Chapter2itransformatiousaudsymmetries 1

Elementarylaws ofnaturearenotcompletelyarbitrary but

ic Eiiiisii
me u tti na
n rotations angular momentum a canbedealtwith
electromagneticgauge symmetry electriccharge a
efficiently
invariance underLotenfttransformations
grouptheory

2.1 Relafiuislrcpartrdekiueu.at

Elementaryparticlephysics mostly
associated to processeswhere energies aremuchlarger
thanparticlemasses E u OG relativisticleinematies

4vectortensor notation forparticleenergiesandmomentausefulto

have a notationthatis adaptedtothesituationthattimeandspace
are relatedandnotanywroteindependent

coufaavariaul 4 uee.to fr 0,12,3 only

Greeklettersused

xn tix space timeevent

of dd g 1T 4velocityof a massive y l u5 t eigeatimeofmassiveparticle
particlewithvelocity i uns massinresinframe timein itstestframe
pm E f mustWM 4momentum energy momentumvector the
tiankiaframewhenparticle
Ah V E 4 vectorpotential
hasvelocityv
Matrixluelor
teusormultiplication Rule Onlyupperandlowerindices can be contracted
3
eg
My PM
IZ MaµPM Einstein convention

Metoic kus.rs nm yw use to raiseandlowerindices Donot change the

physicalcontentofthe 4 leasorthey act on
c tk ueefors.am 4µVa

wecan use themetrictensorsto freel up move anddoomindices

FFV MM
globalindices eg inequations Fee My
contracted indices eg
ay youa qiao y 14 4 115
7
S
r
4 tensors areonlybuiltfromquantities thatLorentz transform
Cteusowally like thespacetime 4vectors xM or
xp
Theorderof 4 indices of a 4 tensormatters
e g ONE f OH unless 0 is symmetric in µandu
 Newton's 1stlaw is valid
Inertialfrawei system in which
Coordinate
Thevelocity J of awooingbodystaysconstantintime
as longas no farceactson it

Loreutztransformation Relatesthecoordinates of a spacetimeevent

indifferentinertialframes

example Frame moves withvelocity via z direction war to frame

x xi
r n
x't Acssfu xo
µ.iq sv
d I IZ
ga yg
Nessno
8 f Ju s v

j o o
on o o
gv
Aces o or o
pro o r
ACS 8noAcs's
slur qf

Anup
aug 4
Lorentz transformation of vectorHeusor p'M pig Agop
µ'M AM HE M't o
bothcanbe
swapped
Loratz i Metrictensors are invariant It 1 Definingequality
underLorentztransformations yw AnyNe y ofa Lorentztrafo

The product contraction oftwo 4vectors is Lorentz invariant

yes
p'M Anup h Ahu
q q pq pMqµ yMpjq's yMAEAµspegs pq

Fullcontractionsof 4 tensors are Lorentz invariant

M'MFµj 14Mt MMpr AM Mirpr
Far
We call a 4 vector ah time like if a2 a a o
spacelike if a co
2
light like if a 0
Wedefine themass
4 luow.euuurotaurassiveparto of a massiveparticle
alwaysasthemass inits
µ
m askmyChiu
a
p Ep F p l T2 in testmass of particle testframe

p2 w2w2 wig l J2 m2 pZ m2 ou.sk tiou forthe 4 momentum

of a realmaswvepav.to
Ep2 p Z

Epo jm2 p2 I p
The relativistic 3 momentum is tuff
La hou relativisticlimit fam Ep ur II g s
t
restenergy I F non relkineticenergy
 4 mocueutueuofaurasshsspai.to oh shellcondition p2 O

p2 Epi pole O Ep If I
181
101 1 always
Ep
off shellvs.ou shellpao.fi Ouey particles carryingou.sk ta are
realaudobservable Theyformthe Fockspaceof multiparticle states of quantum
fieldtheory It is possiblethata particle withmass in can carry a 4 momentum
ph Go f with p't we called offshele momentum Offshellparticles can only
appear in intermedia of a quantummechanicalprocess and are uofob

EUergg luoureutumcouservatoouiupartrdereae.fi

for
anyparticle
reaction B A B Cal involvedparticlesappear I
wehave Pah t pish t paintPBY

m M m
example Particle withmass 14at testdecays ihto o
pi
particleswithmasses in we php2Mio pah t p
A
E f ht Ea f momentumconservation
whatare Ea Ez IfI back to back
solve 4equations OR use 4vectors in a

smartwag.ph
ph p us pp HtmE 2p.pe 1474 2MEe

Ez InChian mi Ee M Ez En tehmi mi
if I EE wi CEE enE In that mi mi
t 22 2
x y z city xy gz Zx Kaitenfunction

Onlypossible if
the
winthe massless
L
application Pion t attestdecaysinto waou f and muon antineutrino Eg T for
whatare thevelocities of piandJp
oh Up Un o left f wi2n i
by in
uµ thatWei thatWei
v tool C uihEI I e Casitmust
Arif Wei

ceukr of wass fro.me fraue Theinertialframe inwhichthe sumof all

initial stale3 momentavanishes
 n z 2.40
Protonhitsanotherproton at test P of
apph.ca p
Pah tip Pah Cupo
HowGrad neededsuchthat
energy is
thereaction pxp pipip f cantakeplace cup up
i z t f ts f
p pp po
In the c u f thereactionjusttakesplacewhen cu f pp
a

the ppp f arejustproduced atrest Pfi c a upTo

frame independent
FtPf cmTowginal
16up wenow use E pConservation andLorentz invariance
partpl frame ofthe scalarproduct
E up CECup BZ Etty E E hip ZEup 2 2

minimalneededenergy E 7up not 3up because energyis alsoheeded

duetothe Conservationofthecenterofbrass
3 momentum
2.2
sgmweth.es
Symmetriesofthe fundamental laws are relatedto symmetries of the laws
Lagrangian equations ofmotion undertransformations

Mostofthesesymmetries are related totransformationsthat are

unitary Cut ti
onthe quantummechanical Hilbertspace H

Since wecan deriveeverythingfromtheHamiltonoperatorH theunitarytransformation

is a symmetry if U H UH Hu o a UtH U H invarianceofthe Hamiltonian 1

Sg taa aandinfactanykindofphysicaltransformation ou K onlymake

mathematicalsense if theyform a
group E
When u H o for all U G we call a
e

asguiuetrggroup.is
CousequeucelieuergymultipletI
If ld is an energyeigenstate and G is a symmetrygroup then H7Uld is anenergyeigenstate
withthesame energy eigenvalue forall U e G i
Hto Elots Hlol HUH UHlol Ehlol Ello
examples rotations shifts xh It ah
exercise G11Hlol CloyH14 1105
arbitrary
CousequeaceZicouservedeigeuvalI
If lolCt is aneigenstateto a symmetrytransformation 4 at t to then is staysaneigenstate to
Ufor all t to regardless ofwhetherlolKD is anenergyeigenstate or not Ulloaoh ulol Hoss letItD e lolHm
it lttoy it H H
uto Ue loan e u1 Hoy ulolHD
leave particlesthesame
towesguinetries
Space
changeskinematicspaetime properties
rotations spacetimeshifts Lorentztransformations continuous
groups

Internalsguineties leave spacetrue kinematicpropertiestheSame

changes particlespecies or quantumnumbers
gauge symmetries iso continuousgroups
spin
Groupi Setofelements G la b with a multiplication operation a b
definedsuchthat a b e G for all a b e G andthatthefollowing
properties are satisfied
r multiplication associative aCbc Cab c
2 existenceof identity element I e I a aI a fo ale a c G
3 Foreach a c G there is an inverse a suchthat a a aa I

Abeliangroupi Agroupforwhich a b b a for all a be G

All a cGunitary canbediagonalized finultaneously insomebasisof K
Reducesto number e multiplication forthestates inthisbasis representation

Non
Abeliaufroupi Agroupforwhich a b t b a forsome a be G

1
Representation Thesetof fuelH or asubset ofdethatis underthe
transformation group G determines a thetransformationgroup G
teton of
Maybenumbers matrices abstractobjects whichalsoform a representation
group
group
Languageuse Sometimes thissetofstates is called a representation but sometimes
4 alsothesetofobjects representing the Ae Gan called tphfeatation
physicists
slay

Trivialrepi Eachelement of a represented

by identity
example G rotations achug ou f of Czero vector

Faithfuls If a b e G with b then alsothe tips of a and ban different

a
counterexample G rotations acting on vectors in x plane y
Reduciblet There is abasisforthe subspace of on which the
elements of G act
forwhichtherips of eufS o
o twsaueeo a.ae farm e
One can splitthe subspaceof 2into smaller subspaces to
obtain a set directsum of smaller dimensionalindependent reps
example Grotation acting on directproductoftwo differentclosedsets ofangular
Choureatuces States tenun lezw S la r we C No turn E laz

Irreduciblet Not teducibe hp

example G rotation acting on setofangular brownfever statesfor 1 frughtotal
angular momentum f I l w lienCNo last El

Fundamentals simplest non trivial andfaithfulrepfromwhich our can generate

all other reps bytaking directproducts of subspaces
example GCrotation acting on spin states It It
 2.60
coutiuuoussgw.merggooups thislecture Ip ein
Mostcommon form of a groupG of coubuuousunitarytratouU
Ufa expC it Q with Q Hermitian at Q and Le IR
Utca UIcal expCtiLQ
Q is alsocalledthe generator ofthegroup G

Noetherbtheorean If Q is a Hermitian operator observable ontheHilbert

space K
thenthe statements
a a is a conferredquantity i.e
a µ o and
b Uak are symmetrytransformations i.e leak H O for all L

het6eoreuroulgappliestocoutiuuoussgurwefn
ateequivaleut.fr

example Trauslattousgw.me in 1 dimension QM1

of
fundamentallaws naturearetranslation invariant
Q p totalmomentumis conserved
UpCal expCiap
Ix fdfztlpkplxs f.dz eiPx1p
shiftstates activelyby a 1 1
at P
Up a Ix FpUp a IpXpIx Jeff e 1ps I a
Up a f X Utp a f X att location operator Pi Pj o
Abelian
group Up a Upb Upb Up a
Ca extendstriviallyto 3 dimensions Up a expCiap expCi a B expfia B expfiasB

example Rotationsgurmetrge Suk any

of
fundamentallaws naturearerotationinvariant
Ito
Q J totalangularmomentum is couseued
t
Uj E expC iEJ rotatesstatesactively angle
by I aroundin Eliot
Uj E 15 1120755 RCE rotationmatrix
Commutationrelations ofJi's

Ii Jj i c ija n liealgebraof Shk

specifyw.v.to
convention Garaetaneouseigenvalues

Wehave J Ji 0 for i 42,3 Canuse52and to classifyangularmomentumStates

possibleFeigeuvalues Ej site j O E 1,2
jf
m
eigenstateswith a JZeigeuvaluehjG.tn onlyhave Jzeigenvalues in j ju j l
so.me abkrepnaulatiousCfnqueu
Spin 0 trivial Us I k Jazs O
e g ascalarproduct E5LilyS g j o m o
Spin fundamental Ji tri re ft q fi T to
space ofcompexspinors f a.pe a spanned by d It
n f N H
3vectors s z f gig a um ieinm SoCs Suk
space ofspatial 3vectors E Cama az a ie IR spanned
by d I f
Spin t za III 2 1 1 Ii 3 1
spaceofspin1 states spawnedby E v la r It a It F 11 D
n It It
f Ho It a It It It
 Spin j spaceofspin j states spawnedby Ij we m j jH e j l j j
Additronofangular weata Thedirectproductoftwonontrivialirreduciblespin
tepresentations is seducibleandcan be rearrangedinto a directsum of
irreducible spintephseatatroas I I l to O
j jz Ija j I ljn j.tl to jntj 1 jntjd
Other examples for importantcontinuous symmetrygroups

groupofphasetransformations Uacal eid

isomorphicto rotations in 2dimensions i.e around a single axis Ul n Sok
5 22 group of unitary nxu matrices with determinant 1 special

Usaa I expC idata a I R l structure constants

Liealgebra ofthegenerators ta t i fake fakeeaseforSacz

UCu u group of generalunitary axin matrices
Ot
Uam La expC iLata a 1 uz I to Kwa i ta sameasfor Sun

D Uch Uli Such

C P and T transformations interactionsbehavedifferently

f
Discrete spacetime internal discrete symmetries that are absoluteessentiafor the
structure oftheStandard Model

Transformatiouselectrouraguetrestrongwef
C
yes yes totallyno
forcesymmetric
I
o aeeyno
yes g.es
yes yes almostyes
CP yes almostyes
yes
C.PT yes yes yes

JCPT
Theorf
Allknownforces are attheelementarylevel symmetric underthe
combinedtransformation C Pot anyorder
possible

Mathematically consistentLorentzinvariantandunitaryquantumfieldtheories
CPTsymmetric
are automatically
e
g QED QCD SM 4
 2.80

Is Ct
Parity Space timetransformation xn Ct E I PolIP45 6114

Properties P Pt P PP 1 Hermitian unitary idempotent

eigenvalues i 1
P is a multiplicative operator e g Pld ox147 Apps Ipo

It is possiblethata particlestatecanbe an eigenstateto P

P IACED t lAC I or IACIt
Onethen says that particle
Akasiutty ti or Cit
Shorthanduotatron PCA th or 1
examples PCy photon 1
P piouskaonsq I T'sandG'sarecalled pseudoscalarmesons

TimereversalCTI Space timetransformation xn tix C tix

Properties T T T 11 idempotent
t
Toll Ty Lol147 hello antiunitary no eigenvalues
1 is a multiplicative operator e g T Id 147 Thes THS
ox

Chargecoajugation Particle Antiparticle CIA II

Properties C Ct E C C 1 Hermitian unitary idempotent

eigenvalues i 1
C is a multiplicative operator e
g CId ox147 Klos does
C changesthe signof kindofadditive charge electricweakcolor
any
C doesnotchange momentum ph locationxM angularmomentum
It is possiblethata particlestatecanbe an eigenstateto C if it is its
own antiparticle IAS IA
examples photos g C Ig ly
neutralpiou To CIto t lTo

I
Themassandthelifetime of a particleanditscorresponding antiparticle
are identical bea ME TA II
cowcue.at oPaudT audc

Paced T can bewritten as a transformation

acting on 4 tensors ACPnu 1 NT nu 1 173
def NPH 1 comparedto defCACloseutztrafo det acrotafrous t l
PIT notconnected to continuous spacetimetransformations

Wehave yh AcpAh ACP e y PIT leave scalarproductsinvariant

There is no fundamentalprinciplethatimpliesthat PITIC mustbe a fundamental

symmetryoftheelementaryinteractions

It justknowfrom experiment that P T and C i e appeartobe athecurrentlevel

are
ofexperimental precision exactsymmetries oftheelectromagnetic andstrongforces