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Peng
Department of Mining Engineering
College of Engineering and Mineral Resources
West Virginia University
Morgantown, WV 26506
USA
All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, cannot be reproduced or stored in any form without the
written permission of the author.
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Ground Control Failures – A Pictorial View of Case Studies
To my friends in the mining industry (coal and industrial minerals) who shared their ground
control problems with me in the past three decades. Their trust in me helped establish and
greatly advance the field of GROUND CONTROL.
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Ground Control Failures – A Pictorial View of Case Studies
PREFACE
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Ground Control Failures – A Pictorial View of Case Studies
and change over time. It is incomplete nor appropriate to pick any one of them for validation of computer
models and/or support designs or to develop remedial measures thinking that those measures would be
applicable to all other parts of the structure or other parts of the same section or mine. Consequently, it is
my hope that the many forms of failures as shown by the photographs that I took at different parts of a
case study will inspire new thoughts and approaches on the complicated underground ground control
failures. Furthermore, I hope this will set an example for what an underground inspection of a failure case
should be. Unfortunately, majority of the cases presented did not have quantitative geomechanics data,
underground visual observation with simple measurements was the major source available for analysis.
Because, when things happened, coal companies were looking for quick answers.
Many cases used in this book involve small coal or industrial mineral mines. A “small” mine refers to
one that employs one to three continuous miner units in room and pillar mining. Small mines are easily
accessible, requiring only a few hours for a study trip to the mine. Any mine design concept/ground
control techniques can be implemented quickly and results known in a few months. Due to more
complicated geological and mining conditions, varying practices of MSHA district offices, and/or lack of
ground control professionals, there are many more ground control failures in small mines that can be used
to verify existing ground control theories/designs. Experience has demonstrated in many cases that the
mine design and ground control practices employed in small mines are more liberal than those developed
for longwall mines.
The concept of “failure” in mining operations is usually defined in relation to either safety or
production or both. A situation, that could be safe to miners, but uneconomical from a production point of
view, is considered a failure. Since mining practices vary considerably from mine to mine, sometimes
even from shift to shift, and there are many stages in the failure development of each and every one
element of the underground structures, the definition and perception of failure vary with people and the
mine. Therefore, it is my hope that the collection of various types of failures in this book will help with
the development of a more uniform concept or definition of failure.
Failure could be sudden. It could also be slow, or time dependent, or it may stop somewhere during
the failure process. Why? This book shows, in pictorial views, many forms and/or stages of types of
failures, for instance, cutter, roof falls, and cribs. I do not have definite answers for each and every one of
them. So I present them here, hoping some of you may be interested in pursuing the answers.
It is important to point out that it may appear that there are many repetitious and look-alike
photographs. They are not. As I said, there are many different forms of what appear to be failure in
underground mines. This book merely tries to document them.
Many failures, especially cutters and roof falls, do not occur in massive, strong roof, such as
sandstone and sandy shale. Rather, they occur in weak roof. A “weak” roof is not restricted to those rocks
that have a low uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) as determined in the laboratory. As presented in this
book, stack rock accounted for the majority of massive and ugly roof falls. Stack rock is thin layers of
sandstone or sandy shale interbedded with thin films of carbonaceous (black) materials. The thicker the
total thickness, the poorer they make the roof. Its UCS, as determined by the current testing standards in
the laboratory, does not represent its behavior underground. Stack rock, being composed of sandstone or
sandy shale, have high UCSs. But underground, the thin films of carbonaceous materials are where stack
rock breaks easily into slabs. The thinner the sandstone/sandy shale layers and the denser the thin films of
carbonaceous materials, the sooner and worse the roof will fall. For this type of roof strata, stability tests
of thin beams or cantilevers are more representative, not the UCS as conventionally obtained from
standard rock mechanics tests.
Another weak roof that appears to be contrary to the strength obtained in the laboratory is laminated
clayey shale. When it is dry, under which the laboratory strength is determined by following the current
prevailing testing standards, its strength is high, thereby normally projecting a stable roof. But once they
are exposed underground and subject to the wet and dry annual cycles of the ventilation air, their
laminations become active and rock materials begin to crumble. The larger the clay content, the sooner
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Ground Control Failures – A Pictorial View of Case Studies
and worse the roof will fall. For this type of rock, its sensitivity to weathering (moisture) is the most
important property for stability evaluation, not the conventional UCS.
Another very obvious, but always ignored, issue is the effect of time element. For mine operators, it
is common sense to support the entry roof as soon possible after excavation. An entry deforms with time,
and the roof converges and/caves continuously in the gob. Both events increase the loads on support with
time. The entry deteriorates with increasing deformation, transforming, for instance, the cutter roof into
various stages and leading eventually to roof falls in some cases.
The photographs of various types of failures presented in this book clearly show that failures in
bedded strata, such as the coal measures rocks, are controlled by the planes of weakness, including
bedding planes, laminations, and cleats. Accordingly, in order to be realistic, this factor must be
considered in the development of ground control theories and designs. Unfortunately, this has not
happened so far!
Finally, Chapter 10 documents the first two projects that I worked on right after I joined West
Virginia University in 1974: one was shortwall mining, a hybrid of longwall and continuous mining in
which the tailgate was built as mined, not pre-driven. The other one was thin seam (less than 48 in. thick)
plow longwall. Unfortunately, due to difficult conditions, both projects were not successful. However, I
do believe that with today’s advanced ground control technologies, both projects should have a good
chance to succeed.
Syd S. Peng
Morgantown, WV
March 2007
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am indebted to my current and former graduate students. Without their assistance, publication of this
book is not possible. Among them, Dr. Steve Tadolini reviewed the draft and made extensive comments.
Dr. Andre Zingano developed the book format and was in charge of putting the whole book together. Dr.
Khaled Morsy, Thomas Du, Reddy Kallu, Jun Lu, and Anil Ray reviewed and edited individual chapters.
Thomas Du, Reddy Kallu and Jun Lu also assisted in preparing the illustrations. Charles Howard prepared
a portion of the text in Section 8.3, including Figure 8.3.3.
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Ground Control Failures – A Pictorial View of Case Studies
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