel to produce a deposit on dilution or on

blending with other fuel oils.
Typical problems are sludging and blockage of bunker and service tanks, pipe runs,
filters and centrifuge bowls. In extreme circumstances, the only remedy is manual
removal of the sludge build up.
“Please refer “Asphalt” issue of case study.
Characteristics – Incompatibility

¾This is a phenomenon that occurs when two fuels of different origins are mixed
together by the quasiimmediate precipitation of a larger or smaller amount of
asphaltenes with the same potential problems as when instability occurs. The reason
for this incompatibility is again due to the balance existing between oil, resins and
asphaltenes.
¾Two heavy fuel oils or a fuel oil and a diesel oil could each be stable but
nevertheless result in incompatibility when mixed together because the balance
between the various components is modified. Therefore, no ship is safe from this
problem. The only sure way of avoiding any risks is, whenever possible, not to mix
fuels of different origins. There are specific additives that can be used on ships to
avoid the phenomenon. They are designed to increase the stability of the asphaltenes
by reinforcing the role of the resins.
Characteristics – Specific Energy

The specific energy of a fuel expressed in MJ/kg depends on the composition. For
residual fuel, the main constituents are carbon and hydrogen, both of which release
energy on combustion. The fuel density is mainly proportional to the ratio of carbon
and hydrogen atoms in the fuel.
Characteristics – Ignition Quality

The ignition quality of a fuel is a measure of the relative ease by which it will ignite.
For distillate fuels, this is measured by the cetane number. Cetane number is
determined by testing in a special engine with a variable compression ratio. The
higher the number, the more easily will the fuel ignite in the engine.
For residual fuel, there are two accepted empirical equations both based on the
density and viscosity of the fuel. These are the Calculated Carbon Aromaticity Index
(CCAI) and Calculated Ignition Index (CII). The CCAI gives numbers in the range
800-870, while the CII gives values in the same order as the cetane index for distillate
fuels.
In general, values less than 30 for CII and greater than 870 for CCAI are considered
problematical. If required, further guidance on acceptable ignition quality values
should be obtained from the engine manufacturer.
Characteristics – CCAI and CII

Example:

ISO RMF 180

Viscosity@50C = 180
Density@15C = 991.0

CCAI = 862
(800~880 is normal)
Characteristics – Combustion

Combustion of a residual fuel is a multi-stage process of which one part is the ignition
quality of the fuel. Fuel takes a finite time from the start of the injection to the start of
combustion. During this period, fuel is intimately mixed with the hot compressed air in
the cylinder where it begins to vaporize.

After a short delay known as the ignition delay,

the heat of compression causes spontaneous
ignition to occur. Rapid uncontrolled combustion
follows as the accumulated vapor formed during
the initial injection phase is vigorously burned.
The longer the ignition delay, the more fuel will
have been injected and vaporized during this
“pre-mixed” phase and the more explosive will be
the initial combustion.
Characteristics – Combustion

¾The second phase or “diffusion burning” phase of combustion is controlled by how

rapidly the oxygen and remaining vaporized fuel can be mixed as the initial supply of
oxygen near the fuel droplets has been used during the pre-mixed combustion.
¾Rapid pre-mixed combustion causes very rapid rates of pressure rise in the
cylinder resulting in shock waves, broken piston rings and overheating of metal
surfaces.
¾CCAI and CII are empirical attempts to estimate how long the fuel will take from
injection to ignition and by implication the likelihood of engine damage.
¾After calculating the CCAI or CII of a fuel, the operator must then judge the
acceptability of that fuel for effective operation in the engine. Variations of engine
load, rated speed and design affect the likelihood of poor combustion, hence it is
impossible to give precise figures that apply to all engines.
¾Engine operation under part load conditions using high CCAI fuel should be
avoided.
Characteristics – Summary

¾ Density – essential for quality calculations, setting purifier, indicates specific

energy and ignition quality.
¾ Viscosity – determines injection and transfer temperature.
¾ Flash point – legal requirement.
¾ Pour point – fuel must be maintained above pour point.
¾ Carbon residue – high value may give deposit problems.
¾ Ash – if excessive can give fouling deposits.
¾ Water – can cause sludge and combustion problem.
¾ Vanadium and Sodium – potential high temperature corrosion can be minimized
by temperature control and material selection.
¾ Aluminium and Silicon – usually present as catalyst fines which are abrasive,
can normally be reduced to an acceptable level by a centrifuge.
Characteristics – Summary

¾ Sediment and Stability – fuel is stable if it does not break down giving heavy
sediment.
¾ Compatibility – the ability of two fuels when mixed to remain stable.
¾ Specific Energy – net value for diesel engines and gross value for boilers,
usually calculated from empirical equations..
¾ Ignition quality – relates to part of the combustion process. For residual fuels,
empirical equation for CAII and CII.
¾ Sulphur – fuel sulphur has a beneficial effect in preventing scuffing of fuel
injection components. Very low sulphur distillate fuels are used in
environmentally-senstive areas. A lubricity additive must be used to prevent
damage to fuel injection components when operating on these very low sulphur
fuels.
 Fuel Treatment System - Centrifuges

The correct sizing of the fuel centrifuges depends on the daily fuel consumption and
on the design viscosity of the system. As a matter of prudence, many centrifuges are
designed for a fuel of 700 cSt at 50°C.
Over the years, the consistent recommendation has been that in normal
circumstances, two machines are run in series, with one as a purifier and the other as
a clarifier. The purifier, for the removal of water and solids, is situated before the
clarifier which primarily removes solids.
High specific gravity fuels and fuels containing catalytic fines require separation at the
highest temperature, 98°C, to reduce the viscosity as much as possible, and reduction
of throughput as efficiency increases with decreasing flow rate.
Fuel Treatment System

When considering the fuel treatment plant, the general standard practice is to have a
settling tank, centrifuges and filters.
By heating the tank, the viscosity is reduced and it is usual to maintain a temperature
of 50°C or 10°C below the flash point.