1

O’ZBEKISTON RESPUBLIKASI OLIY VA O’RTA MAXSUS TA’LIM VAZIRLIGI

TOSHKENT VILOYATI CHIRCHIQ DAVLAT PEDAGOGIKA INSTITUTI

Chet tili nazariy aspektlari

FANIDAN O’QUV-USLUBIY MAJMUA

Bilim sohasi: 100000-Gumanitar

Ta’lim sohasi: 110000-Pedagogika

Bakalavriat yo’nalishi: 5111400-Xorijiy til va adabiyoti(ingliz tili)

Chirchiq-2019
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MUNDARIJA

1. O’QUV-METODIK MATERIALLAR

1.1. Ma’ruza mashg’ulot mavzulari

1.2. Seminar mashg’ulot mavzulari

1.3. Amaliy mashg’ulot mavzulari

2. GLOSSARIY

3. ILOVALAR

3.1. Fan dasturi

3.2. Ishchi o’quv dasturi

3.3. Testlar

1.1 MA’RUZA MASHG’ULOT MAVZULARI

1-modul. Ingliz tili nazariy fonetikasi.
1-MAVZU. INTRODUCTION. PHONETICS AS A BRANCH OF LINGUISTICS.
Plan:
1. The object of the discipline. The main objectives of the course.
2. Types of phonetics.
Phonetics (from the Greek word “phone” - meaning sound, voice and “-tika-” a science) is a special science which
studies substance and the expression area of the language, or oth erwise the physical media of a language (sounds,
syllables, stress and intonation). The linguistic form and content are described by other branches of linguistics, namely
grammar (morphology and syntax), lexicology (lexicon or vocabulary, the formation and the meanings of the words) and
stylistics (expressive-emotional meanings).The definition of phonetics as «the study of the sounds of a language»1is not
sufficient in modern linguistics. Nowadays pho netics is a science or a branch of linguistics studying articulatory
-acoustic and perceptual features of a language. It is concerned with the linguistic expression represented in the speech
sounds, syllables, stress and intonation. Phonetics deals with oral speech.
Phonetics is of great theoretical and practical value. Theo retically it is important to study the formation of speech sounds,
their combinations, syllables, stress and intonation. If we approach the study of pronunciation and listening scientifically
partial simi larities and great differences may be noticed among the utterances which may be recorded either with pen and
paper or with a re cording machine. A language consists of a series of physical events. Sound waves are formed bythe
work of speech organs and perceived by ear. There is a conversion of muscular energy into acoustic energy. But the
articulatory and auditory (listening) con trol of this conversion is not common property. Speech is per ceived, observed,
collected and classified by millions of sets of human senses and nervous systems. The classification of various speech
utterances and their divisbn into smaller and higher ele ments require theoretical, scientific bases - principles and
methods. The explanation and description of the articulation of speech sounds, the pronunciation rules of a language is
the object of prac tical or applied phonetics which is very important in teaching cor rect pronunciation of a foreign
language. Sometimes, as to its aims of teaching the normal pronunciation of a language, this type of phonetics is called a
normative course of phonetics. There is a close relationship between theoretical and practical phonetics, as it is important
to combine theory and practice. It is impossible to rep resent a good pronunciation rule without a theoretical explanation
of a particular question. Speaking about the phonetic system of a language we mean the whole set of relations of its
elements. The phonetic elements or units are sounds, syllables, stress and intona tion which have their linguistic functions
observed in the identifi cation and distinction of the utterances. In such words or morphemes as lag - bag, meet - seat, etc.
the first sounds help to distinguish their meanings. The words 'present - pre'sent are dis tinct by the position of the stress.
The sentence She came may be pronounced in such a way as to be declarative, interrogative etc.
The following types of phonetics may be distinguished:
1. General phonetics which studies the human sound - producing possibilities, the functioning of his speech mecha
nism and the ways they are used in all languages to pronounce speech sounds syllables, stress and intonation. It is a part
of General Linguistics.
2. Descriptive phonetics studies the phonetic system of a certain language. For example: English phonetics,
Russian pho netics, Uzbek phonetics etc.
3. Historical or diachronical phonetics, which studies the changes a sound undergoes in the development of a
language or languages. Its material may be based on written historical and literary monuments. Diachronical studies of
the phonetic sys tem may explain the present state (synchronical) of a language and compare them. It is a part of a history
course of a lan guage. For example, Verner's and Grimm's Laws, Ablaut, Um laut, Great Vowel Shift etc. are the objects
of diachronical phonetics which is also called evolutionary phonetics.
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4. Comparative-typological phonetics studies the pho netic features of two or more languages of different systems
such as English, Russian, and Uzbek etc. It is a part of comparative-typological linguistics. Its fundamental principle is
using linguistic categorization of all the various units of the languages in compari son. Comparative-typological phonetics
is of great theoretical and practical value. Theoretically it is important to compare phonetic systems of all languages in
order to establish language universals (the facts and features which exist in many languages), similarities and diffirencies
between the sound structure, syllable types, stress and intonation. From the results obtained it is possible to represent
adequate teaching materials and suggest effective methods of for eign language teaching. The comparative-typological
method is also known by the terms «contrastive», «confrontative», «differen tial» and «comparative» method. This
method is used either in his torical or synchronical analysis of a language.
The speech apparatus or vocal tract consists of three parts: 1) the respiratory mechanism, which furnishes the airflow
necessary for the production of most sounds; 2) the larynx, which creates most of the sound energy used in speech; 3) the
supraglottal cavities which play the role of resonators to produce speech noises. The supraglottal cavities are: the
pharynx, the mouth cavity and the nasal cavity. One more resonator is the labial cavity which func tions in the
pronunciation of rounded and unrounded vowels and also labial consonants. The roof of the mouth is divided into: the
hard palate, soft palate (or velum), the uvula (the end of the soft palate), the teeth ridge, the upper-teeth, the upper lip and
the lower lip. The most active organ of speech is the tongue which may be divided into: the root, the back, the center (or
front) and the blade with the tip (see fig. 1).
The four principal resonators of the speech organs: I. The pharynx; П. The mouth; III. The nasal cavity; IV. The labial
cavity.
Places of articulation; 1. Bilabial; 2. Labiodentals; 3. Dental;
4. Alveolar; 5. Retroflex; 6. Palato-alveolar; 7. Palatal; 8. Velar;9.Uvular; 10. Pharyngal.
The larynx is at the upper end of the trachea which contains the vocal cords. When the vocal cords are drawn near
together the air vi bration, coming from the lungs, produces voiced sounds. If the vocal cords are apart they do not vibrate
as a result of which voiceless con sonants may be produced. The space between the vocal cords is called the glottis.The
glottis is open during normal respiration. It may be closed when the vocal cords are kept together.The voiceless plosive
consonants may be aspirated and un aspirated. When the glottis is closed the unaspirated plosive con sonants /p, t, к/ may
be produced. During the occlusion of an aspirated plosive consonant sound the glottis is open. This is es-sentually a
matter of the time relations between the closed phase of articulation and the time of onset (aspiration) or preaspiration of
voicing as in /ph, th, kh/. The air which escapes the glottis is closed for the articulation of the following vowel is heard as
an exhalation. The aspirated voiceless stops (plosives) are used be fore vowels. Aspiration is usually weak before an
unstressed vowel. The unaspirated consonant is used before and after other consonants. It is probable that the difference
between aspirated and unaspirated stops is not purely a matter of timing, since oral pressure recordings frequently show a
level or even slightly fal ling, oral pressure during unaspirated stops, but oral pressure ris ing right up to the moment of
release in aspirated stops.
The state of the glottis, its opening and closing, also the vi bration of the vocal cords characterize the types of phonatory
structures: breath, voice, voiceless, murmur, creaky voice and glottal stop.In breath the vocal cords are kept apart, with
slow airflow. Voice is the result of periodic and closing of the glottis with vocal cords vibration. As to voiceless sounds
the glottis is closed and vocal cords do not vibrate. In murmur the glottis is wide open as for breath with a very slow air-
flow generating no sound. Creak is produced by a periodic opening of a chink near the hyroid end of the glottis. In creak
the airflow passes through the narrow frica tive type articulatory channels.1The glottal stop usually indicated by the
symbol (?) is pro duced in the pharynx or in the larynx where it is possible to close the air passage momentarily by
bringing the vocal cords close to gether.
The glottal stop replaces other stops in certain types of the English dialects. For example: in London cockney get, better
or in New York bottle, cattle /b э?1/, /кэе?1/ etc.
Some of the explained phonation and articulation types may be combined as a breathy voice, a creaky voice etc. which
are used as voice-qualifiers.
The place of articulation are the lips (labial: bilabial and labiodentals), the teeth (dental), the upper teeth ridge (alveolar),
the hard and soft palates (pre-palatal and palatal), the pharynx (pharyngal) and the larynx (glottal). At all these places of
articula tion the vocal tract may be narrowed or closed by the position of some parts of the tongue. If the tip of the tongue
approaches them the produced sound is dorsal, if it’s the blade it will be lamina], if it is done by the body the sound will
be domal, if its the back part - dorsal sounds are produced.
The degree of closure of the organs of speech measures the manner of articulation. The closure is complete in the
production of stops, very narrow for the fricatives, less narrow for the reso nants (liquids, nasals, vowels). When there is
room for air to pass between the edges of the tongue and the molar teeth the articula tion is lateral (for /1/). When the air
passes through the nasal cav ity by the opening of the velum the articulation is nasal (for /m, n, r\f). There are also some
other types of sounds explained in the sections of the classification of vowels and consonants.
All people in the world have similar organs of speech. But not all the movements of the organs of speech are used
similarly in the articulation of speech sounds in different languages as it depends on the pronunciation habits of each
language. Every lan guage uses some of the possible articulatory movements of the speech organs. When learning a
foreign language it is important to master a large number of new articulatory habits. The term «articulatory basis» is not
scientifically sufficient to express all the articulatory habits which characterize a language. But by the term «articulatory
basis» we mean only the typical articulation move ments in the pronunciation of sounds and sound combinations of a
certain language. For example, English has the alveolar conso nants /t, d/ articulated by pressing the tip of the tongue to
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the al-veols while the Uzbek consonants /t, dJ are dentals as they are pronounced by pressing the front part of the tongue
to the front upper teeth. Besides there are more back consonants in Uzbek /q, g’, h/ than in English /к, g/. So, the tendency
to move the articula tions back in the mouth is stronger in Uzbek than in English. This is because of the different
articulation basis in English and Uzbek.
The character of syllable formation, accentuation of words, word combinations and intonation of phrases is denoted by
the term «prosodic bases». For example, the English word, much more than the Uzbek, keeps its phonetic independence
in the sen tence where all the meaningful words have their own stress. Both the articulatory and prosodic bases form the
phonetic basis of a language. By describing all the pronunciation features of a lan guage we can establish its phonetic
basis.
The Uzbek learners of English are apt to use their pronunciation habits, the phonetic basis of Uzbek in the pronunciation
of English. This phenomenon is called phonetic interference. In teaching the correct pronunciation of English facts of
phonetic in terference between Uzbek and English should be established and attention must be paid to the differences of
the phonetic basis of the languages.
2-MAVZU. PHONOLOGICAL THEORIES.
Plan:
1. Periods of the formation of the phonological theory.
2. Different types of variation of sounds.
I. I.A. BAUDOUIN DE COURTENAY’S THEORY OF PHONOLOGY
The formation of the phonological theory may be divided into two periods:
1. The «prephoneme» period, i.e. when there was no dis tinction between «speech sound» and «phoneme» until
1870;
2. The «phonemic» period, which began in 1870 and in cludes the twentieth century. In this period the basic
phonetic and phonological terms and concepts were proposed, and the distinc tion between the actually pronounced
speech sounds and the pho nemes as functional units of the language was recognized. The first linguist to point out this
distinction was I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay (1845-1929), an outstanding Russian and Polish scholar. I. A. Baudouin de
Courtenay defined the phoneme as the «psychological» equivalent of the speech sound». But he was aware of the fact that
acoustic and motor images of the speech sound do not correspond to each other. I. A. Baudouin de Cour tenay also tried
to analyse phonemes on the bases of phonetic al ternations in morphemes. Besides psychological and morphological
definitions of the phoneme, he could propose the distinctive function of the speech sound in notions' as he consid ered
that words may be realized in notions. I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay repeatedly stated that semantically the utterance
breaks up into sentences, sentences into significative words, words into morphological components or morphemes and
morphemes into phonemes. As a morpheme is only divided into components of the same nature as itself: these
components - phonemes must also be significative.He admitted the division of morphemes into physical or physiological
elements to be unjustified in linguistic analysis'. He criticized N. V. Krushevsky's conception of this problem. Inci-dently,
N. V. Krushevsky, was one of his students who introduced the term «phoneme» at the same time as F. de Saussure, an
emi nent Swiss linguist did. I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay's fundamen tal ideas had a great influence on the development
of later phonological theories both in our country and abroad. In early phonological works many linguists defined the
phoneme as «sound image», «conscious sound image», «sound intent» (N. S. Trubetzkoy), and also as the sum of
acoustic impressions and of articulatory movements (F. de Saussure) but none of them sug gested any other to substitute
the term «phoneme». Nevertheless I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay's psychological interpretation of the phoneme concept
could not lead to an obliteration of the bound ary between sound and phoneme; it was merely a terminological mixture of
psychological and linguistic concepts which greatly in fluenced each other in that period. Many interesting ideas stating
linguistic functions of speech sounds may be found in his works. He showed the articulatory - acoustic, morphological
and seman tic aspects of sound . material and their relationship. I. A. Bau douin de Courtenay's idea of the distinctive-
semantic function of speech sound was very important in relation to the modem theory of distinctive features of the
phoneme, according to which the phoneme of a given language may be divided from a system of sequences which is
formed by their constituents, i.e. by distinctive features. As the morphemes may be divided into phonemes, like wise
phonemes are divided into distinctive features which are in terpreted either in articulatory or acoustic terms. Inspite of the
various approaches to the problem of establishing an inventory of the phonemes in a given language, which should be
possible on the basis of breaking up utterances or words into the smallest segments or by the method of commutation test,
counting mini mal pairs of words like pill - bill, till - mill, kill - hill etc. The fundamental discussion on the problems of
phonemic analysis is still going on among phonemicist.
II.2. THE St. PETERSBURG PHONOLOGICAL SCHOOL. L.V. SHCHERBA'S PHONEMIC CONCEPT
The St. Petersburg Phonological School’s theory is closely connected with the name of academician Lev Vladimirovich
Shcherba (1880-1944), a talanted student of I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay. L. V. Shcherba developed the phonemic
concept rep resented by his research advisor. L.V. Shcherba repeatedly stressed the differential function of the phoneme.
He gave the fol lowing definition of the phoneme: «The shortest general sound image of a given language, which is
capable of associating with images of meaning differentiating words, ..., is called phoneme»1. In this definition besides
the term «sound image», which shows the influence of psychology, everything is clear from the phono logical view point.
Although L.V. Shcherba realized that pho nemes are not general images in the logical sense, he considered phonemes as
concrete sound images which are the result of dif ferent perceptions. L.V. Shcherba illustrated his phonemic theory with
examples from various languages. The quantitative and qualitative variations in the pronunciations of languages may de
pend on their phonetic structures and linguistic habits the sum of which L.V. Shcherba called the articulation basis.
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He emphasized the importance of the variants of phoneme. For example, citing D. Jones’ idea of the existence of two
allo phones of the phoneme III in English - dark and clear L.V. Shcherba wrote that they cannot be associated with
meanings consciously. As for the Russian pair of ль - л it is capable to dis tinguish meanings: бил - был. Thus L.V.
Shcherba emphasized the practical value of sound types in the pronunciation of a given language. He explained that in
concrete speech we pronounce a number of speech sounds which may be summed up in a com paratively small number of
sound types capable of distinguishing words and word forms. Such sound types are called phonemes. Actually
pronounced speech sounds, in which phonemes may be realized, would be called the phoneme shades (allophones or
variants of the phoneme). But among those shades of the phoneme usually there may be one that is the typical
representative of the phoneme which can be pronounced isolately, actually, this is what is perceived by us consciously as
an element of speech. All other shades cannot be understood consciously and it is difficult to per ceive them all by ear
normally. These explanations make it clear to understand the distinction between general sound types and concrete
speech sounds, which can prove the distinction between a phoneme and allophone (speech sound).
L.V. Shcherba also indicated three aspects of speech sounds: biological (physiological), physical and linguistic (social),
of which he paid special attention to the last aspect. In speech com munication physiologically and physically different
articulations
(for example [a]) may be generalized by one meaning.Such a generalized unit is called a phoneme. Thus, L.V. Shcherba
under lined the concrete, generalized and functional aspects of the phoneme. He explained that each phoneme may be
distinguished from all other phonemes by its features, while all the phonemes of a given language form a unit system of
oppositions in which each phoneme is defined by its oppositions against another separate phoneme or phoneme groups.
L.V. Shcherba invented his own system of transcription. He wrote about different pronunciation styles and advanced very
in teresting ideas on the subjective and objective methods of scien tific investigation. L.V. Shcherba’s phonological
theory was developed and improved by many linguists. His followers and pupils L.R. Zinder, M.I. Matusevich, L.V.
Bondarko, A.N. Gvoz dev, V.I. Litkin, Y.S. Maslov, O.I. Dickushina are representatives of the St. Petersburg
phonological school. L.R. Zinder defines the phoneme as the smallest, i.e. indi visible in time (or linearly) unit, but from
the structural view point, it may have different features some of which are considered to be common with other phonemes
and some other features which distinguish it from all other phonemes. The phoneme is very complex unit and it may be
realized in different allophones (or shades, variants). There are two of allophones: positional and combinatory i.e.
depending on their positions and on the neighbouring sounds. If the distinctions between the sounds are not capable of
distinguishing the meanings of words or word-forms, then such sounds are the allophones of a phoneme. For example, let
us examine consonant sounds t, t°, t', t'° in the words так /tak/, тот /t°ot/, стяг /st'ak/, тётя /t'ot'b/ etc. The distinction
between the first and second sounds, and between the third and fourth sounds can not serve to distinguish the meanings of
the words. Thus, they represent one phoneme. The distinctions be tween the first and the third sounds and between the
second and fourth sounds are capable of differentiating the meanings of the words. Therefore they may represent different
phonemes. Accord ingly we can state that some sound distinctions may be phone-matic and some of them may be
phonetic1. L. R. Zinder points out the reality of the phoneme i. e, its ex istence in a given language, being the sound unit
of a language phoneme through its different representatives may have very complex phonetic characteristics. Besides,
being independent and autonomous unit of a language expression, the phoneme can be separated from the sound material
of words. For example, the word прут /prut/, may be broken up into /p/, /r/, /u/, /t/2. This comes from the descrete
character of the phoneme. L. R. Zinder also proposes rules to determine phonemes and phoneme combi nations. He
thoroughly analyses the most valuable phonological ideas of I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay, L. V. Shcherba, N. S.
Trubetzkoy and other linguists. It must be kept in mind that the St. Petersburg Phonological School's definition of a
phoneme is based on words and word-forms, i.e. the phoneme is the smallest unit capable of differentiat ing words and
word forms. This phonemic concept is applied to the description of English phonemes by G. P. Torsuyev, V.
A.Vassilyev, О. I. Dickushina and V. N. Vitomskaya.
II.3. THE MOSCOW PHONOLOGICAL SCHOOL
Another scientific approach to the phoneme concept in Rus sia is known as the Moscow phonological school. This school
is represented by R.I. Avanesov, V.N. Sidorov, A.A. Reformatsky (1901-1978), P.S. Kuznetzov (1899-1968), A.M.
Sukhotin, M.V. Panov, N.F. Jakovlev. One of the first linguists to give a defini tion of phoneme void of psychologic
elements was N.F. Jakovlev:
«Phonemes are understood those phonic properties that can be analysed from the speech flow as the shortest elements
serving to differentiate units of meaning1.The representatives of the Moscow phonological school based their definition
of a phoneme on the concept of the mor pheme. A.A. Reformatsky gave the following definition of the phoneme:
«Phonemes are minimal units of the sound structure of a language, serving to form and differentiate meaningful units:
morphemes and words»2. Phonemes are meaningless units of a language but they are capable of distinguishing
meaningful units as their sequences may form morphemes and words. For example, pit - lit, but - bet etc.
Analysing the sound changes in the morphemic structure of
a language, it is possible to establish two different positions: stressed and unstressed. In a stressed position phonemes can
preserve their phonetic characteristics, while in an unstressed po sition they change their articulatory and acoustic
features. This fact is very important in the phonetic analysis of Russian vowels. In the Russian word вода (vad' дJ there
are two variants or allo phones of the phoneme /л/: stressed and unstressed, which are dif ferent as to their quantitative
feature because usually stressed vowels are longer than unstressed ones. But if we take the word-forms воды /vodi/,
водный /vodnij/, водяной /va djanoj/ in the morpheme вод we can distinguish the sound alternations /л' - о - э/. In such
cases R. I. Avanesov proposes to define each member of alternations /л' - о - э/ as variants of one phoneme /о/. Like wise
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in the words вода /vacL\V, вод /vot/, воде /vAde/ the conso nants /t/ and /d/ may also be interpreted as variants of the
phoneme /d/, but the members of alternations /d —t —d'/ may be considered as the realizations of one phoneme. In all
these cases the relationship between the notions of phoneme and morpheme becomes very important. In such alternations,
which depend on their position in morphemes or words, and there are no distinctive functions between the members of
alternations, it is possible to use the term phonemic line («фонемный ряд»). According to R.I. Avanesov a phoneme is an
element of a wordform and «phonemic line» is an element of a morpheme1. There are some differ ences in the phonemic
solutions of the representatives of this school. A.A. Reformatsky did not use the term «phonemic line». Thanks to the
perceptual and significative functions, he divided the stressed and unstressed positions into the following types:
perceptually the stressed position is that where a phoneme is rep resented in its basic form independent of its position; as
to the un stressed position, where under the influence of positions, a phoneme is represented in its variations. For
example, in the words мал - мял and мил - мыл we can observe pairs of vo wels Ы - /ае/ and /и/ - /ы/. In the first pair the
basic form of the phoneme is /а/, while /ае/ is variation, likewise in the second pair /и/ is the basic form of the phoneme,
while /ы/ is its variation.
Phonemes organize different phonological oppositions, re sulting in their significant functions. In a stressed position pho
nemic oppositions may be preserved, while in an unstressed position they are neutralized. Usually neutralization is the
result of coincidence of two phonemes which are differentiated by one feature. For example, in words плод and плот, луг
and лук voiced consonants become voiceless at the end of words. The Moscow phonologists suggested the term
«hyperphoneme» which is defined as a unit which appears in the position of neutralization of a group of phonemes. For
example, in Russian neutralization may take place in unstressed syllables where the vowels /а/, /о/, /i/, /e/, /u/ can be
distinguished from each other; in this case they are not phonemes but hyperphonemes /а/ о, i /е/ and Inf1. The unit
hyperphoneme as presented by the Moscow phonologists does not coincide with the «archiphoneme» unit suggested by
the Prague phonological school. The latter is understood as a unit, when two phonemes, distinguished only by one
feature, for example, voiced
- voiceless consonants /p - b/, /t —d/ etc., may coincide with their feature in the position of neutralization: луг -
лук, пруд - прут. In such cases archiphonemes /р/b and t/d/ may appear in Russian.Phonemes and their distinctive
features differ. A phoneme is a sum of distinctive features. Distinctive sounds, i.e. phonemes and distinctive features are
considered to be two levels of the phonological structure of a language. The level of distinctive features is called
«merismatic level». One of the fundamental notions of pho nology is that of position, which creates conditions for the
realiza tion of phonemes in speech. Positions may depend not only on the phonetic context but also on the morphological
conditions. For ex ample, in joining basic and affixal morphemes some sound combi nations become an affricate:
штатский, шведский where /тс/ and /дс/ form the affricate luj.Some Moscow phonologists, especially, A. A.
Reformatsky gave a classification of phonological oppositions and presented a new approach to the problem of
neutralization. It should be stated that their theory is commonly applied to the description of Rus sian phonemes; it was
also fruitful in the analysis of the phono logical systems of other languages. The Moscow phonologists described the
supersegmental features of syllables, stress and in tonation. Besides, they improved the morphonological theory ad
vanced by N.S. Trubetzkoy. According to A.A. Reformatsky morphonology is a «bridge» level between phonology and
mor phology. N.S. Trubetzkoy included almost all the phonemic alter nations into morphonology and used the term
«morphoneme». However, morphonology must not only study the alternations of segmental phonemes but can analyse
the alternations of su prasegmental elements, i.e. stress alternations in morphemes. In the Russian words рука - ручной,
нога - ножной, слух - послушный we can observe alternations both of a segmental and suprasegmental character. Such
alternations in English as foot - feet, tooth - teeth, ox - oxen, child - children, which are inter preted as morphonological
by the American linguists, belong to the grammatical meanings formed by the internal inflexion1. The alternations, which
do not depend on their positions in morphem es, would be studied in morphonology.
II.4. THE PRAGUE PHONOLOGICAL SCHOOL
The fundamental scientific works have been done by the representatives of the Prague phonological school - well-known
linguists W. Matezius (1882-1945), B. Havranek (1893-1978), N.S. Trubetzkoy (1890-1938), В. Tmka, I. Vachek, V.
Skalichka and others. Among them very important phonological ideas were advanced by the Russian scholar N.S.
Trubetzkoy. In his book «Principles of Phonology» first published in German in 1939, N.S. Trubetzkoy discussed the
relation of phonology to other studies, the nature of phonemes and their variants, how to deter mine the phonemes of a
language, relations between phonemes in general analysis and in particular languages, the classification of phonological
and non-phonological oppositions, neutralzation, mono- and biphonemic combinations, phonological statistics, boundary-
markers (junctures) and prosodic elements (syllables, stress and intonation). His theoretical work on phonology shows «...
the breadth of Trubetzkoy's knowledge and the intricacy and incisiveness and cerebral character of his scientific
analysis»1.
N.S. Trubetzkoy came to the phoneme concept through the classification of phonological oppositions. The concept of dis
tinctiveness presupposes the concept of opposition. One thing can be distinguished only from another thing insofar as a
relationship of opposition exists between the two. Likewise one sound prop erty may be opposed to another phonic
property. Oppositions of sound, capable of differentiating the lexical meaning of two words in a particular language are
phonological or phonologically distinctive or distinctive oppositions. In contrast, those opposi tions of sound that do not
have this property are phonologically irrelevant or nondistinctive. For example, in English the opposi tion /e - as/ as in
/bet - baet/ phonological (distinctive) while the opposition between aspirated /pA, t \ к / and non-aspirated /p, t, к/ sounds
and also opposition between dark and soft /1/ sounds are non-distinctive as there is not a single word pair in English that
is differentiated by these oppositions. Each member of a phonologi cal opposition is called a phonological (or distinctive)
7

unit. Pho nological units that, from the standpoint of a given language, cannot be analysed into still smaller successive
distinctive units are called phonemes. N. S. Trubetzkoy points out that phonemes should not be considered as «building
blocks» out of which indi vidual words are assembled. Each word is a phonic entity and the phonemes are then the
distinctive marks of the configurations of words. Sounds participate in phonological oppositions only by means of their
phonologically relevant properties. Another defini tion of phoneme given by N. S. Trubetzkoy is «the sum phonologi
cally relevant properties of a sound (laut-gebilde)»1.
Phonemes are functional sounds of a language while speech sounds are the realizations or manifestations of phonemes in
speech. This distinction between language and speech was bor rowed by N.S. Trubetzkoy from F. de Saussure's and K.
Biihler's works. N.S. Trubetzkoy insisted on defining a phoneme solely on the basis of its function in the system of a
language. One of the rules for the determination of phonemes was formulated in the following way: «If two sounds occur
in exactly the same position and cannot be interchanged without a change in the meaning of the words or without
rendering the word unrecog nizable, the two sounds are phonetic realizations of two different phonemes»2. For example
in beet /bi:t/ - but /bAt/, /i:/ and Ы are interpreted as realizations of two different phonemes. The rule for the
determination of individual phonemes and phoneme combinations is very important in solving the problem of phonemic
interpretation of diphthongs and affricates. N.S. Trubetzkoy wrote: «A combination of sounds can be interpreted as the
realization of a single phoneme only if it is produced by a homogeneous articulatory movement or by the progressive
disso lution of an articulatory complex»3. This rule was illustrated by the English diphthongs /ei/ and /ou/ which are
regarded as mono-phonematic. This rule is solely phonetic but not phonematic as it is based on the articulatory
movement, i.e. it is an articulatory characteristics of a diphthong. This is one of the interesting points which clearly show
the close relationship of phonetics and pho nology separated by N. S. Trubetzkoy into two independent sci ences.
According to another rule if the constituent parts of combi nations of sound are not distributed over two syllables then
such combinations of sounds are to be regarded as the realization of single phonemes. This rule is true for the English
diphthongs and affricates /tj/, /d3/. The combinations of sounds which cannot be determined by the rules are called
phoneme clusters. N.S. Trubetzkoy presented the classification of phonological oppositions in terms of logic. Two things
which have no features in common cannot be contrasted, likewise two phonemes which have no common features cannot
be opposed. Firstly, oppositions are classified in relation to the entire system of oppositions. Ac cording to this principle
oppositions may be unidimensional and pluridimensional (or bilateral and multilateral). Two phonemes possessing a
common feature, which no other phoneme has, are in unidimensional opposition. For example in English /t-d/, /p-b/, /k-
g/, /b-m/, /d-n/, /g-T|/ /f-v/, /s-z/, /s-j/, /z-3/, /t-tj/, /d-d3/, /r-1/ are unidimensional (bilateral) oppositions. Two phonemes,
whose feature is common to some other phoneme, are in pluridimensional (multilateral) opposition. For example, the
opposition /b - d/ in English is pluridimensional as the common features of the members of this opposition (plosive +
voiced + lenis are characteristic of the phoneme /g/. According to N.S.Trubetzkoy the unidimensional opposi tions are
fewer but more interesting than the others. Pairs of pho nemes, having similar oppositions between them, are called
proportional oppositions. In English pairs of phonemes /p-b/, /t-d/, /s-z/, /1-3/, /0 -5 /, /tj-d3/, /f-v/, /k-g/ have similar
oppositions in which the distinctive feature is voiceless - voiced (resp. fortis - lenis (tense — lax). These pairs of
phonemes constitute propor tional oppositions. If there is no pair of phonemes in similar relation to the ex isting pair of
phonemes, such an opposition is called isolated. For example, /г-L/ is an isolated opposition in English, Russian and
Uzbek. Secondly, oppositions may be classified on the basis of rela tionship between their members. According to this
principle they may be private, gradual and equipollent.
If the member of opposition is differentiated from the other by one distinctive feature such an opposition is called private.
For example, /d-t/, /f-v/ etc. Which differentiated by a voiced-voiceless (resp. fortis-lenis) feature. The member of such an
op position, characterized by the presence of a feature, is called marked and the member of opposition, which is
characterized by
the absence of a feature, is called unmarked. Thus, a voiced mem ber is marked (+) while an unvoiced member is
unmarked (-).
Gradual oppositions are those whose members are character ized by different gradations of one and the same feature. In
English /i:-a:/ according to the hights of the tongue they may be distin guished as close-open where half-open and half
close members are omitted. Likewise /р-к/ is a gradual opposition, because, ac cording to the place of articulation, /р/ is
labial and /к/ is backlin-gual, between which forelingual (alveolar, apical) and interlingual /j/ members of opposition are
omitted. If both members of opposition have the same distinctive fea tures except one, which is different, such an
opposition is called equipollent. In English /p-f/, /b-v/, /t-0/, /d~3/, /k-h/ are equipol lent oppositions.
Thirdly, oppositions may be classified on the basis of dis tinctive force and their occurrence in different positions
according to which oppositions may be neutralizable and constant. In par ticular positions the feature of one member of
the opposition may have a different distinctive force. As in Russian and in Uzbek voiced members of the oppositions
become unvoiced at the end of words: пруд /прут/, teg/tek/ - tek/tek etc. The opposition where the opposition is
neutralized is called the position of neutraliza tion. N.S.Trubetzkoy stated that usually only unidimensional (bi lateral)
oppositions may be neutralized. In the position of neu tralization one of the phonemes becomes the representative of an
archiphoneme. An archiphoneme is the sum of the relevant (dis tinctive) features common to both members of the
opposition. In the above examples: / d / \, /t/ archiphoneme, / t K
This unit may have different features in other languages. The unidimensional, privative, proportional oppositions, the
members of which are in similar relations with each other, are combined into correlation: /p-b/, /t-d/, /s-z/, /J-3/, /f-v/, /tj-
d3/, /0-б/, /k-g/. Such pairs of phonemes are called correlation pairs and the feature voiced - voiceless (resp. Fortis - lenis)
is called the feature of correlation. Constant oppositions are those which are not neutralized in some positions and always
8

preserve their distinctive features. But there may be cases when two phonemes are opposed in some po sitions but not in
others. For example, English /р/ and 1Ы are not opposed after Isl, because only one of them can occur after /s/ as in the
word spin. Such types of neutralization is called contextual which appear in many languages. After N.S.Trubetzkoy’s
defini tion of neutralization there were attempts to classify neutraliza tions into several other types1. N.S.Trubetzkoy
advanced a valuable theory and methods available in paradigmatic analysis of phonemes i.e. in establishing phonological
and non-phonological oppositions. But there are some shortcomings in his description of syntagmatic relations of
phonemes. N.S.Trubetzkoy’s theory was applied to the descrip tion of the phonemic system of English by B.Tmka,
J.Vachek2, by V.A.Vassilyev3and A.Cohen4.
II.5. THE LONDON PHONOLOGICAL SCHOOL
There is a long tradition of phonetic and phonological stud ies in England. One of the first linguists who made a serious
study in English phonetics was Henry Sweet. He distinguished broad and narrow transcriptions and gave the
classification of English vowels and consonants in his “Handbook of Phonetics” (Oxford, 1877). Under “The London
Phonological School” we mean the theory and methods of phonetic and phonological analysis pro posed by the British
linguists. This school is represented by J.R. Firth, Daniel Jones, D. Abercrombie, I. Ward, L. Armstrong, D. B. Fry, H.
Kingdon, J.D. O ’Connor, A.C. Gimson. The British linguists presented original idea on phonemic and prosodic analysis.
Well-known British linguist D. Jones and J.R. Firth gave brief explanations of the phoneme concept. DJones admits the
fact that the idea of the phoneme was first introduced to him by Leningrad professor L.V. Shcherba in 1911, but both the
theory and the term itself had existed for more than thirty years even then. D. Jones wrote: “According to J.R. Firth the
term “phoneme” was invented as distinct from “phone” in 1879 by Krushevskiy”1. Thus, both outstanding English lin
guists were familiar with theory and term “phoneme” used by Russian linguists. D. Jones prefers to speak about an
“explanation” of pho neme rather than a “definition”, the latter is impossible without making use of terms such as
“language”, “speech sounds” and “words”. He gave the following explanation of a phoneme: "... a phoneme is a family of
sounds in a given language which are re lated in character and are used in such a way that no one member ever occurs in
word in the same phonetic context as many other members”2. D. Jones explanation of a phoneme is a physical (acoustic)
one, since the phoneme is treated as a “family of sounds” His physical interpretation is distinct from the articula tory
approach to the phoneme. D. Jones explained a phoneme on the basis of auditory distinctions, which only secondarily is
based on presumed articulatory positions. He also distinguishes “princi pal and subsidiary member” of the phoneme
which are equal to the terms “allophone” and a “variant” of the phoneme. According to his view point a phoneme consists
of more than one member, and one of the sounds seems more important and common than the others, or because it is the
one used in isolation or is interme diate between extreme members. Such a sound is called by D. Jones the “principal
members of the phoneme”. The other sounds in the same phoneme are called “subsidiary members”. One of the rules for
the determination of a phoneme is that if two sounds of a language can occur in the same phonetic context they belong to
separate phonemes. For instance, /i/ and /э/ belong to separate pho nemes in English because they can both occur initially
before the same consonant as in the words illusion /i'lu: 3n/ - allusion /э’1и: 3n/. Such differences between phonemes are
significant i.e. capable of distinguishing one word from another. These ideas of D. Jones emphasize the importance of the
semantic function of pho nemes in a language. Two members of the same phoneme cannot be significant if they cannot
distinguish words. The aspirated /кА and non-aspirated /к/ sounds as members of the phoneme /к/ can not distinguish two
words and they are used in different positions. The aspirated /кА is used before vowels while non-aspirated /к/ is used in
all other positions in English. Besides the phoneme concept D.Jones presented his ideas on the problems of syllable
structure, stress and intonation applied to the description of English in a number of his works, particu larly in “Outline of
English Phonetics” (Cambridge, 1957), “The pronunciation of English” (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1956) etc. D. Jones'
“Everyman’s English Pronouncing Dictionary” (reprinted with minor correction and short supplement. Eleventh edition,
L., 1958) is the best handbook on literary British pronunciation. The well-known English Unguist J.R. Firth who is
considered to be the head of the London Phonological school, began to work in the area of phonology in 1930 although
his fundamental work “Sounds and Prosodies” was published in 1948. J.R. Firth distin guished prosodic system from
phonematic system on the basis of the analysis of works. J.R. Firth stated: “Looking at language ma terial from a
syntagmatic point of view, any phonetic features, characteristic of and peculiar to such positions or junctions, can just as
profitably and perhaps more profitably be stated as proso dies of the sentence or word. Penultimate stress or functional
geminations are also obvious prosodic features in the syntagmatic junction. Thus, the phonemic and phonological
analysis of the word can be grouped under ... sounds and prosodies” 1. J.R. Firth purposely avoided the term “phoneme”
in his work as “sound” is sufficient for his analysis. He illustrated his prosodic theory with the character of the English
neutral vowel which marks junctions and required by the prosodies of word formation, especially in the formation of
derivatives. The occur ence of Southern English diphthongs is a good illustration of the value of his prosodic treatment.
Besides J.R. Firth regarded the so-called intrusive r, linking r, the glottal stop etc. as prosodies. He also distinguished
prosodies of strength quantity, tone in which the prominant syllable is regarded as the nucleous of the group of syllables
forming a word. He wrote: “The prominent syl lable is a function of the whole word or piece structure”, natu rally,
therefore, the prosodic features of a word include:
1. The number of syllables.
2. The number of syllables - open or closed.
3. The syllabic quantities.
4. The sequence of syllables (radicals and flexional elements separately treated)
5. The sequence of consonants
6. The sequence of vowels
9

7. The position, nature and quantity of the prominent.

8. The dark or clear qualities of the syllables'.
J.R. Firth’s prosodic theory was developed and applied in the description of different languages. R.H. Robins classified
syl lable prosodies, prosodies of syllable groups, phrase or sentence - part prosodies, sentence prosodies, word and
morpheme proso dies2. John Lyons included some consonantal and vocalic features (aspiration, vowel harmony etc.) into
the object of prosodies be sides tone, stress and quantity as they all operate as “long compo nents”3.A new approach to
the description of English phonemics and prosodies is given by A.C. Gimson who revised some ideas of D. Jones and
other representatives of the London phonological school.
II.6. PHONOLOGICAL TRENDS IN THE USA
There are several phonological trends in the USA. The head of the American descriptive linguistics L.Bloomfield was
one of the first phonologists whose ideas were very fruitful in the further development of phonological theories in USA.
Another well-known American linguist E.Sapir also formulated his own ap proach to phonemic solutions. Below we give
a short review of phonological trends in the USA. BloomHeldian descriptive phonology is also called the relative -
acoustic theory, as it is based on the analyses of struc tural functions and acoustic features of phonemes. According to
L.Bloomfield, a phoneme is a minimal distinctive unit of a lan guage, which has no meaning itself but may be determined
as a special unit, owing to its physical and structural contrasts in rela tion to all other sounds types of a particular
language. His other definition of the phoneme as a minimal unit of the phonetic fea ture is purely a phonetic one. He
sometimes mixed up the notions of a “speech sound” and a “phoneme”. His idea on the primary and secondary phonemes
was very important in the further classi fication of segmental and suprasegmental phonemes. He also gave descriptions of
the phoneme combinations in initial, medial and final positions of the words1.L.Bloomfield's theory was developed and
improved by a number of linguists and is called the post-Blooomfieldian theory of descriptive phonology. The
representatives of this are Z.Harris, Ch.F.Hockett, H.A.Gleason. According to this theory a phoneme is a class of sounds
or a class of allophones (phones) which have both phonetic similarity and functional identity, in the sense that the
substitution of one for another in the same context does not change its syntactic or semantic function, i.e. makes no
change in its meaning. This theory defines a phoneme on the basis of the distributional method. Usually the phoneme is
defined as the rep-sentative of phones in free variation or complementary distribu tion, which are phonetically similar2.
The allophones of phonemes may also be determined on the basis of the distributional method. Some representatives of
this trend define a phoneme as a sum of distinctive features. They state the physical and functional aspects of the
phoneme from the mentalistic point of view, as their theory is based on the stimulus-response segments that are the same
or different. In connected speech a sound is generally modified by its phonetic environment (neighbouring sound), by the
position it occupies in a word or an utterance; it is also modified by prosodic features, such as stress, speech melody, and
tempo of speech. Every language has a limited number of sound types are shaped by all the speakers of the language and
are linguistically important because they distinguish words in the l, in E there are 20 vowels phonemes and 24 consonant
phonemes. All the actual SS are allophones of the phonemes that exist in the language. Those that distinguish words,
when opposed to one another in the same phonetic position, are realizations of different phonemes. The phoneme may be
defined as the smallest linguistically relevant unit of the sound structure of a given language which serves to distinguish
one word from another. Allophonesof a certain phoneme are SS which are realizations of 1 and the same phoneme and,
which cannot distinguish the words. On the one hand, the phoneme is an abstraction and a generalization. It is abstracted
from its variants that exist in actual speech and is characterized by features that are common to all its variants. On the
other hand, the phoneme is material, real and objective, because speech it is represented by concrete material sounds. The
phoneme can be regarded as a dialectical unity of its 2 aspects: material and abstract. Phonemes in isolation has no
meaning, in their material form constitute morphemes, words, all of which are meaningful (constitutive function of the
phoneme). Besides, the constitutive function of the phoneme performs the distinctive function, because phonemes
distinguish one word from another. Linguistics distinguish the third function of the phoneme – identificatory. It appears
that when identifying linguistic units the use of the right phoneme is not the only significant factor, the use of the right
allophone is not much less important. Every phoneme displays a vast range of variation in connected speech. Among the
different types of variation we distinguish idiolectal, diaphonic and allophonic variation. Idiolectal embraces the
individual peculiarities of articulating sounds, which are caused by the shape and form of the speaker’s speech organs and
by his art habits. Diaphonicvariation affects the quality and quantity of particular phonemes. It is caused by concrete
historical tendencies active in certain localities. Allophonic variation, which conditioned by phonetic position and
phonemic environment. In connected speech sounds undergo various modifications under the influence of neighbouring
sounds and the intonation patterns they occur in. EV are modified in unstressed syllables. The weakening of art and
shortening of the duration of unstressed vowels results in modification of their quality and quantity. This phonetic
phenomenon Is called reduction. The process of adapting the art of a vowels to a consonants, or a consonants to a
vowels, is known as accommodation(depends on position in the intonation group).When a consonant is a component of a
consonant cluster, it is partially or completely assimilated by the neighbouring sound. A consonant may be voiced or
devoiced, it may lose its plosion, or the plosion may become restricted, there may even occur coalescent assimilation
which results in a new phoneme. All English phonemes in various pronouncing conditions undergo assimilation.Main
problems of phonological analysis: 1. The identification of the phonemic inventory for each individual L; 2. The
identification of the phonemic inventory of phonologically relevant features of a L; 3. The interrelationships among the
phonemes oh a language.
3-MAVZU. SYLLABLE FORMATION AND SYLLABLE DIVISION IN ENGLISH.
Plan:
10

1. Ways of syllable formation.

2. Syllable division in English.
From the articulatory point of view the syllable may be regarded as a single uninterrupted unit of utterance which may
coincide with a word (ex. cat /kfet/) or a part of a word or a word form (ex. little /lit—1/) making /mei-kig/). Syllables
consisting of two or more phonemes, joining the articulations, have a complex structure characterized by on - glides,
retention and off-glides which is essentual also for the ordinary combination of phonemes. From the acoustic and
perceptual point of view a syllable is a wave of loudness characterized by prosodic features such as stress, pitch, sonority
and length. The acoustic - auditory shape of the syllable depends on the sonority of the sounds. The peak of the syllable is
often formed by a vowel as in pet, act, see; less of
ten by the sonants or sonorants (m, n, 1), as in the second syllable of cable, tension, times. The peak of the syllable may
be followed by less sonorous sounds (consonants). One sound, which is characterized by the great force of utterance
(accent and pitch of voice), sonority and length, may function as a syllable. For example, I /ai/, little /lit—I/, rhythm /пб-
m/. From the functional point of view a syllable, like other phonetic units, fulfills four functions: 1) constitutive function,
i.e. a syllable or syllables act as material carriers of words, word-forms, word-combinations and phrases; 2) distinctive
function, i.e. the syllables may serve to distinguish minimal pairs of words, word-combinations and phrases. For example:
an apron /эп 'eipren/ - a napron /э 'neipran/ an ice house /эп 'ais 'haus/ - a nice house /э nais'haus/, its lips /its'lips/ - it slips
/it slips/. Is there any mistake here? - Is there any Miss Take here?; 3) recognitive function, i.e. the recognition of the right
syllable formation and syllable division rules; 4) delimitative function, i.e. some syllables may occur only in initial or
final positions in words. Phonologically it is possible to distinguish two types of syllables: 1) genuine syllables, the
phonemic structure of which has constant functional relevance: bottle /bot-1/ - bottom /bot-эт/, make /meik/ - making
/meikiq/; 2) the secondary syllables are unstable and their phonemes have not the same functional relevance as the
phonemes of genuine syllables. There are two or more peaks of sonority in the secondary syllables'. For example: a black
tie /s'blxk'tai/ - a blacked eye /9'blaektt'ai/, ice-cream /'ais'kn:m/ - I scream /ai'skn:m/. According to statistic investigation
almost half of the syllables frequently used in English are CVC (42-47,7%). In Russian the universal type of the syllable
is CCVC (31,8%) while in Uzbek CV type of syllable is regarded as a universal type (48,983%). CVC type has lower
frequency of occurance in Russian and Uzbek. In the Turkic languages CVC is regarded the oldest universal type which
originated the other syllable types as (C)VC, CV(C), (C)V(C)1. G.P. Torsuyev gave the statistic data of sound
combinations used in initial, medial and final positions of words and syllables. So far, speaking of a syllable, we have
tried to explain it in connection with a word. We have done so because a syllable is defined as an intermediate phonetic
unit occupying a place below the word unit but above the phoneme. The syllable is not directly connected with a
morpheme. Perhaps, some linguists negate the importance of a syllable on the basis of this fact and regard it better to
describe the combinations of phonemes in certain positions. A syllable is a very complex and complicated unit of
utterance. Many linguists attempted to explain the syllable from different points of view. 1. The most ancient theory of
syllable formation admitted that the number of syllables is equal to the number of vowels used in an utterance. It does not
take into consideration the syllable formation function of some consonants. 2. The American phonetician R. H. Stetson
suggested the expiratory theory of the syllable, which is also called the chest- pulse or pressure theory. According to R.
H. Stetson's expiratory theory «the vowel is an articulation which has the function of delimiting the chest-pulse of the
syllable»1. He also admits that phonetically the language signals depend on the function of vowels and consonants which
affect the meaning of a syllable. The syllables are regarded as meaningful minimal units of speech articulated by a single
expiration. But in fact a number of syllables may also be uttered by a single expiration. The Romanian linguist A.
Rossetti have approved the expiratory theory regarding «no syllable without expiration»2. It is not necessary to break up
utterances or phrases and sentences into chest-pulses in oral speech. Therefore the expiratory theory of the syllable is
regarded useless. Though R. H. Stetson measured the action of the respiratory muscles and compared the curves of these
musculatory variations with the curves of sonorous intensity and found their perfect correspondence but his theory cannot
explain the nature of syllable division and syllable formation. 3. The Danish linguist O. Jespersen suggested the sonority
theory of the syllable, which is based on the degree of sonority (audibility) of speech sounds. The term «sonority» is used
here to denote the prevalence of musical tone over noise in the production of speech sounds. O. Jespersen classified
sounds according to the degree of sonority beginning with the last sonorous sound in the following way: 1. Voiceless
consonants (p, t, k, f, s, etc.); 2. voiced stops (b, d, g); 3. voiced fricatives (v, z, etc.); 4. nasals and laterals (m, n, 1 etc.);
5. trills and flaps (r); 6. close vowels (i, y, u); 7. mid vowels (e, о, e, з etc.); 8. open vowels (a, ae, etc.). O. Jespersen
defined a syllable as the distance between two degrees of sonority. Syllables of the type of plain, freight, like are
consequently in accordance with this definition. But many types of syllables contradict it. Thus, in such words as
station /steijn/, little Ait—1/, straw /stro:/ middle /midl/ etc. We notice one or two syllables in which consonant clusters
do not form separate syllables. The sonority theory cannot explain the syllable boundary. Inspite of this and other
shortcomings this theory is used by some foreign linguists who develope it further. The sonority theory of the syllable
have been applied to Russian by R.I. Avanesov who distinguishes only three degrees of sonority: 1) constrictive
consonants, 2) sonorants and 3) vowels1. 4. The classification of sounds according to their sonority is very closely
connected with grouping of sounds based on the degree of opening. A vowel is more sonorous and also more open than a
consonant, a plosive consonant is more closed (and less sonorous) than fricative consonant sounds, M is more open and
sonorous than /i/ etc. F. de Saussure's definition of the syllable is based on the degree of opening of the sounds.
According to F. de Saussure, consonants are grouped around vowels on the basis of their opening. The syllabic boundary
is at the junction of a more close sound and more open. Saussure called the opening, occurring at the beginning of the
syllable, the explosion, and the closing at the end, the implosion. These terms are still used in modern linguistics. Any
11

consonant, which is placed after the vocalic nucleus (the vowel) of the syllable, is called implosive whereas any
consonant which precedes a vowel sound is called explosive. According to Saussure, syllable may be symbolized by the
sign < > (opening + closing). Wherever one finds > < (closing + opening) there is a syllabic boundary2. The implosive
and explosive element's coincide with the slopes of a syllable, while its nucleus is equal to its centre or peak. 5. F. de
Sassure's theory of syllable formation is used by many linguists with perfection. For example, J.W.F. Mulder gives the
following definition of a syllable: «The syllable can be defined as a simultaneous bundle of positions which is a subset of
a simultaneous bundle of positions called a distributional unit, which subset contains an explosive, a nuclear and an
implosive position or position group»1. Any distributional unit contains at least one syllable and cannot therefore be
properly included in a syllable. That is to say, the extension of a syllable is the lower limit of extension of a distributional
unit. According to Mulder, distributional units are disjoint, i.e. no syllable can belong to more than one distributional unit,
nor can a part of a syllable be long to a distributional unit and another part of that syllable to another distributional unit.
For some languages there may be preexplosive, post-implosive positions as in the English word stands /standz/. Mulder
distinguishes free and non-free or bound syllables. Free syllables can occur in any place, i.e. initially, medially or finally
in a distributional unit. An independent syllable can appear alone in a distributional unit. Besides, a syllable is defined
both as a simultaneous bundle of positions and as a sort of «accent group» with respect to the phonemes in that syllable2.
It should be stated that the above definition of the syllable is based on its distribution in different positions, though it
cannot explain the nature of syllable formation and syllable division. 6. The French phoneticians M. Grammont, and later
on P. Fouche, have defined the syllable in psychological terms according to which it is characterized by a growing
tension of the muscles of the voice-producing mechanism in the explosive part followed by a decreasing tension in the
implosive part of it3. 7. The Czech phonetician B. Hala, summarizing all the definitions of the syllable, distinguishes five
components: 1) expiratory; 2) phonatory; 3) articulatory; 4) the muscular; 5) acoustic. B. Hala also emphasizes the
importance of the sonority degree of sounds in the acoustic characteristics of the syllable4. B. Hala's syllable theory, like
R.H. Stetson's expiratory theory, is based on the physiological principle, while the sonority theory is based on the acoustic
principle. 8. Academician L.V. Shcherba advanced his own syllable theory. According to L.V. Shcherba a syllable is
formed due to the muscular tension of the articulation which is constantly changed. The boundaries of the syllable
coincide with moments of weakening tension, whereas the peak of the syllable is formed by the maximal muscular
tension which may be changed during the articulation of one and the same sound. Thus, this theory explains how a vowel
or a consonant sound's articulation may be divided into two syllables. The sounds pronounced with growing tension begin
the syllable. Consonants, which begin the syllable with strong articulation and gradually reduce muscular tension towards
the end are called initially strong (finally weak). E. g., in the words shut /'/At/, tiny /'tini/ country /’клпйт/ the initial
consonants /J/, /t/, /к/ are initially strong (finally weak). If the con sonant articulation becomes gradually tense towards
the end of it, this type of consonant is termed finally strong (initially weak) which ends the syllable. E. g., in the words
map /maep/, type /taip/ artistic /a:'tistik/ the final consonants are strong (initially weak). Sometimes both the beginning
and the end of the articulation of consonants may be strong, while its centre becomes weak. Such consonants are called
double peaked1. Usually the combination of two similar (geminated) consonants may be double peaked. E. g.
misstate /'mis-steit/, unnatural /An-'naetjr(s)l/, rest time /'rest-'taim/, cold day /kauld 'dei/. In the last two examples
double-peaked geminated consonants occur at the junction of two words or morphemes.
4-MAVZU. WORD STRESS IN ENGLISH.
Plan:
1. Prosodic features of stressed morphemes.
2. Phonetic factor of word stress.
By word stress we mean singling out one or more syllable in a word with the help of greater prominence accompanied by
the change of pitch, qualitative and quantitative features of the sound in relation to other syllable or syllables of the same
word.
ress is one of the constitutive features of a word. Owing to stress the sound structure of a word is phonetically combined
and shaped and forms a semantic unit. Singling out a syllable or syllables of a word by great prominence does not take
place isolately; it is a result of many factors among which semantic, morphological (i.e. grammatical) rhythmic and
phonetic factors should be mentioned. Usually those factors are interdependent. The semantic factor is observed in the
accentual structure of English words. For example, in abbreviations represented by letters such as USA /'ju:'es 'ei/ each
component has equal stress owing to its semantic importance. Besides, there are words with separable prefixes as they are
called, i.e. those which have a distinct referential meaning of their own, and compound words. The Morphological factor
is determined by stressing some of the suffixes in word formation. It should be stated that an accentual pattern of a word
is regarded one of the main characteristics of the phonetic structure of words. Stressed morphemes (basic or suffixal) of
English have specific prosodic features. The rhythmic factor of word stress is observed while singling out a certain
syllable or syllables in accordance with rhythmic habits and tendency to alternate stressed and unstressed syllables in
order to distribute stress contours in relatively equal times. Word stress in English falls on a certain syllable in relation
initial, medial and final positions of a word. The Phonetic factor of word stress serves to single out one syllable from
another by its sound structure i.e. the prominence or force of articulation rises sharply at the beginning, culminates in the
syllabic, and tapers off towards the end.
5-MAVZU. THE FUNCTIONS OF SENTENCE STRESS.
Plan:
1. The semantic morphological factor of word-stress.
2. The rhythmic-accentual factor of word stress.
12

3. Semantic factors of stress.

Stress is one of the constitutive features of a word. Owing to stress the sound structure of a word is phonetically
combined and shaped and forms a semantic unit. Singling out a syllable or syllables of a word by great prominence does
not take place isolately; it is a result of many factors among which semantic, morphological (i.e. grammatical) rhythmic
and phonetic factors should be mentioned. Usually those factors are interdependent. They are very important in stress
placement and in distinguishing the degrees of stress. Probably, the semantic factor is more important than the other
factor in English. G. P. Torsuyev gave a brief de scription of all these factors in his works1, which is used in this book.
The semantic factor is observed in the accentual structure of English words. For example, in abbreviations represented by
letters such as USA /'ju:'es 'ei/ each component has equal stress owing to its semantic importance. Besides, there are
words with separable prefixes as they are called, i.e. those which have a distinct referential meaning of their own, and
compound words. The majority of such compound words have two equally strong stresses known as a double-stress, or
even (level) accent. Usually the second stress in these words is somewhat stronger than the first. H. Kurath calls this type
of stress «fore-stress» which is used in native words consisting of two or more free forms (bases). In this respect, these
compound words differ sharply from the normally end-stressed phrases of English as in the following examples: a blue
bird - a blue bird, a glass house - a glass door, a standstill - stand still, a black out - black out2. Even accent is observed in
the following words: 'over-'dressed, 'white- Tiot, 'well-'made, 'upstairs, 'apple-'pie etc. Stress usually falls on the
semantically important element of a word. Compound words which are formed by two stems as noun-noun, adjective-
noun etc., are usually called compound nouns, compound adjectives, compound adverbs etc. They often have even (level)
stress as both components of a compound word are important semantically. E. gl 'rain 'fall, 'sun 'rise, 'mid'night, red-'skin,
'home-'sick, 'stead 'fast, 'nowa 'days, 'no'where, 'kind-'hearted, Tiot- 'tempered etc. The Morphological factor is
determined by stressing some of the suffixes in word formation. It should be stated that an accentual pattern of a word is
regarded one of the main characteristics of the phonetic structure of words. Stressed morphemes (basic or suffixal) of
English have specific prosodic features. Owing to the semantic importance of suffixal morphemes, the latter elements in
word final position may be stressed in polysyllabic words. The stressed suffixes of these types are: -ian, -ic (al), -ental,
-mental, -ion, -ious, -eous, -ids, -ade, -ier, -esgue, - ette, -ique, -oon, -ее, -eer; physician: /fi'zijn/, politician /poli'tijan/,
symbolic /simlDolik/, democratic /demo'kraetik, oriental /on'ental/, instrumental /instru'mental/, decision /di'si3n/,
affection /a'fekjn/, religious /nlid3as/, courageous /k/i'rid3as/, tonsilitis /tanzilitis/, blockade /bl keid/, cavalier /kavalia/,
grotesque /gra'tesk/, novelette /novilit/, intrique /in'trig/, unique /ju:'mk/, cartoon /ka:'tu:n/, employee /lmploi'i:/,
pioneer /paia'nia/. Some of these words were borrowed from French and Latin. Usually it is difficult to distinguish
semantic and morphological factors as morphemes are meaningful units and, therefore, they may be stressed. Though not
all suffixes or suffixal morphemes may always be stressed in words which depends on the semantic weight of suffixes.
Incidently, we should distinguish the semantic morphological factor of word-stress thanks to the close relationship
between semantic and morphological factors. The semantic-morphological factor contributes to determining the stress
placement in words which are distinguished by the place of stress, e. g. reform /ri'fo:m/ (improve) - reform /'ri'fo:m/ (form
again), recollect /,п кэlekt/ (remember) - recollect /'rekolekt/ (collect again), overdevelop /'auva'divelap/,
overbusy /'auvabizi/, to over look /auvaluk/, overcoat /'auvakaut/. In the given pairs of words the first of them has one
stress while the second receives even (double) stress. The prefixes, which are semantically important, may also be
stressed, e. g. anticlerical /'aentiklerikal/, decontrol /'dilcontrol/, ex-champion /'eks 'tjempian/, misspel /'mis'spel/,
overead /'aua'ri:d/, pre-war /'pn'wo:/, ultra-modern /'Altra'modan/, undertake /'Anda'teik/. Some words may be contrasted
by different position of stress. For example: conduct /kondakt/ - to conduct /kan'dAkt/, protest /'prautest/ - to protest
/pro'test/, record /'reko:d/ - to record /nko:d/. Besides, the difference of the position of word stress, there are some changes
owing to reduction and phonetic opposition between stressed and unstressed vowels /au/ - /а/, /е/ - /i/, /а - е/ may be
observed in these words. Mixing the position of word stress in words, may lead to accentual interference as a result of
which a foreign accent or pronunciation mistake will take place. The rhythmic factor of word stress is observed while
singling out a certain syllable or syllables in accordance with rhythmic habits and tendency to alternate stressed and
unstressed syllables in order to distribute stress contours in relatively equal times. Word stress in English falls on a certain
syllable in relation initial, medial and final positions of a word. In many cases a syllable before primary stress is either
unstressed or weakly stressed, a syllable once removed receives secondary stress, e. g. supernatural /sjupa'naetjral/,
extravagant /ekstTA 'vaegant/, hypercritical /,Ьа1рэ,кгшкэ1/. Thus, the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables is
rhythmically determined. Probably, the rhythmic factor helps make pronunciation easy, i.e. to economize speech effort.
The rhythmic factor is associated with the prosodic structure of a word and therefore it is possible also to speak of a
rhythmic-accentual factor of word stress. When a syllable or syllables of a word receive some degree of stress, the latter
stresses make up a rhythm or rhythmic pattern. Rhythmic-accentual contrasts may distinguish words or grammatical
forms of words, e. g. permit /'p3:mit/ (a noun) - permit /pa'mit/ (a verb), project /'prod3ekt/ - /pra,d3ekt/ (a verb) etc.
Thus, the rhythmic- accentual structure of a word may be associated with the morphological factor, as parts of speech
may be distinguished by their combination. The rhythmic-accentual structure is regarded as one of the components of the
phonetic structure of a word. The Phonetic factor of word stress serves to single out one syllable from another by its
sound structure i.e. the prominence or force of articulation rises sharply at the beginning, culminates in the syllabic, and
tapers off towards the end. Hence, consonants preceding the syllabic are pronounced with greater force than those
following it; the former are «strong» and the latter are weak». They are called prosodic allophones of consonants, which
are observed in monosyllabic morphemes beginning and ending the identical consonants. These prosodic allophones with
primary stress may be observed in such words as coke /кэик/ - cook.
13

6-MAVZU. INTONATION. STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH. INTONATION PATTERNS. FUNCTIONS OF

INTONATION.
Plan:
1. A constitutive function of intonation
2. A delimitative function of intonation
3. A distinctive (phonological) function of intonation
Intonation is an essentual prosodic element of human speech. It shapes human speech phonetically and helps to express
grammatical, semantic and emotional meanings of phrases or sentences. Intonation is a very complicated phenomenon
and therefore its definition varies widely among linguists. The following definitions of intonation have been given by
British linguists: «Intonation may be defined as the variations which take place in the pitch of the voice in connected
speech, i.e. the variations in the pitch of the musical note produced by the vibration of the vocal cords» (D. Jones)1. «By
intonation we mean the rise and fall of the pitch of the voice when we speak» (L. Armstrong and I. Ward) 2. The
distribution of intonation itself and its components depend on the situation or context. It is called the text-forming
function of intonation. The phonological, phonostylistic and text- forming functions of intonation have not been deeply
investigated and these types of scientific approaches are going to develop in modem linguistics. As to the place of
intonation in transformational-generative grammar, it is not clear how intonation can operate in this theory1. As a
prosodic unit intonation acts with all its components, it can operate in phrase together with the grammatical and lexical
means of language. Intonation itself and its components perform four functions like other phonological units. (1) A
constitutive function of intonation is expressed by its existence in an utterance through which intonation shapes a
sentence phonetically. For example, Come! as a word and sense- group has its own grammatical form and intonation. The
phrases Come here! or He will come tomorrow, constitute different grammatical (syntactic) structures and intonation. (2)
A delimitative function of intonation is very closely connected with its constitutive function. Intonation, as a prosodic
constituent of a phrase, may also delimitate parts within a phrase, and its end, through breaking up a sentence into sense-
groups (pause-groups or intonation groups)1. By a sense-group we mean a word or a group of words forming the shortest
possible unit in a sentence from the point of view of meaning, grammatical structure and intonation. E. g. 'Early in the
morning it's 'always 'pleasantly cool. In this sentence there are two sense groups (a single vertical stroke (1) denotes a
short pause inside a sentence). (3) A distinctive (phonological) function of intonation serves to distinguish the
communicative types of sentences, e. g. He is a student may be pronounced by four different pitch contrasts. When it is
pronounced by a low pitch at the end it means a normal, matter- of-fact report. When it has a mid ptch at the end of a
sentence it indicates that the utterance is not finished or that the fact is like an afterthought, having significance for
something said previously. If it is pronounced by a high pitch at the end it indicates mild doubt, as if he is a student or
trying to remember he is a student. When it is pronounced by an extra-high pitch it indicates strong disbelief or surprise.
7-MAVZU. THE ARTICULATORY AND THE ACOUSTIC ASPECTS OF THE ENGLISH SPEECH SOUNDS.
Plan:
1. The articulatory aspects of sounds.
2. The acoustic aspects of sounds.
It was already stated that the vocal tract may be described as an apparatus for the conversion of muscular energy
into acoustic energy. Sound is a physical or acoustic phenomenon generated by the activities of the vocal organs. A sound
consists of waves which travel through the air at a speed of about 1,100 feet per second. The repeated movement -
vibration creates a wave. Vi bration may be periodic or non-periodic and simple or complex. If the same vibration is
repeated at regular intervals then the sound waves are periodical. On the contrary, the vibration repeated at ir regular
intervals creates non-periodical sound waves. Periodic sound waves may be perceived as a musical tone or speech-tone.
The non-periodic sound waves are perceived as a speech-noise. The movement of vibration at a certain distance is called
a period or a cycle. The maximum distance of the curve from the point of rest till the last point reached by the vibration is
called its ampli tude. The frequency of vibration is determined by the specific qualities of the body in question (its
weight, or in the case of vo cal cords, their tension; in the case of cavities, volume, shape, and size of the opening relative
to the volume). The smaller opening of the cavity creates lower frequency. The larger opening of the cavity or higher
tone forms greater frequency. Frequency is re sponsible for the pitch of the tone and amplitude determines in tensity. An
increase of the amplitude brings greater intensity. Physical intensity is measured by the sound energy which passes
through 1 sq. cm perpendicular to the direction of the vibration (measured in watts) in a unit of time. The intensity of a
vibration may thus be made four times greater by doubling the amplitude or the frequency. The intensity is proportional
to the square of both. Loudness is the term used for the intensity perceived which is measured in db - decibels. Different
articulations bring different acoustic effects. The correlation between the various movements of the speech organs and the
process of vibration can be determined by instrumental analysis. In modem phonetics on the results of instrumental re
search all the articulatory - acoustic features of different lan guages have been classified into twelve pairs forming binary
oppositions (the oppositions which contain two members like a - b). (As to this classification see the following chapters
of this book). The way of hearing speech utterances is the object of the perceptual phonetics. It is a psychological
perception which makes it possible to hear different noises which may be classified in terms of three features: continuity,
resonance and timbre.
Continuity. The stops /p, t, k, g etc./ consist of momentary noise. The glides last somewhat longer but cannot be drawn
out at will (especially in English /h, j, w, r/, the short vowels and the second elements of the diphthongs). The continuants
14

can be drawn out at will (spirants, nasals, /1/ and long vowels). The trills consist of a rapid sequence of taps and can also
be drawn out at will (especially, the Scottish /г/ and the glottal catch which ac companies the fadeaway).
Resonance. The voiceless sounds consist of a silent noise. The vowels are generated by the musical tone without any ob
struction. The voiced obstruents (stops and fricatives) are charac terized by buss.
Timbre. By the term timbre we mean the quality of the voice, specified by the harmonic overtones and resonance tones
based on it. Auditorily it is called pitch and overall timbre. In terms of overall timbre, the vowels, liquids and nasals are
either bright and thin (such as/i/), dark and full (such as /a:/) or dull and neutral (such as hi). The English /1/ has a bright
variant initially in British English, but it is dark and full in most varieties of American English. The hisses Is, zI are bright
and thin, the hushes /1 ,3 / bright and full, the spirants /f, 0/ dull and neutral.

Some linguists categorize timbre in terms of two dimen sions: grave (dull) - acute (bright), compact (full) - diffuse (thin).

The English stops may have burst variants (explosives) ini tially, snap variants (implosives) finally. The stops It, d/ have
sin gle tap (flap) variants medially as in Betty - beddy in American English. In British English / г/ has a similar tap variant
medially (as in bury) in the initial cluster /br/. Double stops consist of snap
+ momentary silence + burst medially in British and Australian English. The snaps are rebased into a following vowel
with a slight click. No release is audible before a following consonant as for IkJ in act, fact, ticked, like this. The
voiceless bursts of Eng lish are known as aspirated and they are released into a weak white noise. The affricates /tj, dzl
are bursts released into a hushy noise. The glottalized stops have snaps in a final position in British Eng lish (that). As we
have seen, the auditory aspect uses its own terms as dark, light, full, thin, neutral, burst, click, snap, etc. which may be
interpreted in articulatory and acoustic terms. There are also some other facts of perception in longer utterances or
segments realized in various pitch patterns and intonation con tours. The perceptual approach is of great theoretical and
practical value. Theoretically it is very important to study scientifically how the language signal may be perceived by the
listener. This problem is closely coordinated not only by the psychological facts of hearing, but the most important event
lies on the neurological basis that is controlled by the brain through the complex nervous and sensory systems and also by
muscular activity. The practical significance of the perceptual approach may be proved by the facts of mastering the
pronunciation of a foreign language. Before trying to produce a foreign language the students should listen to them and
perceive the differences between the sounds of their own language and those of the foreign language. Listening, in this
case, becomes very important. The instructions in foreign lan guage pronunciation teaching usually begin with listening,
than the coming identifycation of speech utterances, transcribing, lis tening and repeating and at last writing notes on the
elements to be drilled1.

8-MAVZU. THE PHONOLOGICAL ASPECT OF THE ENGLISH SPEECH SOUNDS.

Plan:
1. Contrast distribution
2. Free variation
Any segment of a language consists of a sound chain which is specified by some articulatory, acoustic and perceptual
features. But not all the phonetic features function to distinguish lexical and grammatical forms. Some features serve to
distinguish words, morphemes and phrases and some of them cannot serve this pur pose. Thus, it is the functions of
distinction and also identification which is characteristic of all Unguistic units. According to their functions phonetic
units - sounds, syllables, stress and intonation can be described linguistically and classified to some ranks, groups and
subgroups. The theoretical study which sets up to ac count all the phonetic distinction of a language is called phonol
ogy. Some linguists prefer the terms phonemics and phonematics. But the term phonology has become popular
nowadays. Phono logy is not an autonomous and independent science. Two elements (sounds) may be used in one and
the same position and serve to distinguish the words. For example, bill /bil/

- till /til/, sight /sait/ - bight /bait/ - night /nait/ - right /rait/ - light /lait/ - might /mait/ etc.

Using contrast distribution it is possible to establish the number of phonemes in a given language.

3. The elements (sounds) used in one and the same position and which cannot distinguish the meanings of words
are considered to be in free variation. In such cases every sound manifests the free allo-phone of the phoneme. This type
of distribution is known also as an equivalent distribution. For example, some speakers pronounce /e/ sound either half-
close /e/ or half-open Id in one and the same position but it cannot distinguish the words.
4.Two various sounds may be used in one and the same po sition. In such cases one of the sounds represents the free allo
phone of the other. For example, the word phonetics may be pronounced as /fonetiks/, /founetiks/ and /fanetiks/ where the

sounds h i, h i represent the free allophones of the phoneme /ou/.

In reality each of them is an allophone of the separate phoneme.

15

The distributional method is very important in phonological analysis of the sound structure. It is necessary to show
also what clusters of sounds the pattern of a language admits. The branch of phonology which studies the possible
clusters of sounds in words and morphemes is known as «phonotactics»1.

Using the statistical method it is possible to establish the ex act number of phonological oppositions in a language
and the number of sound clusters in initial, medial and final positions of the words. For example, in English, out of
a theoretically possible 11,000 initial three member consonantal clusters at the beginning of a syllable, only about
40 occur. Of 576 possible combinations of two consonants, only 137 are utilized by the language2. There are no
initial three member consonantal clusters in Uzbek. Thus it is difficult to teach the Uzbek students the
pronunciation of the initial three member consonantal clusters of English.
9-MAVZU. STYLISTIC USE OF INTONATION.
Plan:
1. Proper functions of intonation.
2. Components of intonation.
Intonation is an essentual prosodic element of human speech. It shapes human speech phonetically and helps to
express grammatical, semantic and emotional meanings of phrases or sentences. Intonation is a very complicated
phenomenon and therefore its definition varies widely among linguists. The following definitions of intonation have been
given by British linguists: «Intonation may be defined as the variations which take place in the pitch of the voice in
connected speech, i.e. the variations in the pitch of the musical note produced by the vibration of the vocal cords» (D.
Jones)1. «By intonation we mean the rise and fall of the pitch of the voice when we speak» (L. Armstrong and I. Ward)2.
The American linguist D. L. Bolinger defines intonation as «... the melodic line of speech, the rising and falling of the
«fundamental» or singing pitch of the voice ...»3. P. Ladefoged defines intonation as «the pattern of pitch changes»4. P.
Lieberman regards intonation as «... the entire en semble of pitch contours, pitch levels and stress levels that occurs when
a sentence is spoken» 5.From given definitions we can notice that intonation is regarded as pitch changes or speech
melody and also stress levels which accompany an utterance. Speech melody perceived as pitch changes is one of the
main components of intonation, but it is not equal to intonation. Some linguists include other components of intonation in
their definition. For example, A.M . Peshkovskij defined intona tion as the indissoluble connection of both rhythm and
melody1. These definitions have been given in a narrow sense.
A broad and adequate definition of intonation is given by V.A. Vassilyev who writes: «On the perceptual level,
sentence in tonation is a unity of four components, formed by the communi catively relevant variations in: ( 1 ) voice
pitch, or speech melody; (2)the prominence of words, or their accent; (3) the tempo (rate), rhythm and pausation of the
utterance, and (4) voice - tamber, this complex unity serving to express adequately, on the basis of the proper
grammatical structure and lexical composition of the sentence, the speaker's or writer's thoughts, volition, emotions,
feelings and attitudes towards reality and contents of the sen tence»2. G.P. Torsuyev defines intonation as a complex
combination of speech melody, distribution of stress in a sentence, tamber of voice and tempo of pronunciation, which
serves as the most im portant means of expressing the meaning of an utterance 3.A.M . Antipova regards intonation as a
complex combination of the following components: ( 1 ) speech .melody, (2 ) sentence stress, (3) time characteristics
(duration, tempo and pausation), (4) rhythm and (5) tamber (the quality of voice) .The latter three definitions of
intonation include all the components of intonation and have been given in a very broad sense. We also shade these
definitions. Intonation is a prosodic or suprasegmental characteristics of an utterance or phrase, and therefore it is
possible to speak of the prosodic structure of a phrase. By the term «phrase or utterance» we mean the sentence realized
phonetically as a unit of speech. Like other phonetic units intonation may be studied in four as pects: ( 1 ) articulatory
(physiologically), (2 ) acoustically (physically), (3) perceptually (auditorially) and (4) functionally
(1) A constitutive function of intonation is expressed by its existence in an utterance through which intonation
shapes a sen tence phonetically. For example, Come! as a word and sense-group has its own grammatical form and
intonation. The phrases

Come here! or He will come tomorrow, constitute different grammatical (syntactic) structures and intonation.
(2) A delimitative function of intonation is very closely connected with its constitutive function. Intonation, as a
prosodic constituent of a phrase, may also delimitate parts within a phrase, and its end, through breaking up a sentence
into sense-groups (pause-groups or intonation groups)1. By a sense-group we mean a word or a group of words forming
the shortest possible unit in a sentence from the point of view of meaning, grammatical struc ture and intonation. E. g.
'Early in the morning it's 'always 'pleas antly cool. In this sentence there are two sense groups (a single vertical stroke (
1 ) denotes a short pause inside a sentence).
(3) A distinctive (phonological) function of intonation serves

to distinguish the communicative types of sentences, e. g. He is a student may be pronounced by four different pitch
contrasts. When it is pronounced by a low pitch at the end it means a normal, matter-of-fact report. When it has a mid
ptch at the end of a sentence it in dicates that the utterance is not finished or that the fact is like an af terthought, having
significance for something said previously. If it is pronounced by a high pitch at the end it indicates mild doubt, as if he
is a student or trying to remember he is a student. When it is pronounced by an extra-high pitch it indicates strong
disbelief or surprise. In this case the distinctive function of intonation becomes clear through the pitch contrasts which
have its distinctive function too. In the minimal pair «Is there any Miss Take here? - Is there any mistake here?» the
16

distinctive function of intonation becomes clear through stress levels at the junction of mistake (one stress) and Miss
Take (two stresses). The distinctie function of intonation and its components is under discussion in modem phonology.
A recognitive (identificatory) function of intonation may be proved by the fact that every language or dialect has a
characteristic pattern of intonation which is manifested in all utter ances of speakers, though there may be some
individual prosodic features in their pronunciation. Any phrase or utterance has its proper intonation, according to which
it may be identified by all speakers. It is not possible, for example, to pronounce a declarative sentence by a high or extra-
high pitch. If so, the recognitive func tion of intonation may be destroyed and a sentence pronounced by

a high pitch becomes an exclamatoiy or interrogative sentence, i.e. the communicative type of a sntence may be
changed. To leam the right recognitive function of intonation is necessaiy in master ing a good pronunciation of a
foreign language.
All the functions of intonation are in close relationship with each other. Wrong usage of one of these
functions may bring about wrong interpretation of other functions. All four functions of intonation are
characteristic also of its components as given examples illustrate.
Intonation, its components and functions exist not only in oral speech but in the written form of a language
as well. In a written text the punctuation marks make the meaning of sentences clear to the reader. Besides words,
word combinations and gram matical combinations used in written texts, the writer's idea, his emotions and
feelings may be expressed by means of punctuation marks which visually express various intonation types within a
sentence, e. g. the punctuation marks which are called «end stops», i.e. period (.), a question mark (?), exclamation
mark (!) are used to mark the end of sentences and indicate the communi cative types of sentences through
intonational delimitation. The internal punctuation marks: comma (,), semicolon (;), colon (:), dash (-), parenthesis
( ) are used to separate, to inclose or indicate the relation between elements within a sentence. They usually in
dicate pauses, intonations expressing non-finality (the rising tone) or finality (the falling tone) and emphatic
intonations. Punctuation marks with specialized uses: quatation marks («»), brackets ( ), ellipsis (...) and italics
may also signal certain intonation delimita tions by means of pitch changes, stress levels, pauses.

The above example He is a student may be pronounced with different intonations (pitch variations) thanks
to three final punc

tuation marks - end stops: period signals the falling tone; the question mark indicates the rising tone and the
exclamation mark requires to use a special type of intonation expressed by all its components. Probably, the
relationship between the punctuation marks and intonation is universal in all languages. Such examples as He is a
student in Russian (Он - студент) and Uzbek (U — student) have relatively the same intonations depending on
the usage of the punctuation marks.

Some American linguists regard punctuation marks as «suprasegmental phonemes». We do not shade this idea
but con sider that punctuation marks may be interpreted as symbols of prosodic units in written sentences. Punctuation
marks contribute to distinguish the functions of intonation. Thanks to the usage of punctuation marks the constitutive,
distinctive delimitative and recognitive functions of intonation become clear in a written text. Thus, punctuation marks
are important signals in the text-forming function of intonation, which operates in a different way to the proper functions
of intonation (constitutive, distinctive, delimitative, recognitive). In any language intonation performs grammatical and
expressive functions, but in English the contrasts in intonation are not clearly lexical1. These functions of intonation
belong to language functions as a whole. Intonation and syntax are complementary aspects of sentence structure and
therefore, intonation is partly grammatical and partly referential.
10-MAVZU. VARIETIES OF ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION.
Plan:
1. Principal varieties of English
2. Variability of a given language
One of the vital features of literary language, which distinguish it from its dialects, is the existence of more or less
uniformed norms. A literary language has its own lexical, grammatical, and orthographic and pronunciation norms.
Every national language possesses two forms: the written form, which is the literary uniform of a language and spoken
form, which is not uniform and characterized by the individual features of the speaker. English is represented in writing
and printing by the twenty-six letters of the alphabet, a dozen of punctuation marks and such devices as capitals and
italics. In the spoken form of English we evidently use about a hundred sounds and variations in pitch, stress, pause etc.
Each sound is used with some modifi cations in actual speech: For example some people have a full /г/ and others a very
slight indication of the sound. The pronunciation of words varies considerably among the different regions in which
English is spoken, so that we can easily distinguish speakers according to their pronunciation. However, there is no strict
boundary between written and spoken forms of a language because some elements of the spoken form may be found in
the written form. As to the dialects they are the linguistic varieties of the language used by some group of speech
community only in the oral or spoken form and differ from the spoken literary form of a language in more or less degree.
Dialects may be distinguished from each other by their pro nunciation, grammar, lexicon and stylistics. A special branch
of linguistics which studies the variability of a given language is called dialectology. Dialectology has a close
relationship to history, geography and other sciences as dialects may be important in the formation of nations and any
17

change in the process of mi gration and urbanization. The pronunciation features of dialects are studied by a special
branch of phonetics, namely dialectologi-cal phonetics. It is possible to investigate the literary and dialect pronunciations
of the same language. The literary language has its orthoepic norm, i.e. the sum of rules of the spoken form
characterized by the unity of the sound material formed in the process of its historical development. By the term norm we
mean more or less constant and stable feature of pronunciation, i.e. all the com ponents of the phonetic structure-
phonemes, syllables, stress and intonation. Speaking about literary orthoepic norm of English, some linguists use the
terms standard English or uniform English, the latter has already been used in this book, J. S. Kenyon cited the
following idea advanced by A.L. James: “... speech is immeasurable and there is no absolute standard of pronunciation...
It is quite evident that we are not entitled to conclude that there is only a simple standard of pronunciation and only one
correct way of speaking English. There are varieties that are acceptable through out the country, and others are not”1.
Sometimes “Good English” is distinguished from “Bad English” (“Vulgar English”). On the basis of its usage the
following principal varieties of English are distinguished: 1) Formal English (Limited use) - more often written than
spoken - speaking and writing for somewhat re stricted groups in formal situations; 2) General English (Unlim ited use)
- both spoken and written - speaking and writing of educated people in their private or public affairs; 3) Informal
English (Limited use) - more often spoken than written; 4) Nonstandard English (Limited use) - chiefly spoken -
language not much affected by school instruction; often conspicuously local; not appropriate for public affairs or for use
by educated people. According to the above classification P.G. Perrin and G.H. Smith came to the conclusion that
Formal, General and Informal English make up Standard English, on the contrary, the term “Nonstandard English” refers
to the everday speech of many people as ... a “variety or level of language in its own right”1. We cannot accept this idea
and do not use the terms “Standard” or “Nonstandard” as we have already defined the notion “orthoepic norm” of
pronunciation.

2-modul. Ingliz tili nazariy grammatikasi

1-MAVZU. INTRODUCTION TO THEORITICAL GRAMMAR.
THE GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE OF A LANGUAGE.
Plan:

1. Language and speech levels

2. Primary and secondary levels

3.Units of levels

4. The difference between language and speech

Language (Speech) is divided to certain strata or levels. The linguists distinguish basic and non-basic (sometimes
they term them differently: primary and secondary) levels. This distinction depends on whether a level has got its
own unit or not. If a level has its own unit then this level is qualified as basic or primary. If a level doesn't have a
unit of its own then it is a non - basic or secondary level. Thus the number of levels entirely depend on how many
language (or speech) units in language. There's a number of conceptions on this issue: some scientists say
that there are four units (phoneme/phone; morpheme/morph; lexeme/lex and sentence), others think that
there are five units like phonemes, morphemes, lexemes, word -combinations (phrases) and sentences and still
others maintain that besides the mentioned ones there are paragraphs, utterances and texts. As one can see there's
no unity in the number of language and speech units. The most wide - spread opinion is that there are five language
(speech) units and respectively there are five language (speech) levels, they are: phonetic/phonological;
morphological; lexicological, syntax - minor and syntax - major. The levels and their units are as follows:

1. phonological/phonetical level: phoneme/phone

2. morphological level: morpheme/morph

3. lexicological level: lexeme/lex

4. Syntax - minor: sentence

5. Syntax - major: text

Thus, non - basic or secondary level is one that has no unit of its own. Stylistics can be said to be non - basic
(secondary) because this level has no its own unit. In order to achieve its aim it makes wide use of the units of the
primary (basic) levels. The stylistics studies the expressive means and stylistic devices of languages. According to
I.R. Galperin "The expressive means of a language are those phonetic means, morphological forms, means of word
-building, and lexical, phraseological and syntactical form, all of which function in the language for emotional or
logical intensification of the utterance. These intensifying forms of the language, wrought by social usage and
recognized by their semantic function have been fixed in grammars, dictionaries". "What then is a stylistic device
18

(SD)? It is a conscious and intentional literary use of some of the facts of the language (including expressive
means) in which the most essential features (both structural and semantic) of the language forms are raised to a
generalized level and thereby present a generative model. Most stylistic devices may be regarded as aiming at the
further intensification of the emotional or logical emphasis contained in the corresponding expressive means".
When talking about the levels one has to mention about the distinction between language and speech because the
linguistic differentiates language units and speech units.

The main distinction between language and speech is in the following:

1) language is abstract and speech is concrete;

2) language is common, general for all the bearers while speech is individual;

3) language is stable, less changeable while speech tends to changes;

4) language is a closed system, its units are limited while speech tend to be openness and endless.

a) the order of words, b) the functional words, c) the stress and intonation, d) the grammatical inflections, e) sound
change, f) suppletion. The grammatical signals have a meaning of their own independent of the meaning of the
notional words. This can be illustrated by the following sentence with nonsensical words: Woggles ugged diggles.
According to Ch. Fries (32) the morphological and the syntactic signals in the given sentence make us understand
that “several actors acted upon some objects”. This sentence which is a syntactic signal, makes the listener
understand it as a declarative sentence whose grammatical meaning is actor - action - thing acted upon. One can
easily change (transform) the sentence into the singular (A woggle ugged a diggle.), negative (A woggle did not
ugg a diggle.), or interrogative (Did a woggle ugg a diggle?) All these operations are grammatical. Then what are
the main units of grammar - structure. Let us assume, for example, a situation in which are involved a man, a boy,
some money, an act of giving, the man the giver, the boy the receiver, the time of the transaction - yesterday... Any
one of the units man, boy, money, giver, yesterday could appear in the linguistic structure as subject.

The man gave the boy the money yesterday.

The boy was given the money by the man yesterday.

The money was given the boy by the man yesterday.

The giving of the money to the boy by the man occurred yesterday.

Yesterday was the time of the giving of the money to the boy by the man.

"Subject" then is a formal linguistic structural matter.Thus, the grammatical meaning of a syntactic construction
shows the relation between the words in it. We have just mentioned here "grammatical meaning", “grammatical
utterance”. The whole complex of linguistic means made use of grouping words into utterances is called a
grammatical structure of the language. All the means which are used to group words into the sentence exist as a
certain system; they are interconnected and interdependent. They constitute the sentence structure. All the words of
a language fall, as we stated above, under notional and functional words. Notional words are divided into four
classes in accord with the position in which they stand in a sentence. Notional words as positional classes are
generally represented by the following symbols: N, V, A, D.

The man landed the jet plane safely

N V A N D

Words which refer to class N cannot replace word referring to class V and vice versa. These classes we shall
call grammatical word classes. Thus, in any language there are certain classes of words which have their own
positions in sentences. They may also be considered to be grammatical means of a language. So we come to a
conclusion that the basic means of the grammatical structure of language are: a)sentence structure; b) grammatical
word classes.In connection with this grammar is divided into two parts: grammar which deals with sentence
structure and grammar which deals with grammatical word - classes. The first is syntax and the second -
morphology.

W. Francis: "The Structure of American English". The Structural grammarian regularly begins with an objective
description of the forms of language and moves towards meaning. An organized whole is greater than the mere
sum of its parts. The organized whole is a structural meaning and the mere sum of its parts is a lexical meaning.
Five Signals of Syntactic Structure
19

1. Word Order - is the linear or time sequence in which words appear in an utterance.

2. Prosody - is the over-all musical pattern of stress, pitch, juncture in which the words of an utterance are spoken

3. Function words - are words largely devoid of lexical meaning which are used to indicate various functional
relationships among the lexical words of an utterance

4. Inflections - are morphemic changes - the addition of suffixes and morphological means concomitant
morphophonemic adjustments - which adopt words to perform certain structural function without changing their
lexical meaning

5. Derivational contrast - is the contrast between words which have the same base but differ in the number and
nature of their derivational affixes

One more thing must be mentioned here. According to the morphological classification English is one of the
flexional languages. But the flexional languages fall under synthetical and analytical ones. The synthetical-
flexional languages are rich in grammatical inflections and the words in sentences are mostly connected with each-
other by means of these inflections though functional words and other grammatical means also participate in this.
But the grammatical inflections are of primary importance. The slavonic languages (Russian, Ukraine…) are of
this type. The flectional-analytical languages like English and French in order to connect words to sentences make
wide use of the order of words and functional words due to the limited number of grammatical flexions. The
grammatical means - order of words – is of primary importance for this type of languages.

Lexical and Grammatical Meaning

In the next chapter we shall come to know that some morphemes are independent and directly
associated with some object of reality while others are depended and are connected with the world of reality only
indirectly. Examples:

desk-s; bag-s; work-ed; lie-d …

The first elements of these words are not dependent as the second elements. Morphemes of the 1st
type we’ll call lexical and meanings they express are lexical.The elements like -s, -ed, -d are called grammatical
morphemes and meanings they express are grammatical.Thus, lexical meaning is characteristic to lexical
morphemes, while grammatical meanings are characteristic to grammatical morphemes. Grammatical meanings
are expressed not only by forms of word – changing, i.e. by affixation but by free morphemes that are used to
form analytical word-form, e.g.

He will study, I shall go.

The meaning of shall, will considered to be grammatical since comparing the relations of invite - invited - shall
invite we can see that the function of shall is similar to that of grammatical morphemes -s,-ed.

2-MAVZU. THE MORPHEMIC STRUCTURE OF A LANGUAGE. TYPES OF MORPHEMES.

Plan:

1. What operation is called "Morphemic analysis?

2. Language and speech levels and their corresponding units

3. Morpheme-morph-allomorph

Types of morphemes from the point of view of their:

a) function

b) number correlation between form and meaning

There are many approaches to the questions mentioned above. According to Zellig Harris

"The morphemic analysis is the operation by which the analyst isolates minimum meaningful elements in the
utterances of a language, and decides which occurrences of such elements shall be regarded as occurrences of "the
20

same" element". The general procedure of isolating the minimum meaningful elements is as follows:

Step 1. The utterances of a language are examined (obviously) not all of them, but a sampling which we hope will
be statistically valid. Recurrent partials with constant meaning (ran away in John ran away and Bill ran away) are
discovered; recurrent partials not composed of smaller ones (way) are alternants or morphs. So are any partials not
recurrent but left over when all recurrent ones are counted for. Every utterance is composed entirely of morphs.
The division of a stretch of speech between one morph and another, we shall call a cut.

Step 2. Two or more morphs are grouped into a single morpheme if they:

a) have the same meaning;

b) never occur in identical environments and

c) have combined environments no greater than the environments of some single alternant in the
language.

Step 3. The difference in the phonemic shape of alternants of morphemes are organized and stated; this constitutes
morphophonemics

Compare the above said with the conception of Ch. Hockett.

Step 1. All the utterances of the language before (us) the analyst recorded in some phonemic notation.

Step 2. The notations are now examined, recurrent partials with constant meaning are discovered; those not
composed of smaller ones are morphs. So are any partials not recurrent but left over when all recurrent ones are
accounted for: therefore every bit of phonemic material belongs to one morphs or another. By definition, a morph
has the same phonemic shape in all its occurrences; and (at this stage) every morph has an overt phonemic shape,
but a morph is not necessarily composed of a continuous uninterrupted stretch of phonemes. The line between two
continuous morphs is a cut.

Step 3. Omitting doubtful cases, morphs are classed on the basis of shape and canonical forms are tentatively
determined.

Step 4. Two or more morphs are grouped into a single morpheme if they fit the following grouping - requirements:

a) they have the same meaning;

b) they are in non-contrastive distribution;

c) the range of resultant morpheme is not unique.

Step 5. It is very important to remember that if in this procedure one comes across to alternative
possibilities,choice must be based upon the following order of priority:

a) tactical simplicity

b) morphophonemic simplicity

c) conformity to canonical forms.

Thus the first cut of utterance into the smallest meaningful units is called morph. The morphs that have identical
meanings are grouped into one morpheme. It means the morphs and morphemes are speech and language units that
have both form (or shape) and meanings. The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme while the
smallest meaningful unit of speech is called a morph. There’s a notion of allomorph in linguistics. By allomorphs
the linguists understand the morphs that have identical meanings and that are grouped into one morpheme. There
may be another definition of the allomorphs: the variants (or options, or alternants) of a morpheme are called
allomorph. Compare the above said with Harris’s opinion. Some morphs, however, and some may be assigned
simultaneously to two (or more) morphemes. An empty morph, assigned to no morpheme. (All the empty morphs
in a language are in complementary distribution and have the same meaning (none). They could if there were any
advantages in it, be grouped into a single empty morpheme (but one which had the unique characteristic of being
tactically irrelevant), must have no meaning and must be predicable in terms of non-empty morphs. A portmanteau
morphs must have the meanings of two or more morphemes simultaneously, and must be in non-contrastive
distribution with the combination of any alternant of one of the member morphemes and any alternant of the other
(usually because no such combination occur). The difference in the phonemic shape of morphs as alternants of
21

morphemes are organized and stated; this (in some cases already partly accomplished in Step 1) constitutes
morphophonemics. In particular, portmanteaus are compared with the other alternants of the morphemes
involved, and if resemblances in phonemic shape and the number of cases warrant, morphs of other than overt
phonemic content are recognized, some of the portmanteaus being thus eliminated.

The Types of Morphemes.

Morphemes can be classified from different view-points:

1. functional

2. number correlation between form and content

3-MAVZU. THE GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES.

Plan:

1.What is categorization?

2.What linguistic phenomenon is called a "grammatical category"?

3. What is "opposition"?

4. The types of grammatical categories.

Any research presupposes bringing into certain order the material being studied. The issue under the consideration
is also an attempt to generalize the grammatical means of language.

There are many conceptions on the problem today. According to B. Golovin “a grammatical category is a real
linguistic unity of grammatical meaning and the means of its material expression”. It means that in order to call a
linguistic phenomenon a grammatical category there must be a grammatical meaning and grammatical means.M.Y.
Blokh , explains it as follows: “As for the grammatical category itself, it presents, the same as the grammatical
"form", a unity of form (i.e. material factor), and meanings (i.e. ideal factor) and constitutes a certain signemic
system. More specifically the grammatical category is a system of expressing a generalized grammatical meaning
by means of paradigmatic correlation of grammatical forms. The paradigmatic correlations of grammatical forms
in a category are exposed by the so - called “grammatical oppositions”. The opposition (in the linguistic sense)
may be defined as a generalized correlation of lingual forms by means of which a certain function is expressed.
The correlated elements (members) of the opposition must possess two types of features: common features and
differential features. Common features serve as the basis of contrast while differential features immediately
express the function in question. The grammatical categories are better to explain by comparing them with logical
categories. The grammatical categories are opposed to logical ones. The logical categories are universal for all the
languages. Any meanings can be expressed in any language. For instance there's a logical category of possession.
The meaning of possession can be expressed in all the languages, compare: My book (English) - Моя книга
(Russian) - Менинг китобим (Uzbek). As it is seen from the examples the meaning of possession in English and
Russian is expressed, by the possessive pronouns (lexical means) while in Uzbek it can be expressed either by the
help of a discontinuous morpheme (...нинг ...им) or by one overt morpheme (…им). This category is grammatical
in Uzbek but lexical in the other two languages. Thus the universal logical categories can be expressed by
grammatical and non - grammatical (lexical, syntactic) means. The grammatical categories are those logical ones
that are expressed in languages by constant grammatical means. The doctrines mentioned above one - side
approach to the problem. It is a rather complicated issue in the general linguistics. But unfortunately we don't have
universally acknowledged criteria to meet the needs of individual languages. One of the most consistent theories of
the grammatical categories is the one that is suggested by L. Barkhudarov. According to his opinion in order to call
a linguistic phenomenon a grammatical category there must be the following features:

- general grammatical meaning;

- this meaning must consist of at least two particular meanings;

- the particular meanings must be opposed to each - other:

- the particular meanings must have constant grammatical means to express them.

Thus, any linguistic phenomenon that meets these requirements is called a grammatical category.English nouns
have a grammatical category of number. This category has all the requirements that are necessary for a
22

grammatical category:

1. it has general grammatical meaning of number;

2. it consists of two particular meanings; singular and plural;

3. singular is opposed to plural, they are antonymous;

4. singular and plural have their own constant grammatical means:

singular is represented by a zero morpheme and plural has the allomorphs like (s), (z), (iz). There are some
other means to express singular and plural in English but they make very small percentage compared with regular
means. Schematically this can be shown as follows:

Number

0 (s), (z), (iz)

singular plural

Another example. In English adjectives there's one grammatical category - the degrees of comparison. What
features does it have?

1. It has a general grammatical meaning: degrees of comparison;

2. The degrees of comparison consist of three particular meanings: positive, comparative and superlative;

3. They are opposed to each - other;

4. They have their own grammatical means depending on the number of syllables in the word.

If in the category of number of nouns there are two particular meanings, in the grammatical category of
degrees of comparison there are three.Thus, a grammatical category is a linguistic phenomenon that has a general
grammatical meaning consisting of at least two particular meanings that are opposed to each - other and that have
constant grammatical means of their own to express them.

4-MAVZU. PARTS OF SPEECH. THE NOTIONAL PARTS OF SPEECH.

Plan:

1.Brief history of grouping words to parts of speech

2.Contemporary criteria for classifying words to parts of speech

3. Structural approach to the classification of words (the doctrine of American descriptive School)

- notional and functional parts of speech

A thorough study of linguistic literature on the problem of English parts of speech enables us to conclude
that there were three tendencies in grouping English words into parts of speech or into form classes:

1. Pre - structural tendency;

2. Structural tendency;

3. Post - structural tendency;

1. Pre - structural tendency is characterized by classifying words into word - groups according to their
meaning, function and form. To this group of scientists H. Sweet (42), O. Jespersen , O. Curme , B. Ilyish and
other grammarians can be included.

2. The second tendency is characterized by classification of words exclusively according to their structural
meaning, as per their distribution. The representatives of the tendency are: Ch. Fries , W. Francis (30), A. Hill (44)
23

and others.

3. The third one combines the ideas of the two above-mentioned tendencies. They classify words in accord
with the meaning, function, form; stem-building means and distribution (or combinability). To this group of
scientists we can refer most Russian grammarians such as: Khaimovitch and Rogovskaya , L. Barkhudarov and
Shteling and others. One of the central problems of a theoretical Grammar is the problem of parts of speech. There
is as yet no generally accepted system of English parts of speech. Now we shall consider conceptions of some
grammarians. H. Sweet's classification of parts of speech is based on the three principles (criteria), namely
meaning, form and function. All the words in English he divides into two groups: 1) noun-words: nouns, noun-
pronouns, noun-numerals, infinitive, gerund; 2) verbs: finite verbs, verbals (infinitive, gerund, participle)

I. Declinable Adjective words: adjective, adjective pronouns, adjective-numeral, participles

II. Indeclinable: adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection

As you see, the results of his classification, however, reveal a considerable divergence between his theory and
practice. He seems to have kept to the form of words. Further, concluding the chapter he wrote: "The distinction
between the two classes which for convenience we distinguish as declinable and indeclinable parts of speech is not
entirely dependent on the presence or absence of inflection, but really goes deeper, corresponding, to some extent,
to the distinction between head - word and adjunct-word. The great majority of the particles are used only as
adjunct-words, many of them being only form-words, while declinable words generally stand to the particles in the
relation of headwords. According to Jespersen the division of words into certain classes in the main goes
back to the Greek and Latin grammarians with a few additions and modifications. He argues against those who
while classifying words kept to either form or meaning of words, he states that the whole complex of criteria, i.e.
form, function and meaning should he kept in view. He gives the following classification:

1. Substantives (including proper names)

2. Adjectives

In some respects (1) and (2) may be classed together as "Nouns ".

3. Pronouns (including numerals and pronominal adverbs)

4. Verbs (with doubts as to the inclusion of "Verbids")

5. Particles (comprising what are generally called adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions- coordinating and

subordinating - and interjections).

As it is seen from his classification in practice only one of those features is taken into consideration, and that is
primarily form. Classes are declinable while particles not. It reminds Sweet's grouping of words. The two
conceptions are very similar. Tanet R. Aiken kept to function only. She has conceived of a six-class system,
recognizing the following categories: absolute, verb, complement, modifiers and connectives. Ch. Fries'
classification of words is entirely different from those of traditional grammarians. The new approach - the
application of two of the methods of structural linguistics, distributional analysis and substitution - makes it
possible for Fries to dispense with the usual eight parts of speech. He classifies words into four form - classes,
designated by numbers, and fifteen groups of function words, designated by letters. The form-classes correspond
roughly to what most

st nd

grammarians call noun and pronouns (1 clause), verb (2 clause), adjective and adverbs, though Fries
warns the reader against the attempt to translate the statements which the latter finds in the book into the old
grammatical terms. The group of function words contains not only prepositions and conjunctions but certain
specific words that more traditional grammarians would class as a particular kind of pronouns, adverbs and verbs.
In the following examples:

1. Woggles ugged diggles

2. Uggs woggled diggs

3. Diggles diggled diggles

The woggles, uggs, diggles are "thing", because they are treated as English treats "thing" words -we know it by the
24

"positions" they occupy in the utterances and the forms they have, in contrast with other positions and forms.
Those are all structural signals of English. So Fries comes to the conclusion that a part of speech in English is a
functioning pattern. All words that can occupy the same "set of positions" in the patterns of English single free
utterances (simple sentences) must belong to the same part speech.

Fries' test-frame-sentences were the following:

Frame A

The concert was good (always)

Frame B

The clerk remembered the tax (suddenly)

Frame C

The team went there

Fries started with his first test frame and set out to find in his material all the words that could be substituted for the
word concert with no change of structural meaning (The materials were some fifty hours of tape-recorded
conversations by some three hundred different speakers in which the participants were entirely unaware that their
speech was being recorded): The concert was good

food

coffee

taste.....

The words of this list he called class I words.

The word “was” and all the words that can be used in this position he called class 2 words. In such a way he
revealed 4 classes of notional words and 15 classes of functional words. These four classes of notional words
contain approximately 67 per cent of the total instances of the vocabulary items. In other words our utterances
consist primarily of arrangements of these four parts of speech. Functional words are identified by letters

Class A Words

the concert was good

the a/an every

no my our

one all both

that some John’s

All the words appearing in this position (Group A) serve as markers of Class 1 words. Sometimes they are called
"determiners". The author enumerates fourteen more groups of function words among which we find, according to
the traditional terminology. Compare: «the difference between nouns and verbs lies not in what kinds of things
they stand for, but in what kinds of frames they stand in: I saw Robert kill Mary. I witnessed the killing of Mary
by Robert” Group B - modal verbs Group I - interrogative pr-ns and adverbs

Group C - n.p.not Group J - subordinating conj-s

Group D - adverbs of degree Group K- interjections

Group E - coordinating conj-s. Group L- the words yes and no

Group F - prepositions Group M - attention giving signals look, say, listen

Group G - the aux-v. do Group N - the word please

25

Group H - introductory there Group O - let us, let in request sentences.

The difference between the four classes of words and function words are as follows:

1. The four classes are large in number while the total number of function words amounts to 154.

2. In the four classes the lexical meanings of the separate words are rather clearly separable from the structural
meanings of the arrangements in which these words appear. In the fifteen groups it is usually difficult if not
impossible to indicate a lexical meaning apart from the structural meanings which these words signal.

3. Function words must be treated as items since they signal different structural meanings:

The boys were given the money.

The boys have given the money.

Russian grammarians in classifying words into parts of speech keep to different concepts;

A.I. Smirnitsky identifies three criteria. The most important of them is the syntactic function next comes meaning
and then morphological forms of words. In his opinion stem-building elements are of no use. His word-groups are:

Notional words Function words

1. Nouns link - verbs

2. Adjectives prepositions

conjunctions

3. Numerals modifying function words

4. Pronouns (article, particle)

5. Adverbs only, even, not

6. Verbs

R. Khaimovich and Rogovskaya identify five criteria

1. Lexico - grammatical meaning of words

2. Lexico - grammatical morphemes (stem - building elements)

3. Grammatical categories of words.

4. Their combinability (unilateral, bilateral)

5. Their function in a sentence.

Their Classification

1. Nouns 8. Modal words

2. Adjectives 9. Prepositions

3. Pronouns 10. Conjunctions

4. Numerals 11. Particles (just, yet, else, alone)

5. Verbs 12. Interjections

6. Adverbs 13. Articles

7. Adlinks (the cat. of state) 14. Response words (yes, no)

asleep, alive
26

As authors state the parts of speech lack some of those five criteria. The most general properties of parts of speech
are features 1, 4 and 5. B. A. Ilyish distinguishes three criteria: 1. meaning; 2. form, 3. function. The third criteria
is subdivided into two:

a) the method of combining the word with other ones

b) the function in the sentence.

a) has to deal with phrases; b) with sentence structure. B. A. Ilyish considers the theory of parts of
speech as essentially a part of morphology, involving, however, some syntactical points. 1. Nouns
7. Adverbs

2. Adjective 8. Prepositions

3. Pronoun 9. Conjunctions

4. Numerals 10. Particles

5. Statives (asleep, afraid) 11. Modal words

6. Verbs 12. Interjections

L. Barkhudarov, D. Steling . Their classification of words are based on four principles. But the important
and characteristic feature of their classification is that they do not make use of syntactic function of words in
sentences: meaning, grammatical forms, combinability with other words and the types of word - building (which
are studied not by grammar, but by lexicology).

1. Nouns 7. Verbs

2. Articles 8. Prepositions

3. Pronouns 9. Conjunctions

4. Adjectives 10. Particles

5. Adverbs 11. Modal words

6. Numerals 12. Interjection

We find another approach of those authors to the words of English.

All the words are divided into two main classes: notional words and function - words: connectives, determinatives

Function words are those which do not have full lexical meaning and cannot be used as an independent part of
sentences. According to their function these words, as has been mentioned, are subdivided into connectives and
determinatives:

1. connectives form phrases as to believe in something or as in the hall. To connectives authors refer: prepositions,
conjunctions, modal and link verbs;

2. determinatives are words which define the lexical meaning of notional words (they either limit them, or make
them more concrete). These words include articles and particles. The consideration of conceptions of different
grammarians shows that the problem of parts of speech is not yet solved. There's one point which is generally
accepted: in M-n English there are two classes of words-notional and functional - which are rather distinct.

5-MAVZU. THE FUNCTIONAL PARTS OF SPEECH.

Plan:

1.The difference between the notional and functional words

2.The different approaches of linguistics to this issue

27

3.The ways of classifying of functional parts of speech

Now, when we have viewed all the notional words we may get down to the study of structural or functional parts
of speech. To this group of words traditionally prepositions, conjunctions, articles and some auxiliary words are
referred. Some scholars include adverbs, link-verbs, and even modal-verbs (Fries). It is important to consider the
conceptions of some pre-structural grammarians.

H. Sweet in the sentence "The earth is round" differs two types of words: full words and form words or empty
words: earth and round are full words while the and is are form words. He states that the and is are "form words
because they are words in form only ... they are entirely devoid of meaning". Is does not have a meaning of its own
but is used to connect subject and predicate. Thus though it has no meaning of its own, independent meaning, it has
a definite grammatical function - it is a grammatical form-word. But "the" has not even a grammatical function and
serves only to show that earth is to be taken as terrestrical globe and therefore it is a part of the word as the
derivational prefix un - in unknown. In treating form-words by Sweet one of the most valuable point is the
following his conception. He states that very often a word combines the function of a form - word with something
of the independent meaning of a full word. To this type of words he includes words like become in he became a
prime minister. As full word it has the meaning of “change” and the function of the form - word is. The above
sentence consists of "He changed his condition + he is a prime minister". Now his conception schematically may
be shown as follows:

full words - intermediate stratum - form - word.

Facts like these bear the proof that it is difficult to draw a definite line between full words and form words. O.
Jespersen : suggests that adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections should be called particles. He sees a
parallel in the relation between an adverb and a preposition and the relation between intransitive and a transitive
verb. According to his statement there is the same difference between the verbs in He sings, He plays and He sings
a song, He plays the piano. "Yet in spite of these differences in verb no one assigns them to

different part of speech. Therefore why we should assign to different parts of speech words like on and since.

Put your cap on (adv.)

Put your cap on your head (preposition); and

I have not seen her since (adv.)

I have not seen her since I arrived (preposition)

Because of these facts they may be termed by one word, i.e. "Particles".

Function Words – 1

Some words in English have no inflectional or derivational ending. They are simply tools for putting other words
together. They perform a function in the system – outside the system they have little or no meaning whatever.
These words fall into categories determined only on the basis of their position in grammatical structures they enter
into. They are referred to by the collective term function words. The categories of function words are often called
closed classes because new ones are rarely, ever, added to them. The list of function words in English is firmly
established. The relationship of function words to form class is often linked to that of mortar and bricks. Major
Categories of Function Words – 1

1. Determiners: Function words which signal noun

They never appear except when followed by a noun and invariably signal its coming: a, the, an, possessive pr-ns

2. Auxiliary verbs: have and be. Modals are subcategories.

3.Qualifiers: work with both adj. and adv.: more and most, very, quite, rather, less (intensifiers)

Function Words – 2

4. Prepositions

5. Conjunctions: work as coordination of linguistic forms of syntactic units having equal value

6. Subordinators: Connect dependent clauses and include words like: because, after, as well as relative
28

pronouns

7. Interrogatives: Operate in the formation of questions and include words like when, where, why, how and so
on: as well as – the interrogative pronouns which, what, who

6-MAVZU. PARTS OF SENTENCE. THE MAIN PARTS AND THE SECONDARY PARTS. PHASE
STRUCTURE.
Plan:
1. The classification of simple sentence.
2. Types of sentences.
3. Kinds of sentences.
A sentence is a unit of speech whose grammatical structure conforms to the laws of the language and which serves
as the chief means of conveying a thought. A sentence is not only a means of communicating something about
reality but also a means of showing the speaker’s attitude to it. The classification of simple sentences is based on
two principles:
A) According to the purpose of the utterance.
B) According to the structure.
According to the purpose of the utterance we distinguish four kinds of sentences.
3. The declarative sentence.
4. The interrogative sentence.
There are four kinds of questions: a) General question, b) Special questions,
c) Alternative questions, d)Disjunctive questions
3. The imperative sentence.
4. The exclamatory sentence.
In a sentence we distinguish the principal parts, secondary parts and independent elements. The principal
parts of a sentence are the subject and the predicate . The secondary parts are the attribute, the object and
the adverbial modifier.

7-MAVZU. SYNTAX. THE SUBJECT MATTER OF SYNTAX. LINGUISTIC RELATIONS BETWEEN

WORDS.
Plan:

1.Subject - matter of syntax

2.Syntax-minor and syntax-major

3.The types of syntactical relations

a) coordination

b) subordination

c) predication: primary and secondary predication

- the types of syntactical relations according to the form of the constituents

a) agreement

b) government

c) collocation

- word-combinations and their types

The Subject – matter of Syntax

It has been mentioned above that the syntactic level is divided into two: syntax – minor and syntax –
major. The first one deals with sentence structure and the second – with text and its structure. The term "Syntax -
minor" is common one for both language and speech levels and their unit "sentence" is also one common term for
language and speech. The abstract notion "sentence" of language can have concrete its representation in speech
which is also called “sentence” due to the absence of the special term. Example: “An idea of John’s writing a
29

letter” on the abstract language level can have its concrete representation in speech: John writes a letter. A letter is
written by John.

Since one and the same idea is expressed in two different forms they are called "allo - sentences". Some authors
call them grammatical synonyms. Thus, sentence is language and speech units on the syntax - minor level, which
has a communicative function.

The basic unit of syntax - minor i.e. sentence often consists of some word -groups (or word

- combinations):

The roundness of the earth is known all over the world.

1 .The sentence consists of two distinct word - combinations: "the roundness of the earth" and "is known all over
the world". The same word - combinations may be used without any change in other sentences. The teacher
explained the pupils the roundness of the earth. This means that word - combinations can be studied as a separate
unit.

2. In utterances there may be simple sentences like "It was dark", " It be g an to rain ". Sometimes they may be
joined together, depending on the intensions of the speakers, as for example:

(a) It was dark, and it began to rain.

(b) When it was dark, it began to rain.

Though the structure of constituting sentences are identical when they are joined together the structure of
joined units (a) and (b) are different. This means that such units (which are traditionally called composite or
compound/complex sentences) may be also studied separately.Thus syntax - minor deals with simple sentences,
with a smaller unit than the simple sentence i.e. word combinations and with the bigger unit than the simple
sentence - composite sentences. In the same way the level syntax - major can be explained. The unit of this level is
text -the highest level of language and speech. "Syntax- major" represents both language and speech levels due to
the absence of separate term as well as "text" is used homogeniously for both language and speech units.

The Types of Linguistic Relations Between Word.

There are two types of relations between words in languages: paradigmatic and syntagmatic. 1)
paradigmatic bond is a connection among the classes of linguistic units/words combined by the existence of some
certain common features, e.g.

a) asking, sitting, barking, sleeping (all these words have common –ing ending);

b) ask, asking, asks, asked, has asked, be asked (in this case it is stem “ask” is common)

2) Syntagmatic connection is a bond among linguistic units in a lineal succession in the connected speech.
Syntagmatic connection between words or group of words is also called a syntactic bond.

Types of Syntactic Relation. One of the most important problems of syntax is the classification and criteria of
distinguishing of different types of syntactical connection. L. Barkhudarov (3) distinguishes three basic types of
syntactical bond: subordination, co-ordination, predication. Subordination implies the relation of head-word and
adjunct-word, as e.g. a tall boy, a red pen and so on. The criteria for identification of head-word and adjunct is the
substitution test. Example:

1) A tall boy came in.

2) A boy came in.

3) Tall came in.

This shows that the head-word is "a boy" while "tall" is adjunct, since the sentence (3) is unmarked from the
English language view point. While sentence (2) is marked as it has an invariant meaning with the sentence (1).

Co-ordination is shown either by word-order only, or by the use of form-words:

4) Pens and pencils were purchased.

5) Pens were purchased.

30

6) Pencils were purchased.

Since both (5), (6) sentences show identical meaning we may say that these two words are

independent: coordination is proved. Predication is the connection between the subject and the predicate of a
sentence. In predication none of the components can be omitted which is the characteristic feature of this type of
connection, as e.g.

7) He came ...

8) *He ...

9) * ... came or

10) I knew he had come

11) * I knew he

12) * I knew had come

Sentences (8), (9) and (11), (12) are unmarked ones.

H. Sweet distinguishes two types of relations between words: subordination, coordination.

Subordination is divided in its turn into concord when head and adjunct words have alike inflection, as it is in
phrases this pen or these pens: and government when a word assumes a certain grammatical form through being
associated with another word:

13) I see him, here "him" is in the objective case-form. The transitive verbs require the personal pronouns in this
case.

14) I thought of him. “him” in this sentence is governed by the preposition “of”. Thus, “see” and “of” are the
words that governs while “him” is a governed word. B. Ilyish (15) also distinguishes two types of relations
between words: a gree m ent by which he means "a method of expressing a syntactical relationship, which
consists in making the subordinate word take a form similar to that of the word to which it is subordinated".
Further he states: "the sphere of agreement in Modern English is extremely small. It is restricted to two pronouns-
this and that ..." government ("we understand the use of a certain form of the subordinate word required by its head
word, but not coinciding with the form of the head word itself-that is the difference between agreement and
government")

e.g. Whom do you see

This approach is very close to Sweet's conception.

E. Kruisinga (36) considers two types of word-groups: close and loose.

I. Close group - when one of the members is syntactically the leading element of the group. There may be
verb groups like running quickly, to hear a noise and nouns groups: King Edward, my book

II. Loose group - when each element is comparatively independent of the other members: men and woman; strict
but just and so on.

Thus, if we choose the terms suggested by Barkhudarov L.S., then we may say all grammarians mentioned here are
unanimous as to the existence in English the subordination and coordination bonds. In addition to these two bonds
Barkhudarov adds the predication. So when speaking on the types of syntactic connections in English we shall
mean the three bonds mentioned.As one can see that when speaking about syntactic relations between words we
mention the terms coordination, subordination, predication, agreement and government. It seems that it is very
important to differenciate the first three terms (coordination, subordination and predication) from the terms
agreement and government, because the first three terms define the types of syntactical relations from the
standpoint of dependence of the components while the second ones define the syntactic relations from the point of
view of the correspondence of the grammatical forms of their components. Agreement and government deals with
only subordination and has nothing to do with coordination and predication. Besides agreement and government
there is one more type of syntactical relations which may be called collocation when head and adjunct words are
connected with each-other not by formal grammatical means (as it is the case with agreement and government but
by means of mere collocation, by the order of words and by their meaning as for example: fast food, great day, sat
silently and so on).
31

8-MAVZU. SENTENCE. TYPES OF SENTENCE. SENTENCE STRUCTURE. SIMPLE SENTENCE.

Plan:

1.Definition of sentence

2.The types of sentences according to the different grouping requirements

3.The problem of one-member sentences

4. The problem of elliptical sentences

There are many definitions of the sentence and these definitions differ from each other because that the
scientists approach from different view points to this question. Some of them consider the sentence from the point
view of phonetics, others - from the point of view of semantics (the meaning of the sentence) and so on. According
to the opinion of many grammarians the definition of the sentence must contain all the peculiar features of the
smallest communicative unit.

Some of the definitions of a sentence are given below.

«Предложение – минимальная синтаксическая конструкция, используемая в актах речевой

коммуникации, характеризующаяся предикативностью и реализующая определенную структурную схему»

“The sentence is the immediate integral unit of speech built up of words according to a definite syntactic pattern
and distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose”. The definitions which are mentioned above
prove that B.A. Ilyish is quite right when he writes: “The notion of sentence has not so far received a satisfactory
definition” “A sentence is a unit of speech whose grammatical structure conforms to the laws of the language and
which serves as the chief means of conveying a thought. A sentence is not only a means of communicating
something about reality but also a means of showing the speaker's attitude to it. “В отличие от слова или
словосочетания, которые выражают лишь различные понятия, предложения выражают относительно
законченные мысли и тем самым используются как единицы общения между людьми; произнося (или
изображая на письме) предложения, люди что-то сообщают, выясняют, побуждают друг другу к
выполнению действия.

The train moved out of the city.

Are you ready?

Put down the book.

Для того чтобы сообщение о том или ином факте, явлении был полным, законченным, требуется
указать каким образом данный факт, явление, событие и т.д. относится к реальной действительности,
существует ли оно на самом деле или же мыслится как возможное предполагаемое, воображаемое,
необходимое и т.д., т.е. необходимо выразить модальность сообщения. Модальность непременно имеется в
любом предложении». «Важнейшим средством грамматического оформления предложения является
законченность интонации». Thus, concluding the above mentioned conceptions, we can say that in any act of
communication there are three factors: 1. The act of speech;

2. The speaker;

3. Reality (as viewed by the speaker).

B. Khaimovich and Rogovskaya state that these factors are variable since they change with every act of speech.
They may be viewed from two viewpoints: 1) from the point of view of language are constant because they are
found in all acts of communication 2) they are variable because they change in every act of speech.

Every act of communication contains the notions of time, person and reality. The events mentioned in the
communications are correlated in time and time correlation is expressed by certain grammatical and lexical means.
Any act of communication presupposes existence of the speaker and the hearer. The meaning of person is
expressed by the category of person of verbs. They may be expressed grammatically and lexico-grammatically by
words: I, you, he... Reality is treated differently by the speaker and this attitude of the speaker is expressed by the
category of mood in verbs. They may be expressed grammatically and lexically (may, must, probably...) According
to the same authors the three relations - to the act of speech, to the speaker and to reality - can be summarized as
the relation to the situation of speech.The relation of the thought of a sentence to the situation of speech is called
predicativity. Predicativity is the structural meaning of the sentence while intonation is the structural form of it.
32

Thus, a sentence is a communication unit made up of words /and word-morphemes/ in conformity with their
combinability and structurally united by intonation and predicativity. Within a sentence the word or combination
of words that contains the meanings of predicativity may be called the predication.

My father used to make nets and sell them.

My mother kept a little day-school for the girls.

Nobody wants a baby to cry.

A hospital Nursery is one of the most beautiful places in the world. You might say, it’s a room
filled with love. Thus, by sentence we understand the smallest communicative unit, consisting of one or more
syntactically connected words that has primary predication and that has a certain intonation pattern.

The Types of Sentences

There are many approaches to classify sentences. Below we shall consider only some of them. B. Ilyish classifies
sentences applying two principles:

1) types of communication. Applying this principle he distinguishes 3 types of sentences: declarative,

interrogative, imperative.

2) according to structure. Applying this principle he distinguishes two main types of sentences: simple and
composite.

Ch. Fries gives an original classification of types of sentences. All the utterances are divided by him into
Communicative and Non-communicative.

The Communicative utterances are in their turn divided into 3 groups:

I. Utterances regularly eliciting “oral” responses only:

A) Greetings. B) Calls. C) Questions.

II. Utterances regularly eliciting "action" responses, sometimes accompanied by one of a limited list of oral
responses: requests or commands.

III. Utterances regularly eliciting conventional signals of attention to continuous discourse statements.

L. Barkhudarov (3) compares source (kernel) sentences with their transforms, he distinguishes several types of
sentences from their structural view-point. His classification will represent binary oppositions where the unmarked
member is the source kernel sentence and marked one is the transformed sentence.The most important oppositions
within the limits of simple sentences are the following two:

1. Imperative (request) and non-imperative sentences.

2. Elliptical and non-elliptical sentences.

Summarizing the issue about the classification of sentences in the English language, we can say that this can be
done from different points of view. But the most important criteria so are as follows: 1. the criterion of the
structure of sentences

2. the criterion of the aim of the speaker

3. the criterion of the existence of all parts of the sentence.

From the point of view of the first criterion sentences fall under two subtypes: simple and composite. The
difference between them is in the fact that simple sentences have one primary predication in their structure while
composite ones have more than one.

According to the criterion of the aim of the speaker sentences fall under declarative, interrogative, imperative and
exclamatory. From the point of view of the existence of all parts of the sentence we differentiate elliptical and non-
elliptical sentences. Below we shall consider these types of sentence.

Types of Sentences according to the Aim of the Speaker.

33

The declarative sentences: This type of sentence may be called basic, when compared with other types of sentences
because all other types of sentences are the result of transformation of kernel sentences which are affirmative in
their origin (kernel sentences).

- they convey some statement. Maybe because of this fact these sentences are called declarative.

- they usually have the falling an intonation

- usually they have regular order of words with no inversion.

Interrogative Sentence

Interrogative sentences differ from the declarative or interrogative ones by some their specific features. There are
two structural types of interrogative sentences in Modern English - general questions (yes- or no- questions) and
special (or wh-) questions. Both of them are characterized by having partial inversion.

Are we staying here?

Where are we staying?

Besides, the first one has a special (rising) intonation pattern. The second one (wh-question) has interrogative
words. But the intonation pattern of wh-questions is identical with that of the affirmative sentences. And it is
important to point out that the interrogative sentences require answers (if they are not rhetorical ones).

Exclamatory Sentence.

The peculiar features of these sentences are:

1. exclamatory sentences usually express some sort of emotion, feeling or the spirit of the person who pronounces
it;

2. in their structure they have such introductory words as what and how:

Ex. What a lovely night! How beautiful it is here!

3. they are always in the declarative form;

4. there’s usually no inversion;

5. they are pronounced with a falling intonation;

Imperative Sentences

The imperative sentences are opposed to non-imperative ones because.

1. In imperative sentences the predicate is used in only one form-in the imperative one, while in non-imperative
sentences predicate may be used in any form except the imperative.

2. In imperative sentences no modal verb is used.

3. The imperative sentences are most often directed to the second person.

4. The subject of the imperative sentences are almost always represented by the zero alternant of you, that is,
elliptically.

5. The imperative sentences urge the listener to perform an action or verbal response.

The above said is quite sufficient to characterize the structure of imperative sentences to be specific and distinct
from that of the structure of non-imperative sentences. Elliptical Sentences

The problem of elliptical sentences has been and still is one of the most important and at

the same time difficult problems of syntax.The problem is solved by different linguists in different way. According
to H. Kruisinga's concept “Any noun that is used to call a person may be looked upon as a sentence, or a sentence-
word. Some words regularly form a sentence, such as “yes” or “no”'; but they do so only in connection with
another sentence. Words used in a sentence with subject and predicate may also be alone to form a complete
34

sentence, but again in connection with another sentence only...”As we stated above elliptical sentences are also the
result of transformation of kernel sentences. Since transforms are derived from kernel sentences they must be
considered in connection with the latter. L. Barkhudarov looks upon the sentences like «Вечер», «Утро» and so
on as two-member sentences. Really, if we isolate such utterances from the language system it will not be
divisible. If an investigator wants to be objective he cannot neglect the language system. Any unit of any language
is in interdependence of the other units of the language. Since the overwhelming majority of sentences are two-
member ones as e.g. «Был вечер», «Будет вечер» the above-mentioned utterances are also two-member ones. In
sentences «Был вечер», «Будет вечер» the predicates are expressed explicitly, while in «Вечер», «Утро» the
predicates are expressed by zero alternants of the verb «быть». M. Blokh is conception is very close to this .The
classification of elliptical sentences may be based on the way of their explication. By explication we understand
the replacement of the zero alternant of this or that word by the explicit one. There are two kinds of explication:1.
Syntagmatically restored elliptical sentences - when the explicit alternant of the elliptical sentence is found in the
same context where the elliptical sentence is:One was from Maine; the other from California.

If you have no idea where Clive might be, I certainly haven't. (Nancy Buckingam).

2. Paradigmatically restored elliptical sentence - when the explicit alternant of the zero form is not found in
the context where the ellipsis is used but when it is found in similar language constructions, e.g.

Stop and speak to me. (Galsworthy)

You listen to me, Horace. (Steinback)

One -member Sentence

“A sentence is the expression of a self- contained and complete thought”. Quite often the terms are applied to
linguistic forms lack completeness in one or more respects. It will of course be readily agreed that sentences like
“All that glitters is not gold” and “Two multiplied by two are four”, are formally and notionally complete and self-
contained. But in everyday intercourse utterances of this type are infrequent in comparison with the enormous
number which rely upon the situation or upon the linguistic context - to make their intention clear. In the extract
Strove asked him if he had seen Strickland. “He is ill”, he said. “Didn’t you know?” – “Seriously?” – “Very, I
understand”, to Fries “Seriously” is a sentence - equivalent. They all seem to be a complete communication. But it
can not be denied that each of them, either through pronouns (he, him) or through omissions, depend heavily on
what has been said immediately before it is spoken; in fact the last three would be unthinkable outside a linguistic
context. Properly speaking, therefore, omissions must be said to effect connection between sentences.Sentences
with syntactic items left out are natural, for omissions are inherent in the very use of language. “In all speech
activities there are three things to be distinguished: expression, suppression, and impression. Expression is what
the speaker gives, suppression is what the speaker does not give, though he might have given it, and impression is
what the hearer receives”. Grammarians have often touched upon omissions of parts of sentences. But it is difficult
to find an opinion which is shared by the majority of linguists. When considering the types of sentences some
grammarians recognize the existence of two-member, one-member and elliptical sentences. The two-member
sentences are sentences which have the subject and the predicate. However, language is a phenomenon where one
cannot foresay the structure of it without detailed analysis. There are sentences which cannot be described in terms
of two-member sentences. We come across to sentences which do not contain both the subject and the predicate.
“There's usually one primary part and the other could not even be supplied, at least not without a violent change of
the structure of the sentence", (llyish) Fire! Night.

Come on!

As Ilyish puts it, it is a disputed point whether the main part of such a sentence should, or should not be termed
subject in some case (as in Fire! Night...) or predicate in some other (Come on!; Why not stay here?) There are
grammarians who keep to such a conception. Russian Academician V.V. Vinogradov considers that grammatical
subject and predicate are correlative notions and that the terms lose their meaning outside their relation to each
other. He suggests the term “main part”.

Thus, one member sentence is a sentence which has no separate subject and predicate but one main only instead.
B. Ilyish (15) considers some types of such sentences:

1) with main part of noun (in stage directions);

Night. A lady's bed-chamber ... .

2) Imperative sentences with no subject of the action mentioned:

35

Come down, please.

Infinitive sentences are also considered to be one special type of one-member sentences. In these sentences the
main part is expressed by an infinitive. Such sentences are usually emotional:

Oh, to be in a forest in May!

Why not go there immediately?

B.A. Ilyish states that these sentences should not be considered as elliptical ones, since sentences like:Why should
not we go there immediately? - is stylistically different from the original one. By elliptical sentence he means
sentence with one or more of their parts left out, which can be unambiguously inferred from the context.

9-MAVZU. COMPOUND SENTENCE. COMPLEX SENTENCE. COMPOSITE SENTENCE.

Plan:

1.The difference between simple and composite sentences

2.The types of composite sentences:

a) compound

d) complex

c) mixed (compound-complex) sentences

The word "composite" is used by H. Poutsma (39) as a common term for both the compound and complex
sentences. There are three types of composite sentences in Modern English:

1. The compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses with no dependent one.

2. The complex sentence contains one dependent clause and one or more independent clauses. The latter usually
tells something about the main clause and is used as a part of speech or as a part of sentence. J. The compound-
complex sentence combines the two previous types. The compound-complex sentences are those which have at
least two independent clauses and at least one dependent (subordinate) clause in its structure: Blair found herself
smiling at him and she took the letter he held out to her.That there are three types of composite sentences in
languages is contemporary approach to this issue. Historically not all the grammarians were unanimous in this
respect. According to it H. Sweet there are structurally two types of sentences: simple and complex. “Two or more
sentences may be joined together to form a single complex sentence … In every complex there is one independent
clause, called the principal clause together with at least one dependent clause, which stands in the relation of
adjunct to the principal clause. The dependent clause may be either coordinate or subordinate”.

Examples:

Principal clause

1. You shall walk, and I will ride.

Coordinate clause

Co-complex

Principal clause

2. You are the man I want.

Subordinate clause

Sub-complex

As one can see in H. Sweets conception there’s no place for compound sentences since even so-called “co-
complex” there’s subordination. In this paper we shall classify the composite sentences into three types as has been
mentioned above.

Compound Sentences
36

The compound sentence was not felt to be a sentence proper. There were at least three methods, as L. Iophic and
Chahoyan state, employed by the grammarians to find a way out of this difficulty: (1) to explain it away by the
complete independence and the possibility of isolating each member of a compound sentence without any change
of its meaning or intonation; by employing new terms to express more exactly the grammatical peculiarity of this
combination of sentences. The terms “double”, “triple” and “multiple” sentences were used by E. Kruisinga in “A
Hand-book of Present day English” and H.R. Stokoe (41). (3) by excluding this concept from the structural
classification of sentences. The analysis of compound sentences show that clauses of a compound sentence are
usually connected more closely than independent sentences. According to M. Blokh “in these sentences the clauses
are arranged as units of syntactically equal rank, i.e. equipotent” (p.296). But more close examination of these type
of sentences shows that:

1. The order of clauses is fixed.

1.1. He came at six and we had dinner together.

1.2. The two women understood one another very well, but Paul seemed to be left outside this
conversation.

1.3. Every drawer in every room had been taken out, the contents spilled, the bed had been ripped
apart, pictures were off their hooks and (they) were lying on the floor. One cannot change order of the clauses in
these sentences.

2. Between clauses of compound sentences there exist certain semantic relations. And these relations are defined
by conjunctions and connectives:

2.1. Harmony or agreement (copulative relation):

Her lips trembled and she put up her hand as if to steady them with her fingers.

2.2. Contrast or opposition. This relation is usually expressed by adversative conjunctions but, yet: The
conjunctions are not numerous but they are of very frequent occurrence. 2.3. The choice or alternation (disjunctive
conjunction- or): Is that historically true or is it not?

2.4. Reason or consequence (or conclusion) for, so... E.g.

He had apparently been working, for the table was littered with papers.

There's no car available, so I shall go on foot.

Complex Sentence.

Linguists explain the complex sentences as units of unequal rank, one being categorically dominated by the other.
In terms of the positional structure of the sentence it means that by subordination one of the clauses (subordinate)
is placed in a dependent position of the other (principal). This latter characteristic has an essential semantic
implication clarifying the difference between the two types, of polypredication in question. As a matter of fact, a
subordinate clause, however important the information rendered by it might be for the whole communication,
presents it as naturally supplementing the information of the principal clause, i.e. as something completely
premeditated and prepared even before its explicit expression in the utterance .

The Types of Complex Sentences

The subordinate clauses are classified according to the two criteria: meaning and combinability. The clauses of a
complex sentence form the unity, a simple sentence in which some part is replaced by a clause.The subject clauses
are used in the function of a primary part of the sentence. The peculiarity of the subject clause is its inseparability
from the principal clause. It is synsemantic; it can't be cut off from the rest of the sentence.

What he says is true.

The predicative clause fulfills the function of the notional predicate (the function of the predicative).

e.g. The thing is what we should do the next.

The Adverbial clauses serve to express a variety of adverbial relations: action quality. Mike acted as though
nothing had happened.
37

Everybody should love her as he did.

Some more complex sentences:

What the newspapers say may be false (subject clause).

I don't remember what his name is. (object)

He thought that it might well be. (object)

The lot that is on the corner needs moving. (attributive)

He is a man whom I have always admired. (attributive)

When Bill decided to leave, everyone expressed regret. (adverbial clause of time)

10-MAVZU. INDIRECT AND REPRESENTED SPEECH.

Plan: 1. Functions of direct speech

2.Functions of indirect speech

There are three ways of reproducing actual speech: a) repetition of the exact utterance as it was
spoken (direct speech), b) conversion of the exact utterance into the relater's mode of
expression (indirect speech), c) representation of the actual utterance by a second person, usually the
author, as if it had been spoken, whereas it has not really been spoken but is only represented in the
author's words (represented speech). There is a device which conveys to the reader the unuttered or
inner speech of the character, presenting his thoughts and feelings. This device is termed represented
speech. The representation of the actual utterance through the author's language is called uttered repre-
sented speech, and the representation of the thoughts and feelings of the character -unuttered or inner
represented speech.The term direct speech is used to distinguish the words of the character from the
author's words. Direct speech is a quotation. It is introduced by a verb like say, utter, declare, reply,
exclaim, shout, cry, yell, gasp, babble, chuckle, murmur, sigh, call, beg, implore, comfort, assure,
protest, object, command, admit. All these words help to indicate the intonation with which the
sentence was actually uttered Direct speech is always marked by inverted commas, as any quotation:
"You want your money back, I suppose," said George with a sneer "Of course I do—I always did,
didn't I? - says Dobbin. Direct speech is used in the publicistic style as a quotation. The introductory
words in this case are usually the following: as... has it, according to.... It is used to depict a character
through his speech. We have indirect speech when the actual words of a character pass through the
author's mouth in the course of his narrative and undergo certain changes. The intonation of indirect
speech does not differ from the rest of the author's narrative. "Marshal asked the crowd to disperse and
urged responsible diggers to prevent any disturbance which would prolong the tragic force of the rush
for which the publication of inaccurate information was chiefly responsible." There are rules according
to which direct speech can be converted into indirect. They indicate what changes must be introduced
into the utterance due to change in the situation. Thus the sentence: "Your mother wants you to go
upstairs immediately" corresponds to "Tell him to come upstairs immediately. "When direct speech is
converted into indirect, the author not interprets in his own way the manner in which the direct speech
was uttered. Indirect speech does not reproduce the actual emotional colouring of the direct speech and
may distort it unrecognizably. In order to convey the actual utterances of characters in emotive prose, a
new way to represent direct speech came into being— represented speech. Represented speech is form
of utterance which conveys the actual words of the speaker through the mouth of the writer but retains
the peculiarities of the speaker's mode of expression. Represented speech exists in two varieties:
1) uttered represented speech and 2) unuttered or inner represented speech. Uttered Represented
Speech Uttered represented speech demands that the tense should be switched from present to past
and that the personal pronouns should be changed from 1st and 2nd person to 3rd person as in indirect
speech, but the syntactical structure of the utterance does not change. "Could he bring a reference from
where he now Bias? He could," "A maid came in now with a blue gown very thick and soft. Could she
do anything for Miss Freeland? No, thanks, she could not, only, did she know where Mr. Freeland's
room was?” This manner of inserting uttered represented speech within the author's narrative is not
common. "His heart was, besides, almost broken already; and his spirits were so sunk, that he could
say nothing for himself but acknowledge the whole, and, like a criminal in despair, threw himself upon
mercy; concluding, 'that though he must own himself guilty of many follies and inadvertencies, he
hoped he had done nothing to deserve what would be to him the greatest punishment in the world.'"
Here again the introductory 'concluding' does not bring forth direct speech but is a natural continuation
of the author's narrative. The only indication of the change is the inverted commas.
38

3-modul. Ingliz tili leksikologiyasi

1-MAVZU. LEXICOLOGY AS A SCIENCE
1. The object of Lexicology
2. The theoretical and practical value of english lexicology
3.The connection of lexicology with phonetics, stylistics, grammar and other branches of linguistics
Lexicology (from Gr lexis ‘word’ and logos ‘learning’) is the part of linguistics dealing with the vocabulary of the
language and the properties of words as the main units of language. The term v o c a b u l a-r y is used to denote the
system formed by the sum total of all the words and word e q u i v a l e n t s that the language possesses. The term
word denotes the basic unit of a given language resulting from the association of a particular meaning with a particular
group of sounds capable of a particular grammatical employment. A word therefore is simultaneously a semantic,
grammatical and phonological unit.
Thus, in the word boy the group of sounds [bOI] is associated with the meaning ‘a male child up to the age of 17 or
18’ (also with some other meanings, but this is the most frequent) and with a definite grammatical employment, i.e. it is a
noun and thus has a plural form — boys, it is a personal noun and has the Genitive form boy’s (e. g. the boy’s mother), it
may be used in certain syntactic functions.
The general study of words and vocabulary, irrespective of the specific features of any particular language, is known as
g e n e r a l l e x i c o l o g y . Linguistic phenomena and properties common to all languages are generally referred
to as l a n g u a g e u n i v e r s a l s . S p e c i a l l e x i c o l o g y devotes its attention to the description of the
characteristic peculiarities in the vocabulary of a given language.
It goes without saying that every special lexicology is based on the principles of general lexicology, and the latter forms a
part of general linguistics. Much material that holds good for any language is therefore also included, especially with
reference to principles, concepts and terms. The illustrative examples are everywhere drawn from the English language as
spoken in Great Britain.
A great deal has been written in recent years to provide a theoretical basis on which the vocabularies of different
languages can be compared and described. This relatively new branch of study is called c o n t r a s t i v e l e x i c o l o g y .
Most obviously, we shall be particularly concerned with comparing English and Russian words.
The evolution of any vocabulary, as well as of its single elements, forms the object of h i s t o r i c a l
l e x i c o l o g y or etymology. This branch of linguistics discusses the origin of various words, their change and
development, and investigates the linguistic and extra-linguistic forces modifying their structure, meaning and usage. In
the past historical treatment was always combined with the comparative method. Historical lexicology has been criticised
for its atomistic approach, i.e. for treating every word as an individual and isolated unit. This drawback is, however, not
intrinsic to the science itself. Historical study of words is not necessarily atomistic. In the light of recent investigations it
becomes clear that there is no reason why historical lexicology cannot survey the evolution of a vocabulary as an adaptive
system, showing its change and development in the course of time.
D e s c r i p t i v e l e x i c o l o g y deals with the vocabulary of a given language at a given stage of its
development. It studies the functions of words and their specific structure as a characteristic inherent in the system. The
descriptive lexicology of the English language deals with the English word in its morphological and semantical structures,
investigating the interdependence between these two aspects. These structures are identified and distinguished by
contrasting the nature and arrangement of their elements.
It will, for instance, contrast the word boy with its derivatives: boyhood, boyish, boyishly, etc. It will describe its
semantic structure comprising alongside with its most frequent meaning, such variants as ‘a son of any age’, ‘a male
servant’, and observe its syntactic functioning and combining possibilities. This word, for instance, can be also used
vocatively in such combinations as old boy, my dear boy, and attributively, meaning ‘male’, as in boy-friend.
Lexicology also studies all kinds of semantic grouping and semantic relations: synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy,
semantic fields, etc.
Meaning relations as a whole are dealt with in s e m a n t i c s — the study of meaning which is relevant both for
lexicology and grammar.
The distinction between the two basically different ways in which language may be viewed, the h i s t o r i c a l or
d i a c h r o n i c (Gr dia ‘through’ and chronos ‘time’) and the d e s c r i p t i v e or s y n c h r o n i c (Gr syn
‘together’, ‘with’), is a methodological distinction, a difference of approach, artificially separating for the purpose of
study what in real language is inseparable, because actually every linguistic structure and system exists in a state of
constant development. The distinction between a synchronic and a diachronic approach is due to the Swiss philologist
Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913).1 Indebted as we are to him for this important dichotomy, we cannot accept either his
axiom that synchronic linguistics is concerned with systems and diachronic linguistics with single units or the rigorous
separation between the two. Subsequent investigations have shown the possibility and the necessity of introducing the
historical point of view into systematic studies of languages.
Language is the reality of thought, and thought develops together with the development of society, therefore language
and its vocabulary must be studied in the light of social history. Every new phenomenon in human society and in human
activity in general, which is of any importance for communication, finds a reflection in vocabulary. A word, through its
meaning rendering some notion, is a generalised reflection of reality; it is therefore impossible to understand its
development if one is ignorant of the changes in social, political or everyday life, production or science, manners or culture
39

it serves to reflect. These extra-linguistic forces influencing the development of words are considered in historical
lexicology.
Although the important distinction between a diachronic and a synchronic, a linguistic and an extralinguistic
approach must always be borne in mind, yet it is of paramount importance for the student to take into consideration that
in language reality all the aspects are interdependent and cannot be understood one without the other. Every linguistic
investigation must strike a reasonable balance between them.
2. The theoretical and practical value of English lexicology
The importance of English lexicology is based not on the size of its vocabulary, however big it is, but on the fact that at
present it is the world’s most widely used language. One of the most fundamental works on the English language of the
present — “A Grammar of Contemporary English” by R. Quirk, S. Greenbaum, G. Leech and J. Svartvik (1978) — gives
the following data: it is spoken as a native language by nearly three hundred million people in Britain, the United States,
Ireland, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa and some other countries. The knowledge of English is widely
spread geographically — it is in fact used in all continents. It is also spoken in many countries as a second language and
used in official and business activities there. This is the case in India, Pakistan and many other former British colonies.
English is also one of the working languages of the United Nations and the universal language of international aviation.
More than a half world’s scientific literature is published in English and 60% of the world’s radio broadcasts are in
English. For all these reasons it is widely studied all over the world as a foreign language.
The theoretical value of lexicology becomes obvious if we realise that it forms the study of one of the three main
aspects of language, i.e. its vocabulary, the other two being its grammar and sound system. The theory of meaning was
originally developed within the limits of philosophical science. The relationship between the name and the thing named has
in the course of history constituted one of the key questions in gnostic theories and therefore in the struggle of
materialistic and idealistic trends. The idealistic point of view assumes that the earlier forms of words disclose their real
correct meaning, and that originally language was created by some superior reason so that later changes of any kind are
looked upon as distortions and corruption.
The materialistic approach considers the origin, development and current use of words as depending upon the needs of
social communication. The dialectics of its growth is determined by its interaction with the development of human
practice and mind. Words serve as names for things, actions, qualities, etc. and by their modification become better
adapted to the needs of the speakers. This proves the fallacy of one of the characteristic trends in modern idealistic
linguistics, the so-called Sapir-Whorf thesis according to which the linguistic system of one’s native language not only
expresses one’s thoughts but also determines them. This view is incorrect, because our mind reflects the surrounding
world not only through language but also directly.
Lexicology came into being to meet the demands of many different branches of applied linguistics, namely of
lexicography, standardisation of terminology, information retrieval, literary criticism and especially of foreign language
teaching.
Its importance in training a would-be teacher of languages is of a quite special character and cannot be overestimated
as it helps to stimulate a systematic approach to the facts of vocabulary and an or ganised comparison of the foreign and
native language. It is particularly useful in building up the learner’s vocabulary by an effective selection, grouping and
analysis of new words. New words are better remembered if they are given not at random but organised in thematic groups,
word-families, synonymic series, etc.
A good knowledge of the system of word-formation furnishes a tool helping the student to guess and retain in his
memory the meaning of new words on the basis of their motivation and by comparing and contrasting them with the
previously learned elements and patterns.
The knowledge, for instance, of the meaning of negative, reversative and pejorative prefixes and patterns of
derivation may be helpful in understanding new words. For example such words as immovable a, deforestation n and
miscalculate v will be readily understood as ‘that cannot be moved’, ‘clearing land from forests’ and ‘to calculate wrongly’.
By drawing his pupils’ attention to the combining characteristics of words the teacher will prevent many mistakes. 1 It
will be word-groups falling into patterns, instead of lists of unrelated items, that will be presented in the classroom.
A working knowledge and understanding of functional styles and stylistic synonyms is indispensable when literary
texts are used as a basis for acquiring oral skills, for analytical reading, discussing fiction and translation. Lexicology not
only gives a systematic description of the present make-up of the vocabulary, but also helps students to master
characteristics or distribution — structural patterns in which the words occur and their lexical collocations. the literary
standards of word usage. The correct use of words is an important counterpart of expressive and effective speech.
An exact knowledge of the vocabulary system is also necessary in connection with technical teaching means.
Lexicology plays a prominent part in the general linguistic training of every philologist by summing up the
knowledge acquired during all his years at the foreign language faculty. It also imparts the necessary skills of using
different kinds of dictionaries and reference books, and prepares for future independent work on increasing and improving
one’s vocabulary.
3. The connection of lexicology with phonetics, stylistics, grammar and other branches of linguistics
The treatment of words in lexicology cannot be divorced from the study of all the other elements in the language
system to which words belong. It should be always borne in mind that in reality, in the actual process of communication,
all these elements are interdependent and stand in definite relations to one another. We separate them for conve nience of
study, and yet to separate them for analysis is pointless, unless we are afterwards able to put them back together to achieve
a synthesis and see their interdependence and development in the language system as a whole.
40

The word, as it has already been stated, is studied in several branches of linguistics and not in lexicology only, and the
latter, in its turn, is closely connected with general linguistics, the history of the language, phonetics, stylistics, grammar and
such new branches of our science as sociolinguistics, paralinguistics, pragmalinguistics and some others. 1
The importance of the connection between lexicology and phon e t i c s stands explained if we remember that a
word is an association of a given group of sounds with a given meaning, so that top is one word, and tip is another.
Phonemes have no meaning of their own but they serve to distinguish between meanings. Their function is building up
morphemes, and it is on the level of morphemes that the form-meaning unity is introduced into language. We may say
therefore that phonemes participate in signification.
Word-unity is conditioned by a number of phonological features. Phonemes follow each other in a fixed sequence so
that [pit] is different from [tip]. The importance of the phonemic make-up may be revealed by the s u b s t i t u t i o n
t e s t which isolates the central phoneme of hope by setting it against hop, hoop, heap or hip.
An accidental or jocular transposition of the initial sounds of two or more words, the so-called s p o o n e r i s m s
illustrate the same
P r a g m a l i n g u i s t i c s — the branch of linguistics concerned with the relation of speech and its users and
the influence of speech upon listeners.
Discrimination between the words may be based upon stress: the word ‘import is recognised as a noun and
distinguished from the verb im'port due to the position of stress. Stress also distinguishes compounds from otherwise
homonymous word-groups: ‘blackbird : : ‘black ‘bird. Each language also possesses certain phonological features marking
word-limits.
Historical phonetics and historical phonology can be of great use in the diachronic study of synonyms, homonyms and
polysemy. When sound changes loosen the ties between members of the same word-family, this is an important factor in
facilitating semantic changes.
The words whole, heal, hail, for instance, are etymologically related.2 The word whole originally meant ‘unharmed’,
;
unwounded’. The early verb whole meant 4to make whole’, hence ‘heal’. Its sense of ‘healthy’ led to its use as a
salutation, as in hail! Having in the course of historical development lost their phonetic similarity, these words cannot now
exercise any restrictive influence upon one another’s semantic development. Thus, hail occurs now in the meaning of
‘call’, even with the purpose to stop and arrest (used by sentinels).
Meaning in its turn is indispensable to phonemic analysis because to establish the phonemic difference between [ou]
and [o] it is sufficient to know that [houp] means something different from [hop].
All these considerations are not meant to be in any way exhaustive, they can only give a general idea of the possible
interdependence of the two branches of linguistics.
S t y l i s t i c s , although from a different angle, studies many problems treated in lexicology. These are the
problems of meaning, connotations, synonymy, functional differentiation of vocabulary according to the sphere of
communication and some other issues. For a reader without some awareness of the connotations and history of words, the
images hidden in their root and their stylistic properties, a substantial part of the meaning of a literary text, whether
prosaic or poetic, may be lost.
Thus, for instance, the mood of despair in O. Wilde’s poem “Taedium Vitae” (Weariness of Life) is felt due to an
accumulation of epithets expressed by words with negative, derogatory connotations, such as: desperate, paltry, gaudy,
base, lackeyed, slanderous, lowliest, meanest.
An awareness of all the characteristic features of words is not only rewarded because one can feel the effect of hidden
connotations and imagery, but because without it one cannot grasp the whole essence of the message the poem has to
convey.
The difference and interconnection between g r a m m a r and lexicology is one of the important controversial issues
in linguistics and as it is basic to the problems under discussion in this book, it is necessary to dwell upon it a little more
than has been done for phonetics and stylistics.
A close connection between lexicology and grammar is conditioned by the manifold and inseverable ties between the
objects of their study. Even isolated words as presented in a dictionary bear a definite relation to the grammatical system
of the language because they belong to some part of speech and conform to some lexico-grammatical characteristics of the
word class to which they belong. Words seldom occur in isolation. They are arranged in certain patterns conveying the
relations between the things for which they stand, therefore alongside with their lexical meaning they possess some
grammatical meaning. Сf. head of the committee and to head a committee.
The two kinds of meaning are often interdependent. That is to say, certain grammatical functions and meanings are
possible only for the words whose lexical meaning makes them fit for these functions, and, on the other hand, some lexical
meanings in some words occur only in definite grammatical functions and forms and in definite grammatical patterns.
For example, the functions of a link verb with a predicative expressed by an adjective cannot be fulfilled by every
intransitive verb but are often taken up by verbs of motion: come true, fall ill, go wrong, turn red, run dry and other
similar combinations all render the meaning of ‘become sth’. The function is of long standing in English and can be
illustrated by a line from A. Pope who, protesting against blank verse, wrote: It is not poetry, but prose run mad.1
On the other hand the grammatical form and function of the word affect its lexical meaning. A well-known example
is the same verb go when in the continuous tenses, followed by to and an infinitive (except go and come), it serves to
express an action in the near and immediate future, or an intention of future action: You're not going to sit there saying
nothing all the evening, both of you, are you? (Simpson)
Participle II of the same verb following the link verb be denotes absence: The house is gone.
41

In subordinate clauses after as the verb go implies comparison with the average: ... how a novel that has now had a
fairly long life, as novels go, has come to be written (Maugham). The subject of the verb go in this construction is as a rule an
inanimate noun.
The adjective hard followed by the infinitive of any verb means ‘difficult’: One of the hardest things to remember is
that a man’s merit in one sphere is no guarantee of his merit in another.
Lexical meanings in the above cases are said to be grammatically conditioned, and their indicating context is called
syntactic or mixed. The point has attracted the attention of many authors.1
The number of words in each language being very great, any lexical meaning has a much lower probability of
occurrence than grammatical meanings and therefore carries the greatest amount of information in any discourse
determining what the sentence is about.
W. Chafe, whose influence in the present-day semantic syntax is quite considerable, points out the many constraints
which limit the co-occurrence of words. He considers the verb as of paramount importance in sentence semantic
structure, and argues that it is the verb that dictates the presence and character of the noun as its subject or object. Thus,
the verbs frighten, amuse and awaken can have only animate nouns as their objects.
The constraint is even narrower if we take the verbs say, talk or think for which only animate human subjects are
possible. It is obvious that not all animate nouns are human.
This view is, however, if not mistaken, at least one-sided, because the opposite is also true: it may happen that the
same verb changes its meaning, when used with personal (human) names and with names of objects. Compare: The new
girl gave him a strange smile (she smiled at him) and The new teeth gave him a strange smile.
These are by no means the only relations of vocabulary and grammar. We shall not attempt to enumerate all the
possible problems. Let us turn now to another point of interest, namely the survival of two grammatically equivalent
forms of the same word when they help to distinguish between its lexical meanings. Some nouns, for instance, have two
separate plurals, one keeping the etymological plural form, and the other with the usual English ending -s. For example,
the form brothers is used to express the family relationship, whereas the old form brethren survives in ecclesiastical
usage or serves to indicate the members of some club or society; the scientific plural of index, is usually indices, in more
general senses the plural is indexes. The plural of genius meaning a person of exceptional intellect is geniuses, genius in
the sense of evil or good spirit has the plural form genii.
The ties between lexicology and grammar are particularly strong in the sphere of word-formation which before
lexicology became a separate branch of linguistics had even been considered as part of grammar. The characteristic features
of English word-building, the morphological structure of the English word are dependent upon the peculiarity of the English
grammatical system. The analytical character of the language is largely responsible for the wide spread of conversion 1 and
for the remarkable flexibility of the vocabulary manifest in the ease with which many nonce-words 2 are formed on the
spur of the moment.
This brief account of the interdependence between the two important parts of linguistics must suffice for the present. In
future we shall have to return to the problem and treat some parts of it more extensively.

2-MAVZU. THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AS A VOCABULARY SYSTEM

1. Ways of enriching vocabulary
2. The classification of the English vocabulary
- Morphological grouping
- Thematic and ideographic groups
- Terminological systems
- Different types of non-semantic groupings.

1. Ways of enriching vocabulary

By the vocabulary of a language is understood the total sum of its words. Another term for vocabulary is the
stock of words.
The vocabulary of the language is not homogeneous (однородный). It is and adaptive system constantly
adjusting itself to the changing conditions of human communication and cultural surroundings.
The number of words in a language is not constant and the increase is usually greater than the leak out ( утечка).
This process may be obtained (получен) by it results that is neologisms (1rd).
Productive word formation patterns are the most effective means of enreaching vocabulary:
1) Affixation (electronics, psycho-linguistics)
2) Conversion (a sputnik – to sputnik). It is a process of forming new words by the changing the part of speech without
any morphemic changes.
3) Back-derivation (to laze from lazy). With morphemic changes.
4) Shortening (laboratory - lab). By reducing (cutting) part of a word.
Third. Semantic extension of words (приобретение словом ещё одного значения) is a powerful source of
enreaching a vocabulary. It consists in splitting (расщепление) of polysemy (многозначность) that results in appearance
of new vocabulary units (homonyms). “Heel – the traitor (хитрец) has lost all connections with the heel – the back part of
human feel.”
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Fourth. Borrowing – is active only in the field of scientific terminology. “Blitzkrieg, protein). In the course of
time it is accepted into the words stock of the language and being often used it stops to be considered new or else it may
not be accepted and vanish from the vocabulary.
When we consider the lexical system of a language as an adaptive system developing for many centuries. We
have to contrast the innovations with words that dropped from the language (Obsolete words – устаревшие) or survive
only in special contexts (archaisms and historisms). Archaisms are words that were once common but now are replaced
by synonyms (betwixt is replaced between).
When the thing named is no longer used its name become a historism (Phaeton – фаэтон-автомобиль)
2. The classification of the English vocabulary.
1. Morphological and lexico-grammatical grouping:
On the morphological level the words are subdivided into 4 groups according to their morphological structure
(the number and type of morphemes which compose (составлять, образовывать) them):
a) Root words (ex. Dog, hand) состоящая из 1 корня
b) Derivatives (производные(Handy, handful)
c) Compound words (ex. Handball, handbag)
d) Compound dericatives (Left-handed) (помимо 2 корней ещё и суффиксы)
Another type of traditional lexical grouping is word families (этимологически родственные слова). The words
are grouped here according to the root-morpheme (Handy, handsome, handicraft) , according to the common suffix or
prefix (troublesome, gladsome, gruesome).
Thematic and ideographic groups. The basis of thematic grouping is not only linguistic (that is words belong to
the same part of speech) but also extra linguistic (that means that the words are associated because the things they name
occur together and are closely connected in reality, (Ex. Thematic – color terms, military terms and medical terms)
All the elements of thematic groups remain within the limits of the same part of speech. When grammatical
meaning is not taken into consideration we obtain the so-called ideographic groups. Words are classed here according to
their signification that is the system of logical notions (ex. Light (noun), bright (adj), shine (verb) are united into one
ideographic group as they are all connected with a notion of light. (Слова в идеографической не принадлежат к одной
част речи, но связаны с каким-то одним феноменом).
Third classification, Terminological systems. Terminology constitutes the greatest part of every language
vocabulary. Terms are words or word groups used to name a notion, characteristic of some special field of knowledge,
industry or culture. These words (terms) are monosemantic, have no contextual meaning and are free from emotional
coloring, Terms are not separates from the rest of vocabulary. With the development of civilization many special notions
become known to the layman (обыватель) and form part and parcel (неотъемлемая часть) of everyday speech. (vitamin,
computer).
Fourth classification. Different types of non-semantic groupings. The simplest non-semantic grouping is the
alphabetical organization of written words. It is of great practical value as it is the most universal way of searching for the
necessary word, but its theoretical value is almost null because no property of the word can be predicted from the letter
the word begins with.
The rhyming group contain the words arranged according to the similarity of their ends. Such dictionaries are
intended mostly for poets.
It’s based on the length of words. There’s a number of words they contain, It may be useful for communication,
engineering, automatic reading of messages and correction of mistakes.
Next group is based on a statistical analysis of frequency of words. These figures show important correlations
(взаимосвязь) between quantitative and qualitative characteristic of lexical units.
English vocabulary as a system
Learning objectives: after you have studied the lecture you should be able:
1. To define vocabulary as a system.
2. To speak about: a) morphological grouping;
b) lexico-grammatical grouping
c) thematic and ideographic organization;
d)synonymic grouping (including antonyms).
3. To describe the notion of semantic field, including terminology.
Literature to be studied:
1. Seminars in English lexicology. By Mednikova, pp. 51-53.
2. A course in Modern English lexicology. By Ginzburg R. and others.
3. The English Word. By Arnold I.V. pp. 199-213.
Some foreign scholars claim that in contrast to Grammar, the vocabulary of a language is not systematic, but chaotic.
In Russian linguistics lexicology exists as an independent discipline, as a part of the curriculum in our Universities.
Russian lexicologists have worked out a comprehensive review of different types of word-groupings suggested in modern
linguistics, both in the country and abroad. A short survey of formal and semantic types of groupings with a word-stock
will help you in obtaining an idea of the lexical system in general.
One of the earliest and most obvious non-semantic grouping is the alphabetical organization of the word-stock, which
is represented in most dictionaries. It is of great practical value in the search for the necessary word, but its theoretical
value is almost null, because no other property of the word can be predicted from the letter or letters the word begins
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with.
Morphological groupings.
On the morphological level words are divided into four groups according to their morphological structure:
1) root or morpheme words (dog, hand);
2) derivatives, which contain no less than two morphemes (dogged (ynpямый), doggedly; handy, handful);
3) compound words consisting of not less than two free morphemes (dog-cheap-"very cheap", dog-days - "hottest part of
the year"; handbook, handball)
4) compound derivatives (dog-legged - "crooked or bent like a dog's hind leg", left-handed).
This grouping is considered to be the basis for lexicology.
 Another type of traditional lexicological grouping as known as word-families such as: hand, handy, handicraft,
handbag, handball, handful, hand-made,handsome, etc.
A very important type of non-semantic grouping for isolated lexical units is based on a statistical analysis of their
frequency. Frequency counts carried out for practical purposes of lexicology, language teaching and shorthand show
important correlations between quantative and qualitative characteristics of lexical units, the most frequent words being
polysemantic and stylistically neutral. The frequency analysis singles out two classes:
1) notional words;
2) form (or functional) words.
Notional words constitute the bulk of the existing word-stock, according to the recent counts given for the first 1000
most frequently occurring words they make up 93% of the total number.
All notional lexical units are traditionally subdivided into parts of speech: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs. Nouns
numerically make the largest class - about 39% of all notional words; verbs come second - 25% of words; they are
followed by adjectives - 17% and adverbs - 12%.
 Form or functional words - the remaining 7% of the total vocabulary - are prepositions, articles, conjunctions, which
primarily denote various relations between notional words. Their grammatical meaning dominates over their lexical
meaning. They make a specific group of about 150 units. 
Lexico-grammatical grouping.
By a lexico-grammatical group we understand a class of words which have a common lexico-grammatical meaning,
a common paradigm, the same substituting elements and possibly a characteristic set of suffixes rendering the lexico-
grammatical meaning.
Lexico-grammatical groups should not be confused with parts of speech. For instance, audience and honesty belong
to the same part of speech but to different lexico-grammatical groups because their lexico-grammatical meaning is
different.
 Common Denominator of Meaning, Semantic Fields.
Words may also be classified according to the concepts underlying their meaning. This classification is closely
connected with the theory of semantic fields. By the term "semantic fields" we understand closely knit sectors of
vocabulary each characterized by a common concept. The words blue, red, yellow, black, etc. may be described as
making up the semantic field of colours, the words mother, father, sister, cousin, etc. - as members of the semantic field
of kinship terms, the words joy, happiness, gaiety, enjoyment, etc. as belonging to the field of pleasurable emotions, and
so on.
The members of the semantic fields are not synonymous but all of them are joined together by some common
semantic component - the concept of colours or the concept of kinship, etc. This semantic component common to all
members of the field is sometimes described as the common denominator of meaning. All members of the field are
semantically interdependent as each member helps to delimit and determine the meaning of its neighbours and is
semantically delimited and determined by them. It follows that the word meaning is to a great extent determined by the
place it occupies in its semantic field.
It is argued that we cannot possibly know the exact meaning of the word if we do not know the structure of the
semantic field to which the word belongs, the number of the members and the concepts covered by them, etc. The
meaning of the word captain, e.g. cannot be properly understood until we know the semantic field in which this term
operates - the army, the navy, or the merchant service. It follows that the meaning of the word captain is determined by
the place it occupies among the terms of the relevant rank system. In other words we know what captain means only if
we know whether his subordinate is called mate or first officer (merchant service), commander (navy)
or lieutenant (army).
Semantic dependence of the word on the structure of me field may be also illustrated by comparing members of
analogous conceptual fields in different languages. Comparing, e.g. kinship terms in Russian and in English we observe
that the meaning of the English term mother-in-law is different from either the Russian тёща or свекровь, as the English
term covers the whole area which in Russian is divided between the two words. The same is true of the members of the
semantic field of colours (cf. blue - синий, голубой), of human body (cf. hand, arm - рука) and others.
The theory of semantic field is severely criticized by Soviet linguists mainly on philosophical grounds as some of
the proponents of the semantic-field theory hold the idealistic view that language is a kind of self-contained entity
standing between man and the world of reality (Zwischenwelt). The followers of this theory argue that semantic fields
reveal the fact that human experience is analysed and elaborated in a unique way, differing from one language to another.
Broadly speaking they assert that people speaking different languages actually have different concepts, as it is through
language that we see the real world around us. In short, they deny the primacy of matter forgetting that our concepts are
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formed not only through linguistic experience, but primarily through our actual contact with the real world. We know
what hot means not only because we know the word hot, but also because we burn our fingers when we touch something
very hot. A detailed critical analysis of the theory of semantic fields is the subject-matter of general linguists. Here we are
concerned with the theory only as a means of semantic classification of vocabulary items.
Two more points should be discussed in this connection. Firstly, semantic groups may be very extensive and may
cover big conceptual areas, e.g. man-universe, etc. There may be, however, comparatively small lexical groups of words
linked by a common denominator of meaning. The words bread, cheese, milk, meat, etc. make up the semantic field with
the concept of food as the common denominator of meaning. Such smaller lexical groups seem to play a very important
role in determining individual meanings of polysemantic words in lexical contexts. Analysing polysemantic verbs we see
that the verb take, e.g. in combination with the lexical group denoting means of transportation is synonymous with the
verb go (take the tram, the bus, etc.). When combined with members of another lexical group possessing another
semantic denominator, the same verb is synonymous with to drink (to take tea, coffee, etc.). Such word-groups are often
used not only in scientific lexicological analysis, but also in practical class-room teaching. In a number of textbooks we
find words with some common denominator of meaning listed under the headings Flower, Fruit, Domestic Animals, and
so on.
In other words lexical or semantic field is the organization of related words and expressions into a system which
shows their relationship to one another.
For example, kinship terms such as father, mother, sister, brother, uncle, aunt belong to a lexical field whose
relevant features include generation, sex, membership of the father's or mother's side of the family, etc.
The absence of a word in a particular place in a lexical field of a language is called a lexical gap.
For example, in English there is no singular noun that covers both cow and bull as hoarse covers stallion and mare.
Common Contextual Associations. Thematic Groups.
Another type of classification almost universally used in practical class-room teaching is known as thematic
grouping. Classification of vocabulary items into thematic groups is based on the co-occurrence of words in certain
repeatedly used contexts.
In linguistic contexts co-occurrence may be observed on different levels. On the level of word-groups the
word question, e.g., is often found in collocation with the verbs raise, put forward, discuss, etc., with the
adjectives urgent, vital, disputable and so on. The verb accept occurs in numerous contexts together with the
nouns proposal, invitation, plan and others.
As a rule, thematic groups deal with contexts on the level of the sentence (or utterance). Words in thematic
groups are joined together by common contextual associations within the framework of the sentence and reflect the
interlinking words, e.g. tree-grow-green; journey-train-taxi-bags-ticket or sun-shine-brightly-blue-sky, is due to the
regular co-occurrence of these words in similar sentences. Unlike members of synonymic sets or semantic fields, words
making up a thematic group belong to different parts of speech and do not possess any common denominator of meaning.
Contextual associations formed by the speaker of a language are usually conditioned by the context of situation
which necessitates the use of certain words. When watching a play, e.g., we naturally speak of the actors who act the
main parts, of good (or bad) staging of the play, of the wonderful scenery and so on. When we go shopping it is usual to
speak of the prices, of the goods we buy, of the shops, etc. (In practical language learning thematic groups are often
listed under various headings, e.g. At the Theatre, At School, Shopping, and are often found in text-books and courses of
conversational English).
 Thematic and ideographic organization of a vocabulary.
It is a further subdivision within the lexico-grammatical grouping. The basis of grouping is not only linguistic but
also extra-linguistic. The words are associated because the things they name occur together and are closely connected in
reality, e.g., terms of kinship. Names of parts of the human body, colour terms, etc.
 The ideographic groupings are independent of classification into parts of speech, as grammatical meaning is not
taken into consideration. Words and expressions are here classed not according to their lexico-grammatical meaning but
strictly according to their signification, i.e. to their system of logical notions. These subgroups may compare nouns, verbs
adjectives and adverbs together, provided they refer to the same notion. Under alphabetical order the words which in the
human mind go close together (father, brother, uncle, etc.) are placed in various parts of a dictionary. So, some
lexicographers place such groups of lexical units in the company they usually keep in every day life, in our minds. These
dictionaries are called ideographical or ideological.
Synonymic grouping is a special case of lexico-grammatical grouping based on semantic proximity of words
belonging to the same part of speech. Taking up similarity of meaning and contrasts of phonetic shape we observe that
every language in its vocabulary has a variety of words kindred (родственный) or similar in meaning but distinct in
morphemic composition, phonetic shape and usage. These words express the most delicate shades of thought, feelings
and are explained in the dictionaries of synonyms.
Antonyms have been traditionally defined as words of opposite meaning. Their distinction from synonyms is
semantic polarity. The English language is rich in synonyms and antonyms, their study reveals the systematic character of
the English vocabulary.
Special terminology.
Sharply defined extensive semantic fields are found in terminological systems. Terminology constitutes the
greatest part of every language vocabulary. A term is a word or word-group used to name a notion characteristic of some
special field of knowledge, e.g., linguistics, cybernetics, industry, culture, informatics. Almost every system of terms is
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nowadays fixed and analyzed in numerous special dictionaries of the English language. ?
Hyponymy (включение).
Another type of paradigmatic relation is hyponymy. The notion of hyponymy is traditional enough; it has been
long recognized as one of the main-principles in the organization of the vocabulary off all languages. For
instance, animal is a generic term as compared to the specific names: wolf, dog, mouse. Dog, in its tern, may serve as a
generic term for different breeds such as bull-dog, collie, poodle.
In other words, this type of relationship means the "inclusion" of a more specific term in a more general term,
which has been established by some scientists in terms of logic of classes*. For example, the meaning of tulips is said to
be included in the meaning of "flower", and so on.
So, the word-stock is not only a sum total of all the words of a language, but a very complicated set of various
relationships between different groupings, layers, between the vocabulary as a whole and isolated individual lexical units.

3-MA’RUZA. THE ETYMOLOGY OF MODERN ENGLISH VOCABULARY

1. Words of native origin and their characteristics
2. Ways of borrowing into English
3. Criteria and assimilation of borrowings
4. Special type of borrowings

1. Words of native origin and their characteristics

The native element of the English Vocabulary is composed of words of Anglo-Saxon origin brought to the British
Isles from the continent in the fifth century by the Germanic tribes (племена): the Angles, the Saxons, the Jutes, and
some words coined (образован) in English later.
They are subdivided into:
1. Words of the Indo-European stock;
2. Words of the common Germanic stock;
3. English words proper
The words having parallels in the vocabularies of different Indo-European languages form the oldest layer. Ex.
English – star, German – Stern, Latin – Stella, Greek – Aster.
The words of Indo-European stock (IES) fall into definite semantic group:
1. Terms of kingship (родства): father, mother, daughter.
2. Natural phenomena (Sun, Moon, star, wind, storm)
3. Names of animals and birds (horse, goose)
4. Parts of human body (heart, eye)
5. Qualities and properties (old, young, cold)
6. Common actions (come, sit, stand)
A much bigger part of the native vocabulary is formed by words of the common Germanic stock, that is words
having parallels in German, Norwegian, Dutch, and Icelandic. Ex. En: Summer and winter – Germ: Sommer/Winter)
The English elements proper is specifically English having no cognates in other languages. Ex. Lady, always, girl,
lord, daisy, boy.
2. Ways of borrowing into English.
A loan word or a borrowing is a words taken over from another language and modified in phonemic shape,
spelling paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the English language..
Borrowings can enter the languages in 2 ways:
1. Through oral speech (by immediate contact between peoples)
2. Through written speech (by indirect contact through books)
Oral borrowings took place mainly in the early periods of history (old borrowings from Latin: inch, mill, street).
They are usually short and undergo more changes in the act of adoption.
Written speech (French belles-lettres) – preserve their spelling, They are often rather long and their assimilation is
a laborious process.
3. Criteria and assimilation of borrowings
The criteria of borrowings are:
1. Certain pronunciation and spelling (psychology – Greek, machine – French)
2. Unusual morphological structure and grammatical forms (ex. Pl. bacteria Sg. Bacterium – Latin)
3. Specific lexical meaning (ex,. Pagoda, rickshaw – Chinese)
Borrowed words are assimilated in 3 main ways:
1. Phonetic assimilation comprising changes in the sound, form and stress (ударение). Ex. Germ. Spitz / English
Spitz.
2. Grammatical assimilation causing the loss of former grammatical categories and affixes and the acquirement
(приобретение) of new paradigms (ex. Latin – Botanicus was turned into English Botanical)
3. Semantic assimilation comprising adjustment (приспособление) to the system of meaning of the vocabulary
(ex. Gay was borrowed from French with several meaning noble of birth, bright shining, multicolored. Now it means
joyful or high-spirited.
According to the degree of assimilation loan words fall into 3 groups:
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1. Completely assimilated words that follow all morphological, phonological and orthographical standards of the
receiving language (French ‘pain’ is readily combined with native affixes ‘pained, painful, painless)
2. Partially assimilated words:
- Not assimilated semantically, because they denote objects and notions peculiar to a certain country (ex. Sombrero)
- Not assimilated grammatically (ex. Borrowings from Lating/Greek: formula/ae)
- Not assimilated phonetically (prestige, memoir – French)
- Not assimilated graphically (ex. The final silent ‘t’ in ballet – French)
3. Barbarisms – words from other languages used by English people in conversation or in writing but not
assimilated in any way for which there are corresponding English equivalents (ex. Chaos, adios).
4. Special types of borrowings.
The changes which a loan word had to undergo depending on the date of its penetration are the main cause for the
existence of the so-called etymological doublets.
Etymological doublets are pairs of words, which have one and the same original form, but which have acquired
different forms and even different meaning during the course of linguistic development. (ex. The words shirt and skirt
etymologically descend from the same root. Shirt is a native words, skirt is a Scandinavian borrowing. Their phonetic
shape is different, and yet there is a certain resemblance (сходство), which reflects their common origin. Their meanings
are also different but easily associated: they both denote articles of clothing.
Words of identical origin can accrue in several languages as the result of simultaneous or successive
(последовательный) borrowings from one ultimate source, these words are called international words (ex., gene,
antibiotic).
Alongside (наряду) loan words proper we distinguish translation loans and semantic loans.
Translation loans are words borrowed not in the same phonemic shape they have been functioned in their own
language, but after undergoing the process of translation (ex., wall newspaper from Russian стенная газета)
The semantic loan denotes the development of a new meaning in an English word due to the influence of a related
word in another language.

4-MA’RUZA. MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH WORDS

 1. The morphological structure of a word. Morphemes. Types of morphemes. Allomorphs.                      
2. Structural types of words.                  
3. Principles of morphemic analysis.                    
4. Derivational level of analysis. Stems. Types of stems. Derivational types of words.
1. The morphological structure of a word. Morphemes. Types of Morphemes.  Allomorphs.
There are two levels of approach to the study of word- structure: the level of morphemic analysis and the
level of derivational or word-formation analysis.Word is the principal and basic unit of the language system, the largest
on the morphologic and the smallest on the syntactic plane of linguistic analysis. It has been universally acknowledged
that a great many words have a composite nature and are made up of morphemes, the basic units on the morphemic level,
which are defined as the smallest indivisible two-facet language units.
The term morpheme is derived from Greek morphe “form ”+ -eme. The Greek suffix –eme has been adopted
by linguistic to denote the smallest unit or the minimum distinctive feature.The morpheme is the smallest meaningful
unit of form. A form in these cases a recurring discrete unit of speech. Morphemes occur in speech only as constituent
parts of words, not independently, although a word may consist of single morpheme. Even a cursory examination of the
morphemic structure of English words reveals that they are composed of morphemes of different types: root-morphemes
and affixational morphemes. Words that consist of a root and an affix are called derived words or derivatives and are
produced by the process of word building known as affixation (or derivation).
The root-morpheme is the lexical nucleus of the word; it has a very general and abstract lexical meaning
common to a set of semantically related words constituting one word-cluster, e.g. (to)teach, teacher, teaching. Besides
the lexical meaning root-morphemes possess all other types of meaning proper to morphemes except the part-of-speech
meaning which is not found in roots.Affixational morphemes include inflectional affixes or inflections and derivational
affixes.
Inflections carry only grammatical meaning and are thus relevant only for the formation of word-forms.
Derivational affixes are relevant for building various types of words. They are lexically always dependent on
the root which they modify. They possess the same types of meaning as found in roots, but unlike root-morphemes most
of them have the part-of-speech meaning which makes them structurally the important part of the word as they condition
the lexico-grammatical class the word belongs to. Due to this component of their meaning the derivational affixes are
classified into affixes building different parts of speech: nouns, verbs, adjectives or adverbs. Roots and derivational
affixes are generally easily distinguished and the difference between them is clearly felt as, e.g., in the words  helpless,
handy, blackness, Londoner, refill, etc.: the root-morphemes help-, hand-, black-, London-, fill-, are understood as the
lexical centers of the words, and –less, -y,      -ness, -er, re- are felt as morphemes dependent on these roots.  Distinction
is also made of free and bound morphemes.
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Free morphemes coincide with word-forms of independently functioning words. It is obvious that free
morphemes can be found only among roots, so the morpheme boy- in the word boy is a free morpheme; in the
word undesirable there is only one free morpheme desire-; the word pen-holder has two free
morphemes pen- and hold-. It follows that bound morphemes are those that do not coincide with separate word- forms,
consequently all derivational morphemes, such as –ness, -able, -er are bound. Root-morphemes may be both free and
bound. The morphemestheor- in the words theory, theoretical, or horr- in the wordshorror, horrible, horrify;
Angl- in  Anglo-Saxon; Afr- in Afro-Asian are all bound roots as there are no identical word-forms.It should also be
noted that morphemes may have different phonemic shapes. In the word-cluster please , pleasing , pleasure ,
pleasant the phonemic shapes of the word stand in complementary distribution or in alternation with each other. All the
representations of the given morpheme, that manifest alternation are calledallomorphs/or morphemic variants/ of that
morpheme.The combining form allo- from Greek allos “other” is used in linguistic terminology to denote elements of a
group whose members together consistute a structural unit of the language (allophones, allomorphs). Thus, for example, -
ion/ -tion/ -sion/ -ation are the positional variants of the same suffix, they do not differ in meaning or function but show
a slight difference in sound form depending on the final phoneme of the preceding stem. They are considered as variants
of one and the same morpheme and called its allomorphs.
Allomorph is defined as a positional variant of a morpheme occurring in a specific environment and so
characterized by complementary description.
Complementary distribution is said to take place, when two linguistic variants cannot appear in the same
environment.Different morphemes are characterized by contrastive distribution, i.e. if they occur in the same
environment they signal different meanings. The suffixes –able and –ed, for instance, are different morphemes, not
allomorphs, because adjectives in –able mean “ capable of beings”.Allomorphs will also occur among prefixes. Their
form then depends on the initials of the stem with which they will assimilate.Two or more sound forms of a stem existing
under conditions of complementary distribution may also be regarded as allomorphs, as, for instance, in long a: length n.
2. Structural types of words.
The morphological analysis of word- structure on the morphemic level aims at splitting the word into its
constituent morphemes – the basic units at this level of analysis – and at determining their number and types. The four
types (root words, derived words, compound, shortenings) represent the main structural types of Modern English words,
and conversion, derivation and composition the most productive ways of word building. According to the number of
morphemes words can be classified into monomorphic and polymorphic.
Monomorphic or root-words consist of only one root-morpheme, e.g. small, dog, make, give, etc. All
polymorphic word fall into two subgroups:  derived words and compound words – according to the number of root-
morphemes they have. Derived words are composed of one root-morpheme and one or more derivational morphemes,
e.g. acceptable, outdo, disagreeable, etc. Compound words are those which contain at least two root-morphemes, the
number of derivational morphemes being insignificant. There can be both root- and derivational morphemes in
compounds as in pen-holder, light-mindedness, or only root-morphemes as in lamp-shade, eye-ball, etc.
These structural types are not of equal importance. The clue to the correct understanding of their comparative
value lies in a careful consideration of: 1)the importance of each type in the existing wordstock, and 2) their frequency
value in actual speech. Frequency is by far the most important factor. According to the available word counts made in
different parts of speech, we find that derived words numerically constitute the largest class of words in the existing
wordstock; derived nouns comprise approximately 67% of the total number, adjectives about 86%, whereas compound
nouns make about 15% and adjectives about 4%. Root words come to 18% in nouns, i.e. a trifle more than the number of
compound words; adjectives root words come to approximately 12%.But we cannot fail to perceive that root-words
occupy a predominant place. In English, according to the recent frequency counts, about 60% of the total number of
nouns and 62% of the total number of adjectives in current use are root-words. Of the total number of adjectives and
nouns, derived words comprise about 38% and 37% respectively while compound words comprise an insignificant 2% in
nouns and 0.2% in adjectives. Thus it is the root-words that constitute the foundation and the backbone of the vocabulary
and that are of paramount importance in speech. It should also be mentioned that root words are characterized by a high
degree of collocability and a complex variety of meanings in contrast with words of other structural types whose semantic
structures are much poorer. Root- words also serve as parent forms for all types of derived and compound words.
3. Principles of morphemic analysis.
In most cases the morphemic structure of words is transparent enough and individual morphemes clearly stand
out within the word. The segmentation of words is generally carried out according to the method
of Immediate and Ultimate Constituents.
This method is based on the binary principle, i.e. each stage of the procedure involves two components the word
immediately breaks into. At each stage these two components are referred to as the Immediate Constituents. Each
Immediate Constituent at the next stage of analysis is in turn broken into smaller meaningful elements. The analysis is
completed when we arrive at constituents incapable of further division, i.e. morphemes. These are referred to Ultimate
Constituents. A synchronic morphological analysis is most effectively accomplished by the procedure known as the
analysis into Immediate Constituents. ICs are the two meaningful parts forming a large linguistic unity. The method is
based on the fact that a word characterized by morphological divisibility is involved in certain structural correlations. To
sum up: as we break the word we obtain at any level only ICs one of which is the stem of the given word. All the time the
analysis is based on the patterns characteristic of the English vocabulary. As a pattern showing the interdependence of all
the constituents segregated at various stages, we obtain the following formula: un+ { [ ( gent- + -le ) + -man ] +
48

-ly} Breaking a word into its Immediate Constituents we observe in each cut the structural order of the
constituents .A  diagram presenting the four cuts described looks as follows: 1.    un- / gentlemanly2.    un- /
gentleman / – ly3.    un- / gentle / – man / – ly4.    un- / gentl / – e / – man / – ly A similar analysis on the word-
formation level showing not only the morphemic constituents of the word but also the structural pattern on which it is
built. The analysis of word-structure at the morphemic level must proceed to the stage of Ultimate Constituents. For
example, the noun friendliness is first segmented into the ICs: [frendlı-] recurring in the adjectivesfriendly-looking and
friendly and [-nıs] found in a countless number of nouns, such as unhappiness, blackness, sameness, etc. the IC [-nıs] is
at the same time an UC of the word, as it cannot be broken into any smaller elements possessing both sound-form and
meaning. Any further division of –ness would give individual speech-sounds which denote nothing by themselves. The
IC [frendlı-] is next broken into the ICs [-lı] and [frend-] which are both UCs of the word.  Morphemic analysis under the
method of Ultimate Constituents may be carried out on the basis of two principles: the so-called root-principle and affix
principle.
According to the affix principle the splitting of the word into its constituent morphemes is based on the
identification of the affix within a set of words, e.g. the identification of the suffix  –er leads to the segmentation of
words singer, teacher, swimmer into the derivational morpheme – er  and the roots teach- , sing-, drive-.According to
the root-principle, the segmentation of the word is based on the identification of the root-morpheme in a word-cluster, for
example the identification of the root-morpheme agree- in the words agreeable, agreement, disagree.
As a rule, the application of these principles is sufficient for the morphemic segmentation of words.However, the
morphemic structure of words in a number of cases defies such analysis, as it is not always so transparent and simple as
in the cases mentioned above. Sometimes not only the segmentation of words into morphemes, but the recognition of
certain sound-clusters as morphemes become doubtful which naturally affects the classification of words. In words
like retain, detain, contain or receive, deceive, conceive, perceive the sound-clusters [rı-], [dı-] seem to be singled quite
easily, on the other hand, they undoubtedly have nothing in common with the phonetically identical prefixes   re-, de- as
found in words re-write, re-organize, de-organize, de-code. Moreover, neither the sound-cluster [rı-] or [dı-], nor the [-
teın] or [-sı:v] possess any lexical or functional meaning of their own. Yet, these sound-clusters are felt as having a
certain meaning because [rı-] distinguishes retain from detain and [-teın] distinguishes retain from receive.It follows
that all these sound-clusters have a differential and a certain distributional meaning as their order arrangement point to the
affixal status of re-, de-, con-, per- and makes one understand -tain and –ceive as roots.
The differential and distributional meanings seem to give sufficient ground to recognize these sound-clusters as
morphemes, but as they lack lexical meaning of their own, they are set apart from all other types of morphemes and are
known in linguistic literature as pseudo- morphemes. Pseudo- morphemes of the same kind  are also encountered in
words like rusty-fusty.
4.  Derivational level of analysis. Stems. Types of Stems. Derivational types of word.
The morphemic analysis of words only defines the constituent morphemes, determining their types and their
meaning but does not reveal the hierarchy of the morphemes comprising the word. Words are no mere sum totals of
morpheme, the latter reveal a definite, sometimes very complex interrelation. Morphemes are arranged according to
certain rules, the arrangement differing in various types of words and particular groups within the same types. The pattern
of morpheme arrangement underlies the classification of words into different types and enables one to understand how
new words appear in the language. These relations within the word and the interrelations between different types and
classes of words are known as derivative or word- formation relations.
The analysis of derivative relations aims at establishing a correlation between different types and the structural
patterns words are built on. The basic unit at the derivational level is the stem.The stem is defined as that part of the
word which remains unchanged throughout its paradigm, thus the stem which appears in the paradigm (to)  ask ( ), asks,
asked, asking is ask-; thestem of the word singer ( ), singer’s, singers, singers’ is singer-. It is the stem of the word that
takes the inflections which shape the word grammatically as one or another part of speech. The structure of stems should
be described in terms of IC’s analysis, which at this level aims at establishing the patterns of typical derivative relations
within the stem and the derivative correlation between stems of different types.  There are three types of stems: simple,
derived and compound.
Simple stems are semantically non-motivated and do not constitute a pattern on analogy with which new stems
may be modeled. Simple stems are generally monomorphic and phonetically identical with the root morpheme. The
derivational structure of stems does not always coincide with the result of morphemic analysis. Comparison proves that
not all morphemes relevant at the morphemic level are relevant at the derivational level of analysis. It follows that bound
morphemes and all types of pseudo- morphemes are irrelevant to the derivational structure of stems as they do not meet
requirements of double opposition and derivative interrelations. So the stem of such words as retain, receive, horrible,
pocket, motion, etc. should be regarded as simple, non- motivated stems.
Derived stems are built on stems of various structures though which they are motivated, i.e. derived stems are
understood on the basis  of the derivative relations between their IC’s and the correlated stems. The derived stems are
mostly polymorphic in which case the segmentation results only in one IC that is itself a stem, the other IC being
necessarily a derivational affix. Derived stems are not necessarily polymorphic.
Compound stems are made up of two IC’s, both of which are themselves stems, for example match-box,
driving-suit, pen-holder, etc. It is built by joining of two stems, one of which is simple, the other derived.In more
complex cases the result of the analysis at the two levels sometimes seems even to contracted one another.The
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derivational types of words are classified according to the structure of their stems into simple,
derived andcompound words.
Derived words are those composed of one root- morpheme and one or more derivational morpheme.
Compound words contain at least two root- morphemes, the number of derivational morphemes being
insignificant.
Derivational compound is a word formed by a simultaneous process of composition and derivational.
Compound words proper are formed by joining together stems of word already available in the language. 
5-MA`RUZA. SEMANTIC STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH WORD. CHANGES IN SEMANTIC
STRUCTURE
1.The problem of word meaning
2. The main semantic processes

1.The problem of word meaning

The branch of Linguistics which studies the meaning of different linguistic units is called Semantics. The part of
Lexicology which studies the meaning and the development of meaning of words is called Semasiology.
There are different approaches to the problem of word meaning: 1) The referential, or denotational
approach is characterized by the thought that (тем что) the essence (суть) of meaning lies in the interconnection and
interdependence between: the word as the sound form, the referent, and the concept. Here meaning is the realization of
the concept/notion by means of a definite language system. 2)The functional, or contextual approach is characterized
by the idea that the meaning of a linguistic unit may be studied only through its relation to other linguistic units.
Thus, meaning is understood as the function of linguistic signs, or their use in context.
Word meaning is represented by different types of meaning: grammatical, lexical, lexico-grammatical.
Grammatical meaning is the component of word meaning, recurrent in identical sets of individual forms of
different words. It is expressed by:
1. word-form (such as books, girls, boys – the meaning of plurarity; looked, asked – tense meaning);
2. the position of the word in relation to other words (e.g. He sings well, She dances badly – ‘sings’ and ‘dances’
are found in identical positions between a pronoun and an adverb, their identical distribution proves that they
have identical gr.m.)
Lexico-grammatical meaning of the word is the common denominator (знаменатель) to all the meanings of
the words belonging to a certain lexico-grammatical class or group of words.
Lexical meaning is the component of word meaning recurrent in all the forms of the word. The word forms go,
goes, went, gone, going have different gr.m., but they have one and the same l.m. ‘the process of movement’.
The main component of L.m. are:
1. the denotational meaning of words is the same for all the speakers. It is the realization of the concept by means
of the given language.
2. The pragmatic aspect of l.m. is the part of meaning, that conveys information on the situation of
communication: information on the ‘time and space’ relationship of the participants, information on the
participants in the given language community, information on the register of communication.
3. The connotational meaning conveys the speaker’s attitude toward what he is speaking about. There are 4 main
types of connotations: a) The emotional connotation expresses human emotions and feelings (e.g. daddy,
father); b) The evaluative connotation expresses approval or disapproval (e.g. agent and spy, planning and
scheming=planning secretly); c) The intensifying connotation adds emphasis (усиление) to the meaning. (e.g.
enormous, huge, tremendous=very); d) The stylistic connotation determines the functional speech style
characteristic of the word usage (dad-father-parent; colloquial-neutral-bookish).
Polysemy is the abbility of a word to have more than one m-g. The causes of the development of polysemy in
Eng. are:1) the great amount of monosyllabic root words; 2) an abundance of words of long duration, which in the course
of time were used to express more new m-gs thus becoming highly polysemantic. Monosemantic words, i.e. words which
have only one m-g form. They are mostly names of birds (blackbird, swallow), animals (walrus, weasel), fishes (ruff,
perch) & special terms (systole, phoneme). The bulk of Eng. words are polysemantic, i.e. they have several m-gs. The m-
g in speech is contextual. In a definite context any polysemantic word expresses only one m-g. A word in one of its m-g
in which it is used in speech is called a lexico-semantic variant of a word. The semantic structure of a polysemantic word
presents a set of interrelated & interdependent lexico-semantic variants. WE distinguish on the synchronic level: - the
basic (major) & the minor; - the central & the marginal; -direct & transferred(figurative); -. Every LSV is connected with
the major m-g due to the existence of the common semantic components/ semes. The seme is the smallest further
indivisible unit of m-g, the smallest un it of the plan of content. The analysis of the m-g into these components, or semes,
is called the componential analysis.
So far we have been discussing the concept of meaning, different types of word-meanings and the changes they
undergo in the course of the historical development of the English language. When analysing the wordmeaning we
observe, however, that words as a rule are not units of a single meaning. Monosemantic words, i.e. words having only one
meaning are comparatively few in number, these are mainly scientific terms, such –as hydrogen, molecule and the like.
The bulk of English words are p o l y s e m a n t i c , that is to say possess more than one meaning.
The actual number of meanings of the commonly used words ranges from
five to about a hundred. In fact, the commoner the word the more meanings it has.
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The word table, e.g., has at least nine meanings in Modern English: 1. a piece of furniture; 2. the persons seated at a table;
3. sing. the food put on a table, meals; 4. a thin flat piece of stone, metal, wood, etc.; 5. pl. slabs of stone; 6. words cut
into them or written on them (the ten tables); 2 7. an orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc.; 8. part of a machine-tool
on which the work is put to be operated on; 9. a level area, a plateau. Each of the individual meanings can be described in
terms of the types of meanings discussed above. We may, e.g., analyse the eighth meaning of the word table into the part-
of-speech meaning — that of the noun (which presupposes the grammatical meanings of number and case) combined
with the lexical meaning made up of two components The denotational semantic component which can be interpreted as
the dictionary definition (part of a machine-tool on which the work is put) and the connotational component which can be
identified as a specific stylistic reference of this particular meaning of the word table (technical terminology). Cf. the
Russian планшайба, стол станка.
In polysemantic words, however, we are faced not with the problem of analysis of individual meanings, but
primarily with the problem of the interrelation and interdependence of the various meanings in the semantic structure of
one and the same word.
If polysemy is viewed diachronically, it is understood as the growth and development of or, in general, as a
change in the semantic structure of the word. Polysemy in diachronic terms implies that a word may retain its previous
meaning or meanings and at the same time acquire one or several new ones. Then the problem of the interrelation and
interdependence of individual meanings of a polysemantic word may be roughly formulated as follows: did the word
always possess all its meanings or did some of them appear earlier than the others? are the new meanings dependent on
the meanings already existing? and if so what is the nature of this dependence? can we observe any changes in the
arrangement of the meanings? and so on. In the course of a diachronic semantic analysis of the polysemantic word table
we find that of all the meanings it has in Modern English, the primary meaning is ‘a flat slab of stone or wood’, which is
proper to the word in the Old English period (OE. tabule from L. tabula); all other meanings are secondary as they are
derived from the primary meaning of the word and appeared later than the primary meaning, The terms s e c o n d a r y
and d e r i v e d meaning are to a certain extent synonymous. When we describe the meaning of the word as “secondary”
we imply that it could not have appeared before the primary meaning was in existence. When we refer to the meaning as
“derived” we imply not only that, but also that it is dependent on the primary meaning and somehow subordinate to it. In
the case of the word table, e.g., we may say that the meaning ‘the food put on the table’ is a secondary meaning as it is
derived from the meaning ‘a piece of furniture (on which meals are laid out)’.
It follows that the main source of polysemy is a change in the semantic structure of the word. Polysemy may also
arise from homonymy. When two words become identical in sound-form, the meanings of the two words are felt as
making
up one semantic structure. Thus, the human ear and the ear of corn are from the diachronic point of view two homonyms.
One is etymologically related to L. auris, the other to L. acus, aceris. Synchronically, however, they are perceived as two
meanings of one and the same word. The ear of corn is felt to be a metaphor of the usual type (cf. the eye of the needle,
the foot of the mountain) and consequently as one of the derived or, synchronically, minor meanings of the polysemantic
word ear.1 Cases 1 In dictionaries ear (L. auris) and ear (L. acus, aceris) are usually treated as two homonymous words as
dictionary compilers as a rule go by etymological criterion.
The words of different languages which are similar or identical in lexical meaning, especially in the denotational
meani ng a r e t er med c o r r e l a t e d w o r d s. The wording of the habitual question of English learners, e.g. “What is
the English for стол?”, and the answer “The English for стол is ‘table'” also shows that we take the words table стол to
be correlated. Semantic correlation.
2. The main semantic processes. 
Specialization or narrowing of m-ng indicates that the word passes from general usage & acquires some special
m-ng. When the m-ng is specialized, the range of the notion is narrowed, i.e. the word can name, fewer objects , but the
content of the notion is enriched, the notion will include a greater number of relevant features. O.E. "deor" - "wild beast"
means now only "wild animal of a particular species" - "oлень"; "girl" in O.E. meant "a child of any sex", now only "a
female child". Common nouns are often specialized in toponymics (place names) becoming proper names, e.g. The City
(the business part of London), the Tower (of London) - a fortress and a palace & now a museum.
Generalizing or widening of m-ng. The word having a special m-ng due to wide use gets widened in m-ng:
thing, business. In case of generalization the range of the new notion is wider than that of the original one, but the content
of the notion becomes poorer. In many cases it is a kind of transition from a concrete m-ng to an abstract one. In O.E.
"season'' meant only "spring time" then it acquired the m-ng "time for sowing & in Modern Eng it means "any of the 4
seasons". The process of gener-n is mostly at work in creating generic terms, words which can be applied to a great
number of individual members of a big class of words: thing, business, to have, to do.
Elevation & degradation of m-ng are the semantic changes determined by social evaluation of the thing or
phenomenon named & emotional tone. As the referent of the word comes up or down the social scale, its m-ng is either
elevated or becomes pejorative. examples of elevation: Minister - in earlier times meant merely "a servant", now it means
"an important public official". Comrade - is a Spanish borr-ng which originally meant "a room-mate". Smart - in earlier
times meant "causing pain", now it is syn-mous with "chic”. Knight - O.E. "lad, servant, soldier" now "a nobleman". 
Degradation of m-ng is the reverse of elevation often reflecting relations b/w classes. O.E. "cnafa" meant "a
boy", the ruling classes called their servants "knaves" and the word got a negative emotive colouring. Now it means
"негодяй. плут". "vulgar, silly, insane, idiot" originally were neutral words m-ng correspondently; vulgar - "common,
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ordinary", silly - "happy", insane - "not well", idiot - "a private person". We speak of gener-n, special-n, elevation,
degradation when we compare the results of the development of the semantic structure of words.

6-MA`RUZA. Homonyms. The sources of homonyms. The classification of homonyms

1. Definition of homonyms
2. Classifications of homonyms
3. Sources of homonymy 
1 . Definition of homonyms
Homonyms are words identical in sound and spelling or at least in one of these aspects, but different in their
meaning and distribution. The term is derived from Greek (homos – the same, onoma – name, i.e. the same name
combined with the difference of meaning.
E.g. bank: 1) a shore, a river bank; 2) a financial institution;
Ball: 1) any spherical body; 2) a large dancing party.
Homonyms exist in many languages but in English this language phenomenon is especially frequent, mostly in
monosyllabic words (nearly 90 % of homonyms).
2.Classifications of homonyms 
The most widely accepted classification is that recognising homonyms proper, homophones and homographs. 
Homonyms proper are words identical in pronunciation and spelling (back, ball, bark). 
Homophones are words of the same sound but of different spelling and meaning (air- heir, arms- alms-
милостыня, buy- by). 
Homographs are words different in sound and in meaning but identical in spelling (bow - [bou], [bau]). 
According to Prof. Smirnitsky homonyms fall into: full homonyms and partial homonyms. Full homonyms are
words representing the same category of parts of speech and having the same paradigm (match - game match - a stick for
burning smth.). 
Partial are subdivided into: 
- simple lexico-grammatical partial homonyms ( belong to one part of speech, there's one identical form in a
paradigm which is never the same form. (to found- to establish; found - Past indefinite from to find) . 
- complex lexico-grammatical partial homonyms ( different part of speech, one identical form in a paradigm)
(rose(n) - rose (v))
- partial lexical homonyms ( of the same part of speech identical only in their corresponding forms) to lie (lay,
lain) , to lie (lied, lied) to can (canned, canned) 
can ( could )
The third classification is based on the similarity of the paradigms (grammatical forms each homonym
possesses). E.g. match-matches: match – matches, such homonyms are called full. Homonyms that coincide in one or two
members (not in all members) of their paradigms are called partial. E.g. to lie- lying-lied – lied : to lie-lying- lay-lain ;
left : to leave-leaving-left-left.
3. Sources of homonymy.
There are several sources of homonymy.
1. Phonetic changes. In the course of the language development two or more words that were pronounced
differently may develop identical sound form, e.g. knight-night, sea-see, write-right.
2. Borrowing. A borrowed word may duplicate in form a native word or another borrowing, e.g. write (native) –
rite(Latin ritus), fair (adj, native) – fair (noun, French),bank (shore, native)-bank (institution, Italian).
3. Wordbuilding:
a. conversion, e.g. pale-to pale, water –to water, comb-to comb;
b. shortening, e.g. fan – fan (from fanatic), van – from vanguard and from caravan;
c. sound imitation, e.g. bang – to bang; mew –mew- mew.
4. Splitting polysemy, e.g. board. It is difficult to establish exact criteria by which disintegration of polysemy
could be detected.
The knowledge of etymology and other languages will help to supply the missing links. The imprecision of the
criteria is recorded in the data of different dictionaries which often contradict each other. E.g. board is represented as two
homonyms in Muller’s dictionary, as three homonyms in Arakin’s dictionary and as one polysemantic word in Hornby’s
dictionary.

7-MA`RUZA. HOMONYMY AND POLYSEMY

1. What is polysemy
2. What is homonymy
3. Difference between homonymy and polysemy

1. What is polysemy
52

Polysemy and Homonymy are two similar concepts in linguistics. Both of them refer to words having multiple
meanings. Polysemy refers to the coexistence of many possible meanings for a word or phrase. Homonymy refers
to the existence of two or more words having the same spelling or pronunciation but different meanings and
origins.
This is the main difference between polysemy and homonymy 
1. What is Polysemy
Polysemy refers to words or phrases with different, but related meanings. A word becomes polysemous if it can
be used to express different meanings. The difference between these meanings can be obvious or subtle. It is sometimes
difficult to determine whether a word is polysemous or not because the relations between words can be vague and
unclear. But, examining the origins of the words can help to decide whether a word is polysemic or homonymous.
The following sentences contain some examples of polysemy.
He drank a glass of milk.
He forgot to milk the cow.
The enraged actor sued the newspaper.
He read the newspaper.
His cottage is near a small wood.
The statue was made out of a block of wood.
He fixed his hair.
They fixed a date for the wedding.
Although the meanings of the underlined word pairs only have a subtle difference. The origins of the words are
related. Such words are generally listed in dictionaries under one entry; numbers may be used to denote the subtle
differences.
2. What is Homonymy
Homonymy refers to two unrelated words that look or sound the same. Two or more words become homonyms if
they either sound the same (homophones), have the same spelling (homographs), or if they both homophones and
homographs, but do not have related meanings. Given below are some examples of homonyms:
Stalk
– The main stem of a herbaceous plant
– Pursue or approach stealthily
Sow
– adult female pig
– to plant seeds in a ground
The above two examples are both written and read alike; they have the same spellings and sounds. Some words do not
have the same spellings, but they share same the same pronunciation. For example, Read vs Reed, Right vs Write, Pray vs
Prey.
3. Difference between polysemy and homonymy
Polysemous words can be understood if you know the meaning of one word.
53

The meaning of homonymous words cannot be guessed since the words have unrelated meanings.

8-MA`RUZA. Criteria of synonymity and classification of synonyms

1. Definition of synonyms
2. Classification of synonyms
3. Criteria of synonymity

1. Definition of synonyms
Synonymy is one of the most controversial points in linguistics. Roughly we may say that when two or more
different words are associated with the same or nearly the same denotative meaning, the words are synonyms.
Sometimes criterion of interchangeability has been applied to definition of synonyms. Accordingly, synonyms
have been defined as words, which are interchangeable in at least some contexts without any considerable changes in
denotative meaning. This criterion, however, has been much criticized. If all synonyms were interchangeable, they would
become useless ballast in the language. Even those synonyms that seem to be interchangeable and are called total by
Academician Vinogradov, still differ in their distribution, use, etc. e.g. cosmonaut is used in reference to European
spacemen and astronaut – to American ones. Or offer is followed by a noun while suggest – by a gerund. So the
prevailing majority of synonyms are partial.
Synonyms are united into synonymous rows. In each row there is one word, which presents a kind of centre of
the group of synonyms. Its semantic structure is usually simple. This is the dominant synonym characterized by:
 high frequency of usage;
 broad combinability;
 broad general meaning;
 lack of connotations.
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E.g. in the row: to look-to stare-to glare-to gaze-to peer-to peep-to glance-to glimpse-etc. the dominant synonym
is the word to look.
2. Classification of synonyms
Synonyms can be classified as stylistic and ideographic. Stylistic synonyms differ in their stylistic connotations, e.g.
father-parent-daddy; stomach-belly. Ideographic synonyms may differ in the following connotations:
 degree or intensity, e.g. to like-to admire –to live – to adore- to worship; to surprise – to astonish- to amaze- to
astound;
 duration, e.g. to glance- to stare ; to say – to talk ;
 manner, e.g. to stagger – to trot – to pace – to march, etc.;
 cause, e.g. to shiver –to shudder ; to blush – to redden ;
 emotive connotation, e.g. alone – lonely;
 evaluative connotation, e.g. well-known – famous- celebrated- notorious, etc.
We can also single out contextual synonyms that are similar in meaning only under some specific distributional
conditions, e.g Go and buy some bread – Go and get some bread.
I cannot stand it any longer – I cannot bear it any longer. These words are not synonyms outside the specified
contexts.

9-MAʻRUZA. DEFINITION OF ANTONYMS. CLASSIFICATION OF ANTONYMS

1. Definition of antonyms
2. Semantic classification of antonyms
- contradictories
- contraries
- incompatibles
3. Morphological classifications of antonyms

1. Definition of antonyms
Antonyms – a class of words grouped together on the basis of the semantic relations of opposition. Antonyms
are words belonging to one part of speech sharing certain common semantic characteristics and in this respect they are
similar to such semantic classes as synonyms, lexical sets, lexico-semantic groups. (lexical sets (предметные или
тематические группы) - words denoting different things correlated on extralinguistic grounds: lion, tiger, leopard,
puma, cat refer to the lexical set of “the animals of the cat family’; words describing different sides of one and the same
general notion are united in a lexico-semantic group: group denoting “physical movement” – to go, to turn, to run).
There exist different classifications of antonyms.
Structurally, antonyms can be divided into antonyms of the same root (1), e.g. to do – to undo, cheerful –
cheerless, and antonyms of different roots (2), e.g. day – night, rich – poor.
2. Semantic classification of antonyms
Semantically, antonyms may be classified into contradictories, contraries and incompatibles.
1. Contradictories represent the type of semantic relations that exist between pairs like, for example, dead –
alive, single – married. Contradictory antonyms are mutually opposed, they deny one another. Contradictories form a
privative binary opposition, they are members of two-term sets. To use one of the words is to contradict the other and to
use “not” before one of them is to make it semantically equivalent to the other: not dead = alive; not single = married.
2. Contrariesare antonyms that can be arranged into a series according to the increasing difference in one of
their qualities. The most distant elements of this series will be classified as contrary notions. Contraries are gradable
antonyms, they are polar members of a gradual opposition which may have intermediate members. This may be observed
in cold – hot and cool – warm which are intermediate members. Thus, we may regard as antonyms not
only cold and hot but also cold and warm. Contrary antonyms may also be considered in terms of degrees of the quality
involved. Thus, water may be coldor very cold, and water in one glass may be colder than in another glass.
3. Incompatibles are antonyms which are characterized by the relations of exclusion. Semantic relations of
incompatibility exist among antonyms with a common component of meaning and may be described as the reverse of
hyponymy. For example, to say morning is to say not afternoon, not evening, not night. The use of one member of this set
implies the exclusion of the other members of the set. Incompatibles differ from contradictories as incompatibles are
members of the multiple-term sets while contradictories are members of two-term sets. A relation of incompatibility may
be also observed between colour terms since the choice of red, for example, entails the exclusion of black, blue, yellow,
etc.
According to the character of semantic opposition:
Antonyms proper (contrary antonyms) are antonyms which possess the following characteristics:
-they are gradable, i.e. there are some intermediate units between the most distant members of a set, e.g. cold – cool –
tepid – warm – hot; never – seldom – sometimes – often – always;
-they are capable of comparison, e.g. good – better – best vs. bad – worse – worst;
-they can be modified by such intensifiers as very, slightly, extremely, fairly, rather etc., e.g. huge – very big – BIG –
quite big – medium-sized – quite small – SMALL – very small – tiny;
-they do not deny one another, e.g. She is not beautiful ≠She is ugly;
-they refer not to independent absolute qualities but to some implicit norm, e.g. a big mouse vs a small elephant.
55

Contradictory antonyms (complementary antonyms) are mutually opposed (exclusive) and deny one another,
e.g. male – female; married – single; asleep – awake; same – different. Their features:
-not gradable;
-truly represent oppositeness of meaning;
-cannot be used in the comparative or superlative degree;
-the denial of one member of such antonymic opposition always implies the assertion of the other, e.g. not dead – alive.
Conversive antonyms (conversives) are words which denote one and the same situation as viewed from
different points of view, with a reversal of the order of participants and their roles, e.g. husband – wife; teacher –
pupil; to buy – to sell; to lend – to borrow; to precede – to follow. These antonyms are mutually dependent on each other
and one item presupposes the other.
Vectorial antonyms (directional antonyms) are words denoting differently directed actions, features, e.g. to rise
– to fall; to arrive – to depart; to marry – to divorce; to learn – to forget; to appear – to disappear.
3. Morphological and semantic classifications of antonyms.
Morphological classification of antonyms by V. N. Komissarov (Dictionary of English Antonyms):
root antonyms (absolute antonyms) are antonyms having different roots, e.g. clean – dirty; late – early; day –
night;
derivational antonyms are antonyms having the same root but different affixes, e.g. to fasten – to
unfasten; flexible – inflexible; useful – useless.
10-MA`RUZA. SEMANTIC SYSTEM IN ENGLISH. NEOLOGISMS, ABSOLETE AND ARCHAIC WORDS
1. Semantic system in English
2. Neologisms
3. Obsolete words
4. Archaic words

1. Semantic system in English

The adaptive system approach to vocabulary is still in its infancy, but it is already possible to hazard an interim
estimate of its significance. Language as well as other adaptive systems, better studied in other branches of science, is
capable of obtaining information from the extra-linguistic world and with the help of feedback makes use of it for self-
optimisation. If the variation proves useful, it remains in the vocabulary. The process may be observed by its results, that
is by studying new words or n e o l o g i s m s . New notions constantly come into being, requiring new words to name
them. Sometimes a new name is introduced for a thing or notion that continues to exist, and the older name ceases to be
used. The number of words in a language is therefore not constant, the increase, as a rule, more than makes up for the
leak-out.
2. Neologysms
New words and expressions or n e о l о g i s m s are created for new things irrespective of their scale of
importance. They may be all-important and concern some social relationships, such as a new form of state, e. g. People’s
Republic, or something threatening the very existence of humanity, like nuclear war. Or again the thing may be quite
insignificant and short-lived, like fashions in dancing, clothing, hairdo or footwear (e. g. roll-neck). In every case either
the old words are appropriately changed in meaning or new words are borrowed, or more often coined out of the existing
language material either according to the patterns and ways already productive in the language at a given stage of its
development or creating new ones.
A neologism (/niːˈɒlədʒɪzəm/; is the name for a relatively new or isolated term, word, or phrase that may be in the
process of entering common use, but that has not yet been accepted into mainstream language. [1][2] Neologisms are often
directly attributable to a specific person, publication, period, or event. Neolexia ("new word", or the act of creating a new
word) is a synonym. Thus, a n e o l o g i s m is a newly coined word or phrase or a new meaning for an existing
word, or a word borrowed from another language
The intense development of science and industry has called forth the invention and introduction of an immense
number of new words and changed the meanings of old ones, e. g. aerobic, black hole, computer, isotope, feedback,
penicillin, pulsar, quasar, tape-recorder, supermarket and so on.
As a general rule neologisms are at first clearly motivated. An exception is shown by those based on borrowings or
learned coinages which, though motivated at an early stage, very soon begin to function as indivisible signs. A good
example is the much used term cybernetics ‘study of systems of control and communication in living beings and man-
made devices’ coined by Norbert Wiener from the Greek word kyberne-tes ‘steersman’+suffix -ics.
There are, however, cases when etymology of comparatively new words is obscure, as in the noun boffin ‘a scientist
engaged in research work’ or in gimmick ‘a tricky device’ — an American slang word that is now often used in British
English.
In the course of time the new word is accepted into the word-stock of the language and being often used ceases to be
considered new, or else it may not be accepted for some reason or other and vanish from the language. The fate of
neologisms is hardly predictable: some of them are short-lived, others, on the contrary, become durable as they are liked
and accepted. Once accepted, they may serve as a basis for further word-formation: gimmick, gimmickry, gimmicky. Zip
(an imitative word denoting a certain type of fastener) is hardly felt as new, but its derivatives — the verb zip (zip from
one place to another), the corresponding personal noun zipper and the adjective zippy — appear to be neologisms.
A neologism can be:
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A completely new word (e.g., oversharers)

A new combination of existing words (e.g., digital detox)
A new meaning for an existing word (e.g., sick)
Examples of Neologisms
The following are examples of neologisms at the time of writing (2014):
Oversharers: People who post too much information (which is often boring or embarrassing) about themselves on line.
Digital Detox: Abstaining from electronic devices to re-engage with the physical world, typically to lower stress levels.
Sick: Good.
Examples of Old "Neologisms"
The following former neologisms have been formally accepted into mainstream language (this usually means
appearing in a respectable dictionary). As a result, they can no longer be classified as neologisms.
 D'oh!: An exclamation meaning damn (usually after a mistake by the speaker).
 Wicked: Good or cool.
 To Google: To look up information on the internet.
Note: The term "old neologism" is an oxymoron (i.e., a self-contained contradiction).
Examples of Neologisms under Transition
The following neologisms can be considered under transition. In other words, they are still neologisms, but it is
likely they will be accepted into mainstream language soon.
 Metrosexual: A heterosexual man who likes the interests traditionally associated with women or homosexual
men (e.g., shopping, fashion, his appearance) .
 Noob: A person new to an online gaming community.
 Staycation: A vacation at home or near home (usually due to financial constraints preventing a holiday abroad).
 Troll: A person who posts obnoxious comments to an online community.
When we consider the lexical system of a language as an adaptive system developing for many centuries and
reflecting the changing needs of the communication process, we have to contrast the innovations with words that dropped
from the language ( o b s o l e t e words) or survive only in special contexts ( a r c h a i s m s and h i s t o r i s m s ) .
3 . O B S O L E T E WORDS
Obsolete indicates that a term is no longer in active use, except, for example, in literary quotation. Obsolete may
apply to a word regarded as no longer acceptable or useful even though it is still in existence.
The meaning of these temporal labels can be somewhat different among dictionaries and thesauri. Obsolete indicates
that a term is no longer in active use, except, for example, in literary quotation. Obsolete may apply to a word regarded as
no longer acceptable or useful even though it is still in existence. Obsolete words and phrases are not easily understood
by a modern reader, and obsolete senses of current terms.” Obsolete word is a temporal label commonly used
by lexicographers (that is, editors of dictionaries) to indicate that a word (or a particular form or sense of a word) is no
longer in active use in speech and writing.
As Knud Sørensen points out, "it sometimes occurs that words which have become obsolete in Britain continue to be
current in the United States (compare Amer. Engl. fall and Brit. Engl. autumn)" (Languages in Contact and Contrast,
1991).
FOLLOWING ARE SOME EXAMPLES OF OBSOLETE WORDS:
ILLECEBROUS "Illecebrous [ill-less-uh-brus] an obsolete word meaning 'attractive, alluring.' From a Latin
word meaning 'to entice.'" (Erin McKean, Totally Weird and Wonderful Words. Oxford University Press, 2006)
MAWK "The underlying meaning of mawkish is 'maggotish.' It was derived from a now obsolete word mawk,
which meant literally 'maggot' but was used figuratively (like maggot itself) for a 'whim' or 'fastidious fancy.'
Hence mawkish originally meant 'nauseated, as if repelled by something one is too fastidious to eat.' In the 18th century
the notion of 'sickness' or 'sickliness' produced the present-day sense 'over-sentimental.'" (John Ayto,  Word Origins, 2nd
ed. A & C Black, 2005)
MUCKRAKE "Mudslinging and muckraking--two words commonly connected with the pursuit of an elected
office and the flotsam the campaigns leave in their wake. "Voters seem fairly familiar with the term used to describe
malicious or scandalous attacks against opponents, but the latter 'm' word may be new for some people. It is an obsolete
word describing a tool used to rake muck or dung and used in reference to a character in John Bunyan’s classic  Pilgrim’s
Progress [1678]--'the Man with the Muck-rake' who rejected salvation to focus on filth." (Vanessa Curry, "Don’t Muck It
Up, and We Won’t Rake It." The Daily Herald[Columbia, TN], April 3, 2014)|
SLUBBERDEGULLION Slubberdegullion is "n: a slobbering or dirty fellow, a worthless sloven," 1610s,
from slubber "to daub, smear, behave carelessly or negligently" (1520s), probably from Dutch or Low German
(cf. slobber (v)). Second element appears to be an attempt to imitate French; or perhaps it is French, related to Old
French goalon "a sloven." "Century Dictionary speculates the -de- means 'insignificant' or else is from hobbledehoy."
SNOUTFAIR Snoutfair is a person with a handsome countenance (literally, a fair snout). Its origins are from the
1500s.
LUNTING Lunting means to walk while smoking a pipe. Lunting is also the emantion of smoke or steam from a
tobacco pipe, or the flame used to light a fire, torch, or pipe, The word lunting originated in the 1500s "from either the
Dutch word 'lont' meaning a slow match or fuse or the Middle Low German 'lonte' meaning a wick.
57

WITH SQUIRREL With squirrel is a euphemism that means pregnant. It originated in the Ozark Mountains in
the early 20th century.
CURGLAFF Curglaff is commonly felt by people in northern climes -- it is the shock that one feels when first
plunging into cold water. The word curglaff originated from Scotland in the 1800s. (Also spelled curgloff).
GROAK To groak (verb) is to watch someone longingly while they are eating, in the hope that they will give
you some of their food. The origin is possibly Scottish. 
COCKALORUM Cockalorum is a little man who has an over-inflated opinion of himself and thinks himself
more important than he is; also, boastful speech. The origin of cockalorum may be from the from the obsolete Flemish
word kockeloeren of the 1700s, meaning "to crow."
SUBJECTIVE JUDGMENTS: GRIEFSOME IN THE OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY (OED)
- "Griefsome was . . . labelled obsolete during the writing of the first edition of the OED. A few months later,
however, one of the editors used griefsome in drafting the definition of grievesomeness ('the quality or condition of being
griefsome'), as a draft proof still records. Here, intuition and usage failed to coincide; paradoxically  griefsome was both
obsolete (according to the label it had been given) and current (according to the usage of one of the editors).
4. ARCHAIC WORDS
The word archaism is derived from the Greek word archaïkós meaning “ancient.”
The label archaic is used for words that were once common but are now rare. Archaic implies having the
character or characteristics of a much earlier time.
The word stock of a language is in an increasing state of change. In every period in the development of a literary
language one can find words which will show more or less apparent changes in their meaning or usage, from full vigour,
through a moribund state, to death, i.e. complete disappearance of the unit from the language.
We’ll distinguish 3 stages in the aging process of words:
1) the beginning of the aging process when the word becomes rarely used. Such words are called obsolescent,
i.e. they are in the stage of gradually passing out of general use;
2) The second group of archaic words are those that have already gone completely out of use but are still
recognized by the English speaking community. These words are called obsolete.
3) The third group, which may be called archaic proper, are words which are no longer recognized in modern
English, words that were in use in Old English and which have either dropped out of the language entirely or have
changed in their appearance so much that they have become unrecognizable.
There is another class of words which is erroneously classed as archaic, historic words. Words of this type never
disappear from the language.
Archaic words are used in historical novels, in official and diplomatic documents, in business letters, legal
language, etc. Archaic words, word-forms and word combinations are also used to create an elevated effect.
I. What is Archaism?
To be afeared used to mean not to be scary, but to be afraid. And how many people today understand that the
word wherefore in “wherefore art thou Romeo” means why not where? How many people still say shan’t (shall not)
instead of won’t? Perhaps in Britain, only. These words, which are so old that they have gone out of  style, or few people
know what they mean, are examples of archaisms.
 II. Examples of Archaism
Because archaisms are, by definition, no longer used much, here are a few examples from Shakespeare and
legal jargon, with their meanings explained:
Example 1
This above all: to thine own self be true.
This often quoted line from Shakespeare’s Hamlet has an archaism—thine—as well as archaic sentence structure. The
modern translation would be: This above all: be true to yourself.
Example 2
Do you bite your thumb at us, sir?
A modern response to this question would be, “Do I what?” This line is also from Shakespeare. The expression “to bite
one’s thumb” at someone once meant to bite and flick one’s thumb towards someone, which was an offensive and
insulting gesture.
Example 3
The language of lawyers and laws is filled with archaisms such as heretofore, hereunto, thereof, etc.
Often used in Shakespearean studies, this phrase may be translated to: The lady solemnly declares too much, I think.
This last example calls attention to the fact that although archaisms are not used much anymore, they are used.  If a word
or phrase is not used at all anymore, in any context, it is not an archaism; it is obsolete.
III. The Importance of Using Archaisms
Archaisms exist, naturally, because language is always changing through the years unless artificially held back.
Shakespeare’s English–Elizabethan English—evolved into the many dialects of modern English.  Archaisms are most
important because they remain in use in certain limited fields of activity—especially law, government, and religion—the
most conservative and traditional areas of activity in our world.  But archaisms can also be used by anyone anytime in
speech or writing, to create an atmosphere of antiquity, and also, to give one’s language a feeling of official-ness, royalty,
or religious authority.
 IV. Examples of Archaisms in Literature
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Archaisms are prominent in classic literature because literature has to be old before it can become classic, and
the older a work of literature becomes, the older its words become. What’s less predictable is when a modern author uses
archaisms with a certain purpose. Example 1. If a body catch a body coming through the rye…

11-MA`RUZA. WORD FORMATION AND WAYS OF WORD FORMATION

1. Word formation
2. Ways of word formation
 compounding
 derivation
 affixation
 blending
 clipping
 acronyms
 other ways

Word formation
Word-formation tries to explain the processes through which we can create new word forms. We’ve already seen
some of these at work when we looked at morphemes and word classes, but now we’ll investigate them a little more
closely, initially using exploratory methods again, rather than just looking at long lists of morphemes and listing their
functions.
As far as morphological processes in word-formation are concerned, we can distinguish between a variety of
major types, briefly introduced and summarised in the table below:
Major types of word formation processes
Process Function
affixation changing words by adding morphemes in the front or the back of a free morpheme or
base; sub-divided into prefigation & suffigation
zero-derivation changing the word class without changing the word shape
compounding creating new words by combining (mainly) free morphemes
backformation creating new words from phrases
clipping & blending abbreviating or ‘fusing’ words into new ones.
acronym formation using initials to create short words
Compounding
Compounding forms a word out of two or more root morphemes. The words are called compounds or compound
words.
In Linguistics, compounds can be either native or borrowed.
Native English roots are typically free morphemes, so that means native compounds are made out of independent
words that can occur by themselves. Examples: mailman (composed of free root mail and free root man), mail carrier,
dog house, fireplace, fireplug (a regional word for 'fire hydrant'), fire hydrant, dry run, cupcake, cup holder, email, e-
ticket, pick-up truck, talking-to
Some compounds have a preposition as one of the component words as in the last 2 examples.
In Greek and Latin, in contrast to English, roots do not typically stand alone. So compounds are composed of
bound roots. Compounds formed in English from borrowed Latin and Greek morphemes preserve this characteristic.
Examples include photograph, iatrogenic, and many thousands of other classical words.
Note that compounds are written in various ways in English: with a space between the elements; with a hyphen
between the elements; or simply with the two roots run together with no separation. The way the word is written does not
affect its status as a compound. Over time, the convention for writing compounds can change, usually in the direction
from separate words (e.g. email used to be written with a hyphen. In the 19th century, today and tomorrow were
sometimes still written to-day and to-morrow. The to originally was the preposition to with an older meaning 'at [a
particular period of time]'. Clock work changed to clock-work and finally to one word with no break (clockwork). If you
read older literature you might see some compound words that are now written as one word appearing with unfamiliar
spaces or hyphens between the components.
Another thing to note about compounds is that they can combine words of different parts of speech. The list
above shows mostly noun-noun compounds, which is probably the most common part of speech combination, but there
are others, such as adjective-noun (dry run, blackbird, hard drive), verb-noun (pick-pocket, cut-purse, lick-spittle) and
even verb-particle (where 'particle' means a word basically designating spatial expression that functions to complete a
literal or metaphorical path), as in run-through, hold-over. Sometimes these compounds are different in the part of speech
of the whole compound vs. the part of speech of its components. Note that the last two are actually nouns, despite their
components.
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Some compounds have more than two component words. These are formed by successively combining words
into compounds, e.g. pick-up truck, formed from pick-up and truck , where the first component, pick-up is itself a
compound formed from pick and up. Other examples are ice-cream cone, no-fault insurance and even more complex
compounds liketop-rack dishwasher safe.
There are a number of subtypes of compounds that do not have to do with part of speech, but rather the sound
characteristics of the words. These subtypes are not mutually exclusive.
Rhyming compounds (subtype of compounds)
These words are compounded from two rhyming words. Examples: lovey-dovey, chiller-killer
There are words that are formally very similar to rhyming compounds, but are not quite compounds in English
because the second element is not really a word--it is just a nonsense item added to a root word to form a rhyme.
Examples:
higgledy-piggledy, tootsie-wootsie 
This formation process is associated in English with child talk (and talk addressed to children), technically called
hypocoristic language.
Examples: bunnie-wunnie, Henny Penny, snuggly-wuggly, Georgie Porgie, Piggie-Wiggie
Another word type that looks a bit like rhyming compounds comprises words that are formed of two elements
that almost match, but differ in their vowels. Again, the second element is typically a nonsense form:
pitter-patter, zigzag, tick-tock, riffraff, flipflop
Derivation Derivation is the creation of words by modification of a root without the addition of other roots.
Often the effect is a change in part of speech.
Affixation (Subtype of Derivation)
The most common type of derivation is the addition of one or more affixes to a root, as in the word  derivation itself. This
process is called affixation, a term which covers both prefixation and suffixation.
Blending
Blending is one of the most beloved of word formation processes in English. It is especially creative in that
speakers take two words and merge them based not on morpheme structure but on sound structure. The resulting words
are called blends.
Usually in word formation we combine roots or affixes along their edges: one morpheme comes to an end before
the next one starts. For example, we form derivation out of the sequence of morphemes de+riv+at(e)+ion. One morpheme
follows the next and each one has identifiable boundaries. The morphemes do not overlap.
But in blending, part of one word is stitched onto another word, without any regard for where one morpheme
ends and another begins. For example, the word swooshtika 'Nike swoosh as a logo symbolizing corporate power and
hegemony' was formed from swoosh and swastika. The swoosh part remains whole and recognizable in the blend, but
the tika part is not a morpheme, either in the word swastika or in the blend. The blend is a perfect merger of form, and
also of content. The meaning contains an implicit analogy between the swastika and the swoosh, and thus conceptually
blends them into one new kind of thing having properties of both, but also combined properties of neither source. Other
examples include glitterati (blending glitter and literati) 'Hollywood social set', mockumentary (mock and documentary)
'spoof documentary'.
The earliest blends in English only go back to the 19th century, with wordplay coinages by Lewis Carroll in
Jabberwocky. For example, he introduced to the language slithy, formed from lithe and slimy, and galumph,
(from gallop and triumph. Interestingly galumph has survived as a word in English, but it now seems to mean 'walk in a
stomping, ungainly way'.
Some blends that have been around for quite a while include brunch (breakfast and lunch), motel (motor
hotel), electrocute (electric and execute), smog (smoke and fog) and cheeseburger (cheese and hamburger). These go
back to the first half of the twentieth century. Others, such as stagflation (stagnation and inflation), spork (spoon and
fork), and carjacking (car and hijacking) arose since the 1970s.
Here are some more recent blends I have run across:
mocktail (mock and cocktail) 'cocktail with no alcohol'
splog (spam and blog) 'fake blog designed to attract hits and raise Google-ranking'
Britpoperati (Britpop and literati) 'those knowledgable about current British pop music'
Clipping
Clipping is a type of abbreviation of a word in which one part is 'clipped' off the rest, and the remaining word
now means essentially the same thing as what the whole word means or meant. For example, the word rifle is a fairly
modern clipping of an earlier compound rifle gun, meaning a gun with a rifled barrel. (Rifled means having a spiral
groove causing the bullet to spin, and thus making it more accurate.) Another clipping is burger, formed by clipping off
the beginning of the word hamburger. (This clipping could only come about once hamburg+er was reanalyzed
as ham+burger.)
Acronyms
Acronyms are formed by taking the initial letters of a phrase and making a word out of it. Acronyms provide a
way of turning a phrase into a word. The classical acronym is also pronounced as a word.  Scuba was formed from self-
contained underwater breathing apparatus. The word snafu was originally WW2 army slang for Situation Normal All
Fucked Up. Acronyms were being used more and more by military bureaucrats, and soldiers coined snafu in an apparent
parody of this overused device. Sometimes an acronym uses not just the first letter, but the first syllable of a component
60

word, for example radar, RAdio Detection And Ranging and sonar, SOund Navigation and Ranging. Radar forms an
analogical model for both sonar and lidar, a technology that measures distance to a target and and maps its surface by
bouncing a laser off it. There is some evidence that lidar was not coined as an acronym, but instead as a blend
of light and radar. Based on the word itself, either etymology appears to work, so many speakers assume that lidar is an
acronym rather than a blend.
A German example that strings together the initial syllables of the words in the phrase, is Gestapo , from
GEheime STAats POlizei 'Sectret State Police'. Another is Stasi, from STAats SIcherheit 'State Security'. Acronyms are a
subtype of initialism. Initialisms also include words made from the initial letters of a Phrase but NOT pronounced as a
normal word - it is instead pronounced as a string of letters. Organzation names aroften initialisms of his type.
Examples: NOW (National Organization of Women), US or U.S., USA or U.S.A. (United States), UN or U.N.
(United Nations), IMF (International Monetary Fund), Some organizations ARE pronounced as a word: UNICEF,
MADD (Mothers Against Drunk Driving)
The last example incorporates a meaning into the word that fits the nature of the organization. Sometimes this
type is called a Reverse Acronym or a Backronym.
These can be thought of as a special case of acronyms.
Memos, email, and text messaging (text-speak) are modes of communication that give rise to both clippings and
acronyms, since these word formation methods are designed to abbreviate. Some acronyms:
NB - Nota bene, literally 'note well'. Used by scholars making notes on texts. (A large number of other scholarly
acronyms from Latin are used, probably most invented in the medieval period or Renaissance, not originally in Latin)
BRB - be right back (from 1980s, 90s)
FYI - for your information (from mid 20th century) 
LOL - laughing out loud (early 21st century) - now pronounced either /lol/ or /el o el/; has spawned compounds
like Lolcats). 
ROFL - rolling on the floor laughing
ROFLMAO - rolling on the floor laughing my ass off
Reanalysis
Sometimes speakers unconsciously change the morphological boundaries of a word, creating a new morph or
making an old one unrecognizable. This happened in hamburger, which was originally Hamburger steak 'chopped and
formed steak in the Hamburg style, then hamburger (hamburg + er), then ham + burger
Folk etymology 
A popular idea of a word's origin that is not in accordance with its real origin.
Many folk etymologies are cases of reanalysis in which the word is not only reanalysis but it changes under the
influence of the new understanding of its morphemes. The result is that speakers think it has a different origin than it
does. 
Analogy 
Sometimes speakers take an existing word as a model and form other words using some of its morphemes as a
fixed part, and changing one of them to something new, with an analogically similar meaning. Cheeseburger was formed
on the analogy of hamburger, replacing a perceived morpheme ham with cheese. carjack and skyjack were also formed
by analogy.
Novel creation
In novel creation, a speaker or writer forms a word without starting from other morphemes. It is as if the word if
formed out of 'whole cloth', without reusing any parts.
Some examples of now-conventionalized words that were novel creations include blimp, googol (the
mathematical term),bling, and possibly slang, which emerged in the last 200 years with no obvious etymology. Some
novel creations seem to display 'sound symbolism', in which a word's phonological form suggests its meaning in some
way. For example, the sound of the word bling seems to evoke heavy jewelry making noise. Another novel creation
whose sound seems to relate to its meaning is badonkadonk, 'female rear end', a reduplicated word which can remind
English speakers of the repetitive movement of the rear end while walking.
Creative respelling
Sometimes words are formed by simply changing the spelling of a word that the speaker wants to relate to the
new word. Product names often involve creative respelling, such as Mr. Kleen.

12-MA’RUZA. AFFIXATION AND ITS SUBDIVISIONS. CONVERSION

1. Affixation and its subdivisions
- prefixation
- suffixation
- other
2. Conversion
61

1. Affixation and its subdivisions

Affixation is the general process of attaching bound – rather than free – morphemes to a base. We can sub-divide the
morphemes occurring in affixation processes further into the following types, based on their positions of attachement:
 prefixes attach at the beginning: {im}+{poss}{ible}, {un}+{able}
 suffixes attach at the end: {act}+{ress}, {baron}+{ess}
 circumfixes consist of two parts, a prefix and a suffix: Germ. {ge}+{geb}+{en}; both need to attach to create the
final form
 infixes ‘attach’ (i.e. get inserted) in the middle: {ab}{so+{blood}{y}+lute}{ly}
To fully understand the word formation options affixation covers, we need to distinguish between its two major
functions, the inflectional and the derivational one. While inflection, as we have seen, allow us to relate words to one
another on the syntagmatic level, i.e. indicating what kinds of roles they perform on the clause level, how they combine
with other words, or what kind of tense/aspect they may express, derivation makes it possible to create new words from
old ones, either by changing their word class or modifying/‘specifying’ their meanings. In terms of their  productivity,
inflection has clearly diminished over time, whereas derivation still remains productive.
Although many affixes appear to have a relatively clearly defined function, recognising affix functionality is not
always straightforward. Often what may superficially look like a specific affix (or a root) with a certain meaning may
either be part of a longer unit, or not constitute an affix at all. Furthermore, we also encounter the same problem we saw
earlier on (for instance with the {s} morpheme), i.e. that one and the same form may actually be multi-functional in
representing a number of different meanings. In order to be able to understand this problem better, as well as to explore
the potential functions of pre- and suffixes, let’s investigate some presumed pre- or suffixes by removing them and
observing whether this whether may lead to potential misinterpretations.
A) Suffixation
- is characteristic of noun and adjective formation
- a suffix usually changes not only the lexical meaning of a word but also its grammatical meaning or its word
class, e.g. to bake – baker, beauty – beautiful
► Noun-forming suffixes:
-or: actor, visitor, director
-er/eer: speaker, engineer, opener
-ist: scientist, satirist, journalist
-ess: hostess, stewardess, actress
-ty/ity: cruelty, purity, stupidity
-ure/ture: failure, exposure, mixture
-dom: freedom, kingdom,
-age: passage, marriage, postage
-ance/ence: appearance, preference
-hood: likelihood, brotherhood, neighbourhood
-ing: reading, opening, beginning
-ion/sion/tion/ition/ation: operation, permission, description
-ness: kindness, goodness, wilingness
-y/ery: difficulty, enquiry, robbery, slavery
-ship: partnership, membership, kinship
-ment: government, development, movement
-t: complaint, restraint
► Adjective-forming suffixes:
-able/ible: comfortable, fashionable, sensible
-ic/atic: atomic, heroic, systematic
-ful: beautiful, helpful, careful
-y: bloody, dirty, sunny
-less: useless, homeless, careless
-al/ial/tial: personal, influential, preferential
-ive/ative/itive: active, creative, sensitive
-ant/ent: pleasant, different, excellent
-en: wooden, golden, woollen
-like: childlike, ladylike
-ing: amusing, interesting, charming
-ous: dangerous, famous, mysterious
-ish: bookish, childish, foolish
-ly: friendly, lovely, manly
► Verb-forming suffixes:
-ize/ise: civilize, modernize
-ify/fy/efy: simplify, glorify
62

-en, deepen, sharpen, lengthen

► Adverb-forming suffixes:
-ly: formally, calmly, easily
-ward/wards: homeward, afterwards, backwards
-wise/ways: clockwise, otherwise, sideways
-fold: twofold, threefold
B) Prefixation
- a prefix usually changes or concretizes the lexical meaning of a word and only rarely parts of speech, e. g. write
– rewrite, smoker – non-smoker
- Prefixes are sometimes used to form new verb: circle – encircle, large – enlarge etc.
► Negation or opposition:
un-: unable, unfair, unpack, unzip
dis-: disagreeable, dislike
a-: amoral, atypical
in-: informal, inexperience
im-: (before b, m, p) impossible, immoral
il-: (before l) illegal, illogical
ir-: (before r) irregular, irrational
non-: nonsmoker, non-scientific
de-: decode, defrost, devalue
► Repetition, making it possible:
re-: reread, rebuild, reunited
en-/em-: enrich, enlarge, embitter
► Degree, measure or size:
super-: supersonic, superhuman
semi-: semi-final, semidetached
hyper-: hyperactive, hypersensitive
ultra-: ultrahigh, ultraviolet
over-: overtime, overpopulated
► Time and place, order, relation:
post-: post-war, postpone, postgraduate
inter-: international, intercontinental
pre-: pre-war, prehistoric, prearrange
ex-: ex-president, ex-husband, ex-film-star
► Number and numeral relation:
bi-: bilateral, bilabial
uni-: unisex, unicycle, unilateral
auto-: autobiography, autopump, auto-suggestion
multi-: multinational, multi-storey, multilingual
► Attitude, collaboration, membership:
anti-: antisocial, antiwar, antifreeze
counter-: counter-offensive, counter-revolution
pro-: pro-English, pro-vice-chancellor
► Pejoration:
mis-: misinform, mislead, misuse
pseudo-: pseudo-scientific, pseudo-intellectual
2. Conversion
The process of coining a new word in a different part of speech and with a different distribution characteristic
but without adding any derivative element, so that the basic form of the original and the basic form of the derived words
are homonymous, is variously called conversion, zero derivation, root formation, transposition or functional change.
The essence of the phenomenon may be illustrated by the following example: His voice silenced everyone
else (Snow). The word silence exists in the English language as a noun, and a verb may be formed from the same stem
without adding any affix or without changing the stem in any other way, so that both basic forms are homonymous. Their
distribution on the other hand is quite different. In our example silence not only takes the functional verbal suffix -ed but
occupies the position of a verbal predicate having voice as a subject and everyone else as its object. Its lexico-
grammatical meaning is also that of a verb. The difference between silence n and silence v is morphological, syntactic
and semantic: the original and the resulting word are grammatically different; a new paradigm is acquired and the
syntactic functions and ties are those of a verb. Compare also: silence one's critics; silence enemy guns.
The term basic formas used in the above definition means the word form in which the notion denoted is
expressed in the most abstract way. For nouns it is the Common case singular, for verbs, the Infinitive.
Each of the five terms given above for the type of the word-formation process itself, i.e. conversion, zero
derivation, root formation, transposition or functional change, has its drawbacks.
63

The term conversion is in a way misleading as actually nothing is converted: the original word continues its
existence alongside the new one. As to zero derivation, it does not permit us to distinguish this type from sound
interchange (food n — feed v) where no derivative morpheme is addecj either. The term root formation is not always
suitable as the process can involve not only root words, but also words containing affixes and compounds (as was the
case with the word silence above; compare also audition v, featherbed v). The terms functional change or transposition
imply that the process in question concerns usage, not word-formation. This immediately brings us into an extremely
controversial field.
Accepting the term functional change one must admit that one and the same word can belong to several parts of
speech simultaneously. The majority of the Soviet linguists are convinced of the impossibility of a word belonging at the
same time to several parts of speech, because this contradicts the basic definition of a word as a system of forms. 1 In what
follows the term conversion will be used in preference to the other four, because in spite of its deficiencies it is more
widely accepted to denote this word-forming process.
As a type of word-formation, conversion exists in many languages. "What is specific for the English vocabulary
is not its mere presence, but its intense development.
The study of conversion in present-day English is of great theoretical interest, as nowhere, perhaps, are the
interdependence of vocabulary and grammar and the systematic character of language so obviously displayed. Studying
it, one sees the dependence of word-building types on the character of word structure already frequent in the language.
The main reason for the widespread development of conversion in present-day English is no doubt the absence
of morphological elements serving as classifying signals, or, in other words, of formal signs marking the part of speech to
which the word belongs. The fact that the sound pattern does not show to what part of speech the word belongs may be
illustrated by the following table.
Words Parts of speech in which they occur
Noun Verb Adjective Adverb Other parts of
speech
back home ++++ ++ + ++ +
silence round ++ ++

13- MA’RUZA. WORD COMBINATION IN MODERN ENGLISH

1. Word combinations, word groups and set combinations
2. Traditional word combinations
3. Classification of word combinations
1. Word combinations, word groups and set combinations
Every utterance is a patterned, rhythmed and segmented sequence of signals. On the lexical level these signals
building up the utterance are not exclusively words. Alongside with separate words speakers use larger blocks consisting
of more than one word. Words combined to express ideas and thoughts make up word-groups.
The degree of structural and semantic cohesion of words within word-groups may vary. Some word-groups are
functionally and semantically inseparable, e.g. rough diamond, cooked goose, to stew in one's own juice. Such word-
groups are traditionally described as set-phrases or phraseological units. Characteristic features of phraseological units are
non-motivation for idiomaticity and stability of context. The cannot be freely made up in speech but are reproduced as
ready-made units.
The component members in other word-groups possess greater semantic and structural independence, e.g. to
cause misunderstanding, to shine brightly, linguistic phenomenon, red rose. Word-groups of this type are defined as free
word-groups for free phrases. They are freely made up in speech by the speakers according to the needs of
communication.
Set expressions are contrasted to free phrases and semi-fixed combinations. All these different stages of
restrictions imposed upon co-occurance of words, upon the lexical filling of structural patterns which are specific for
every language. The restriction may be independent of the ties existing in extra-linguistic reality between the object
spoken of and be conditioned by purely linguistic factors, or have extralinguistic causes in the history of the people. In
free word-combination the linguistic factors are chiefly connected with grammatical properties of words.
Free word-groups of syntactically connected notional words within a sentence, which by itself is not a sentence.
This definition is recognised more or less universally in this country and abroad. Though other linguistics define the term
word-group differently - as any group of words connected semantically and grammatically which does not make up a
sentence by itself. From this point of view words-components of a word-group may belong to any part of speech,
therefore such groups as the morning, the window, and Bill are also considered to be word-groups (though they comprise
only one notional word and one form-word).
Structurally word-groups may be approached in various ways. All word-groups may be analysed by the criterion
of distribution into two big classes. Distribution is understood as the whole complex of contexts in which the given
64

lexical unit can be used. If the word-group has the same linguistic distribution as one of its members, It is described as
endocentric, i.e. having one central member functionally equivalent to the whole word-group. The word-groups, e.g. red
flower, bravery of all kinds, are distributionally identical with their central components flower and bravery: I saw a red
flower - I saw a flower. I appreciate bravery of all kinds - I appreciate bravery.
If the distribution of the word-group is different from either of its members, it is regarded as exocentric, i.e. as
having no such central member, for instance side by side or grow smaller and others where the component words are not
syntactically substitutable for the whole word-group.
In endocentric word-groups the central component that has the same distribution as the whole group is clearly
the dominant member or the head to which all other members of the group are subordinated. In the word-group red flower
the head is the noun flower and in the word-group kind of people the head is the adjective kind.
Word-groups are also classified according to their syntactic pattern into predicative and non-predicative groups.
Such word-groups, e.g. John works, he went that have a syntactic structure similar to that of a sentence, are classified as
predicative, and all others as non-predicative. Non-predicative word-groups may be subdivided according to the type of
syntactic relation between the components into subordinative and coordinative. Such word-groups as red flower, a man of
wisdom and the like are termed subordinative in which flower and man are head-words and red, of wisdom are
subordinated to them respectively and function as their attributes. Such phrases as woman and child, day and night, do or
die are classified as coordinative. Both members in these word-groups are functionally and semantically equal.
Subordinative word-groups may be classified according to their head-words into nominal groups (red flower),
adjectival groups (kind to people), verbal groups (to speak well), pronominal (all of them), statival (fast asleep). The head
is not necessarily the component that occurs first in the word-group. In such nominal wordgroups as e.g. very great
bravery, bravery in the struggle the noun bravery is the head whether followed or preceded by other words.
The lexical meaning of the word-group may be defined as the combined lexical meaning of the component
words. Thus the lexical meaning of the word-group red flower may be described denotationally as the combined meaning
of the words red and flower. It should be pointed out, however, that the term combined lexical meaning is not to imply
that the meaning of the word-group is a mere additive result of all the lexical meaning of the component members. As a
rule, the meaning of the component words are mutually dependant and the meaning of the word-group naturally
predominates over the lexical meanings of its constituents.
The lexical and structural components of meaning in word-groups are interdependent and inseparable. The
inseparability of these two semantic components in word-groups can be illustrated by the semantic analysis of individual
word-groups in which the norms of conventional collocability of words seem to be deliberately overstepped. For instance,
in the word-group all the sun long we observe a departure from the norm of lexical valency represented by such word-
groups as all the day long, all the night long, all the week long, and a few others. The structural pattern of these word-
groups in ordinary usage and the word-group all the sun long is identical. The generalised meaning of the pattern may be
described as "a unit of time". Replacing day, night, week by another noun the sun we do not find any change in the
structural meaning of the pattern. The group all the sun long functions semantically as a unit of time. The noun sun,
however, included in the group continues to carry its own lexical meaning (not "a unit of time") which violates the norms
of collocability in this wordgroup. It follows that the meaning of the word-group is derived from the combined lexical
meanings of its constituents and is inseparable from the meaning of the pattern of their arrangement. Two basic linguistic
factors which unite words into word-groups and which largely account for their combinability are lexical valency or
collocability and grammatical valency.
Words are known to be used in lexical context, i.e. in combination with other words. The aptness of a word to
appear in various combinations, with other words is qualified as its lexical collocability or valency.
The range of a potential lexical collocability of words is restricted by the inner structure of the language
wordstock. This can be easily observed in the examples as follows: though the words bend, curl are registered by the
dictionaries as synonyms their collocability is different, for they tend to combine with different words: e.g. to bend a bar/
wire/pipe/ bow/ stick/ head/ knees to curl hair/ moustache/ a hat brim/waves/ lips.
There can be cases of synonymic groups where one synonym would have the widest possible range of
соllосаbility (like shake which enters combinations with an immense number of words including earth, air, mountains,
сonvictions, beliefs, spears, walls, souls, tablecloths, bosoms, carpets etc.) while another will have the limitation inherent
in its semantic structure (like wag which means < to shake a thing by one end >, and confined to rigid group of nouns -
tail, finger, head, tongue, beard, chin). There is certain norm of lexical valency for each word and any intentional
departure from this norm is qualified as a stylistic device, e.g.: tons of words, a life ago, years of dust.
2. Traditional word combinations
Words traditionally collocated in speech tend to make up so called cliches or traditional word combinations. In
traditional combinations words retain their full semantic independence although they are limited in their combinative
power (e.g.: to wage a war, to render a service, to make friends). Words in traditional combinations are combined
according to the patterns of grammatical structure of the given language. Traditional combinations fall into structural
types as:
1.V+N combinations. E.G.: deal a blow, bear a grudge, take a fancy etc
2.V+ preposition +N: fall into disgrace, go into details, go into particular, take into account, come into being etc.
3. V + Adj.: work hard, rain heavily etc.
4. V + Adj.: set free, make sure, put right etc.
65

5. Adj. + N.: maiden voyage, ready money, dead silence, feline eyes, aquiline nose, auspicious circumstances
etc.
6. N + V: time passes / flies / elapses, options differ, tastes vary etc.
7. N + preposition + N: breach of promise, flow of words, flash of hope, flood of tears.
Grammatical combinability also tells upon the freedom of bringing words together. The aptness of a word to
appear in specific grammatical (syntactic) structures is termed grammatical valency.
The grammatical valency of words may be different. The range of it is delimited by the part of speech the word
belongs to. This statement, though, does not entitle to say that grammatical valency of words belonging to the same part
of speech is identical. E.g.: the two synonyms clever and intelligent are said to posses different grammatical valency as
the word clever can fit the syntactic pattern of Adj. + preposition at + N clever at physics, clever at social sciences,
whereas the word intelligent can never be found in exactly the same syntactic pattern.
3. Classification of word combinations
Unlike frequent departures from the norms of lexical valency, departures from the grammatical valency norms
are not admissible unless a speaker purposefully wants to make the word group unintelligible to native speakers. Thus,
the main approaches towards word - groups classification are as follows:
1. According to the criterion of distribution word-groups are classified into: endocentric e.g. having one central
member functionally equivalent to the whole word group; exocentric e.g. having the distribution different from that of
either of its members. Here component words are met syntactically substituable for the whole word group. E.g.: red
flower - the word group whose distribution does not differ from the distribution of its head word, the noun flower. As in I
gave her a red flower. I gave her a flower; E.g.: Side by side, by leaps and bounds.
2. According to the syntactic pattern word-groups are classified into: predicative They knew; Children believe;
Weather permitting; coordinative say or die; come and go; subordinative a man of property, domesticated animals.
3. According to the part of speech the head word belongs to subordinative free word groups may fail into:
nominal stone, wall, wild, life, adjectival necessary to know, kind to people, verbal work hard, go smoothly, adverbial
very fluently, rather sharply, very well, so quickly. numerical five of them, hundreds of refugees; pronominal some of
them, all of us, nothing to do; statival: fast ,asleep, full, aware.
Word-groups may be also analyzed from the point of view of their motivation. Word groups may be described as
lexically motivated if the combined lexical meaning of the group is deducible from the meaning of its components. The
degrees of motivation may be different and range from complete motivation to lack of it. Free word - groups, however,
are characterised by complete motivation, as their components carry their individual lexical meanings.

14- MA’RUZA. PHRASEOLOGY IN MODERN ENGLISH. PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS WITH DIFFERENT

COMPONENTS

1. The notion of phraseological units

2. Set phrases and idioms
3. Classification of phraseological units
4. Proverbs, sayings, familiar quotations and clichés

1. The notion of phraseological units

Phraseological unit is a non-motivated word-group that cannot be freely made up in speech but is reproduced as
a ready made unit.
Reproducibility is regular use of phraseological units in speech as single unchangeable collocations.
Idiomaticity is the quality of phraseological unit, when the meaning of the whole is not deducible from the sum
of the meanings of the parts.
Stability of a phraseological unit implies that it exists as a ready- made linguistic unit which does not allow of
any variability of its lexical components of grammatical structure.
In lexicology there is great ambiguity of the terms phraseology and idioms. Opinions differ as to how
phraseology should be defined, classified, described and analysed. The word "phraseology has very different meanings in
our country and in Great Britain or the United States.
In linguistic literature the term is used for the expressions where the meaning of one element is dependent on the
other, irrespective of the structure and properties of the unit (V.V. Vinogradov); with other authors it denotes only such
set expressions which do not possess expressiveness or emotional colouring (A.I. Smirnitsky), and also vice versa: only
those that are imaginative, expressive and emotional (I.V.Arnold). N.N. Amosova calls such expressions fixed context
units, i.e. units in which it is impossible to substitute any of the components without changing the meaning not only of the
whole unit but also of the elements that remain intact. O.S. Ahmanova insists on the semantic integrity of such phrases
prevailing over the structural separateness of their elements. A.V. Koonin lays stress on the structural separateness of the
elements in a phraseological unit, on the change of meaning in the whole as compared with its elements taken separately
and on a certain minimum stability.
2. Set phrases and idioms
In English and American linguistics no special branch of study exists, and the term "phraseology" has a stylistic
meaning, according to Webster's dictionary 'mode of expression, peculiarities of diction, i.e. choice and arrangement of
words and phrases characteristic of some author or some literary work'.
66

Difference in terminology ("set-phrases", "idioms", "word-equivalents") reflects certain differences in the main criteria
used to distinguish types of phraseological units and free word-groups. The term "set phrase" implies that the basic
criterion of differentiation is stability of the lexical components and grammatical structure of word-groups.
The term "idiom" generally implies that the essential feature of the linguistic units is idiomaticity or lack of
motivation.
The term "word-equivalent" stresses not only semantic but also functional inseparability of certain word
groups, their aptness to function in speech as single words.
The essential features of phraseological units are: a) lack of semantic motivation; b) lexical and grammatical
stability. As far as semantic motivation is concerned phraseological units are extremely varied from motivated (by simple
addition of denotational meaning) like a sight for sore eyes and to know the ropes to partially motivated (when one of the
words is used in a not direct meaning) or to demotivated (completely non-motivated) like tit for tat, red-tape.
Lexical and grammatical stability of phraseological units is displayed in the fact that no substitution of any
elements whatever is possible in the following stereotyped (unchangeable) set expressions, which differ in many other
respects; all the world and his wife, red tape, calf love, heads or tails, first night, to gild the pill, to hope for the best, busy
as a bee, fair and square, stuff and nonsense time and again.
In a free phrase the semantic correlative ties are fundamentally different. The information is additive and each
element has a much greater semantic independence where each component may be substituted without affecting the
meaning of the other: cut bread, cut cheese, eat bread. Information is additive in the sense that the amount of information
we had on receiving the first signal, i.e. having heard or read the word cut, is increased, the listener obtains further details
and learns what is cut. The reference of cut is unchanged. Every notional word can form additional syntactic ties with
other words outside the expression. In a set expression information furnished by each element is not additive: actually it
does not exist before we get the whole. No substitution for either cut or figure can be made without completely ruining
the following: I had an uneasy fear that he might cut a poor figure beside all these clever Russian officers (Shaw). He
was not managing to cut much of a figure (Murdoch). The only substitution admissible for the expression cut a poor
figure concerns the adjective.
Semantic approach stresses the importance of idiomaticity, functional - syntactic inseparability, contextual -
stability of context combined with idiomaticity.
In his classification of V.V. Vinogradov developed some points first advanced by the Swiss linguist Charles
Bally. The classification is based upon the motivation of the unit, i.e. the relationship existing between the meaning of the
whole and the meaning of its component parts. The degree of motivation is correlated with the rigidity, indivisibility and
semantic unity of the expression, i.e with the possibility of changing the form or the order of components, and of
substituting the whole by a single word. According to the type of motivation three types of phraseological units are
suggested, phraseological combinations, phraseological unities, and phraseological fusions.
The Phraseological Collocations (Combinations), are partially motivated, they contain one component used in its
direct meaning while the other is used figuratively: meet the demand, meet the necessity, meet the requirements.
Phraseological unities are much more numerous. They are clearly motivated. The emotional quality is based
upon the image created by the whole as in to stick (to stand) to one's guns, i.e. refuse to change one's statements or
opinions in the face of opposition', implying courage and integrity. The example reveals another characteristic of the type,
the possibility of synonymic substitution, which can be only very limited, e. g. to know the way the wind is blowing.
Phraseological fusions, completely non-motivated word-groups, (e.g. tit for tat), represent as their name suggests
the highest stage of blending together. The meaning of components is completely absorbed by the meaning of the whole,
by its expressiveness and emotional properties. Phraseological fusions are specific for every language and do not lend
themselves to literal translation into other languages.
Semantic stylistic features contracting set expressions into units of fixed context are simile, contrast, metaphor
and synonymy. For example: as like as two peas, as оld as the hills and older than the hills (simile); from beginning to
end, for love or money, more or less, sooner or later (contrast); a lame duck, a pack of lies, arms race, to swallow the pill,
in a nutshell (metaphor); by leaps and bounds, proud and haughty (synonymy). A few more combinations of different
features in the same phrase are: as good as gold, as pleased as Punch, as fit as a fiddle (alliteration, simile); now or
never, to kill or cure (alliteration and contrast). More rarely there is an intentional pun: as cross as two sticks means 'very
angry'. This play upon words makes the phrase jocular.
There are, of course, other cases when set expressions lose their metaphorical picturesqueness, having preserved
some fossilised words and phrases, the meaning of which is no longer correctly understood. For instance, the expression
buy a pig in a poke may be still used, although poke 'bag' (cf. pouch, pocket) does not occur in other contexts.
Expressions taken from obsolete sports and occupations may survive in their new figurative meaning. In these cases the
euphonic qualities of the expression are even more important. A muscular and irreducible phrase is also memorable. The
muscular feeling is of special importance in slogans and battle cries. Saint George and the Dragon for Merrie England,
the medieval battle cry, was a rhythmic unit to which a man on a horse could swing his sword. The modern Scholarships
not battleships! can be conveniently scanned by a marching crowd.
N.N. Amosova's approach is contextological. She defines phraseological units as units of fixed context. Fixed
context is defined as a context characterised by a specific and unchanging sequence of definite lexical components, and a
peculiar semantic relationship between them. Units of fixed context are subdivided into phrasemes and idioms.
Phrasemes are always binary: one component has a phraseologically bound meaning, the other serves as the determining
context (small talk, small hours, small change). In idioms the new meaning is created by the whole, though every element
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may have its original meaning weakened or even completely lost: in the nick of time 'at the exact moment'. Idioms may be
motivated or demotivated. A motivated idiom is homonymous to a free phrase, but this phrase is used figuratively: take
the bull by the horns 'to face dangers without fear. In the nick of time is demotivated, because the word nick is obsolete.
Both phrasemes and idioms may be movable (changeable) or immovable.
A.V. Koonin's classification is based on the functions of the units fulfil in speech. They may be nominating (a
bull in a china shop), interjectinal (a pretty kettle of fish), communicative (familiarity breeds contempt), or nominating-
communicative (pull somebody's leg). Further classification into subclasses depends on whether the units are changeable
or unchangeable, whether the meaning of the one element remains free, and, more generally, on the interdependence
between the meaning of the elements and the meaning of the set expression.
Formal classification distinguishes set expressions that are nominal phrases: the root of the trouble; verbal
phrases: put one's best foot forward; adjectival phrases: as good as gold; red as a cherry; adverbial phrases. from head to
foot; prepositional phrases: in the course of; conjunctional phrases: as long as, on the other hand, interjectional phrases:
Well, I never!
A stereotyped sentence also introduced into speech as a ready-made formula which may be illustrated by: Never
say die! 'never give up hope', take your time 'do not hurry.
3. Classification of phraseological units
This classification takes into consideration not only the type of component parts but also the functioning of the
whole, thus, tooth and nail is not a nominal but an adverbial unit, because it serves to modify a verb (e. g. fight tooth and
nail).
Within each of these classes a further subdivision is as follows:
a) Set expressions functioning like nouns:
N+N: maiden name 'the surname of a woman before she was married'; brains trust 'a committee of experts' N's+N: cat's
paw 'one who is used for the convenience of a cleverer and stronger person' (the expression comes from a fable in which
a monkey wanting to eat some chestnuts that were on a hot stove, but not wishing to burn himself while getting them,
seised a cat and holding its paw in his own used it to knock the chestnuts to the ground) Ns'+N: ladies' man 'one who
makes special effort to charm or please women'. N+prp+N: the arm of the law, skeleton in the cupboard. N+A: blight
errant (the phrase is today applied to any chivalrous man ready to help and protect oppressed and helpless people).
N+and+N: lord and master 'husband'; all the world and his wife. A+N: high tea 'an evening meal which combines meat
or some similar extra dish with the usual tea'. N+ subordinate clause: ships that pass in the night 'chance acquaintances'.
b) Set expressions functioning like verbs: V+N: take advantage
V+and+V: pick and choose
V+(one's)+N+(prp): snap one's fingers at
V+one+N: give one the bird 'to fire smb'
V+subordinate clause: see how the land lies 'to discover the state of affairs'.
c) Set expressions functioning like adjectives: A+and+A: high and mighty
(as)+A+as+N: as old as the hills, as mad as a hatter
d) Set expressions functioning like adverbs: N+N: tooth and nail
prp+N: by heart, of course adv+prp+N: once in a blue moon prp+N+or+N: by hook or by crook cj+clause: before one can
say Jack Robinson
e) Set expressions functioning like prepositions: prp+N+prp: in consequence of
f) Set expressions functioning like interjections: these are often structured as
imperative sentences: Bless (one's) soul! God bless me! Hang it (all)!
Phraseological stability is based upon:
a) the stability of use;
b) the stability of meaning;
c) lexical stability;
d) syntactic stability;
e) rhythmic characteristics, rhyme and imagery.
4. Proverbs, sayings, familiar quotations and cliches.
The place of proverbs, sayings and familiar quotations with respect to set expressions is a controversial issue. A
proverb is a short familiar epigrammatic saying expressing popular wisdom, a truth or a moral lesson in a concise and
imaginative way. Proverbs have much in common with set expressions, because their lexical components are also
constant, their meaning is traditional and mostly figurative, and they are introduced into speech ready-made. Another
reason why proverbs must be taken into consideration together with set expressions is that they often form the basis of set
expressions. E. g. the last straw breaks the camel's back: the last straw; a drowning man will clutch at a straw: clutch at
a straw; it is useless to lock the stable door when the steed is stolen: lock the stable door.
As to familiar quotations, they are different from proverbs in their origin. They come from literature and become
part of the language, so that many people using them do not even know that they are quoting, and very few could
accurately name the play or passage on which they are drawing even when they are aware of using a quotation from W.
Shakespeare.
The Shakespearian quotations have become and remain extremely numerous — they have contributed
enormously to the store of the language. Very many come from "Hamlet", for example: Something is rotten in the state of
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Denmark; Brevity is the soul of wit; The rest is silence; Thus conscience does make cowards of us all; There are more
things in heaven and earth, Horatio.
Some quotations are so often used that they come to be considered cliches. The term is used to denote such
phrases as have become hackneyed and stale. Being constantly and mechanically repeated they have lost their original
expressiveness. The following are perhaps the most generally recognised: the acid test, ample opportunities,
astronomical figures, the arms of Morpheus, to break the ice, the irony of fate, etc.

15- MA’RUZA. THE STYLISTIC DIFFERENTIATION OF THE VOCABULARY SYSTEM OF MODERN

ENGLISH
1. Common standard colloquial words
2. Specific literary vocabulary
3. Special colloquial vocabulary

1. Common standard colloquial words

Common colloquial words are always more emotionally coloured than literary ones. They are
used ininformal communication. Both literary and colloquial  words have their upper and  lower ranges.
The lower range of  literary  wordsapproaches the neutral layer and has a tendency to pass into that layer. The upper
range of the colloquial layer can easily pass into the neutral layer too. The lines of demarcation between common
colloquial and neutral andcommon literary and neutral are blurred. Here we may see the process of interpenetration of the
stylistic layers.The stylistic function of  the different layers of the  English Vocabulary depends in
many respects on their interaction when they are opposed to one another. It is interesting to note that
anything written assumes agreater degree of significance than what is only spoken. If the spoken
takes the place of the written or vice versa, it means that we are faced with a stylistic device.
2. Specific literary vocabulary
a) Terms
Terms are generally associated with a definite branch of science and therefore with a series
of other terms  belonging to that particular branch of science. They know no isolation; they always come in clusters,
either in atext on the subject to which they belong, or in special dictionaries which, unlike general
dictionaries, make a c a r e f u l s e l e c t i o n o f t e r m s . A l l t h e s e c l u s t e r s o f t e r m s f o r m t h e
n o m e n c l a t u r e , o r s y s t e m o f n a m e s , f o r t h e objects of study of any particular branch of science.T e r m s
are characterized by a tendency to be monosemantic and therefore easily call forth the
r e q u i r e d concept. Terms may appear in scientific style, newspaper style, publicistic style, the
belles-lettres style, etc. Terms no longer fulfill their basic function, that of bearing an exact reference to a given
notion or concept. Thet h e i r f u n c t i o n i s e i t h e r t o i n d i c a t e t h e t e c h n i c a l p e c u l i a r i t i e s o f t h e
subject dealt with, or to make
somereferences to the occupation of a character whose language would naturally contai
n   s p e c i a l words andexpressions. A term has a stylistic function when it is used to create an atmosphere or to
characterize a person.

b) Poetic and highly literary words

First of all  poetic words belong to a definite style of  language and perform in  it their
direct function. If encountered in another style of speech, they assume a new function, mainly satirical, for the two
notions, poetryand prose, have been opposed to each other from time
immemorial.P o e t i c   l a n g u a g e   h a s   s p e c i a l   m e a n s   o f   c o m m u n i c a t i o n ,   i . e .   r h y t h m i c a l   a r r a n g e
m e n t ,   s o m e   s y n t a c t i c a l  peculiarities  and certain number of  special words. The specific poetic
vocabulary  has a marked  tendency todetach itself from the common literary word stock and assume a special
significance. Poetic words claim to be,as it were, of higher rank.Poetic words and ser expressions make the utterance
understandable only to a limited number of readers. Itis mainly due to poeticisms that poetical language is sometimes
called poetical jargon.
c) Archaic words
The word stock of a language is in an increasing state of change. In every period in the
development of a literary language one can find words which will show more or less apparent changes in their
meaning or usage,from full vigour, through a moribund state, to death, i.e. complete disappearance of the unit from the
language.We’ll distinguish 3 stages in the aging process of words: 1) the beginning of the aging process when the
word becomes rarely used. Such words are called obsolescent, i.e. they are in the stage of gradually
passing out of general use; 2) The second group of archaic words are those that have already gone completely out of
use butare still recognized by the English speaking community. These words are called obsolete. 3) The third
group,which may be called archaic proper, are words which are no longer recognized in modern English, words thatwere
in use in Old English and which have either dropped out of the language entirely or have changed in their appearance so
much that they have become unrecognizable.There is another class of  words which is erroneously classed as
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archaic, historic words. Words of this type never disappear from the language.Archaic words are  used
in historical novels, in  official  and diplomatic documents, in business letters, legal language, etc.
Archaic words, word-forms and word combinations are also used to create an elevated effect.
d) Barbarisms and foreign words
Barbarisms are words of foreign origin which have not entirely been assimilated into the English
language.T h e y b e a r t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a b o r r o w i n g a n d a r e f e l t a s s o m e t h i n g a l i e n t o t h e
n a t i v e t o n g u e . T h e g r e a t majority of the borrowed words now form part of the rank and file of the English
vocabulary. There are
somew o r d s   w h i c h   r e t a i n   t h e i r   f o r e i g n   a p p e a r a n c e   t o   g r e a t e r   o r   l e s s e r   d e g r e e .   T h e s e   w o r
d s , w h i c h   a r e   c a l l e d  barbarisms, are also considered to be on the outskirts of the literary language. Most of them
have correspondingEnglish synonyms. Barbarisms are not made conspicuous in the text unless they bear a special load of
stylisticinformation.Foreign words do not belong to  the English vocabulary. In  printed works
foreign  words and phrases are generally italicized to indicate their alien nature or their stylistic value. There are
foreign words which fulfill aterminological function. Many foreign words and phrases have little by little entered the
class of words named barbarisms and many of  these barbarisms have  gradually lost  their foreign
peculiarities, become more or  lessnaturalized and have merged with the native English stock of words.Both
foreign words and barbarisms are widely used in various styles of language with various aims,
aimswhich predetermine their typical functions. One of these functions is to supply local color.
Barbarisms and foreign words are used in various styles of writing, but are most often to be found in the style of belles-
lettresand the publicistic style.
e) literary coinages
Every period in the development of a language produces an enormous number
of new words or newmeanings of established words. Most of them do not live long.
T h e y a r e   c o i n e d f o r   u s e a t   t h e m o m e n t   o f   speech, and therefore possess a peculiar property –
that of temporariness. The given word or meaning holds only in the given context and is meant only to “serve
the occasion”. However, a word or a meaning once fixedin writing may become part and parcel of the general vocabulary
irrespective of the quality of the word.The coining of new words generally arises with the need to designate new concepts
and also with the need toe x p r e s s n u a n c e s o f m e a n i n g c a l l e d f o r t h b y a d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g
o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e p h e n o m e n o n i n question. There are 2 types of newly coined words: 1) those which
designate new-born concepts, may be namedterminological coinages or terminological neologisms; 2) words coined
because their creators seek expressiveutterance may be named stylistic coinages or stylistic neologism. Neologisms are
mainly coined according to the productive models for word-building in the given languages.Most of the literary coinages
are built by means of affixation and word compounding.
3. Special colloquial vocabulary
a) Slang
The term slang is ambiguous and obscure. The “New Oxford English Dictionary” defines slang as follows:1)
the special vocabulary used by any set of persons of low or disreputable character; language of a low
andv u l g a r t y p e … ; 2 ) t h e c a n t o r j a r g o n o f a c e r t a i n c l a s s o r p e r i o d ; 3 ) l a n g u a g e o f
h i g h l y c o l l o q u i a l t y p e considered as below the level of standard educated speech, and consisting either of new
words or current wordsemployed in some special sense.In England and USA slang is regarded as the quintessence of
colloquial speech and therefore stands aboveall the laws of grammar.
b) Jargonisms
Jargon is a recognized term for a group of words that exist in almost every language and
whose aim is to  preserve secrecy within one  or another social group. Jargonisms are  generally
old words with entirely new meanings imposed on them. Most of the jargonisms of any language are absolutely
incomprehensible to thoseoutside the social group which has invented them. They may be defined as a code within a
code. Jargonisms aresocial in character. In England and in the USA almost any social group of people has its own jargon.
There is acommon jargon and special professional jargons. Jargonisms do not always remain on the
outskirts of the literary language. Many words entered the standard vocabulary.
c) Professionalisms
Professionalisms are the words used in a definite trade, profession or calling by 
p e o p l e   c o n n e c t e d   b y common interests both at work or at home. Professional words name anew already existing
concepts, tools or instruments, and have the typical properties of a special code. Their main feature is
technicality. They are monosemantic.Professionalisms do not aim at secrecy. They fulfill a socially useful function in
communication, facilitatinga quick and adequate grasp of the message. Professionalisms are used in
emotive prose to depict the natural speech of a character. The skilful use of a professional word will show not only
the vocation of a character, butalso his education, breeding, environment and sometimes even his psychology.
d) Dialectal words
Dialectal  words are those which  in the process of integration of the  English national language
remained beyond its literary  boundaries,  and their use is generally confined to  a definite locality.
There  sometimes is confusion between the terms dialectal, slang and vernacular. All these groups when used in
emotive prose aremeant to characterize the speaker as a person of a certain locality, breeding, education, etc. Some
dialectal words are  universally accepted as  recognized units  of the standard colloquial  English.
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Of quite a different nature  are dialectal words which  are easily recognized as corruptions of standard
Englishwords. Dialectal words are only to be found in the style of emotive prose, very rarely in other styles. And
evenhere their use is confined to the function of characterizing personalities through their speech.
e) Vulgar words
The term vulgarism is rather misleading. Webster’s “New International Dictionary” defines vulgarism as
“avulgar phrase or expression, or one used only in colloquial, or, esp. in unrefined or low, speech”. I.R.Galperindefines
vulgarisms as expletives or swear-words and obscene words and expressions.There are different degrees of vulgar words.
Some of them, the obscene ones, are called “four-letter” words.A lesser degree of vulgarity is presented by expletives and
they sometimes appear in euphemistic spelling.The function of vulgarisms is almost the same as that of
interjections, that is to express strong emotions. They are not to be found in any style of speech except emotive
prose, and here only in the direct speech of thecharacters.
f) Colloquial coinages
Colloquial coinages (nonce-words) are spontaneous and elusive. Most of them disappear from the
languageleaving no trace in it. Some nonce-words and  meanings may acquire legitimacy and thus
become facts of  thelanguage, while on the other hand they may be classified as literary or colloquial
according to which of the meanings is being dealt with.When a nonce-word comes into general use and is fixed in
dictionaries, it is classified as a neologism for avery short period of time. This shows the objective reality of
contemporary life. Technical progress is so rapidthat it builds new notions and concepts which in their turn require new
words to signify them. Nonce-coinageappears in all spheres of life. confusion between the terms dialectal, slang and
vernacular. All these groups when used in emotive prose aremeant to characterize the speaker as a person of a certain
locality, breeding, education, etc.Some dialectal words are  universally accepted as  recognized units  of
the standard colloquial  English. Of quite a different nature  are dialectal words which  are
easily recognized as  corruptions of standard English words. Dialectal words are only to be found in the style of
emotive prose, very rarely in other styles. And evenhere their use is confined to the function of characterizing
personalities through their speech.
e) Vulgar words
The term vulgarism is rather misleading. Webster’s “New International Dictionary” defines vulgarism as
“avulgar phrase or expression, or one used only in colloquial, or, esp. in unrefined or low, speech”. I.R.Galperindefines
vulgarisms as expletives or swear-words and obscene words and expressions.There are different degrees of vulgar words.
Some of them, the obscene ones, are called “four-letter” words.A lesser degree of vulgarity is presented by expletives and
they sometimes appear in euphemistic spelling.The function of vulgarisms is almost the same as that of
interjections, that is to express strong emotions. They are not to be found in any style of speech except emotive
prose, and here only in the direct speech of thecharacters.
f) Colloquial coinages
Colloquial coinages (nonce-words) are spontaneous and elusive. Most of them disappear from the
languageleaving no trace in it. Some nonce-words and  meanings may acquire legitimacy and thus
become facts of  thelanguage, while on the other hand they may be classified as literary or colloquial
according to which of the meanings is being dealt with.When a nonce-word comes into general use and is fixed in
dictionaries, it is classified as a neologism for avery short period of time. This shows the objective reality of
contemporary life. Technical progress is so rapidthat it builds new notions and concepts which in their turn require new
words to signify them. Nonce-coinageappears in all spheres of life.

16-MA’RUZA. THE MAIN PECULIARITIES OF THE VOCABULARY SYSTEM OF THE ENGLISH

SPEAKING COUNTRIES
1. The vocabulary of Modern English
2. The development of English language in English-speaking countries

1. The vocabulary of Modern English

The vocabulary of Modern English is approximately a quarter Germanic (Old English, Scandinavian, Dutch,
German) and two-thirds Italic or Romance(especially Latin, French, Spanish, Italian), with copious and increasing
importations from Greek in science and technology and with considerable borrowings from more than 300 other
languages. Names of many basic concepts and things come from Old English or Anglo-
Saxon: heaven and earth, love and hate, life and death, beginning and end, day and night, month and year, heat and cold, 
way and path, meadow and stream.
Cardinal numerals come from Old English, as do all the ordinal numerals except second (Old English other,
which still retains its older meaning in “every other day”). Secondcomes from Latin secundus “following,” through
French second, related to Latin sequi “to follow,” as in English sequence. From Old English come all the personal
pronouns (except they, their, and them, which are from Scandinavian), the auxiliary verbs (except the marginal used,
which is from French), most simple prepositions, and all conjunctions.
Numerous nouns would be identical whether they came from Old English or Scandinavian: father, mother,
brother (but not sister); man, wife; ground, land, tree, grass; summer, winter; cliff, dale. Many verbs would also be
identical, especially monosyllabic verbs—bring, come, get, hear, meet, see, set, sit, spin, stand, think. The same is true of
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the adjectives full and wise; the colour names gray (grey), green, and white; the possessives mine and thine (but

not ours and yours); the terms north and west (but not south and east); and the prepositions over and under.
Just a few English and Scandinavian doublets coexist in current
speech: no and nay, yea and ay, from and fro, rear (i.e., “to bring up”) and raise, shirt and skirt (both related to the
adjective short), less and loose. From Scandinavian, law was borrowed early, whence bylaw, meaning village law,
and outlaw, meaning “man outside the law.”
Husband (hus-bondi) meant “householder,” whether single or married, whereas fellow (fe-lagi) meant one who “lays
fee” or shares property with another, and so “partner, shareholder.” From Scandinavian come the common
nouns axle (tree), band, birth, bloom, crook, dirt, egg, gait, gap, girth, knife, loan, race, rift, root, score, seat, skill, sky,
snare, thrift, and window; the adjectives awkward, flat, happy, ill, loose, rotten, rugged, sly, tight, ugly, weak, and wrong;
and many verbs, including call, cast, clasp, clip, crave, die, droop, drown, flit, gape, gasp, glitter, life, rake, rid, scare,
scowl, skulk, snub, sprint, thrive, thrust, and want.
2. The development of English language in English-speaking countries
The debt of the English language to French is large. The terms president, representative, legislature, congress,
constitution, and parliament are all French. So, too, are duke, marquis, viscount, and baron; but king, queen, lord, lady,
earl,and knight are English. City, village, court, palace, manor, mansion, residence,and domicile are French; but town,
borough, hall, house, bower, room, and homeare English. Comparison between the many pairs of English and French
synonyms shows that the former are more human and concrete, the latter more intellectual and abstract; e.g., the
terms freedom and liberty, friendship and amity, hatred and enmity, love and affection, likelihood and probability, truthan
d veracity, lying and mendacity.
The superiority of French cooking is duly recognized by the adoption of such culinary terms as boil, broil, fry, grill,
roast, souse, and toast. Breakfast is English, but dinner and supper are French. Hunt is English, but chase, quarry,
scent, and track are French. Craftsmen bear names of English origin: baker, builder, fisher (man), hedger, miller,
shepherd, shoemaker, wainwright, and weaver, or webber. Names of skilled artisans, however, are French: carpenter,
draper, haberdasher, joiner, mason, painter, plumber, and tailor.
Many terms relating to dress and fashion, cuisine and viniculture, politics and diplomacy, drama
and literature, art and ballet come from French.
In the spheres of science and technology many terms come from Classical Greek through French or directly
from Greek.
Hindi—nabob, guru, sahib, maharajah, mahatma, pundit, punch (drink), juggernaut, cushy, jungle, thug, cheetah,
shampoo, chit, dungaree, pucka, gymkhana, mantra, loot, pajamas, dinghy, polo
Tamil—pariah, curry, catamaran, mulligatawny
Welsh—flannel, coracle, cromlech, penguin, eisteddfod
Cornish—gull, brill, dolmen
Gaelic and Irish—shamrock, brogue, leprechaun, ogham, Tory, galore, blarney, hooligan, clan, claymore, bog, plaid,
slogan, sporran, cairn, whisky, pibroch
Persian—paradise, divan, purdah, lilac, bazaar, shah, caravan, chess, salamander, taffeta, shawl, khaki
Breton—menhir
Norwegian—ski, ombudsman
Finnish—sauna
Russian—kvass, ruble, tsar, verst, mammoth, ukase, astrakhan, vodka, samovar, tundra (from Sami), troika, pogrom,
duma, soviet, bolshevik, intelligentsia (from Latin through Polish), borscht, balalaika, sputnik, soyuz, salyut, lunokhod
Polish—mazurka
Czech—robot
Hungarian—goulash, paprika
Australian and New Zealand English
Unlike Canada, Australia has no concentration of a European language other than English within its borders.
There are still many Aboriginal languages, though they each are spoken by small numbers and their continued existence
is threatened. More than 80 percent of the population is of British descent, but significant growth in the numbers of
immigrants, especially from Europe and the Pacific Rim countries, took place in the last quarter of the 20th century.
During colonial times the new settlers had to find names for fauna and flora (e.g.,  banksia, iron bark, whee
whee) different from anything previously known to them: trees that shed bark instead of leaves and cherries with external
stones. The words brush, bush, creek, paddock, and scrub acquired wider senses, whereas the terms brook, dale, field,
forest, and meadow were seldom used. A creek leading out of a river and entering it again downstream was called
an anastomizing branch (a term from anatomy), or an anabranch, whereas a creek coming to a dead end was called by its
native name, a billabong. The giant kingfisher with its raucous bray was long referred to as a laughing jackass, later as
a bushman’s clock, but now it is a kookaburra. Cattle so intractable that only roping could control them were said to
be ropable, a term now used as a synonym for “angry” or “extremely annoyed.”
Some Australian English terms came from Aboriginal peoples and Torres Strait Islander peoples: the
words boomerang, corroboree (warlike dance and then any large and noisy gathering), dingo (reddish brown wild
dog), galah (cockatoo), gunyah (bush hut), kangaroo, karri (dark red eucalyptus tree), nonda (rosaceous tree yielding
edible fruit), wallaby (small marsupial), and wallaroo (large rock kangaroo). Although there is remarkably little regional
variation in pronunciation throughout the entire continent, there is significant social variation. The neutral vowel /ə/ (as
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the a in sofa) is frequently used, as in London Cockney: arches and archers are both pronounced [a:t∫əz], and the

pronunciations of the diphthongs in RP day and go are more like (RP) die and now.
Although New Zealand lies over 1,000 miles away, much of the English spoken there is similar to that of Australia.
The blanket term Austral English is sometimes used to cover the language of the whole of Australasia, but this term is far
from popular with New Zealanders because it makes no reference to New Zealand and gives all the prominence, so they
feel, to Australia. Between North and South Islands there are observable differences. In particular, Maori, which remains
a living language (related to Tahitian, Hawaiian, and the other Austronesian [Malayo-Polynesian] languages), has a
greater number of speakers and more influence in North Island.
African English
Africa is one of the world’s most multilingual areas, if people are measured against languages. Upon a large number
of indigenous languages rests a slowly changing superstructure of world languages (Arabic, English, French, and
Portuguese). The problems of language are everywhere linked with political, social, economic, and educational factors.
The Republic of South Africa, the oldest British settlement in the continent, resembles Canada in having two
recognized European languages within its borders: English and Afrikaans, or Cape Dutch. Both British and Dutch traders
followed in the wake of 15th-century Portuguese explorers and have lived in widely varying war-and-peace relationships
ever since. Although the Union of South Africa, comprising Cape Province, Transvaal, Natal, and Orange Free State, was
for more than a half century (1910–61) a member of the British Empire and Commonwealth, its four prime ministers
(Louis Botha, Jan Smuts, J.B.M. Hertzog, and Daniel F. Malan) were all Dutchmen. The Afrikaans language began to
diverge seriously from European Dutch in the late 18th century and gradually came to be recognized as a separate
language. Although the English spoken in South Africa differs in some respects from standard British English, its
speakers do not regard the language as a separate one.
They have naturally come to use many Afrikanerisms, such as kloof, kopje, krans, veld, and vlei, to denote features of
the landscape and employ African names to designate local animals, plants, and social and political concepts. South
Africa’s 1996 constitution identified 11 official languages, English among them. The
words trek and commando, notorious in South African history, are among several that have entered world standard
English.
Elsewhere in Africa, English helps to answer the needs of wider communication. It functions as an official language
of administration in, and is an official language of, numerous countries, all of them multilingual. Liberia is among the
African countries with the deepest historical ties to English—the population most associated with the country’s founding
migrated from the United States during the 19th century—but English is just one of more than two dozen languages
spoken there by multiple ethnic groups. English’s place within that linguistic diversity is representative of English in
Africa as a whole.
17- MA’RUZA. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BRITISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH
1.British English
2. American English and its difference with BE
English belongs to the Indo-European family of languages and is therefore related to most other languages spoken
in Europe and western Asia from Iceland to India. The parent tongue, called Proto-Indo-European, was spoken about
5,000 years ago by nomads believed to have roamed the southeast European plains. Germanic, one of the language
groups descended from this ancestral speech, is usually divided by scholars into three regional groups: East(Burgundian,
Vandal, and Gothic, all extinct), North (Icelandic, Faroese, Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish), and West (German, Dutch
[and Flemish], Frisian, and English). Though closely related to English, German remains far more conservative than
English in its retention of a fairly elaborate system of inflections. Frisian, spoken by the inhabitants of the Dutch province
of Frieslandand the islands off the west coast of Schleswig, is the language most nearly related to Modern English.
1. British English
The abbreviation RP (Received Pronunciation) denotes what is traditionally considered the standard accent of people
living in London and the southeast of England and of other people elsewhere who speak in this way. RP is the only
British accent that has no specific geographical correlate: it is not possible, on hearing someone speak RP, to know which
part of the United Kingdom he or she comes from.
Though it is traditionally considered a “prestige” accent, RP is not intrinsically superior to other varieties of English;
it is itself only one particular accent that has, through the accidents of history, achieved a higher status than others.
Although acquiring its unique standing without the aid of any established authority, it was fostered by the public schools
(Winchester, Eton, Harrow, Rugby, and so on) and the ancient universities (Oxford and Cambridge). Other varieties of
English are well preserved in spite of the leveling influences of film, television, and radio. In several Northern accents,
RP /a:/ (the first vowel sound in father) is still pronounced /æ/ (a sound like the a in fat) in words such as laugh,
fast, and path; this pronunciation has been carried across the Atlantic into American English.
2. American English and its difference with BE
The dialect regions of the United States are most clearly marked along the Atlantic littoral, where the earlier
settlements were made. Three dialects can be defined: Northern, Midland, and Southern. Each has its subdialects.
The Northern dialect is spoken in New England. Its six chief subdialects comprise northeastern New England
(Maine, New Hampshire, and eastern Vermont), southeastern New England (eastern Massachusetts, eastern Connecticut,
and Rhode Island), southwestern New England (western Massachusetts and western Connecticut), the inland north
(western Vermont and upstate New York), the Hudson Valley, and metropolitan New York.
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The Midland dialect is spoken in the coastal region from Point Pleasant, in New Jersey, to Dover, in Delaware. Its
seven major subdialects comprise the Delaware Valley, the Susquehanna Valley, the Upper Ohio Valley, northern  West
Virginia, the Upper Potomac and Shenandoah, southern West Virginia and eastern Kentucky, western North
Carolina and South Carolina, and eastern Tennessee.
The Southern dialect area covers the coastal region from Delaware to South Carolina. Its five chief subdialects
comprise the Delmarva Peninsula, the Virginia Piedmont, northeastern North Carolina (Albemarle Sound and Neuse
Valley), Cape Fear and Pee Dee valleys, and the South Carolina Low Country, around Charleston.
These boundaries, based on those of the Linguistic Atlas of the United States and Canada, are highly tentative. To
some extent these regions preserve the traditional speech of southeastern and southern England, where most of the early
colonists were born. The first settlers to arrive in Virginia (1607) and Massachusetts (1620) soon learned to adapt old
words to new uses, but they were content to borrow names from the local Indian languages for unknown trees, such
as hickory and persimmon and for unfamiliar animals, such as raccoon and woodchuck.
Later they took words from foreign settlers: chowder and prairie from the French, scow and sleigh from the Dutch.
They made new compounds, such as backwoods and bullfrog, and gave new meanings to such words as lumber (which in
British English denotes disused furniture, or junk) and corn(which in British English signifies any grain, especially
wheat) to mean “maize.”

18- MA’RUZA. METHODS USED IN LEXICOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Methods of Lexicological Research

a) The diachronic approach; b) The synchronic approach; c) Statistical methods;
Diachronic approach.
The research methods used in Lexicology have always been closely connected with the general trends in
Linguistics. The principles of comparative linguistics have played an important role in the development of a scientific
approach to historical word study.
They have brought everything in order and classified information about the English vocabulary in their proper
perspective.
The methods applied consisted in observation of speech, mostly written, collection and classification of data,
hypotheses and systematic statements. Particular stress was put on the refinement of methods for collecting and
classifying facts. The study of vocabulary became scientific.
The 19th century language study has recognized variety and change in language. Comparative philology insisted
on reconstruction of the fundamental forms and meanings which have not come down to us. It was realized that the only
basis for correctness is the usage of the native speakers of each language. They destroyed the myth of a Golden Age when
all the words had their primary “correct” meaning and when the language was in a state of perfection from which it has
deteriorated. It became clear from intensive work on the great historical dictionaries that multiple meaning for words is
normal, not an “exception”. Comparative studies show that, save for specific technical terms, there are no two words in
two languages that cover precisely the same area.
The greatest contribution, as far as English is concerned, were the Oxford English Dictionary and Data on the
English vocabulary in works by H.Sweet, O.Jesperson, H.Poutsma, and others. Most of them were published in the
20th century but the main principles on which they were based were worked out in the 19th century.
In the beginning of the 20th century vocabulary study was still mainly concentrated on historical problems. In
connection with the so-called word-and-thing method the study of words became a tool for the study of civilization.
A wide historical context was, in its turn, found indispensable in explaining vocabulary changes. In the process
of studying some words or work, the linguists collected accurately chosen examples of usage, and arranged them
according to the periods of language history (and for OE and ME according to dialects). These data were compared. As to
conclusions about the meaning, they were drawn from the context and from what was known about the realia of the
period.
Comparing words and morphemes with those from which they were derived it was possible to describe the processes at
work in vocabulary development.
The synchronic approach.
The centre of interest has shifted to the synchronic level, the spoken utterance and structure. Lexicologists are now
describing what the vocabulary of the language is like, rather than how it came to be that way.
The new trend has received the name structural (descriptive) linguistics. Its methodological principles can be summarized
as follows: Language is to be analyzed by specifically linguistic methods, according to the specifically linguistic criteria,
not as a combination of psychological, physiological and physical phenomenon. This analysis arrives at a definite number
of discrete units, interdependent parts of relational structure, and each language is characterized by an internal structure of
its own.
Descriptive linguistics can not be simply a list of elements, it must show how these elements are combined.
Structural linguistic has many varieties and schools. The main schools are those of Prague, the United States,
Copenhagen, and more presently, London and Moscow.
A major achievements of the Prague school is represented in N.S.Trubetzkoy’s classical work, and means in the
first place a particular approach to phonology (the theory of oppositions).
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The typically American developments of linguistic theory resulted from practical tasks: the study of the America
Indian languages, teaching of foreign languages, and recently, machine translation. Books by L.Bloomfield, E.Nida,
B.Bloch, Z.Harris and others mark stages in the development of structuralist theory in the United States.
The main achievements of the American schools are the analysis into immediate constituents, substitution,
distributional and transformational analysis.
Immediate constituents (IC) are the two meaningful parts forming a larger linguistic unity. The IC of bluish are
blue- and –ish.
Substitution is testing of similarity by placing into identical environment:
It is reddish – it is some what red.
Substitution is also necessary for determining classes for words.
E.g. the words family, boy, and house all belong to different classes of nouns, as they are differently substituted:
I like this family – I like them
I like this boy – I like him
I like this house – I like it.
This linguistic feature and not the difference between the objects the words serve to denote, is the basis for their
subdivision into collective, personal and object nouns.
The term distribution is used to denote the possible variants of the immediate lexical, grammatical and
phonetical environment of a linguistic unit.
According to Z.Harris, “the distribution of an element is the total of all environments in which it occurs, i.e. the
sum of all the positions of an element relative to the occurrence of other elements”.
E.g. she made him a good wife – she made a good wife for him.
Statistical methods
Modern structural ways of analysis are often combined with statistical procedures. Statistics describes how
things are on the average. For a modern linguist it is not enough to know that it is allowable for a given structure to
appear, he is interested in its frequency, in how often it appears.
Every lexicological research is based on collecting linguistic evidence, i.e. examples.
Having determined the object of research, the problem to be investigated and the set of units or phenomena to be
described, the linguist proceeds to choose his method and collect and classify his data. He must have at hand a
sufficiently wide choice of contexts so that his results might be statistically reliable. To know how many examples are
necessary to make the conclusion, one must determine the relative frequency of the phenomenon or unit studied.
Mathematical statistics supplies the research workers with formulas showing the necessary scope of material
depending on the amount of error they are prepared to tolerate.
When using a statistical method, it is true that some details are lost because statistical study is necessarily
simplifying and abstract. G.Miller gives a clear picture of the situation when he says “At one time we look at the talker as
generator of sound waves, and at another time he seems a fountain of prepositional phrases. The choice depends upon the
interest”.
The process of scientific investigation may be subdivided into several stages:
 Observation (statements of fact must be based on observation)
 Classification (orderly arrangement of the data)
 Generalization (formulation of a generalization or hypothesis, rule a law)
 The verifying process. Here, various procedures of linguistic analysis are commonly applied:
1). Contrastive analysis attempts to find out similarities and differences in both philogenically related and non-
related languages. In fact contrastive analysis grew as the result of the errors which are made recurrently by foreign
language students. They can be often traced back to the differences in structure between the target language and the
language of the learner, detailed comparison of these two languages has been named contrastive analysis.
Contrastive analysis brings to light the essence of what is usually described as idiomatic English, idiomatic Russian etc.,
i.e. the peculiar way in which every language combines and structures in lexical units various concepts to denote extra-
linguistic reality.
2). Statistical analysis is the quantitative study of a language phenomenon. Statistical linguistics is nowadays
generally recognised as one of the major branches of linguistics. (frequency – room, collocability)
3). Immediate constituents analysis. The theory of Immediate Constituents (IC) was originally elaborated as an
attempt to determine the ways in which lexical units are relevantly related to one another. The fundamental aim of IC
analysis is to segment a set of lexical units into two maximally independent sequences or ICs thus revealing the
hierarchical structure of this set.
4). Distributional analysis and co-occurrence. By the term distribution we understand the occurrence of a
lexical unit relative to other lexical units of the same level (the position which lexical units occupy or may occupy in the
text or in the flow of speech). Distributional analysis is mainly applied by the linguist to find
out sameness or difference of meaning.
5). Transformational analysis can be defined as repatterning of various distributional structures in order to
discover difference or sameness of meaning of practically identical distributional patterns. It may be also described as a
kind of translation (transference of a message by different means).
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6). Componental analysis (1950’s). In this analysis linguists proceed from the assumption that the smallest units
of meaning are sememes (семема - семантическая единица) or semes (сема (минимальная единица содержания)) and
that sememes and lexemes (or lexical items) are usually not in one-to-one but in one-to-many correspondence (e.g. in
lexical item “woman”, semems are – human, female, adult). This analysis deals with individual meanings.
7). Method of Semantic Differential (set up by American psycholinguists). The analysis is concerned with
measurement of differences of the connotational meaning, or the emotive charge, which is very hard to grasp.

19-MA’RUZA. LEXICOGRAPHY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. ENGLISH DICTIONARIES AND THEIR

DEVELOPMENT. LEARNING AND TEACHING VOCABULARY (MODERN TECHNOLOGIES)

1. Lexicography of the English language.

2. English dictionaries and their development.
3. Learning and teaching vocabulary (modern technologies)

Lexicography is an important branch of linguistics which covers the theory and practice of compiling
dictionaries. The history of lexicography of the English language goes as far back as the Old English period where its first
traces are found in the form of glosses of religious books with interlinear translation from Latin. Regular bilingual
English-Latin dictionaries already existed in the 15th century.
The First unilingual English dictionary, explaining words appeared in 1604. Its aim was to explain difficult
words. Its title was "A Table Alphabetical, containing and teaching the true writing and understanding of hard usual
English words borrowed from the Hebrew, Greece, Latin or French". The volume of 120 pages explaining about 3000
words was compiled by Robert Cawdrey, a schoolmaster.
The first attempt at a bigger dictionary including all the words of the language, not only the difficult ones, was made by
Nathaniel Bailey. He published the first edition of Universal Etymological English Dictionary in 1721. It was the first to
include pronunciation and etymology.
The first big explanatory dictionary "A Dictionary of the English Language in Which the Words are Deduced
from Their Originals and Illustrated in Their General Significations by Examples from the Best Writers: In 2 vols." was
complied by Dr Samuel Johnson and published in 1755. The most important innovation of S. Johnson's Dictionary was
the introduction of illustrations of the meanings of the words by examples from the best writers.
Pronunciation was not marked, because S. Johnson was very touch sure of the wide variety of the English
pronunciation and thought it impossible to set up a standard there; he paid attention only to those aspects of vocabulary
where he believed he could improve linguistic usage. S. Johnson's influence was tremendous. He remained the
unquestionable authority for more than 75 years.
As to pronunciation, the first pronouncing dictionary was published in 1780 by Thomas Sheridan, grandfather of
the great dramatist. In 1791 appeared The Critical Pronouncing Dictionary and Expositor of the English Language by
John Walker, an actor. The vogue of this second dictionary was very great, and in later publications Walker's
pronunciations were inserted into S. Johnson's text - a further step to a unilingual dictionary in its present-day form.
The Golden Age of English lexicography began in the last quarter of the 19th century when the English
Philological Society started work on compiling The Oxford English Dictionary (OED), which was originally named New
English Dictionary on Historical Principles (NED). It is still referred to as either OED or NED.
The objective of this colossal work was and still is to trace the development of English words from their form in
Old English. Where they were not found in Old English, it was shown when they were introduced into the language. The
development of each meaning and its historical relation to other meanings of the same word is as well displayed. For
words and meanings which have ' become obsolete the date of the latest occurrence is provided. All this is done by means
of dated quotations ranging from the oldest to recent appearances of the words in question. The English of G.Chaucer, of
the "Bible" and of W. Shakespeare is given as much attention as that of the most modern authors. The dictionary includes
spellings, pronunciations and detailed etymologies. The completion of the work required more than 75 years. The result is
a kind of encyclopaedia of language used not only for reference purposes but also as a basis for lexicological research.
The First part of the Dictionary appeared in 1884 and the last in 1928. Later it was issued in twelve volumes and
in order to hold new words a three volume Supplement was issued in 1933. These volumes were revised in the seventies.
Nearly all the material of the original Supplement was retained and a large body of the most recent accessions to the
English language added. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English was first published in 1911, i.e. before the
work on the main version was completed. It is not a historical dictionary but one of current usage. A still shorter form is
The Pocket Oxford Dictionary. The latest edition of OED was undertaken in 1905. The new enlarged version was issued
in 22 volumes 1994. Two Russian borrowings glasnost and perestroika were included in it. This publication was followed
by a two volume Supplement to hold new words.
Another big dictionary, also created by joined effort of enthusiasts, is Joseph Wright's "English Dialect
Dictionary". Before this dictionary could be started upon, a thorough study of English dialects had to be completed. With
this target in view W.W. Skeat, famous for his "Etymological English Dictionary" founded the English Dialect Society in
1873. Dialects are of great importance for the historical study of the language. In the 19th century they were very
pronounced though now they are almost disappearing. The Society existed till 1896 and issued 80 publications.
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2. English dictionaries and their development.

Encyclopedic dictionaries are scientific reference books dealing with every branch of knowledge, or with one
particular branch, usually in alphabetical order, e.g. the Oxford Paperback Encyclopedia, Random House Webster's
Biographical Dictionary. Encyclopedic dictionaries are thing-books, that give information about the extra-linguistic
world, they deal with facts and concepts. The best-known encyclopedias of the English-speaking world are the
Encyclopaedia Britannica and the Encyclopaedia Americana.
Linguistic dictionaries are word-books the subject-matter of which is lexical units and their linguistic properties
such as pronunciation, meaning, origin, peculiarities of use, and other linguistic information.
Linguistic dictionaries can be further divided into different categories by different criteria.
1)According to the scope of their word-list linguistic dictionaries are divided into general and restricted.
General dictionaries represent the vocabulary as a whole with a degree of completeness depending upon the scope and the
bulk of the book in question. Some general dictionaries may have specific aims and still be considered general due to
their coverage. They include frequency dictionary, a rhyming dictionary, a Thesaurus, etc.
Restricted dictionaries cover only a certain specific part of the vocabulary. Restricted dictionaries can be subdivided
depending on whether the words are chosen according to the sphere of human activity in which they are used (1), the type
of the units themselves (2) or the relations existing between them (3).
2)According to the information they provide all linguistic dictionaries fall into two groups: explanatory and
specialized.
Explanatory dictionaries present a wide range of data, especially with regard to the semantic aspect of the
vocabulary items entered, e.g. the New Oxford Dictionary of English.
Specialized dictionaries deal with lexical units only in relation to some of their characteristics, i.e. only in relation to their
etymology, frequency, pronunciation, usage, e.g. the Longman Pronunciation Dictionary.
3)According to the language of explanations, whether the information about the items entered given in the same
language or in another language, all dictionaries are divided into: monolingual and bilingual.
In monolingual dictionaries the words and the information about them are given in the same language, e.g. the
New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary.
Bilingual dictionaries are those that explain words by giving their equivalents in another language, e.g. the
English-Russian Phraseological Dictionary (by Kunin). They may have two principal purposes: reference for translation
and guidance for expression. Bilingual dictionaries must provide an adequate translation of every item in the target
language and expression in the source language.
4) Dictionaries also fall into diachronic and synchronic with regard to time.
Diachronic (historical) dictionaries reflect the development of the English vocabulary by recording the history of form
and meaning for every word registered, e.g. the Oxford English Dictionary.
Synchronic (descriptive) dictionaries are concerned with the present-day meaning and usage of words, e.g. the Advanced
Learner's Dictionary of Current English.
Principles of compiling
The most important problems of lexicography are connected with:
1) the selection of lexical units for inclusion;
2) the arrangement of the selected lexical units;
3) the setting of the entry;
4) the selection and arrangement of word-meanings;
5) the definition of meanings;
6) the illustrative material.
1)The selection of lexical units for inclusion. The choice of lexical units for inclusion is the first problem the
lexicographer faces. It is necessary to decide:
 what types of lexical units will be chosen for the inclusion;
 the number of these items;
 what to select and what to leave out in the dictionary;
 which form of the language, spoken or written or both, the dictionary is to reflect;
 whether the dictionary should contain obsolete units, technical terms, dialectisms, colloquialisms, and some
others.
The choice among different possible answers depends upon the type to which the dictionary will belong, the aim the
compilers pursue, the prospective user of the dictionary, the size of the dictionary, the linguistic concepts of the
dictionary-makers and some other considerations. The units for inclusion may be drawn either from other dictionaries
or/and from some reading matter or/and from the spoken discourse. For example, in the New Oxford Dictionary of
English the extensive use has been made of the British National Corpus.
2)The arrangement of the selected lexical units. There are two modes of presentation of entries, the alphabetical order
and the cluster-type, i. e. when the units entered are arranged in nests, based on this or that principle. For example, in
synonym-books words are arranged in synonymic sets and its dominant member serves as the head-word of the entry.
3)The setting of the entry. The most complicated type of entry is that found in general explanatory dictionaries of the
synchronic type. In such dictionaries the entry usually presents the following data: accepted spelling and pronunciation;
grammatical characteristics including the indication of the part of speech of each entry word, whether nouns are countable
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or uncountable, the transitivity/intransitivity of verbs and irregular grammatical forms; definitions of meaning; modern
currency; illustrative examples; derivatives; phraseology; etymology; sometimes synonyms and antonyms.
4)The selection and arrangement of word-meanings. There are at least three different ways in which the word
meanings are arranged:
In the historical order (in the sequence of their historical development)
In the empirical or actual order (in conformity with their frequency of use)
In the logical order (according to their logical connection)
5)The definition of meanings. Meanings of words may be defined in different ways: a) by means of linguistic
definitions that are only concerned with words as speech material. They are used in the majority of entries; b) by means
of encyclopedic definitions that are concerned with things for which the words are names; c) by means of synonymous
words and expressions; d) by means of cross-references.
The illustrative material. The presentation of illustrative material depends on the type of the dictionary and on
the aim the compilers set themselves. They can illustrate the first and the last known occurrences j of the entry word, the
successive changes in its meaning, as well as graphic and phonetic forms, the typical patterns and collocations; they place
words in a context to clarify their meanings and usage.

1.2 SEMINAR MASHG‘ULOTLARI MAVZULARI

1-modul.Ingliz tili nazariy fonetika
Seminar № 1. Introduction. Phonetics as a Branch of Linguistics.
1.1. What does the term «language» denote?

What is the distinction between the system and the structure of a language?

What is the distinction between the terms «substance» and «form»? What do we mean by the content and expression? What
forms of speech do you know?

Will you give the definition of phonetics? Explain the theoretical (scientific) and practical importance of phonetics. What
types of phonetics do you know?)

1.2. Explain the work of speech organs. What is phonetic basis? How do we establish phonetic interference?

1.3. What aspects of phonetics do we distinguish?

1.3.1. How do we define a speech sound from the articulatory point of view?

What instrumental methods are used in the articulatory aspect?

1.3.2. What is a speech sound or an utterance from the acoustic point of view?

What is fundamental frequency?

What is intensity (or loudness);

What is a filter? What is the acoustic spectrum? What is a formant structure of a sound?
What do we mean by harmonics (or overtones)?

Explain the instrumental methods used in the acoustic aspect. What is the difference between quality and quantity features?
1.3.3. Explain the perceptual (auditory) aspect.

What does the term timbre denote?

1.3.4. What does phonological aspect study?

What is the difference between phonological aspect and phonetic aspect?

What levels of phonetic and phonological investigation do you know?

What does segmental phonology study?

What does suprasegmental phonology study?

Name the first founders of «the phoneme» concept. What is a pho neme? Give its definition.
78

What is an allophone? What is a minimal pair? What is the phono logical opposition?

What is the non-phonological opposition?

Seminar № 2. Phonological Theories.
2.1. Who is the founder of the phonological theory? What periods can be distinguished in the formation of the phonological
theory? Explain I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay's phonological theory. How did he define the phoneme? Explain the further
development of I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay's theory.
2.2. Give L.V. Shcherba's defi nition of the phoneme. What are the theoretically and practically important ideas suggested by
L.V. Shcherba? What phonological school develops L.V. Shcherba's theory? Who applied L.V. Shcherba's theory to English?
2.3. Give the definition of the phoneme by the Moscow Phono logical school.What marked differencies exist between the
theories of St. Peter-burg and Moscow phonological schools? Who suggested the term «pho nemic line» and what does this
term mean?
What does hyperphoneme mean? Is the phoneme a bundle of distinctive features? Why? What is morphonology?
2.4. What representatives of the Prague phonological school do you know? Explain the types of oppositions. What definition of
a phoneme was given by N.S. Trubetzkoy? What rules for the determination of individual phonemes and phoneme
combinations have been suggested by this theory? Give the classification of phonological oppositions in relation to the entire
system of oppositions?
What types of oppositions are distinguished according to the rela tionship between their members? What oppositions do we
distinguish according to the distinctive force and their occurrance in different positions? What is phonological neutralization?
What is the meaning of archiphoneme?
2.5. Give D. Jones' explanation of a phoneme.
Why do we call D. Jones'theory an acoustic one? What members of the phoneme were suggested by D. Jones? Why is the
semantic func tion of a phoneme important? What phonological approach was suggested by J. Firth?
2.6. What phonological trends exist in the USA?
Explain the basic phonological ideas of descriptive phonology? What is meant by phonotag memics?
2.7. Give an explanation of paradigmatic relations.
Give an explanation of syntag matic relations.
What can be studied by the categorization of phonological
units in paradigmatic and syntagmatic levels?
What functions of the phonological units do you know? What is a constitutive function? Give an explanation of the distinctive
function. What is a delimitative function? Is recognitive function important?
What do we mean by functional load?
How do we measure a functional load?
What is a power of opposition? Is statistic data important in estab lishing the functional load and power of opposition?
Seminar № 3. Syllable Formation and Syllable Division in English.
3.1. What is a syllable?
What functions of the syllables do we distinguish?
3.2. What principles do we use in the classification of syllables? What types of syllables exist in English (Uzbek and Russian)?
3.3. How do you explain the re lationship between a syllable and a morpheme?
3.4. What theories of syllable formation and syllable division ex ist in modem linguistics? How did the ancient theory explain a
sylla ble? Explain the expiratory theory of a syllable.
What principle was suggested by the sonority theory of a syllable?
Explain F. de Soussure's syllable theory.
What components of the syllable have been defined by the theo ries refered to? Explain the syllable theory suggested by L.V.
Shcherba? What is the peak of the syllable?
Give the phonological definition of a syllable.
3.5. What consonants are syllabic in English?
What consonant clusters may form separate syllables? Explain the contrast syllable vs. no - sylla ble. Axe there any syllabic
conso nants in Uzbek or Russian? Does the syllable division depend on the character of checked-free vowels? What is a
syllabeme?
3.6. What is a juncture and what types of luncture do we distin guish?
Is syllable division distinctive in English? Give examples.
Seminar № 4. Word Stress in English.
4.1. What is meant by word stress? What does the term accen tual structure (type, pattern) mean? How is word stress defined
from the articulatory point of view, acoustically and perceptually? What main types of word stress ex ist in languages? What
type of word stress is used in English (Russian and Uzbek)?
What is the culminative function of word stress?
What is the difference between syllable-counting and mora count ing languages?
What components of word stress do you know?
What differences exist between English, Russian and Uzbek ac cording to the action of the components of word stress? What is
the difference between word stress and sentence stress?
4.2. What types of word stress are distinguished by its position? What differencies exist between English, Russian and Uzbek
79

word stress depending on its position? How many degrees of word stress are distinguished in English? What is the opinion of
British and American linguists concerning the degrees of English word stress?
4.3. Why is the semantic factor important in English word stress?
How do you explain the mor phological factor of word stress? What do we mean by the action of rhythmic factor? Why is
rhythmic-accentual structure regarded a component of the phonetic struc ture of a word? What is a recessive accent and how do
we distinguish its types? What is a rhythmical stress? Give examples.
Explain the retentive tendency of word stress?
What changes are taking place in present-day English word accen tuation? How do you define free varia tion of accentual
patterns? Give examples.
4.4. What functions does word stress perform?
What is the difference between morphological and demarcative stress? What is a word-accenteme? Give examples.
Give minimal pairs, illustrating the contrast between primary and weak word-accentemes. Is a de limitative function of word
stress important in English? What is your opinion of the matter with regards to Russian and Uzbek? Are there any stress
alternations in English word derivation? Give examples. What accentual patterns of English words are distinguished? What is
the I-st (И, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, XII) accentual pattern?

Seminar № 5. The Functions of Sentence Stress.

5.1. What types of word stress are distinguished by its position? What differencies exist between English, Russian and Uzbek
word stress depending on its position? How many degrees of word stress are distinguished in English? What is the opinion of
British and American linguists concerning the degrees of English word stress?
5.2. Why is the semantic factor important in English word stress?
How do you explain the morphological factor of word stress? What do we mean by the action of rhythmic factor? Why is
rhythmic-accentual structure regarded a component of the phonetic struc ture of a word?
What is a recessive accent and how do we distinguish its types? What is a rhythmical stress? Give examples.
Explain the retentive tendency of word stress?
What changes are taking place in present-day English word accen tuation?
How do you define free varia tion of accentual patterns? Give ex amples.
5.3What functions does word stress perform?
What is the difference between morphological and demarcative stress?
What is a word-accenteme? Give examples.
Seminar № 6. Intonation Structure of English. Intonation patterns. Functions of Intonation.
6.1. What is intonation? Give its definition by British and American linguists. What components of in tonation do you know?
What is intonology (or in-tonological typology)? What prosodic types of interference do you know? What aspects of intonation
do you know?
What is phonostylistics (intona tional stylistics)? What is the text forming function of intonation? What functions of intonation
do we distinguish? How do you define a sense-group?
Why is the recognitive function of intonation important? What methods of indicating and describ ing intonation exist in
English?
6.2. What is a tonetic transcripti on? Explain R. Kingdon's tonetic notation. Explain L.E. Armstrong and I.C. Ward's tonetic
notation. What marks are used in the tonetic nota tion of intonation by British lin guists? Explain tonetic notation suggested by
American linguists.
6.3. What functions does speech melody perform?
6.3.1. What is a toneme (in toneme)? What is an allotone? What differencies exist in the realization of speech melody between
English, Russian and Uzbek? Explain their presentation pattern.
What pitch ranges are distinguished in English?
6.3.2. What functions of sentence-stress exist?
What does the term accentual structure of a sentence mean? What do we mean by timbre?
Why is rhythmic structure important in intonation? Explain the tempo of speech and its types.
What function does pausation perform?
6.4. What emphatic intonation means exist in English?
How is the principle of compen sation defined?
What do we mean by emphasis and what types of it are distin guished?
What variation of intonation components perform emotional function?
Seminar № 7. The Articulatory and Acoustic Aspects of the English Speech Sounds.
7.1. What is meant by assimilation? What is the difference be tween -unit of its own? What does mor phonology
study? What phoneme assimilation and adaptation alternations are regarded
morphonological? (or accomodation)?
What stress alternations
What types of assimilation may are regarded morphonological?
be distinguished, affecting the Give an explanation of regular
place of articulation (the manner of phonetic and historical alterna
production, the work of vocal tions. Give examples. What types
80

chords, and the position of the of morphonological alternations do

lips)? Give examples. What types we distinguish? Do morphonologi
of assimilation may be distin cal alternations depend on the con
guished according to degree? What text or other factors?
types of assimilation may be dis How is the English suffixation
tinguished according to direction? realized in different morphemes?
Explain the difference between Does the alternation of stress de
historical and contextual assimila pend on adding different suffixes?
tions. Explain the morphonological func
tion of word stress. Give examples.
Seminar № 8. The Phonological Aspect of the English Speech Sounds.
What do the combinatory-positional changes depend on?
8.2. What other combinatory positional changes do you know, besides assimilation?
What do we mean by adaptation? When do rounded allophones of consonant phonemes occur? When do fully back allophones
of consonant phonemes occur? How does the dark /1/ influence a vowel articulation? What is meant by dissimilation? Give
examples.
What is an elision? Give examples.
What is haplology? Give examples.
Seminar № 9. Stylistic Use of Intonation.
9.1. What is intonation? Give its definition by British and American linguists. What components of intonation do you know?
What is intonology (or in-tonological typology)? What prosodic types of interference do you know? What aspects of intonation
do you know?
What is phonostylistics (intona tional stylistics)? What is the text-forming function of intonation? What functions of intonation
do we distinguish? How do you define a sense-group?
Why is the recognitive function of intonation important? What methods of indicating and describ ing intonation exist in
English?
Seminar № 10. Varieties of English pronunciation
10.1. What is a national language? What is a literary variant of a language?
What is dialectology?
What is an orthoepic norm?
10.2. Explain three principal types of English pronunciation dis tinguished on the British Isles? What is the Southern English
pro nunciation?
Why has RP been chosen as a standard for teaching in many countries? Where is Northern Eng lish spread?
Explain the Northern English pronunciation.
What are the marked features of the Scottish type of pronunciation in comparison with RP? What pronunciation features exist
in the Cockney dialect?
10.3. What pronunciation types exist in the USA?
Where is Eastern American pro nunciation spread? What are its features? What pronunciation fea tures exist in Southern
America? What is called the «Southern drawl»?
What pronunciation type is accepted as literary in the USA? Explain the marked differencies between RP and GA vowels.
What marked differencies exist between RP and GA consonants?
Explain the pronunciation of GA /г/.
What differencies exist between the distribution of vowel (or con sonant) phonemes in RP and GA?
Draw the vowel charts of RP and GA.
What main differencies exist in the notation of phonetic symbols given by British and American lin guists?
What are the marked differen cies in word accentuation between RP and GA. What is called spelling - pro nunciation? Give
examples from RP and GA. What differencies exist between RP and GA intonation?
10.4.1. Explain the main features of Canadian pronunciation.
10.4.2. What do you know about the Australian pronunciation?
10.4.3. What main pronunciation features of New Zealand English are known?
10.4.4. What is known about the South African pronunciation? In what countries is English spoken?
10.5. What is idialect?
What is bilingualism? What does school phonetics study?
What does comparative-typological phonetics study? What other terms are used instead of it?
What intradialectal phonetic variations are used in English? What do the terms diaphone, idio-phone and variphone denote?
What type of English pronunciation do you study?
10.6. Explain the stylistic variants of pronunciation.
81

2-modul. Ingliz tili leksikologiyasi.

1-SEMINAR. INTRODUCTION INTO LEXICOLOGY, LEXICOLOGY AS A SCIENCE. GENERAL

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF MODERN ENGLISH

1.Lexicology as a branch of linguistics.

2.Lexicology and its links with other branches of linguistics. The theoretical and practical value of
lexicology.
3. Lexical naming. Types of lexical naming. (General overview.)
4. The word as the basic lexical unit. The problem of the word in English. Word variants.
5. The concept of lexeme.
6. The size of the English lexicon.
7. The size of a person’s lexicon.
Key Terms
lexeme mental lexicon
lexical item/unit morpheme
lexical system derivational morpheme
lexicalization naming
lexicology lexical naming
cognitive lexicology phraseological unit
contrastive lexicology ready-made unit
descriptive lexicology set expression/phrase
diachronic/historical lexicology two-faceted unit
general lexicology vocabulary
special lexicology word
synchronic lexicology word-group
lexicon word stock
lexis word variants

Tasks and Exercises

1. What counts as a word? Define the status of the given lexical items and comment on the types of
naming. Consult the recommended dictionaries:
ad hot line
Adam’s apple lily of the valley
bike mini
blue(-)stocking mother-in-law
boarding school pram
break-down runaway
demo second-rate
extra- town hall
flower pot UNESCO
forget-me-not VIP
heart attack Whitehall
hot dog White House
Read the excerpt and answer the questions.
HOW LARGE IS THE ENGLISH LEXICON?
The two biggest dictionaries suggest around half a million lexemes – a total approached by the
unabridged Webster's Third New International (which claimed over 450,000 entries in 1961) and by the integrated
edition of the Oxford English Dictionary (which claimed over 500,000 entries in 1992). The true figure is undoubt-
edly a great deal higher.
A comparison of these two dictionaries – or of any other group of dictionaries of comparable size – shows a
remarkable lack of identity between headword lists. Discrepancies are usually caused by differing editorial
emphases. The Oxford has far more historical references and British dialect items than does the Webster, which in
turn has far more local American items. On the other hand, neither work would claim to be comprehensive in its
coverage of the vocabulary of the new Englishes in such parts of the world as India, Singapore, and Nigeria, where
thousands of new lexemes are coming into the language. And because the tradition in lexicography is to use the
written language as the test for inclusion, much local spoken nonstandard vocabulary will be omitted. There must be
thousands of slang expressions currently in common use which have never been recorded, such as all the lexemes
which express the concept of 'being drunk' – canned, blotto, squiffy, jagged, paralytic, smashed, etc.
82

Even if we restrict the issue to standard vocabulary, there are many items which could be included as part
of the lexicon, but which are not usually found in a dictionary. There are some half a million abbreviated forms in
English, many of which have a clear lexical status (BA, FBI, NATO, etc.); and fauna and flora also provide a vast
lexical resource. For example, there are apparently some million insects already described, with several million
more awaiting description. This means that there must be at least a million designations enabling English-speaking
entomologists to talk about their subject. Should all of these be allowed into the word-count as well?
It is difficult to see how even a conservative estimate of the English vocabulary could go much below a
million lexemes. More radical accounts, allowing in all of scientific nomenclature, could easily double this figure.
Only a small fraction of these totals, of course, is learned by any one of us. (From: D. Crystal. The Cambridge
Encyclopedia of the English Language. 1995. Р. 119)
Questions
 What linguistic items do lexicologists study?
 What is the minimal meaningful unit of language?
 What accounts for numerous and different definitions of the term word? Compare various definitions of the
word and state on what properties (phonological, morphological, syntactic, etc.) of the word they are based.
 What are the main problems connected with the concept of the word in English?
 Why is the word considered the basic lexical unit?
 How do you define the term lexeme?
 How large is the English lexicon?
 How many lexical items are registered in The Oxford English Dictionary/Webster’s Third New
International Dictionary?
 How large is the lexicon of a native speaker? Does it vary within different age groups/professional groups?
 How large is your lexicon?

2-SEMINAR. THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AS A VOCABULARY SYSTEM

Topics for discussion.
1.Definition of the term "synonyms"'. A synonymic group and its dominant member.
2. Problem of classification of synonyms:
a)different principles of classification: according to difference in denotational component of meaning or in
connotational component (ideographic or stylistic synonyms);
b)according to the criterion of interchangeability in linguistic context (relative, total and contextual synonyms).
3.Characteristic pattern of English synonyms.
4.The sources of synonymy.
5.Homonyms. Classification. Origin of homonyms.
Exercise 1.
Study the list of the synonyms given below and classify them into the following groups:
a)synonyms which display an obvious difference in denotational component of meaning (ideographical); b)
synonyms which differ in connotational component of meaning (stylistic).
b) Lazy, Idle, Indolent:
The words mean "not active", "not in use or operation", "doing nothing".
Lazy - can be used without implying reproach or condemnation, e.g. lazy afternoon, the boy is too lazy to
learn, I'm looking for a helper who is not incurably lazy.
Idle - suggests temporary inactivity or doing nothing through necessity, and hence carries no implication of
faultfinding; e.g. The machines are idle during the noon hour Because supplies did not arrive that day, the work
crew was idle for seven hours.
Indolent - is applied to someone who not only avoids effort but likes to indulge in relaxation. E.g. John was
a contented, indolent fisherman. Selling from door to door is no occupation for an indolent person.
Home. House
These words identify any kind of shelter that serves as the residence of a person, family or household.
House lacks the associated meanings attributed to home, a term that suggests comfort, peace, love and family ties. It
may be said that what a builder erects is a house which, when lived in, becomes a home. Such a statement may be
considered sentimental, echoing the lines of Edgar A. Guest ("It takes a heap v'livin' in a house t' make it home).
Sentiment or not, one usually speaks of "buying home" and "selling a house". But firemen put out a fire in a
house, not a home, and reference is always made to a house and let; not a home and let. Conversely, one usually
refers to a home for the aged, not a house for the aged. Since home and house are so subtly different in use, why not
sometimes resort to Residence and Dwelling and save confusion ? (Harry Show. Dictionary of Problem Words and
Expressions, 1975).
Exercise 2.
Define the stylistic colouring of the underlined words, substitute them with a neutral synonym from the list
given below.
83

1. Their discourse was interrupted. 2. He was dressed like a toff. 3. She passed away. 4. The old man
kicked the bucket. 5. Where is Daddy ? 6. Come on, let's put on steam. 7. Meet my better half. 8. He must have gone
off his rodder. 9. Come down to brass tacks. 10. Jack took his departure. 11. Well, let's drift. 12. Somebody has
nailed my bag. 13. This is a case for a vet 14. He is a joiner.
A doctor, to steal, to go, to leave, to go on, please, to put out, come to the point, to go out of one's mind, a wife, a
father, to die, to talk, a gentleman, good company.
Exercise 3.
Using a dictionary state the main semantic differences between the members of the following synonymic
groups. Say, whether these differences lie within the denotational or connotational components of meaning.
Gather, collect, assemble, congregate; discuss, argue, debate, dispute; help, aid, assist; employ, hire; mend, repair,
patch, rebuild; occupation, calling, vocation, business; position, place, situation, post.
Exercise 4.
In the following word combinations substitute the italicised word with a synonym.
1. Brisk pace, celebrated painter, changeable weather, improper story, inconstant lover, juicy fruit, succinct answer.
2. Convene the delegates, decide the question, describe the beauty of the scene, mislead the teacher, muster all the
men, hasten them along. 3. Too delicate for the job; lively for his years.
Exercise 5.
Fill in the blanks with a suitable paronym. Campaign, company.
1. The election, ... in England lasts about a month. 2. It was Napoleon's last.... 3. When ... stays too long, treat them
like members of the family and they'll soon leave. 4. Misery loves... . 5. Come along for... . 6. Two are..., three are
none. 7. The film ... merged. 8. Don't talk about your diseases in ....
Exercise 6.
Translate the following sentences. Find homonyms and define their types.
1. Excuse my going first, I'll lead the way. 2. Lead is heavier than iron. 3. He tears up all letters. 4. Her eyes filled
with tears. 5. In England the heir to the throne is referred to as the Prince of Wales. 6. Let's go out and have some
fresh air. 7. It is not customary to shake hands in England. If the hostess or the host offers a hand, take it; a bow is
sufficient for the rest. 8. The girl had a bow of red ribbon in her hair. 9. Mr. Newlywed: Did you see the button on
my coat, darling ? Mrs. Newlywed: No, love. I couldn't find the button, so I just sewed up the button hole, 10. Do
not sow panic. 11. He took a suite at the hotel. 12. No sweet without sweat. 13. What will you have for dessert? 14.
The sailors did not desert the ship. 15. He is a soldier to the core. 16. The enemy corps was routed. 17. The word
'quay' is a synonym for Embankment'. 18. The guests are supposed to leave the key with the receptionist. 19. When
England goes metric, flour will be sold by the kilogram. 20. The rose is the national flower of England. 21. In
England monarchs reign but do not rule. 22. The rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain.
Exercise 7.
Read the following jokes and say what linguistic phenomenon they are based on. A Scotchman was going
on an excursion to New York. He handled the agent a ten-dollar bill as the agent called "Change at Jersey City". "
No jokes now - I want my change right away," said the frightened Scotchman.
She: Now that we're engaged, dear, you'll give me a ring, won't you ? He: Yes, dear, certainly. What's your
telephone number ?
"When rain falls, does it ever get up again?" "Yes, in dew time!"
"What's the difference between soldiers and girls?" "The soldier faces powder. Girls powder faces".

3-SEMINAR. THE ETYMOLOGY OF MODERN ENGLISH VOCABULARY

Exercise 1. Etymological survey of the English word-stock. Topics for discussion.
1.Definition of terms native, borrowing, translation loan, semantic loan.
2.Words of native origin and their characteristics.
3.Foreign elements in Modern English. Scandinavian borrowings, classical elements-Latin and Greek,
French borrowings.
4.Assimilation of borrowings. Types and degrees of assimilation.
5.Etymological doublets, hybrids.
6.International words
Exercise 2.
Explain the origin of the following words: father, brother, mother, dog, cat, sheep, wolf, house, life, earth,
man, apple, live, go, give, begin, strong, long, wide, to, for, from, and, with, I, he, two, well, much, little.
Exercise 3.
Analyse the following words from the point of view of the type and degree of assimilation. State which
words are: a) completely assimilated; b) partially assimilated; c) non-assimilated: prima-donna, ox, caftan, city,
school, etc., mazurka, table, street, they, century, sky, wall, stimulus, reduce, cup, present.
Exercise 4.
84

Comment on the different formation of the doublets and on the difference in meaning, if any: balm-balsam,
suit-suite, senior-sir, legal-loyal, skirt-shirt, emerald-smaragdus, major-mayor, pauper-poor, of-off, history-story,
catch-chase.
Exercise 5.
Read the following text. Find the international words. State to what sphere of human activity they belong.
British dramatists.
In the past 20 years there has been a considerable increase in the number of new playwrights in Britain and
this has been encouraged by the growth of new theatre companies. In 1956 the English Stage Company began
productions with the object of bringing new writers into the theatre and providing training facilities for young actors,
directors, and designers; a large number of new dramatists emerged as a result of the company productions
Television has been an important factor in the emergence of other dramatists who write primarily for it; both the
BBC and IBA transmit a large number of single plays each year as well as drama series and serials.

4-SEMINAR. MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH WORDS

1. The morphological structure of the English word: morphemic analysis. 1.1 Give your understanding of
compositionality and morphemic analysis: identify the purpose and describe the procedure. 1.2 Explain the
following methods of morphemic analysis: structural analysis, oppositions and correlations and analysis into
immediate constituents (IC). Provide examples. 1.3 Identify difficulties of morphemic analysis focusing on pseudo-
morphemes, unique roots and bound root morphemes. Make use of the following examples: retain, contain, detain,
barbarism, theory, cranberry. 1.4 Identify the structural parts in the following words: disapproval, painfully,
disappointed, meaninglessly, writer, shoulder, honeymooner, mill-owner, prefer, transfer, readability, co-author,
left-handedness, conceive, perceive, piglet, hamlet, booklet, notelet, pocket, theory, barbarian. Consult a dictionary.
Analyse them into immediate constituents.
2. Structural (or morphemic) types of words. Give your understanding of monomorphic and polymorphic
words. The latter are further subdivided into monoradical and polyradical words. What is the basis of distinction?
Give examples.
3. The dynamic character of the (English) vocabulary. Explain why of all layers of language the lexicon is
least resistant to change, whereas grammar is usually very resistant.
4. Give your understanding of word-building. Identify 3 major types of word-building and at least 3 minor
types of word-building in English. Make use of the following examples: heartbeat, heartless, to take—a take; doc,
VIP, to blood-transfuse, strength, medicare.
5. Productivity. Give your understanding of the term. What are productive and non-productive types of
word building in English?
6. Word-derivation: the stem and the derivational base. Give your understanding of each term, provide
examples. In the following list of words, identify the derivational base: mistreat, mistreatment, dramatically, ex-
president, disapprove, careless, fluently.

5-SEMINAR. SEMANTIC STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH WORD. CHANGES IN SEMANTIC

STRUCTURE
1. Comment on the semantic structure of the following words from the synchronic point of view: cat, dog,
hand, head, mouth, nose. Find points of similarity in the semantic relationship between the meanings of different
words.
2. Comment on the types of meaning (metaphoric/ metonymic) in the following items:
the arm of a chair
cold voice
loud colours
the eye of a needle
the foot of the mountain
the head of a pin
sweet temper
black deeds
to devour a detective story
to burn with anger
the hands of a clock
every head of cattle
to have a good head for figures
3. Compare the semantic structure of correlative words (e.g. black, cat, hand, etc.) in English – Belarusian
– Russian and comment on the points of similarity and difference.
4. Analyse the semantic structure of the word table in diachronic and synchronic dictionaries paying
attention to the order of meanings.
85

Questions
 What are the causes of polysemy?
 Polysemy is a semantic universal, isn’t it?
 What are the causes of semantic change?
 What are the patterns of polysemy for English, Uzbek words denoting animal names, parts of the
body, and colour terms?
 How can one distinguish between different meanings of a polysemantic word and different usage of the
word?
 What role does context play in determining the meaning of words?
 What is understood by verbal context?
 What is understood by context of situation?
 Why is it necessary to compare/contrast foreign and native languages?
Exercise 1.
Build sentences with primary and two secondary meanings of the following polysemantic words. Bind,
board, boil, broad, catch, collapse, course, lemon, long, passage, pure, quick, review, spell, tell.
Exercise 22.
What meanings does a polysemantic word ‘nice’ have in the following sentences? What is the role of the
context? 1. One of the nicest things about her is her sense of humour. 2. I asked him in the nicest possible way not to
park in front of my garage. 3. He is not very nice to her when he has had a few drinks. 4. The discussion on one of
the nice points of law seemed to be endless. 5. You need a nice hot bath after such a tiring day. 6. He has a nice taste
in garment. 7. This is a nice mess you’ve got us into! 8. She’s not too nice in her business methods.
Exercise 23.
Discuss the meanings of the words and word forms of ‘die’, ‘white’, ‘black’, ‘house’. How are the
meanings of each of these words related?
1. The old traditions are dying out. Die in the car crash. Die of embarrassment. Die of cancer. Die in ones’
bed. The day is Meaning of theWord. Polysemy od theWord. Types of Meanings. Change of Meaning. Context – 18
– dying. Die in harness. Die a lingering death. His secret dies with him. The flame flickered and died. I’m dying for
a drink. The play quickly died the death. Never say die. The noise died away. The rabbits died out.
2. White face. White lie. White elephant. White sugar. White meat. White hair. White teeth. A white youth
in his twenties. White coffee.
3. Black clouds. Black tea. Black community. Hands black with grime. Black despair. To be in a black
mood. A black comedy.
4. The White House. An ancient trading house. Don’t wake the whole house. On the house. A two-bedroom
house. He played to packed houses. To urge the house to vote. Bring the house down. To keep house.
Exercise 24.
Which of the following words are monosemantic? Explain their meanings. Look up the meanings of the
words in the dictionary. Ape, archive, blood, candle, cancer, college, colossal, euthanasia, eureka, false, famous,
gender, intermediate, jailbird, jaw, mood, newfangled, nun, octopus, pedant, pork, profile, runway, saliva, seal,
soldier, textile, vandal, verify, wiggle.
Exercise 25.
In the sentences below, the words in bold in lexical system are polysemantic. What meanings do they have
in a dictionary and what meaning do they have in this particular context?
Part 2 – 19 – 1. The past year and a half has reminded me in many ways of what it was like when we started
the business.
2. The main entrance hall looks like something out of a video game, with a huge vaulted ceiling set off by
moody lightning and a row of ejection seats rescued from World War II-era fighter jets.
3. In one test, a quarter-inch steel ball is fired at eyewear at more than 160 km/h; in another, a heavy steel
spike is dropped on a lens.
4. Audiences are so used to easy seductions by movies, with big jokes and jolts, that they may misread or
discard potent message of the pictures.

6-SEMINAR. HOMONYMS. THE SOURCES OF HOMONYMS. THE CLASSIFICATION OF

HOMONYMS
Topics for Discussion
1. Homonymy of words and homonymy of word-forms.
2. Classification of homonyms.
3. Sources of homonymy.
4. Diachronic and synchronic approaches to homonymy.
5. Criteria for the differentiation between polysemy and homonymy.
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6. Homonymy in dictionaries.
Key Terms
convergent grammatical homonyms
diverging lexical homonyms
homograph lexico-grammatical homonyms
homonym patterned homonymy
homophone
Tasks and Exercises
1. Classify the following homonyms into lexical, lexico-grammatical and grammatical homonyms:
ball1 (n) ball2 (n)
bank1 (n) bank3 (n)
bear (n) bear (v)
draw (n) draw (v)
found (v) found (past of “to find”)
ground (n) ground (past of “to grind”)
kind (adj) kind (n)
left (adj) left (past of “to leave”)
mine (n) mine (of “my”)
own (adj) own (v)
page1 (n) page3 (n)
use (n) use (v)
2. Find homophones to the following words:
fair (adj)
flower (n)
idle (adj)
key (n)
plain (adj)
principal (adj)
reign (v)
see (v)
steel (v)
tail (n)
weather (n)
3. Find homographs to the following words:
bow [] (n)
row [] (n)
tear [] (n)
use [:] (n)
4. Study the arrangement of homonyms in general-purpose and specialized dictionaries.
5. Prove that the following lexical items are homonyms:
case1 (n) an instance of something occurring;
case2  (n) any of various types of container or covering used for keeping or protecting things;
pupil1 (n) a person, especially a child, who is taught in school or privately;
pupil2 (n) the dark circular opening in the centre of the eye that becomes smaller in bright light and larger in the
dark.
Questions
 What are the main sources of homonymy in English?
 What accounts for the abundance of homonymous words and word-forms in English?
 Does homonymy exist only among words and word-forms? Can we speak about homonymy of other
lexical units? Give examples.
 Into what types are homonyms classified by the type of meaning?
 Into what types are homonyms classified if their sound-form/ graphic form is taken into account?
 What homonyms have related meanings?
 What is understood by patterned homonymy?
 What is the essential difference between homonymy and polysemy?
 What are the criteria for differentiation between polysemy and homonymy?
 Why is the semantic criterion not always reliable in differentiating between polysemy and homonymy?

7-SEMINAR. HOMONYMY AND POLYSEMY

87

Topics for Discussion

1. Semantic change in English. Causes, nature and results of semantic change.
2. Polysemy in English. Causes of polysemy.
3. Polysemy and frequency.
4. Semantic structure of polysemantic words. Types of meaning (diachronic approach to polysemy,
synchronic approach to polysemy).
5. Polysemy and context. Types of context (lexical context, grammatical context).
6. Semantic structure of correlative words in different languages.
7. Polysemy in synchronic and diachronic dictionaries.
Key Terms
ambiguity
lexical ambiguity
amelioration of meaning
analogy
basic meaning
central/main/major meaning
context (verbal context, context of situation)
contiguity
derived/secondary meaning
deterioration/pejoration of meaning
direct meaning
disambiguation
extension/generalization of meaning
figurative meaning
lexical-semantic variant
metaphor (metaphoric meaning)
metaphtonymy
metonymy (metonymic meaning)
minor meaning
multiple meaning
narrowing/restriction/specialization of meaning
nominative meaning
original/primary meaning
similarity
systematic polysemy
transfer
Tasks and Exercises
1. Define polysemy as a linguistic phenomenon.
2. Give working definitions of the key terms with examples.
3. Comment on the semantic processes that were at work in the following words:
arrive marshal
bird meat
boor minister
camp office
cowboy place
deer queen
doctrine revolutionary
engine silly
fowl starve
gay target
hound teach
knave thing
knight Tory
lord villain.
4. Prove that the meanings in the following polysemantic words are related: hand, head, heavy,
table. (Use the dictionaries.)
5. Comment on the semantic structure of the following words from the synchronic point of view: cat,
dog, hand, head, mouth, nose. Find points of similarity in the semantic relationship between the
meanings of different words.
6. Comment on the types of meaning (metaphoric/ metonymic) in the following items:
the arm of a chair
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cold voice
loud colours
the eye of a needle
the foot of the mountain
the head of a pin
sweet temper
black deeds
to devour a detective story
to burn with anger
the hands of a clock
every head of cattle
to have a good head for figures
8. Analyse the semantic structure of the word table in diachronic and synchronic dictionaries paying
attention to the order of meanings.
Questions
 What are the causes of polysemy?
 Polysemy is a semantic universal, isn’t it?
 What are the causes of semantic change?
 What are the patterns of polysemy for English, Belarusian and Russian words denoting animal names,
parts of the body, and colour terms?
 How can one distinguish between different meanings of a polysemantic word and different usage of the
word?
 What role does context play in determining the meaning of words?
 What is understood by verbal context?
 What is understood by context of situation?
 Why is it necessary to compare/contrast foreign and native languages?

Exercise 1. Find full homonyms in the following sentences. Explain their meanings.
1. a) After valuation, experts band properties in groups of £20,000 or more. b) Tonight the entertainment
includes a disco and live band. 2. a) The group’s research has done much to advance our knowledge of the Human
Immunodeficiency Virus. b) Could you distribute copies well in advance before the meeting? 3. a) The morning
light came streaming in through the windows. b) People who have suffered light exposure to radiation still have to
have regular medical check-up. 4. a) The dogs usually bark at strangers. b) The bark of the birch is used to make
utensil. Systenatic Character of the Vocabulary: Synonyms,Antonyms, Homonums – 42 – 5. a) She was afraid she
wouldn’t be able to bear the pain. b) The bear has thick fur and eats flesh, fruit, and insects. 6. a) Ann would like to
dash into the room, to grab her bag, and to run out again. b) The dash is used in writing to separate two closely
related parts of a sentence. 7. a) She looked around at the sea of faces in the cafeteria. b) The President faces the
difficult task of putting the economy back on its feet. 8. a) The plot is a festival of conspiracies involving the Nazis,
Soviets, the CIA and LSD, plus some oddly convenient hurricane. b) He was called from the right bank in the
blessed plot of the tree.
Exercise 2. Find homophones in the sentences. Use them in different context by building new sentences.
1. a) Some people never forget insults and wait for the hour of revenge. b) Bill wants to spend a large sum
of money on modernizing the farm. 2. a) You can buy jeans in every colour under the sun. b) In those days, the
property went to the oldest son. 3. a) To be able to live fully in the here and now, one must first learn how to honour
the past. b) There’s a nasty infection going round, so I hear. 4. a) The branch was too weak to support his weight. b)
The Reids are coming for dinner a week from Sunday. 5. a) The old sailor preferred bitter to light beer. b) I’m glad
you’ve arrived – we could all do with a little light relief. 6. a) To keep sales of expensive eyewear brisk in this
economy, the company will have to continue to reinvent its products Part 3 – 43 – and itself. b) The government, the
minister emphasized, is concentrating on taking further steps to make sure the economy sails in safe waters.
Exercise 3. Find homographs in the sentences. Use them in different context by building new sentences.
1. a) Many of the party’s traditional voters can suddenly desert it at the election. b) The plane crash-landed
in the desert. No survivors were found. 2. a) He had just had a row with his wife? What was the row about? b) The
children were asked to stand in a row and to dance samba. 3. a) “Please, don’t talk like that”, Ellen implored him,
her eyes filling with tears. b) She carefully tears the paper. 4. a) This is done with a formal bow to the king or queen.
b) A bow is used for shooting arrows, made of long thin piece of wood held in a curve by a tight string. 5. a) The
content of the media course includes scripting, editing and camera work. b) Not content with her new car, Selina
now wants a bike.

8-SEMINAR. CRITERIA OF SYNONYMITY AND CLASSIFICATION OF SYNONYMS

89

Items for discussion:

1. Definition of synonyms.
2. Criteria of synonymy.
3. Classification of synonyms.
4. Sources of synonymy.
5. Euphemisms.
Exercise 41. What distinguishes each of the following pairs of synonyms:
a) level of formality; b) shades of meaning; c) the origin; d) different language varieties? Argument –
disputation, ask for – request, astonished – gobsmacked, beauty – pulchritude, bonnet – hood, caravan – trailer, chat
– gossip, destroy – zap, die – decease, famous – notorious, farm – ranch, hate – loathe, heart – ticker, need – require,
new – novel, obtain – procure, pardon – amnesty, pavement – sidewalk, praise – eulogy, tap – faucet, western –
occidental.
Exercise 42. Give the dominant synonym for the following synonymic groups.
1. Hue, pigment, tinge, tint, tone. 2. Accommodate, adapt, adjust, affect, alter, modify, remodel, restyle,
transform. 3. Crush, demolish, devastate, dismantle, fragment, liquidate, shatter, smash, uproot. 4. Combat, conflict,
hostilities, riot, row, struggle, wrangle. 5. Achievable, attainable, credible, imaginable, likely, plausible, potential,
probable. Part 3 – 35 – 6. Abnormal, bizarre, eerie, irregular, odd, peculiar, queer, surreal, weird. 7. Awash, damp,
dewy, drenched, moist, soaked, waterlogged. 8. Diffuse, imprecise, indefinite, uncertain, unclear, undefined,
unspecific. 9. Bulky, enormous, gigantic, massive, voluminous. 10. Demanding, burdensome, onerous, problematic,
strenuous.
Exercise 43. Make synonymic groups from the words below. Give a dominant synonym for each of the
group.
Adoration, angry, affection, attachment, boldness, bravery, composition, constitution, construction,
courage, cross, daring, detestation, dislike, displeased, drag, draw, effort, elegant, employ, endeavour, exploit,
fashionable, fearlessness, fondness, furious, heroism, hatred, infuriated, liking, love, make, organization, passion,
smart, structure, stylish, trial, try, unusable, unworkable, use, useless, utilise, worked up, worthless.
Exercise 44. In the following sentences, find the words which can be members of a synonymic group. Build
a synonymic group with that word.
1. From Greece to Japan, rich countries have racked up massive state debts. 2. We are the small, underdog
company. But we think our product, our price point and the consumer interface we have from our stores give us a
compelling proposition and an opportunity to do something others can’t. Systenatic Character of the Vocabulary:
Synonyms,Antonyms, Homonums – 36 – 3. I’ve talked a great deal over the last couple of years about the fact that
we’re now profitable in China, but we’re still significantly understored. 4. Most of my engineering friends went into
horribly stifling jobs where they get to design things like an on-switch that clicks. 5. She was obsessed with art, film
and books, and her taste in decadent demigods was impeccable, from Charles Baudelaire to William Burroughs. 6.
He was pale and slim with masses of dark curls, lying barechested with strands of beads around his neck. 7. Martin
saw Mary very often and soon became quite cordial, always greeting her with a smile and nod when she entered. 8.
In the company of the duke Oscar knew his daughter had nothing to dread. 9. The edifice looked as impressive in
actuality as it did in photographs.
Exercise 45. Words in the following pairs in some contexts become synonyms. However, their meanings
can also be semantically not related. Provide different context for these words to show their synonymy and
polysemy.
Anxiety – care, broad – wide, curious – inquisitive, flame – passion, hungry – greedy, professor – teacher,
tiny – petite. Part 3 – 37 – Exercise 46. Prove that the pairs of synonyms given in bold type make one semantic unit.
Which of them are phraseological units and which are contextual units? 1. About the time of twilight Mr. Dombey,
grievously afflicted with aches and pains, was helped into his carriage (Ch.D). 2. This is the place – these narrow
ways diverge to the right and left, and reek everywhere with dirt and filth (Ch.D). 3. It is not only your skill and
dexterity that fascinates me. It is your cheery confidence in yourself that does me good (J.K.J.). 4. Without listening
to excuse and apology … though unconscious of anything save the support which it gave, she was urging, and
almost dragging him forward (W. Sc.). 5. After perusing these papers, the Master of Ravenswood remained for a
minute or two with his hand pressed against his brow, in deep and profound meditation (W. Sc.). 6. Her cleanliness
and purity had reacted upon him, and he felt in his being a crying need to be clean (J. L.). 7. Over and above this, on
a snow-white napkin spread upon the sideboard, was a huge ham and a huge sirloin (A. T.). 8. Now you see she is
high and mighty, an empress couldn’t be grander (W. Th.). Materials for this exercise are borrowed from Grinberg
L.E., et all.
Exercise 47. Replace some of the words with their synonyms if possible. How does the text change?
1) Victor was already carrying my suitcase when I saw the mailman coming, a pleasant young black man.
Letters in hand, I jumped into the car, and left Chicago. I couldn’t wait to get to my friend’s house. Victor and Jean
are my close friends. They live in Indiana by the lake in a very peaceful spot called Oak Spring. I planned to spend a
week of my vacation there. I talked to Victor on the way, and completely forgot about my mail! But I didn’t open it
when we arrived either. There was Jean to talk to, cool drinks in tall glasses, and Jean’s noisy children to confront.
90

Finally, after dinner, when Jean was making my bed, I spilled the contents of my purse onto the table. I do that at
home too, because I never know what could have ended up in my bag during the course of the day (B.P.). 2) After
driving Dewey and her camping gear onto the spit, after saying she’d be right back, Lilah went to see the
taxidermist. A stout man with an amazing expanse of property and a view of the mountains beyond the bay, which
Lilah could not see for the fog, greeted her at the foot of his gravel driveway. He was proud of the money he’d
earned, what with all the fish to be stuffed and mailed back to the East Coast, where they’d be mounted on various
‘adventurer’s’ mantle pieces. He even shared his secrets about the construction of fibreglass fish moulds with Lilah.
She, at one time, had dreamed of being a sculptor, before settling for a more practical Liberal Arts education (L.S.).

9-SEMINAR. DEFINITION OF ANTONYMS. CLASSIFICATION OF ANTONYMS

Items for discussion:
1. Definition of antonyms.
2. Classification of antonyms.
3. Converseness.
Exercise 1. Give derivational antonyms to the following words.
Approve, backwards, bend, careful, connect, continue, convenient, fold, important, legal, legible like, lock,
mature, painful, patient, polysyllabic, probable, pure, replaceable, resistible, upstairs, uptown, useful, wrap
Exercise 2. Arrange antonyms into three groups: a) absolute antonyms, b) derivational antonyms, c) mixed
antonyms.
Active, add, alive, appearance, asleep, attentive, close, competent, convenient, crooked, distrust, easy,
employed, exhale, faithful, light, lower, necessary, outside, post-meridian, rational, strong, timidity, underestimate.
Exercise 3. Use antonyms for the words in bold. Indicate whether they are absolute or derivational
antonyms.
1. He has recently made this rejection explicit. 2. Companies claim to be able to produce limitless amounts
of power. 3. Managers can transform a too much lethargic work culture in creative ways. 4. Our occasional quarrels
are reminders of a basic primordial human need for a role in a small family unit on which we still depend. Part 3 –
41 – 5. When life gets too hectic, it impacts our mental and physical well-being, it’s time to take action. 6. Through
diligent research of old issues of the newspapers the research assistants gathered page after page. 7. I’m thoroughly
convinced that her popularity is due to her bizarre outfit. 8. Everyone was amazed at the writing style in what could
have been a horribly bland book. 9. The task is to examine whether these events were the results of a premeditated
actions of one person or a group of persons. 10. Experts will present American attitudes towards the solid waste
industry and efforts to change obsolete views and stereotypes.

10-SEMINAR. SEMANTIC SYSTEMS IN ENGLISH. NEOLOGISMS ABSOLUTE AND

ARCHAIC WORDS
1.Semasiology as the branch of linguistics. Referential and functional approaches to meaning. Definition of
meaning.
2.Meaning and concept (notion).
3.Types of word meaning: lexical, grammatical meanings. Denotational and connotational components of lexical
meaning. Implicational meaning.
4.Polysemy. The semantic structure of a polysemantic word.
5.Context. Types of context.
6.Change of meaning. Extension, narrowing, elevation, degradation of meaning of a word, metaphor, metonymy.
Exercise l.
Using a dictionary determine the direct meaning of the underlined words, which are used here in their
figurative metaphorical meanings.
1. Art is a vehicle of propaganda. 2. Raise the bonnet of the car. 3. Don't fumble for excuses. 4. He's always
ready to shove the responsibility on others. 5. I'm sure he didn't steal the thing. It had been planted 6. This event is a
milestone in the history of the country. 7. It will soil his reputation. 8. I'll swelter in this coat on such a hot day. 9.
There is a snag in your argument 10. A smile creased his face. 11. I stumbled through the text somehow. 12. You
have a fertile imagination.
Exercise 2.
Determine the meanings of the words "house", "white", "die" in the following contexts. Say what concept is
realised in these lexical meanings. Discuss the problem "concept-meaning".
1. A house in the country. A full house. Every word was heard in all parts of the house. White House. An ancient
trading house in the city. A noisy cheerful house. To keep house. To bring down the house. To leave one's father's
house. On the house. 2. White clouds. White hair. A white elephant. The white race. White magic. White meat. As
white as snow. White wine. It's white of you. White lie. 3. Die of hunger. Die a violent death. Die in one's bed. The
91

day is dying. Die to the world. I'm dying to know. His secret died with him. Die in harness. Die game. Never say
die.
Exercise 3.
The common term for a word's objective reference is denotation. The common term for a word's emotional
and stylistic content is connotation. Determine the denotative and connotative meanings in the following pairs of
words.
Muzzle vs face, fat vs plump, obstinate vs mulish, infant vs kid, beg vs implore, friend vs crony, fragrance
vs reek, love vs adore, talent vs genius, famous vs notorious, gobble vs eat.
Exercise 4.
Below are listed the original meanings of some simple words in Old English. As you see these meanings
are different from those the words have now. Consult dictionaries and say what kind of semantic change was
involved in the development of these words.
Bird, N- OE brid - nestling, fledgling; camp, N. - OE camp = battle, struggle, contest; deal, V. - OE daelan = share,
distribute, take part; deer, N. -OE deor = animal, beast; dwell, V. - OE dwellan - lead astray, deceive, make a
mistake; fair, A. - OE fzer = beautiful, pretty, sweet; fear, N. - OE faer -sudden attack, danger; fowl, N. - OE fuzol =
bird; lord, N. - OE leaford -master; silly, A. - OE saliz = happy, blessed, holy.
Exercise 5.
Determine the main and derived meanings of the underlined words. Translate the sentences. Say whether
lexical or grammatical context is predominant in determining the meaning of a word.
A. 1. Do not suspend the lamp from the ceiling, fix it to the wall. 2. The molecules of the substance remain
suspended in the solution. 3. The law was suspended. 5. He was suspended from all international games for three
years. 6. The Lords nave the power to suspend non-financial legislation for two years.
B. 1. It's like having a loose cobra around the house. 2. You can get it loose or in packets. 3 To say so would be
loose grammar. 4. Have the loose tooth out. 5. That would be rather a loose translation. 6. Fix the loose end to the
wall. 7. Your shoe lace
Exercise 6.
Comment on the way of formation of the following neologisms:
Accessorise, aeroneurosis, astrogation, built-in, de-orbit, gadgeteer, laseronic, robotics, sanforise, urbanologism,
vitaminise.

11-SEMINAR. WORD-FORMATION IN MODERN ENGLISH

Topics for discussion:
1. The morphological structure of a word. The morpheme. The principles of morphemic analysis. Types of
morphemes. Structural types of words: simple, derived, compound words.
2 Productivity. Productive and non-productive ways of word-formation.
3 Affixation. General characteristics of suffixes and prefixes. Classification of prefixes according to: a)
their correlation with independent words; b) meaning; c) origin. Classification of suffixes according to: a) the part of
speech formed; b) the criterion of sense; c) stylistic reference; d) origin.
4 Productive and non-productive affixes, dead and living affixes.
5 Word-composition. Classification of compound words: a)from the functional point of view; b)from the
point of view of the way the components of the compound are linked together; c)from the point of view of different
ways of composition.
Coordinative and subordinative compound words and their types.
Exercise 1.
Analyse the following words morphologically and classify them according to what part of speech they
belong to:
Post-election, appoint, historic, mainland, classical, letterbox, outcome, displease, step, incapable, supersubtle,
illegible, incurable, adjustment, ladyhood, elastic, perceptible, inaccessible, partial, ownership, idealist, hero, long-
term, corporate.
Exercise 2.
Analyse the structure of the following compounds and classify them into coordinative and subordinative,
syntactic and asyntactic:
Bookbinder, doorbell, key-note, knife-and-fork, hot-tempered, dry-clean, care-free, policy-maker, mad-brained,
five-fold, two-faced, body-guard, do-it-yourself, boogie-woogie. оfficer-director, driver-collector, building-site.
Exercise 3.
Classify the compound words in the following sentences into compounds proper and derivational
compounds:
l) She is not a mind-reader. 2) He was wearing a brand-new hat. 3) She never said she was homesick. 4) He
took the hours-old dish away. 5) She was a frank-mannered, talkative young lady. 6) The five years of her husband's
newspaper-ownership had familiarised her almost unconsciously with many of the mechanical aspects of a
newspaper printing-shop. 7) The parlour, brick-floored, with bare table and shiny chairs and sofa stuffed with
92

horsehair seemed never to have been used. 8) He was heart-sore over the sudden collapse of a promising career. 9)
His heavy-lidded eyes and the disorder of his scanty hair made him look sleepy.
Exercise 4.
Study the following passage. What is understood by the term "productivity"?
Word-formation appears to occupy a rather special place in grammatical description. In many cases the
application of apparently productive rules leads to the generation of compounds and derivatives that are, for one
reason or another, felt to be unacceptable or at least very old by native speakers, and the grammarian must decide
what status he is to give to such rules and their output in his grammar. The decision is by no means easy, and can lie
anywhere between the setting up of maximally general rules of a generative type, with little concern for the fact that
much of their output may in some sense be questionable, and the simple listing and classifying, in terms of syntactic
function and internal structure, of attested forms... Processes of word-formation often seem to belong to a somewhat
vague intermediary area between grammar and lexicon, and while this needs not prevent us from giving formal
statements of these processes, it may often be necessary to state restrictions on their output in primarily semantic
terms if we want to hold on to the criterion if native speaker acceptance as an essential measure of the adequacy of
our description. Thus in the area of English nominal compounds it would seem that actually occurring compounds
are not as a rule created like new sentences in order to refer to momentary conditions. Leaving aside the possible
difficulties of stating such semantic considerations in a reasonably rigorous way in any given case, the problem is to
determine, for the various word-formative processes in which they appear to play a part how they can most
reasonably be accommodated within an over-all framework, of grammatical and semantic description. (Karl E.
Zimmer, Affixal Negation in English and other languages).
Word-formation in Modern English (continued) Topics for discussion.
1 Conversion, its definition. The word-building means in conversion. Different view-points on conversion.
Typical semantic relations within a converted pair (verbs converted from nouns, nouns converted from verbs).
2.Shortening. Lexical abbreviations. Acronyms. Clipping. Types of clipping.
3.Non-productive means of word formation. Blending. Back-formation. Onomatopoeia. Sentence - condensation.
Sound and stress interchange.
Exercise 1.
Study the following passage and be ready to discuss denominal verbs in Modern English.
The meanings of ordinary denominal verbs are seem to be clear, bear at least an approximate relationship to
their "parent" nouns, from which they were historically derived. The verb bottle bears some relation, at last
diachronically, to its parent noun bottle. To illustrate the major relationships, we will present classification of more
than 1300 denominal verbs collected from newspaper, magazines, novels, television. To make our task manageable,
we have included only those verbs that fit these four guidelines:
(a)Each verb had to be formed from its parent noun without affixation (though with possible final voicing,
as in shelve). This is by far the commonest method of forming denominal verbs in English.
(b)The parent noun of each verb had to denote a palpable object or property of such an object, as in sack,
knee, and author - but not climax, function, or question.
(c) Each verb had to have a non-metaphorical concrete use as far as possible. This again was to help keep
our theory of interpretation within limits, although in some cases we couldn't avoid examining certain extended
meanings.
(d) Each verb had to be usable as a genuine finite verb. This excluded expressions like three - towered and
six - legged, which occur only as denominal adjectives. (E. Clark and H. Clark. When nouns surface as verbs).
Exercise 2.
Comment on the formation of the words given below: to burgle, to springclean, to typewrite, to beg, to
note.
Exercise 3.
Explain the formation of the following blends: flush, glaze, good-bye, electrocute, pomato, twirl,
dollarature, cablegram, galumph, frutopia drink.
Exercise 4.
Give verbs corresponding to the nouns that have been underlined. Compare the place of the stress in the
noun and the verb.
1. He looked up all among the trees he saw moving objects, red like poppies, or white like May-blossoms.
2.1 am not sure that I can define my fears: but we all have a certain anxiety at present about our friends. 3. Accent is
the elevation of the voice which distinguishes one part of a word from another. 4. Her conduct was deferential.
Exercise 5.
Abbreviate the following nouns to the first syllable.
Mitten, doctor, grandmother, cabriolet, public, house, gymnasium, proprietor, fraternity, labouratory,
margarine, sister, mathematics, trigonometry, veterinary, gladiolus.
Exercise 6.
Comment on the way the underlined words are formed.
1. After dinner, the woman cleared the table. 2. Finally, to quiet him, she said that she hadn't really meant it. 3. The
differences are now being narrowed 4. Her face, heated with his own exertions, chilled suddenly. 5. Warmed by the
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hot tea, he warmed to the argument. 6. She came dressed up to the nines. 7. A win in this match is a must. 8. Turn
your ought into shalls.
Exercise 7.
Supply the corresponding full names for the given abbreviations of American state (e.g. Colo - Colourado)
and so: Ala., Cal., Fla., Ga., Ill., Ind., Kan., Ken., Md., N.D., NJ, NY, Oreg., S.C., Tex.

12-SEMINAR. AFFIXATION AND ITS SUBDIVISIONS. CONVERSION

Affixation
Key words: derivational affix, suffix, prefix, derivational (underlying) base, selectional rule, steps (degrees) of
derivation, native and Neo-Latin bases of affixation, word formation affixal field, semi-affix, morphonological
change.

Look up these terms in the glossary or in the sources indicated in the bibliography to the glossary. Compare the
definitions given in English and in Russian.
Problems for Discussion
1. The derivational status of an affix. Derivational vs. inflectional morphology. Problems and solutions.
2. Derivation on the native and neo-Latin bases in present-day English.
3. Selectional rules and derivational affixal patterns.
4. Productivity and activity of affixal derivational patterns.
5. Affixal word formation fields.
6. Correlative word formation fields and patterns in English and Belarusian (Russian, German, French, etc.)
languages.

Questions and Tasks

1. Study the following words and say in which of them the affix is a derivational one: redeem, redefine,
ardent, dependent, educator, alligator, harmonious, vivacious, intake, inspect, desurface, destroy,
appreciative, derogative. Find your own examples of analogous words.
2. Study the following pairs of words and group them. Define the difference between the groups: create –
creation, eliminate – elimination, dominate – domination, farm – farming, clean – cleaning, question –
questioning, polite – politeness, separate – separateness, persuade – persuasive, submit –
submissive. Comment on the etymology of the derivational affixes used in the above given derivatives and
on the way of borrowing affixes.
3. Write down the derivational formulae of the following words: unpretentiousness, malodorousness, trades-
unionist, nuclear-physicist, desynonymize, misappreciation, unpleasantness. Use two ways of notation.
4. Analyze the derivational structure of the following words and say how many steps of derivation they have
undergone: indisputableness, unknowableness, irresponsiveness, unseaworthyness, theatricalization,
revitalization, dehydrogenizer, librarianess, petticoatless. Find your own examples of words of 1st, 2nd,
3rd, etc. degrees of derivation.
5. Study the rows of derivatives with the affixes anti-, non-, re-, un-, -able, ed, -er, -ish, -ism, -like. Use
dictionaries, including the reverse ones, for the purpose.
6. Comment on the phonological, morphological, semantic properties of derivational bases with which the
affixes anti-, non-, re-, un-, -able, -ed, -er, -ish, -ism, -like go into combination.
7. Give examples of productive, semi-productive and non-productive derivational patterns in present-day
English word formation.
8. Give examples of active and non-active affixal patterns in present-day English word formation.
9. Name the English affixes of negation, resemblance, state and quality. Find the correlative affixes in
Belarusian, Russian, German, French, etc.
10. Compare the groups of derivatives with the English suffixes -an, -er, -ist and other agentive suffixes with
the groups of derivatives with the Russian agentive suffixes -тель, -ник, -арь, -щик and others. Comment
on their differences and similarities.

Conversion

Key words: zero derivation, conversion, functional change (shift), root formation, non-affixal word formation,
morphological paradigm, direction of derivation, semanticrelations.
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Look up these terms in the glossary or in the sources indicated in the bibliography to the glossary. Compare the
definitions given in English and in Russian.

Problems for Discussion

1. Love – to love, to run – a run: a way of derivation or a functional shift?

2. The definition of the derivation device in various theories: zero-derivation, non-affixal word formation,
conversion, morphological, syntactic, morphological-syntactic way of word formation.
3. The domain of zero derivation and its results: adjectivization, substantivization, occasional conversion, root
formation.
4. Derivative relations in conversion pairs and criteria of their directionality.
5. Semantic relations in conversion pairs and their propositional basis.

Questions and Tasks

1. Сompare the wordforms given below and say morphological paradigms of what words they are members
of: (a bottle’s) cork – cork (the bottle), (an initial) step – initial (the memo), (a grey) wig – wig (the
actress), (an old) tree – tree (the avenue), (long) marches – (the soldiers) marched.
2. Compare the following derivative verbs and define the difference in the way they were coined: jail (the
prisoner) – imprison (the thief), hospitalize (the patient) – volunteer (the information). Find analogous
examples.
3. Analyze the morphemic structure of the following verbs and name the shortcomings of the root formation
theory: wallpaper the wall, spraypaint the door, tar-and-feather the prisoner, tea-cosy the pot, sidetrack
the detective. Find your own examples of the verbs of similar structure.
4. Study the relations between words in the following pairs and say which of them is the basic one and which
is derived: rake n – rake v, farm n – farm v, tail n – tail v, bicycle n – bicycle v, show n – show v, answer n
– answer v, mature adj – mature v, gossip n – gossip v, wet adj – wet v, cleanadj – clean v, drive n
– drive v. Name the criteria you have used.
5. Find examples of verbs derived from nouns which have the following types of meaning: cover (as in carpet
the floor, varnish the furniture), deprive of cover (as in skin the rabbit, shell the peanuts), locate (as in
ground the planes, shelter the fugitives), act as an agent or an experiencer (as in nurse the patient,
shepherd the sheep, witness the accident), act as an instrument (nail the board, mouth the words, plane the
wood smooth).
6. Define the semantic relations in the following pairs of words: catch v – catch n, rub v – rub n, say v
– say n, drive v – drive n, find v – find n, runv – run n, ride v – ride n. Find analogous examples.
7. Analyze the structural and semantic properties of the following words and explain why the formation of
verbs on their basis is not welcome: baker, farmer, banker, driver, hospital, Dodge, Ford, spring, fall
(autumn), Fourth-of-July, Saturday. Find your own examples of unwelcome verbs and nouns.
8. Analyze the structure and semantics of Russian verbs лопатить, утюжить, партизанить, German
nouns Leben, Bad, Gähnen. Find analogous examples in the languages you know and say what type of
derivation they represent.

13-SEMINAR. WORD COMBINATION IN MODERN ENGLISH

Key words:a word combination (phrase), combinability (valency), lexical and grammatical valency, lexical and
grammatical context, context of situation.
Look up these terms in the glossary or in the sources indicated in the bibliography to the glossary. Compare the
definitions given in English and in Uzbek/Russian.

Problems for Discussion

1. A compound word – a free word combination – a phraseological unit. Problems of boundaries and criteria.
2. Factors of government and binding words into phrases. Lexical and grammatical valency.
3. Context. Types of context.
4. The role of context in text perception.
Questions and Tasks
1. Analyze the following complex units and define their status as compound words or word
combinations: avalanche of ice, papers, letters, blows, missiles; till the cows come home; craft-brother;
Eskimo pie; field-telegraph; field pea; field bean; fiery sun, beams, trial, eyes, speeches, horse,
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disposition; glow-worm; glowing eyes, furnace, admiration, account; see smth (the joke, the point, the
meaning of smth, smb’s reason); international law (agreement, trade, conference, code), international
lawyer; intermediate gear, intermediate steps (measures). Find your own examples of units of various
types. Comment on the criteria you have used to define the type of a complex unit.
2. Analyze the following word combinations from the point of view of grammatical and lexical valency of
their components: teach well, badly, competently, skilfully; teach children, adults, a mixed class of boys
and girls; teach smb a good lesson; bring a present, his things, one’s luggage upstairs, chairs, spoons;
bring an answer, good news, a message; bring snow, rain, bad weather; bring him to see my point, bring
them to see the wisdom of his plan; bring smth home to smb. Give your own examples of grammatical and
lexical valency of English words.
3. Compare the valency of the following English words to that of their Uzbek/Russian correlates: face (the
window, the terrace, the room, the house), face smb (the problem, the task that faced us), face the danger,
the future, enemy, death bravely, unflinchingly; love smb dearly, devotedly, love smth (sweets, ice-cream,
comfort, mountain-climbing), love to be praised, to be admired; reply (to a letter, a question, a toast);
wonder (at smb, smth, at your behavior, at her saying that); yield (to smth, to force, to pressure,
persuasion, temptation).

14-SEMINAR. PHRASEOLOGY IN MODERN ENGLISH. PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS WITH

DIFFERENT COMPONENTS

Key words: stability vs. changeability, idiomaticity vs. motivation, word equivalence, set expressions, idioms,
phraseological units (PhU), phraseological fusions, phraseological unities, phraseological collocations; traditional
collocations, idioms proper, ready made utterances; free (variable) context combinations – non-variable (stable)
context combinations, phrasemes vs. idioms.
Look up these terms in the glossary or in the sources indicated in the bibliography to the glossary. Compare the
definitions given in English and in Russian.

Problems for Discussion

1. Motivation and variability of word combinations.
2. Free phrases versus phraseological units. Criteria and difficulties of differentiation.
3. Types of phraseological units. Classifications and their evaluation.
4. Linguistic laws of PhUs formation. Activity of words and syntactic patterns.
5. Contrastive study of phraseology. Common sources as the foundation for equivalent phraseological units.
Socio-cultural properties of phraseological units.

Questions and Tasks

1. Analyze the following word combinations and comment on their meaning and variability of the
components: settle the future of the country, shake hands on (over) the bargain, sink or swim, speak of the
devil and he is sure to appear, wait for the postman, for a friend, for the train, for instructions.
2. Classify the following phraseological units using semantic, contextual and functional criteria: drenched to
the bone, a break in the clouds, creditors have better memories than debtors, good egg, put all one’s eggs
in one basket, separate the husk from the grain, Attic salt, to lick the boots, break bread with smb, shoot the
bull.

15-SEMINAR. THE STYLISTIC DIFFERENTIATION OF THE VOCABULARY SYSTEM OF MODERN

ENGLISH

Questions:
1.    Identify stylistics in terms of the general theory of information.
2.    Give a definition of a functional style. What type of information do functional styles express?
3.    What does the choice of functional style depend on?
4.    What classes is the vocabulary of language subdivided into with respect to functional styles? What are the
properties of stylistically neutral words?
5.    Describe the structural and semantic features of the colloquial style.
6.    What functional style does slang belong to? Give examples of general British and American slang; of American
campus and teenagers’ slang.
7.    List the styles distinguished within the formal English language. What are their characteristic features?
8.    How are terms coined? What are their essential properties?
9.    What linguistic phenomenon is called “de-terminisation”?
10.    State the difference between a term and a professionalism.
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Exercises:
1. Point out stylistic differences within the groups of synonyms.
face – visage – mug – deadpan;
nose – snout – beak – nasal cavity;
I think – I gather – I presume – I take it – I guess it – me thinks;
boy – youth – lad – young male person – youngster – teenager;
lass – girl – maiden – wench – young female person;
nonsense – absurdity – rot – trash;
legs – pins – lower extremities;
Silence, please! – Stop talking! – Shut your trap!
friend – comrade – pal – buddy – acquaintance;
Hurry up! – Move on! – Hasten your step!

2. Replace the colloquial expressions by more neutral ones.

(a) What do you think of her? – She’s jolly! – Really? – Oh, yah! She’s fun, to be sure! A bit too fat for my taste,
though. – Oh, come on, you’re being too choosy. She’s just right. – Doesn’t look like it to me, anyway.
(b) I take it, he screwed his life himself, the jerk. Took to drinking, and things. He sure did. But then, again, come to
think of it, who wouldn’t with that stupid ass of a woman around all the time? He just couldn’t make it.

3. Read an interview that John Kerry, a candidate for the US presidency, gave to the reporters of “Time” in the
course of the 2004 election campaign. Analyze the vocabulary and structures used from the standpoint of style.

“I’m All For Strength, When Appropriate”

Time, March 15, 2004
TIME: What would you have done about Iraq had you been the President?
KERRY: If I had been the President, I might have gone to war but not the President did. It might have been only
because we had exhausted the remedies of inspections, only because we had to – because it was the only way to
enforce the disarmament.
TIME: But it turns out there was nothing to disarm.
KERRY: Well, if we had kept on inspecting properly and gone through the process appropriately, we might have
avoided almost a $200 billion expenditure, the loss of lives and the scorn of the world and the breaking of so many
relations.
TIME: Would you say your position on Iraq is (a) it was a mistaken war; (b) it was a necessary war fought in a bad
way; or (c) fill in the blank’?
KERRY: I think George Bush rushed to war without exhausting the remedies available to him, without exhausting
the diplomacy necessary to put the U.S. in the strongest position possible, without pulling the logistics and the plan
to shore up Iraq immediately and effectively.
TIME: And you as a Commander in Chief would not have made these mistakes but would have gone to war?
KERRY: I didn’t say that.
TIME: I’m asking.
KERRY: I can’t tell you.
TIME: Might the war have been avoided?
KERRY: Yes.
TIME: Through inspections?
KERRY: It’s possible. It’s not a certainty, but it’s possible. I’m not going to tell you hypothetically when you have
reached the point of exhaustion that you have to use force and your intelligence is good enough that it tells you
you’ve reached that moment. But I can tell you this: I would have asked a lot of questions they didn’t. I would have
tried to do a lot of diplomacy they didn’t.
TIME: You would have asked more questions about the quality of intelligence?
KERRY: Yes. If I had known that (Iraqi exile leader Ahmed) Chala-bei was somebody they were relying on, I
would have had serious doubts. And the fact that we learn after the fact that that is one of their sources disturbs me
enormously.
TIME: As a Senator, could you not have asked that question?
KERRY: We asked. They said: Well, we can’t tell you who the sources are. They give you this gobbledygook. I
went over to Pentagon. I saw the photographs. They told us specifically what was happening in certain buildings. It
wasn’t.
TIME: You were misled?
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KERRY: Certainly by somebody. The intelligence clearly was wrong, fundamentally flawed. Look, the British
were able to do a two-month of what happened to their intelligence. This Administration wants to put it off to 2005.
It’s a national security issue to know what happened to our intelligence. We ought to know now.
TIME: Obviously it’s good that Saddam is out of power. Was bringing him down worth the cost?
KERRY: If there are no weapons of mass destruction – and we may yet find some – then it is a war that was fought
on false pretences, because that was the justification to the American people, to the Congress, to the world, and that
was clearly the frame of my vote of consent. I suggested that all the evils of Saddam Hussein alone were not a cause
to go to war.
TIME: So, if we don’t find WMD, the war wasn’t worth the cost? That’s a yes?
KERRY: No, I think you can still wait – no. You can’t – that’s not a fair question, and I’ll tell you why. You can
wind up successful in transforming Iraq and changing the dynamics, and that may take it worth it, but that doesn’t
mean that transforming Iraq was the cause that provided the legitimacy to go. You have to have that distinction.
TIME: You’ve said the foreign policy of triumphalism fuels the fire of jihadists. Is it possible the U.S. show the
force in Iraq tempers the fire of jihadists?
KERRY: I’m all for strength when appropriate, and, you bet, there are a lot of countries in the Middle East that
understand strength, and it’s a very important message. But in my judgment, the way it was applied this time, it has
encouraged street-level anger, and I have been told by people it encourages the recruitment of terrorists. I mean,
look, even Rumsfeld’s own memo underscores that they haven’t discovered how to stem the tide of recruitment.
TIME: Why would internationalizing the Iraq be a more effective strategy for stabilizing the country?
KERRY: The legitimacy of the governing process that emerges from an essentially American process is always
subject to greater questioning than one that is developed with broader, global consent.
TIME: How do you bring in others?
KERRY: I spent the time to go to the U.N. and sit with the Security Council before the vote, because I wanted to
ascertain what their real state of mind was and whether or not they would be prepared to enforce the resolution,
provide troops, whether or not they took it seriously, whether or not they would share costs and burden, and I came
away convinced after a two-hour conversation, a lot of questions, that they would.
TIME: You’ve criticised the pre-emptive nature of the Bush doctrine.
KERRY: Let me emphasise: I’ll pre-empt where necessary. We are always entitled to do that under the Charter of
the U.N., which gives the right of self-defence of a nation. We’ve always had a doctrine of pre-emption contained in
first strike throughout the cold war. So I understand that. It is the extension of it by the Bush Administration to
remove a person they don’t like that contravenes that.

16- SEMINAR. THE MAIN PECULIARITIES OF THE VOCABULARY SYSTEM OF THE ENGLISH
SPEAKING COUNTRIES

Key words: idiolect, dialect, standard norm/English, regional/local dialect, minority dialect,
variation/variety, regional variety, ethnic/indigenized variety, pidgin, creole, lingua franca, cockney, vernacular.
Look up these terms in the glossary or in the sources indicated in the bibliography to the glossary. Compare the
definitions given in English and in Russian.

Problems for Discussion

1. General characteristics of the English language in different parts of the English-speaking world.
a. Territorial variants vs. local/regional dialects.
b. Minority dialects. Indigenized varieties.
c. English as the basis for pidgin and creole.
2. British variant of the English language.
a. Standard English.
b. Local dialects and varieties in the British Isles. The Scottish and Irish varieties.
c. Local dialects in England.
d. Cockney.
3. American variant of the English language.
a. Specific features of American English in phonetics, grammar, spelling, word meaning, word formation.
b. Local dialects in the USA.

Questions and Tasks

1. Give equivalents in American English for the following British English words and word
combinations: billion, bill, bank note, bookings, cinema, charity organisation, dummy (for babies), full-
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stop, handbag, homely (simple in a way that makes you feel comfortable), tinned food, car park, potato
crisps, single ticket, stalls, sweet, toilet.
2. Write the most suitable American words in the gaps:
a. In our building we have a caretaker to see to that things are ok.
In our building we have a … to see to that things are ok.
b. On the top of the roof we have an aerial for our television set.
On the top of the roof we have an … for our television set.
c. In October it is autumn.
In October it is … .
d. Bank notes are easier to carry than coins.
… are easier to carry than coins.
e. I was in the Tivoli – I tried several tours in the bigdipper.
I was in the Tivoli – I tried several tours in the … .
f. Give me another sweet thing – one of those biscuits.
Give me another sweet thing – one of those … .
g. I will have to get a new pair of shoelaces, as I broke them this morning.
I will have to get a new pair of … , as I broke them this morning.
h. The trousers were too big – so I had to wear braces.
The … were too big – so I had to wear … .
i. Between two lessons you often have a break.
Between two lessons you often have a … .

3. Translate the following words and word-combinations into English giving two variants – British and
American: аптека, вотпуске, грузовик,железнодорожнаякасса, заполнитьанкету, класс (вшколе), 
купать (выкупать), метро, миксер, овсянаякаша, переезд (перекресток),подземныйпереход, почт
альон, свитер, страна, стюардесса, тренировка, умный, фарш, центргорода, ящикдлямусора.
4. Compare the spelling and the use of words and word combinations in British, American and Canadian
English. Make conclusions about the peculiarities in the territorial variations of the English language:
British English American English Canadian English
Colour Color Colour
Centre Center Centre
Tyre Tire Tire
Draught Draft Draft
Recognise Recognize Recognize
Patronise Patronize Patronize
Encyclopaedia Encyclopedia Encyclopedia
Manoeuvre Maneuver Manoeuvre
Licence License License
To post a letter To mail a letter To mail a letter
To hire a car To rent a car To rent a car
Railway Railroad Railway
Waggon Car Car
Table napkin Serviette Serviette
Petrol Gasoline Gasoline
Housewife Stay-at-home mom Stay-at-home mom
Running shoes Sneakers Sneakers, runners
Burnt/burned Burned/burnt Burnt
Smelt/smelled Smelled/smelt Smelt
Spoilt/spoiled Spoiled/spoilt Spoilt
5. Compare the examples in British English (BrE) with their equivalents in South African English (SAfrE),
Australian English (AustralE) and Kiwi/New Zealand English (NZE). Use them in your presentations on
the suggested topics for discussion.
Work (BrE) – weck (SAfrE), car (BrE) – kah (SAfrE), book (BrE) – boook (SAfrE), garden (BrE)
– gaddin (SAfrE), fast (BrE) – fust (SAfrE), town(BrE) – taun (SAfrE), pickup truck (BrE) – bakkie (SAfrE), guy,
mate (BrE) – China (SAfrE), Ouch! (BrE) – Eina! (SAfrE), Hello/how are you? (BrE) – Howzit? (SAfrE), Really/is
99

that so? (BrE) – Izzit? (SAfrE), yes, yeah (BrE) – ja (SAfrE), Goodbye. (BrE) – Go well, stay well. (SAfrE), traffic-

light(BrE) – robot (SAfrE), training shoe (BrE) – tackie (SAfrE), She’ll be here soon. (BrE) – She’ll be here just
now. (SAfrE), Things are okay. (BrE) – Ja well. (SAfrE), Things are so-so. (BrE) – No fine. (SAfrE).
Pavement (BrE) – footpath (AustralE), holiday cottage (BrE) – weekender (AustralE), girl (BrE)
– sheila (AustralE), sweet (BrE) – lolly (AustralE), fool (BrE) – drongo (AustralE), Australian (BrE)
– Aussie (AustralE), in need of (BrE) – broke for (AustralE), tired of (BrE) – fed with (AustralE).
New Zealand (BrE) – Enzel (NZE), Englishman (BrE) – Pom (pejorative) (NZE), TV (BrE)
– telly (NZE), glasses (BrE) – gig lamps (NZE), dustbin(BrE) – kitchen tidy (NZE), salary (BrE)
– screw (NZE), two dollars (BrE) – quid (NZE), trousers (BrE) – strides (NZE).
6. Read the passage and say if Randolph Quirk was right. Predict the role of English in 2020:
In a paper written in 1970 for a conference in Luxembourg organized by the London-based Institute of Linguists,
Randolph Quirk, then Professor of English at University College of London, engaged in a speculation about the
future. His paper was called “English in twenty years”.
I must base my speculation about the future role of English upon assumptions outside linguistics, and my
assumptions are these: that Britain will become more and more closely involved with continental Europe,
economically, intellectually and politically; and that English will retain in the next 20 years the degree of prestige it
has enjoyed in continental Europe in the past twenty years… On these assumptions I could confidently predict that
English will retain its prominent place in Europe… One could in fact go further and predict that English will
actually increase its currency, above all for purposes of trade, but also in scientific communication and in the
everyday matters of popular culture – for example, through Eurovision. And all this even in the European countries
whose mother tongue is so important a language as German or French. … Given something more like a cultural
boost, we may expect present uses of English to expand so that by 1990 everyone in Europe may be using, or be
exposed to, English for some part of every day.

17- SEMINAR. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BRITISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH

Exercise 1.
Give American English equivalents of the following British English words.
Aubergine, draughts, eraser, fortnight, full stop, interval, ladybird, parcel, porridge, post, roundabout, queue, tin,
waistcoat.
Exercise 2.
Give British English equivalents of the following American English words.
First floor, French fries, garbage, gear shift, pitcher, sidewalk, sneakers, trashcan.

Exercise 3.
Divide the words into two groups: a) American English, b) British English.
Airplane, cookie, faucet, gas, highway, knickers, lift, lorry, mailman, motorway, pants, petrol, streetcar, store,
subway, tram, truck, tube, vacation, wireless.

Exercise 4.
Spell the following words according to British English norms of spelling.
Acknowledgment, behavior, catalog, center, color, favor, gram, harbor, humor, jewelry, judgment, labor, marvelous,
odor, offense, pajamas, program, theater, traveling, woolen.

Exercise 4.
In the following sentences, find American English words and divide them into 3groups: a) proper Americanisms; b)
historical Americanisms; c) words borrowed by American English.
Apartment, automobile, banjo, canyon, corn, coyote, fall, faucet, guess, hammock, moccasin, mosquito, racoon,
railroad, ranch, toboggan, truck, wigwam.

Exercise 5.
Read the following extract. Find American English words and explain their meanings.
In the USA just as in Great Britain, you see the same shops with the same boards and windows in every
town and village.
Shopping, however, is an art of its own and you have to learn slowly where to buy various things. If you are
ill, you go to the chemist’s. A chemist’s shop is called a drugstore in the USA. In the larger drugstores you buy
drugs, but here you also can get also other types of goods, for example cosmetics. Business in department stores
consists in selling stationery, candies, toys, braces, belts, fountain pens, furniture, jewellery, etc. You must be ex-
tremely careful concerning the names of certain articles. If you ask for suspenders in a man’s shop, you receive a
pair of braces, if you ask for a pair of pants, you receive a pair of trousers and should you ask for a pair of braces,
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you receive a queer look. I should like to mention that although a lift is called an elevator in the USA, when hitch-
hiking you do not ask for an elevator, you ask for a lift. There’s some confusion about the word flat. A flat in
America is called an apartment; what they call a flat is a puncture in your tire. Consequently the notice: “Flats
Fixed” does not indicate an estate agent where they are going to fix you up with a flat, but a garage where they are
equipped to mend a puncture.

18- SEMINAR. METHODS USED IN LEXICOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Use the suggested scheme of lexicological analysis

Task 1. Etymology of the words, Identify native and foreign words in the text (of Greek. Latin, French,
Italian, Spanish, Russian etc, origin). Determine the type of assimilation (phonetic, grammatical, lexical), the degree
of assimilation (complete, partial, lack of assimilation).
Task 2. Word-formation. Find productive and non-productive ways of word-formation in the text. Find
derived and compound words in the text Determine the type of word-derivation (affixation or conversion). State
morphemic structure of the derived words, types of morphemes Determine the type of compound words (compound
proper, derivational compounds, words of secondary derivation). Find other cases of word formation in the text.
Task 3. Free-word groups. Pick out from the text some free word-groups, determine their type according to
the syntactic connection between the components. Classify the selected free word-groups according to the part of
speech the head-word belongs to. Define the context (grammatical, lexical) for the headword in the selected word-
groups.
Task 4. Phraseological Units. Find the phraseological units in the text. Making use of semantic, contextual
and functional classifications of phraseological units define their types.
Task 5. Semantics. Define the meanings of words in free word-groups which you selected for the analysis.
Using the dictionary state whether the words are used in their main or derived meanings. Determine the context
(lexical or grammatical) which helps to actualise the meaning of polysemantic word.

19-SEMINAR. LEXICOGRAPHY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. ENGLISH DICTIONARIES AND

THEIR DEVELOPMENT. LEARNING AND TEACHING VOCABULARY (MODERN TECHNOLOGIES)

Key words: lexicography, dictionary, vocabulary, lexicographer, compiler of a dictionary, lexical unit, or

item, entry, single and separate entries, onomasiological and semasiological approaches in the organization of an
entry, alphabetical order, encyclopedic and linguistic dictionaries, or encyclopedias and dictionaries, thesaurus, or
thesaurus dictionaries, abridged and unabridged dictionaries, general and restricted dictionaries, specialized and
non-specialized dictionaries (technical dictionaries, phraseological dictionaries, dictionaries of synonyms,
antonyms and etc.), monolingual, or unilingual or explanatory, dictionaries and bilingual and polylingual, or
translation, dictionaries, synchronic and diachronic, or historical, dictionaries, prospective users’ type of
dictionaries and learners’ type of dictionaries, concordances and glossaries, electronic dictionaries.
Look up these terms in the glossary or in the sources indicated in the bibliography to the glossary. Compare the
definitions given in English and in Russian.

Problems for Discussion

1. Lexicography as the branch of linguistics. Lexicography vs. lexicology.
2. The history of British and American lexicography.
3. The principles the complication of a dictionary is based on. Lexical units included in dictionaries.
Information provided by dictionaries and the form of its presentation. The structure of the entry.
4. Dictionaries and their typology. Classification of linguistic dictionaries.

Questions and Tasks

1. What is a dictionary from your point of view? What is it necessary for?
2. Do you know the name of the first British dictionary compiler? What other outstanding names
from the history of British and American lexicography do you know? From the history of
Russian/Belarusian lexicography?
3. Study the information concerning the first British and American dictionaries. In what ways are
they similar to or different from the dictionaries we use nowadays?
4. What types of dictionaries do you know? What are the main types of dictionaries from your point
of view? Why?

2. Compare encyclopedic and linguistic dictionaries. Do they have much in common?

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3. Compare linguistic dictionaries of different types. What are the main criteria linguistic dictionaries can be
classified by?
4. You are a dictionary-compiler. Choose lexical units necessary from your point of view for inclusion in the
dictionary: -aholic, Brangelina, e-, -ee, Euro- (combining form), Euro (adj, (informal) connected with
Europe, especially the European Union), euro (n, the unit of money of some countries of the European
Union), flip-flop, freak, it-girl, heads and tails, nanotechnology,
nonalcalinocetaceoaluminosocupreovitriolic, see-saw, tip-top, ugly duckling. State the principles upon
which you have made your choice.
5. Offer a reasonable solution to such problems as the number of meanings of a word for inclusion in a
dictionary (if a word is polysemantic) and the choice of the meaning which should be placed first in the
entry.
6. Give examples of the ways the information about the meaning of the lexical unit (its derived meanings if a
word is polysemantic) may be given by.
7. Semasiological approach in the organization of an entry (information goes from a name to the
correspondent notion) vs. onomasiological approach (information goes from a notion to the name(s) it can
be expressed by). Give an example of a dictionary which practices onomasiological approach in the
organization of its entries. Characterize the prospective user of such a dictionary.
8. Arranging entry words in alphabetical order vs. arranging entry words in alphabetical order starting with
their final letters. Give an example of a dictionary where entry words aren’t presented alphabetically.
Characterize the prospective user of such a dictionary.
9. Compare the contents and structure of entries in dictionaries of different types. Do you agree that the most
complicated type of entry is that found in monolingual, or explanatory, dictionaries?
10. Identify the types of dictionaries the following entries belong to and try to explain what is of interest in the
treatment of the same word by dictionaries of different types:
a) woman /ٰwumən/ n. (pl. women /ٰwımın/)

1 an adult human female.2 the female sex; any or an average woman (how does woman differ from man?). 3colloq. a
wife or female sexual partner. 4(prec. by the) emotions or characteristics traditionally associated with women
(brought out the woman in him). 5 a man with characteristics traditionally associated with women. 6 (attrib.) female
(woman driver; women friends). 7 (as second element in comb.) a woman of a specified nationality, profession, skill,
etc. (Englishwoman; horsewoman). 8colloq. a female domestic help. 9archaic or hist. a queen’s etc. female
attendant ranking below lady (woman of the bedchamber). □ woman of the streets a prostitute. women’s libcolloq.
= women’s liberation. women’s libbercolloq. a supporter of women’s liberation. women’s liberation1 the
liberation of women from inequalities and subservient status in relation to men, and from attitude causing
these. 2 (also women’s liberation movement) = women’s movement a broad movement campaigning for women’s
liberation and rights. women’s rights rights that promote a position of legal and social equality of women with men.
□ womanlessadj.womanlikeadj. [OE wīƒmon, -man (as WIFE, MAN), a formation peculiar to English, the ancient
word being WIFE] (The Oxford English Reference Dictionary / ed. by J. Pearsall, B. Trumble. – 2nd ed. – Oxford:
Oxford Univ. Press, 1996. – P. 1662.)
b) woman /ٰwumən/ noun (pl. women /ٰwımın/)
1 [C] an adult female human: men, women and children ◊ a 24-year-old woman ◊ I prefer to see a woman
doctor.2 [U] female humans in general: (informal) She’s all woman! (= has qualities that are typical of
women) 3 [C] (in compounds) a woman who comes from the place mentioned or whose job or interest is connected
with the thing mentioned: an Englishwoman ◊ a businesswoman ◊ a Congresswoman ◊ a horsewoman → note at
GENDER 4 [C] a female worker, especially one who works with her hands: We used to have a woman to do the
cleaning.5 [sing.] (old-fashioned) a rude way of addressing a female person in an angry or important way: Be quiet,
woman!6 [C] (sometimes disapproving) a wife or sexual partner: He’s got a new woman in his life. – see also
FALLEN WOMAN, KEPT WOMAN, OTHER WOMAN IDM be your own ٰman/ٰwomanto act or think
independently, not following others or being ordered: Working for herself meant that she could be her own
woman. – more at HEART, HELL, HONEST, MAN n., PART n., POSSESSED, SUBSTANCE, WORLD (Hornby,
A.S. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English / A.S. Hornby; ed. by S. Wehmeier (chief ed.) [et
al.]. – 7th ed. – Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2005. – P. 1755.)
c) womannoun
Adj. young | middle-aged | elderly, old, olderThe thief tricked his way into an elderly woman’s home. ◊ Older
women often have difficulty conceiving.| adult, grownThe little girl she remembered was now a grown woman.|
married | single, unattached, unmarried | widowed | divorced | pregnant | childless |
business (also businesswoman), career, professional, working | non-working | attractive, beautiful, good-
looking, handsome, pretty | desirable | well-dressed | plain, ugly | motherly | hysterical | decent, good, kind |
evil, wicked | battereda hostel for battered women| the otherJean Menkes plays the president’s wife and Fiona
Handley plays the other woman (the one the President is having an affair with).
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VERB + WOMAN depict, portray, present, showWe want to change the way women are depicted in the media.|
limit, reduceWomen are limited to the more poorly paid jobs. ◊ Women are reduced to merely playing a passive
role.
PHRASES the position/role of womenThere were important changes in the position of women in society.a woman
of the worldHe saw her as the woman of the world who could offer him advice. women’s lib/liberation (becoming
old-fashioned) The freedom to wear trousers became a symbol of women’s liberation. the women’s movement,
women’s rights (Oxford Collocations Dictionary for Students of English. – Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2002. – P.
879.)
d) woman [ٰwumən] n.1. женщина; my good ~ милая; kept ~содержанка; the little ~ (joc., my wife)
женушка, хозяйка; old ~ (lit.) старуха; (coll., wife) жена, хозяйка; the ‘other’ ~ (in sexual triangle) любовница,
разлучница; single ~ незамужняя женщина; ~ of the town уличная женщина; ~ of the world светская/бывалая
женщина; play the ~ вести (det.) себя как баба; a ~’ place in the home место женщины дома (orу
очага); women’s rights женское равноправие; man born of~ (bibl.) смертный; рожденный
женщиной. 2. (femininity): there is little of the ~ in her в ней мало женственности; all the ~ in her rebelled вся
ее женская суть восстала против этого. 3. (coll., charwoman): daily ~приходящая домработница, 4. (arch.
female attendant) камеристка, фрейлина. 5. (illicit sexual partner) любовница. 6. (man with feminine
characteristics) баба; he is an old ~ он настоящая баба; ~ doctor женщина-врач; ~friend подруга,
приятельница.
cpds.womenfolkn. pl. женщины (f. pl.); (of household) женская половина; ~-
hatern. женоненавистник; ~kindn. женщины (f. pl.); женская половина; ~-servantn. служанка. (The Oxford
Russian Dictionary: Russian-English/English-Russian / rev. and updated by C. Howlett. – Oxford: Oxford Univ.
Press, 1997. – P. 1329.)
e) woman wu·mən pl. women wı·mın
adult female human being; female servant. OE. wīƒman (n) m., later fem., f. wīƒ woman + man (n) MAN; a
formation peculiar to Eng. not in the oldest OE. records, the primitive words being wīƒ WIFE and cwene QUEAN;
assim. of -fm- to -mm- is evident in late OE. sp. (cf. LEMAN) and rounding of wim- to wum-, wom- in
XIII. wo·manish¹. XIV (ch., Gower). wo·mankind. XIV. wo·manly¹. XIII (AncrR.). wo·manize emasculate XVI;
consort XIX. (The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology / ed. by C.T. Onions. – Oxford: AT the Clarendon
Press, 1996. – P. 1011.)
f) WOMAN, n. 1562e (West, M. A General Service List of English Words with Semantic Frequencies and a
Supplementary Word-List for the Writing of Popular Science and Technology / M. West. – Longman, 1959. – P.
571.)
g) WOMAN (ٰٰwumən) World Organization for Mothers of All Nations (The Oxford Dictionary of
Abbreviations. – 2nd ed. – Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1998. – P. 390.)
h) WOMAN World Organization for Mothers of All Nations Всемирная организация матерей
(Волкова, Н.О. Англо-русский словарь сокращений / Н.О. Волкова, И.А. Никанорова. – 3-е изд., стер. – М.:
Рус. яз., 2000. – С. 459.)

14. Compare the contents and structure of entries in dictionaries of the same type belonging to different
publishing houses.
15. Compare the contents and structure of entries in dictionaries catering to the needs of learners having
different levels of language proficiency.
16. Analyze the illustrative examples (if there are any) in the following entries:

ro·mance /rəuٰٰmæns; ٰrəumæns; NAmE ٰٰrou-/ noun, verb

noun 1 [C] an exciting, usually short, relationship between two people who are in love with each other:  a holiday
romance ◊ They had a whirlwind romance. 2 [U] love or feeling of being in love: Spring is here and romance is in
air. ◊ How can you put the romance back into your marriage?3 [U] a feeling of excitement and adventure,
especially connected to a particular place or activity: the romance of travel4 [C] a story about a love affair: She’s
compulsive reader of romances. 5 [C] a story of excitement and adventure, often set in the past: medieval romances
verb 1 [V] to tell stories that are not true or to describe sth in a way that makes it seem more exciting or interesting
than it really is 2 [VN] to have to try to have a romantic relationship with sb (Hornby, A.S. Oxford Advanced
Learner’s Dictionary of Current English / A.S. Hornby; ed. by S. Wehmeier (chief ed.) [et al.]. – 7th ed. – Oxford:
Oxford Univ. Press, 2005. – P. 1319.)
ro·man·ti·cism /rəuٰٰmæntısızəm; NAmE ٰٰrou-/ noun [U]
1 (also Romanticism) a style and movement in art, music and literature in the late 18th and early 19th century, in
which strong feelings, imagination and a return to nature were more important than reason, order and
INTELLECTUAL ideas – compare REALISM 2 the quality of seeing people, events and situations as more exciting
and interesting than they really are 3 strong feeling of love; the fact of showing emotion, affection, etc. (Hornby,
A.S. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English / A.S. Hornby; ed. by S. Wehmeier (chief ed.) [et
al.]. – 7th ed. – Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2005. – P. 1320.)
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How much space from your point of view should be devoted to illustrative examples and/or pictorial illustrations?
What words may be listed without them?

17. What does the size of a dictionary depend on? Is it possible to say that a dictionary of a living language (a
dictionary of reasonable size) is complete?
18. What dictionaries are indispensable for those interested in the following things:

a) the pronunciation of a definite word and its spelling;

b) the part of speech it belongs to;
c) its meaning(s);
d) its derivatives;
e) its synonyms and antonyms;
f) its equivalents in other languages;
g) its frequency;
h) its chronological development over time;
i) the way it can be combined in a language.
19. What types of dictionaries do you use? What do they help you in?
20. Compare the structure of dictionaries of different types. Do they have much in common?
21. Explain the role of the preface (foreword) in the dictionary.
22. Can you say that you know how to use a dictionary in a proper way? If you can explain what the following
abbreviations, symbols and labels used in dictionaries of different types mean:
a) abbr., adj. (A, a, Adj, adj), adv. (Adv, adv), C, conj. (Conj, conj), det., n. (N, n), pl. (pl), pp, prep., pron.
(Pron, pron), pt, sb, sing. (sing), sth, symb., U, v. (V, v);
b) AustralE, BrE, CanE, EAfrE, IndE, IrishE, NAmE, NEngE, NZE, SAfrE, ScotE,SEAsianE, US, WAfrE,
WelshE;
c) IDM, OPP, PHR V, SYN;
d) (dis)approving, dialect, figurative, (in)formal, humorous, ironic, literary, offensive, old-fashioned, old use,
slang, taboo, technical.
Study the entries where the following signs are used: ~, =, ≠, ↔. Explain what they are necessary for.

1.3. AMALIY MASHG’ULOT MAVZULARI

Lesson 1. The System of English Phonemes. Syllable Formation and Syllable Division in English. Word
Stress in English. The Functions of Sentence Stress. Intonation Structure of English. Intonation
patterns. Functions of Intonation.
Plan:
1. What is intonation?
2. Early treatments
3. Tonetic stress marks
4. Origins of the autosegmental approach to intonation
5. The phonetic basis
6. Functions of intonation
7. Types of tones
8. Same text, different tunes

Jones (1960) - "the variations which take place in the pitch of the voice in connected speech, i.e. the variations
in the pitch of the musical note produced by vibration of the vocal cords."Unlike lexical tone (as in tone
languages), changing intonation does not change the lexical identity/meaning of individual words, though it
may alter the meaning of the sentence as a whole.Pitch accent languages (e.g. Japanese, Swedish) used to be
regarded as an intermediate case: superficially like lexical tone languages, but phonologically pitch functions
like stress in these languages. In most stress-accent languages, pitch is an important correlate of stress, so the
dividing lines between tone, stress and pitch-accent are fuzzy.E.g. Steele (1775), Jones (1960) recorded
intonation for whole sentences. Jones, following Kingdon (1958), analysed English intonation in terms of two
sentence tunes. Refer to attached extracts from Jones for examples of the two tunes in use. It was recognised
that the tunes might be distributed over a larger or smaller number of syllables, and that an utterance with
several "sense groups" might have a multiply-peaked pitch contour, but the syntax of tunes was not explored
deeply. O'Connor and Arnold (1973) divided intonation groups into four parts:
104

1. The pre-head - all the initial unaccented syllables.

2. The head - between the pre-head and the nucleus.

3. The nucleus - the main accented syllable.

4. The tail - all the syllables after the nucleus.

They identified 10 tunes.Kingdon, O'Connor and Arnold and others employed a variety of diacritic symbols
known as tonetic stress marks to denote various intonational events. Accents were held to be dynamic
(contour) tones. The most important accents in English are:

(Current IPA tone marks include: high (level) tone: é, low (level) tone: è, (high) falling tone: ê, rising tone:  )

This approach, characteristically of structuralist methodology, concentrates on compendious exemplification

and collection of large, annotated, orderly corpora of categorized examples, rather than the formulation of
inviolable rules for determining the intonation patterns and their alignment with text.Goldsmith (1981)
proposed that English lexical stress could be characterised by a MHL autosegmental melody, in which the H
tone corresponds with the strongest stress, marked with a *:

Liberman (1975) pursued the same approach to characterise English intonation more generally. For example,
he identified a LHM "calling" intonation, in which the H tone docks onto the main stress, and the initial L
105

tone spreads in the usual autosegmental fashion to all pre-stress syllables:

The fruition of this line of research is seen in Pierrehumbert (1980) and subsequent work from the same
perspective (e.g. Liberman and Pierrehumbert 1984, Beckman and Pierrehumbert 1986, Pierrehumbert and
Beckman 1988).Pre-Liberman approaches to intonation were based on impressionistic pitch records,
supplemented by some instrumental analysis of f0. Pierrehumbert (1980: 3):

What will be used here as the phonetic representation, or the output of these implementation rules, is
the F0 contour. The choice of this representation as against a fine transcription in the character of
IPA segmental transcription is theoretically motivated. One of the main themes of the work presented
here is that interesting language-specific rules can be found all the way down to a quantitative
description of speech. There is no well-defined level of description ... at which the linguist may leave
off and turn his work over to the physiologist.
Liberman, Pierrehumbert and Beckman were engaged in the construction of speech synthesis systems for
English and Japanese, which required explicit control of f0and segmental durations (including pauses). (See
Pierrehumbert 1981). All other phonetic parameters were generated by a scheme for concatenation of LPC-
encoded diphones. Unlike much other research in linguistics, such work permits no hand-waving.

Some properties of f0:

a) f0 corresponds to rate of vibration of the vocal cords. b) Therefore, f0 = 0 during unvoiced speech e.g. during
voiceless consonants as well as pauses. c) f0 is therefore discontinuous, though there may be an underlying
appearance of continuity (see fig. 1.5). d) The overall shape of the f0 contour is under the conscious control of
the speaker, but some speech sounds introduce fine-scale "microprosodic" perturbations, often due to
aerodynamic factors. In particular, high vowels tend to raise f0; voiceless obstruents tend to raise f0 at the start
of the following vowel; and voiced consonants and the glottal stop are associated with a drop in f0. It is
important not to mistake such perturbations for accents. e) Speakers do not usually use their full pitch range in
speech. The actual range may vary e.g. be larger in more animated speech. In addition, speakers may employ
a higher or lower "register" within their normal spoken pitch range. In some languages, register appears to be
phonological. f) A speaker's pitch range may fall or rise during speech, independently of the falls and rises
of f0:

This phenomenon is called downdrift or declination.

g) When the top line appears to step down, rather than gradually drift, we have the related phenomenon
106

of downstep, catathesis or tone terracing:

In tone languages, downstep typically affects H tones after a L. "List intonation" is similar eg. "Blueberries,
bayberries, raspberries, mulberries and brambleberries". The high-pitched "calling" intonation in fig. 1.1C
shows two high peaks. Pierrehumbert analysed such cases as an instance of downstep, and thus analysed the
first accent as not just a simple H tone, but as a H on the stressed syllable, combined with a L target at the end
of the first syllable, which conditions downstep of the following H tone. As in other areas of autosegmental
phonology, Pierrehumbert treated dynamic accents as a sequence of two tones (bitonal accents).

A. Intonation and syntactic structure

1a) Here's a word you can look ûp. ("Up" is a particle.)

b) Here's a chimney you can lóòk up. ("Up" is a preposition.)

2 a) Bond had instructions to léàve. (So he left.)

b) Bond had instrûctions to leave. (So he left them.)

In the preceding examples, placement of the accent encodes a difference in syntactic structure. In the
following examples, the major intonational phrase may be broken into two intermediate phrases, to denote a
higher syntactic boundary.

3 a) Have you seen any Martians who have green nôses? (One phrase: restrictive relative.)

b) Have you seen any Mârtians, who have green nôses? (Two phrases: non-restrictive relative.)

4 a) He can't see cléàrly. (One accent, one phrase.)

b) He can't sèe, clèarly. (Two accents, two phrases.)

In earlier descriptive studies, this phrasing was regarded as a question of two intonational boundaries:

Word-group boundary: |

Tone-group boundary: ||

In contemporary approaches, intonation is characterized by a constituent structure (the prosodic hierarchy). In

its simplest form, this is a simple two level structure:
107

Richer hierarchical structures were developed in Pierrehumbert and Beckman (1988).

B. Intonation and meaning

1 a) Johni called Billj a Republican, and then héj insulted hîmi. (To call someone a Republican is an insult.)

b) Johni called Billj a Republican, and thén hei insûlted himj. (To call someone a Republican is not an insult.)

2 a) I didn't go, because my hâir was dirty.

b) I didn't go because my hâir was  dirty. (I went for some other reason.)

C. Intonation and discourse structure, specifically focus

Refer to fig. 15 A-C. The text is the same in each case. In fig. 1.5 A, vitamins is accented, and hence focussed.
This intonation might be a suitable reply to the preface "Legumes aren't good for anything, are they?". In fig
1.5 B, good is accented, hence focussed. This pattern might be a suitable retort to "Aren't legumes a lousy
source of vitamins?". In fig. 1.5 C, legumes is accented. Preface: "What's a good source of
vitamins?".Pierrehumbert distinguished between different types of tonal targets. We have seen various
examples of dynamic accents, which are the head elements of intonational phrases. In addition, Pierrehumbert
proposed to use H and L boundary tones at the beginning and end of major phrases, as well as a H or
L phrase accent at the end of each intermediate phrase. Unlike standard autosegmental theory, Pierrehumbert
did not employ spreading to derive the tone of unaccented syllables, but saw that as a matter of phonetic
interpolation between phonologically-specified targets. In other words, the phonological representation of
intonation is phonetically underspecified.

 Phrase accents and boundary tones are edge elements that have a demarcative function.
 Pitch accents are head elements with culminative function.

Pitch accents were marked with a *

Phrase accents were marked with a -

Boundary tones were marked with a %

*, - and % are just diacritics, unrelated to f0value. They only show how the tone is related to the text.

Phrase accents and boundary tones are not associated to segmental material, like pitch accents, but to prosodic
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nodes:

Refer to figs. 1.1 and 1.2:

1.1 A could be the answer to a question ("Who was that?")

1.1 B could be an answer to a question, with an indication of incompleteness

1.1 C "calling" intonation.

1.1 D "incredulous"

1.1 E "Is it Anna?"

1.2 A Answer to a question ("What's this?")

1.2 C Expression of surprise (focus on another).

9. Same tune, different texts - compare figs. 1.4 A and B.

10. Boundary tones

Initial H%: see figs. 1.2 C, and 1.4 A and B.

Final L%: see figs. 1.1 A, C, 1.2 A, B, C, etc.

Final H% See figs. 1.1 B, D, E, etc.

11. Pierrehumbert's Bitonal Pitch Accents

L* + H- "Scoop". A low tone with sharp rise to a high peak. See fig. 1.1 D.

L- + H* "Rising peak". A high peak preceded by a sharp rise from a valley in the lowest part of the pitch
range. (Not illustrated here.)

H* + L- A H* that induces following downstep. (Abandoned since Silverman et al. 1992). See fig. 1.1 C.

H- + L* Downstepped H that induces downstep on later H's. Characteristic of catathesis e.g.

H* + H- (Abandoned after Liberman and Pierrehumbert 1984).

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12. The grammar of tonal sequences

Each English intonational phrase, then, has the following structure:

 

Optional intial boundary tone: One or more pitch accents: A phrase accent: A final boundary tone:
one of one of one of one of
H% H* H- H%
L% L* L- L%
None L* + H-
L- + H*
H- + L*
Pierrehumbert (1980) characterised this structure by a finite-state transition network.

13. Work in progress

a) Extension to languages other than English:

Japanese - Beckman and Pierrehumbert (1986), Pierrehumbert and Beckman (1988)

Hausa - Inkelas and Leben (1990)

Dutch - van den Berg et al. (1992)

Swedish - Pierrehumbert and Beckman (1988: 243-251)

Lesson2. The Articulatory Aspect of the English Speech Sounds. The Acoustic Aspect of the English
Speech Sounds. The Phonological Aspect of the English Speech Sounds
Plan: 1. The articulatory aspect
2.The acoustic aspect
3.The auditory aspect and
4.The linguistic aspect
Speech sounds are of complex nature and have 4 different aspects, which are closely connected:  the
articulatory aspect, the acoustic aspect, the auditory aspect and the linguistic aspect. The ability
to form language units is not the only property of the sound medium. In addition to it, the sound
substance has its own independent properties as a physical phenomenon. Moreover, it is a product of
human activity. Being created by the speaker, the sound substance indicates the speaker’s personality
(sex, age, individual features), reveals his physiological and emotional state, geographical origin,
education, social status and so on. Sound phenomena have different aspects. Every act of speech
presupposes the presence of a person who speaks and a person who listens. The speaker produces
sounds, the sounds travel through the air to the listener in the form of complex combinations of
sound waves, the listener hears and interprets them. Communication is possible only because the
speaker and the listener interpret the sounds as units of the same language.
The articulatory aspect. Speech sounds are products of human organs of speech. They result from
the activities of the diaphragm, the lungs, the bronchi, the trachea, the larynx with the vocal cords in
it, the pharynx, the mouth cavity with the speech organs in it and the nasal cavity. Sound production
is impossible without respiration, which consists of two phases- inspiration and expiration. Speech
sounds are based chiefly on inspiration, though in some African languages there are sounds produced
by inspiration.
Expiration, during which speech sounds are produced, is called phonic expiration. It is distinct from
quiet breathing. In phonic expiration the air comes from the lungs not freely but in spurts, because
during speech the air passage is periodically blocked by the speech organs. Therefore in speech,
expiration lasts much longer than inspiration, whereas in quite breathing inspiration and expiration
each take about the same period of time. The lungs supply the necessary air-pressure and regulate its
force. For example, the air pressure is greater on the peak of the syllable and it is less on its margins.
Sound production actually takes place in the larynx, the pharynx and the oral and nasal cavities. The
air-stream coming from the lungs undergoes important modifications in them. The other part of
sound-production is articulation. The movements of speech organs modify the shape, size and
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volume supralanryngeat cavities. As a result, a vowel sound of a certain quality is produced. When
there is an obstruction to the air-stream in the supralanryngeat cavities, a noise is produced. The
character of the noise (friction or plosion) depends on the type of obstruction (a constriction or a
complete closure) and determines the particular quality of a consonant. When an obstruction is
created and the vocal cords vibrate, a voiced consonant is produced. When the vocal cords do not
vibrate, the result is a voiceless consonant. Thus there are main sources of vibration in the production
of speech sounds – the vocal cords and various kinds of obstruction. The acoustic aspect. Sounds
can be analysed from the acoustic point of view. Like any other sound of nature speech sounds exist
in the form of sound waves and have such physical properties as frequency, intensity, duration and
spectrum. A sound wave is created by a vibration which may be periodic or non-periodic, simple or
complex. The number of vibrations per second is called frequency. The complex range of intensified
frequencies which form the quality of a sound is called the acoustic spectrum of the sound.
Intensityof speech sounds depends on the amplitude of vibration. Changes in intensity are associated
with stress in those languages which have dynamic stress. Intensity is measured in decibels. The
auditory aspect. Speech sounds may also be analysed from the point of view of perception. It
involves the activity of our hearing mechanism, which can be considered in two ways. On the one
hand, it is a physiological mechanism, which reacts to acoustic stimuli. On the other hand, it is also a
psychological mechanism, which selects from the great amount of acoustic information only that
which is linguistically important. The human ear transforms mechanical vibrations of the ear into
nervous stimuli and transmits them to the brain. The listener hears the acoustic features of
fundamental frequency, format frequency, intensity and duration in terms of four perceptible
categories of pitch, quality, loudness and length. The linguistic aspect. Segmental sounds and
prosodic features are linguistic phenomena. Representing language units in actual speech, they
perform certain linguistic functions. They constitute meaningful units- morphemes, words, word-
forms, utterances. All the words of a language consist of speech sounds which are grouped and
arranged in the way specific for the language and which are unified by stress. All the utterances
consist of words and of sounds. They are characterized by certain pitch-and-stress patterns,
temporal features, rhythm. The linguistic aspect of speech sounds is also called functional or social
aspect, because of the role which sound matter play in the functioning of language as a social
phenomenon. Segmental sounds and prosodic features of speech perform constitutive, distinctive
and identificatory functions. The relations between the articulatory, acoustic, auditory and
linguistic aspects of speech sounds can be presented in the following way:

Auditory
Articulatory aspect Acoustic aspect Linguistic aspect
aspect

Fundamental Prosody (melody,

Vibration of the vocal cords Pitch
frequency stress)

Different positions and movements of Formant Quality Phoneme, prosody

speech organs frequencies (timbre) (stress)

The amplitude of vibrations Intensity Loudness Prosody (stress)

The quantity of time during which the Prosody (tempo,

Duration Length
sound is pronounced rhythm)

Questions:
1. What sciences is phonetics connected with?
2. What are the main branches of phonetics?
3. What is the subject of special and general phonetics?
4. What is a phonetic system of a language?
5. What levels does the phonetic system of a language consist of?
6. What are segmental units of the language?
7. What are prosodic units of the language?
8. What subsystems do the segmental units form?
9. What subsystems do the prosodic units form?
10. What are the stages of human speech formation?
11. What aspect do sounds have?
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12. What phases does respiration consist of?

13. What are the main sources of vibration in the production of speech sounds?
14. What is frequency?
15. What is spectrum?
16. How is intensity measured?
17. What are the perceptible features of auditory aspect of speech sounds?
18. What meaningful units do segmental sounds and prosodic features constitute?

Lesson 3. Homonyms. The classification of homonyms. Homonymy and polysemy

Criteria of synonymity and classification of synonyms

Plan:

1.Diachronic approach to polysemy.

2. Classification of homonyms.

If polysemy is viewed diachronically, it is understood as the growth and development of or, in general, as a
change in the semantic structure of the word. Polysemy in diachronic terms implies that a word may retain
its previous meaning or meanings and at the same time acquire one or several new ones. In the course of a
diachronic semantic analysis of the polysemantic word tablewe find that of all the meanings it has in
Modern English, the primary meaning is ‘a flat slab of stone or wood’, which is proper to the word in the
Old English period (OE. tabulefrom L. tabula);all other meanings are secondary as they are derived from
the primary meaning of the word and appeared later than the primary meaning, The terms secondary and
derived meaning are to a certain extent synonymous. When we describe the meaning of the word as
“secondary” we imply that it could not have appeared before the primary meaning was in existence. When
we refer to the meaning as “derived” we imply not only that, but also that it is dependent on the primary
meaning and somehow subordinate to it. In the case of the word table,e.g., we may say that the meaning
‘the food put on the table’ is a secondary meaning as it is derived from the meaning ‘a piece of furniture
(on which meals are laid out)’. It follows that the main source of polysemy is a change in the semantic
structure of the word. Polysemy may also arise from homonymy. When two words become identical in
sound-form, the meanings of the two words are felt as making up one semantic structure. Thus, the
human earand the earof corn are from the diachronic point of view two homonyms. One is etymologically
related to L. auris, the other to L. acus, aceris. Synchronically, however, they are perceived as two
meanings of one and the same word. The earof cornis felt to be a metaphor of the usual type (cf. the eye of
the needle, the foot of the mountain) and consequently as one of the derived or, synchronically, minor
meanings of the polysemantic word ear.1 Homonyms – words identical in their spelling or/and sound form
but different in their meaning. When analyzing homonymy, we see that some words are homonyms in all
their forms, i.e. we observe full homonymy of the paradigms of two or more different words, e.g.,
in seal1 — ‘a sea animal’ and seal2 — ‘a design printed on paper by means of a stamp’. The paradigm
“seal, seal’s, seals, seals’ ” is identical for both of them and gives no indication of whether it
is seal1 or seal2, that we are analysing. In other cases, e.g. seal1 — ‘a sea animal’ and (to) seal, — ‘to close
tightly’, we see that although some individual word - forms are homonymous, the whole of the paradigm is
not identical. It is easily observed that only some of the word-forms (e.g. seal, seals, etc.) are
homonymous, whereas others (e.g. sealed, sealing) are not. In such cases we cannot speak of homonymous
words but only of homonymy of individual word-forms or of partial homonymy. This is true of a number
of other cases, e.g. compare find[faind], found [faund], found[faund],
and found[faund], founded['faundid], founded['faundid]; know[nou], knows[nouz], knew[nju:],
and no[nou]; nose[nouz], noses ['nouzis]; new[nju:] in which partial homonymy is observed. Walter
Skeat classified homonyms into: 1) perfect homonyms (they have different meaning, but the same sound
form & spelling: school - school); 2) homographs (Homographs are words identical in spelling, but
different both in their sound-form and meaning, e.g. tearn [tia] — ‘a drop of water that comes from the
eye’ and tearv [tea] — ‘to pull apart by force’.3) homophones are words identical in sound-form but
different both in spelling and in meaning, e.g. sean and seev; son n and sunn.
Smirnitsky classified perfect homonyms into: 1) full homonyms (identical in spelling, sound form,
grammatical meaning but different in lexical meaning: spring); 2) homoforms (the same sound form &
spelling but different lexical and grammatical meaning: “reading” – gerund, particle 1, verbal noun).
Arnold classified perfect homonyms by 4 criteria (lexical meaning, grammatical meaning, basic forms,
paradigms) into 4 groups: 1) different only in lexical meaning (board - board); 2) different in lexical
meaning & paradigms (to lie/lied/lied – lie/lay/lain); 3) identical only in basic forms (light /adj./- light
/noun/); 4) identical only in one of their paradigms (a bit – bit /to bite/).
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Lesson 4. Definition of antonyms. Classification of antonyms

Plan:
1. Contradictories
2. Contraries
3. Incompatibles
Antonyms – a class of words grouped together on the basis of the semantic relations of opposition. Antonyms
are words belonging to one part of speech sharing certain common semantic characteristics and in this respect
they are similar to such semantic classes as synonyms, lexical sets, lexico-semantic groups. (lexical
sets (предметные или тематические группы) - words denoting different things correlated on extralinguistic
grounds: lion, tiger, leopard, puma, cat refer to the lexical set of “the animals of the cat family’; words
describing different sides of one and the same general notion are united in a lexico-semantic group: group
denoting “physical movement” – to go, to turn, to run). There exist different classifications of antonyms.

Structurally, antonyms can be divided into antonyms of the same root (1), e.g. to do – to undo, cheerful –
cheerless, and antonyms of different roots (2), e.g. day – night, rich – poor.

Semantically, antonyms may be classified into contradictories, contraries and incompatibles.

1. Contradictories represent the type of semantic relations that exist between pairs like, for example, dead
– alive, single – married. Contradictory antonyms are mutually opposed, they deny one another.
Contradictories form a privative binary opposition, they are members of two-term sets. To use one of the
words is to contradict the other and to use “not” before one of them is to make it semantically equivalent to
the other: not dead = alive; not single = married.

2. Contraries are antonyms that can be arranged into a series according to the increasing difference in one
of their qualities. The most distant elements of this series will be classified as contrary notions. Contraries
are gradable antonyms, they are polar members of a gradual opposition which may have intermediate
members. This may be observed in cold – hot and cool – warm which are intermediate members. Thus, we
may regard as antonyms not only cold and hot but also cold and warm. Contrary antonyms may also be
considered in terms of degrees of the quality involved. Thus, water may be cold or very cold, and water in
one glass may be colder than in another glass.

3. Incompatibles are antonyms which are characterized by the relations of exclusion. Semantic relations of
incompatibility exist among antonyms with a common component of meaning and may be described as the
reverse of hyponymy. For example, to say morning is to say not afternoon, not evening, not night. The use
of one member of this set implies the exclusion of the other members of the set. Incompatibles differ from
contradictories as incompatibles are members of the multiple-term sets while contradictories are members
of two-term sets. A relation of incompatibility may be also observed between colour terms since the choice
of red, for example, entails the exclusion of black, blue, yellow, etc.

GLOSSARY

Abbreviation – a reduced version of a word, phrase, or sentence.

Affix – a meaningful form that is attached to another form, to make a more complex word.
Ambiguity – expression of more than one meaning.
Amelioration – a change of meaning in which a word loses an originally unpleasant sense.
Antonym – word that is opposite in meaning to another word.
Assimilation – the influence exercised by one sound upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become
more alike (ten in ten poundsbecoming tem).
Back formation – a process of word formation where a new word is formed by removing an imagined affix from
another word (editor – edit).
Barbarism – (use of) a word or action not in accordance with normal standards.
Blend – the result of two elements fusing to form a new word or construction.
Borrow – to introduce a word (or some other linguistic features) from one language or dialect into another;
vocabulary borrowings are usually known as loan words.
Clipping – a process of word formation in which a new word is produced by shortening (examination – exam); also
called reduction.
Cockney – characteristic of a native of London, esp. of the East End or speaking its dialect; this dialect.
Compound – a unit of vocabulary which consists of more than one lexical stem.
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Conversion – a process of word formation where lexemes are made to change their word class without the tradition
of an affix.
Creole – When children start learning a pidgin as their first language and it becomes the mother tongue of a
community, it is called a creole. Like a pidgin, a creole is a distinct language which has taken most of its vocabulary
from another language, the lexifier, but has its own unique grammatical rules. Unlike a pidgin, however, a creole is
not restricted in use, and is like any other language in its full range of functions. Examples are Gullah, Jamaican
Creole and Hawaiian Creole English.
Denotation – the objective (‘dictionary’) relationship between a word and the reality to which it refers; also
called cognitive/referential meaning.
Derivation – a major process of word formation, especially using affixes to produce new words (act – action).
Deterioration – a change of meaning in which a word acquires a negative evaluation; also called pejoration.
Dialect – a language variety in which use of grammar and vocabulary identifies the regional or social background of
the user. (CEEL) Regional dialect –a variety of a language spoken in a particular area of a country. Some regional
dialects have been given traditional names which mark them out as being significantly different from standard
varieties spoken in the same place. Some examples are “Hillbilly English” (from the Appalachians in the USA) and
“Geordie” (from Newcastle upon Tyne in the UK). Minority dialect – a variety used sometimes by members of a
particular minority ethnic group as a marker of identity, usually alongside a standard variety. Examples are African
American Vernacular English in the USA, London Jamaican in Britain and Aboriginal English in Australia.
Doublet – one of a pair, esp. one of two words of the same derivation but different sense
(fashion and faction, cloak and clock).
Etymology – study of the origins and history of the form and folk etymology – altering an unfamiliar word to make
it more familiar (asparagus – sparrow grass); also called popular etymology.
Extension – in historical linguistics, widening the meaning of the word; also called generalization.
Generalization – in historical linguistics, widening the meaning of the word; also called extension.
Holonym – a word denoting whole of some part (e.g. jacket and sleeve).
Homographs – words with the same spelling but different meaning (e.g. wind ‘air’ vs. wind ‘turn’).
Homonyms – words with the same form but different meaning (e.g. ear ‘corn’ vs. ear ‘body part’).
Homophones – words with the same pronunciation but different meaning (rode/rowed).
Hybrid – a word composed of elements from different languages (television, from Greek and Latin).
Hyponym – a more specific term whose meaning is included in the meaning of a more general term (cat is a
hyponym of animal).
Hyponymy – the relationship between specific and general words, when the former are included in the latter.
Hyperonym – a more general term whose meaning includes the meaning of a more specific term (animal is the
hyperonym of cat).
Idiolect – the linguistic system of an individual speaker.
Inflection – in grammar, an affix that signals a grammatical relationship, e.g. case, tense (e.g. girl’s, walked).
Lexeme – a unit of lexical meaning, which exists regardless of any inflectional endings it may have or the number
of words it may contain.
Lexicon – total stock of meaningful units in a language – not only the words and idioms, but also the parts of words
which express meaning, such as prefixes and suffixes.
Lexicology – a branch of linguistics which deals with the study of all aspects of the vocabulary of the language
(how words are formed, how they have developed over time, how they are used now, how they relate in meaning to
each other and how they are handled in dictionaries and other word books).
Lexicography – a branch of lexicology dealing with writing dictionaries.
Lingua franca – a medium of communication for people who speak different first languages.
Loan translation – a borrowed item in which the parts are translated separately into a new language, as
in superman from German Übermensch; also called a calque.
Meronym – a word denoting part of some whole (e.g. sleeve and jacket).
Meronymy – the relation between part and whole (e.g. wheel and car).
Metaphor – a figurative expression in which one notion is described in terms usually associated with another
(e.g. launch an idea).
Metonymy – a semantic change where an attribute is used for the whole (e.g. crown and king).
Morpheme – the smallest meaningful unit in a language.
Narrowing – in historical linguistics, a type of change in which a word becomes more specialized in meaning (Old
English mete ‘food’, now a type of food); also called restriction.
Native – belonging to a person or thing by nature, innate, inherent, natural, born in a place, indigenous, not exotic;
of the natives of a place.
Native (first) language – the language first acquired as a child (mother tongue, native language), or preferred in a
multilingual situation.
Origin – derivation, beginning or rising or coming from something, person’s ancestry, source, starting point (a word
of Latin origin; country of origin).
Part-whole relation – the relation between part and whole; also called meronymy (e.g. wheel and car).
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Pidgin – a new language which develops in situations where speakers of different languages need to communicate
but don’t share a common language. The vocabulary of a pidgin comes mainly from one particular language (called
the “lexifier”). An early “pre-pidgin” is quite restricted in use and variable in structure. But the later “stable pidgin”
develops its own grammatical rules which are quite different from those of the lexifier. Once a stable pidgin has
emerged, it is generally learned as a second language and used for communication among people who speak
different languages. Examples are Nigerian Pidgin and Bislama (spoken in Vanuatu).
N o t e: pidgin is believed to have been a Chinese pronunciation of the English word business. There have been
many forms of pidgin English, often with common elements because of the wide range of contacts made by
commercial shipping.
Polysemy – different meanings of the same word.
Productivity – the potential of a linguistic rule to produce many instances of the same type.
Reference – the relationship between linguistic forms and entities in the world (referents).
Referent – an entity in the world denoted by a linguistic form.
Restriction – in historical linguistics, a type of change in which a word becomes more specialized in meaning (Old
English mete ‘food’, now a type of food); also called narrowing.
Root – the base form of a word, from which other forms derive.
Semantic component – an element of a word’s meaning (girl – ‘young’, ‘female’, ‘human’); also called a semantic
feature.
Semantic field – an area of meaning (e.g. colour) identified by a set of mutually defining items (red, blue, green,
etc.); also called a lexical field.
Semantic relations – the meaning relations between words, as identified by the use of synonyms, antonyms, etc.;
also called sense relations.
Semantics – the study of linguistic meaning.
Sense relations – the meaning relations between words, as identified by the use of synonyms, antonyms, etc.; also
called semantic relations.
Sentence – the largest structural unit that displays stateable grammatical relationships, not dependent on any other
structure.
Source language – a language from which a word or text is taken.
Standard – a prestige variety, used as an institutionalized norm in a community; forms and varieties not conforming
to this norm are said to be nonstandard or (pejoratively) substandard.
Stem – an element in a word to which affixes are attached.
Synonym – a word that has the same meaning (in a particular context) as another word (e.g. a
nice range/selection of flowers).
Triplet – a group or set of three of one kind.
Variety – a situationally distinctive system of linguistic expression (legal, formal, etc.). Indigenized variety –
indigenized varieties are spoken mainly as second languages in ex-colonies with multilingual populations. The
differences from the standard variety may be linked to English proficiency, or may be part of a range of varieties
used to express identity. For example, “Singlish” (spoken in Singapore) is a variety very different from Standard
English, and there are many other varieties of English used in India.
Vernacular – the indigenous language or dialect of a community.
Word formation – the process of creating words out of sequences of morphemes.

ГЛОССАРИЙ
Аббревиация, или сокращение/Abbreviation, orshortening (от лат. abbrevio ‘сокращаю’) – процесс
создания единиц вторичной номинации со статусом слова, который состоит в усечении любых линейных
частей источника мотивации и который приводит в результате к появлению такого слова, которое в своей
форме отражает лишь какую-то часть или части компонентов исходной мотивирующей единицы. Результат
процесса аббревиации обозначается терминами аббревиатура или сокращение, которые очень часто
используются как синонимы.
Адвербиализация/Adverbialization (от лат. adverbium ‘наречие’) – переход слова в класс наречий.
Адъективация/Adjectivalization (от лат. adjectivum ‘прилагательное’) – переход слова в класс
прилагательных.
Активность/Activity – динамический, процессуальный аспект словообразовательной системы, ее
способность к действию, пополнению языка новыми лексическими единицами, к выполнению
определенных коммуникативных заданий.
Алломорф (алломорфа)/Allomorph (от греч. állos ‘иной’, ‘другой’ и morphḗ ‘форма’) – один из
разнообразия морфов, репрезентирующих одну и ту же морфему.
Антонимы/Antonyms (от греч. anti- ‘против’ и onyma ‘имя’) – слова одной части речи, имеющие
противоположные значения.
Ассимиляция заимствования (полная и частичная)/Assimilation (от лат. assimilatio ‘уподобление’) –
приспосабливание заимствованного слова к системе заимствующего языка.
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Аффикс/Affix (от лат. affixus ‘прикрепленный’) – служебная морфема, минимальный строительный элемент

языка, присоединяемый к корню слова в процессах морфологической деривации и служащий
преобразованию корня в грамматических или словообразовательных целях; важнейшее средство выражения
грамматических и словообразовательных значений; часть слова, противопоставленная корню и
сосредоточивающая его грамматические и/или словообразовательные значения.
Аффиксальная база/Basisofaffixation – часть слова, содержащая основу.
Аффиксация/Affixation – морфологический процесс, заключающийся в присоединении аффиксов к корням
или основам.
Безаффиксное словообразование/Non-affixalwordformation – словообразование, при котором аффиксы не
используются в качестве словообразовательного средства (т.е. используются чередование звуков, перенос
ударения и т.п.).
Валентность/Valence (от лат. valentia ‘сила’) – способность слова вступать в синтаксические связи с
другими элементами. Различаются специфичные для каждого языка сочетательные потенции частей речи,
отражающие грамматические закономерности сочетаемости слов (например, в рус. яз. существительные
шире сочетаются с наречием, чем во фр. яз.), и лексическая валентность, связанная с семантикой слова.
Варваризм/Barbarism (от греч. bárbaros ‘чужеземный’) – заимствованное слово чужого языка, получившее
более или менее регулярное употребление в заимствующем языке (обычно как проявление моды).
Вариантность (вариативность)/Variation, variety (от лат. varians, род. п. variantis ‘изменяющийся’) – 1)
представление о разных способах выражения какой-либо языковой сущности как об ее модификации,
разновидности или как об отклонении от некоторой нормы; 2) термин, характеризующий способ
существования и функционирования единиц языка и системы языковой в целом.
Варианты/Variants – разные проявления одной и той же сущности, например, видоизменения одной и той
же единицы, которая при всех изменениях остается сама собой.
Внутренняя форма слова/Innerformoftheword – признак, легший в основу наименования.
Гибрид/Hybrid – слово, элементы которого заимствованы из разных языков.
Гиперогипонимия/Hyperonym, hyperonymy, hyponym, hyponymy (от греч. hypér ‘над’, ‘сверх’, hypó ‘под’,
‘внизу’ и ónyma ‘имя’) – одно из основных парадигматических отношений в семантическом поле –
иерархическая организация его элементов, основанная на родо-видовых отношениях. При этом слова,
соответствующие видовым понятиям (например, дог, овчарка и т.д.), выступают как гипонимы по
отношению к слову, соотносящемуся с родовым понятием (собака), – гиперониму и как согипонимы по
отношению друг к другу.
Глоссарий/Glossary – словарь малоупотребительных слов с толкованием.
Грамматический контекст/Grammaticalcontext – возможное словесное окружение слова, рассматриваемое
на уровне частей речи.
Графическое сокращение/Graphicalshortening – условное сокращение часто встречающегося слова или
словосочетания, употребляемое только в письменной речи и расшифровываемое при
чтении; противоп.лексическое сокращение/lexicalshortening.
Группа семантическая/Semanticgroupofwords (lexico-semanticgroup (LSG) – 1) подразряд слов в пределах
данной части речи, объединенных общностью значения; 2) слова, объединяемые общностью значения,
независимо от частеречной принадлежности.
Группа тематическая/Lexicalset (thematicgroup) – 1) то же, что серия лексическая,
например, тематическая группа предметов домашнего обихода, тематическая группа цвета и т.д.; 2) ряд
слов, более или менее близко совпадающих по своему основному (стержневому) семантическому
содержанию, т.е. по принадлежности к одному и тому же семантическому полю.
Денотат/Denotation (от лат. denotatum ‘обозначаемое’) – обозначаемый предмет.
Деривационные отношения/Derivativerelations – отношения, возникающие между исходными и
производными знаками языка (частный случай таких отношений – наиболее хорошо изученные отношения
словообразовательной производности).
Деривационные шаги (ступени деривации)/Steps (degrees) ofderivation – формальные операции,
последовательно применяемые к исходной единице.
Деривация/Derivation (от лат. derivatio ‘отведение’, ‘образование’) – процесс создания одних языковых
единиц (дериватов) на базе других, принимаемых за исходные, в простейшем случае – путем «расширения»
корня за счет аффиксации или словосложения, в связи с чем деривация приравнивается иногда к
словопроизводству или даже словообразованию. Согласно более широкой точке зрения, деривация
понимается либо как обобщенный термин для обозначения словоизменения (inflection) и словообразования
(word formation) вместе взятых, либо как название для процессов (реже результатов) образования в языке
любых вторичных знаков, в том числе предложений, которые могут быть объяснены с помощью единиц,
принятых за исходные, или выведены из них путем применения определенных правил, операций.
Диалект/Dialect (от греч. diálektos ‘разговор’, ‘говор’, ‘наречие’) – разновидность данного языка,
употребляемая в качестве средства общения лицами, связанными тесной территориальной, социальной или
профессиональной общностью.
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Дивергенция/Divergence (от ср.-лат. divergo ‘отклоняюсь’, ‘отхожу’) – расхождение, отдаление друг от

друга двух или более языковых сущностей.
Диглоссия/Diglossia (от греч. di- ‘дважды’ и glṓssa ‘язык’) – одновременное существование в обществе двух
языков или двух форм одного языка, применяемых в разных функциональных сферах.
Дублет, или двойное заимствование/Doublet – одно из двух или более слов, близких по значению и
звучанию, связанных общностью происхождения и нередко возникающих в языке вследствие
разновременного заимствования, откуда этимологические дублеты/etymological doublets, например,
рус. сторона – страна, англ. hostel – hotel – hospital и т.п.
Заимствование/Borrowing – элемент чужого языка (слово, морфема, синтаксическая конструкция и т.п.),
перенесенный из одного языка в другой в результате контактов языковых, а также сам процесс перехода
элементов одного языка в другой.
Заимствованное слово/Borrowed, orloanword – слово, появившееся в данном языке в результате
заимствования; противоп.исконное слово.
Звукоподражание (ономатопея)/Sound-imitation (onomatopoeia, orechoism) – 1) условное
воспроизведение звуков природы и звучаний, сопровождающих некоторые процессы (дрожь, смех, свист и
т.п.), а также криков животных; 2) создание слов, звуковые оболочки которых в той или иной степени
напоминают называемые (обозначаемые) предметы и явления.
Идиолект/Idiolect (от греч. ídios ‘свой’, ‘своеобразный’, ‘особый’ и (диа)лект) – совокупность формальных
и стилистических особенностей, свойственных речи отдельного носителя данного языка.
Идиома/Idiom – 1) словосочетание, обнаруживающее в своем синтаксическом и семантическом строении
специфические и неповторимые свойства данного языка; 2) то же, что фразеологическая единица.
Идиоматичность/Idiomaticity – семантическая характеристика фразеологической единицы, заключающаяся
в невыводимости значения целого языкового образования из совокупности значений входящих в него
частей.
Импликация/Implication – подразумевание, невыражение.
Инициальное сокращение, или акронимия/Initialshortening, oracronymy – способ словообразования, в
результате которого образуется сокращенное слово, включающее в свой состав начальные буквы/звуки
(инициалы) слова или слов сокращаемого словосочетания.
Интенсионал/Intension – качества или свойства, составляющие внутреннее содержание слова или термина,
его сигнификацию.
Интернационализмы (интернациональные слова)/Internationalwords – слова, совпадающие по своей
внешней форме (с учетом закономерных соответствий звуков и графических единиц в конкретных языках), с
полно или частично совпадающим смыслом, выражающие понятия международного характера из области
науки и техники, политики, культуры, искусства и функционирующие в разных, прежде всего
неродственных (не менее чем в трех) языках. Слова, заимствованные большинством языков мира из языка
народа, который создал или ввел в общее употребление обозначаемые ими предметы.
Исконное слово (первичное слово)/Vernacularword (nativeword) – наиболее старое (основное) слово
данного языка как представитель первоначального лексического состава; противоп.заимствованное слово.
Источник заимствования/Sourceofborrowing – язык, из которого заимствована данная лексическая
единица.
Категориальные семантические признаки/Categorialfeatures – признаки, на основании общности
которых осуществляется объединение лексических единиц в лексико-грамматические классы, или части
речи.
Кокни/Cockney – лондонское просторечие.
Конвергенция/Convergence (от лат. convergo ‘приближаюсь’, ‘схожусь’) – сближение или совпадение двух
или более лингвистических сущностей.
Конверсия, или нулевое словообразование/Conversion, orzero-derivation (от лат. conversio ‘изменение’,
‘превращение’) в словообразовании – способ словообразования без использования специальных
словообразовательных аффиксов; разновидность транспозиции, при которой переход слова из одной части
речи в другую происходит так, что назывная форма слова одной части речи (или его основа) используется
без всякого материального изменения в качестве представителя другой части речи (ср. нем. leben ‘жить’
и dasLeben ‘жизнь’, англ. salt ‘соль’ и tosalt ‘солить’, tojump ‘прыгать’ и ajump ‘прыжок’ и т.п.).
Конкордансы/Concordances – словоуказатели с контекстами, являющиеся одним из результатов
автоматической обработки текста в автоматизированных лексикографических системах.
Коннотация/Connotation (ср.-лат. connotatio, от connoto ‘имею дополнительное значение’) –
эмоциональная, оценочная или стилистическая окраска языковой единицы узуального (закрепленного в
системе языка) или окказионального характера.
Контекст/Context (от лат. contextus ‘соединение’, ‘связь’) – фрагмент текста, включающий избранную для
анализа единицу, необходимый и достаточный для определения значения этой единицы, являющегося
непротиворечивым по отношению к общему смыслу данного текста.
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Контекст ситуации (обстановка речи)/Contextofsituation – условия, в которых осуществляется данный акт

речи с точки зрения их воздействия на содержание последнего, его детерминированности особенностями
данной культурной общности.
Корень/Root – носитель вещественного, лексического значения слова, центральная его часть, остающаяся
неизменной в процессах морфологической деривации; выражает идею тождества слова самому себе;
коррелирует с понятием лексемы; простая, или непроизводная основа слова, остающаяся после устранения
всех словообразовательных и/или словоизменительных элементов.
Корневое словообразование/Rootformation – один из терминов, используемый наравне с
термином безаффиксное словообразованиедля обозначения процесса конверсии. Словообразовательный
процесс, в результате которого образуются слова, являющиеся по своему морфемному составу корневыми,
т.е. состоящими из одного корня.
Косвенное сложное слово/Idiomaticcompound – сложное слово, значение которого не выводимо из
значений составляющих его основ, также вследствие идиоматичности синтаксического построения.
Креативность/Creativity – нерегулируемое правилами речевое поведение говорящих, в основе которого
лежит осознанная интенция создания какого-либо эффекта при порождении новой единицы.
Креольские языки/Creoles, orCreoleslanguages – языки, сформировавшиеся на основе пиджинов и ставшие
родными (первыми) для определенного коллектива их носителей.
Лексикализация/Lexicalization – превращение элемента языка (морфемы, словоформы) или сочетания
элементов (словосочетания) в отдельное знаменательное слово или в другую эквивалентную ему словарную
единицу (например, во фразеологизм).
Лексикография/Lexicography (от греч. lexikós ‘относящийся к слову’ и gráphō ‘пишу’) – раздел
языкознания, занимающийся практикой и теорией составления словарей.
Лексикология/Lexicology (от греч. lexikós ‘относящийся к слову’ и lógos ‘учение’) – раздел языкознания,
изучающий словарный состав, лексику языка.
Лексико-семантический вариант/Lexico-semanticvariation – иерархически организованная совокупность
сем; структура, в которой выделяется интегрирующее родовое значение (архисема), дифференцирующее
видовое (дифференциальная сема), а также потенциальные семы, отражающие побочные свойства предмета,
реально существующие или приписываемые ему коллективом.
Лексическая единица/Lexicalunit, oritem – единица, основное содержание которой имеет материальный
(вещественный, т.е. не грамматический) характер, а выражение находится в соответствии с правилами
оформления отдельного слова, свойственными данному языку.
Лексическая парадигма/Lexicalparadigm – объединение грамматически однородных слов, имеющих
семантическую общность.
Лексический контекст/Lexicalcontext – набор лексических единиц, с которыми то или иное слово вступает
во взаимодействие для реализации конкретного значения.
Лексическое значение слова/Lexicalmeaning – содержание слова, отображающее в сознании и
закрепляющее в нем представление о предмете, свойстве, процессе, явлении и т.д.
Лингва франка/Linguafranca (от итал. linguafranca ‘франкский язык’) – функциональный тип языка,
используемый в качестве средства общения между носителями разных языков в ограниченных сферах
социальных контактов.
Лингвистическая энциклопедия/Linguisticencyclopedia – научное справочное издание, содержащее
систематизированный свод знаний о языке и методах его описания.
Ложные друзья переводчика/Translator’sfalsefriends – слова, совпадающие по своей внешней форме (с
учетом закономерных соответствий звуков и графических единиц в конкретных языках) и практически
полностью не совпадающие по своему значению.
Метафора/Metaphor (от греч. metaphorá ‘перенос’) – троп или механизм речи, состоящий в употреблении
слова, обозначающего некоторый класс предметов, явлений и т.п., для характеризации или наименования
объекта, входящего в другой класс, либо наименования другого класса объектов, аналогичного данному в
каком-либо отношении.
Метонимия/Metonymy (от греч. metōnymia ‘переименование’) – троп или механизм речи, состоящий в
регулярном или окказиональном переносе имени с одного класса объектов или единичного объекта на
другой класс или отдельный предмет, ассоциируемый с данным по смежности, сопредельности,
вовлеченности в одну ситуацию.
Морф, морфа/Morph (от греч. morphḗ ‘форма’) – минимальная значимая единица текста, текстовый
представитель морфемы.
Морфема/Morpheme (от греч. morphḗ ‘форма’) – одна из основных единиц языка, часто определяемая как
минимальный знак, т.е. такая единица, в которой за определенной фонетической формой (означающим)
закреплено определенное содержание (означаемое) и которая не членится на более простые единицы того
же рода.
Морфемно нечленимое слово/Monomorphicword – слово, морфемная структура которого представлена
одной единственной морфемой.
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Морфемно членимое слово/Polymorphicword – слово, морфемная структура которого представлена

несколькими морфемами.
Морфологическая парадигма/Morphologicalparadigm – система форм одного слова.
Морфонологические изменения/Morphonologicalchanges – изменения, благодаря которым
осуществляется, поддерживается или усиливается дифференциация форм на морфологическом уровне.
Мотивация (мотивированность)/Motivation – семантическая обусловленность значения той или иной
лексической единицы значениями ее составляющих.
Направление деривации (производности) (от имени – к глаголу или же от глагола – к имени и
т.п.)/Directionofderivation – одна из составляющих деривационных отношений, возникающих между
исходной и производной знаками языка в процессе словообразования (например, в процессе конверсии).
Народная этимология/Folk, orpopularetymology – преобразование слов в сторону их сближения с другими
словами, которые представляются (в силу сходства значений, формы или различных ассоциаций)
родственными (например, близорукий возникло из близозоръкъ, ср. у стоиков сближение лат. crux ‘крест’
с crus ‘нога’).
Неологизмы/Neologisms (от греч. néos ‘новый’ и lógos ‘слово’) – слова, значения слов или сочетания слов,
появившиеся в определенный период в каком-либо языке или использованные один раз (окказиональные
слова) в каком-либо тексте или акте речи.
Непосредственно составляющие/Immediateconstituents – два элемента, из которых непосредственно
образована единица более высокого порядка (и большей линейной протяженности).
Несвободное словосочетание/Non-variable (stable) contextcombination – словосочетание, в котором
лексическая самостоятельность одного или обоих его компонентов ослаблена или утрачена, и оно все
целиком по характеру значения приближается к отдельному слову.
Норма языковая/Norm – совокупность наиболее устойчивых традиционных реализаций языковой системы,
отобранных и закрепленных в процессе общественной коммуникации. Норма как совокупность стабильных
и унифицированных языковых средств и правил их употребления, сознательно фиксируемых и
культивируемых обществом, является специфическим признаком литературного языка национального
периода. В более широкой трактовке норма трактуется как неотъемлемый атрибут языка на всех этапах его
развития.
Нулевой аффикс/Zeroaffix – отсутствие аффикса в одной форме парадигмы, противопоставляемое
положительным (или выраженным) аффиксам в других формах той же парадигмы.
Образование новых слов по аналогии/Analogicalword-formation – уподобление одной единицы языка
другой на основе продуктивных моделей словоизменения и словообразования.
Обратная (регрессивная) деривация (дезаффиксация)/Back-formation – вычленение основы из
производного слова и включение ее в парадигму соответствующей части речи, например,
рус. зонт от зонтик, англ. tochauffe от chauffeur и т.п.
Омографы/Homographs (от греч. homós ‘одинаковый’ и gráphō ‘пишу’) – слова, имеющие одинаковое
написание, но различное ударение (в рус. яз.: мука́ – му́ка, труси́ть – тру́сить и т.п.) или вообще
произношение (в англ. яз.: lead [led] ‘свинец’ и lead [lі:d] ‘вести’, tear [teә] ‘рвать’ и tear [tiә] ‘слеза’).
Омонимия/Homonymy (от греч. homōnymia ‘одноименность’) в языкознании – звуковое совпадение
различных языковых единиц, значения которых не связаны друг с другом.
Омонимы/Homonyms – одинаково звучащие слова, не имеющие общих элементов смысла (сем) и не
связанные ассоциативно.
Омофоны/Homophones (от греч. homós ‘одинаковый’ и phōnḗ ‘звук’) – слова, которые произносятся
одинаково, но различаются в написании, например, рус. косный – костный, пруд – прут, луг – лук,
англ. write – right, week – weak.
Омоформы/Homoforms – отдельные формы разных слов, совпадающие друг с другом, например,
рус. стих (гл.) и стих (сущ.), англ. saw ‘пила’ и saw (форма глагола tosee ‘видеть’) и т.п.
Основа/Stem – ядерная часть слова, с которой связано его вещественное лексическое значение и которая
остается за вычетом из него словоизменительных морфем (окончаний); непредельная вторичная единица
морфологического уровня, необходимая при анализе структуры слова и определении степени его
морфемной сложности.
Парадигма/Paradigm (от греч. parádeigma ‘пример’, ‘образец’) – 1) в широком смысле – любой класс
лингвистических единиц, противопоставленных друг другу и в то же время объединенных по наличию у них
общего признака или вызывающих одинаковые ассоциации, чаще всего – совокупность языковых единиц,
связанных парадигматическими отношениями; 2) модель и схема организации такого класса или
совокупности; 3) в более узком смысле – синоним термина морфологическая парадигма (система форм
одного слова).
Партономия, или меронимия/Partonomy, ormeronymy – один из типов структуры семантического поля, в
которой слова соединены отношением «часть – целое».
Переоформление (заимствованных слов)/Reinterpretationofaffixes – переосмысление морфем, входящих в
состав заимствованных слов, например, рус. бутсы от англ. boots (boot + s – флексия мн. ч.) и т.п.
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Пиджины/Pidgin (от искаженного англ. business ‘дело’) – структурно-функциональный тип языков, не

имеющих коллектива исконных носителей и развившихся путем существенного упрощения структуры
языка-источника; используются как средство межэтнического общения в среде смешанного населения.
Полисемия/Polysemy (от греч. polýsēmos ‘многозначный’) (многозначность) – наличие у единицы языка
более одного значения – двух или нескольких.
Полуаффикс/Semi-affix – морфема промежуточного типа, коррелирующая с самостоятельным словом в
системе языка.
Понятие/Concept – 1) мысль, отражающая в обобщенной форме предметы и явления действительности
посредством фиксации их свойств и отношений; последние (свойства и отношения) выступают в понятии
как общие и специфические признаки, соотнесенные с классами предметов и явлений; 2) то же, что
грамматическая или семантическая категория, обычно не высшего уровня обобщения, например, понятие
двойственного числа, понятие события, понятие неактуального настоящего времени и т.п.; в этом значении
стал часто употребляться термин концепт.
Постулат значения/Meaningpostulate – правило, устанавливающее связи между атомарными значениями.
Предельные составляющие/Ultimateconstituents – мельчайшие, далее неделимые единицы, выделяющиеся
на данном уровне анализа.
Префикс/Prefix (от лат. praefixus ‘прикрепленный впереди’) – аффикс, помещаемый перед корнем.
Продуктивность/Productivity – статическая характеристика словообразовательной системы, учет
результатов ее действия, отражение реализации способности разных словообразовательных моделей в
определенные временные периоды к словопроизводству. Пригодность для образования новых слов и форм,
понятных говорящим на данном языке.
Производное слово, или дериват/Derivedword, complex, orderivative – результат процесса деривации;
вторичная языковая единица, которая формально и семантически зависит от исходной и при наличии общей
ядерной части отстоит от исходной единицы на одну примененную формальную операцию, или
деривационный шаг; противоп.простое (непроизводное) слово.
Производящая основа (исходная форма)/Derivational (underlying) base (stem) – простая (или
производная) основа, являющаяся источником дальнейшего словообразования и формообразования.
Происхождение/Origin – классификационный параметр, на основе которого происходит разделение
морфем на исконные и заимствованные.
Простое (непроизводное) слово/Simple (nonderived) word, orsimplex – исходная, производящая единица.
Прямое сложное слово/Non-idiomaticcompound – неидиоматическое сложное слово, т.е. такое, значение
которого складывается из значения его составных частей.
Расширение лексического значения/Extension, broadening, orgeneralization – увеличение семантического
объема (семантической емкости) слова в процессе исторического развития или в контексте речевого
употребления.
Редупликация/Reduplication – удвоение.
Референт/Referent – тот предмет мысли, с которым соотнесено данное языковое выражение; отраженный в
сознании элемент объективной реальности как «внутренняя сторона» слова, т.е. как то понятийное
содержание, с которым, по законам семантического строения данного языка, устойчиво соотносится данная
единица выражения.
Родной язык, национальный язык, местная форма речи (диалект), разговорная форма
речи/Vernacular – некоторая «сниженная» языковая система, противопоставленная официальной, книжной
и т.п. в ситуации диглоссии; противоп.литературному языку.
Свободное словосочетание/Free (variable) contextcombination – словосочетание, в котором сохраняются
самостоятельные лексические значения всех входящих в него знаменательных слов; синтаксическая связь
элементов подобного словосочетания является живой и продуктивной.
Сема/Seme (от греч. sḗma ‘знак’) – минимальная, предельная единица плана содержания.
Семантика/Semantics (от греч. sēmantikós ‘обозначающий’) – 1) все содержание, информация,
передаваемые языком или какой-либо его единицей (словом, грамматической формой слова,
словосочетанием, предложением); 2) раздел языкознания, изучающий это содержание, информацию; 3) один
из основных разделов семиотики.
Семантическая (лексическая) неоднозначность/Semantic (lexical) ambiguity – свойство языковой
единицы иметь более одного зафиксированного в языке лексического значения, закрепленного за одной
формой языкового знака.
Семантические варианты слова/Semanticvariantsofaword – разные значения слова, реализующиеся в
данных контекстах употребления.
Семантические классы/Semanticclasses, semanticclassificationoflexicon – объединения слов,
принадлежащих к одной или разным частям речи, по признаку общности основы и словообразовательных
связей.
Семантические компоненты: маркеры и различители/Semanticcomponents: markersanddistinguishers –
родовые и видовые признаки, выделяемые в рамках родовидовых отношений в значении лексической
единицы (в терминологии Д. Катца и Д. Фодора).
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Семантические отношения (смысловые отношения)/Semanticrelations – лексико-фразеологические связи

(соответствия) между частями высказывания.
Семантическое заимствование (калька)/Semanticborrowing – заимствование путем буквального перевода
(обычно по частям) слова или оборота речи.
Семантическое поле/Semantic (lexical) field – 1) частичка («кусочек») действительности, выделенная в
человеческом опыте и теоретически имеющая в данном языке соответствие в виде более или менее
автономной лексической микросистемы; 2) совокупность слов и выражений, составляющих тематический
ряд, слова и выражения языка, в своей совокупности покрывающие определенную область значений.
Семантическое словообразование/Semanticderivation – возникновение новых семантических единиц
вследствие изменения значения слов.
Синонимы/Synonyms (от греч. synṓnymos ‘одноименный’) – слова одной и той же части речи (а также, в
более широком понимании, фразеологизмы, морфемы, синтаксические конструкции), имеющие полностью
или частично совпадающие значения.
Словарная статья/Entry – независимый отрезок текста, посвященный каждому слову (или группе слов),
приводимому в словаре.
Словарь/Dictionary – 1) лексика, словарный состав языка, диалекта, какой-либо социальной группы,
отдельного писателя и т.п.; 2) справочная книга, которая содержит слова (или морфемы, словосочетания,
идиомы и т.п.), расположенные в определенном порядке (различном в разных типах словарей), объясняет
значения описываемых единиц, дает различную информацию о них или их перевод на другой язык либо
сообщает сведения о предметах, обозначаемых ими. Основным типом словарей являются одноязычные
толковые словари, показывающие значение, употребление, грамматические и фонетические особенности
слов. От толковых по разным признакам отличаются иные типы словарей: по
содержанию – энциклопедические словари, объясняющие не слова, но сами предметы и понятия, ими
обозначаемые; по отбору лексики – тезаурусы, охватывающие всю лексику языка, и частные словари,
отражающие некоторые тематические и стилевые ее пласты (словари терминологические, диалектные,
просторечия, арго, языка писателей и др.), либо особые разновидности слов (словари неологизмов,
архаизмов, редких слов, сокращений, иностранных слов, собственных имен); по способу описания
слова – специальные, раскрывающие отдельные аспекты слов и отношений между ними (словари
этимологические, словообразовательные, словосочетаний, грамматические, орфографические,
орфоэпические, синонимические, антонимические, омонимические, паронимические, частотные, рифм и
др.); по единице лексикографического описания (меньше слóва – словари корней, морфем, больше слóва –
словари словосочетаний, фразеологические, словари цитат); по расположению материала –
идеографические, аналогические (слова располагаются не по алфавиту, но по смысловым ассоциациям),
обратные (слова располагаются по алфавиту конечных букв слова); по эпохе функционирования слов –
исторические; по назначению (адресату) – словари ошибок, трудностей, учебные и др.; по числу языков (для
переводных словарей) – двуязычные и многоязычные. Переводные словари также делятся на активные
(родной язык в левой части) и пассивные (родной язык в правой части).
Слово/Word – основная структурно-семантическая единица языка, служащая для именования предметов и
их свойств, явлений, отношений действительности, обладающая совокупностью семантических,
фонетических и грамматических признаков, специфичных для каждого языка.
Словоизменение/Inflexion – образование для каждого слова (кроме слов неизменяемых частей речи) его
парадигмы, т.е. всех его словоформ и всех его аналитических форм.
Словоизменительный аффикс/Inflexionalaffix – аффикс, служащий для образования новых форм слова;
окончание.
Словообразование/Wordformation – 1) образование слов, называемых производными и сложными, обычно
на базе однокорневых слов по существующим в языке образцам и моделям с помощью аффиксации,
словосложения, конверсии и других формальных средств; 2) раздел языкознания, изучающий все аспекты
создания, функционирования, строения и классификации производных и сложных слов.
Словообразовательная модель (тип словообразовательный)/Wordformationpattern – основная
классификационная единица в словообразовании; модель, фиксирующая правило построения производных
слов, правило, учитывающее тип производящих основ и словообразовательных средств и формируемую в
результате их взаимодействия обобщенную семантику однотипных слов.
Словообразовательный аффикс/Derivational, orword-buildingaffix – аффикс, служащий для образования
новых слов.
Словосложение/Composition, orcompounding – один из способов словообразования, состоящий в
морфологическом соединении двух или более корней (основ).
Словосочетание/Wordcombination – синтаксическая конструкция, образуемая соединением двух или более
знаменательных слов на основе подчинительной грамматической связи – согласования, управления или
примыкания и служащая средством номинации, обозначая предмет, явление, процесс, качество и т.д.
Слоговое сокращение (усечение)/Clipping – способ словообразования, в результате которого образуется
сокращенное слово, включающее в свой состав часть или части только одного слова, не меньшие
двухфонемного слога.
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Сложнопроизводные слова/Derivational, orpseudo-compounds – производные единицы, возникшие не в

результате словосложения, а в ходе других деривационных процессов, но включающие в свою
морфологическую структуру как минимум две основы.
Сложнослоговое сокращение, контаминация, или телескопия/Blending, ortelescoping – способ
словообразования, в результате которого образуется сокращенное слово, включающее в свой состав не
только редуцированные части слов, по линейной протяженности не меньшие двухфонемного слога, но и
полные слова.
Собственно идиома/Idiomproper – фразеологическая единица, обладающая ярко выраженными
стилистическими особенностями, благодаря которым ее употребление вносит в речь элемент игры, шутки,
нарочитости.
Собственно-сложное слово/Compoundproper – 1) сложное слово в отличие от фразеологических единиц;
2) сложное слово в отличие от производного слова.
Социальный диалект/Socialdialect – язык определенной социальной группы.
Субкатегориальные семантические признаки/Subcategorialfeatures – признаки, на основании которых
происходит формирование тесно связанных семантических множеств внутри частей речи.
Субстантивация/Substantivation – переход слова в класс существительных.
Сужение лексического значения, или специализация/Restriction, specialization, ornarrowing –
уменьшение семантического объема слова в процессе исторического развития или в контексте речевого
употребления.
Суффикс/Suffix (от лат. suffixus ‘прикрепленный’) – аффикс, помещаемый за корнем, но не обязательно в
непосредственной близости к нему.
Таксономия/Taxonomy (от греч. táxis ‘построение’, ‘порядок’, ‘расположение’ и nómos ‘закон’) –
совокупность принципов и правил классификации лингвистических объектов (языков и языковых единиц), а
также сама эта классификация.
Тезаурус/Thesaurus (от греч. thésaurós ‘сокровище’, ‘сокровищница’) – 1) словарь, в котором максимально
полно представлены все слова того или иного языка с исчерпывающим перечнем примеров их употребления
в текстах; 2) идеографический словарь, в котором показаны семантические отношения (родо-видовые,
синонимические и др.) между лексическими единицами.
Территориальные варианты/Regionalvarieties – варианты, в виде которых единый язык бытует в
различных национальных государствах, например, британский и американский варианты английского
языка.
Территориальный (областной, или местный) диалект/Territorial (regional, orlocal) dialect – диалект,
распространенный в определенной местности.
Традиционные словосочетания/Traditionalcollocations – свободные словосочетания, регулярно
воспроизводимые в речи вследствие весьма узкой сочетаемости одного из компонентов.
Транспозиция/Transposition (от ср.-век. лат. transpositio ‘перестановка’) – использование одной языковой
формы в функции другой формы – ее противочлена в парадигматическом ряду.
«Улучшение» лексического значения, или облагораживание/Amelioration, orelevation – семантическое
изменение, в результате которого слово стало обозначать предметы (процессы, качества, людей и т.п.),
считающиеся в данном обществе более ценными, более полезными, более уважаемыми и т.п.
Устойчивое выражение/Set (fixed) expression – фразеологически (и/или грамматически) закрепленное
(фиксированное) сочетание слов, приобретающее в языке, в большей или меньшей степени, свойства
фразеологической единицы.
«Ухудшение» лексического значения/Perjoration, ordeterioration – семантическое изменение, в
результате которого слово стало обозначать предметы (процессы, качества, людей и т.п.), считающиеся в
данном обществе менее ценными, менее полезными, менее уважаемыми и т.п.
Флексия/Flexion (от лат. flexio ‘сгибание’) – словоизменительный аффикс, формант, форматив, т.е. часть
словоформы, которая выражает грамматическое значение (грамматические категории) и/или реляционное
значение (синтаксическое отношение данного слова к другим словам в предложении или к предложению в
целом). В этом значении также употребляется термин окончание.
Фразема/Phraseme – единица постоянного контекста, в котором значение семантически реализуемого слова
является фразеологически связанным.
Фразеологизм (фразеологическая единица)/Phraseologicalunit, locution, phrase, formula – общее
название семантически связанных сочетаний слов и предложений, которые, в отличие от сходных с ними по
форме синтаксических структур, не производятся в соответствии с общими закономерностями выбора и
комбинации слов при организации высказывания, а воспроизводятся в речи в фиксированном соотношении
семантической структуры и определенного лексико-грамматического состава.
Фразеологическое единство/Phraseologicalunity – разновидность фразеологической единицы, которая
характеризуется меньшей по сравнению со сращением спаянностью составляющих ее элементов вследствие
того, что ее построение соответствует действующим моделям данного языка.
Фразеологическое сочетание/Phraseologicalcollocation – разновидность фразеологической единицы,
которая, будучи построена по продуктивной модели, не обладает в отличие от единства полной
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семантической слитностью (семантической глобальностью); она отличается от свободного сочетания лишь

тем, что ее опорное слово употребляется в несвободном, фразеологически связанном значении, т.е. в таком
значении, которое реализуется только в сочетании с данным набором лексических единиц.
Фразеологическое сращение/Phraseologicalfusion, concretion – разновидность фразеологической единицы,
характеризующаяся наибольшей степенью семантической неделимости, спаянности, монолитности
(глобальности) вследствие непродуктивности той синтаксической модели, по которой она построена.
Фразеология/Phraseology (от греч. phrásis, род. п. phráseōs ‘выражение’ и lógos ‘слово’, ‘учение’) – 1)
раздел языкознания, изучающий фразеологический состав языка в его современном состоянии и
историческом развитии; 2) совокупность фразеологизмов данного языка, то же, что фразеологический
состав.
Фрейм/Frame – языковая модель определенного фрагмента действительности.
Функциональное изменение/Functionalchange – изменение фонологической системы, вызванное
изменением функций составляющих ее фонем.
Цепь/Chain – один из типов структуры семантического поля, представляющий собой множество слов,
соединенных каким-либо ранговым отношением.
Цикл/Cycle – один из типов структуры семантического поля, обозначающий ту или иную циклическую
систему (например, дни недели, времена года и т.п.).
Экстенсионал/Extensional – номинативная сторона языковой единицы; языковая единица, рассматриваемая
в плане ее соотносимости с индивидуальными предметами в контексте речи.
Энциклопедия (энциклопедический словарь)/Encyclopedia – словарь, представляющий в сжатом виде
состояние современного научного знания, достигнутого в тех областях, которые обозначаются собранными
в нем словами.
Эпидигматические отношения/Epidigmaticties – внутрисловные отношения, например, отношения между
значениями многозначного слова, квалифицируемые как третье измерение в лексике наряду с
парадигматическими и синтагматическими отношениями.