QFT

Dr Tasos Avgoustidis
(Notes based on Dr A. Moss’ lectures)

Lecture 5: Interacting Fields

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QFT Interacting Fields

• Will always discuss quantized fields - drop the hats off

operators
• Will consider small perturbations to free theory
Lagrangian L = L0 + LI
• Hamiltonian density of interaction HI = LI
X n n
• E.g. real scalar field LI =
n!
n 3

• What conditions do we require on n so the

additional terms are small perturbations?

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QFT Interacting Fields

• Dimensional analysis leads to

[L] = 4 [ ] = 1 [m] = 1 [ n] =4 n
• n = 3 [ 3 ] = 1: Dimensionless parameter is 3 /E .
These terms are called relevant since they are most
important at low energies. Since E>m, just need λ<m.
• n = 4 [ 4 ] = 0 : Dimensionless parameter is 4 . These
terms are called marginal and are important if 4 ⇠ O(1)
n 4
• n 5 [ n] < 0 : Dimensionless parameter is nE .
These terms are called irrelevant and are important at
high energies
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QFT Interacting Fields

• Irrelevant couplings can cause problems at high energies

- lead to non-renormalizable theories

• Doesn’t mean quantum theory is useless, but it is

incomplete above some energy scale

• Theory still perfectly good as an Effective Field Theory at

low energies - decoupling

• We will only consider theories with relevant/marginal

couplings and which are weakly interacting

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 4
QFT theory

• Lagrangian and interaction Hamiltonian:

1 1 2 4
L= @µ @ µ m 2 4
HI = << 1
2 2 4! 4!

• Interaction term contains:

a† (k)a† (k)a† (k)a† (k) , a† (k)a† (k)a† (k)a(k) , etc
and so can create and destroy particles

• Particle number is no longer conserved [H, N ] 6= 0

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QFT Scalar Yukawa Theory

• Lagrangian and interaction Hamiltonian:

1 1 2
L = @µ @ µ + @µ ? µ
@ m 2
M2 ?
g ?
2 2
? g << M, m
HI = g

• Individual particle numbers not conserved

• Symmetry ensuring number of particles minus

anti-particles (denoted ¯ ) is conserved

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QFT Dyson’s Formula

@
• Recall in interaction picture i | (t)iI = HI (t)| (t)iI
@t
• Write solution in terms of unitary time evolution operator
such that U (t1 , t2 )U (t2 , t3 ) = U (t1 , t3 ) and U (t, t) = 1
| (t)iI = U (t, t0 )| (t0 )iI
dU
• Requires that i = HI (t)U
dt ✓ Z ◆
t
• If HI (t) were a function U (t, t0 ) = exp i HI (t0 )dt0
t0

• Since it is an operator there are ordering issues

(apparent when expanding the exponential in powers
of HI (t) ) !7
 ( ik â (k)e + ik â(k)e )( iq â (q)e + iq
⇥ †
m (â (k)eik·x + â(k)e ik·x )(↠(q)eiq·x + â(q)e iq·x
2
QFT Dyson’s Formula
Z
1 d3 k
Ĥ =
• To solve integrate ⇥ equation
8 time (2⇡)evolution
3 E(k)2
Z t
h
† †
1 2i+ k2H+I (t
U (t, t0 )( =E(k) m12)U
)(â(t 1 , t0 )dt
(k)â ( k)e
1
2iE(k)t
+ â(k)â(
⇥ 2
t0
2 2 † †
⇤
(E(k) + k + m )(â (k)â(k) + â(k)â (k))
• Still depends on evolution operator. Substitute new
expression into integrand ( t2 < t1 < t )
Z t Z Z Z t13
t
U (t, t0 ) = 1 i 1 1 d dt
HI (t1 )dt1 Ĥ = dt k 2 H†I (t1 )HI (t2 ) . . . †
t0 t0 4 t(2⇡) 3
(â (k)â(k) + â(k)â (k))
0

• Can be written as time-ordered exponential

✓ Z ◆ (
t ˆ(x) ˆ(y), if x0 > y 0
U (t, t0 ) = T exp i HI (t )dt0 0
T ˆ(x) ˆ(y) = ˆ(y) ˆ(x),
t0 if y 0 > x0

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 cba† ). This term will give contributions to scattering processes
of this section is devotedS-Matrix
e rest QFT to computing the quantum ampli-
esses to occur.

tudes we make an important, and slightly dodgy, assumption:

Assume initial & final states are eigenstates of free theory
and final states are eigenstates of the free theory
• Initial state |ii at t = 1 and final state |f i at t = +1
take the
areinitial state |i⟩ofatfree
eigenstates t → −∞, and the final state |f ⟩ at
Hamiltonian H0
enstates of the free Hamiltonian H0 . At some level, this sounds
• At t = ±1 particles are far separated and don’t feel the
∞, the particles in a scattering process are far separated and don’t
effects of each other
ch other. Furthermore, we intuitively expect these states to be
• Initial
dividual numberand operators
final states N,are eigenstates
which commute of number
with operator
H0 , but not
with [H , N ] = 0 , but crucially [H , N ] 6= 0
s approach each0 other, they interact briefly, Ibefore departing again,
• Particles
n merry way. Thebriefly interact.
amplitude to goProbability
from |i⟩ to of
|f ⟩going
is from |ii to |f i
✓ Z 1 ◆
lim ⟨f | U(t+ , t− ) |i⟩ ≡ ⟨f | S |i⟩ S = T exp i HI (t0 )dt0
(3.26)
t± →±∞
1

perator S is known as the S-matrix. (S is for scattering). There

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ons why the assumption of non-interacting initial and final states
QFT Scalar Yukawa Theory

• Lets look at our scalar Yukawa theory

Z
HI = g d3 x † (x) (x) (x)

• Interaction Hamiltonian contains

- ⇠ a + a† which can create/destroy particles
(call these mesons)
- ⇠ b + c† which can create ¯ and destroy (call
these nucleons)
- † ⇠ b† + c which can create and destroy ¯

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 QFT Meson Decay

• ! ¯: Initial state contains single meson of momentum p

Final state a nucleon-anti-nucleon pair of q1 and q2
|ii = a† (p)|0i |f i = b† (q1 )c† (q2 )|0i

• To leading order Z
†
hf |S|ii = igh0| d4 x c(q2 )b(q1 ) (x) (x) (x)a† (p)|0i

• Expand out ⇠ a + a†. Only term which contributes is:

Z Z
4 † d3 k † ik·x
hf |S|ii = igh0| d x c(q2 )b(q1 ) (x) (x) 3
a(k)a (p)e |0i
(2⇡) 2E(k)

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QFT Meson Decay

†
• Commute a(k) past a (p) and integrate
Z
†
hf |S|ii = igh0| d4 x c(q2 )b(q1 ) (x) (x)e ip·x
|0i

• Similarly expand ⇠ b + c† and †

⇠ b† + c
Z
d 4 x d3 k 1 d 3 k 2 † † i(k1 +k2 p)·x
hf |S|ii = igh0| c(q 2 )b(q 1 )b (k 1 )c (k 2 )e |0i
(2⇡)6 4E(k1 )E(k2 )

• Integrate to find hf |S|ii = ig(2⇡)4 4 (q1 + q2 p)

• Delta function puts constraints on decays. Boostpto frame
with p = (m, 0, 0, 0) then q1 = q2 and m = 2 M 2 + q2

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QFT Wick’s Theorem

• At general order want to compute hf |T {HI (x1 ) . . . HI (xn )} |ii

• Things will be a lot more convenient if we can move all
annihilation operators to the right to act on |ii
• Wick’s Theorem tells us how to go from time-ordered to
normal-ordered products
+
• Consider scalar field (x) = (x) + (x)
with: Z 3
+ d k ik·x
(x) = a(k)e
(2⇡)3 2E(k)
Z
d3 k † ik·x
(x) = a (k)e
(2⇡)3 2E(k)
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 QFT Wick’s Theorem

• When x0 > y 0
+ + +
T (x) (y) = (x) (y) = (x) (y) + (x) (y)+
+ +
(y) (x) + (x) (y) + [ (x), (y)]

• Commutator is equal to the (Feynman) propagator. Recall

Z
d3 k ik·(x y)
F (x y) = 3
e = D(x y)
(2⇡) 2E(k)

• Time ordered product is therefore

T (x) (y) =: (x) (y) : +D(x y)
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QFT Wick’s Theorem

• Case when y 0 > x0

T (x) (y) =: (x) (y) : +D(y x)
Z
d3 k ik·(y x)
F (x y) = 3
e = D(y x)
(2⇡) 2E(k)

• Putting together for 2 fields:

T (x) (y) =: (x) (y) : + F (x y)

Z
• NB: d4 k i ik·(x y)
F (x y) = e
(2⇡)4 k 2 m2 + i✏
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finition: We define the
( ik ↠(k)e ik·x
contraction both
+ ik â(k)e ik·x
ofoperators,
a )(pair †
iq âof
the
(q)e iq·x
fields
differenceinâ(q)e
+ iq iq·x
a string
between of isoperator
)them a c-numb
⇥ ⇤
(x1 ) . . . φ(x2 ) . . . to (↠(k)ereplacing
m2 mean ik·x ik·x
+ â(k)e those )(↠(q)e iq·x
operators + â(q)e
withiq·x
)the Feynman propaga
QFT
leaving all other operators untouched.
Wick’s Theorem
Definition:
We use We thedefine
notation,the contraction of a pair of fi
Z
. . . φ(x1 ) . . . φ(x2 ) . . . to mean replacing those operator
1 d3 k " tor,#$leaving%all other operators untouched. We use the n
Ĥ = ⇥
8 (2⇡)3 E(k). .2 . φ(x1 ) . . . φ(x2 ) . . . (3.38
h " i #$ %
• Define contraction
( E(k)2 + kof2
+ pair
m2 )(â†in
(k)âstring
† of operators
( k)e2iE(k)t + â(k)â( k)e . .2iE(k)t
. φ(x1)) . . . φ(x2 ) . . .
enote to
contraction.⇥ So, 2for example,
mean replace with
2 Feynman
2 † propagator,
†
⇤
i.e.
(E(k) + k + m )(â (k)â(k) + â(k)â (k))
to denote contraction. So, for example,
" #$ %
φ(x)φ(y) = ∆F (x − y) " #$ % (3.39
Z φ(x)φ(y) = ∆F (x − y)
1 d3 k †
• For any string of operators
†
Ĥ =
4 (2⇡) 3 T [
(â (k)â(k)(x
+1 ). .
â(k)â. . (xn )]
(k)) ⌘ T[ 1. . . . n]
Wick’s Theorem states
(
– 57ˆ(x)
– ˆ(y),
if x0 > y 0 contractions : – 57 –
T[ 1. . . . n ] =: ˆ . .ˆ. .
T 1(x) (y) =n : + : all possible
ˆ(y) ˆ(x), if y > x
0 0

• For example 4 fields:

T[ 1 2 3 4] =: 1 2 3 4 :+
F (x1 x2 ) : 3 4 : + F (x1 x3 ) : 2 4 : + F (x1 x4 ) : 2 3 :+
F (x2 x3 ) : 1 4 : + F (x2 x4 ) : 1 3 : + F (x3 x4 ) : 1 2 :+

F (x1 x2 ) F (x3 x4 ) + F (x1 x3 ) F (x2 x4 ) + F (x1 x4 ) F (x2 x3 )

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