UNIT 1

What Is Communication?

Introduction

Over the time, a lot of theories have been advanced to describe, predict, and
understand the behaviours and phenomena related to communication. In business, we
are not always interested in theory, but in making sure our message produces the desired
results. Therefore it is important to understand what communication is and how it works.

Defining Communication

According to the Etymological Dictionary of Modern English, the root of the word
“communication” in Latin is communicare, which means to share, or to make common.

Here is how some scholars have defined communication (listed chronologically):

1. “Social interaction through messages.” (Fiske 1990:2)
2. “A process in which participants create and share information with one another
in order to reach a mutual understanding.” (Rogers 2003:35)
3. “An activity in which symbolic content is not merely transmitted from one source
to another, but exchanged between human agents, who interact within a shared
situational and/or discursive context.” (Price 1997: 555)
4. “A process whereby people in groups, using the tools provided by their culture,
create collective representations of reality.” (Trenholm 1999:31)
5. “A process in which there is some predictable relation between the message
transmitted and the message received.” (Graber 2003:2)
6. Pearson, J., & Nelson, P. in An Introduction to Human Communication:
Understanding and Sharing (2000) define communication as “the process of
understanding and sharing meaning”.

Communication is the activity of conveying meaningful information; it requires a

sender, a message, and an intended recipient. Communication requires that the
communicating parties share an area of communicative cohesion. The communication
process is complete once the receiver has understood the sender.

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 In 1960, the linguist Roman Jakobson suggested his model of communication and
also stated that “the efficiency of a speech event demands the use of a common code by
its participants” (Jakobson & Halle 2011, 172). He also outlined what he regards as the six
constitutive factors in any act of verbal communication as follows:

Type Oriented Function Example

towards
referential context imparting information It's raining.
expressive addresser expressing feelings or It's bloody pouring again!
attitudes
conative addressee influencing behaviour Wait here till it stops
raining!
phatic contact establishing or maintaining Nasty weather again, isn't
social relationships it?
metalingual code referring to the nature of This is the weather
the interaction (e.g. genre) forecast.
poetic message foregrounding textual It droppeth as the gentle
features rain from heaven.

To sum up:
 the referential function is oriented towards the context;
 the emotive (expressive) function is oriented towards the addresser;
 the conative (action-inducing e.g. command) function is oriented towards the
addressee;
 the metalingual (language speaking about language) function is oriented towards
the code;
 the poetic function is oriented towards the message for its own sake.

The addresser sends a message to the addressee. To be effective, the message

requires a context, understood by the addressee, a code fully, or at least partially,
common to the addresser and addressee and finally, a contact, a physical channel and
psychological connection between the addresser and the addressee, enabling both of
them to stay in communication. (Jakobson 1959, 353)

context
message
addresser addressee
contact
Code

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 Oral versus Written Communication

Oral and written forms of communication are similar in many ways. They both
rely on the basic communication process, which consists of eight essential elements:
source, receiver, message, channel, feedback, environment, context, and interference.

Table: The Essential Elements of Communication

Element of
Communi- Definition Oral Use Written Use
cation
A source creates and Dan makes a phone Dan writes an email to
1. Source
communicates a message. call to Anna. Anna.
A receiver receives the Anna listens to Dan. Anna reads Dan’s e-
2. Receiver
message from the source. mail.
The message is the Dan asks Anna to Dan’s e-mail asks
stimulus or meaning attend training. Anna to attend
3. Message
produced by the source training.
for the receiver.
A channel is the way a The channel is the The channel is the e-
4. Channel message travels between telephone. mail.
source and receiver.
Feedback is the message Anna says Yes. Anna replies with an
5. Feedback the receiver sends in e-mail saying Yes.
response to the source.
The environment is the Anna is travelling by Anna is in her office
physical atmosphere plane when she when she receives
6. Environment
where the receives Dan’s Dan’s e-mail.
communication occurs. phone call.
The context involves the Anna is waiting for Anna is waiting for
psychological Dan to send an e- Dan to dial and
expectations of the mail with the connect the call. Dan
7. Context source and receiver. requested expects Anna to check
information. Dan her e-mail for the
anticipates doing so information so that
and does. she can take the call.
Also known as noise, Anna calls in, but Anna waits for a
interference is anything she has missed the phone call from Dan,
that blocks or distorts the call because she but he doesn’t.
8. Interference
communication process. forgot that she is in
a different time
zone from Dan.

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 A way in which oral and written forms of communication are similar is that they
can be classified into verbal and nonverbal classes. Verbal communication implies what
one says, while nonverbal communication implies how one utters, the tone of the voice,
the facial expression, and the body language.
The written word allows for a dynamic communication between source and
receiver, but is often asynchronous, meaning that it occurs at different times. When
people communicate face-to-face, they get immediate feedback, but the written words
stand in place of that interpersonal interaction, and there is no immediate response.
Since people are often not physically present when someone reads what has been
written, it is important that the reader’s needs be anticipated, and try to imagine the
response to the written messages. Since written communication lacks the immediate
feedback that is present in an oral conversation, one needs to choose words and phrases
even more carefully to promote accuracy, clarity, and understanding.

Communication Barriers
According to Merriam-Webster's definition, to distract is "to draw or direct (as
one's attention) to a different object or in different directions at the same time," and the
definition of interrupt is "to stop or hinder by breaking in.”
Barriers to effective communication can distort the message, and it can lead to
failure in the communication process.
Physical Barriers – they are often due to the nature of the environment, or poor
or obsolete equipment may cause problems in conveying the message properly.
Attitudinal Barriers – they come about mainly in organizations and may be
brought about by such factors as poor management, lack of consultation with employees,
personality conflicts which may lead to refusing to communicate, lack of motivation or
dissatisfaction at work.
Ambiguity Barriers – ambiguity of words / phrases – homophones (words
sounding the same but having a different meaning) can convey a different meaning
altogether. The communicator must ensure that the receiver receives the same meaning.
Therefore, such words should be avoided, and alternatives should be used whenever
possible.
Individual Linguistic Ability Barriers – the use of slang, jargon, difficult or
inappropriate words in communication can prevent the recipients from understanding
the message. Misunderstood messages can result in total confusion.
Other barriers can also affect an efficient communication process. We have
summarised them as follows:
 Cultural & Educational Differences – All cultures have their own peculiarities in
communication.

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  Personal Biases – Our filters have an effect on how and why we communicate
with others.
 Distractors – Holding one’s attention is difficult enough without distractions.
Thus, we need to minimize distractors.

Some of the common distractors are:

 Noise – Many times it is difficult to have a meaningful conversation due to a noisy
location. Noise comes in many forms: from people, equipment, street noise and
more.
 Visual – It can be difficult to concentrate when there’s a lot of activity or other
visual distraction in the area.
 Stress – The stress in someone’s life can make it difficult to focus.
 Time – If a pressing appointment does not allow adequate time to address an
issue effectively, then choose a more convenient time.
 Other distractors – code difference, lack of empathy, gap of knowledge,
misunderstandings, irony, innuendo, allegations, emotional implication, and
contradictory messages.
In conclusion, communication barriers are frequent; this is why being aware of these
barriers to effective communication will help to avoid them.

 POINTS TO REMEMBER:

 It is important to understand what communication is and how it works.

 Communication is the activity of transmitting meaningful information; it

requires a sender, a message, and recipient and it is complete once the
receiver has understood the message of the sender.

 Oral and written forms of communication are similar in many ways as they
both rely on the basic communication process, which consists of source,
receiver, message, channel, feedback, environment, context and interference.

 Oral and written forms can be classified into verbal and nonverbal classes.

 The barriers affecting communication may be: cultural and educational

differences; personal biases; distractors (noise, stress, time, etc.)

 In conclusion, communication barriers are frequent, therefore considering this

aspect will help one avoiding them.

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 ACTIVITIES:

 Review the essential elements of communication and build a different scenario

for each one of them (imagine a situation, state the message, etc.).

 Visit a business website with an About us page. Read the About us message and
write a summary in your own words of what it tells you about the company.
Compare your results with those of your classmates.

 You are your own company. What words describe you? Design a logo, create a
name and present your descriptive words in a way that gets attention. Share and
compare with your classmates.

 Explain how written communication is different from oral communication.

 List three words or phrases that you would say to your friends. List three words or
phrases that communicate similar meanings that you would say to an authority
figure. Share it with your classmates and compare the results.

 Communication is part of any human activity. Discuss the role and the importance
of communication in business.

 Make a list of contexts in which you communicate. This could include school,
work, family situations, and interactions with friends. How is your style of
communication affected by the context and the medium?

 Describe a situation when your communication strategy brought you success and
a situation when you failed.

EXERCISES:
1. Match the words in column A with their definitions in column B:

agenda nonverbal ways of adjusting to a communication

situation
adaptors a list of all items discussed during a meeting
communication expression of dissatisfaction with behavior,
attitude, belief of someone else
complaint any process in which people share information,
ideas, feelings

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 employment interview
intercultural communication
message
feedback
public communication
selective attention
the sender sends a message to an audience
the response of the receiver-sender to each
other
the ability to focus perception
when a message is created by a member of one
culture and it needs to be processed by a
member of one culture
an interview used by an employer to determine
whether someone is suitable for a job
ideas and feelings that a sender-receiver wants to
share

2. Select the word that best fits in each sentence, write it in the blank space
provided. The context will help you decide and use each word only once.

stick complete compliment notify pay

finish outline digress imply admonish

1. I should like to ___________ the fact that things are not going well at the
moment.
2. Please _____________ the instructions of the new device for us.
3. My teacher will ____________ me for being late.
4. Of course, I ____________ you on your good results.
5. When making a speech, do not ____________ from the main topic.
6. Could you ________________ to the main point?
7. I did not mean to ____________________ that you do not deserve it.
8. Did you ______________ the report and send it?
9. Will you ______________ attention to the speaker?
10. _______________ the sentences and handover the tests.

3. Choose the best answer:

1. We asked the CEOs to __ the steps of their plans for the future of the
organization.
a. Interrogate; b. Delineate; c. Imply; d. Digress;
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2. July’s tutor __ her for submitting her paper on time.
a. Commanded; b. Comprehended; c. Professed; d. Apprised;

3. The teacher ___ the students about who cheated on the test.
a. Challenged; b. Directed; c. Inferred; d. Interrogated;

4. Although the sales representative did not tell them the real cost, the audience
___ that it was very high.
a. Implied; b. Interrogated; c. Inferred; d. Dictated;

5. The supervisor ___ his workers for not cleaning the workshop properly.
a. Digressed; b. Admonished; c. Apprised; d. Interrogated;

6. The manager __ that she would not recommend anyone for a promotion.
a. Implied; b. Interrogated; c. Inferred; d. Dictated;

7. When the manager __ the employees of the possible layoffs, they went on a
strike.
a. Admonished; b. Digressed; c. Apprised; d. Directed;

8. Because the motivational speaker __ from his topic, the audience had difficulty
following his presentation.
a. Delineated; b. Digressed; c. Revealed; d. Dictated;

9. Although James did not state directly that Jane was older than she admitted, he
___ that she was.
a. Implied; b. Interrogated; c. Inferred; d. Dictated;

10. The bank ___ the clients of the penalties for late payment.
a. Apprised; b. Comprehended; c. Asked; d. Interacted.

4. True or False?

1. Communication happens mostly through words.

2. Only human beings communicate.
3. Effective communicators listen more than they speak.
4. We have 100% control over the recipient of our message.
5. Being willing to compromise helps communication.

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6. Talking too much is not communicating.
7. Most people are already effective communicators.
8. Culture affects the way in which people communicate.
9. Women are better communicators than men.
10. Interrupting the speaker hinders communication.
11. There is no such thing as non-communication.
12. A secretary’s main responsibility is to collect and disseminate information.
13. Tall organization structures are more susceptible to distortion than the flat ones.
14. Non-verbal communication is the most basic form of communication.
15. Feedback is essential, but it can be misleading in some contexts.
16. Culture is referred to as a group incorporated within a dominant culture.
17. Our behaviour is dictated by the culture we belong to.
18. Communication can be improved by keeping one’s audience in suspense and not
telling them step by step what to expect.
19. In English-speaking communities, understanding native speakers is not a problem,
since English is the primary language.
20. Communication barriers between people include individual perception of reality.

5. Find the right question for the given answer:

1. I went to the library yesterday.

Where did you go? / What did you see? / When did you go?

2. The instructions are in the box.

What do the instructions say? / Where are the instructions? / How can I do that?

3. You must press that button if you want to turn on the CD player.
Why do I need to press that? / What should I press? / How can I make it stop?

4. Put the dictionary on the desk.

Who should put it on the desk? / Where should I put it? / What should I put on
the desk?

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5. Take the handouts and give them to the students.
Who should I give them to? / What should I give the students? / Where should I
take them?

6. The librarian can be found in her office.

Who can be found? / Where is she to be found? / Where is she now?

7. We saw the teacher about our test paper yesterday.

What did you see the teacher about? / Who did you see? / When did you see the
teacher?

8. I’d like a new book, please!

When would you like it? / How would you like it? / What would you like?

9. Could you pass the attendance list, please?

What would you like? / Where would you like it? / Who did you ask?

10. I have just talked to my colleagues.

Why did you talk to them? / Who did you talk to? / What did you talk about?

6. Choose the odd one out:

1. interrogate; inquire; request; infer;

2. admonish; scold; admit; criticize;
3. appraise; assert; claim; comprehend;
4. infer; understand; inform; listen;
5. imply; hint; indicate; request;
6. comprehend; command; praise; laud;
7. read; reply; respond; interrogate;
8. digress; wonder; babble; instruct;
9. delineate; praise; state; tell;
10. comprehend; hear; read; state.

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 Home assignment:

 How does the intended audience influence the choice of words and use of
language in a document? Think of a particular topic and two specific types of
audience. Write a short essay (400 – 600 words) of how this matter might be
presented to each of the two audiences.

 Things to Remember:

 Take a few minutes to reflect on your learning at the end of this unit.

 What key points have you learned that you feel are important?

 Are they relevant for you future career?

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