C!Jl;{P'I'E,!

J{- ~ 4

TRADITIONAL
CLASSIFICATI_ON _OF
PROPOSI.JIONS .

DO YO U KN OW TH AT ..... .
pos itio n" ma y
* wh at traditional logic calls "simple pro
!1-0t really be so?
as imp lic ati ve
* hypothetical proposition is the sam e
proposition?
negative?
*disjunc~ive propositions are never
ds of
* traditionalns?logicians recognized only four kin
propositio
* sinQular propositions are universal? ilit y of
* the word "some" does not preclude the pos sib
"all"?

OPOSITIONS
/ 1. SIM PL E AN D COMPOUND PR nd
al log icia ns rec ogn ize d the dis tin cti on bet we en sim ple and compou
Th e tra dit ion ition'
Bu t the dis tin cti on is not cle ar. Moreover, the ter ms "simple propos
propositions. logic usei
oun d pro pos itio n" are not use d in the sen se in which mo der n
an d "comp
the se exp res sio ns.
is one wh ich aff irm s or denies
a
tio n : A sim ple pro pos itio n
Sim ple pr op osi itio n, the pre dic ate is ass ert ed of t~e
t. Th at is, in a sim ple pro pos
pre dic ate of a sub jec be reg ard ed as sim ple propositions
by the
fol low ing pro pos itio ns wiH
subject. All the
tra dit ion al logicians :
1. All fai rie s are bea uti ful .
2. Ev ery thi ng cha nge s.
3. No dogs wh istl e.
4. Th ere are no gho sts .
5. So me sin ger s are han dso me .
ful .
6. So me act res ses are no t bea uti
7. Sa i Ba ba is a sai nt.
8. Sa ms on 'is no t we ak.
 Traditional Classification of Propositions 33

From_ th~ ~hove examples we see that the so-called simple propositions may be ·
abo_ut ~~ mdividual, ~r. about classes. The subject term of some simple propositions is
an mdividual_. Propositions (7) and (8) are of this type. On the other hand, the subject
and the predicate term of (1), (3), (5) and (6) are classes. As for propositions (2) and
(4), we do not fi~~ two terms. But, while reducing the above sentences to the logical
form of a proposition, ~ven these propositions would be shown as expressing a relation
between two terms which are united by the copula.
Compound propositions : When a prop~sition makes on asser-tion under
certain condition~, _it is _called a c~~pound propositi(?n. ·The following are examples of
compound propositions m the traditional logic:
1. If ghosts frighten, they are dangerous.
2. If dogs cannot whistle, they can bark.
3. Either Meena or Mohini is intelligent.
4. Either monkeys do not sing or tigers do not dance.
The propositions _in which the predicate is affirmed or denied of the subject
absolutely (i.e. without any condition) were called categorical propositions by the
traditional logicians. So, simple propositions are categorical propositions. As
distinguished from these propositions, compound propositions make .the assertion
under certain conditions. So, they are called conditional propositio~s. In the next
section, we shall deal with "categorical" and "conditional'! propositions.
J 2. CATEGORICAL AND CONDITIONAL PROPOSITONS
Under the head of r~lation, Kant classified propositions into categorical,
hypothetical and disjunctive. The last two are generally grouped under the head of
conditional propositions. This was done to distinguish categorical propositions from
them .
. Categorical proposition : A categorical proposition affirms· or denies a predicate
of a subject absolutely. It does not include any condition in its expression. "Congress is
· a political party" and "All rats are colour-blind" are categorical propositions. In both of
them the predicate is asserted without any expres~ed condition.
Conditional proposition : A conditional propos.ition is one in which the
assertion is made subject to some expressed condition. In the proposition "If petrol is
brought- near fire, it will explode", the occurrence of explosion depends upon the
condition of petrol being brought near fire.
Conditional propositions are ·of two kinds. These are hypothetical and disjunctive
propositions.
Hypothetical proposition : A hypothetical proposition is one which presents a
condition together with some consequence which follows from it. The example of
conditional proposition ta.ken above is that of hypothetical propositi~n. It :~t~tes t~e
condition "petrol being brought :rfear fire" and the consequence of t~is cond1t10n, viz.
"petrol will explode". The proposition does not refer to any actual mstance of petrol
being brought near fire. It only states that if the condition is fulfilled, the consequence ·
will follow.
· In a hypothetical proposition there are two propositions. These are (i) the
Proposition which states the condition and (ii) _the proposition which expresses the
consequence. The proposition which states the condition is called antecedent; that
which expresses the consequence is called consequent.
In the strict logical form of hypothetical proposition, the antecedent is placed
before the consequent. Moreover, the condition is introduced by the word 'if', and the
consequence by the word 'then'. However, in most hypothetical propositions the word
'th.en' does not occur. But it is understood to be there.
 r,•r,•r,• .Elementary ~gic (L.L.B.)
34
one which states
1
pro pos itio n : A disjunctive prop osition is
Dis jun ctiv e
one of the alte rnat ives is true . The ,
alternatives. Thi s prop osit ion asse rts that at leas t
follo wing prop ositi ons are disju ncti ve:
ian or a phil osop her.
1. Ber tran d Rus sell was eith er a mat hem atic
2. A line is eith er stra ight or curv ed. t
rnat ives in the abov e prop ositi ons . .In th e firS two
Let us look to the alte · g o.ne of them ' we cann ot. deny
. .
. ons the alte rnat ives t h at, b y affi rmm . 11
prop ositi are such was a mat hem atic ian ,
. h 1tern a ive t· "Ru ssel l .
.
the othe r. For msta nce by affir mmg· t e ah d · rsa This show s that the .
' was a phil osop er, an VIce-ve
he ·
we cann ot deny that usiv e On the othe r han d, m
· · · on are not . mutual ly excl
· t h e fir st prop ositi ·
alte rnat ives m m that a
t
· ·lon, the alter nati·ves are mu ua Y e . 11 xclu sive · If we affir
the seco nd prop os1t
and vice vers a. . ..
line is stra ight , we can deny that it is curv ed;
a disjunct~ve prop oSit wn to_ be
NOw the question arises : Are the alter nati ves in
be answ ered nega tivel y. To dete ri~n ne
take n as exclusive ? This ques tion has to
have to exam ine the cont ent (or s~bJ ect-
whe ther the alter nativ es are exclusive, we
science; as such it is conc erne ~ ~1th ~he
mat ter) of a proposition. But logic is a form al
ent. From the fo~m of a _d1sJunctl~e
form of a proposition, and not with its cont
nati ves ar~ exclusive._ ~n view of this,
proposition, we cann ot know whe ther the alter
a disju nctiv e prop ositi on are to be
Key nes main tains that the alter nati ves of
a disju nctiv e prop osit_ion asse rts that at
inter pret ed as non-exclusive. Tha t is to say,
not excl ude the poss ibili ty that both the
leas t one of the alter nati ves is true . It does
alter nativ es may be true .
/a. QUALITY OF PROPOSITIONS
the subj ect. Whe n the pred icat e is
The pred icate may be affir med or deni ed of
to be affir mati ve. Whe n it is deni ed of
affir med of the subj ect, the prop_osition is said
the subj ect, it is said to be nega tive. ·The clas
sification of prop ositi ons into affir mati ve
Con side r the following prop ositi ons :
and negative is said to be on the basis of quality.
1. All mon keys are misc hiev ous.
2. Som e snak es are poisonous.
3. Japa n is a rich coun try.
4. No mer maid is beau tiful .
5. Som e poli ticia ns are not hone st.
6. Eins tein is not a mag ician .
while the last thre e are nega tive . In
The first thre e prop ositi ons are affir mati ve,
affir med of the subj ect, whil e in the last
the first thre e prop ositi ons the pred icate is
thre e it is deni ed.
ons. In the first thre e prop ositi ons
Let us look to the copu la in the abov e prop ositi
_'not', whil e in the last thre e the copula
the copula does not co~t ain the sign of nega tion
maid is beautiful"), the sign of nega tion
is nega tive. (In the four th prop ositi on "No mer
of the copu la. (We shal l see this while
comes before the subj ect; but, reall y, it is a part
ositi ons. ) Thi s sho ws that the qua lity
deal ing with the fourfold class ifica tion of prop
ula.
of a pro posi tion is dete rmi ned by the cop
prop ositi ons give n above apply to
The defin ition s of affir mati ve and nega tive
cat egorical prop ositi ons only. This is beca use
anal yzed into subj ect and pred icate . How
e.g. Key nes, hypo theti cal prop ositi ons may
nega tive. A hypo thetical prop ositi on is affir mati
only cate gori cal prop ositi ons can be /
ever , acco rdin g to som e logic ians,
also be class ified into affir mati ve and
ve, if the conseque nt follows from the
I
does not follow from the antecede nt. On
ante cede nt. It is nega tive, if the cons eque nt
osition is determin ed by its consequent. /
t his view, the qual ity of a hypo thetical prop
I
j
I
 35
TracWional Classificq.tion of Propositions
progr essiv e" is a nega tive
Thus , "If taxes hind er econo mic progr ess, they are not
hypo thetic al propo sition . ·
e prop ositi ons. A
Ther e are no disti nctio ns of qti1;1.Iity amo ng disju nctiv
of the alter nativ es is true.
disju nctiv e propo sition mere ly asser ts ·that at least one
nctio n will not be affec ted.
Even if the alter nativ es are nega tive, the natu re of disju
be affirm ative-. A prop ositio n
That is why all disju nctiv e propo sition s are taken to
the nega tion of disju nctiv e
containing the expression "neither nor.!.!.-may appe ar to be
h make s two nega tive _
proposition; but it is not. It is a conju nctiv e propo sition , whic loser by the
nor Paki stan is a
asser tions . For insta nce, the propo sition "Nei ther India
asser t alter nativ es. Rath er, it
Simla Pact" is not a disju nctiv e propo sition . It does not
, of two subje cts ('Ind ia' and
denies the predi cate 'bein g a loser by the Siml a Pact'
tive categ orica l propo sition s.
'Pakis tanl). Ther efore , it is the co_n junct ion of two nega
has one subje ct and one
Now; accor ding to the tradi tiona l logic ians, every propo sition
be brou ght to the logic al form
predi cate. Since this propo sition has two subj"ects, it will
of two propo sition s. Thes e propo sition s are :
1. India is not -a loser by the Siml a Pa.c t.
2 . . Paki stan is not a loser -by the Siml a Pact.
j 4. QUANTITY OF PRO POS ITIO NS
e subje ct or of a part of
The predi cate may be affirm ed or denie d eithe r of the whol
d of the whol e subje ct, the
the subje ct. Whe n the predi cate is affirm ed or denie
or denie d of a . part of the
proposition is said to be unive rsal. When it is affirm ed
een unive rsal and parti cular
subject, it is said to be parti cular . The distin ction betw ·
take exam ples.
propositions is said to the distin ction of quan tity. Let us
1. All lions are feroc ious.
2. No great leade rs are selfis h.
3. Some profe ssors are absen t-min ded.
4. Some flowe rs are not fragr ant.
two are parti cular .
Here the first two propo sition s are unive rsal, and the la~t
e a~e "all" and "som e".
Logi c reco gniz es only two signs of quan tity. Thes
tity of a propo sition . The
Th~se words, pl~ce d befor e the subje ct, indic ate the quan
that the propo sition is
quan tity sign "all", place d befor e the subje ct, indic ates
s that the propo sition _ is
universal. The word "some", befor e · the subject., show
word s to indic ate quan tity.
partic ular. Of cours e, in every day speec h, we use vario us
sition , its quan tity has to
But when a sente nce is brou ght to the logic al form of propo
when we wish to deny the
be expre ssed by the word s "all" and ''some" only. Howe ver,
the word "no" is a sign of
whole subje ct, we use the word "no" .befor e the subje ct. Here
is unive rsal nega tive. It
both quan tity and quali ty. It expre sses that the propo sition
.
combines the quan tity sign "all" and the quali ty sign "not"
ss quali ty and quan tity
When a propo sition is unive rsal negat ive, we have to expre
the expre ssion "not ali",
by the word "no", so as to avoid ambi guity . Beca use if we use
whol e subje ct or of a part of
we canno t decide whet her the predi cate is denie d of the
"Not all great leade rs are
the subject. Let us clarif y this by consi derin g the propo sition
to expre ss that "Som e grea t
selfish." This propo sition woul d be comm only unde rstoo d
when we wish to deny the
lead: rs are not selfish." There fore, to _avoid ambi guity ,
l with the word 'no', place d
Predicate of the whole subje ct, we have to expre ss the denia
before the subje ct.
in the mean ing of the
Mea ning of Som e ;. At this stage it is neces sary to expla
uses the word "some", he
word "some", as unde rstoo d in logic. When a :c omm on man
s by the word "some". Jn
lne~n s "some only, but not all". This is not what logic mean
tity. It does not exclu de the
logic, the word "some " stand s for . any indef inite quan

m
 Elementary Logic (L.L.B.)
36

possibility that the assertio~ may .be about "all" (i.e . . the whole subject). In fa~t, a
proposition is taken to be universal, onlY. when we are certain that the pred~cate
applies to the whole subject. But when we are not certain wheth~r the pr~dicate
applies to the whole subject or to a part ·of it, the proposition is taken as pa_rt_i~ular.
That is, for logic, "some" means "some at least"; it does not exclude the possibility of
"all".
When the ass.ertion is about a part of the subject, the wo~'some" is ~sed. It
makes no difference to logic whether the part is small or large. The word "some" is
used for any quantity whatsoever. The quantity may be I out of 100, or 99 out of 100.
Thus, the second sense of "some" is "~t least one". Thus , the word "some" in logic
means "at least one; may be all".
Quantity of hypothetical and disjunctive propositions : Hypothetical and ·
disjunctive propositions are also classified on the basis of quantity. The form of
hypothetical proposition is always univer.sal. But when a hypothetical proposition
contains a sign of particularity, · e.g. the word 'sometimes', · it is to be considered· as
particular. The proposition "Sometimes if there is change in government, people .
suffer" is a particular proposition.
A disjunctive proposition asserts alternatives. Alternatives lose their force if they ·
are particular. Therefore, disjunctive propositions are usually universal. However,
disjunctive propositions can be particular. If in a dlsjunctive proposition the
alternatives are applicable to some of the members of a class, the proposition is
particular'. Thus, the proposition "Some men are either born good or born ~icked" is a
particular proposition.
1 s. FOURFOLD CLASSIFICATION OF PROPOSITIONS
We have seen that according .to quality propositions are classified into affirmative
and negative. According to quantity they are classified into universal and particular.
On th~ ~asis of ~h~se two principles (of quality and quantity), there are /our kinds of
propositions. This is called the fourfold classification of propositions. It is also called
the traditional scheme (or traditional schedule) of propositions. The four kinds of
propositions included in the traditional scheme are the following-: .
1. Universal Affirmative : In this kind of proposition the predicate · d · d f
th e wh o. 1e su bJect.
· ''.All +, • . 1s en1e o
· ff' • 1aines are. . beautiful" and ''All Brahm·ins are - . H"in d'us "
are umversa 1 a irmative propositions. ·
2. Universal Negative. : In. this kind of proposition the pred·1cat e is
· d enie · d of
the whole subJect. "No ~hieves are moral "and "No 1+ool is a d .r. • d "
proposi·t·ions t h is
" km' d. ' goo 1nen are
3. Particul_ar Affirmative : In this kind of proposition th d·. ·
ffi d f t f th b' ,, . e pre 1cate 1s
a rme o a par o e su Ject. 8 ome singers are rich" and "S b
clever" are· propositions of this kind. ome oys are
4. Particular Negative. ,, : In this kind of proposition the predi·c a t e 1s
· denie
· d of a
part of t h e subJect. Some modern men are not religious-mi d d"
· · · h" . .
magicians are not nc are particular negative propositions.
~n e an "Some
d

These four types of propositions . .are

. symbolised by the vowels A , E , I an d O . Th ese
vowels are taken from the Latin words affirmo (meaning 'I affirm') d
. 'I deny ') . 'A' an d 'I' are t h e fiirst two vowels of the word "affirmo", 'E'
(meanmg an andnego
'0' 1
are the two vo~els of the word "nego".
Using the symbol "S" for the subject and the symbol "P" for the predicat e th e
above four kinds of propositions may be represented thus : '
Univer sal Affirmative (A) All Sis P.
(E) No Sis P.
Universal Negative
.) 37
Traditional Classification of Propositions

Par ticu lar Aff irm ativ e (I) Some Sis P.

Par ticu lar Neg ativ e (0) Some S is not P.
· , we s h a11 fimd 1t
· fieren ces
edi ate 1n · mor e con vem· ent to
Wh en we com . e to imm
'S'
qua lity a~d qua ~tit y by the sma ll lett ers 'a', 'e', 'i' and 'o'. The lett er
f indica~e the ng for the
ed to the left, the lett er 'P' (sta ndi
(sta ~dm g for the _subJect) will be plac Th us, 'A'
e m1'ddl e.
1 1 -in th
and 0 .
pred,icat e) to the righ•t,• and the sma ll lett ers 'a', 'e', 'i' ·
, d '0' d thu s:
'E', 1 an propos1t10ns may also be rep rese nte
A SaP
E SeP
I SiP
0 SoP

/ 6. SINGULAR PR OP OS ITI ON S
sub -cla ss
lar propositions, ·Ka nt add ed a thir d
In a~d~tion to uni ver sal and par ticu ular
10_n s un~ er th~ hea d of qua ntit y. Thi s is sing ula r proposition. A sing
of pro~o~1t definite
te is affi rme d or denied of a single
proposition is one in whi ch the predica r term .
ual. Tha t is to say , the sub ject of a sing ula r proposition is a sing ula
indiv~d lear ned "
hon our able man " and "This man is not
Thus, the pro pos itio ns "Br utu s is an
.are sing ular . is ·
trad itio nal logi cian s con side red sing ula r propositions to be universal. Thi s
The subject.
affi rma tion or den ial is of the whole
because, in a sin gul ar pro pos itio n, the ject term of
one definite individual. Since the sub
The den ota tion of a sin gul ar tern i is .
pro pos itio n is this def init e ind ivid ual, it is tak en in its ent ire den otat ion
a sing ula r pos itjo n 1s
en in its ent ire den otat ion , the pro
And whe n the sub ject term is• tak
itio ns are uni ver sal.
uni ver sal. The refo re, sin gul ar pro pos
LOGICAL FORM
/1. REDUCTION OF SEN TE NC ES TO
itions.
trad itio nal log icia ns reco gniz ed only four kin ds of categorical propos
The
of the se four kinds.
Every sen tenc e has to be red uce d to one n, the
pos itio n : In a categorical propositio
Ord er of the con stit uen ts of pro ed
is affi rme d or den ied of the sub ject . The affi rma tion or den ial is exp ress
predicate te and the
s insi st tha t the subject, the pre dica
by the copula. The trad itio nal logician d "all",
be clea rly stat ed. The qua ntit y of a pro pos itio n is exp ress ed by the wor
copula itio ns the
subject. Of course, in sing ula r pro pos
"some" or "no", plac ed before the is not
ject term is one def init e ind ivid ual. Therefore, in the ir case the sub ject term
sub is :
order of the constituents of proposition
prefixed by the se.s ign s of qua ntit y. The
icat e
(Sig n of qua ntit y) Sub ject -Co pul a-P red
e of
nta in this order. Som etim es, for the sak
In eve ryd ay exp ress ion s we do not mai is red uce d
before the subject. Wh en a sen tenc e
lite rary effect, the pre dic ate is plac ed mai nta in_ed.
ord er ind icat ed above has to be
to the logical form of pro pos itio n, the as
sen tenc e "Sw eet are the use s of adv ersity" will be red uce d to logical form
Th.us, the is tak en
re the sub ject term 'use s_of adv ersi ty'
"The uses of adversity are sweet. " (He .
itio n is sing ular . It is 'A' proposition.)
as a single whole; ther efo re, the pro pos ula
ina ry exp ress ion s the diff eren t elem ent s of a proposition (i.e. sub ject , cop
In ord cal form of
whe n a sen tenc e is bro ugh t to the logi
and pre dica te) are not sep ara ted . But ho~ t .
ion , diff eren t elem ent s hav e to be dist ing uish ed. Thi s has to be done wit
proposit
.
cha nging the mea nin g of the exp ress ion sen t
logicians, the copula mu st be in the pre
Cop ula : According to the trad itio nal Thu s,
the verb "to be". Any refe ren ce to tim e mu st be sho wn by the pre dica te.
tense of logical form
the sen ten ce "Ra man uja m was a gre
at mathematician" will be red uce d to
a great mathematician."
th u:-;: "Ham ,~uj am is a person who was
 Ele men tary Logic (L.L.B.)
38 r,•g•g•
is a par t of the
ali fyi ng cla use s : A cla use which qualifies the sub jec t ter m
Qu pre dic ate ter m is a par t of the
ich qua•lifies the
sub jec t. Sim ilar ly, a cla use wh relevant
. Som etim es the qua lify ing cla use does not occur alo ng wit h the
pre dic ate
ter m. To tak e exa mp les : use "unless
rev olu tion ary wil l be foll ow ed unl ess he is courageous. Th e cla
a) No is a
rag eou s" qua lifi es the sub jec t ter m 'revolutionary'. Therefore, i~
he is cou courageous is one
~ of the subject. Logical
form: No revolutionary if he is not
who wil l be followed . .(E) J ase "with
blems can be solved. Th e phr
b) Wi th det erm ina tio n all pro are those
erm ina tio n' qua lifi es the pre dic ate. Logical form: All pro ble ms
det
tion. (A) }
which can be solved with determina l" and "~o~e".
ns of qu an tity . .Th ese are "al
Lo gic .rec ogn ize s ~nl y tw o sig 1s to
tain ma ny sig ns of qua ntit y. Bu t, as sta ted ear lier , eve ry sen ten ce
Sen ten ces con ine the kin d of
red uce d to the form of 'A', 'E', 'I', or '0' proposition. To det erm know
be
hav e to und ers tan d the inte ntio n of the thinker. However, if we
proposition, we words are :
will become much easier. Th ese key
meanings of some key wo rds , this se words are to be
1. All -Ev ery -]:a ch- An y : Aff
irmative sentences con tain ing the .
form of 'A' pro pos itio n. To tak e examples :
brought to the ir
n is res pon sib le for his act ion s. (LF: All men are responsible for the
a) Every ma
actions.) can lift this
An y ma n can lift this wei ght . (LF: All men are persons who
b)
weiglvt.) wh o' means
n nat ure becomes hum ble . ('He
c) He who und ers tan ds his o_w son s who
position. Logical form: All per
'anyone'. Therefore, it is 'A' pro
se who become humble.)
und ers tan d their own nature are tho ve qua ntit y
subject ter m is qualified by the abo
Ne gat ive sen ten ces in which the bec aus e the
to be bro ugh t to the log ical form of 10' proposition. Th is is.
sig ns are mp les :
etc. me an "some not". To tak e exa
expressions "all not", "every not", den.)
: Some things tha t glit ter are not gol
a) All t~a t gli tter s is not gold. (LF (LF: Some
ry mil itar y gen era l dqe s not have a sound pla n for defence.
b) Eve
have a sou nd pla n for defence.)
mil ita ry generals are not those who
Som etim es the
Co llec tiv e an d dis tri bu tiv e use s of the sub jec t ter m : and
2.
" app lies to the sub jec t term , considered as a sin gle . whole;
qua nti ty sig n "all In the former
es it app lies to eac h me mb er of the subject class, sep ara tely .
som etim trib utiv ely . Let us
y; i? the lat ter case, it is use d dis
ca~e, the sub jec t !s use d collec~ive! collectively
col lec tive and the . d1s tr1b utiv e use of term s. A term is sai d to be
define the
te app lies to all me mb ers of the class, tak en together and not to
use d wh en an attr ibu ~tively used when an att rib uie app
lies to
m sep ara tely . It is sai d to dis trib
each of the t all the doctors in
tely. Thus, m the proposition "No
each me mb er of the class, separa use d collectively. Th e pre dic ate is
denied
cur e him ", the sub jec t ter m is
the world can in the proposition
all the doc tor s in the wo rld , tak en tog eth er. On the oth er han d; der,
of
s are not like d", the pre dic ate is den ied of eac h gre at lea
"Al l gre at lea der is affirmed
. No w wh en the sub jec t ter m is tak en collectively, the pre dic ate
sep ara tely sal . Bu t wh en the
refore, the proposition is uni ver
or den ied of the whole class. The ate is affirmed or den ied of eac h
memb er
is use d dis trib uti vel y, the pre dic
s ubject ter m ed of the subject.
e cla ss, sep ara tely . In suc h cas es, wh en the pre dic ate is aff irm
of th the sub jec t, the
t~ve_; and whe~ it is 1~enied of
the pro pos itio n is uni ver sal ~ffirma bec aus e all not me ans "some not".)
let us
par tic ula r neg ativ e. (Th is 1s
p rop osi tio n is
tak e som e exa mp les.
Tradition.al Classification of Propositions t1•t1•t1• 39
a) Not all the perfum es of Arabia can sweete n this little hand. (The subject term
is us~d ~ollectivel~ • Theref ore, it is 'E' proposi tion. Logica l form: No per{ume of
Arabia is that which can sweeten this little hand.)
b) Not all the perfum es of Arabia have good fragran ce. (The subject term is used
distribu tively. The denial is about each perfum e, separat ely. Therefo re, it is
'0' propos ition. Logica l form : Some perfum es of Arabia are not things that
have good fragrance.) ·
c) All my days are a burden to me. (Here the subject term "all my days" is taken
collectively. It means "the whole of my life", which is a singula r term.
Therefo re, this is a singula r proposi tion. Singula r proposi tions are univers al,
and so it. is 'A' propos ition. Logica l form: The whole of my life is a burden to
me.)
d) All great leaders care for nationa l good. [Here the subject term 'great leaders '
is used distribu tively. The predica te is affirme d of each great leader,
separat ely. It is 'A' proposi tion. (We have already seen that the word "all"
withou t negatio n indicat es 'A' proposi tion.) Logical form: All great leaders are
those who care for nationa l good. ]
3. Article s 'a' and 'an' when they 'mean any': Someti mes these articles are
used before the subject term to indicat e quantit y. When they are used in the sense
of
"any" or "all", the propos ition is to be reduced to the form of 'A' proposi tion if
the
sentenc e is affirma tive. When it is negativ e, it is to be reduced to the form of
'0'
proposition. To take exampl es: ·
a) An ant is an insect. (Here "an ant." means "any ant". Therefore, it is 'A'
proposi tion. Logica l form : All ants are insects. )
b) A selfish person is not a good friend. (Here "a selfish person" means "any
selfish person" . Since the sentenc e is negative, it is '0' proposition.. Logical
form: Some selfish person s are not good friends.)
4. When the article s 'a' and 'an' mean one thing, the proposition is taken as
singula r. As such, it will be. univers al. If the sentenc e is affirmative, it will be
'A'
proposition. If it is negativ e, it will be 'E' proposition. Exampl e :
A Vict~ri a Cross was sold for~ 36,000 (Here the article 'a' means 'one'. The
numbe r•is d~finite·. Therefo re, it is 'A' proposition. Logical form : The thing
which was sold for~ 36,000 is a Victoria Cross . )
5 . The • quant i·ty signs "alway s11, 11w h enever11, 11w hereve r', ' "whate ver",
"invariably", necess arily" and "absolu tely" are simila: _to t h~ quan~i·r:~ sign · ,, ll"
a .
When these occur in an affirma tive sentenc e, the proposi tion will be A, and when
they occur in a negativ e sentenc e, the proposi tion will be '0'. Examp les :
a) Wha t ever goes up mu st come down . · ('Whatever'
. stands for anythin g.
Therefo re, it is 'A' proposi tion. Logical form: All things that go up are those
that must come down.) · .
b) Men are not necess an·1Y bad • ('Necessarily' with negatio n means 'some not'. It
is '0' proposi tion. Logical form : Some men are not bad.)
6. Sentence s wh ic . h con t ain
· express ions like "no" "never', "not at all" and "not
· . . .
a singIe " are to b e re d uce d to the form of 'E' proposition. This is because they express
t hat the predica te is denied of the whole subject. To take exampl es:
a) Not a smg · le mem ber of tl1 e crew was saved. Logical form: No member of tlw
crew is one who was saved.)
b) Not even one rnango m · the basket was rotten. (The expression 'not one'
·ind · E . . .
1cates ' , ' propos1 10n. The word "even" makes the assertion emphat ic. W hil e
·t·
 • • • Elementary Logic (L.L.B.)
40 11 11 11
on, the word 'even ' will be
redu cing the sente nce to the logical form of prop ositi
ignor ed. Logi cal fotm : No mang o in the bask et is that
wh~ch was rotten.)
n 'not at all' indic ates 'E•
c) Judg es are not at an ·part ial. (The expr essio
.
prop ositio n. Logical form : No judg es are parti al.)
ain', 'alm ?st all~~ all ~ut
· 7. The quan tity s~gns 'mos~•, 'man y', •~ _few', 'cert mative
n they occu r m an a
one' and 'seve ral' indic ate parti cula r propos1t1on. Whe
n. To take exam ples :
sente nce, the sente nce will be redu ced to 'l' prop ositio
rial. (Logic~! form : Some
a) Most hous es in Japa n are built from light mate
mate rial. )
houses in Japa n are build ings which are built from light
form: Som e pass enge rs are
b) Almo st all the pass enge rs were insur ed. (Loigcal
those who were insured.)
to be redu ced to the form of
Nega tive sent ence s conta ining the above word s are
'0' proposition. Exam ples :
of fami ne in ~iha r. ('A few'·
a) A few phila nthro pists did not help the victi ms
is '0' prop ositi on. Logical
occu rring in a nega tive sente nce mean s 'som e not'. It
form: Some philanthropists are not those who helped
the victi ms of fami ne in
Bihar.)
b) All but one mem bers of the picnic party did not
retur n safe. ('All but one' in a
n. (Logical form: Some
nega tive sente nce mea))se 'some not'. It is '0' prop ositio
.)
mernbers of the picnic party are not those who returned safe
8. The quan tity signs 'mos tly', 'gen erall y', 'freq
uent ly', 'ofte n', 'perh aps',
ate parti cula r' prop ositio n.
'nea rly alwa ys', 'som etim es' -and 'occa sion ally' indic
ositio n is 'l'. Exam ples :
When ·t hese occur in an affirm ative sente nce, the prop
ach disco mfor t. ('Gen erally '
a) Eno's fruit salt gene rally gives relie f from stom
n. Logi cal form : Some
indic ates parti cular proposition. It • is 'I' prop ositio
ng.re lief from stomach
occasions of taking Eno's fruit salt are occasions of getti
discornfort.)
ical ·form: Som e Central
b) Cent ral Ra}lway train s frequ ently run late. (Log
Railway trains are those which run late.)
ositio n the quan tity sign
c) EverY_ one is . occasionally wrong. [In this prop
deal with secon dary
'occas~onall_y' 1s secon~ary quan~ification. (We shall
pred icate . 'Eve ry one'
~u~ntificatI~n later o~ m t~e sect10n.) It appli es to the
: All pers ons are those
md1cates umv ersal affirm ative prop ositio n. Logical form
who are sometimes wrong.]
prop ositi on will be '0'. To
Whe n these words occur in a nega tive sente nce, the
take exam ples : ·

a) Perh aps mode rn men do not •care for religion. ('Per haps ' indic ate s a b sence of
· A · · acco mpam e d by the sign of nega tion , 1't 1·s '0' propos1·t·10n.
certa. mty. s 1t 1s . . .
. Logical form : Some mode rn _m en are not those who care for religion:)
b) It is false that· intel ligen t .perso ns near ly alwa ys prosp er. ('Nea rly a1wa ys'
· d' . is false " show s denial.
rn 1cates part1cu1ar propos1t10n. The expr essio n "it
Ther efore , the prop ositio n is '0'. Logical form : Some
intelligent persons are not
·those who prosper.)
s "s"ome not". Whe n this
9. The word "few" has nega tive sign ifica nce. It mean
will be redu ced to the form of '0'
word occu rs in an affir mati ve sente nce, the sente nce
proposition. To take exam ples:
men are not persons who
a) Few men are free from vanit y. (Logical form: Some
are free from vanity.)
-
Traditimtal Classification of Propositions s,•s,•s,• 41

b) Few have peace of mind who prosper by cheating. ('Few' mean; 'some not'.
Therefore , ·it is '0' propositio n. The subject term is "persons who prosper by
cheating"; the predicate term is "having peace of mind". Logical form: Some
persons who prosper by cheating are not those who have peace of mind.)
When the word "few" occurs in a negative sentence , the ~entence will be
reduced to the form of 'I' propositio n. Examples : ·
a) Few nations do not wish to avoid the Third-Wo rld War. ('Few' means 'some
not'. But with the sign of negation, it means 'some'. Therefore , it is 'I'
propositio n. Logical form: Some nations are those which wish to avoid the
Third World War.)
b) Few great· men are not considerat e. (Logical form: Some great men are
considerate.) ·
The quantity sign "a few" is to be distingui shed from "few". While "few" has
negative significanc e, "a few" has positive force. Therefore , when the express-ion "a
few" occurs in an affirmativ e sentence, it is to be reduced to the form of 'I' propositio n.
When it occurs in a negative sentence, it is to be reduced to the form of '0' propositio n.
We have already dealt with sentences which contain the quantity sign "a fewm.
10. The words 'seldom', 'hardly', 'scarcely' and 'rarely' also have negative
significance. They are similar to the word 'few'. When any of these words occurs in an
affirmative sentence, the sentence will be reduced to the form of '0' propositio n. To
take an example : "Politician s are rarely punctual in k~eping their appointme nts."
('Rarely' means 'some not'. It is '0' propositio n. Logical form : Some_ politicians are not
punctual in keeping their appointme nts.)
When the above words occur in a negative sentence, the sentence will be
reduced to .the form of 'T' propositio n. Example : "Magnani mity in politics is not
seldom the truest wisdom." ('Seldom' occurring in a negative sentence has positive
force. It is 'I' .propositio n. Logical form: Some cases of magnanim ity in politics are cases
of the truest wisdom.)
11. Numeric ally definite propositi ons: Numerical ly definite propositio ns are
those in which the predicate is affirmed or denied of some definite proportion of the
subject. The expression s like "half ", "two-third s" and "30 per cent" indicate a
numericall y definite propositio n. Such propositio ns can be interprete d in two ways.
These expression s may mean that the assertion is exactly about the stated
proposition; or they may mean that the assertion is about_the stated proportion at
least. Following Keynes, we accept the first interpreta tion. That is, w~ accept the view
that these propositio ns give informatio n about the exact proportion . Therefore,
numericall y definite propositio ns would be brought to the logical form of two
propositions. Let us take examples.
a) Two-third s of the members left the meeting.
b) Seventy per cent of the candidate s did not pass the test.
The first propositio n means (i) two-thirds of the members left the meeting; and
(ii) one-third of the members did not leave the meeting. Similar interpreta tion will be
given to the second propositio n. Thus, the above propositio ns will be brought to their
logical form as under : .
a) i) The proportion of members who left the meeting is two-thirds of the tota l. (A)
ii) The proportion of members who did not leave the meeting is one-third of the
total. (A)
b) i) The percentage of ca ndidates who did not pass the t est is seventy. (A)
ii) The perc.:entage of candidate s who passed the test is thirty. (A)
42 ,,.,,.,,..
. Elementary Logic (L.L.B.)
. . '

. . . . . . . ro osition -is one m which the

12. Indefinite propositions · An mtlefmite P . p d that express quantity·
· · · d ot contam wor s
. form of the proposition,
quantity is not defimte. The proposition oes n h
1
e.g. "some", "all", "most" and "many": ln such case~ t _e
1
ot:~:
information provided in
depends upon the intention of the thmker. On the asi~t~ . universal or particular.
·d hether the proposi ion is ·
the proposition, we h ave to d ec1 e w . . . t be tak~n as particular. The
Where we are not able to do so, the propos1tion is o .
following are indefinite propo_sitions :
a) Planets revolve round the .sun.
b) Muslims are not idol-worshippers.
·c) South Indians are black · · • d th t. th
t Of
the propositions, we can JU ge a e
From our knowledge of the conte_n s is articular. These propositions
first two proposition are universal, while the last one P
will be reduced to the logical form thus : ·
a) All planets are those that revolve round the sun. (A)
b) No Muslim is idol-worshipper. (E)
c) Some South Indians are black. 0)
·
13. Proverbs are also mdefimte · propos1·t·ions •• But they
. . have universal
. force.
•
So they are generally reduced to the form of universal propos1t10n. Examp~es · .
a) Something is better than nothing. (This means, having some thmg is better .
than having nothing. Logical form : All cases of having something are better
than cases of having nothing.) .
b) Handsome is that handsome does. (This proverb means that a person who
does good deeds is good. Logical form: All persons who do good deeds are good
persons.) ·
14. Multiple quantification : Sometimes the predicate is affirmed or denied of
the subject under certain limitations. The limitation is by reference to time or place.
This ·limitation leads to a secondary quantification of the proposition. While stating
the proposition in its strict logical form, the secondary quantification will form part of
the predicate. Examples :
a) All men sometimes lose their temper. (Here the quantity sign "all" qualifies
the subject. Therefore, it is 'A' proposition. The word 'sometimes' limits the
assertion with reference to time. This is secondary quantification. Therefore,
this word will be a part of the predicate. Logical form : All men are those who
lose their temper sometimes.)
b) She always orders the most expensive item in the menu. (The word "she"
shows that the proposition is . singular. 'Always' expresses secondary
1
quantification. Logical form : She is a person who always orders the most
expensive item in the menu.)
15. Exclusive propositions : An exclusive proposition is one which limits the
application of the predicate to the subject only. These propositions are indicated by
~xpressi?ns _l~lrn "only", "_alone", "no?~ but" a1!-d "?othing els: but". "Only experts can
11
;udge scientific matters 1s a prop9s1tion of this kmd. Exclusive propositions are to be
reduced to the form of 'A' and 'E' propositions. While reducing to the form of 'A'
proposition, the subject and the pre~icate change places. In the case of 'E' proposition,
t h e contradictory of the original subJect becomes the subject. To take examples :
~) Only experts can judge scientific matters.
i) A H those who can judge scientific matters are experts. (A)
ii) No non-experts are those who can judge scientific matte~s. (E)
Traditional Classification of Propositions 43
b) None but graduates can vote.
i) All persons who can vote are graduates. (A)
. ii) No non-graduates are those who can vote. (E)
It may be state_d here that when the words like "only" qualify the subject,· the
proposition is exclusive. But if they qualify merely the quantity sign, the proposition is
not exclusive. For instance, "Only a few thieves are kind-hearted" is not an exclusive
proposition. Here the _word "only" qualifies "a few". The proposition m_a kes an
assertion about (only) a few thieves. This sentence means that a majority of thieves
are not kind-hearted. Therefore, this proposition is to be brought to the logical form in
the same way as a numerically definite proposition. (The use of the expression "a few"
in this proposition is different from its normal use. Normally, it means "some at least,
may be all".) This proposition wili be reduced to the following two propositions:
i) The number of kind thieves is small. (A)
ii) The number of non-kind thieves is not'small. (E)
16. Exceptive propositions : In· these propositions exception is made about a
part of the subject. The exception is generally indicated by words like "except", "butt!
and "other than". · -
The exception may be qualitative or quantitative. In the proposition "All metals
except Mercury are solid", the -exception is qualitative. That is, the exception is about
some definite object (or objects). On the other hand, in the proposition "All metals
except one are solid", the exception is quantitative.
Qualitative exception : The exceptive proposition "All metals except Mercury
are solid" will be reduced to the following two propositions :
i) All metals other than Mercury are solid. (A)
ii) Mercury is not a solid metal. (E)
In the above exceptive proposition, the exception is qualita~i~e. So, · in ?ne
propos1·t·10n the sub"Jeet wi"ll be the class , which in the. other propos1t10n the subJect
will be the exception. . . . II •
Quantitative exception : The p~~position "All metals except one are solid w1U
be reduced to the following two propositions :
i) Some metals are ·solid. (I) .
ii) The number of metals which ~re not solid is one. (A) .
• • titative one of the propositions will be particular. The
When the except10n 1s quan ' h n1 'll become its predicate.. d t
other proposition will be singular, and t e quan Y wi
. es . We have seen in Chapter 2 that quest10ns o no
17. Interrogative sentenc · . tatements· but they are expressed
.. H er some quest10ns are s ,
express propos1t10ns. owev , f t emphasis Such questions can be
. h £ f t· £ the purpose o grea er .
m t e orm o ques 10ns or . . H0 we have to bring the statement
brought to the logical form of proposition. t~ev~~~elf) to the logical form. In other
.. t . (and not the ques wn I .
t h at t h e quest10n con ams ( h " h . eally the statement the quest10n
is, r , .
the answer w ic
word s, we have to re d uce . . N ·t .ll be observed that an affirmative
. w1·11 be
propos1t10n. Th ow I core w1 an affirmative quest10n
. 1·
imp
. 1c of
1es) to the log1ca 1orm t·ve , . .
. . . 1 statement. ere1,
quest10n will imp y a nega 1 . . 0 the other hand a negative quest10n
brought to the £orm of. nega tive propos1t10n. n , d d t
A h a negative question will be re uce o
will imply a n affirmative statement. s sue ' .
·rwn. To take examp .
1es•
. . r s that no thief would
the form of affirmative proposi
t thief? (This quest10n imp ie
a) What thief would trus a · ·t · thus .· No thief is a person who
'E' proposi 10n
trust a t hief. It is reduce d t 0
would trust a thief.)

4 L L. B. l.l ~mentary Logic

 Elementary Logic (L.L.B.)

44
,,.,,.,,. . . ?
. .
(This question, implies that some
b) Are not some facts stranger than fiction._t . n 'some' indicates that it is 'I'
fi f The quanti y sig
facts are stranger t h an c ion. ,. t e stranger tlian fiction.)
. . Logi·cal form.· Some ,ac s ar
proposition. "f may be exclamatory or
18. Subjectless propositions : Subjectlessdprop;:::;~: the form of categorical
impersonal. The traditional logic attempts ~t~ re udcoenot have clear subject. Therefore,
.. As h een these propos1 ions . 1 .
propos1t1ons. we ave s . , . f th eaker and reduce them to their ogical
we have to understa!Yi--the intention o e sp - ,
form To take examples : fi : d It ·
~) It is hot (Here the speaker is clearly referring to a ~e i_mtt £ ay. f .~
therefore: · a singular proposition. It is brought to the ogica orm o
proposition thus : The day is hot.) 0
. .
b) Thieves! (Now, in the exclamation the speaker may be P_ i~tmg to s~me
persons and saying (about them) that they are thiev~s. On this interpretation,
it will be brought to the form of'A' proposition thus : The persons I see there
are thieves.) ·
c recognizes that every
19. Compound proposition : The . traditional · logi_
proposition consists of a single statement. If a proposition contains more than one
statement, it is to be reduced to as many propositions a:s there are statements. .
We have to note that we are referring to propositions in which we find
conjunctions like "and", "though", "yet", "still" and "neither nor". Hypothetical and
disjunctive propositions are not to be . analyzed into other propositions. In a
hypothetical proposition the consequent depends upon the antecedent. As ·such, the
antecedent and the consequent are not independent. propositions. Similarly, the
alternatives of a disjunctive proposition are not independent proposition&.
We have to note that the quality and quantity of the different statements in a
compo~~d proposition may not be the same. We shall · take some compound
propos1t10ns and reduce them to their logical form.
a) Neithe~. bad news nor good advice is well-reeeived. (This is a compound
proposition._ The expression "neither nor" indicates that the predicate is denied
of tw~ . thmgs. Thus, the given proposition consists of two negative
prolpl os1t1?nsd. ~-~)thN,of them are 'E' propositions. These are: (i) No bad news is
we -receive . 1LL o good advice is well-received.) ,
b) No batsman can get runs unless he is venturesome d ·
O
proposition consists of two negative propositions an Ofnotht alw~ys then. This
other is '0'. These are: . · ne em 1s 'E', and the
i) No batsman if he is not venturesome is a perso w.h o can get runs
ii) S n
ome venturesome batsmen are not tho h ·
"not always" indicates that the second sew o_c~n ~et runs. (The expression
proposition 1s '0' )]
. The expressions "not only" and 11 " • ·

~ven also indicate compound

propositions. This will be clear from the foll owmg examples•
a) Not only poisonous snakes are dangerous [(This · . . .
poisonous snakes are dangerous and som b. proposit10n means that all
are dangerous. Logical form : e emgs 0th er than poisonous snakes
i) All poisonous snakes are dangerous. (A)
ii) Some b.eings other them poisonous snake's are d angerous
b) Even bats are mammals. [(This proposition mea th ·
a nd some non-bats (i.e. creatures other than bat n)s at all bats are mammals
.) All b t l (A) s are mammals. Logical for01:
1 a s are mamma s.
ii) Some non-bats are mammals. (I) ·
Traditional Classification of Propositions r,•r,•r,• 45

20. Iri:egular sentence s : It is not possible to show how each and every sentence
is to be reduced to the logical form of propositio n. Some sentences will not be covered
by the types (1) to (19) above. For instance, requests, commands and warnings do ~ot
fall within the · above types. Yet every sentence which gives informatio n can be
brought to the logical form of propositio n. This is to be done by considerin g the
intention of the speaker. We shall take an example. ·,
Now is Jhe time. [The propositio n means that the present .moment is the proper
time. Logical form : The present moment is the proper time. (Here the subject term is
singular. It is 'A' proposition.)]
21. Hypothet ical propositi ons : Some hypothetic al propositions express the
relation between a condition and its consequen ce. These are to be brought to the
logical form of hyPothetic al propositio n. However, sometimes · a hypothetic al
proposition can be reduced to the form of categorica l propositio n without changing its
meaning. In such cases, either the hypothetic al or the categorica l form will serve the
purpose: To take an examples :
When filled with hydrogen, a balloon rises in the air. (This propositio n can be
reduced either to the form of categorica l propositio n or to the form of hypothetic al
proposition. Logical form :.
i) All balloons when filled with hydrogen are those which rise in the air.
(This is 'A' propositio n. The phrase "when filled with hydrogen" qualifies
balloons.)
OR
ii) If a balloon is filled with hydrogen, it rises in the air.
b) Animals can never cry out, if frightened . [Logical Form :
i) If animals are frightened , they cannot cry out. (E)
OR
ii) No animal if frightened is one which can cry out. (In this categorica l
propositio n, "if frightened " is taken as qualifying the subject term.)
22. Disjuncti ve propositi ons : We have seen in Section 2 . above that a
disjunctive propositio n asserts alternative s. We have also seen that the form of
disjunctive propositio n is u~iversal, though a disjunctive propositio n can be
particular. However, all disjunctiv e propositio ns are affirmative. Thus, disjunctive
propositions can be either 'A' or 'I' propositions.
It may again be emphasize d that the propositions with the expression "neither nor"
are not disjunctive. They are compound propositio ns which are to be reduced to two
negative propositio ns.
A Affirmativ e sentences with "all", "every", "each", "any", "always",
"whatever ", lfinvariably", "necessarily", or "absolutely".
E, Sentences with "no", "never", "none", "not at all'\ "not a ·single", or "not
even one".
"certain",
I Affirmat ive sentence s with "n1ost", "many", "a few" ,-
"almost all", "all but one", "several" "mostly", "g~nerally", "frequently",
lly".
"often", "perhaps", "Nearly always", "sometime s", "occasiona
"scarcely", or
Negative sentence s with "few", "seldom", "hardly",
"rarely".
sentences which
0 When 'A ' IS denied, we get '0'; when affirmative
conta in words indicating "I" are denied, we get 0.
In a ddition affirmative sentences with the word "few", "seldom",
"hardly'', "scarcely", or "rarely" are '0' propositio ns. (The words "few",
"seldo m" etc. have negative significanc e.)
 46 El.ementa.ry Logic (L.L.B.J
The above tabl e sum mar izes com mon expr
essio ns whic h indi cate the kind of
proposition.
\s. DISTRIBUTION OF TERMS IN A CATEGORICAL
A categorical prop ositi on asse rts :relationship
PRO PO~ ITIO N J
betw een t~e subJ ect t~rm and the
pred icate term . The asse rtion may be with rega
r~ to. the. enti re deno tatio n o_r to t~e
part ial deno tatio n of thes e term s. The doct rine
of distr ibut ion of term s deal~ w~t~ this.
A term is said to be distr ibut ed whe n the
refe renc e is to all the ~ndividuals
deno ted by the term . It is said that to be undi
strib uted whe n the refe renc e is to a Part
of the deno tatio n of the term .
Eve n whe n the deno tatio n is not defin ite, the
term is take n to be undi strib uted .
This mea ns,- only whe n ther e is explicit refe
renc e to the enti re deno tatio n, a term is
said to be aistr ibut ed.
The re is no difficulty in deciding whe ther the
subj ect term of a prop ositi on is
distr ibut ed, The quan tity sign "all" or "some",
befo re the_subject, cle_arly indi cate s ~his.
In a univ ersa l proposition the refer ence is to
the enti re deno tatio n of the subJect.
minded", the asse rtion is abou t the 1
Thu s, in the 'A' proposition "All judg es are fair-
enti re deno tatio n of 'judges'. Similarly, in the
'E' prop ositi on "No lemo ns are sweet",
the subject is take n in its enti re deno tatio
n. The word "no", befo re the subject,
indicates that the pred icate is deni ed of the enti
re deno tatio n of the subj ect.
J The trad ition al -logicians c_o nsid ered sing ular
Therefore, in sing ular propositions too, the subj prop ositi ons to be universal.
ect term is distr ibut ed.
Let us now come to the distr ibut ion of the pred
icate term . Whe ther the predicate
term is distr ibut ed or not depends upon the qual
ity of the prop ositi on. The pred icate of
an affu:mative proposition is not distr ibut ed;
beca use in an affir mati ve proposition
ther e is no explicit reference to the deno tatio n
of the pred icate . Let _us und erst and this
with the help of examples . The univ ersa l
affir mati ve prop ositi on "All judg es are
imp artia l" does not state whe ther all imp artia
l pers ons are judg es or not. The refore,
the pred icate term is take n as undi strib uted
. Sim ilar is the case of parti cula r
affir mati ve prop ositi on. We do not know
whe ther the refe renc e is to the· entire
deno tatio n of the pred icate or to a part of its
deno tatio n. The part icul ar affirmative
prop ositi on "Some stud ents are clever" does
not tell us whe ther the who le class of
clev er pers ons is covered by some stud ents . The
re may be clev er pers ons who a;e not
stud ents . Thu s, in a part icul ar affir mati ve
take n to be undi strib uted . prop ositi on also, the pred icate t erm is

The re is one exce ptio n to the dist ribu

tion of pre dica te in affir mat ive
~ro posi tion s. In 'A' _proposition wh~n t_h e ~eno
tatio n of the subj ect and the predicate
1s the sam e, the pred icate term also 1s distr ibut
ed. In the prop ositi on "All trian gles are
plane figu res enclosed by thre e stra ight lines
", both the term s are dist ribu ted.
In nega tive prop ositi ons the pred icate term is
denied of the subj ect. Tha t is to say,
a ll thin gs den~ te~ by the pr~dicate are excl uded
from the subj ect. The refo re, n egat ive
prop ositi ons distr ibute predicat e. Let us take
exam ples of 'E' and '0' prop ositi ons. In '
the 'E' propositi on "No lemo ns are sw_eet",
the ~ho le clas s of lemo ns (sub ject) i:;
excl uded from the clas s of sweet thm gs
(pre dicat e). Not only this the entire
deno tatio n of the predicat e t erm is excl uded
from that of the subj ect. Si~ ilarl y, in •Q'
p ropo sitio n , a par t of ~he deno tatio n of t~e.
su~~ ect term is excl uded from the entire
deno tatio n of the pred icat e. In the prop os1t1
0n Som e shop keepers are not hone st", ll
part of t he clas s of sh opkeeper s is excl uded
from the enti re denota tion of hone:ot
bein gs.
Thu s, w e see th at t he subj ect ?( a ~niversa
l ropo sitio n is d istrib uted, but 1h,
. . of a pa rt icula r prop ositi on is not. On pthe
su b;er-t term other han d, the preclicrt.l r> n( 11
.
 n•n •n• 47
•t ·o,ial Classification of Propositions ---
Tra. d1, 1, n is
pre dica te of an affi rma tive pro pos itio
' gative proposition is dist ribu ted, but · the
of a pro pos itio n det erm ine s the
net This sho ws tha t the qua nti ty n
wh ile the qua lity of a pro pos itio
~~s~ribution of _the_ su~ jec t ter m, lts.
dic ate ter m. Let us stat e the se resu
determines the dis trib uti on of the pre
ibu ted .
A pro pos itio n . sub ject dist ribu ted ; pre dic ate und istr
ted.
E pro pos itio n sub ject dist ribu ted , pre dic ate dist ribu
ibu ted .
I pro pos itio n sub ject und istr ibu ted ; pre dic ate und istr
ted .
o ·proposition sub ject und istr ibu ted ; pre dic ate dist ribu
ebi nop ' may be rem emb ere d for the
As an aid to mem ory , the· wor d 'As ns. The
vowels stan d for the fou r pro pos itio
distribution of term s. In this wor d icat e the
the fou r vowels. The se con son ants ind
consonants 's', 'b' 'n' and 'p' occ ur afte r is
's' ind icat es tha t only the subject term
distribution of term s. The con son ant are
tha t both the sub ject and the pre dic ate
distributed. The con son ant 'b' ind icat es ted . The
tha t neit her of the term s is dist ribu
distributed. The con son ant 'n' ind icat es
consonant 'p' ind icat es tha t the pre dica
te is dist ribu ted.
The dist ribu tion of term s in the 'A' ,'E',
'I' and '0' pro pos itio ns can be eas ily see n
.
from the following dia gra ms :

A E

I 0

es the term tha t is und istr ibu ted . The

In thes e diag ram s the bro ken circle ind icat is
the clas s rep rese nted by the sub ject term
~iagram for 'A' pro pos itio n sho ws tha t s not
pre dica te term ; but the sub ject das s doe
included in the clas s rep res~ nted by the ted, but
icat es tha t the sub ject term is dist ribu
cover the enti re pre dica te clas s. Thi s ind are
pro pos itio n sho ws tha t bot h the clas ses
the predicate is not. The dia gra m for 'E' term s are
h othe1·. Therefore, bot h the
c~mpletely sep ara te. The y exclude eac ject
n shows tha t some mem ber s of the sub
distributed. The diag ram for 'I' pro pos itio ded par t) are
s of the pre dica te clas s (the sha
class (the sha ded par t) and some mem ber diag ram for '0' proposition differs
th e same. But neit her term is tak en as a whole. The u t th at
the sha ded par t. '0' pro pos itio n is abo
fro m the diag ram for 'I pro pos itio n in t) is
of the subj ect whi ch is sha ded . Thi s par t of the subject (the sha ded par
Part ositio n
te clas s. From this we see tha t 'O' prop
excl uded fro m the whole of th e pre dica
ribu tes the pre dica te.
does not dist ribu te the subj ect, but it dist
 Elementary Logic (L.L.B:;
48

L__ _ _ _ _ _ ___:_S~U~M~MA R~~y---~-:--=---= ~:J

nd compound
The traditional . logicians distinguished be!ween simp_le . ·a_
·t · n there is a _s1_mple assert_1on, 1n a compou_ nd
propositions. In a simple Proposl 10
proposition the assertion is under certain conditions.. !n t~is sens_e, -~~tegor1caj
propositions are simple, while hypothetical and d1sJunctive propositions are
compound. .
Categorical proposition is to be distinguished from hypothe_tical and ~sjunctive
propositions. A categorical proposition merely affirms or . dem~ a_ predicate of a
subject. Hypothetical proposition in t~e traditional cl.a~sific~tion is t~e- _sa1:lle as
implicative proposition in the modern classification. D1sJuncti~: pr~posit10n m the
traditional classification is the same as disjunctive propos1t10n m the modern
classification. .
Fourfold classification : On the basis of quality and quantity, the traditional
logicians recognized four kinds of propositions. The classification of propositions into
four kinds is called the fourfold classification of propositions. The four kinds of
pr~positions are: (i) Universal Affirmative - 'A', (ii) Universal Negative - 'E', (iii)
Particular Affirmative - 'I' and (iv) Particular Negative - '.0'. Singular propositions are
treated as universal.
Reduction to logieal form : While reducing sentences to ·the logical form- of
proposition, we must remember that logic recognizes only two quantifiers. These are
"all" and "some". In logic, "some" means "at least some; may be all". Every sentence is
to be reduced to one of the four forms - 'A', 'E', 'I' or '0'. While doing so, we have to
consider the intention of t:he thinker. However, if we know the meanings of certain key
words, this will become much easier.
Distribution of terms: A term is said to be distributed, when the reference is to
its entire denotation. It is said to be undistributed, either when the reference is to a
part of its denotation or when its denotad.on is not definite. Now, universal
. propositions distribute subject, but particular propositions do not. Negative
propositions distribute predicate, while the affirmative propositions do not. Thus, 'A'
distributes subject; 'E' distributes both the terms; 'I' distributes neither term· and '0'
distributes predicate. However, when the denotation of the subject and the ~redicate
is the same, 'A' proposition distributes both the terms.

c _ _ _ : - - -_ _ _ __ __ T_E_ST U_E_S_T-l-=O~N..:.::S:....__ _ __ _ _ _ _]
Q,__
_ _,
1. Explain the fourfold classification of propositions. Why are singular propositions
considered to be universal? .
2. Explain the collective and distributive uses of "all".
3. E_x~lain . the classification of pro~~siti?ns into cat egorical, hypothetical and
d1sJunct1ve. Does the fourfold classif1cat10n of propositions apply to hypothetical
and disjunctive propositions?
4. Explain the distribution of terms in categorical propositions. Wha t a re the
exceptions to the distribution of terms in 'A' proposition ?
5. Define the following terms :·
(1) Categorical proposition (2) Conditional proposition
(3) H ypothetical proposition (4). Disjunctive proposition
(5 ) Collective use of a term (6) Distributive use of a term
(8) Qua ntity of proposition
( 7) Q ua lity of proposition
(10) Nega._tive proposition
(9) Affirm ative pr oposition
Traditional Classification of Propositions
11•11•11• 49

(11) Universal proposition (12) particular proposition

(13) Singular proposition
6. Fill in the blanks with appropriate alternatives :
1. _ categorical prop_ositions are general propositions. (All/Some/No)
2. In 'E' proposition the copula i s _ . (affirmative/negative)
3. _According to the traditional logicians, _ _ disjunctive propositions are
negative. (all/some/no)
4. AU-singular propositions are _ _(universal /particular/affirmative/negative) _
5. A term is said to be used _ _ when an attribute applies to each member of
the class, separately; it is said to be used _ _ when an attribute applies to
all members of the ~lass to togethe:i;, but not to each of them separately.
(distributively/collectively)
6. Universal propositions distribute predicate, while particular
propositions distribute subject. (always/some.times/never)
7. Particular propositions distribute predicate, while universal ·
propositions distribute subject. (always/sometimes/never)
8. _ _ affirmative propositions distribute predicate; and _ _. negative
propositions distribute subject. (All/Some/No)
9. _ _ negative propositions distribute predicate; and affirmative
propositions distribute subject. (All/Sorrie/No)
10. _ _ of a proposition determines the distribution of the subject term; and
_ _ of a proposition · determines the distribution of the predicate term.
{Denotation / Connotation/Quality/Quantity)
7. Express the following sentences in the strict logical form of proposition in the
traditional way, giving reasons :
(First ten examples have been solved for guidance.)
1. A great statesman was present. [Here 'a' stands for 'one', and not for 'any'.
Since we do not know which one, the quantity sign 'some~ will be used.
However, here "some" does not indicate particular proposition. The number is
definite. Therefore, even though the word "some" is used, the proposition is
taken as 'A' proposition. °Logical form : Some· great statesman is one who was
present.]
2. Nothing is a tree unless it is a plant. [The expression 'unless it is a plant' goes
with 'nothing'. When it is so expressed, it is: "Nothing unless it is a plant is a
tree." This clearly shows that it is an exceptive proposition. It will be .brought
to the logical form of 'E' proposition: "No non-plant •(ie. no thing unless it is a
plant is a tree."]
3. Those in the play are rehearsing. (The. expression 'those in the play' clearly
applies to all persons in the play, taken together. Thus, the subject term is
used collectively. It is '.A' proposition. Logical form: All persons acting in the
play are rehearsing.)
4. Few artists are exempt from . vanity. [The expression 'exempt fro·m vanity'
means 'not vain'. Since 'few' has negative force and the sentence itself is
negative, it will be reduced to the form of 'I' proposition. Its logical form is :
"Some artists are not vain." But if 'exempt from vanity' is taken as the
predicate, the proposition will be '0'. In that case, it will be brought to th e
logical form thus: "Some artists are not those who are exempt from vainit ~-)
However, bringing this proposition to the form of 'I' proposition is to be
preferred.)]
50 r,•r,•r,• Elementary Logic (L.L.B.J
5. In all countrie s all foreigne rs are sometim es unpopul ar. [This proposit ion is
about " all countrie s". But there are two other signs of quantity " in it. These
are secondar y, and will not affect the form of the proposit ion These secondary
signs of quantity vvill be placed in the predicate . Logical form: All countri~s are
those in which all foreigners are sometim es unpopula r. (A)l
6. It is 859. miles from Bombay Ceritral to Delhi. (The proposit ion can be taken
as referring to the distance from Bombay Central to Delhi. In that case, its
logical form will be: "The distance from Bombay Central to Delhi is 859 miles. •
On the other hand, if the subject of the proposit ion is taken as 'Delhi', the
propositi on will be reduced to the logical form thus : "Delhi is a place 859
miles from Bombay Central." 1n either case, it is a: singular affirmative
propositi on. Therefor e, it is 'A' propositi on.)
7. Most planets are either too hot or too cold for living beings like ourselves.
[This is a disjuncti ve proposition. The sign of quantity 'most' indicate s that it
is a particula r proposition. It will be reduced to the form of 'I' proposit ion thus:
Some planets are either too hot or too cold for living beings like ourselves (i.e.
men).]
8. Ducklings do not grow into swans. (This is an indefinit e proposit ion. The
quantity of the subject term is not indicated . Since the implicat ion of the
proposition ·is universal , it is reduced to the form of 'E' proposit ion thus: No
ducklings when they grow are those that become swans.] ·
9. Brqthers sometime s quarrel with each other. ['Someti mes" occurrin g in an
affirmative sentence indicates that it will be reduced to 'I' proposit ion. Logical
form : ~ome brothers are those who quarrel_with one other.]
10. A few dif?tinguished men have undisting uished sons. ("A few" in an affirmativ~
sentence indicates 'l' proposition. Logical form : Some distingu ished men ~re
these who have undistinguished sons.)
11. Many a man has lived to regret a misspent youth.
12. Elephan ts never forget.
13. More than. half people who go to movies on weekd ft
students . . · . ay a ernoons are co 11ege
14. Grapes come from Nasik.
15. Hardly any man is infallible.
16. A budget which imposes heavy taxes does not always 1 d t · . .
. . ea o mflat10n
17. Women are Jealous. ·
18. The machine s in this factory all work.
19. No one likes to be wrong.
20. No child ever fails to be troubleso me, if ill-taugh t and spoilt.
2L Only those who are registere d are permitte d to vote.
22. Congress has a majority in the Parliame nt.
23. There is nothing wrong with deprivin g people of their liberties.
24. Seven States have non-Con gress governm ents.
25. People who like Shyam also like Mina.
26. A few statesme n have won Nobel Prize.
27. Few children do not love the circus.
28. Everyon e has certain minimum food requirem ents.
29. No cat has nine tails.
Tradi-tioiial Classification of Propositions
51
30. Any boy is younger than his father.
31, It is not the case that great men ~re free from shortcomings.
32. Not on~y the English are brave.
33. Men of violent minds are not all lacking in tenderness. ·
34. He who preaches chastity to· others should himself be chaste.
35. Books on history sometimes throw light more on their authors than on their
subject-matter.
36. Two straight lines cannot enclose a space.
37. Old men are not necessarily wise.
38. Not all your endeavours will succeed.
39. What is not practicable is not desirable.
40. Improbable events happen almost every day.
41. Human nature never changes.
42. Several film stars are frivolous.
43. Gases at high pressure become liquids.
44. · At least two of the judges did not condemn the prisoner.
45: None but gold w1ll silence him.
46. An injection of adrenal~n makes the blood clot more rapidly.
47. All fishers are kind to children except sharks.
48. A minority of newspapers did not go on strike.
49. In Fiji men wear skirts.
50. Japanese are imitative.
51. The giraffe has a long neck.
52. A large number of vain pe·r sons are showy.
53. Successful men are usually ambitious . .
54. Not every tasty dish is nutritious.
55. Who is not affected by flattery?
56. Never can the rights be separ ated from duties.
57. An Englishman maintains self-control in all situations.
58. Not a single ingredient of Ayurvedic medicines is harmful.
59. An old man may not he or thodox.
60. It is not the case that wasps da nce.
61. The rose is a beautiful flower.
62. Creative thinkers seldom care for others' opinions.
63. Each a nd every millionaire is not born rich.
64. The wh ale is not a fish .
65. It is rare to find gamblers who are reliable.
66. Automobiles are u sually expensive.
. 1?
67. What politicia n ca n oppose peop e.
68. There are times wh en bravery is folly.
69. Rom a ns celebrated t he fea st of Saturnalia.
70. Brokerage houses often fail.