A.THE FORMATION OF THE
General
UNIVERSE AND THE SOLAR
SYSTEM
     Origin of the Universe
 Non-scientific Thought
• Ancient Egyptians believed in many
gods and myths which narrate that the
world arose from an infinite sea at the
first rising of the sun.
• The Kuba people of Central Africa tell
the story of a creator god Mbombo (or
Bumba) who, alone in a dark and water-
covered Earth, felt an intense stomach
pain and then vomited the stars, sun,
and moon.
• In India, there is the narrative that gods
sacrificed Purusha, the primal man
whose head, feet, eyes, and mind
became the sky, earth, sun, and moon
respectively.
• The monotheistic religions of Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam claim that a
supreme being created the universe,
including man and other living
organisms.
   Steady State Model
• The now discredited steady state
model of the universe was proposed in
1948 by Bondi and Gould and by Hoyle.
It maintains that new matter is created as
the universe expands thereby
maintaining its density.
• Its predictions led to tests and its
eventual rejection with the discovery of
the cosmic microwave background
    Big Bang Theory
• As the currently accepted theory of the
origin and evolution of the universe, the
Big Bang Theory postulates that 13.8
billion years ago, the universe expanded
from a tiny, dense and hot mass to its
present size and much cooler state.
• The theory rests on two ideas: General
Relativity and the Cosmological Principle.
In Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity,
gravity is thought of as a distortion of
space-time and no longer described by a
gravitational field in contrast to the Law
of Gravity of Isaac Newton.
Relativity explains the peculiarities of the
orbit of Mercury and the bending of light
by the Sun and has passed rigorous
tests. The Cosmological Principle
assumes that the universe is
homogeneous and isotropic when
averaged over large scales. This is
consistent with our current large-scale
image of the universe. But keep in mind
that it is clumpy at smaller scales.
 • The Big Bang Theory has withstood the
tests for expansion: 1) the redshift 2)
abundance of hydrogen, helium, and
lithium, and 3) the uniformly pervasive
cosmic microwave background
radiation-the remnant heat from the
bang.
 Evolution of the Universe according
to the Big Bang Theory
• From time zero (13.8 billion years ago)
until 10-43 second later, all matter and
energy in the universe existed as a hot,
dense, tiny state. It then underwent
extremely rapid, exponential inflation
until 10-32 second later after which and
until 10 seconds from time zero,
conditions allowed the existence of only
quarks, hadrons, and leptons.
• Then, Big Bang nucleosynthesis took
place and produced protons, neutrons,
atomic nuclei, and then hydrogen,
helium, and lithium until 20 minutes after
time zero when sufficient cooling did not
allow further nucleosynthesis.
• From then on until 380,000 years, the
cooling universe entered a matter-
dominated period when photons
decoupled from matter and light could
travel freely as still observed today in the
form of cosmic microwave background
radiation.
• As the universe continued to cool
down, matter collected into clouds
giving rise to only stars after 380,000
years and eventually galaxies would form
after 100 million years from time zero
during which, through nucleosynthesis in
stars, carbon and elements heavier than
carbon were produced.
• From 9.8 billion years until the present,
the universe became dark-energy
dominated and underwent accelerating
expansion. At about 9.8 billion years
after the big bang, the solar system was
formed.
      Overview of Solar System
 A. The solar system is located in the
Milky Way galaxy a huge disc- and
spiral-shaped aggregation of about at
least 100 billion stars and other bodies;
B. Its spiral arms rotate around a
globular cluster or bulge of many, many
stars, at the center of which lies a
supermassive blackhole;
C. This galaxy is about 100 million light
years across (1 light year = 9.4607 ×1012
km;
D. The solar system revolves around the
galactic center once in about 240 million
years;
E. The Milky Way is part of the so-called
Local Group of galaxies, which in turn is
part of the Virgo supercluster of galaxies;
F. Based on the assumption that they are
remnants of the materials from   intervals from the Sun.
   which they were formed, radioactive
dating of meteorites, suggests that the
Earth and solar system are 4.6 billion
years old on the assumption that they
are remnants of the materials from which
they were formed.
 Large Scale Features of the Solar
System
1. Much of the mass of the Solar System
is concentrated at the center (Sun) while
angular momentum is held by the outer
planets.
2. Orbits of the planets elliptical and are
on the same plane.
3. All planets revolve around the sun.
4. The periods of revolution of the
planets increase with increasing distance
from the Sun; the innermost planet
moves fastest, the outermost, the
slowest;
5. All planets are located at regular
 Small scale features of the Solar
System
1. Most planets rotate prograde
2. Inner terrestrial planets are made of
materials with high melting points such
as silicates, iron, and nickel. They rotate
slower, have thin or no atmosphere,
higher densities, and lower contents of
volatiles - hydrogen, helium, and noble
gases.
3.The outer four planets - Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus and Neptune are called
"gas giants" because of the dominance
of gases and their larger size. They rotate
faster, have thick atmosphere, lower
densities, and fluid interiors rich in
hydrogen, helium and ices (water,
ammonia, methane).
 Element Abundance on Earth,
Meteorites, and Universe
1.The table below shows the abundance
of elements across bodies in the solar
system as compared to abundance in the
universe.
A. Except for hydrogen, helium, inert
gases, and volatiles, the universe and
Earth have similar abundance especially
for rock and metal elements.
B.The sun and the large planets have
enough gravity to retain hydrogen and
helium. Rare inert gases are too light for
the Earth’s gravity to retain, thus the low
abundance.
C. Retention of volatile elements by the
Earth is consistent with the idea that
some materials that formed the Earth
and the solar system were “cold” and
solid; otherwise, the volatiles would have
been lost. These suggest that the Earth
and the solar system could be derived
from materials with composition similar
to that of the universe.
D.The presence of heavy elements such
as lead, silver, and uranium on Earth
suggests that it was derived from
remnants of a supernova and that the
Sun is a second-generation star made by
recycling materials.
Origin of the Solar System
 Any acceptable scientific thought on the
origin of the solar system has to be
consistent with and supported by
information about it (e.g. large and small
scale features, composition). There will
be a need to revise currently accepted
ideas should data no longer support
them.
Nebular Hypothesis 
In the 1700s Emanuel Swedenborg,
Immanuel Kant, and Pierre-Simon
Laplace independently thought of a
rotating gaseous cloud that cools and
contracts in the middle to form the sun
and the rest into a disc that become the
planets. This nebular theory failed to
account for the distribution of
angular momentum in the solar system.
Encounter Hypotheses:
A. Buffon’s (1749) Sun-comet encounter
that sent matter to form planet;
B. James Jeans’ (1917) sun-star
encounter that would have drawn from
the sun matter that would condense to
planets,
C. T.C. Chamberlain and F. R. Moulton’s
(1904) planetesimal hypothesis involving
a star much bigger than the Sun passing
by the Sun and draws gaseous filaments
from both out which planetisimals were
formed;
D. Ray Lyttleton’s(1940) sun’s companion
star colliding with another to form
a proto-planet that breaks up to form
Jupiter and Saturn.
E. Otto Schmidt’s accretion theory
proposed that the Sun passed through
a dense interstellar cloud and emerged
with a dusty, gaseous envelope that
eventually became the planets. However,
it cannot explain how the planets and
satellites were formed. The time required
to form the planets exceeds the age of
the solar system.
F. M.M. Woolfson’s capture theory is a
variation of James Jeans’ near-collision
hypothesis. In this scenario, the Sun
drags from a near proto-star a filament
of material which becomes the planets.
Collisions between proto-planets close
to the Sun produced the terrestrial
planets; condensations in the filament
produced the giant planets and their
satellites. Different ages for the Sun and
planets is predicted by this theory.
Sun - Star interaction
 Nobel Prize winner Harold Urey’s
compositional studies on meteorites in
the 1950s and other scientists’ work on
these objects led to the conclusion that
meteorite constituents have changed
very little since the solar system’s early
history and can give clues about their
formation. The currently accepted theory
on the origin of the solar system relies
much on information from meteorites.
Protoplanet Hypothesis - Current
Hypothesis
 A. About 4.6 billion years ago, in the
Orion arm of the Milky Way galaxy, a
slowly-rotating gas and dust cloud
dominated by hydrogen and helium
starts to contract due to gravity
B. As most of the mass move to the
center to eventually become a proto-
Sun, the remaining materials form a disc
that will eventually become the planets
and momentum is transferred outwards.
C. Due to collisions, fragments of dust
and solid matter begin sticking to each
other to form larger and larger bodies
from meter to kilometer in size. These
proto-planets are accretions of frozen
water, ammonia, methane, silicon,
aluminum, iron, and other metals in rock
and mineral grains enveloped in
hydrogen and helium.
D.High-speed collisions with large
objects destroys much of the mantle of
Mercury, puts Venus in retrograde
rotation.
E. Collision of the Earth with large object
produces the moon. This is supported by
the composition of the moon very similar
to the Earth's Mantle
F. When the proto-Sun is established as a
star, its solar wind blasts hydrogen, helium,
and volatiles from the inner planets to
beyond Mars to form the gas giants leaving
behind a system we know today.
 Recent advancement/information on
the Solar System
Exploration of Mars
Since the 1960s, the Soviet Union and
the U.S. have been sending unmanned
probes to the planet Mars with the
primary purpose of testing the planet's
habitability. The early efforts in the
exploration of Mars involved flybys
through which spectacular photographs
of the Martian surface were taken. The
first successful landing and operation on
the surface of Mars occurred in 1975
under the Viking program of NASA.
Recently, NASA, using high resolution
imagery of the surface of Mars,
presented evidence of seasonal flow
liquid water (in the form of brine - salty
water) on the surface of Mars.
 Rosetta's Comet
Rosetta is a space probe built by the
European Space Agency and launched
on 2 March 2004. One of its mission is to
rendezvous with and attempt to land a
probe (Philae) on a comet in the Kuiper
Belt. One of the purpose of the mission
is to better understand comets and the
early solar systems. Philae landed
successfully on comet (67P/Churyumov–
Gerasimenko) on 12 November 2014.
Analysis of the water (ice) from the
comet suggest that its isotopic
composition is different from water from
Earth.
Pluto Flyby
On 14 July 2015, NASA's New Horizon
spacecraft provided mankind the first
close-up view of the dwarf planet Pluto.
Images captured from the flyby revealed
a complex terrain - Ice Mountains and
vast crater free plains. The presence of
crater free plains suggests recent (last
100 millions of years) of geologic activity.
Teacher’s Insights
Despite the fact the name of big bang
theory sounds like explosion, this doesn’t
mean explosion but rather an expansion.
The Universe is at least 13.8 billion of
years old and the Earth/Solar System at
least 4.5-4.6 billions of years old.
The solar system comprises the Sun,
eight planets, dwarf planets such as
Pluto, satellites, asteroids, comets, other
minor bodies such as those in the
Kuiper belt and interplanetary dust. The
asteroid belt lies between Mars and
Jupiter. Meteoroids are smaller asteroids.
They are thought of as remnants of a
“failed planet”—one that did not form
due to disturbance from Jupiter’s gravity.
The Kuiper belt lies beyond Neptune (30
to 50 AU, 1 AU = Sun-Earth distance =
150 million km) and comprise numerous
rocky or icy bodies a few meters to
hundreds of kilometers in size. The Oort
cloud marks the outer boundary of the
solar system and is composed mostly of
icy objects.

B. SUBSYSTEMS THAT
MAKE UP THE EARTH
Earth Spheres
Atmosphere
A. The atmosphere is the thin gaseous
layer that envelopes the lithosphere.
B. The present atmosphere is composed
of 78% nitrogen (N), 21% oxygen
(O2), 0.9% argon, and trace amount of
other gases.
C. One of the most important processes
by which the heat on the Earth's
surface is redistributed is through
atmospheric circulation.
D. There is also a constant exchange of
heat and moisture between
the atmosphere and the hydrosphere
through the hydrologic cycle.  A. One of the first scientist to push for a
Lithosphere/ Geosphere
 A. The lithosphere includes the rocks of the
crust and mantle, the metallic liquid outer
core, and the solid metallic inner core.
B.Briefly discuss the Plate Tectonics as an
important process shaping the surface of
the Earth. The primary driving
mechanism is the Earth's internal heat,
such as that in mantle convection.
 Biosphere
A. The biosphere is the set of all life
forms on Earth.
B. It covers all ecosystems—from the soil
to the rainforest, from mangroves to
coral reefs, and from the plankton-rich
ocean surface to the deep sea.
C.For the majority of life on Earth, the
base of the food chain comprises
photosynthetic organisms. During
photosynthesis, CO2 is sequestered from
the atmosphere, while oxygen is released
as a byproduct. The biosphere is a CO2
sink, and therefore, an important part of
the carbon cycle.
D. Sunlight is necessary for life.
Hydrosphere
 A. About 70% of the Earth is covered
with liquid water (hydrosphere) and
much of it is in the form of ocean water.
B. Only 3% of Earth's water is fresh: two-
thirds are in the form of ice, and the
remaining one-third is present in
streams, lakes, and groundwater.
C.The oceans are important sinks for
CO2 through direct exchange with the
atmosphere and indirectly through the
weathering of rocks.
D.Heat is absorbed and redistributed on
the surface of the Earth through ocean
circulation.
     The origin of the systems approach
to the study of the Earth
more integrated or holistic approach in
the understanding of the universe (and
by extension the Earth) was Friedrich
Wilhelm Heinrich Alexander von
Humboldt. He considered the universe as
one interacting entity.
B. The term "biosphere" was popularized
by Vladimir Vernadsky (1863-1945),
a Russian-Ukranian scientist who
hypothesized that life is a geological
force that shapes the Earth.
C. In the 1970s, the Gaia Hypothesis was
jointly developed by James Lovelock, an
English scientist/naturalist, and Lynn
Margulis, an American microbiologist.
According to the Gaia Hypothesis. The
biosphere is a self-regulating system that
is capable of controlling its physical and
chemical environment.
Teacher’s Insight
         The geosphere is a major sphere of
Earth that deals with the solid
components, such as landforms, rocks,
and layers of Earth. It is not lithosphere.
Lithosphere refers only to the crust and
the top portion of the upper mantle.
          About 71% of Earth’s surface is
made up of water: 97% of all waters on
Earth are from oceans and 3% are fresh
water from glaciers, rivers, lakes, and
underground aquifers and streams.

D.  In 1983, NASA advisory council

established the Earth Systems
Science Committee. The committee,
chaired by Moustafa Chahine, published
a ground breaking report Earth
System Science: A Program For Global
Change  in 1988. For the first time,
scientist were able to demonstrate how
the many systems interact.

C.THE EARTH’S INTERNAL

STRUCTURE
  Earth consists of layers made up of
different densities. Earth’s center is the
core which is composed of dense metals
like nickel and iron. The outermost layer,
called crust, is made up mostly of light
elements, such as silicon, oxygen, and
aluminum. The middle layer consisting of
rocks is called mantle.
CORE: INNER AND OUTER
  The study of Earth’s interior is
most difficult because it is
inaccessible. The information
about Earth’s core is from seismic
information and computer
models.
 In 1936, Danish seismologist Inge
Lehmann discovered that Earth has a
solid inner core. Furthermore, studies
showed that the hot spherical solid has a
radius of 1250 kilometers. It consists
mainly of iron-nickel alloy and is
magnetic. It has a temperature of about
6000°C-almost as hot as the surface of
the sun. The pressure in the inner core is
so great that the alloy cannot melt. For
this reason, the inner core is mostly solid.
 The outer core is made mostly or
iron and nickel. The outer core is
approximately 2300 km thick. It is
very hot; the temperature ranges
between 4000°C and 5000°C.
Because of the very high
temperature, the outer core is
liquid. The boundary between the
outer and inner core is sometimes
referred to as Lechmann
discontinuity.
 Earth’s molten metallic core gave
rise to magnetic field. The
magnetic field is attributed to the
dynamo effect of circulating
electric current. The nature of the
dynamo is not known in detail,
however, it is always linked to the
rotation of Earth.
MANTLE: LOWER AND UPPER
 The mantle is the largest part of
Earth. It is the intermediate layer
of Earth and is subdivided into
lower and upper mantle. It is
made up of molten rocks called
magma. The magma circulates in
currents determined by the
cooling and sinking of heavier
minerals, and the heating and
rising of the lighter minerals. The
mantle has a total thickness of
2900 km.
  The lower mantle is hot and
exhibits plasticity. The higher
pressure in the layer causes
formation of minerals that are
different from that of the upper
layer. Gutenberg discontinuity is
detected between Earths lower
mantle and the outer core as
observed by changes in the
seismic waves. It is 2240 km thick.
The uppermost mantle and Earth’s
crust that form the lithosphere are
relatively rigid. The upper
boundary that separates the
upper mantle from Earth’s crust is
defined by the sudden increase in
seismic velocity. This is called
Mohorovičić (or Moho)
discontinuity, as noted by Andrija
Mohorovičić in 1909. Moho is 5
km to 10 km below the ocean
floor and 20 to 90 km with an
average of 35 km, beneath typical
continents.
 Asthenosphere is the layer that
lies after the lithosphere (100 km
to 250 km) beneath km, Earth’s
surface. The name was given by
British geologists Joseph Barrell in
 1914. The balance between oceanic crust because of high such as landforms, rocks, and layers of
temperature and pressure is so elevation. Earth. It is not lithosphere. Lithosphere
great that the rocks have little refers only to the crust and the top
strength (weak) and are easily portion of the upper mantle.
deformed. It is believed that
asthenosphere plays a critical role
in the movement of plates on
surface of Earth according to the
plate tectonic theory.

    
    

 
                     

CRUST: CONTINENTAL AND OCEANIC A.MINERALS AND ROCKS

 There are two types of crust that
make up the surface of the
lithosphere. The continental crust
is relatively thicker than the
Teacher’s Insight
Minerals- naturally occurring, inorganic
The geosphere is a major sphere of earth elements or compounds with specific
that deals with the solid components, physical and chemical properties.
Rocks - any solid mineral material
forming part of the surface of the earth
and other similar planets, exposed on
the surface or underlying the soil or
oceans.
 Minerals are building block of
rocks. They have been used for
basic necessities and for
decorative purposes. Minerals that
are common and abundant on
Earth’s crust are known as rock-
forming minerals.
1. LUSTER-it is the quality and intensity
of reflected light exhibited by the
mineral
    a. Metallic – generally opaque and
exhibit a resplendent shine similar to
a polished metal
   b. Non-metallic – vitreous (glassy),
adamantine (brilliant/diamond-like),
resinous,
                   silky, pearly, dull (earthy),
greasy, among others.
2. HARDNESS – it is a measure of the
resistance of a mineral (not specifically
surface) to abrasion.
    a. Introduce students to the use of a
hardness scale designed by
German geologist/mineralogist,Friedrich
Mohs in 1812 (Mohs Scale of Hardness).
       i. The test is easy.
     ii. The test can be done anywhere,
anytime, as long as there is sufficient
light to see scratches.
  iii. The test is convenient for field
geologists with scratch kits who want to
make a rough  identification of minerals
outside the lab.
d. Cons of the Mohs scale:
      i. The Scale is qualitative, not
quantitative.
     ii. The test cannot be used to
accurately test the hardness of industrial
materials.

  b. The Mohs scale of Hardness

There are several different mineral measures the scratch resistance of
properties which must be identified and various minerals from a scale of  1 to 10,
defined. based on the ability of a harder
material/mineral to scratch a softer one.

    c. Pros of the Mohs scale:

  Examples include prismatic, tabular, dimensions, which include the crystal’s
bladed, platy, reniform and equant. A length, width and height.
mineral that do not have a crystal
structure is described as amorphous.

4. COLOR AND STREAK

a. A lot of minerals can exhibit same or

similar colors. Individual minerals can
also display a variety of colors resulting
from impurities and also from some
geologic processes like weathering.

b. Examples of coloring: quartz can be

pink (rose quartz), purple (amethyst),
orange (citrine), white (colorless quartz)
etc.

c. Streak, on the other hand, is the

3. CRYSTAL FORM/HABITC
The external shape of a crystal or groups
of crystals is displayed/ observed as
these crystals grow in open spaces. The
form reflects the supposedly internal
structure (of atoms and ions) of the
crystal (mineral). It is the natural shape of
the mineral before the development of
any cleavage or fracture.
mineral’s color in powdered form. It is
inherent in almost every mineral, and is a
more diagnostic property compared to
color. Note that the color of a mineral
can be different from its streak.
d. Examples of streak: pyrite (FeS2)
exhibits gold color but has a black or
dark gray streak.
e. The crystal’s form also defines the
relative growth of the crystal in three
5. CLEAVAGE – the property of some
minerals to break along specific planes
of weakness to form smooth, flat
surfaces
    a.   These planes exist because the
bonding of atoms making up the mineral
happens to be weak in those areas.
   b.  When minerals break evenly in
more than one direction, cleavage is
described by the number of  cleavage
directions, the angle(s) at which they
meet, and the quality of cleavage (e.g.
cleavage in 2 directions at 90°).
  c.  Cleavage is different from habit; the
two are distinct, unrelated properties.
Although both are  dictated by crystal
structure, crystal habit forms as the
mineral is growing, relying on how the
individual atoms in the crystal come
together. Cleavage, meanwhile, is the
weak plane that  developed after the
crystal is formed.
6. SPECIFIC GRAVITY – the ratio of the
density of the mineral and the density of
water
a. This parameter indicates how many
times more the mineral weighs
compared to an equal amount of water
(SG 1).
  b. For example, a bucket of silver (SG
10) would weigh ten times more than
a bucket of water.
7. OTHERS – magnetism, odor, taste,
tenacity, reaction to acid, etc. For
example, magnetite is strongly
magnetic; sulfur has distinctive smell;
halite is salty; calcite fizzes with acid as
with dolomite but in powdered form; etc.
Common Rock-Forming Minerals
Using the mineral characteristics and
properties, minerals have been identified
and the common and most abundant
rock-forming minerals found on Earth’s
crust are the following: quartz, feldspar,
mica, pyroxene, amphibole, olivine, and
calcite. These rock-forming minerals can
be found in most of the surface of rocks.
1. SILICATES – minerals containing the
two most abundant elements in the
Earth’s crust, namely, silicon and oxygen.
a.  When linked together, these two
elements form the silicon oxygen
tetrahedron – the fundamental building
block of silicate minerals.
 b.  Over 90% of rock-forming minerals
belong to this group.
2.OXIDES – minerals composed of
oxygen anion (O2-) combined with one
or more metal ions
3. SULFATES  – minerals containing
sulfur and oxygen in the form of the
(SO4)- anion
4.SULFIDES  – minerals containing sulfur
and a metal; some sulfides are sources of
economically important                           
metals such as copper, lead, and zinc.
5.CARBONATES – minerals containing
the carbonate (CO3)2- anion combined
with other elements
6.NATIVE ELEMENTS – minerals that
form as individual elements
    a. Metals and Intermetals – minerals
with high thermal and electrical
conductivity, typically with  metallic
luster, low hardness (gold, lead)
  b. Semi-metals – minerals that are
more fragile than metals and have lower
conductivity (arsenic, bismuth)
 c. Nonmetals – nonconductive (sulfur,
diamond)
7. HALIDES– minerals containing
halogen elements combined with one or
more metals
Three main categories of rocks
Rocks are classified on the basis of the
mode of formation. The three rock types
are igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks.
 SEDIMENTARY ROCK
  Sedimentary rocks are formed from
particles of sand, shells, pebbles, and
other fragments of material. Together, all
these particles are called sediment.
Gradually, the sediment accumulates in
layers and over a long period of time
hardens into rock. Generally,
sedimentary rock is fairly soft and may
break apart or crumble easily. You can
often see sand, pebbles, or stones in the
rock, and it is usually the only type that
contains fossils.
Examples of this rock type include
conglomerate and limestone.
Non-clastic/ Chemical/Biochemical – Contact metamorphism
derived from sediments that precipitated
from concentrated solutions (e.g.         • Heat as the main factor: occurs
seawater) or from the accumulation of when a pre-existing rocks get in contact
biologic or organic material (e.g. shells, with a heat source (magma)
plant material). They are further classified
on the basis of chemical composition.         • Occurs on a relatively small scale:
around the vicinity of intruding magma
    Clastic/terrigenous - form from the
accumulation and lithification of
        • Creates non-foliated metamorphic
sediments derived from the breakdown
rocks (e.g. hornfels)
of pre-existing rocks. They are further
classified according to dominant grain
   Regional metamorphism
size.
      • Pressure as main factor: occurs in
METAMORPHIC ROCK
areas that have undergone deformation
Metamorphic rocks are formed under during orogenic event resulting in
the surface of the earth from the mountain belts
metamorphosis (change) that occurs due
to intense heat and pressure (squeezing).       • Occurs in a regional/large scale
The rocks that result from these
      • Creates foliated metamorphic rocks
processes often have ribbonlike layers
such as schist and gneiss
and may have shiny crystals, formed by
minerals growing slowly over time, on
      • Non-foliated rocks like marble also
their surface.
form thru regional metamorphism,
where pressure is not intense, far from
Examples of this rock type include gneiss
the main geologic event
and marble.
 IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous rocks are formed when magma
(molten rock deep within the earth) cools
and hardens. Sometimes the magma
cools inside the earth, and other times it
erupts onto the surface from volcanoes
(in this case, it is called lava). When lava
cools very quickly, no crystals form and
the rock looks shiny and glasslike.
Sometimes gas bubbles are trapped in
the rock during the cooling process,
leaving tiny holes and spaces in the rock.
Examples of this rock type include basalt
and obsidian.
Intrusive
 ·Cools below the earth’s surface (slowly)
  • Magma
  • “Plutonic”
•         Cools slow …..Large crystals
•         Cools fast …….small crystals
•         Cools immediately……NO Crystals
(glass)
Igneous rocks are also classified
according to silica content: felsic,
Extrusive intermediate, mafic and ultramafic.
•  Cools at the Earth’s surface (quickly)
•  Lava
• felsic: also called granitic; >65% silica,
•  “Volcanic” generally light-colored
• intermediate: also called andesitic; 55-
65% silica; generally medium colored
(medium gray)
• mafic: also called basaltic; 45-55%
silica; generally dark colored
• ultramafic: <45% silica; generally very
dark colored; composed mainly of olivine
and pyroxene  which are the major
The longer the rock takes to cool, constituents of the upper mantle.
the larger the crystals
 Rock Cycle  The Igneous rocks undergo
weathering and the eroded
Refer to the rock cycle. It shows the materials are deposited as
origin of the igneous, sedimentary, and sediments. Sediments undergo
metamorphic rocks and their lithification (conversion into rock)
relationship. to become sedimentary rocks
when compacted and cemented.
 When sedimentary rocks are
buried deep within Earth, they will
be subjected to heat and pressure
(Metamorphic rocks)
 Metamorphic rocks subjected to
higher temperature will melt and
turn to magma.
 Magma solidifies into igneous
rocks.

Teacher’s Insight        

Rock is different from mineral. It is an

aggregate of one or more minerals.

 The magma cools and solidifies Minerals are all around us. It is used in
through the process of our daily lives: halite (salt) for cooking,
crystallization, which may occur graphite (pencil) for writing, diamond
either beneath the surface of the and gold as jewelry, etc.
Earth or at surface through volcanic
eruption. The resulting rock is called
igneous rocks.

B.EXOGENIC PROCESSES
Earth is a dynamic body. Its surface is
constantly being changed by the
processes that include weathering, mass
wasting, erosion, transportation, and
deposition. Through these processes,
Earth's landscape will constantly undergo
changes, and Earth's topography will be
different as time goes on.
Exogenic processes are part of the rock
cycle. They are responsible for
transforming rock into sediment.
Exogenic processes include degradation
processes (weathering, mass wasting,
erosion, and transportation) and
aggradation processes (deposition).
Weathering is a degradation process that
does not involve movement of materials.
There are two types of weathering:
mechanical and chemical weathering.
Exogenic processes- geologic processes
that occur on or near the surface of the
Earth.
Weathering - the physical breakdown Chemical Weathering
and/or chemical alteration of rocks at or
near Earth’s surface.  Chemical weathering decomposes rocks
through chemical change. The processes
Mechanical Weathering involved in chemical weathering include
the following:
 Mechanical weathering or disintegration
is the breaking up of large rocks into 1.  Oxidation
smaller fragments without changing the
Oxygen dissolved in water will oxidize
rock's mineral composition. These
some materials. Reddish-brown rust will
include frost wedging or frost
weathering, insolation weathering or appear on the surface of iron-rich
thermal stress weathering, unloading or minerals which easily crumbles and
pressure release, and biological activity. weakens the rock.
2. Hydrolysis
Frost wedging or frost weathering occurs
in regions where temperature fluctuates
Water is perhaps the most important
above and below freezing point,
agent of chemical weathering. It affects
resulting in a freeze-thaw cycle. Water
that enters through the cracks and silicate. For example, in the case of
olivine, a silicate, and water:
empty spaces of rocks expands when it
freezes due to the enormous outward
force exerted by ice. When the ice thaws,
water can flow further into the crack.
Repeated freeze-thaw cycles weaken the
rock and break up the rocks into smaller
fragments.
3. Carbonation and Solution
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolves in water
to form carbonic acid (H2CO3) and reacts
carbonate rocks (CaCO3) to form a
soluble product (calcium bicarbonate).
Example:
4. Biological Action
Some plants and animals may create
chemical weathering by releasing
chelating and, audifying compounds that
react with some minerals in rocks.
Decaying remains of dead plants in soil
may form organic acids and, when
dissolved in water, may cause chemical
weathering.
Rates of Weathering
There are several factors that affect rates
of weathering. The variation in the
characteristics of rocks, such as mineral
composition, solubility, and cracks,
results in differentiated weathering. Most
resistant rocks protrude in cliffs. The
uneven surface is responsible for some
spectacular and beautiful rock
formations. Cracks are important
because they influence the ability of
water to seep through the rock. Climate,
specifically temperature and moisture,
are crucial to the rate of weathering. The
freeze- thaw cycle, which is dependent
on temperature changes, affects the
amount of frost wedging. The
combination of warm temperature and
abundant moisture is a very good
environment for chemical weathering.
Mass Wasting
The mass movement of rocks, soil, and
regolith is often referred to as mass
wasting. It is the step that follows
weathering and is also a degradation
process. The driving force of mass
wasting is gravity. Although gravity is the
controlling force, there are other factors
that influence or trigger the down slope
movement of materials with water, such
as over steepening of slopes beyond the
angle of repose, removal of anchoring
vegetation, and ground vibration from
earthquakes. Water has a lubricating
effect that lessens the cohesion among
particles, allowing the particles to slide
past one another easily. The angle of
repose is the steepest angle at which
materials remain stable and do not move
down slope. Depending on the size and
shape of the particles, the angle of
repose varies from 25° to 40°. The root
system of plants binds the soil and
regolith together, minimizing the down
slope movement of materials. Ground
vibrations due to earthquakes trigger
mass movement.
Types of Mass Wasting
1.Rock and Debris Falls
Ø  Rock falls occur when a piece of rock
or mass of rocks become dislodged and
makes free-fall along a steep cliff.
Ø  Debris fall is similar to rock fall, except
that it involves a mixture of soil regolith,
vegetation, and rocks.
2. Landslide
This is a sudden fast movement of
cohesive mass of soil, rock, or regolith.
3. Flows
Flows may be slurry flows or granular
flows. Slurry flows consist of a mixture of
rocks and/or regolith with 20% to 40%%
water. They are considered as water-
saturated flows. Granular flows contain 0
to 20% water. They are not saturated
with water.
Slurry flows may be subdivided
further on the basis of velocity:
 Solifluction flow moves at around
1 cm/yr and occurs in areas
saturated with water
 Debris flows move at around 1
m/yr to 100 m/h; these result
from heavy rains
 Mudflows are high velocity
mixture of sediment and water.
The velocities are greater than 1
km/h; these                 result from
heavy rain and can travel long
distances
Granular flows may be subdivided
further based on velocity:
 Creep is the slow movement of
regolith down a slope, observed
in bent trees and fences
 Earthflows have velocities that
range from less than 1 cm/yr to
less than 100 m/h
 Grain flows have velocities that
range from 9 to 100 m/h to less
than 100 km/h; they are relatively
dry material like sand dunes
 Debris avalanche are very high
velocity flows (more than 100
km/h) of large volume of mixtures
of rocks and regolith
4.  Slumps – like slide but they move
along a curved surface.
Sedimentation
It is the accumulation of materials such
as soil, rock fragments, and soil particles
settling on the ground. This usually
occurs in streams and sea erosion. Over
time, the sediment load becomes thick
and forms a new layer of ground. In
some small inland waters, this sediment
layer will eventually dry up the water and
become part of the soil. In oceans, the
sediment layer can form the ocean basin.
Because geologic processes are constant,
ocean basins change in size and depth.
The change depends on the rate of
erosion in their surrounding continental
masses or by Ocean ridges.
The sedimentation process comprises
the following aspects:
• Erosion
• Transportation
• Deposition
• Compaction & Cementation
Teacher’s Insight
      Rocks continue to undergo geologic
processes that take place at the surface
of Earth (exogenous) or within Earth
(endogenous). These processes are
usually influenced or driven by gravity,
water, wind, and organisms. These could
be destructive occurrences that leave
significant changes on the landscape and
even in the ecosystem of an area. In
extreme cases, exogenous processes can
wipe out majority of the organisms
inhabiting an area.
C.ENDOGENIC
PROCESSES
There are important endogenic
processes that play important roles in
the formation of different landforms-
these are tectonic processes (folding,
faulting, and shearing) and volcanism.
You will learn more of these processes in
this chapter.
Endogenous Processes
The endogenous processes on Earth take
place within or in the interior of Earth.
The driving force is the thermal energy
of the mantle. Most of the thermal
energy originates from the decay and
disintegration of radioactive elements in
Earth's core.
The endogenous processes on Earth are
responsible for earthquakes,
development of continents, mountain
building, volcanic activities, and other
movements related to Earth's crust. Here
are some of the endogenic processes
that played a role in the evolution of
landforms on Earth:
1. Magmatism. 
        Magma is the original material that
make up igneous rocks. Originally found
beneath the surface of Earth, magma is
very hot and is constantly moved by the
internal heat that reaches the mantle of
Earth through convective flow.
Magmatism happens when magma is
generated and develops into igneous
(magmatic) rocks. The process can take
place either under the surface or on the
surface of Earth.
 
2. Volcanism (or Plutonism). 
          It is the process that usually
happens after magma is formed. Magma
tries to escape from the source through
openings such as volcanoes or existing
cracks on the ground. Magma comes out
with extreme heat and pressure and may
cause destructive explosions. As soon as
magma reaches the surface of Earth, it is
now called lava.

3. Metamorphism.
  It is the process of changing the
materials that make up a rock. The
chemical components and geologic
characteristics of the rock changed due
to heat and pressure that are increasing
or decreasing. The minerals in the rock
may change even if the rock does not
melt. It should be noted that rocks
changing due to weathering and
sedimentation are not considered to
have undergone metamorphism.
 Types of Stress That Influence Rock
Behavior
The geologic processes that occur on
Earth cause stress on rocks. Geological
stress is the force (from the pushing and
pulling of plates) that acts on the rocks
thereby creating different behavior or
characteristics. There are four different
types of stress that influence rock
behavior:
1. Compressional.  the plate smaller in size. Depending on
  In compressional stress, rocks push or
squeeze against one another. The stress
produced is directed toward the center.
Hence, when these rocks meet, the
orientation could either be horizontal or
vertical. Horizontally, the crust may
thicken or shorten. Vertically, the crust
can thin out or break off. Compressional
stress is usually what takes place in
folding, which results in mountain
building.
 2.Tensional.  shape of the crust but not its weight. In
 In tensional stress, rocks are pulled
apart. Rocks may separate in opposite
directions or move farther away from
one another. It is speculated that this
type of stress is what separated all the
continents in the world during the
breaking away of the supergiant
continent known as Pangaea.
3. Shear.    All these geologic processes continue
In shear stress, some of the portions of a
plate at the edges may break away in
different directions, eventually making
the conditions of the environment, shear
stress usually happens at different rates
at the boundaries of the plate. The
friction caused by this stress can cause
earthquakes.
4. Confining. 
 In confining stress, the crust becomes
compact, making it look smaller. This is
different from shearing as none of the
crust s edges break away. However, if
breaking away happens, it would come
from the inside. This may retain the
short, nothing may seem to have
changed in the appearance of the crust
because changes have occurred inside.
Confining stress can cause sinkholes
where the inside portion of the ground
has already disintegrated without being
apparent.
     CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
to change the appearance of Earth. So,
how did Earth look before? In 1596,
Abraham Ortelius (1527-1598), a Flemish
cartographer, observed that the shapes
of the continents on both sides of the
Atlantic Ocean seem to fit together. It
was as if Africa was torn away from Asia
and Europe. With the absence of valid
measurements and proofs, the only
speculation Ortelius could provide was
that earthquakes and floodings may
have made the separation possible.
In 1912, geophysicist Alfred Wegener
(1880-1930) developed the concept and
hypothesized the continental drift
theory. He claimed that there used to be
only one supergiant landmass where all
the continents came from. He called this
massive landmass Pangaea. Over time,
this continent broke apart into two huge
landmasses and these landmasses
moved away from each other. The two
giant continents were Laurasia which
comprised the continents in the present-
day Northern Hemisphere, and
Gondwanaland (also Gondwana) which
comprised the continents in the present-
day Southern Hemisphere. The
separation continued until we have the
continents that we can see on the map
today. Wegener supported his theory
with references from past authors with
similar ideas, such as Eduard Suess
(1831-1914) who also recognized the
existence of a supercontinent
Gondwanaland. Suess proposed the
existence of the Tethys Sea, the body of
water that separated the two ancient
continental landmasses Laurasia and
Gondwanaland.
 Wegener proceeded by providing
strong pieces of evidence of his
continental drift theory.
1.    Similarity of fossils found in different
continents.
2.    Presence of tillites in areas whose
present climates do not suggest glacial
formation.
3.    Presence of coal seams in polar
regions
4.    Continuity of rock layers found in
different continents
5.    Similarity of rock types in different
continents
  PLATE TECTONICS THEORY
Wegener's theory initially did not gain
acceptance from the scientific
community because he could not explain
why the continents moved. He just
asserted that continents had been pulled
apart by Earth's rotational force and
some astronomical influences. Hence, his
theory was given little interest that time.
However, in the 1940s during an initial
survey for ocean floor mapping and
other geological explorations, certain
findings led to the discovery of more
accurate pieces of evidence that would
lead to the explanation of the moving
continents; the plate tectonics theory
was born. As early as 1929, Arthur
Holmes (1890-1965), a British geologist,
suggested the idea of thermal
convection as the driving force for the
movement of the continents. The
concept of thermal convection, as
Holmes put it, is based on the fact that
as a substance is heated, its density
decreases and rises to the surface until it
is cooled and then sinks again. The
repeating process of heating and cooling
may produce a current that is strong
enough to make the continents move.
Holmes further suggested that thermal
convection works like a "conveyor belt"
where the pressure that goes up could
break apart a continent. The broken
pieces can be carried by the same
currents to opposite directions. In later
years, the concept of thermal convection
was changed to mantle convection
currents to specify that heat is actually
radiating from the mantle. While the
basis for the movement of continents
progressed, geologists started to use
Plate Tectonics a more precise term to
refer to the moving piece of crust as
"plate" because it was believed that
continents are not the only ones moving
(as explained by Wegener). The
boundaries of tectonic plates were
accidentally discovered and eventually
studied during magnetic surveys of the
ocean floor and seismic studies for
nuclear testing.
Let us review the three main types of
boundaries:
 
Plate Boundaries
 All major interactions among individual
plates occur along their boundaries.
There are three distinct types of
boundaries based on the type of
movement. These are convergent
boundary, divergent boundary, and
transform fault boundary.
1. Convergent boundary occurs when
two plates move toward each other.
Crust is destroyed when two plates
converge. The heavier plate dives
(subducts) beneath the more buoyant
plate. Convergent boundaries are also
subduction zones.
a.    Oceanic-continental convergence
forms trenches, destructive earthquakes,
and rapid uplift of mountain                 
ranges, as well as the building of volcanic
arc.
2. Divergent boundaries are where plates
b.    Oceanic-oceanic convergence also move away from each other. Plates move
forms trenches (Marianas Trench) and apart because of the magma that is
volcanic arc. being pushed upward in boundaries of
the plates. When this happens, the slowly
c.    Continental-continental convergence moving plates transport newly formed
forms mountain range like the crust away from the ridge as it spreads in
Himalayan range. both directions where the plates go.

3. Transform boundaries are where
plates slide past each other. Neither
plates gets subducted. Generally defined
as shallow earthquakes.
Tectonic Forces and Processes
Rocks may undergo deformation. This
caused by tectonic forces. When rocks
are subjected to stresses (tectonic
processes), they begin to deform
(faulting and folding)
 1. Folding
Folding or folds occur when rocks are
pushed towards each other from
opposite sides. The rock layers bend into
folds. Folds are produced by horizontal
compressive stresses, such as continent-
continent collisions or collisions at any
convergent plate boundary. They may
occur in groups and may be large scale
or small scale.
the crust in which displacement has
occurred. There are different faults based
on the relative movement of the blocks
on either side of the fault.
Dip-slip fault occurs when the movement
of the two blocks is vertical. Examples of
dip-slip fault are the normal and reverse
faults. In a normal fault, the hanging wall
block moves down relative to the
footwall block. In reverse fault, the
hanging wall moves up relative to the
foot wall block.

2.Faulting

Faulting is the fracturing and

displacement of brittle rocks strata along
a fault plane. Faults are fractures along
Seafloor Spreading
After World War II, exploration on the
ocean floor became the focus of many
geologic studies. It was then that the
ocean ridge system was discovered. A
geologist in Princeton University named
Harry Hess, along with other scientists,
studied this ocean ridge system and
hypothesized that the oceanic crust is
moving away from the ridge. His
hypothesis is known as seafloor
spreading. The theory showed that the
ocean floor is split along the ridge where
the magma rises to form the new ocean
floor. Because of this, rocks found near
the ridge are younger than those that
are found farther. When the magma at
the ridge crystallizes, the magnetic
polarity of Earth is also preserved in
those rocks. With that, scientists were
able to see the magnetic reversals in the
ocean floor, and they were able to make
use of information to determine that the
ocean floor is moving at a rate of about
10 cm per year.
Teacher’s Insight
         Earth keeps its shape and volume
by rock expansion through seafloor
spreading and by shrinking plates
through crustal deformation.
          It is believed that continents move
above the stationary ocean floor. But
continents do not move above them
since even ocean basins move. What
actually moves, carrying both continents
and ocean basins, are the plates. These
plates above the denser asthenosphere
flow due to convection currents which
carry the plates with them.
D. EARTH’S HISTORY
Fossils- remains of a plant or animal that
existed in a past geological age
Relative dating- determines which
samples are older
Absolute dating- gives a numerical date
for samples. Uses unstable elements to
determine the exact age of a rock
                                                 RELATIVE
DATING
Relative dating requires one to know the
basic principles such as law of
superposition, principle of original
horizontality, principle of cross-cutting
relationships, and unconformities.
 LAW OF SUPERPOSITION
 The law of superposition is the most
basic principle in relative dating. It states
that in an undeformed sequence of
sedimentary rock, the layers found on
the top are the youngest rocks and the
layers at the bottom are the oldest. It
may seem too obvious, but this principle
has only been clearly stated in 1669 by
the Danish anatomist, geologist, and
priest, Nicolaus Steno.
 Principle of Original Horizontality
Along with the law of superposition,
Steno stated that an undeformed
sequence is the one where the layers are
still in a horizontal position. This follows
the principle of original horizontality,
which states that sediments are
deposited in a horizontal position.
 Principle of Cross-Cutting
Relationships
 The principle of cross-cutting
relationships determines which events
happened first depending on which
rocks are affected. The geologic layer
that cuts another is younger than the
layer it cuts through.
 Unconformities
Rock layers that have not been
interrupted are considered Conformable.
These sites represent spans of geologic
time. But there is no such place on Earth
that has a complete conformable strata
since external and internal processes
have always interrupted the deposition
of the sediments.   ABSOLUTE DATING
These breaks in the record of the rock
strata are called unconformities and
with this, long periods of missing
geologic record are determined.  The most used and accepted form of
There are three basic types of
unconformities: angular unconformity,
disconformity, and nonconformity.  radioactive minerals are used to
Angular unconformity is characterized
by having tilted or folded sedimentary
rocks below younger, horizontal layers of
rocks.  daughter isotopes in rocks, you can
Disconformity is determined where
there are missing parallel rocks layers.
Erosion takes place and removes the
younger top layers and then deposition
would once again happen.
Nonconformity is characterized by an
igneous or metamorphic rock found
below sedimentary rock. Using these
principles for relative dating, one can
determine the order of events but
remember that it does not give a time
element as to when they happened.
 Absolute dating methods can tell which
sediments were deposited first and also
the approximate age of the specimen.
absolute dating is radioactive decay
dating. Most absolute dating makes use
of radiometric methods, wherein
compute the age of rocks. Isotopes,
which are present in radioactive
elements, break down at a constant rate.
These rates of decay are known, so if you
are able to measure the parent and
calculate when the rocks were formed.
Since different elements have unique
decay rates, certain elements are used
for dating a particular age range. For
example, the decay of isotope Ur-238 to
Pb-206 may be used for rocks older than
1 million years.
 Fossils
Aside from rocks, geologists also use the
remains of living organisms in
understanding Earths history. Some
fossils are formed from parts of an
organism (body fossils). And some are
fossils that give signs or clues which life
forms were present at that time (trace
fossils). 
Fossils contain a lot of information about
the past-the kind of organisms that have
lived, the environment where organisms
lived, and the evolution of organisms as
their environment changed. But not all
organisms turned into fossils, therefore,
scientists cannot learn everything about
the past using fossils alone. There are
also fossils that are used to determine
the age of a rock. These are index fossils
and these are only found in rocks of a
particular age. The organisms that
turned into index fossils have a relatively
short life-spanning from a few million
years to a few hundred million years.
Index fossils are also found in most of
the common rocks around the world,
which makes them easier to identify.
 Geologic Time Scale
 How did life evolve through the course
of history of Earth?
 Using relative dating to determine which
rocks and fossils are older were the first
basis for the geologic time scale. Then
upon the discovery of radiometric
dating, numerical dates of the rocks were
then determined. Scientists learned that
even at different continents, relative ages
of sedimentary rocks and their
sequences are the same. And with the
use of marker fossils, they were able to
determine which living organisms were
predominant at a certain time and age.
With these methods, they were able to
arrange the rocks into a geologic column
showing the correlation of the relative
ages of the rocks in all parts of the world.
The geologic column has subdivisions
assigned, namely, eons, eras, periods,
and epochs. Eons represent the longest
amount of time. 
There are two main eons in the history
of Earth: the Phanerozoic and the
Precambrian eon.  were first described. For example, the
The Precambrian can be further divided
into three eons: Hadean, Archean, and
Proterozoic eons. Eons are followed by
eras.  biogenic sedimentary carbonate rock.
The Phanerozoic eon is divided into
three eras: Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and
Cenozoic eras. The end of an era is
marked by a change in life forms on
Earth. These eras are further divided
into periods, which are characterized by
a less profound change in life forms. And
finally, periods are made up of
few epochs, the smallest unit in the
geologic time scale. The change in life
form between two separate divisions can
sometimes be associated with mass
extinctions. These mass extinctions can
happen when there are changes in the
global climate or ocean Currents or when
there are sudden events, such as a large
volcanic eruption or a meteorite impact.
When there is mass extinction, a lot of
species die at one time.
The names used in the subdivisions were
based on the rock types that characterize
them or the location where the rocks
name "cretaceous, a period in the
Mesozoic era, was derived from the word
creta meaning "chalk." since during that
period, there were excessive deposits of
Another is the Pennsylvanian
period, which was named after the state
of Pennsylvania where most rocks of
the same age are widespread. The eon
that humans are a part of is the
Phanerozoic eon. It is the most recent
eon and it is where almost all of the
records that are used to describe the
history of Earth are found. The three eras
under Phanerozoic eon are
the Paleozoic era (the era of old life),
Mesozoic era (the age of reptiles), and
Cenozoic era (the age of mammals).
Teacher’s Insight
      One of the many careers on Earth is
being a Geologist. They are studying to
better understand the history of Earth.
Along with it, they study all the
processes involved in structuring the
face of Earth. They make use of relative
and absolute dating to specifically
identify the events that happened in the
past through rocks.
     The earliest evidence of life on Earth
was the cyanobacteria that have been
present during the Archean eon. It then
evolved to multicellar organisms during
the Proterozoic eon. During the
Paleozoic era, the organisms were
invertebrates, fishes, insects, amphibians,
and other reptiles. Birds and dinosaurs
dominated the Mesozoic era, and
mammals dominated the Cenozoic era.
A.HAZARDS CAUSED BY
GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES
Hazards Caused by Geologic Processes
As discussed in the previous module, the
plate tectonics theory explains the
dynamism of Earth. You learned that
Earth is made up of tectonic plates that
move because they float on a liquid
mantle that also moves due to thermal
energy that escapes from Earth's core.
The ground motion itself is a hazard.
However, there are other numerous
hazards associated with or resulting from
ground movement. Some of these are
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and
landslides.
Natural Hazards- events that occur as
part of the natural cycles of Earth and
may cause potential damage to a
community
Geological hazards – occur more
frequently at areas where there are fault
lines, volcanoes, and steep slopes
Common Geologic Hazards
1. Earthquakes
The plate tectonics theory explains that
interaction of plates occurs on their
edges or boundaries. The Philippines is
geographically located near the
boundaries of active tectonic plates. It is
specifically near the edge of the
Philippine Plate that is constantly pushed
by an active Pacific Plate. This explains
the frequent earthquakes experienced
throughout the country. Current
technological advancement now allows
the public to learn about locations of
recent earthquakes and their
corresponding magnitudes.
Earthquaketrack.com is a Web site that
provides real-time information on
earthquakes whose data are provided by
the United States Geological Survey
(USGS). According to this Web site, the
Philippines experiences 200 to 250
earthquakes of varying magnitudes each
year. Most of the earthquakes have less
than 2.0 magnitude which are not strong
enough to cause damage. 
Areas that are at risk to earthquakes may
also experience other hazards associated
with earthquakes. These include the
following:
a. Ground shaking - the vibration of the
ground due to plate movement or
seismic waves during an earthquake.
Living things may be disturbed by this
movement. Buildings and other
infrastructure can be damaged by the
effect of ground shaking. These
structures can also be damaged when
the ground beneath them sinks
(subsidence) after ground shaking.
b. Surface faulting - The tearing of the
ground when the movement of a fault
deep within Earth breaks through to
ground surface. Buildings, roads,
railroads, tunnels, and pipelines are
susceptible to surface faulting damage.
Also, animal habitats may be destroyed,
or worse, lost due to the breaking of the
ground.
Tsunami is very high, large waves or
seismic sea waves caused by the sudden
movement of the ocean floor due to
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, man-
made explosions, and on some
occasions, landslides.
The risks of possible earthquakes in
various areas in the Philippines based on
geologic profile and history of seismic
events are shown in Figure 3.4.
According to the Philippine Institute of
Volcanology and Seismology
(PHIVOLCS), The top 10 provinces that
are at risk to earthquakes are Surigao del
Sur, La Union, Benguet, Pangasinan,
Pampanga, Tarlac, Ifugao, Davao
Oriental, Nueva Vizcaya, and Nueva Ecija.
Volcanic Eruptions
The location of the Philippines in the
Pacific Ring of Fire is near the subduction
One of the Pacific Plate. Recall that the
subduction zone is the sinking region of
a convergent plate boundary. Here, the
Pacific Plate, which is an oceanic
subducting (sinking) plate, moves
downward to the mantle as the other
convergent plate, the Philippine Plate,
stays on top. Apart from this, the
Philippines belongs to the Pacific Ring of
Fire, where volcanic activities are
frequent. Recall that being at or near the
boundary of a tectonic plate poses
geological hazard to an area. Because of
the activity of these plates, the
Philippines is prone to volcanic
eruptions. In fact, most islands in the
Philippines are of volcanic origin. The
trenches (shown in Figure 3.5)
surrounding the Philippines are formed
from collisional boundaries of tectonic
plates. According to PHIVOLCS, there are
more than 20 historically active
volcanoes in the country that have
manifested a volcanic activity in the last
600 years.
Volcanic activities may also be followed
by other related hazards such as lahar
flow, ash fall, pyroclastic flow, ballistic
projectiles, emission of volcanic gases,
and lava flow. These hazards prompt
the evacuation of affected communities
because of the significant changes in the
physical and biological profile of the
environment. A volcanic eruption can be
predicted days or even weeks before it
happens. The location of volcanoes and
the possible risks associated with the
activities of these volcanoes can be
identified using geohazard maps plotted
by PHIVOLCS. Communities that are
likely to be affected by these possible
volcanic activities should take the
necessary precautions and preparations
to avoid severe disasters.
3. Landslides
Landslides occur in sloping terrain.
Usually, if the soil is not compact and
devoid of vegetation, gravity can drive
soil and rocks to slide. There are many
natural factors that can induce a
landslide such as wind and water.
Landslides can also be triggered by
rainfall or earthquake.
 a. Rainfall-induced landslides
In sloping areas, the gravitational
descent of loosened soil makes it
possible for landslides to occur. This is a
common phenomenon in places with
tropical climates after very intense and
long rains during the wet season.
Landslides could especially be serious in
densely populated areas where weak and
heavy structures are built on slopes. A
steep slope with structures has a high
vulnerability to landslides. It increases
the chances of structures to slide by
gravitational descent. Heavy rains can
saturate and loosen the topsoil which be reduced or managed through public
eventually make the foundation of awareness and preparedness.
structures weak.
   b. Earthquake-induced landslides Teacher’s Insight
This type of landslide happens during or           Based on experts’ studies, the
after an earthquake when a piece of Philippines experiences a lot of
weakened landslides off primarily due to earthquakes because it is located in the
gravity. The development of frail rock or circum-Pacific Belt, situated in the Pacific
soil foundation may be due to the Ring of Fire. The two locations are the
natural makeup of the soil consisting of same but the term Pacific Ring of Fire is
a softer layer beneath solid bedrock; used in relation to volcanoes because of
man-made activities that induce erosion, the molten rocks that are being ejected
such as deforestation, excavation, from them. The term is not in any way
mining, and quarrying; or thunder and related to earthquakes.
other vibrations from natural ground
activities.
Landslides bring about long-term effects
not only on communities but also on the
environment. This hazard can lead to a
number of fatalities especially if no
disaster reduction plans are in place.
Prevention and Management of
Geological Hazards There is never a
perfect execution of disaster
management plans because no geologic
event can be accurately predicted.
However, the impacts of disasters may