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General
organisms. Relativity explains the peculiarities of the
UNIVERSE AND THE SOLAR orbit of Mercury and the bending of light
SYSTEM Steady State Model by the Sun and has passed rigorous
tests. The Cosmological Principle
Origin of the Universe • The now discredited steady state assumes that the universe is
model of the universe was proposed in homogeneous and isotropic when
Non-scientific Thought 1948 by Bondi and Gould and by Hoyle. averaged over large scales. This is
It maintains that new matter is created as consistent with our current large-scale
• Ancient Egyptians believed in many the universe expands thereby image of the universe. But keep in mind
gods and myths which narrate that the maintaining its density. that it is clumpy at smaller scales.
world arose from an infinite sea at the
first rising of the sun. • Its predictions led to tests and its • The Big Bang Theory has withstood the
eventual rejection with the discovery of tests for expansion: 1) the redshift 2)
• The Kuba people of Central Africa tell the cosmic microwave background abundance of hydrogen, helium, and
the story of a creator god Mbombo (or
lithium, and 3) the uniformly pervasive
Bumba) who, alone in a dark and water- Big Bang Theory cosmic microwave background
covered Earth, felt an intense stomach
radiation-the remnant heat from the
pain and then vomited the stars, sun, • As the currently accepted theory of the
bang.
and moon. origin and evolution of the universe, the
Big Bang Theory postulates that 13.8 Evolution of the Universe according
• In India, there is the narrative that gods billion years ago, the universe expanded to the Big Bang Theory
sacrificed Purusha, the primal man from a tiny, dense and hot mass to its
whose head, feet, eyes, and mind present size and much cooler state. • From time zero (13.8 billion years ago)
became the sky, earth, sun, and moon
until 10-43 second later, all matter and
respectively. • The theory rests on two ideas: General energy in the universe existed as a hot,
Relativity and the Cosmological Principle. dense, tiny state. It then underwent
• The monotheistic religions of Judaism, In Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, extremely rapid, exponential inflation
Christianity, and Islam claim that a gravity is thought of as a distortion of until 10-32 second later after which and
supreme being created the universe, space-time and no longer described by a until 10 seconds from time zero,
gravitational field in contrast to the Law
conditions allowed the existence of only after the big bang, the solar system was which they were formed, radioactive
quarks, hadrons, and leptons. formed. dating of meteorites, suggests that the
Earth and solar system are 4.6 billion
• Then, Big Bang nucleosynthesis took Overview of Solar System years old on the assumption that they
place and produced protons, neutrons, are remnants of the materials from which
atomic nuclei, and then hydrogen, A. The solar system is located in the they were formed.
helium, and lithium until 20 minutes after Milky Way galaxy a huge disc- and
time zero when sufficient cooling did not spiral-shaped aggregation of about at Large Scale Features of the Solar
allow further nucleosynthesis. least 100 billion stars and other bodies; System
• From then on until 380,000 years, the B. Its spiral arms rotate around a 1. Much of the mass of the Solar System
cooling universe entered a matter- globular cluster or bulge of many, many is concentrated at the center (Sun) while
dominated period when photons stars, at the center of which lies a
decoupled from matter and light could supermassive blackhole; angular momentum is held by the outer
travel freely as still observed today in the planets.
form of cosmic microwave background C. This galaxy is about 100 million light
radiation. years across (1 light year = 9.4607 ×1012 2. Orbits of the planets elliptical and are
km; on the same plane.
• As the universe continued to cool
down, matter collected into clouds D. The solar system revolves around the 3. All planets revolve around the sun.
giving rise to only stars after 380,000 galactic center once in about 240 million
years and eventually galaxies would form years; 4. The periods of revolution of the
after 100 million years from time zero planets increase with increasing distance
during which, through nucleosynthesis in E. The Milky Way is part of the so-called from the Sun; the innermost planet
stars, carbon and elements heavier than Local Group of galaxies, which in turn is moves fastest, the outermost, the
carbon were produced. part of the Virgo supercluster of galaxies; slowest;
• From 9.8 billion years until the present, F. Based on the assumption that they are 5. All planets are located at regular
the universe became dark-energy remnants of the materials from intervals from the Sun.
dominated and underwent accelerating
expansion. At about 9.8 billion years
Small scale features of the Solar A. Except for hydrogen, helium, inert Origin of the Solar System
System gases, and volatiles, the universe and
Earth have similar abundance especially Any acceptable scientific thought on the
1. Most planets rotate prograde for rock and metal elements. origin of the solar system has to be
consistent with and supported by
2. Inner terrestrial planets are made of B.The sun and the large planets have information about it (e.g. large and small
materials with high melting points such enough gravity to retain hydrogen and scale features, composition). There will
as silicates, iron, and nickel. They rotate helium. Rare inert gases are too light for be a need to revise currently accepted
slower, have thin or no atmosphere, the Earth’s gravity to retain, thus the low ideas should data no longer support
higher densities, and lower contents of abundance. them.
volatiles - hydrogen, helium, and noble
gases. C. Retention of volatile elements by the Nebular Hypothesis
Earth is consistent with the idea that
3.The outer four planets - Jupiter, Saturn, some materials that formed the Earth In the 1700s Emanuel Swedenborg,
Uranus and Neptune are called and the solar system were “cold” and Immanuel Kant, and Pierre-Simon
"gas giants" because of the dominance solid; otherwise, the volatiles would have Laplace independently thought of a
of gases and their larger size. They rotate been lost. These suggest that the Earth rotating gaseous cloud that cools and
faster, have thick atmosphere, lower and the solar system could be derived contracts in the middle to form the sun
densities, and fluid interiors rich in from materials with composition similar and the rest into a disc that become the
hydrogen, helium and ices (water, to that of the universe. planets. This nebular theory failed to
ammonia, methane). account for the distribution of
D.The presence of heavy elements such angular momentum in the solar system.
Element Abundance on Earth, as lead, silver, and uranium on Earth
Meteorites, and Universe suggests that it was derived from Encounter Hypotheses:
remnants of a supernova and that the
1.The table below shows the abundance Sun is a second-generation star made by A. Buffon’s (1749) Sun-comet encounter
of elements across bodies in the solar recycling materials. that sent matter to form planet;
system as compared to abundance in the
universe.
B. James Jeans’ (1917) sun-star of material which becomes the planets. B. As most of the mass move to the
encounter that would have drawn from Collisions between proto-planets close center to eventually become a proto-
the sun matter that would condense to to the Sun produced the terrestrial Sun, the remaining materials form a disc
planets, planets; condensations in the filament that will eventually become the planets
produced the giant planets and their and momentum is transferred outwards.
C. T.C. Chamberlain and F. R. Moulton’s satellites. Different ages for the Sun and
(1904) planetesimal hypothesis involving planets is predicted by this theory. C. Due to collisions, fragments of dust
a star much bigger than the Sun passing and solid matter begin sticking to each
by the Sun and draws gaseous filaments Sun - Star interaction other to form larger and larger bodies
from both out which planetisimals were from meter to kilometer in size. These
formed; Nobel Prize winner Harold Urey’s proto-planets are accretions of frozen
compositional studies on meteorites in water, ammonia, methane, silicon,
D. Ray Lyttleton’s(1940) sun’s companion the 1950s and other scientists’ work on aluminum, iron, and other metals in rock
star colliding with another to form these objects led to the conclusion that and mineral grains enveloped in
a proto-planet that breaks up to form meteorite constituents have changed hydrogen and helium.
Jupiter and Saturn. very little since the solar system’s early
history and can give clues about their D.High-speed collisions with large
E. Otto Schmidt’s accretion theory formation. The currently accepted theory objects destroys much of the mantle of
proposed that the Sun passed through on the origin of the solar system relies Mercury, puts Venus in retrograde
a dense interstellar cloud and emerged much on information from meteorites. rotation.
with a dusty, gaseous envelope that
eventually became the planets. However, Protoplanet Hypothesis - Current E. Collision of the Earth with large object
it cannot explain how the planets and Hypothesis produces the moon. This is supported by
satellites were formed. The time required the composition of the moon very similar
to form the planets exceeds the age of A. About 4.6 billion years ago, in the to the Earth's Mantle
the solar system. Orion arm of the Milky Way galaxy, a
slowly-rotating gas and dust cloud F. When the proto-Sun is established as a
F. M.M. Woolfson’s capture theory is a dominated by hydrogen and helium star, its solar wind blasts hydrogen, helium,
variation of James Jeans’ near-collision starts to contract due to gravity and volatiles from the inner planets to
hypothesis. In this scenario, the Sun beyond Mars to form the gas giants leaving
drags from a near proto-star a filament behind a system we know today.
Recent advancement/information on early solar systems. Philae landed Teacher’s Insights
the Solar System successfully on comet (67P/Churyumov–
Exploration of Mars Gerasimenko) on 12 November 2014. Despite the fact the name of big bang
Analysis of the water (ice) from the theory sounds like explosion, this doesn’t
Since the 1960s, the Soviet Union and comet suggest that its isotopic mean explosion but rather an expansion.
the U.S. have been sending unmanned composition is different from water from
probes to the planet Mars with the Earth. The Universe is at least 13.8 billion of
primary purpose of testing the planet's years old and the Earth/Solar System at
habitability. The early efforts in the Pluto Flyby least 4.5-4.6 billions of years old.
exploration of Mars involved flybys
through which spectacular photographs On 14 July 2015, NASA's New Horizon The solar system comprises the Sun,
of the Martian surface were taken. The spacecraft provided mankind the first eight planets, dwarf planets such as
first successful landing and operation on close-up view of the dwarf planet Pluto. Pluto, satellites, asteroids, comets, other
the surface of Mars occurred in 1975 Images captured from the flyby revealed minor bodies such as those in the
under the Viking program of NASA. a complex terrain - Ice Mountains and
Recently, NASA, using high resolution vast crater free plains. The presence of Kuiper belt and interplanetary dust. The
imagery of the surface of Mars, crater free plains suggests recent (last asteroid belt lies between Mars and
presented evidence of seasonal flow 100 millions of years) of geologic activity. Jupiter. Meteoroids are smaller asteroids.
liquid water (in the form of brine - salty They are thought of as remnants of a
water) on the surface of Mars. “failed planet”—one that did not form
due to disturbance from Jupiter’s gravity.
Rosetta's Comet The Kuiper belt lies beyond Neptune (30
to 50 AU, 1 AU = Sun-Earth distance =
Rosetta is a space probe built by the 150 million km) and comprise numerous
European Space Agency and launched rocky or icy bodies a few meters to
on 2 March 2004. One of its mission is to hundreds of kilometers in size. The Oort
rendezvous with and attempt to land a cloud marks the outer boundary of the
probe (Philae) on a comet in the Kuiper solar system and is composed mostly of
Belt. One of the purpose of the mission icy objects.
is to better understand comets and the
B.Briefly discuss the Plate Tectonics as an Hydrosphere
B. SUBSYSTEMS THAT
important process shaping the surface of
MAKE UP THE EARTH the Earth. The primary driving A. About 70% of the Earth is covered
mechanism is the Earth's internal heat, with liquid water (hydrosphere) and
Earth Spheres such as that in mantle convection. much of it is in the form of ocean water.
B. The present atmosphere is composed B. It covers all ecosystems—from the soil C.The oceans are important sinks for
of 78% nitrogen (N), 21% oxygen to the rainforest, from mangroves to CO2 through direct exchange with the
(O2), 0.9% argon, and trace amount of coral reefs, and from the plankton-rich atmosphere and indirectly through the
other gases. ocean surface to the deep sea. weathering of rocks.
C. One of the most important processes C.For the majority of life on Earth, the D.Heat is absorbed and redistributed on
by which the heat on the Earth's base of the food chain comprises the surface of the Earth through ocean
surface is redistributed is through photosynthetic organisms. During circulation.
atmospheric circulation. photosynthesis, CO2 is sequestered from
the atmosphere, while oxygen is released
D. There is also a constant exchange of as a byproduct. The biosphere is a CO2 The origin of the systems approach
heat and moisture between sink, and therefore, an important part of to the study of the Earth
the atmosphere and the hydrosphere the carbon cycle.
through the hydrologic cycle. A. One of the first scientist to push for a
D. Sunlight is necessary for life. more integrated or holistic approach in
Lithosphere/ Geosphere the understanding of the universe (and
by extension the Earth) was Friedrich
A. The lithosphere includes the rocks of the
Wilhelm Heinrich Alexander von
crust and mantle, the metallic liquid outer
Humboldt. He considered the universe as
core, and the solid metallic inner core.
one interacting entity.
B. The term "biosphere" was popularized Teacher’s Insight
by Vladimir Vernadsky (1863-1945),
a Russian-Ukranian scientist who The geosphere is a major sphere of
hypothesized that life is a geological Earth that deals with the solid
force that shapes the Earth. components, such as landforms, rocks,
and layers of Earth. It is not lithosphere.
C. In the 1970s, the Gaia Hypothesis was Lithosphere refers only to the crust and
jointly developed by James Lovelock, an the top portion of the upper mantle.
English scientist/naturalist, and Lynn
Margulis, an American microbiologist. About 71% of Earth’s surface is
According to the Gaia Hypothesis. The made up of water: 97% of all waters on
biosphere is a self-regulating system that Earth are from oceans and 3% are fresh
is capable of controlling its physical and water from glaciers, rivers, lakes, and
chemical environment. underground aquifers and streams.
Igneous rocks are formed when magma • Cools fast …….small crystals
(molten rock deep within the earth) cools
and hardens. Sometimes the magma • Cools immediately……NO Crystals
cools inside the earth, and other times it (glass)
erupts onto the surface from volcanoes
(in this case, it is called lava). When lava
cools very quickly, no crystals form and
Igneous rocks are also classified
the rock looks shiny and glasslike.
according to silica content: felsic,
Sometimes gas bubbles are trapped in
Extrusive intermediate, mafic and ultramafic.
the rock during the cooling process,
leaving tiny holes and spaces in the rock. • Cools at the Earth’s surface (quickly)
Examples of this rock type include basalt • Lava
• felsic: also called granitic; >65% silica,
and obsidian.
• “Volcanic” generally light-colored
Intrusive • intermediate: also called andesitic; 55-
65% silica; generally medium colored
·Cools below the earth’s surface (slowly)
(medium gray)
• Magma
• mafic: also called basaltic; 45-55%
silica; generally dark colored
• “Plutonic”
• ultramafic: <45% silica; generally very
dark colored; composed mainly of olivine
and pyroxene which are the major
The longer the rock takes to cool, constituents of the upper mantle.
the larger the crystals
Rock Cycle The Igneous rocks undergo
weathering and the eroded
Refer to the rock cycle. It shows the materials are deposited as
origin of the igneous, sedimentary, and sediments. Sediments undergo
metamorphic rocks and their lithification (conversion into rock)
relationship. to become sedimentary rocks
when compacted and cemented.
When sedimentary rocks are
buried deep within Earth, they will
be subjected to heat and pressure
(Metamorphic rocks)
Metamorphic rocks subjected to
higher temperature will melt and
turn to magma.
Magma solidifies into igneous
rocks.
Teacher’s Insight
The magma cools and solidifies Minerals are all around us. It is used in
through the process of our daily lives: halite (salt) for cooking,
crystallization, which may occur graphite (pencil) for writing, diamond
either beneath the surface of the and gold as jewelry, etc.
Earth or at surface through volcanic
eruption. The resulting rock is called
igneous rocks.
Weathering - the physical breakdown Chemical Weathering
B.EXOGENIC PROCESSES
and/or chemical alteration of rocks at or
near Earth’s surface. Chemical weathering decomposes rocks
Earth is a dynamic body. Its surface is
through chemical change. The processes
constantly being changed by the
Mechanical Weathering involved in chemical weathering include
processes that include weathering, mass
the following:
wasting, erosion, transportation, and Mechanical weathering or disintegration
deposition. Through these processes, is the breaking up of large rocks into 1. Oxidation
Earth's landscape will constantly undergo smaller fragments without changing the
changes, and Earth's topography will be Oxygen dissolved in water will oxidize
rock's mineral composition. These
different as time goes on. some materials. Reddish-brown rust will
include frost wedging or frost
weathering, insolation weathering or appear on the surface of iron-rich
Exogenic processes are part of the rock
thermal stress weathering, unloading or minerals which easily crumbles and
cycle. They are responsible for
pressure release, and biological activity. weakens the rock.
transforming rock into sediment.
Exogenic processes include degradation 2. Hydrolysis
Frost wedging or frost weathering occurs
processes (weathering, mass wasting, in regions where temperature fluctuates
erosion, and transportation) and Water is perhaps the most important
above and below freezing point,
aggradation processes (deposition). agent of chemical weathering. It affects
resulting in a freeze-thaw cycle. Water
that enters through the cracks and silicate. For example, in the case of
Weathering is a degradation process that olivine, a silicate, and water:
empty spaces of rocks expands when it
does not involve movement of materials.
freezes due to the enormous outward
There are two types of weathering:
force exerted by ice. When the ice thaws,
mechanical and chemical weathering.
water can flow further into the crack.
Repeated freeze-thaw cycles weaken the
Exogenic processes- geologic processes
rock and break up the rocks into smaller
that occur on or near the surface of the
fragments.
Earth.
3. Carbonation and Solution Rates of Weathering controlling force, there are other factors
that influence or trigger the down slope
Carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolves in water There are several factors that affect rates movement of materials with water, such
to form carbonic acid (H2CO3) and reacts of weathering. The variation in the as over steepening of slopes beyond the
carbonate rocks (CaCO3) to form a characteristics of rocks, such as mineral angle of repose, removal of anchoring
soluble product (calcium bicarbonate). composition, solubility, and cracks, vegetation, and ground vibration from
results in differentiated weathering. Most earthquakes. Water has a lubricating
Example: resistant rocks protrude in cliffs. The effect that lessens the cohesion among
uneven surface is responsible for some particles, allowing the particles to slide
spectacular and beautiful rock past one another easily. The angle of
formations. Cracks are important repose is the steepest angle at which
because they influence the ability of materials remain stable and do not move
water to seep through the rock. Climate, down slope. Depending on the size and
specifically temperature and moisture, shape of the particles, the angle of
4. Biological Action are crucial to the rate of weathering. The repose varies from 25° to 40°. The root
freeze- thaw cycle, which is dependent system of plants binds the soil and
Some plants and animals may create
on temperature changes, affects the regolith together, minimizing the down
chemical weathering by releasing
amount of frost wedging. The slope movement of materials. Ground
chelating and, audifying compounds that
combination of warm temperature and vibrations due to earthquakes trigger
react with some minerals in rocks.
abundant moisture is a very good mass movement.
Decaying remains of dead plants in soil
environment for chemical weathering.
may form organic acids and, when
Types of Mass Wasting
dissolved in water, may cause chemical Mass Wasting
weathering. 1.Rock and Debris Falls
The mass movement of rocks, soil, and
regolith is often referred to as mass Ø Rock falls occur when a piece of rock
wasting. It is the step that follows or mass of rocks become dislodged and
weathering and is also a degradation makes free-fall along a steep cliff.
process. The driving force of mass
wasting is gravity. Although gravity is the
Ø Debris fall is similar to rock fall, except km/h; these result from 4. Slumps – like slide but they move
that it involves a mixture of soil regolith, heavy rain and can travel long along a curved surface.
vegetation, and rocks. distances
2. Landslide
2.Faulting