CETE 543 - Technical Elective 2 Earthquake Engineering, Module

Republic of the Philippines
Bulacan State University

College of Engineering
City of Malolos, Bulacan
CETE 543
TECHNICAL ELECTIVE 2
EARTHQUAKE
ENGINEERING
Module
Compiled by:
Radger Teddy L. Manuel

CETE 523, T.E.2 – Earthquake Engineering
Overview of the Module
By the end of the module students will:
Understand the occurrence and origin of earthquakes

Understand structural dynamics and appreciate the response of
structures to seismic excitation
Apply the latest developments in earhquake and seismic design
relevance to the National Structural Code of the Philippines
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Contents
1. Course Syllabus 6
1.1 University Vision 6
1.2 University Mission 6
1.3 BSCE Program Educational Objectives (PEO) 6
1.4 Program Outcomes 6
1.5 Course Outcomes/Learning Outcome2s (CO/LO) and Relationship to Student Outcomes 7
1.6 COURSE DESCRIPTION: 8
1.7 LEARNING OUTCOMES (LO): 8
1.8 FINAL COURSE OUTPUT: 9
1.9 RUBRIC FOR ASSESSMENT: 9
1.10 OTHER REQUIREMENTS AND ASSESSMENTS: 9
1.11 GRADING SYSTEM: 9
1.12 LEARNING EPISODES:. 9
2. Earthquake Engineering, Part 1 11
2.1 Duration 11
2.2 Objectives 11
2.3 Pre-Assessment 11
2.4 Introduction 12
2.4.1 What is Earthquake Engineering 12
2.4.2 Damaging Effects of Earthquakes 13
2.4.3 Earthquakes Forces 16
2.4.4 Design for Earthquake Forces 17
2.4.5 Historical Background 18
2.5 Types of Earthquakes 19
2.6 Earth Structure 19
2.7 Plate Tectonics Theory 21
2.8 Plate Interaction, Formation of Earth’s Surface Features, and Earthquake Generation 22
2.9 Earthquake Faults 25
2.10 Faulting and Seismic Zones of the Philippines 26
2.10.1 Types of Earthquake: 26
2.10.2 Earthquake Monitoring System: 27
2.10.3 Earthquake Hazards 27
2.10.3.1 Ground Rupture: 27
2.10.3.2 Ground Shaking: 27
2.10.3.3 Liquefaction: 28
2.10.3.4 Tsunami: 28
2.10.4 PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS) 28
2.10.5 PHIVOLCS – Active Faults and Trenches 31
2.10.6 Earthquake Monitoring 31
2.10.7 Philippines Earthquake Model 33
2.11 Post-Assessment 57
2.12 Requirements/Deliverables 57
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3.1 Duration 59
3.2 Objectives 59
3.4 Measurements of Earthquakes 60
3.4.1 Intensity Scale 60
3.4.1.1 Modified Mercalli Intensity (MM) Scale 61
3.4.1.2 Japanese Seismic Intensity (JMA) Scale 62
3.4.1.3 Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik Intensity (MKS) Scale 62
3.4.2 Seismographs and Seismograms 66
3.4.2.1 COMPONENTS AND DESIGN FEATURES 67
3.4.2.2 SEISMOGRAMS 70
3.4.3 Magnitude Scale 70
3.4.3.1 RICHTER OR LOCAL MAGNITUDE 70
3.4.3.2 SURFACE- AND BODY-WAVE MAGNITUDES 72
3.4.3.3 Body Wave Magnitude 73
3.4.3.4 Moment Magnitude 73
3.4.4 Intensity–Magnitude Relationships 74
3.5 Dynamics of Vibrations: Attenuation 75
3.5.1 Earthquake Occurrence and Return Period 75
3.5.2 Ground‐Motion Models (Attenuation Relationships) 75
3.5.3 Features of Strong‐Motion Data for Attenuation Relationships 77
3.5.4 Attenuation Relationship for Europe 78
3.5.5 Attenuation Relationship for Japan 79
3.5.6 Attenuation Relationships for North America 80
3.5.6.1 Central and Eastern United States 80
3.5.6.2 Western North America 80
3.5.7 Worldwide Attenuation Relationships 81
3.6 Time History 82
4.1 Duration 86
4.2 Objectives 86
4.4 Earthquake Spectra 86
4.4.1 Factors Influencing Response Spectra 86
4.4.2 Elastic and Inelastic Spectra 89
4.4.2.1 Elastic response spectra 90
4.4.2.2 Inelastic spectra 93
4.4.2.3 Simplified Spectra 94
4.4.3 Effects of Earthquakes 96
4.4.4 Damage to Buildings and Lifelines 98
4.4.5 Effects on the Ground 100
4.4.5.1 Surface Rupture 101
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4.4.5.2 Settlement and Uplift 101
4.4.5.3 Liquefaction 102
4.4.5.4 Landslides 103
4.4.6 Human and Financial Losses 104
5. Eathquake Engineering, Part 4 110
5.1 Duration 110
5.2 Objectives 110
5.4 Notations 111
5.5 Basis for Design 112
5.5.1 Occupancy Categories 112
5.5.2 Site Geology and Soil Characteristics 112
5.5.3 Site Seismic Hazard Characteristics 113
5.5.3.1 Seismic Zone 113
5.5.3.2 Seismic Source Types 114
5.5.3.3 Seismic Zone 4 Near-Source Factor 115
5.5.3.4 Seismic Response Coefficients 115
5.5.4 Configuration Requirements 116
5.5.4.1 Regular structures 116
5.5.4.2 Irregular structures 116
5.5.5 Structural Systems 117
5.5.5.1 Bearing Wall System 117
5.5.5.2 Building Frame System 117
5.5.5.3 Moment-Resisting Frame System 117
5.5.5.4 Dual System 118
5.5.5.5 Cantilevered Column System 118
5.5.5.6 Undefined Structural System 118
5.5.5.7 Non-building Structural System 118
5.5.6 Height Limits 118
5.5.7 Selection of Lateral Force Procedure 118
5.5.7.1 Simplified Static 118
5.5.7.2 Static 119
5.5.7.3 Dynamic 119
5.5.8 System Limitations 119
5.5.8.1 Discontinuity 119
5.5.8.2 Undefined Structural Systems 120
5.5.8.3 Irregular features 120
5.5.9 Determination of Seismic Factors 120
5.5.9.1 Determination of Ω0 120
5.5.9.2 Determination of R 120
5.5.9.3 Combinations of Structural Systems 120
5.6 Minimum Design Lateral Forces and Related Effects 124
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5.6.1 Simplified Static Force Procedure 124
5.6.1.1 Simplified Design Base Shear 124
5.6.1.2 Vertical Distribution 124
5.6.1.3 Horizontal Distribution of Shear 124
5.6.1.4 Horizontal Torsional Moments 125
5.6.1.5 Overturning 125
5.6.2 Static Force Procedure 126
5.6.2.1 Design Base Shear 126
5.6.2.2 Structure Period 126
5.6.2.3 Vertical Distribution of Force 127
5.6.3 Dynamic Analysis Procedures 127
5.6.3.1 Response Spectrum Analysis 127
5.6.3.2 Time History Analysis 127
5.6.4 Earthquake Loads and Modeling Requirements 128
5.6.4.1 Earthquake Loads 128
5.7 Problems 128
6. References 149
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1. Course Syllabus
1.1 University Vision
Bulacan State University is a progressive knowledge generating institution globally-

recognized for excellent instruction, pioneering research, and responsive community
engagements.
1.2 University Mission

Bulacan State University exists to produce highly competent, ethical and service-
oriented professionals that contribute to the sustainable socio-economic growth and
development of the nation.
Attributes of Ideal Graduate (AIG) extracted from university mission:
a. to produce highly competent graduates

b. to produce ethical professional graduates
c. to produce service-oriented graduates
d. to produce graduates that can contribute to country’s sustainable growth and
development.
1.3 BSCE Program Educational Objectives (PEO)
Program Educational Objectives UNIVERSITY MISSION

(BSCE)
AIG-a AIG-b AIG-c AIG-d
Practice the career as Civil Engineers including a
leading role in the Structural Engineering,
Construction Engineering and Management, Water
Resources Engineering, Geotechnical and ✓ ✓ ✓
Transportation Engineering.
Provide professional and technical knowledge and

expertise in the engineering analysis and design to
sustain the needs and demands of the community and
of the region ✓ ✓
Perform supervisory, managerial and consultancy role

that adopts the current trends and practices in the civil
engineering fields and industries. ✓ ✓ ✓
1.4 Program Outcomes

Program Educational
PROGRAM OUTCOMES Objectives
PEO1 PEO2 PEO3
a) apply knowledge of mathematics and science to
solve civil engineering problems; ✓ ✓
b.) design and conduct experiments, as well as to analyze
and interpret data; ✓ ✓
c.) design a system, component, or process to meet desired
needs within realistic constraints, in accordance with ✓ ✓
standards
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d.) function in multidisciplinary and multi-cultural
teams; ✓ ✓
e.) identify, formulate, and solve complex civil
engineering problems; ✓ ✓ ✓
f.) understand professional and ethical
responsibility; ✓ ✓
g.) communicate effectively civil engineering
activities with the engineering community and ✓ ✓ ✓
with society at large;
h.) understand the impact of civil engineering
solutions in a global, economic, environmental, ✓ ✓ ✓
and societal context
i.) recognize the need for, and engage in life-long
learning ✓ ✓ ✓
j.) know contemporary issues;
✓ ✓ ✓
k.) use techniques, skills, and modern engineering
tools necessary for civil engineering practice; ✓ ✓ ✓
l.) know and understand engineering and
management principles as a member and leader
of a team, and to manage projects in a ✓ ✓ ✓
multidisciplinary environment
m.) understand at least one specialized field of Civil
Engineering practice ✓ ✓ ✓
1.5 Course Outcomes/Learning Outcome2s (CO/LO) and Relationship to
Student Outcomes
Course Outcomes / Learning Outcomes Program Outcomes/Student Outcomes
After completing this course, the student must
a b c d e f g h i j k l m
be able to:
LO1 – Identify earthquake engineering. E I E I E I E E I
LO2 - Understand the general theory of
vibration of single and multi degree-of-freedom
E I E I E I E E I
systems and its applications to civil
engineering structures.
LO3 - Differentiate and design structural
E I E I E I E E I
elements to resist seismic ground motions.
LO4 – Identify advanced seismic design

E I E I E I E E I
methods.
LO5 – Acquire a thorough knowledge of the
Code and Specifications used in earthquake
E I E I E I E E I
design;
LO6. Design civil engineering structures

subject to earthquake and other lateral forces
E I E I E I E E I
such as wind;
LO7. Understand the importance and

E I E I E I E E I
application of Earthquake Engineering in the
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Civil Engineering profession.
LO8. Lead or function as a member on

multidisciplinary teams that is knowledgeable
E I E I E I E E I
on contemporary issues.
LO9. Identify the impact of engineering

E I E I E I E E I
solutions in a global and societal context
Note: (I)Introductory Course to an Outcome (E)Enabling Course to an Outcome
(D)Demonstrative Course to an Outcome
1.6 COURSE DESCRIPTION:

This course deals with the fundamentals and basic concepts of seismic design as
well as the minimum standards for the analysis, design, and construction of
earthquake resistive structures. The course covers the introduction to seismology
and seismic analysis of buildings and structures, effects of earthquake on bearing
capacity, procedure for the design of earthquake resistant structures, calculation of
seismic forces, and dynamic analysis of structures. It also deals with the
determination of loads of structures due to motions, methods of analysis for lateral
forces, approximate dynamic analysis, time history analysis, concepts of mass,
damping, stiffness of structures, design for inelastic behavior and retrofitting of
existing building. Critical building configurations and appropriate methods of
analysis are also given emphasis. Applications and specifications as applied to
vertical and horizontal structures are also given importance. A thorough knowledge
and proficiency in Structural Theory is imperative.
1.7 LEARNING OUTCOMES (LO):

On completion of the course, the student is expected to be able to do the following:
On completion of the course, the student is expected to

ATTRIBUTES OF IDEAL
be able to do the following:
GRADUATE (AIG)
LEARNING OUTCOMES (LO)
Highly competent LO1. Identify earthquake engineering.
LO2 Understand the general theory of vibration of
single and multi degree-of-freedom systems and its
applications to civil engineering structures.
LO3 Differentiate and design structural elements to
resist seismic ground motions.
LO4 Identify advanced seismic design methods.
LO5 Acquire a thorough knowledge of the Code and
Specifications used in earthquake design;
LO6 Design civil engineering structures subject to
earthquake and other lateral forces such as wind;
Ethical professional LO7. Understand the importance and application of
Earthquake Engineering in the Civil Engineering
profession.
Service-oriented LO8. Lead or function as a member on multidisciplinary
teams that is knowledgeable on contemporary issues.
Contribute to country’s sustainable LO9. Identify the impact of engineering solutions in a
growth and development global and societal context
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1.8 FINAL COURSE OUTPUT:
To answer all the problem tests given at the end of each chapter.
1.9 RUBRIC FOR ASSESSMENT:

Rubric for problem solving
Score Description
Demonstrates complete understanding of the problem and appropriate units
5
are observed.
Demonstrates considerable understanding of the problem, however,
4
appropriate units are not observed.
Demonstrates partial understanding of the problem. Was able to use the
3
correct formula and was able to partially simplify the solution to the problem.
Demonstrates little understanding of the problem. Was able to identify what
2
is asked of the problem and identify the correct formula to be used.
Demonstrates no understanding of the problem. Was able to identify only
1
the GIVEN in the problem.
0 No response/task not attempted.
Rubric for grading system: The final grade for the academic performance of the
students shall be rated using the following system.
Final Grade Equivalent Grade Final Grade Equivalent Grade
97 - 100 1.00 82 – 84 2.25
94 – 96 1.25 79 – 81 2.50
91 – 93 1.50 76 – 78 2.75
88 – 90 1.75 75 3.00
85 – 87 2.00 below 75 5.00
1.10 OTHER REQUIREMENTS AND ASSESSMENTS:

Aside from the final output, the student will be assessed at other times during the
term by the following: Quizzes, Activities, Midterm and Final Examination and Class
Standing.
1.11 GRADING SYSTEM:
Lecture
Quizzes 40%
Mid – Term Exam 25%
Final Exam 25%
Class Participation 10%
TOTAL 100%
Passing Grade: 75%
1.12 LEARNING EPISODES:.

Learning Topics Week Learning Activities
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Outcomes (Lecture/ Discussion
Problem Solving)
Introduction/Orientation
1.1 Discussion of Vision,

Mission, Goals and
Objectives
Discussion
LO8, LO1 1.2 Discussion of the Course 1
Brainstorming
Syllabus
1.3 Discussion of the
University/College
Rules and Regulations
Introduction to Earthquake
Engineering
Causes of earthquakes and faulting; Discussion,
LO1 2 to 3
tectonic plates Cooperative Learning
Faulting and seismic zones of the Discussion/
LO1, LO5 3 to 4
Philippines Cooperative Learning
Measurement of earthquakes; Discussion/
LO1 5 to 6
magnitude vs intensity Cooperative Learning
LO2, LO3, Discussion/
Dynamics of vibration, attenuation 6 to 7
LO4 Cooperative Learning
Time history 7 to 8
Elastic and inelastic response spectra 8 to 9
LO2, LO3, Effects of soil on ground motion, 9 to Discussion/
LO4 liquefaction 10 Cooperative Learning
Earthquake effects and design of 10 to Discussion/

LO6
structures 11 Cooperative Learning
National Structural Code of the

Discussion/ Problem
LO1 to Philippines in relation to 11 to
Solving/Cooperative
LO9 earhquake-resistant structural 17
Learning
design
Overall assessment of student
LO 18
performance (FINEXAMINATION)
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2. Earthquake Engineering, Part 1

2.1 Duration
12 hours.
2.2 Objectives
To know what is earthquake

Learn the types of earthquake
Learn the plate tectonics theory
Learn earthquake faults
Familiarize with Philippine’s active faults
2.3 Pre-Assessment
Before starting the proper learning of the topics, kindly answer the following. This is
not a test but is a way for us to see what you already know or do not know about the
topics.
1 2 3 4
I have no I have a I have some I know so
Topics
idea very little idea much
idea
What is Earthquake
Engineering
Damaging Effects of
Earthquakes
Earthquakes Forces
Design for
Earthquakes Forces
Historical Background
Types of Earthquakes
Earth Structure
Plate Tectonics
Theory
Plate Interaction,
Formation of Earth’s
Surface Features, and
Earthquake
Generation
Earthquake Faults
Faulting and Seismic
Zones of the
Philippines
A. Types of
Earthquake
B. Earthquake
Monitoring System
C. Earhquake
Page 11
1 2 3 4
Topics
idea
Hazards
D. PHILVOCS
Earthquake Intensity
Scale
E. PHILVOCS – Active
Faults and Trenches
F. Earthquake
Monitoring
G. Philippines
Earthquake Model
2.4 Introduction
Ever since human beings first felt the earth shake, they have had the desire to know
why that happens and developed, as a result, numerous explanations for it. An early
attempt for a scientific explanation was made by Aristotle, who found an explanation
for the cause of earthquakes in the interior of the earth. Aristotle theorized that the
winds of the atmosphere were drawn into the caverns and passageways in the
interior of the earth and that earthquakes and the eruption of volcanoes were caused
by these winds as they were agitated by fire and moved about trying to escape.
Today, after the numerous scientific developments of the twentieth century and the
many years of geological and seismological studies, there seems to be a clear
understanding of what causes earthquakes, and where and how often they may
occur. This chapter, thus, introduces the modern theories that explain the
mechanisms that give birth to earthquakes and the phenomena that are deemed
responsible for these mechanisms. It will also describe the observed correlation
between such earthquake-generating mechanisms and some prominent features on
the earth’s surface, the locations where earthquakes occur, and the frequency of
earthquake occurrence. Additionally, a brief account will be given of the efforts being
made to use the current understanding of the earthquake-generating mechanism to
develop techniques for the near-term prediction of the size, time, and location of
future earthquakes.
2.4.1 What is Earthquake Engineering

Earthquake engineering may thus be considered the branch of civil engineering that
provides the principles and procedures for the planning, analysis, and design of
structures and facilities that are capable of resisting, to a preselected extent, the
effects of earthquakes.
More specifically, earthquake engineering provides the principles and procedures

for:
(a) the selection of the proper location of structures to minimize their exposure to
earthquake hazards
(b) the estimation of the earthquake forces that may affect structures and their
surrounding environment in a given time interval
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(c) the analysis of structures and the surrounding environment under the effect of
such forces to determine the maximum stresses and deformations that may
be imposed upon them
(d) the configuration, proportioning, and detailing of structures to make them
resist such stresses and deformations without the collapse or failure of any of
their components
(e) the improvement of soils and the stabilization of natural slopes to guarantee
the stability of structures supported on weak soils or slopes.
It is based on concepts from seismology, geology, probability theory, geotechnical

engineering, structural engineering, and structural dynamics.
2.4.2 Damaging Effects of Earthquakes

In general, an earthquake can damage a structure in three different ways:
(a) by causing a ground failure

a. surface faulting - is a geological feature (ground fissure) associated
with the generation of earthquakes. During an earthquake, the two
sides of a fault may slip relative to one another. If a structure lies
across a surface fault, then the structure may be damaged when the
fault slips during an earthquake.
b. ground cracking - is possible when the soil at the surface loses its
support and sinks, or when it is transported to a different location. It
occurs because when displaced, a soil layer breaks, causing fissures,
scarps, horsts, and grabens on the ground surface.
c. ground subsidence - is a phenomenon in which the ground surface of a
site settles or depresses as a result of the compaction induced by the
vibratory effect of earthquakes. Sites with loose or compressible soils
are the most likely to experience ground subsidence.
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d. landslides - are often triggered by strong earthquakes, these landslides

represent the failure of slopes that are marginally stable before the
earthquake and become unstable as a result of the violent shaking
generated by the earthquake.
e. soil liquefaction - is a phenomenon by which fine saturated granular

soils temporarily change from a solid to a liquid state and as a result,
lose their ability to carry loads or remain stable. It occurs when a
deposit of loose soil is vigorously shaken or vibrated, and thus it is
commonly observed during earthquakes. It is caused by a water
pressure build-up that is generated when a saturated soil is compacted
by the effect of the earthquake vibrations.
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(b) by producing other effects that may indirectly affect the structure
a. tsunamis - large sea waves generated by a sudden depression of the
ocean floor. The dislocation of the ocean floor produced by the
slippage of undersea earthquake faults is a common source of
tsunamis. When a tsunami reaches a coastal area, its height may
increase to catastrophic levels and strike the area with a tremendous
force.
b. seiches - are long-period oscillating waves generated by distant

earthquakes in enclosed bodies of water such as bays, lakes,
reservoirs, and even swimming pools. Seiches occur when the natural
frequency of a water body matches the frequency of the incoming
earthquake waves, that is, when the water body resonates with the
earthquake waves.
c. Fires - by far, have been the most devastating indirect effect of
earthquakes. Fires are started when, for example, an earthquake
breaks gas pipes or destroys oil-storage tanks, and overturned stoves,
furnaces, and heaters, or downed power lines, ignite the gas or spilled
oil.
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(c) by shaking the ground on which the structure rests - may be considered the
earthquake effect that is the most damaging to structures. During an
earthquake, as is commonly known, the ground moves vertically and
horizontally, at times strongly and violently. This motion, in turn, makes a
structure lying on the shaking ground oscillate back and forth and up and
down and makes the structure experience large stresses and deformations in
this process
2.4.3 Earthquakes Forces

For structural engineers and from a conceptual point of view, earthquakes represent
just another force for which structures need to be designed. Earthquake forces,
however, possess several characteristics that make them unique in comparison with
any other forces, such as gravity, wind, or thermal forces.
Earthquake forces, the result of a back and forth, and up and down, motion of the
ground that supports a structure, can be exceptionally large in magnitude, can
change rapidly and erratically during the duration of the earthquake, and may be
radically different from earthquake to earthquake, from one site to another, from one
type of foundation soil to another, and from one structure to another.
Furthermore, earthquake forces depend on the properties of the structure. This

means that if one modifies such properties, one also modifies the earthquake forces
that will affect the structure. It also means that they can—and usually do—change if
the earthquake damages the structure. Most importantly, earthquake forces are
unpredictable. The reason is that little is known today about the mechanism that
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generates earthquakes, and not much more is known about the factors that shape
the earthquake–generated ground shaking that gives rise to earthquake forces.
As a result, the magnitude and characteristics of earthquake forces can only be, at
best, roughly estimated.
Earthquake forces are also distinct from other forces in the sense that they affect the
strength and behavior of structural materials. That is, the properties of structural
materials under earthquake loads are different from the properties that are
considered when designing, for example, for gravity loads. This is owed to the fact
that earthquake forces are applied suddenly, are relatively short, and change in
direction many times during the earthquake. Thus, the magnitude of the earthquake
forces is only part of the information a structural engineer needs to know to properly
design a structure against these forces.
2.4.4 Design for Earthquake Forces

Because of the unpredictability of earthquake forces, the uncertainty of their
occurrence, and the devastating effects they may produce, the design of an
earthquake-resistant structure is an elaborate process that requires the participation
of architects, seismologists, geologists, soil engineers, foundation engineers, and
structural engineers. In general, it involves many of the following steps:
(a) Identification of the sources where future earthquakes are likely to occur with
the aid of historical information, seismological data, and geological studies
(b) Determination of the probable size of future earthquakes based on the
attributes of the identified seismic sources
(c) Definition of the distance and orientation of each seismic source concerning
the structure’s location
(d) Establishment of semi-empirical equations that correlate ground motion
characteristics with earthquake size, seismic source orientation and distance,
and site soil conditions with the help of instrumental and observational records
from previous earthquakes
(e) Dynamic analysis of the soil deposits at the structure’s site to quantify the
ground motion amplification that may be induced as a result of their flexibility
(f) Selection or modification of structural configuration, structural system, and
structural materials to minimize undesirable structural responses and best
resist the expected earthquake forces
(g) Dynamic analysis of the structure and its components to estimate the
maximum values of the internal forces and deformations that may be
generated by a ground motion with the established characteristics
(h) Analysis of foundation soil to assess its susceptibility to earthquake effects
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(i) Verification of analytical results using laboratory tests of scaled models using
shaking tables, or field tests of full-scale models using artificial means to
generate ground vibrations
(j) Configuration, proportioning, and detailing of the members and connections of
the structure by the estimated maximum internal forces and deformations
(k) Improvement of foundation soil properties to reduce soil’s susceptibility to
earthquake effects
2.4.5 Historical Background

Robert Mallet, an Irish civil engineer, is often cited as the first earthquake engineer,
and his report on the 1857 Naples earthquake is considered to be the first scientific
investigation that included observations of the seismological, geological, and
engineering aspects of an earthquake.
Modern research on earthquake-resistant structures, however, began in Japan in

1891, the year of the Nobi earthquake (7000 deaths; also known as the Mino-Owari
earthquake), with the formation of an earthquake investigation committee set up by
the Japanese government. It was this committee that first proposed the use of a
lateral force equal to a fraction of the total weight of a building to account for the
forces exerted on buildings by earthquakes.
Similar developments in Italy after the devastating Messina earthquake in 1908

(58,000 deaths) led to the appointment of a committee composed of practicing and
academic engineers to study the earthquake and the formulation of practical
recommendations for the seismic design of buildings. In its report, this committee
recommended that the first story of a building is designed for a horizontal force equal
to 1/12 of the building weight above and that its second and third stories be designed
for a horizontal force equal to 1/8 of the building weight above.
These Japanese and Italian disasters thus gave birth to practical considerations for
the earthquake design of structures and earthquake engineering as a new branch of
engineering.
In the United States, interest in earthquakes and earthquake engineering began after
the 1906 earthquake in San Francisco, California (1000 deaths), which caused great
damage and loss of lives. At that time, however, California was still sparsely
populated and, therefore, the interest generated by this earthquake was not enough
to motivate public officials to develop earthquake design regulations. It was only after
the 1933 earthquake in Long Beach, California, that American engineers became
fully aware of the dangers of earthquakes, and a great impetus was given to the
study of seismology and earthquake-resistant designs. As they became fully
interested, the first inquiry was to find out the nature of the motion of the ground
during an earthquake. Special instruments were designed and deployed at various
areas of high seismicity to record such a motion permanently. Congress charged the
U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey with the responsibility to study and report strong
earthquake motions. At about the same time, new building codes were drawn up and
enforced. The California Legislature passed the Field Act, which made it mandatory
for all school buildings to be designed and built to resist earthquakes.
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Shortly after, the State of California adopted the Riley Act, which made it mandatory
to design most buildings in the state for a lateral load equal to 2% of the sum of their
dead and live loads. The Pacific Coast Building Officials (to become later the
International Conference of Building Officials) published the nation’s first seismic
design provisions in 1927 in its Uniform Building Code.
Ever since earthquake engineering has unfolded at a steady pace and its principles
spread all over the world. It has rapidly evolved into a science-based discipline, with
a large body of knowledge and institutionalized research and educational programs.
Although learning takes place at a very slow pace due to the infrequency of large
earthquakes, advances in methods of dynamic analysis and experimental research
have provided engineers with valuable data to gain, year after year, a further
understanding of earthquakes and the effects of earthquakes in civil engineering
structures and facilities, and to develop new devices and techniques to protect these
structures and facilities from such effects. As a result, cities around the world and the
people living in them are little by little becoming less vulnerable to the devastating
effect of earthquakes.
2.5 Types of Earthquakes

In the most general sense of the word, an earthquake is nothing else but a
phenomenon that involves the motion or shaking of the earth’s crust. In this general
sense, an earthquake may be, therefore, caused by:
(a) tectonic forces (the forces involved in the formation of the earth’s features),
(b) volcanic activity,
(c) conventional and nuclear explosions,
(d) the sliding or fall of a large soil or rock mass (such as in the case of landslides
and the collapse of mines and caverns),
(e) a meteorite impact,
(f) the filling of reservoirs and wells
The earthquakes produced by volcanic activity, a soil or rock mass collapse, a

conventional explosion, a meteorite impact, or the filling of reservoirs and wells are,
for the most part, of a relatively small size and affect only an area of limited extent.
Earthquakes generated by a nuclear explosion may be strong, but the factors that
generate these earthquakes are known and may be controlled.
Earthquakes generated by tectonic forces may be exceptionally large and may affect
a large geographical region at once. Most of the catastrophic earthquakes that have
occurred through historical times have been of the tectonic type.
2.6 Earth Structure

The earth is roughly spherical, with an equatorial diameter of 12,740 km and a polar
velocities at the equator due to the earth’s rotation. Its mass is ∼4.9 × 1021 kg,
diameter of 12,700 km, the higher equatorial diameter caused by the higher
which implies an average specific gravity of 5.5. As the specific gravity of the rocks
at the surface of the earth is between 2.7 and 3, it may be, thus, inferred that the
materials in the interior have higher specific gravities.
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In a macroscopic scale, the interior of the earth is divided into four concentric layers:
(a) inner core - lies at the center of the earth with a radius of ∼1216 km. It is
thought to be solid, is composed of nickel and iron, and has a specific gravity
of ∼15.
(b) outer core - further toward the surface is the outer core with a thickness of
∼2270 km. It appears to be in a liquid state and is composed mainly of iron,
oxygen, and silicon. Its specific gravity is estimated to be between 9 and 12
(c) mantle - mantle extends from the base of the crust to a depth of 2885 km and
is composed of dense granitic and basaltic rocks in a viscous, semi-molten
state, the result of temperatures as high as 2000°C (for comparison steel
melts at 1500°C). It has a specific gravity between 4 and 5 and is divided into
the upper mantle and the lower mantle to reflect the existence of a
discontinuity in the properties of its composting materials.
(d) crust - the crust thickness ranges between 25 and 60 km under the continents
and between 4 and 6 km under the oceans. In addition to being thinner, the
oceanic crust is also, in general, more uniform and denser than the
continental crust. The crust is composed of granitic and basaltic rocks.
Internal structure of the earth.
Cross-section of the earth’s crust under the oceans and continents.
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2.7 Plate Tectonics Theory
The theory of plate tectonics postulates that the earth’s crust is fractured and thus
divided into a small number of large and rigid pieces, referred to as plates. The size
of these plates varies from a few hundred to many thousands of kilometers. Their
location, as well as their given names, is shown below:
Major tectonic plates of the earth and their general direction of movement.
The theory of plate tectonics also postulates that these plates float on the semi-
molten asthenosphere and that they move relative to one another. At some
locations, these plates are moving apart (diverge) and at others, the plates are
moving toward each other (converge) or sliding past each other, as shown above.
Plate tectonics theory also asserts that plate motion is responsible for the long-term,
large-scale formation and changes occurring on the earth’s surface and for most of
the seismic and volcanic activity around the world. It claims, further, that earthquakes
take place near these plate boundaries as a result of the stresses that build up in the
earth’s crust as the plates tend to move and interact with one another.
The theory of plate tectonics has evolved from the theory of continental drift originally
proposed by the German scientist Alfred Wegener in 1915. Wegener’s theory of
continental drift proclaimed that the earth’s surface was not static, but dynamic, and
that the oceans and continents are in constant motion. He based his assertion on the
similarity between the coastlines, geology, and life forms of eastern South America
and western Africa, and the southern part of India and the northern part of Australia.
He believed that 200 million years ago the earth had only one large continent that he
called Pangaea (see below) and that this large continent broke into pieces that
slowly drifted toward the current position of the current continents.
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Although the theory of continental drift was received with contempt when it was
originally proposed, today this theory and that of plate tectonics have become widely
accepted and acknowledged as one of the greatest advances in the earth sciences.
Their acceptance has come as a result of studies conducted after the 1960s, which,
with the help of a modern worldwide network of earthquake-recording instruments,
the developing of new techniques such as deep-water echo sounding, and a detailed
exploration of the ocean floor, have provided a strong supporting evidence of the
historical movement of the continents postulated by the theory of continental drift.
Moreover, precise geodetic measurements have shown that the plates identified by
the plate tectonics theory are indeed moving relative to one another and that this
motion is between 1 and 13 cm/year.
2.8 Plate Interaction, Formation of Earth’s Surface Features, and

Earthquake Generation
When two plates diverge, a rift is developed, creating a condition where molten
basaltic magma from the asthenosphere rises to lift the plate edges and create new
crust. Most of the known plate divergence occurs in what is now the ocean area.
This process of plate divergence, known as sea-floor spreading, has been
responsible for the formation of the mid-oceanic ridges and rises (submarine
mountain chains) as well as the deep valleys in between. Earthquake and volcano
activity is involved along the boundaries of these diverging plates, although the
earthquakes that occur there are usually of low magnitude. Earthquakes are
triggered when the tensional forces that produce the plate divergence fracture the
newly formed crust. Spreading ridges may protrude above the ocean as in the case
of the island of Iceland, where, with its 150 volcanoes, volcanic activity is nearly
continuous
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When two plates converge, the plates either collide head-on or one dives beneath
the other. Where an oceanic plate and a continental plate converge, the oceanic
plate, being thinner and heavier, tends to be pushed below the continental plate
(dips) to form what is known as a subduction zone. In this process, the edge of the
oceanic plate below the continental one melts and becomes part of the
asthenosphere. The creation of new crust where plates diverge is thus balanced by
an equivalent loss at a subduction zone, which together complete a continuous cycle
that replaces the ocean floor every 200 million years or so.
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Where plate edges slide past each other, the crust is neither created nor destroyed,
nor do changes occur on the surface of the earth. The boundaries where this type of
interaction occurs are often called transform faults. A transform fault develops where
the axis of a spreading ridge or a subduction zone has been offset. As it may be
observed from the jagged lines and erratic curves that identify the spreading ridges
and subduction zones, transform faults are a rather common occurrence, a condition
brought about by the irregular fracturing of the lithosphere. The sliding of one plate
against another generates earthquake activity but no volcanism. Earthquakes in
these boundaries typically occur at shallow depths, that is, between 5 and 40 km
below the surface.
The overall interrelationship between the relative motions of the tectonic plates,
together with some of the most important features on the earth’s surface, is
illustrated below:
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2.9 Earthquake Faults

When the boundaries between the earth’s tectonic plates manifest themselves on
the surface of the earth, they are seen as long uneven fractures or fissures on a rock
formation whose sides have moved relative to each other. Geologists call these
fractures or fissures as faults and identify them by the abrupt discontinuities on the
structure of the adjacent rock and the irregularities on the earth’s surface features
along the fault line. Faults may range in length from several meters to hundreds of
kilometers, extend to considerable depths, and exhibit displacements of several
meters. In many instances, faults are not characterized by a single fissure, but by a
major fissure and an intricate series of fractures that branch out beyond the edges of
the tectonic plates. They resemble the failure plane of a concrete cylinder tested in
the laboratory and the multiple cracks that surround this failure plane. A well-known
example is the San Andreas Fault and its complex network of subsidiary faults.
The existence of a fault at some location on the earth’s surface is indicative that a
relative motion took place between its two sides at some time in the past. In some
faults, this motion takes place gradually and in others intermittently during several
intervals. The motion takes place intermittently when the rock along the fault locks
and undergoes a displacement only at those times when the rock breaks apart.
Earthquakes occur at these faults and thus they are identified as earthquake faults.
In some of these faults, however, the last displacement has occurred tens of
thousands of years ago and are thus considered to be inactive faults.
When the two sides of a fault move past each other, the relative motion is horizontal
and the fault is called a transcurrent or strike-slip fault. Strike is the angle measured
from the north made by the horizontal line defined by the intersection of a fault plane
with the earth’s surface. Thus, the relative motion (slip) in strike-slip faults occurs
along the strike of the fault. A strike-slip fault is considered to be of the left-lateral
type if, as seen from either side, the other side of the fault slips toward the left.
Conversely, the fault is considered to be of the right-lateral type if it slips toward the
right. Slippage of a strike-slip fault leaves offset streams, trees, and fences.
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If, on the other hand, the two sides of a fault press against each other or pull away
from each other, then the relative motion is primarily vertical. In this case, the fault is
called a dip-slip fault because the slip occurs along the direction of the fault’s dip. Dip
is the angle formed by the plane of the fault concerning the surface of the earth. If in
a deep fault the upper rock block moves downward, the fault is called a normal fault.
If, on the other hand, the upper rock block moves upward, then the fault is
considered to be a reverse or thrust fault. The slip in normal faults occurs in
response to extensional strains and results in a horizontal lengthening of the crust. In
contrast, the slip in a reverse fault occurs in response to compressional strains and
produces a horizontal shortening of the crust.
2.10 Faulting and Seismic Zones of the Philippines

An earthquake is a weak to violent shaking of the ground produced by the sudden
movement of rock materials below the earth’s surface.
The earthquakes originate in the tectonic plate boundary. The focus is the point
inside the earth where the earthquake started, sometimes called the hypocenter, and
the point on the surface of the earth directly above the focus is called the epicenter.
There are two ways by which we can measure the strength of an earthquake:
magnitude and intensity. Magnitude is proportional to the energy released by an
earthquake at the focus. It is calculated from earthquakes recorded by an instrument
called a seismograph. It is represented by Arabic Numbers (e.g. 4.8, 9.0). Intensity
on the other hand is the strength of an earthquake as perceived and felt by people in
a certain locality. It is a numerical rating based on the relative effects on people,
objects, environment, and structures in the surrounding. The intensity is generally
higher near the epicenter. It is represented by Roman Numerals (e.g. II, IV, IX). In
the Philippines, the intensity of an earthquake is determined using the PHIVOLCS
Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS).
2.10.1 Types of Earthquake:

There are two types of earthquakes: tectonic and volcanic earthquakes. Tectonic
earthquakes are produced by sudden movement along faults and plate boundaries.
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Earthquakes induced by rising lava or magma beneath active volcanoes are called
volcanic earthquakes.
2.10.2 Earthquake Monitoring System:

At present, PHIVOLCS operates 101 seismic monitoring stations all over the
Philippines. These stations are equipped with seismometers that detect and record
earthquakes. Data is sent to the PHIVOLCS Data Receiving Center (DRC) to
determine earthquake parameters such as magnitude, depth of focus, and epicenter.
Together with reported felt intensities in the area (if any), earthquake information is
released once these data are determined.
2.10.3 Earthquake Hazards
2.10.3.1 Ground Rupture:

Deformation on the ground that marks, the intersection of the fault with the earth’s
surface.
Effects: fissuring, displacement of the ground due to movement of the fault
2.10.3.2 Ground Shaking:

Disruptive up, down, and sideways vibration of the ground during an earthquake.
Effects: ground shaking are damage or collapse of structure; may consequently

cause hazards such as liquefaction and landslide.
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2.10.3.3 Liquefaction:
Phenomenon wherein sediments, especially near bodies of water, behave like liquid
similar to quicksand.
Effects: sinking and/ or tilting of structure above it; sand boil; fissuring
2.10.3.4 Tsunami:
Series of waves caused commonly by an earthquake under the sea.
Effects: flooding; coastal erosion; drowning of people and damage to properties
2.10.4 PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS)
Intensity
Shaking Description
Scale
Perceptible to people under favorable circumstances.
Scarcely
I Delicately balanced objects are disturbed slightly. Still
Perceptible
Water in containers oscillates slowly.
Felt by a few individuals at rest indoors. Hanging objects
II Slightly Felt swing slightly. Still Water in containers oscillates
noticeably.
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Intensity
Shaking Description
Scale
Felt by many people indoors especially on upper floors of
buildings. Vibration is felt like one passing of a light truck.
III Weak Dizziness and nausea are experienced by some people.
Hanging objects swing moderately. Still water in containers
oscillates moderately.
Felt generally by people indoors and by some people
outdoors. Light sleepers are awakened. The vibration is felt
like a passing of a heavy truck. Hanging objects swing
Moderately considerably. Dinner, plates, glasses, windows and doors
IV
Strong rattle. Floors and walls of wood-framed buildings creak.
Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Liquids in containers
are slightly disturbed. Water in containers oscillates
strongly. Rumbling sound may sometimes be heard.
Generally felt by most people indoors and outdoors. Many
sleeping people are awakened. Some are frightened, some
run outdoors. Strong shaking and rocking felt throughout
the building. Hanging objects swing violently. Dining
V Strong
utensils clatter and clink; some are broken. Small, light, and
unstable objects may fall or overturn. Liquids spill from
filled open containers. Standing vehicles rock noticeably.
The shaking of leaves and twigs of trees are noticeable.
Many people are frightened; many run outdoors. Some
people lose their balance. motorists feel like driving in flat
tires. Heavy objects or furniture move or may be shifted.
Small church bells may ring. Wall plaster may crack. Very
VI Very Strong old or poorly built houses and man-made structures are
slightly damaged though well-built structures are not
affected. Limited rockfalls and rolling boulders occur in hilly
to mountainous areas and escarpments. Trees are
noticeably shaken.
Most people are frightened and run outdoors. People find it
difficult to stand on the upper floors. Heavy objects and
furniture overturn or topple. Big church bells may ring. Old
or poorly-built structures suffer considerable damage.
Some well-built structures are slightly damaged. Some
VII Destructive cracks may appear on dikes, fish ponds, road surface, or
concrete hollow block walls. Limited liquefaction, lateral
spreading, and landslides are observed. Trees are shaken
strongly. (Liquefaction is a process by which loose
saturated sand lose strength during an earthquake and
behave like liquid).
People are panicky. People find it difficult to stand even
outdoors. Many well-built buildings are considerably
damaged. Concrete dikes and the foundation of bridges are
destroyed by ground settling or toppling. Railway tracks are
Very
VIII bent or broken. Tombstones may be displaced, twisted, or
Destructive
overturned. Utility posts, towers, and monuments mat tilt or
topple. Water and sewer pipes may be bent, twisted, or
broken. Liquefaction and lateral spreading cause man-
made structure to sink, tilt or topple. Numerous landslides
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Intensity
Shaking Description
Scale
and rockfalls occur in mountainous and hilly areas.
Boulders are thrown out from their positions particularly
near the epicenter. Fissures and faults rapture may be
observed. Trees are violently shaken. Water splash or
stopover dikes or banks of rivers.
People are forcibly thrown to the ground. Many cry and

shake with fear. Most buildings are damaged. bridges and
elevated concrete structures are toppled or destroyed.
Numerous utility posts, towers, and monuments are tilted,
toppled, or broken. Water sewer pipes are bent, twisted, or
IX Devastating broken. Landslides and liquefaction with lateral spreadings
and sand boils are widespread. the ground is distorted into
undulations. Trees are shaken very violently with some
toppled or broken. Boulders are commonly thrown out.
River water splashes violently on slops over dikes and
banks.
Practically all man-made structures are destroyed. Massive
landslides and liquefaction, large scale subsidence, and
Completely uplifting of landforms and many ground fissures are
X
Devastating observed. Changes in river courses and destructive
seiches in large lakes occur. Many trees are toppled,
broken, and uprooted.
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2.10.5 PHIVOLCS – Active Faults and Trenches
2.10.6 Earthquake Monitoring

The Institute's National Earthquake Monitoring and Information aims to provide
accurate and timely information on significant earthquakes and tsunami events that
may significantly impact the Philippines; and to ensure the accessibility and integrity
of earthquake data.
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Earthquake monitoring in the country has been enhanced with the operation of
ninety-two (92) Seismic Network, ten (10) Seismic Stations of which were
commissioned in 2016. With 64 stations in 2010, PHIVOLCS-DOST surpassed its
target of establishing an 85-station network by end of 2016.
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2.10.7 Philippines Earthquake Model
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2.11 Post-Assessment
After the proper learning of the topics, kindly answer the following. This is a way for
us to see the progress of your learning.
1 2 3 4
Topics
idea
What is Earthquake
Engineering
Damaging Effects of
Earthquakes
Earthquakes Forces
Design for
Earthquakes Forces
Historical Background
Types of Earthquakes
Earth Structure
Plate Tectonics
Theory
Plate Interaction,
Formation of Earth’s
Surface Features, and
Earthquake
Generation
Earthquake Faults
Faulting and Seismic
Zones of the
Philippines
A. Types of
Earthquake
B. Earthquake
Monitoring System
C. Earhquake
Hazards
D. PHILVOCS
Earthquake Intensity
Scale
E. PHILVOCS – Active
Faults and Trenches
F. Earthquake
Monitoring
G. Philippines
Earthquake Model
2.12 Requirements/Deliverables
Answer the following:
1. What is an earthquake?
2. What are the different factors that may cause an earthquake?
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3. What is the mechanism that causes tectonic earthquakes?
4. What are the basic concepts postulated by the plate tectonics theory?
5. In what directions are the earth’s tectonic plates moving about one another?
6. What is the relationship between plate tectonics and the formation of ocean
trenches,
7. What is a transform fault?
8. Where do transform faults commonly develop?
9. Is volcanism associated with transform faults?
10. What is the prevalent theory that explains the movement of tectonic plates?
11. What is an earthquake fault?
12. When it is said that an earthquake fault is inactive?
13. What are the different types of earthquake faults?
14. What is the direction of motion in a strike-slip fault?
15. If during an earthquake a fault ruptures through your property, would you gain
or lose land if the fault type is (a) strike-slip, (b) normal, or (c) thrust? mid-
oceanic ridges, and mountain ranges?
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3.1 Duration
12 hours.
3.2 Objectives
Know the measurements of earthquake

Learn the dynamics of vibrations: attenuation
Learn about earthquake’s time history
3.3 Pre-Assessment
topics.
1 2 3 4
Topics
idea
Measurement’s of
Earthquakes
A. Intensity Scale
B. Seismographs and
Seismograms
C. Magnitude Scale
D. Intensity-Magniture
Relationships
Dynamics of
Vibrations: Attenuation
A. Earthquake
Occurrence and
Return Period
B. Ground-Motion
Models (Attenuation
Relationships)
C. Features of Strong-
Motion Data for
Attenuation
Relationship
D. Attenuation
Relationship for
Europe
E. Attenuation
Relationship for Japan
F. Attenuation
Relationship for North
America
G. Worldwide
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1 2 3 4
Topics
idea
Attenuation
Relationship
Time History
3.4 Measurements of Earthquakes

As is well known to those who have experienced them, not all earthquakes have the
same intensity. Some are barely felt, some are felt strongly but cause only moderate
damage, and yet some others are so strong that are capable of producing
widespread and catastrophic damage.
From the engineering point of view, it is thus important to have a scale with which
one can measure or quantify the intensity of earthquakes. This chapter will describe
the different scales that throughout the years have been devised to measure the size
of earthquakes and are still of relevance today. It will also describe the instruments
that are employed nowadays to record the ground motions generated by
earthquakes and collect the information that is needed to determine the earthquake
size and the location where earthquakes originate. It will present, also, some
techniques to determine this location.
3.4.1 Intensity Scale

Intensity scales are among the first measurement systems devised to characterize
the strength of earthquakes. These scales are based on a qualitative description of
the damage caused by an earthquake to the natural and built environment at a
particular location and the associated human reaction.
The use of an intensity scale to measure the strength of an earthquake dates back to
1564 with the introduction of the Gastaldi scale.
Of a more recent vintage are the intensity scales developed in the 1880s by M. S. de
Rossi in Italy and Francois Forel in Switzerland for European conditions, and a
refined version of these scales devised by the Italian seismologist Giuseppe Mercalli
in 1902.
In recent times, the most widely used intensity scale in North America and other
parts of the world is a modified version of the Mercalli scale introduced by Harry O.
Wood and Frank Newman in 1931 for U.S. conditions. This scale, known as the
Modified Mercalli Intensity scale or MMI scale, is also based on an assessment of
the local destructiveness induced by an earthquake and the way people react to it. It
is composed of 12 grades, ranging from Grade I for an earthquake that is not felt by
the people to Grade XII for an earthquake that causes destruction.
Other modern intensity scales are the 8-grade scale of the Japanese Meteorological
Agency (JMA), developed in 1949 for Japanese conditions, and the 12-grade
Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik (MSK) scale, introduced in 1964 and intended for
international use.
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3.4.1.1 Modified Mercalli Intensity (MM) Scale
I. Not felt except by a very few under especially favorable circumstances.

II. Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings.
Delicately suspended objects may swing.
III. Felt quite noticeably indoors, especially on upper floors of buildings, but many
people do not recognize it as an earthquake. Standing motor cars may rock
slightly. Vibration like the passing of a truck. Duration estimated.
IV. During the day felt indoors by many, outdoors by few. At night some
awakened. Dishes, windows, doors disturbed; walls make cracking sound.
Sensation like heavy truck striking building. Standing motor cars rocked
noticeably.
V. Felt by nearly everyone, many awakened. Some dishes, windows, etc.,
broken; a few instances of cracked plaster; unstable objects overturned.
Disturbances of trees, poles, and other tall objects are sometimes noticed.
Pendulum clocks may stop.
VI. Felt by all, many frightened and run outdoors. Some heavy furniture moved; a
few instances of fallen plaster or damaged chimneys. Damage slight.
VII. Everybody runs outdoors. Damage negligible in buildings of good design and
construction; slight to moderate in well-built ordinary structures; considerable
in poorly built or badly designed structures; some chimneys broken. Noticed
by persons driving motor cars.
VIII. Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable in ordinary
substantial buildings, with partial collapse; great in poorly built structures.
Panel walls are thrown out of frame structures. Fall of chimneys, factory
stacks, columns, monuments, walls. Heavy furniture overturned. Sand and
mud ejected in small amounts. Changes in well water. Persons driving motor
cars disturbed.
IX. Damage considerable in specially designed structures; well-designed frame
structures thrown out of plumb; great in substantial buildings, with partial
collapse. Buildings shifted off foundations. The ground cracked
conspicuously. Underground pipes are broken.
X. Some well-built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry and frame
structures destroyed with foundations; ground badly cracked. Rails bent.
Landslides considerable from river banks and steep slopes. Shifted sand and
mud. Water splashed over banks.
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XI. Few, if any, (masonry) structures remain standing. Bridges destroyed. Broad
fissures in the ground. Underground pipelines completely out of service. Earth
slumps and landslips in soft ground. Rails bent greatly.
XII. Damage total. Waves are seen on the ground surface. Lines of sight and level
are distorted. Objects are thrown into the air.
3.4.1.2 Japanese Seismic Intensity (JMA) Scale

0. No sensation: registered by seismographs but no perception by the human
body
I. Slight: felt by persons at rest or persons especially sensitive to earthquakes
II. Weak: felt by most persons; the slight rattling of doors and Japanese latticed
paper sliding doors (shoji)
III. Rather strong: shaking of houses and buildings; the heavy rattling of doors
and shoji; swinging of chandeliers and other hanging objects; movement of
liquids in vessels
IV. Strong: strong shaking of houses and buildings; overturning of unstable

objects; spilling of liquids out of vessels four-fifths full
V. Very strong: cracking of plaster of walls; overturning of tombstones and stone

lanterns; damage to masonry chimneys and mud-plastered warehouses
3.4.1.3 Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik Intensity (MKS) Scale

I. Not noticeable. The intensity of vibration is below the limit of sensibility.
Tremor is detected and recorded by seismographs only.
II. Scarcely noticeable. Vibration is felt only by individual people at rest in

houses, especially on the upper floors of buildings.
III. Weak, partially observed only. Earthquake is felt indoors by a few people,
outdoors only in favorable circumstances. Vibration is like that due to the
passing of a light truck. Attentive observers notice a slight swinging of hanging
objects, somewhat more heavily on upper floors.
IV. Largely observed. Earthquake is felt indoors by many people, outdoors by

few. Here and there people awake, but no one is frightened. The vibration is
like that due to the passing of a heavily loaded truck. Windows, doors, and
dishes rattle. Floors and walls creak. Furniture begins to shake. Hanging
objects swing slightly. Liquids in open vessels are slightly disturbed. In
standing motor cars the shock is noticeable.
V. Awakening. Earthquake is felt indoors by all, outdoors by many. Many

sleeping people awake. A few run outdoors. Animals become uneasy.
Buildings tremble throughout. Hanging objects swing considerably. Pictures
knock against walls or swing out of place. Occasionally pendulum clocks stop.
Few unstable objects may be overturned or shifted. Open doors and windows
are thrust open and slam back again. Liquids spill in small amounts from well-
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filled open containers. The sensation of vibration is like that due to a heavy
object falling inside the building. Slight damage of Grade1 1 in buildings of
Type 2 A is possible. Sometimes change in the flow of springs.
VI. Frightening. Felt by most indoors and outdoors. Many people in buildings are
frightened and run outdoors. A few persons lose their balance. Domestic
animals run out of their stalls. In a few instances, dishes and glassware may
break, books fall. Heavy furniture may move and small steeple bells may ring.
Damage of Grade 1 is sustained in single buildings of Type B and many of
Type A. Damage in few buildings of Type A is of Grade 2. In few cases cracks
up to widths of 1 cm possible in wet ground. In mountains, occasional
landslips; changes in the flow of springs, and level of well water are observed.
VII. Damage to buildings. Most people are frightened and run outdoors. Many find
it difficult to stand. The vibration is noticed by persons driving motor cars.
Large bells ring. In many buildings of Type C damage of Grade 1 is caused; in
many buildings of Type B damage is of Grade 2. Many buildings of Type A
suffer damage of Grade 3, few of Grade 4. In single instances landslips of
roadway on steep slopes; cracks in roads; seams of pipelines damaged;
cracks in stone walls. Waves are formed on the water, and water is made
turbid by mud stirred up. Water levels in wells change, and the flow of springs
changes. In few cases dry springs have their flow restored and existing
springs stop flowing. In isolated instances, parts of sandy or gravelly banks
slip off.
VIII. Destruction of buildings. Fright and panic; also persons driving motor cars are
disturbed. Here and their branches of trees break off. Even heavy furniture
moves and partly overturns. Hanging lamps are in part damaged. Many
buildings of Type C suffer damage of Grade 2, few of Grade 3. Many buildings
of Type B suffer damage of Grade 3 and a few of Grade 4, and many
buildings of Type A suffer damage of Grade 4 and a few of Grade 5.
Occasional breakage of pipe seams. Memorials and monuments move and
twist. Tombstones overturn. Stone walls collapse. Small landslips in hollows
and on banked roads on steep slopes; cracks in ground up to widths of
several centimeters. Water in lakes becomes turbid. Dry wells refill and
existing wells become dry. In many cases change in flow and level of water.
IX. General damage to buildings. General panic; considerable damage to

furniture. Animals run to and fro in confusion and cry. Many buildings of Type
C suffer damage of Grade 3, a few of Grade 4. Many buildings of Type B
show damage of Grade 4, a few of Grade 5. Monuments and columns fall.
Considerable damage to reservoirs; underground pipes partly broken. In
individual cases, railway lines are bent and roadways are damaged. On flat
land overflow of water, sand, and mud is often observed. Ground cracks to
widths of up to 10 cm, on slopes and river banks more than 10 cm;
furthermore a large number of slight cracks in the ground; fall of rocks, many
landslides, and earth flows; large waves on water. Dry wells renew their flow
and existing wells dry up.
X. General destruction of buildings. Many buildings of Type C suffer damage of

Grade 4, a few of Grade 5. Many buildings of Type B show damage of Grade
5; most of Type A have destruction Type 5; critical damage to dams and dikes
and severe damage to bridges. Railway lines are bent slightly. Underground
pipes are broken or bent. Road paving and asphalt show waves. In-ground,
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cracks up to widths of several decimeters, sometimes up to 1 m. Parallel to
watercourses broad fissures occur. Loose ground slides from steep slopes.
From river banks and steep coasts, considerable landslides are possible. In
coastal areas displacement of sand and mud; change of water level in wells;
water from canals, lakes, rivers, etc., thrown on land. New lakes occur.
XI. Catastrophe. Severe damage even to well-built buildings, bridges, water

dams, and railway lines; highways become useless; underground pipes
destroyed. Ground considerably distorted by broad cracks and fissures, as
well as by movement in horizontal and vertical directions; numerous landslips
and falls of rock.
XII. Landscape changes. Practically all structures above and below ground are
greatly damaged or destroyed. The surface of the ground is radically
changed. Considerable ground cracks with extensive vertical and horizontal
movements are observed. Falls of rock and slumping of river banks over wide
areas; lakes are dammed; waterfalls appear, and rivers are deflected.
Damage to buildings is classified into the following five grades:
Grade 1: Slight damage: Fine cracks in plaster; fall of small pieces of

plaster
Grade 2: Moderate damage: Small cracks in walls; fall of fairly large pieces of
plaster; particles slip off; cracks in chimneys; parts of chimneys fall
down
Grade 3: Heavy damage: Large and deep cracks in walls; fall of chimneys
Grade 4: Destruction: Gaps in walls; parts of buildings may collapse;
separate parts of building lose their cohesion; inner walls and filled-
in walls of the frame collapse
Grade 5: Total damage: Total collapse of buildings
Buildings are classified into the following three types:

Structure A: Buildings in fieldstone, rural structures, adobe houses, clay
houses
Structure B: Ordinary brick buildings, buildings of the large block and
prefabricated type, half-timbered structures, buildings in natural
hewn stone
Structure C: Reinforced buildings, well-built wooden structures
In dealing with intensity scales, it is important to keep in mind that they do not involve
a precise scientific measurement of the severity of earthquakes and are therefore of
limited value. The problem with these scales is that they depend on subjective
factors such as:
a. previous experience of people with earthquakes,

b. local design and construction practices,
c. whether or not the earthquake occurs in an inhabited region, and
d. the population density.
For example, the description many frightened in the MMI scale will depend on the
location of the earthquake. A tremor that would alarm the residents of Cleveland,
Ohio, would most likely be ignored by people in Tokyo or Los Angeles. Likewise, the
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collapse of buildings, a key factor in determining an intensity rating, may not only
reflect the power of an earthquake but also whether or not the collapsed buildings
were designed to resist seismic loads. Intensity scales cannot therefore by their
nature be accurate.
Despite their limitations, intensity scales may be useful to estimate the size and
location of earthquakes that occurred before the development of modern seismic
instruments. Because qualitative descriptions of the effects of earthquakes are often
available through historical records, intensity scales may be used to characterize the
rate of earthquake recurrence at the locations wherever these historical records are
available.
Intensity scales may also be useful to describe the distribution of damage in a

region, to identify areas of poor soils, and to approximately locate the earthquake
epicenter. For this reason, even in modern times, contours of equal intensities, or
isoseismal, are routinely plotted over a map of the geographical regions where
strong earthquakes occur. Examples of these plots, called isoseismal maps, are
shown below:
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Some of the most common intensity scales are listed below:
i. Mercalli–Cancani–Seiberg (MCS): 12‐level scale used in Southern Europe.

ii. Modified Mercalli (MM): 12‐level scale proposed in 1931 by Wood and
Neumann, who adapted the MCS scale to the California data set. It is used in
North America and several other countries.
iii. Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik (MSK): 12‐level scale developed in Central
and Eastern Europe and used in several other countries.
iv. European Macroseismic Scale (EMS): 12‐level scale adopted since 1998 in
Europe. It is a development of the MM scale.
v. Japanese Meteorological Agency (JMA): 7‐level scale used in Japan. It has
been revised over the years and has recently been correlated to the maximum
horizontal acceleration of the ground.
3.4.2 Seismographs and Seismograms

Aware that intensity scales were based on subjective appraisals of damage
submitted by a wide variety of observers, scientists studying earthquakes at the end
of the nineteenth century realized that an understanding of the earthquake
phenomenon required accurate and consistent physical measurements. They felt,
thus, the need for advanced devices that would record and preserve the ground
motion generated by earthquakes.
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One of the first of such devices was developed by Filippo Cecchi in Italy in 1875, it
was designed to start a clock and a recording device at the first sign of shaking. It
then recorded the relative motion between a pendulum and the shaking ground as a
function of time. The oldest known record produced by this instrument is dated
February 23, 1887.
Afterward, John Milne, an English geologist working in Japan in the late 1800s,
developed with the help of James Ewing, a professor of mechanical engineering and
physics, and Thomas Gray, a professor of telegraphic engineering, the first
instrument to record the motion of the ground in all of its three directions: up and
down, back and forth, and side to side. This was accomplished with three
independent pendulums, each with an attached stylus that inscribed the motion of
the pendulum on a roll of smoked paper. Also, the instrument was implemented with
a clock mechanism that enabled each device to operate for 24 h at a time and stamp
the paper with the precise time of the first wave arrival. This instrument became
known as the Milne seismograph and was for many years the standard equipment
for seismologists around the world. With it, a new era in the study of earthquakes
began.
The seismograph that Milne, Ewing, and Gray developed at the end of the
nineteenth century fell short of meeting the demands of a science that had more
questions than answers. One of its shortcomings was that it responded only to
motions with periods within a narrow range. Another was the tendency of the
seismograph’s pendulum to keep swinging indefinitely once in motion. Without a way
to control this free-vibration motion, the seismograph was unable to record
accurately the motion generated by late-arrival waves. A substantial improvement
came in 1898, when Emil Wiechert in Germany introduced a viscous damping
mechanism that restrained the seismograph.
The next advance in the development of the modern seismograph was made in 1914
by Boris Galitzin, a Russian seismologist. Galitzin introduced a design that did away
with the need for a mechanical linkage between pendulum and recorder. He
mounted a wire coil on the seismograph’s pendulum and suspended the coil and the
pendulum between the poles of a magnet fixed to the ground. This way, the motion
of the pendulum generated an electric current that was proportional to the
pendulum’s velocity, which Galitzin used to rotate a galvanometer coil. Light
reflected from a mirror on the galvanometer coil was then recorded on photographic
paper. This was a development that dominated the seismograph design throughout
the twentieth century and had profound implications for seismology. With it,
designers were able to use smaller pendulum masses and eliminate the unwanted
friction between a stylus and a recording medium. Equally important, it meant the
ability to transmit the recordings from remote seismographs to a central location,
eliminating thus the need for traveling periodically from site to site to monitor the
instruments.pendulum and greatly improved its accuracy.
3.4.2.1 COMPONENTS AND DESIGN FEATURES

Shown below is the schematic diagram of a seismograph; (a) horizontal (b) vertical.
They are ordinarily composed of a pendulum, a damping element, a stylus attached
to the pendulum mass, and a recording drum.
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To be able to detect distant earthquakes, seismographs are also implemented with a

mechanical, optical, or electromagnetic system that magnifies the movement of the
pendulum up to a hundred-, thousand-, or million-fold, respectively. The damping
element is normally an air, oil, or electromagnetic damper and is introduced into the
system to damp out the motion of the pendulum as soon as the ground motion stops.
Dampers with a damping ratio of the order of 80% of critical are used for this
purpose. The recording drum holds wrapped around a waxed or smoked paper on
which the stylus inscribes the movement of the pendulum. In some designs, this
motion is recorded on photographic paper or magnetic tape. The recording drum
continuously rotates at a fixed rate and moves from left to right on its shaft in a
period of 24 h, producing thus a continuous record of the pendulum motion.
However, when the paper is removed from the drum and is laid flat, the record
appears as several parallel lines, as it can be seen in the typical record shown
below.
Another design feature of seismographs is the time marks they introduce on the
record at regular intervals. These time marks are produced by deflecting the trace for
a second or two, usually at the end of every minute (see above figure). By
convention, seismographs are marked in terms of Universal Time Coordinated (UTC)
[also called Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)], not local time. Seismographs operate 24
h a day, 365 days a year. As earthquake-generated ground motions are neither
purely vertical nor purely horizontal, in practice a vertical seismograph and two
horizontal seismographs are used to record three components of ground motion
along three orthogonal directions. This way the motion of the ground at any instant
may be completely characterized by the vector sum of the motion recorded along
each of these three directions. The below figure shows the interior of a modern
electromagnetic seismograph.
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To gain, then, an insight as to how a seismograph measures the motion of the

ground, consider the following simplified formulation. Assume first that the
earthquake ground motion is predominantly sinusoidal with amplitude u0 and
dominant period Tg, and that the displacement, velocity, and acceleration of the
ground may be expressed approximately as:
2 2 2
sin ; sin ; sin
where:
2 2
;
Consider then that in terms of such assumptions the relative motion between the
pendulum and the ground may be expressed by the differential equation of motion
2 2
sin
where m denotes the mass of the pendulum, c is the damping coefficient of the
seismograph’s damper, k the corresponding spring constant, and u the displacement
of the pendulum relative to the ground surface. Consider, also, that the solution of
the above equation is of the form:
2
sin !
"#1 ! & #2' ! &

% %
where Tn and ξ, respectively, denote the seismograph’s natural period and damping
ratio, and θ is a phase angle. Hence, the displacement amplitude recorded by a
seismograph divided over that of the ground may be expressed as:
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1
"#1 ! & #2' ! &

% %
3.4.2.2 SEISMOGRAMS
The records obtained from a seismograph are called seismograms. A seismogram is
thus a record of the variation with time of the displacement of the ground, magnified
by the magnification factor of the seismograph, at the location where the
seismograph is installed. A typical seismogram is shown below. The numbers in the
middle of the record indicate the hours referred to the GMT. The small deflections at
regular intervals along the trace are time marks at 1 min intervals. There are 60 such
marks in each line, so each line represents the motion recorded during 1 h.
It should be noted that the traces in a seismogram are never without some little
ripples. These little ripples show up in a seismogram because seismographs are so
sensitive that they can detect the ever-present background noise of the earth. They
are called microseisms and arise from local disturbances such as traffic on the
streets, the effect of winds on trees, breaking of the surf on the beach, and other
natural and human-made disturbances.
3.4.3 Magnitude Scale
3.4.3.1 RICHTER OR LOCAL MAGNITUDE

Besides providing information for the location of earthquakes, seismograms also
provide the information that is needed to estimate the size or strength of an
earthquake in terms of what is called earthquake magnitude. This instrumentally
quantified measure of earthquake strength is widely used nowadays by
seismologists, engineers, and even the general public. Although in some cases it
fails to give an accurate representation of the true strength of an earthquake, it is still
routinely used to characterize the intensity of earthquakes and remains a key
parameter in earthquake hazard analysis.
The concept of earthquake magnitude was introduced by Charles Richter in 1935 to

overcome the limitations of the intensity scales, the only method used back then to
describe and compare earthquakes. Following a fundamental idea first used by K.
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Wadati in Japan, Richter based his magnitude scale on a measurement of the wave
motion recorded by a seismograph. He borrowed the term magnitude from
astronomy as the relative brightness of stars (stellar magnitude) is referred to as
magnitude. However, the analogy stops there because in astronomy a smaller
magnitude means an increased brightness.
Richter defined his scale in terms of the peak amplitude of the trace recorded by the
then-standard Wood–Anderson seismograph, which, as observed earlier, has a
magnification factor of 2800, a natural period of 0.8 s, and a damping ratio of 80%.
However, because such an amplitude can vary significantly from earthquake to
earthquake, he used the logarithm of it, as opposed to the amplitude itself, to
compress the range of the scale. Similarly, as the amplitude of seismic waves
decreases with distance from the earthquake epicenter, he set the measurement of
this amplitude at a standard distance of 100 km. Furthermore, he described such a
peak trace amplitude about the peak trace amplitude that would be generated by a
zero magnitude earthquake; that is, a barely perceptible earthquake. For this
purpose, he defined a zero-magnitude earthquake as that which theoretically would
produce a seismogram with a peak trace of 1 µm (10−6 m) at a distance of 100 km.
As introduced by Richter, earthquake magnitude is thus defined as the logarithm to
base ten of the peak wave amplitude measured in micrometers recorded by a
Wood–Anderson seismograph at a distance of 100 km from the earthquake
epicenter. That is,
,
( log
,-
where:
A is the peak amplitude in micrometers in a seismogram (magnified ground

displacement) recorded at 100 km from the earthquake epicenter
A0 the peak amplitude of a zero-magnitude earthquake, defined as 1 µm at

a distance of 100 km.
Example 1 - Calculation of earthquake magnitude
The seismogram from an earthquake recorded by a seismograph located

exactly at 100 km from the earthquake epicenter exhibits a peak amplitude of 1
mm. Determine the magnitude of the earthquake.
Solution: A = 1 mm (1000 µm / 1mm) = 1000 µm A0 = 1 µm

, 1000
( log log 3
,- 1
Example 2- Ground displacement induced by the magnitude 9.0 earthquake
Determine the peak ground displacement induced by an earthquake with a

magnitude of 9.0 at a distance of 100 km from the earthquake epicenter.
Solution: M=9 A0 = 1 µm
,
9 log
1
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log , 9
, 100 μm 1000m
Hence, as the magnification factor of a Wood–Anderson seismograph is 2800, an

earthquake of magnitude 9.0 induces a ground displacement of 1000m/2800 = 0.38
m at a distance of 100 km from its epicenter.
As no seismograph is likely to be located exactly at 100 km from an earthquake’s

epicenter, an extrapolation or correction is needed to be able to determine
earthquake magnitudes from seismograms obtained at epicentral distances other
than 100 km. A common procedure is that of constructing a curve that defines the
variation of ground motion amplitude with distance for the zero-magnitude
earthquake. This curve, known as the A0 curve, is determined empirically using data
from a large number of earthquakes and is unique for each seismological station.
They reflect the geological and geophysical conditions that surround each station.
Using this empirical curve and adopting the assumption that the ratio of the peak
ground motion amplitudes at two given distances is the same independently of
earthquakes magnitude, it is then possible to compute the magnitude of an
earthquake using the original definition and data from any seismogram. To do so,
one simply considers that A represents the peak amplitude in the selected
seismogram and A0 the zero-magnitude amplitude that corresponds to the epicentral
distance to the station from which the seismogram is obtained. Richter, for example,
developed the following empirical equation to define the variation with distance of the
amplitude A0 for earthquakes in Southern California:
log , 5.12 2.56 log Δ
In this equation, A0 is in micrometers, ∆ epicentral distance in kilometers, and 10 < ∆

< 600 km.
Problem 3 - Earthquake magnitude in terms of A0 empirical equation
Determine the magnitude of an earthquake recorded in Southern California at a

seismological station located 147 km from the earthquake epicenter. The
recorded peak amplitude was 66 mm.
Solution: ∆ = 147 km A = 66 mm = 66,000 µm
log , 5.12 2.56 log Δ 5.12 2.56 log 147
, 109.: ; .9< =>? :@A

0.37 μm
Hence, the magnitude of the earthquake is equal to

, 66000
( log log 5.25
,- 0.37
3.4.3.2 SURFACE- AND BODY-WAVE MAGNITUDES

Because Richter’s original scale is limited to local earthquakes at epicentral
distances of no more than 600 km and recorded in only one kind of instrument, the
desire for the global characterization of earthquake size made it necessary for the
introduction of a new definition of earthquake magnitude. This new definition was the
Page 72
surface-wave magnitude introduced by B. Gutenberg and Richter himself in 1936.
The definition of this magnitude is the same as that originally introduced by Richter,
wave with a period of ∼20 s. Beyond ∼600 km, the seismograms of shallow
except that the measured amplitude corresponds, by convention, to that of a surface
with a period of ∼20 s. In general, therefore, surface-wave magnitude is determined

earthquakes recorded by long-period seismographs are dominated by surface waves
using seismograms from long-period seismographs. In general, too, the record from
the vertical component of motion is used in this definition. The symbol used to
identify surface-wave magnitude is Ms. Using the format of Richter’s equations,
surface-wave magnitude is at times alternatively defined by:
(B log 1.66 log Δ 2
where is the peak ground displacement measured in micrometers and Δ epicentral

distance measured in degrees (360° corresponding to the circumference of the
earth).
Problem 4 - Calculation of surface-wave magnitude
The peak amplitude of the Rayleigh wave (reduced to ground displacement) in

a seismogram from a seismographic station located at a distance of 28° from
an earthquake’s epicenter is 4.3 µm. Determine using this information the
earthquake’s surface-wave magnitude.
Solution: = 4.3 µm Δ = 28°
(B log 1.66 log Δ 2 log 4.3 1.66 log 28 2 5.04
3.4.3.3 Body Wave Magnitude

Body wave magnitude (mb): measures the amplitude of P‐waves with a period of
about 1.0 second, which is less than 10 km wavelengths. This scale is suitable for
deep earthquakes that have few surface waves. Moreover, mb can measure distant
events, for example, epicentral distances not less than 600 km. Furthermore, P‐
waves are not affected by the depth of the energy source. Magnitude mb is related to
the amplitude A and period T of P‐waves as follows:
,
D log ! E log Δ
in which σ(∆) is a function of the epicenter distance ∆ (in degrees). For example, if ∆
= 45° then σ = 6.80; other values can be found in the literature (e.g. Udias, 1999).
3.4.3.4 Moment Magnitude

Moment magnitude (MW ): accounts for the mechanism of shear that takes place at
earthquake sources. It is not related to any wavelength. As a result, Mw can be used
to measure the whole spectrum of ground motions. Moment magnitude is defined as
a function of the seismic moment M0. This measures the extent of deformation at the
earthquake source and can be evaluated as follows:
( F , Δu
in which G is the shear modulus of the material surrounding the fault, A is the fault
rupture area and ∆u is the average slip between opposite sides of the fault. The
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modulus G can be assumed to be 32 000 MPa in the crust and 75 000 MPa in the
mantle. Mw is thus given by:
(H 0.67 log ( 10.70
where M0 is expressed in ergons.
3.4.4 Intensity–Magnitude Relationships

Intensity–magnitude relationships are essential for the use of historical earthquakes
for which no instrumental records exist. Several simple methods to convert intensity
into magnitude have been proposed (e.g. Lee et al., 2003); most of which exhibit
large scatter because of the inevitable bias present in the definition of intensity
(Ambraseys and Melville, 1982). Gutenberg and Richter (1956) proposed a linear
relationship between local magnitude ML and epicentral intensity I0 for southern
California, given by:
(I 0.67J 1.0
in which the intensity I0 is expressed in the MM scale. The above equation shows, for
example, that the epicentral intensity I0 of VI corresponds to ML = 5.02 indicating that
the earthquake is likely to cause significant damage.
Street and Turcotte (1977) related mb magnitude to the intensity I0 (in the MM scale)
as follows:
D 0.49J 1.66
which is useful in converting earthquake data in the central and eastern USA. The
above equation relates to an intensity of VI in the MM scale to a magnitude mb of
4.60, which contradicts the observation that ML should be systematically lower than
mb for short‐period waves.
Intensity–magnitude relationships were proposed by Ambraseys (1985, 1989) for

European regions as follows:
(K 1.10 0.62JL 1.30 ∗ 10;N OL 1.62 log OL
which is applicable for northwest Europe, and
(K 0.90 0.58JL 1.10 ∗ 10;N OL 2.11 log OL
for the Alpine zone, where Ii is the MM intensity of the ith isoseismal and ri is the
radius of the equivalent area enclosed by the ith isoseismal, in kilometers.
Local geological conditions and focal depths can significantly affect the intensity of
earthquake ground motion. Semi‐empirical formulations accounting for focal depths
are available (e.g. Kanai, 1983). Sponheuer (1960) proposed to calculate M from the
epicentral intensity I0 as follows:
(K 0.66J 1.7 log ℎ 1.4
where the focal depth h is in kilometers and the intensity I0 is in the MM scale.
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Attenuation relationships (relationships between a ground‐shaking parameter,
magnitude, distance, and soil condition) for different ground‐motion parameters can
be derived from intensity and magnitude; they may account for distance, travel path,
and site effects.
3.5 Dynamics of Vibrations: Attenuation

Earthquake response of structures and their foundations is an outcome of the
complex interaction between the random input ground motion and the continuously
changing dynamic characteristics of the system subjected to the ground motion.
Therefore, to arrive at a reliable assessment of assets, a complete understanding of
both input motion and structural system, and their interaction, is required.
3.5.1 Earthquake Occurrence and Return Period

It is of importance to estimate the frequency of occurrence of earthquakes that are
likely to occur in an area that may influence the construction site during the lifetime
of the intended facility. Account should be taken of the uncertainty in the demand
imposed by the earthquake, as well as the uncertainty in the capacity of the
constructed facility. Current seismic design approaches deal with uncertainties
associated with structural demand and capacity by utilizing probabilistic analysis.
Earthquakes are usually modeled in probabilistic seismic hazard assessment as a

Poisson process. The Poisson model is a continuous-time, integer‐value counting
process with stationary independent increments.
Earthquake ground‐motion representations for seismic structural assessment.
3.5.2 Ground‐Motion Models (Attenuation Relationships)

The ‘attenuation’ of earthquake ground motions is an important consideration in
estimating ground‐motion parameters for assessment and design purposes. Ground‐
motion models (or attenuation relationships) are analytical expressions describing
ground‐motion variation with magnitude, source distance, and site condition, which
Page 75
account for the mechanisms of energy loss of seismic waves during their travel
through a path. Attenuation relationships permit the estimation of both the ground
motion at a site from a specified event and the uncertainty associated with the
prediction. This estimation is a key step in probabilistic and deterministic seismic
hazard analysis (Cornell, 1968). Several ground‐motion models have been
developed by various researchers. Relationships based on peak ground‐motion
parameters (PGA, peak ground velocity, PGV and peak ground displacement, PGD)
and spectral acceleration, velocity, and displacement parameters (Sa, Sv, and Sd),
are generally employed in structural earthquake engineering.
Empirical approaches generally match the data to a functional form derived from the
theory; in turn, theoretical approaches often use empirical data to determine the
values of parameters. The functional form for ground‐motion attenuation
relationships is as follows:
log Q log R: logST: ( U logST V U logSTN (, V U logST@ XL U log Y
where Y is the ground motion parameter to be computed, for example, PGA, PGV,
PGD, Sa, Sv or Sd, and b1 is a scaling factor. The second‐to‐fourth terms on the right‐
hand side are functions fi of the magnitude M, source‐to‐site distance R, and
possible source, site, and/or geological and geotechnical structure effects Ei.
Uncertainty and errors are represented by the parameter ε.
Attenuation of peak ground horizontal acceleration: effect of magnitude (a) and focal
depth (b).
Closed‐form relationships between PGA and relevant intensity scales have been
established in Japan and the USA. These are given by Kanai (1983) as follows:
ZF, 0.25 ∗ 10 .9[\]^
ZF, 0.91 ∗ 10 .N:[]]
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in which IJMA and IMM are the values of intensity in the Japanese Meteorological
Agency (JMA) and Modified Mercalli (MM) scales, respectively. In the above
equations, the values of PGA are expressed in cm/s2.
Similarly, Trifunac and Brady (1975) suggested the following relationships for
horizontal peak ground acceleration (HPGA) and velocity:
ZF, 1.02 ∗ 10 .N[]]
ZF_ 0.23 ∗ 10 . 9[]]
where the values of PGA and PGV are in cm/s2 and cm/s, respectively.
Problem 1
Modified Mercalli intensity IMM of IX was assigned to an area of about 80 km

long and 30 km wide during an earthquake that occurred in the western United
States. Compute the peak ground acceleration (PGA) from this earthquake.
Compute the value of PGA by using both equations. Estimate the intensity IJMA
of the earthquake in the Japanese Meteorological Agency (JMA) scale.
Solution:
ZF, 0.91 ∗ 10 .N:[]]

0.91 ∗ 10 .N: 0
561.1 cm/s
ZF, 1.02 ∗ 10 .N[]]

1.02 ∗ 10 .N 0
511.2 cm/s
Estimation for IJMA: using PGA of 511.2 cm/s2
ZF, 0.25 ∗ 10 .9[\]^
511.2 0.25 ∗ 10 .9[\]^
511.2
10 .9[\]^
0.25
511.2
ln ln 10 .9[\]^
0.25
ln 2044.8 0.5Jbcd ln 10
ln 2044.8
Jbcd 6.62 ≈ 7
0.5 ln 10
3.5.3 Features of Strong‐Motion Data for Attenuation Relationships
The strong‐motion data set (or catalog) used for attenuation relationship derivation
has to fulfill several requirements. First, all magnitudes should be uniformly
recalculated using consistent approaches. Second, all distances have to be defined
uniformly. It is necessary to use the distance from the closest point on the causative
fault to the measuring site, not the epicentral distance. This is particularly important
when considering large magnitude earthquakes at short‐to‐medium distances.
Calculation of the above‐mentioned distance is an involved task that requires deep

knowledge of the local tectonic setting especially when there is no surface
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manifestation of the fault. Moreover, the data set should be well populated and
reasonably represent distributions in magnitude, distance, and soil condition;
otherwise the ensuing attenuation relationship will exhibit statistical bias. Strong‐
motion records in databanks may have errors due to instruments and/or digitization.
Since the short-and long‐period errors present in each record are unique for each
type of instrument and digitization procedure, and because of the random nature of
the errors, each accelerogram should ideally be corrected individually. Records from
analog instruments are particularly affected by long‐period (or low‐frequency, e.g.
less than 0.5 Hz) errors because of the digitization stage which is not required for
records from digital instruments. Low‐frequency errors affect the PGV as well as the
corresponding spectral values.
3.5.4 Attenuation Relationship for Europe

Comprehensive and systematic seismological studies in Europe aimed at defining
ground-motion models for seismic hazard assessment and structural engineering
applications were conducted by Ambraseys (1975). A great deal of research has
been conducted since then at Imperial College, London, and attenuation
relationships have been formulated for Europe and the Middle East.
Revised attenuation relationships for European countries and some regions in the
Middle East have been formulated for both HPGA by Ambraseys et al. (2005a) and
for vertical peak ground acceleration (VPGA) by Ambraseys et al. (2005b). The
ground‐motion model for the HPGA is given by:
log ZF, f 2.522 0.142(H 0.314(H 3.184 log g57.76 h 0.137iK

0.05id 0.084jk 0.062jl 0.044jm
with PGA expressed in m/s2 and d is the distance (in kilometers) to the projection of
the fault plane on the surface. The latter does not require a depth estimate, generally
associated with large errors.
The coefficients SA and SS are obtained from the below table:
The coefficients FN, FO, and FT are obtained from the below table:
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The standard deviations σ for the equation above depend on the earthquake
magnitude Mw:
(intra-plate) σ1 = 0.665 – 0.065 Mw
(inter-plate) σ2 = 0.222 – 0.022 Mw
To obtain a viable distribution of records at all magnitudes, records from earthquakes

with Mw < 5 were not considered. This also excludes records from small earthquakes
that are unlikely to be of engineering significance. The data set includes records with
magnitude Mw ranging between 5.0 and 7.6, with distances d < 100 km. Therefore,
the possible bias due to non‐triggering instruments and the effects of anelastic decay
in different regions were reduced. Moreover, most ground motions were obtained
from free‐field stations although some were recorded from either basements or
ground floors of relatively light structures that are unlikely to modify the motion from
that of the free field.
3.5.5 Attenuation Relationship for Japan

Several studies have attempted to define analytical models for the ground‐motion
parameters in Japan (e.g. Iwasaki et al., 1980; Kawashima et al., 1986; Fukushima
et al., 1995; Kamiyama, 1995). Some have also concentrated on specific areas of
the country, such as the Kanto region (e.g. Tong and Katayama, 1988). Takahashi et
al. (2000) proposed the following attenuation relationship for Japan:
log ZF, 0.446(H 0.00350h log h 0.012 ∗ 10 .@@<cn

0.00665 ℎ 20 i
where PGA is given in cm/s2. The terms d and h are focal distance and depth (in
kilometers), respectively. S is a coefficient depending on the soil type (rock, hard,
medium, and soft medium were considered in the regression analyses, as given in
the below table. However, in many circumstances, the site conditions of records
used were either unknown or uncertain. In such cases, the mean site term S can be
assumed equal to 0.941. MW is the moment magnitude.
Model errors σ were computed as follows:
E oE: E:
where σ1 and σ2 are residuals for inter-and intra‐plate earthquakes, respectively;

values decrease with increasing magnitude. It may be assumed that the total scatter
σ is equal to 0.24.
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3.5.6 Attenuation Relationships for North America
3.5.6.1 Central and Eastern United States

The Mid‐America Earthquake Center developed a ground‐motion model to predict
HPGA in the central and eastern United States (CEUS) region (Fernandez and Rix,
2006). The attenuation relationship is based on a stochastic method and employs
three source models, that is Atkinson and Boore (1995), Frankel et al. (1996), and
Silva et al. (2003). It was developed for soil sites in the Upper Mississippi
Embayment in the New Madrid seismic zone, which is a low probability–high impact
source of earthquakes. The region has been hit by three great earthquakes in 1811
and 1812 (e.g. Reiter, 1990).
The ground‐motion model is defined by the following equations:

V
ln ZF, (H (H 6 ln Vc p qln ! , 0r < Vc
: N @ 9
70
where the equivalent distance term RM is given by:
Vc V A exp v (H
and the logarithmic standard deviation of PGA, termed σln(PGA), is considered to be

magnitude dependent. It is obtained from the following equation:
E=w xyd 0 (H :
In the above equations, R is the epicentral distance (in kilometers), Mw is the

moment magnitude, and c1 through c10 are the regression coefficients. The value of
the PGA is expressed in g. The epicentral distance R is the distance from the
observation point to the surface projection of the hypocentre. The ci coefficients,
which depend on the source model, the stress drop, the soil profile, dynamic soil
properties, and depth, can be found in Fernandez (2007). These coefficients are
computed for epicentral distances uniformly distributed between 1 and 750 km for
eight values of magnitudes Mw varying between 4 and 7.5. The equivalent distance
term RM accounts for the increase in traveling distance by the seismic waves due to
the increase in fault rupture size. The exponential term accounts for the magnitude‐
dependence of the energy release. The effects of inelastic soil behavior are
incorporated in the above attenuation relationship.
3.5.6.2 Western North America

Boore et al. (1997) and Boore (2005) formulated the following equation to predict
PGAs in western North America:
log ZF, R: R (H 6 RN (H 6 R@ V R9 log V Rz log K log d
in which R is the focal distance given by:
V gh ℎ
where d and h are the epicentral distance and the focal depth, respectively; they are
both expressed in kilometers. The value of the PGA is expressed in g.
Shallow earthquakes are those for which the fault rupture has a depth of 20 km or
less. Mw is the moment magnitude. Coefficients b1 through b5 depend on the
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component of ground motion used. For randomly oriented horizontal components,
the PGA is given by:
log ZF, 0.105 0.229 (H 6 0.778 log V 0.371 log K log d
and the focal depth h should be assumed equal to 5.57 km; the value of vA is 1400
m/s. Thus, the resulting scatter σ is 0.160. On the other hand, for larger horizontal
components, then the equation should be modified as follows:
log ZF, 0.038 0.216 (H 6 0.777 log V 0.364 log K log d
in which the focal depth h should be 5.48 km, the value of vA is 1390 m/s and the
resulting scatter is 0.144. Site conditions are accounted for by the average shear
wave velocity to a depth of 30 m (vS, in m/s). Three soil types were considered in the
study; values for vS,30 are summarised below.
It is worth mentioning that in the derivation of the above attenuation relationships,

most of the earthquake ground motions were recorded at epicentral distances less
than 80 km, thus extrapolations should be assessed carefully based on engineering
judgment.
3.5.7 Worldwide Attenuation Relationships

Attempts to provide ground‐motion models applicable worldwide were initiated in the
1980s (Aptikaev and Kopnichev, 1980; Campbell, 1985) and continued during the
1990s (Campbell, 1993, 1997; Sarma and Srbulov, 1996, 1998). In some cases, the
attenuation relationships were derived for specific fault rupture mechanisms, such as
subduction zones (Youngs et al., 1988; Crouse, 1991; Youngs et al., 1997) or
extensional regimes (Spudich et al., 1997, 1999). Formulae for intra‐plate regions
have also been proposed by Dahle et al. (1990). Comprehensive analytical studies
based on large data sets of records for both horizontal and vertical components have
been carried out by Bozorgnia et al. (2000), Campbell and Bozorgnia (2003), and
Ambraseys and Douglas (2003); the latter is presented herein.
The form of the equation to predict HPGAs PGAh is as follows:
log ZF, f 0.659 0.202(K 0.0238h 0.020id 0.029iK
in which the epicentral distance d is in kilometers; the scatter σ is 0.214. Coefficients

SA and SS account for the effects of soil condition. Four soil categories were
considered (rock, stiff soil, soft and very soft soil); they are classified based on the
average shear wave velocity to 30 m depth vS,30. Values can be obtained from the
below table. Focal depths h are not greater than 20 km (1 ≤ h ≤ 19 km). The value of
PGA is expressed in m/s2.
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3.6 Time History

The time history is the sequence of values of any time-varying quantity (such as a
ground motion measurement) measured at a set of fixed times. Also termed time
series.
To perform a time history analysis, a representative earthquake time history is

required for a structure being evaluated. Time history analysis is a step-by step
analysis of the dynamic response of a structure to a specified loading that may vary
with time. Time history analysis is used to determine the seismic response of a
structure under dynamic loading of representative earthquake (Wilkinson and Hiley,
2006)
The following is a snapshot taken from Philvocs:
Below is a sample of its details:

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Answer the following questions/problems:
1 What is the difference between earthquake intensity and magnitude?

2 What are the types of magnitude and explain?
3 What is attenuation?
4 What are the different attenuation relationships and explain?
5 The seismogram from an earthquake recorded by a seismograph located
exactly at 100 km from the earthquake epicenter exhibits a peak amplitude of
2 mm. Determine the magnitude of the earthquake.
6 Determine the peak ground displacement induced by an earthquake with a
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7 Determine the magnitude of an earthquake recorded in Southern California at
a seismological station located 135 km from the earthquake epicenter. The
8 The peak amplitude of the Rayleigh wave (reduced to ground displacement)
in a seismogram from a seismographic station located at a distance of 21°
from an earthquake’s epicenter is 2.6 µm. Determine using this information
the earthquake’s surface-wave magnitude.
9 Modified Mercalli intensity IMM of VII was assigned to an area of about 80 km
long and 30 km wide during an earthquake that occurred in the western
United States. Compute the peak ground acceleration (PGA) from this
earthquake. Compute the value of PGA by using both equations. Estimate the
intensity IJMA of the earthquake in the Japanese Meteorological Agency
(JMA) scale.
10 The seismogram from an earthquake recorded by a seismograph located
exactly at 100 km from the earthquake epicenter exhibits a peak amplitude of
1.5 mm. Determine the magnitude of the earthquake.
11 Determine the peak ground displacement induced by an earthquake with a
13 The peak amplitude of the Rayleigh wave (reduced to ground displacement)
in a seismogram from a seismographic station located at a distance of 24°
from an earthquake’s epicenter is 2.9 µm. Determine using this information
the earthquake’s surface-wave magnitude.
14 Modified Mercalli intensity IMM of VI was assigned to an area of about 80 km
long and 30 km wide during an earthquake that occurred in the western
United States. Compute the peak ground acceleration (PGA) from this
earthquake. Compute the value of PGA by using both equations. Estimate the
intensity IJMA of the earthquake in the Japanese Meteorological Agency
(JMA) scale.
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3.8 Post-Assessment
1 2 3 4
Topics
idea
Measurement’s of
Earthquakes
A. Intensity Scale
B. Seismographs and
Seismograms
C. Magnitude Scale
D. Intensity-Magniture
Relationships
Dynamics of
Vibrations: Attenuation
A. Earthquake
Occurrence and
Return Period
B. Ground-Motion
Models (Attenuation
Relationships)
C. Features of Strong-
Motion Data for
Attenuation
Relationship
D. Attenuation
Relationship for
Europe
E. Attenuation
Relationship for Japan
F. Attenuation
Relationship for North
America
G. Worldwide
Attenuation
Relationship
Time History
Page 85

4.1 Duration
12 hours.
4.2 Objectives
Learn earthquake spectra

Know the effects of earthquakes
4.3 Pre-Assessment
topics.
1 2 3 4
Topics
idea
Earthquake Spectra
A. Factors Influencing
Response Spectra
B. Elastic and Inelastic
Spectra
Effects of Earthquakes
A. Damage to
Buildings and Lifelines
B. Effects on the
Ground
C. Human and
Financial Losses
4.4 Earthquake Spectra
4.4.1 Factors Influencing Response Spectra

The shape of earthquake (acceleration, velocity, or displacement) spectra is
influenced by several factors, which are similar to those affecting earthquake ground‐
motion characteristics, outlined below:
i. Magnitude;
ii. Source mechanism and characteristics;
iii. Distance from the source of energy release;
iv. Wave travel path;
v. Rupture directivity;
vi. Local geology and site conditions.
The three fundamental parameters influencing spectra are magnitude, distance, and
site conditions. Ideally, strong motions used to derive uniform hazard spectra should
be uniformly distributed in the space of these three parameters. This is an onerous
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requirement that is often impossible to be complied with. Thus, compromises in
design situations are almost always necessary. Moreover, parameterized equations
for spectral ordinates require the knowledge of a set of magnitude–distance pair,
which is not always available for an engineering project. Therefore seismic codes
recommend spectra that are dependent on peak ground parameters and the soil
conditions only.
Similar to ground‐ motion models illustrated in the previous module, extensive

statistical analyses of the spectra at different periods have been conducted. Spectral
models are derived and are expressed by equations that are a function of
magnitude, distance, and soil conditions, leading to spectral ordinates at different
periods. For example, spectra from different attenuation relationships are shown in
the below figure for different magnitudes and constant distance as well as different
distances and the same magnitude. In both cases, the spectra are normalized to the
same PGA. The effect of distance can be compensated for by scaling, whereas the
actual shape changes for different magnitudes. However, this might not be the case
of inelastic and degrading systems, where the shaking duration will affect. Hence, it
is not possible to compensate for magnitude effects by scaling only, since the
spectral shape changes.
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Effects of distance (a,c,e,g) and magnitude on spectral shape (b,d,f,h) using different
attenuation relationships. The spectra on the left are normalized for 5, 20, and 50
km; while the spectra on the right are normalized at 10 km for magnitude 5.5, 6.0,
and 7.0.
In the below figure the attenuation relationship of Ambraseys et al. (1996) was used
to calculate acceleration spectra for a magnitude 5.5 earthquake at a distance of 10
km on three sites: rock, stiff and soft soil. It is demonstrated that the amplification
characteristics are distinct. Moreover, the acceleration amplification for soft soils
extend over a larger period range than the amplification for the other two soil
categories. The longer the predominant period of vibration of the site the greater is
the period at which the response spectrum high amplification region occurs. The
shape of the spectrum is also different, but not drastically so. This is not the case for
other studies, especially from the USA (e.g. Douglas, 2001, 2006). On average,
magnification in the short‐period range in Europe, on stiff soil, is about 1.4 that on
rock, with a value of about 1.7 for soft soil is observed. The corresponding values for
the USA are 2 and 3 (Boore et al.,1993). It is not clear why such large differences
exist. The fact remains that site conditions must be taken into account in deriving
spectra since no process exists for scaling spectra to account for soil conditions.
Page 88
Filtering of acceleration traces from earthquakes may substantially affect the

characteristics of the ensuing motion. This is the main motivation behind the
increasing deployment of digital instruments. However, acceleration spectra are
much more tolerant to filter corner frequencies than displacement spectra as
displayed in the below figure.
The Tabas (Iran, 1978) record filtered at 5, 10, and 15 seconds cut‐off as well as
baseline correction only; effect on acceleration (a) and displacement (b) spectra.
Therefore, it is reassuringly concluded that acceleration spectra may be derived with
little effort dedicated to processing of the acceleration trace, about filter frequency. In
applications where the displacement applied at the base of the structure is of
significance, such as in the case of non‐synchronous motion or for deformation‐
based design, careful filtering is essential; otherwise unrealistic net static
displacements between support points may ensue.
4.4.2 Elastic and Inelastic Spectra

Strong‐motion records are three‐component (two horizontal components and a
vertical component) time histories recorded by accelerometers in analog or digital
form. These records may be used to conduct response‐history dynamic analyses
and derive response spectra. The latter are described herein.
A response spectrum is a plot of the maxima of the acceleration, velocity, and

displacement response of single‐degree‐of‐freedom (SDOF) systems with various
Page 89
natural periods when subjected to an earthquake ground motion. A family of curves
is usually calculated for a given excitation, showing the effect of variation of the
structural damping. For many practical structural applications, it is sufficient to
employ the maximum (or ‘spectral’) values of the above response parameters rather
than their values at each instant during the time history. Earthquake input may be
defined by response spectra of various forms, that is elastic, inelastic,
parameterized, and smoothed. Such forms are required to perform modal spectral
analysis and adaptive pushover with spectrum scaling. They are also essential for
capacity spectrum assessment and displacement‐based design (e.g. Bozorgnia and
Bertero, 2004, among others). Response spectra can be computed from earthquake
accelerograms by employing one of several computer programs.
4.4.2.1 Elastic response spectra

Elastic response spectra are derived analytically by evaluating the Duhamel integral
which provides the total displacement response of SDOF systems subjected to
earthquake loading. Since superposition applies (for elastic systems) the convolution
integral is valid. The principle of superposition states that the effect of several
simultaneously applied actions is equivalent to the superposition of their individual
effects considered one at a time. The equation of dynamic equilibrium for linear
elastic structural systems with mass m, stiffness k, and damping c is as follows:
where the term üg is the ground acceleration. Thus, the above equation expresses
the equilibrium of inertial m ü, damping c ü and elastic k u forces and the earthquake
loading –m üg. It can be demonstrated by using principles of structural dynamics that
the maximum value of the displacement Sd, defined as ‘spectral displacement’, is
equal to (e.g. Chopra, 2002):
sinS†{ ‡ h‡Uˆ
„
•€ • ;‚ƒ „;…
i{ S U|}~ |}~
†
in which τ is a time variable chosen arbitrarily within the duration of the strong motion
and ω the natural frequency of the undamped system. Moreover, ωd is the damped
circular frequency given as:
†{ †g1 '
while ξ is the viscous damping of the oscillator expressed as a percentage of the

critical value ccrit. Note that ccrit = 2mω and ξ = c/ccrit. Ordinary structural systems
exhibit viscous damping which ranges between 0.5 and about 10%. As a
consequence, the values of undamped and damped frequencies are similar and
hence ω can be used instead of ωd. Displacement response spectra are essential for
displacement‐based design. Extensive analytical work has been conducted by
Bommer and Elnashai (1999) and Tolis and Faccioli (1999) to derive parameterized
displacement spectra.
On the other hand, the maximum velocity Sv can be approximated, assuming

harmonic motion, by the product of the spectral displacement Sd and the
fundamental frequency ω of the SDOF:
iz †i{
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which is defined as ‘spectral pseudo‐velocity’ and corresponds to the integral at the
numerator in the first equation. The prefix ‘pseudo’ shows that Sv is not the actual
peak velocity, which would be obtained from differentiating the displacement
expression. Nonetheless, for the practical range of damping in structural earthquake
engineering mentioned earlier and for low‐to‐medium period systems, pseudo‐
velocity spectra are a close approximation of the true relative velocity spectra.
In a comprehensive study by Sadek et al. (2000) based on a statistical analysis of 40

damped SDOFs subjected to 72 ground motions, it was shown that the above
approximation holds for periods in the neighborhood of 0.5 seconds as shown in the
below figure. However, differences are observed as the period and the damping
ratios increase. Velocity spectra are of importance in seismic design because they
are a measure of the energy transmitted into the oscillator (Housner, 1956).
Mean ratio of maximum relative velocity to pseudo‐velocity (a) and maximum

absolute acceleration to pseudo‐acceleration (b) for SDOF structures as a function of
the damping. (After Sadeket al., 2000.)
Similarly, the ‘spectral pseudo‐acceleration’ Sa is expressed as follows:
i} †iz † i{
Thus, the acceleration spectrum is derived by multiplying each ordinate of the

velocity spectrum by the natural frequency ω of the SDOF. However, for structures
with supplemental devices, for example with passive and/or active dampers or base
isolation devices, the differences between maximum absolute acceleration and Sa
increase as a function of the natural period T. The true absolute acceleration spectra
can be computed by differentiating twice the displacement expression from, for
Page 91
example, the Duhamel integral. It is instructive to note that the acceleration response
spectra are related directly to the base shear used in seismic design and hence they
are generally implemented in force‐based codes of practice. The relevant alternative
for displacement‐based design is the relative displacement spectrum.
The procedure to derive elastic spectra is schematically depicted in the below figure.
Derivation of elastic spectra. Time history of the 1999 Kocaeli (Turkey) earthquake
(a), acceleration response spectrum (b), time history response for a single degree of
freedom system with a natural period of 0.5 seconds-stiff system - (c) and 1.5
seconds - flexible system (d).
The computational scheme can be summarised as follows:
i. Select the earthquake record from databanks;

ii. Select a T–ξ pair, that is the fundamental period of vibration and the damping
ratio for the SDOF. Values of interest for structural earthquake engineering
applications range between 0.01 and 5 seconds for T, for very rigid and very
flexible structures, respectively, and 0% to 20% for ξ, for lightly and highly
damped systems, respectively;
iii. Select a numerical method to integrate the equation of motion. Several
reliable methods are available in the literature: their numerical stability and
accuracy are reviewed in several textbooks (e.g. Hughes, 1987; Bathe, 1996);
iv. Compute the response history for the given earthquake record. The peak
value is the spectral displacement Sd;
Page 92
v. Compute the pseudo‐velocity Sv and pseudo‐acceleration Sa, respectively.
Alternatively, the true maximum relative velocity and absolute acceleration
can be determined using numerical algorithms;
vi. Select a new T–ξ pair and repeat steps (i) to (v);
vii. Plot the maxima of response versus the fundamental period or frequency for
various damping values. Structural earthquake engineers are generally more
familiar with spectral response‐period format.
The use of elastic spectra derives from the dynamic analysis in the frequency
domain approach. In the latter, the multi‐degree‐of‐freedom (MDOF) system is
considered as a compendium of SDOFs with periods given by the period of vibration
of individual modes of the MDOF system. Values of mass and stiffness are
calculated from the mass and stiffness distribution of the structure and the relevant
mode shape. Once the elastic spectrum is derived, modal forces on an MDOF
system may be easily calculated. If the fundamental mode is dominant, as in most
regular structures with periods of vibration up to about 1.0–1.5 seconds, replacing
the modal mass by the total mass will yield an upper bound on the seismic force.
This approximation is the basis of the simple equivalent lateral force procedure used
in codes.
Elastic spectra are useful tools for structural design and assessment. They, however,
do not account for inelasticity, stiffness reduction, and strength degradation
experienced by structures during severe earthquakes. Structural systems are not
designed to resist earthquake forces in their elastic range, but for very few cases
because of the economy of the construction. Concepts of energy absorption and
plastic redistribution are used to reduce the elastic seismic forces by as much as
~80%. The inelastic behavior of structures can be quantified by the ductility factor µ.
High µ‐values correspond to large inelastic deformations; for linearly elastic systems
the ductility factor is unity. Thus, inelastic spectra for a target ductility µ, that is level
of inelasticity, were estimated simply by dividing the ordinates of the elastic spectra
by the R‐factors (Newmark and Hall, 1969). Through extensive analyses of elastic
and inelastic spectra, three regions of response were identified as a function of the
fundamental period. The above breakthrough reference opened the door for intense
research relating the response modification factor to the period of the structure and
significant characteristics of the input motion.
4.4.2.2 Inelastic spectra

Inelastic spectra depend not only upon the characteristics of the ground motion, but
also on the non‐linear cyclic characteristics of the structural system. This
complicates the problem for structural earthquake engineers. The reduction of the
elastic spectra by employing R‐factors is the simplest and most popular approach to
derive inelastic spectra. Such an approach is employed within codes of practice for
seismic design to evaluate design base shears. However, this approach makes use
of static concepts to scale the elastic spectrum, obtained from dynamic analysis. It is,
as such, insensitive to characteristics of the earthquake motion which affect the
hysteretic damping. More accurate results can be obtained by inelastic dynamic
analysis of SDOFs subjected to earthquake input (e.g. Elghadamsi and Mohraz,
1987; Vidic et al., 1994; Fajfar, 1995). To demonstrate these important points, elastic
and inelastic spectra for two records are considered, namely the 1994 Northridge
Page 93
earthquake (Sylmar Hospital station) and the 1995 Hyogo‐ken Nanbu (Kobe JMA
station). The plots are shown for a ductility factor µ of 2 and 4 in the below figure.
Elastic and constant ductility spectra for the 1994 Northridge (a) and 1995 Kobe (b)
earthquakes.
The plots provided in the above figure demonstrate that lower accelerations and
hence force levels have been generated in the inelastic systems, that is curves for
ductility 2 and 4. The latter is due to the energy absorption by hysteresis.
4.4.2.3 Simplified Spectra

Deriving earthquake‐specific spectra is often of limited use for analysis and
assessment of structural systems, since earthquake characteristics vary even at the
same site and when affected by the same source. Therefore, probabilistic spectra
are generally derived to represent hazard scenarios for seismic design. There are
different approaches to accomplish this and the reader is referred to the extensive
literature on seismic hazard analysis (e.g. Reiter, 1990; Bozorgnia and Bertero,
2004; among others). It is often necessary to derive uniform hazard spectra; spectra
with ordinates that have the same probability of being exceeded by an earthquake.
Spectra derived from attenuation relationships and those derived from ground‐
motion parameters directly may be used with confidence in defining the force
demand imposed on structures and are discussed below.
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4.4.2.3.1 Spectra from Attenuation Relationships
The earliest frequency‐dependent attenuation relationships for response spectral
ordinates were published by Johnson (1973) and a large number of equations have
since appeared in the technical literature. The majority of the available equations
employ the spectral pseudo‐velocity PSV as the predicted variable although there
are also several attenuation relationships for acceleration response ordinates Sa (T).
To derive attenuation relationships for the prediction of response spectra to use in

deformation‐based design, it is necessary to compile a data set of high‐quality
accelerograms for which the associated source, path, and site parameters are
uniformly and accurately determined. It would be preferable to employ recordings
from digital accelerograms (Tolis and Faccioli, 1999).
4.4.2.3.2 Spectra from Ground‐Motion Parameters

By plotting the response spectra of an ensemble of earthquake records, normalized
by the relevant ground‐motion parameter, Newmark and Hall (1969) derived
statistical values of the amplification factors for acceleration, velocity, and
displacement. These amplification factors, expressed as ratios between peak ground
parameter and peak response of the system.
To establish the elastic response spectrum for the full range of periods, use is made
of a four‐way log paper. The resulting spectrum is referred to as a ‘tripartite plot’,
since it includes the three spectral forms. This is made possible by the simple
relations between spectral acceleration, velocity, and displacement, below is a
sample:
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4.4.3 Effects of Earthquakes
Comprehensive regional earthquake impact assessment requires an interdisciplinary
framework that encompasses the definition of the hazard event, physical damage,
and social and economic consequences. Such an integrated framework may provide
the most credible estimates with associated uncertainty that can stand scientific and
political scrutiny. Physical damage should be evaluated for the building stocks,
lifeline systems, transportation networks, and critical facilities. Short-and long‐term
effects should be considered in quantifying social and economic consequences. The
below figure provides an overview of the causes and effects of natural disasters.
Correlation between typical hazard events and social and economic consequences.
(Courtesy of Steve French.)
The fundamental components of earthquake loss assessment are (i) hazard, (ii)
inventory, and (iii) vulnerability or fragility, as depicted in the below figure. Seismic
risk is the product of hazard and vulnerability for a unit value of assets. Hazard or
exposure is the description of the earthquake ground motion. Inventory comprises
the assets that are subjected to the hazard; thus, it is a count of the exposed
systems and their value. Vulnerability or fragility is the sensitivity of the assets to
damage from the intensity of ground shaking. From an earthquake engineer’s
perspective, hazard can be quantified but not reduced. Vulnerability can be both
evaluated and reduced, by measures of retrofitting for example. Vulnerability can
also be reduced by other means, such as longterm land‐use management and
education. Obtaining accurate inventories of exposed assets and their values
remains a significant challenge that requires not only technical tools, but also political
will and national commitment, especially in regions where private industry holds
large inventory data sets that are not in the public domain.
Page 96
Basic components for earthquake loss estimations.
Earthquakes can cause devastating effects in terms of loss of life and livelihood. The
destructive potential of earthquakes depends on many factors. The size of an event
(expressed by either intensity or magnitude), focal depth and epicentral distance,
topographical conditions, and local geology are important earthquake characteristics.
However, the causes of fatalities and the extent of damage depend to a great extent
on the type of constructions and the density of the population present in the area.
Earthquakes exact a heavy toll on all aspects of exposed societal systems. They can
have several direct and indirect effects as shown below:
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Direct and indirect earthquake effects.
Ground shaking is by far the most important hazard resulting from earthquakes, with
some exceptions (e.g. the Asian tsunami of 26 December 2004 with about 280 000
people killed). Structural damage, which is a feature of the primary vertical and
lateral load resisting systems, may vary between light damage and collapse. Non‐
structural damage consists of the failure or malfunctioning of architectural,
mechanical, and electrical systems and components within a building. Non‐structural
damage may lead to large financial losses as well as pose a significant risk to life.
Further details on non‐structural damage can be found, for example in ATC (1998)
and the reconnaissance reports published in the aftermath of damaging
earthquakes.
4.4.4 Damage to Buildings and Lifelines

Extensive structural damage is suffered by buildings, bridges, highways, and other
lifelines during earthquakes. The seismic vulnerability of structures varies as a
function of construction materials and earthquake action‐resisting system employed.
Typical damage to masonry, reinforced concrete (RC), steel, and composite (steel-
concrete) buildings is summarised in the below table. Damage is classified under the
categories of structural members, connections, and systems. It should be noted that
in some cases a pattern of damage is common to different structural members. For
example, shear failure may occur in RC beams and columns. Moreover, local
buckling may affect steel beams, columns, and braces. Several examples of damage
to buildings and bridges are provided in Appendix B, which also contains a detailed
discussion of common structural deficiencies observed for steel, concrete, and
masonry systems. Timber structures have been used extensively especially in
Japan, New Zealand, and the USA. They include both older non‐engineered single-
story family residences and newer two‐to‐three story apartment and condominium
buildings. Wood-framed buildings are inherently lightweight and flexible; both
features are advantageous under earthquake loading conditions (Ambrose and
Vergun, 1999). Low‐to‐medium rise wood buildings, however, have been affected by
structural damage during large earthquakes (Bertero, 2000). Observed damage
consists of cracking in interior walls and brick chimneys, cracking, and collapse of
brick veneer on exterior walls. Wooden constructions have often experienced failures
similar to those of masonry buildings. Indeed, several partial or total collapses are
due to soft and weak storeys, insufficient lateral bracing, and inadequate ties and
connections between the components of the building. Inadequate foundation
anchorage led to uplifting and sliding in many cases during recent earthquakes in
California (e.g. Baker et al., 1989; Andreason and Rose, 1994, among others).
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Lifelines are those services that are vital to the health and safety of communities and
the functioning of urban and industrial regions. These include electric power, gas,
water, and wastewater systems. Infrastructures, such as transportation systems
(highways and railways), bridges, ports, and airports are also classified as lifelines.
Damage to lifelines imposes devastating economic effects on the community. Their
seismic performance affects emergency response, short‐term, and long‐term
recovery. Broken gas and power lines are serious threats to safety, largely because
of the risk of fire and explosions. The lack of water also inhibits fire‐fighting efforts.
Leaks and rupture of wastewater systems may lead to toxic contamination. For
example, during the 1995 Kobe earthquake, the destruction of lifelines and utilities
made it impossible for fire‐fighters to reach fires started by broken gas lines
(Bukowski and Scawthorn, 1995; Elnashai et al., 1995; Scawthorn et al., 2005).
Large sections of the city burned, greatly contributing to the loss of life. Examples of
damage to fuel tanks (a) and electrical power systems (b) are displayed in the below
figure. Tilting and ‘elephant foot’ buckling are common failure modes of fluid‐holding
steel tanks, while brittle fractures are generally observed in substations, which
receive and distribute energy to large urban areas.
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The major causes of outages during past earthquakes were the catastrophic failures
of circuit breakers, transformer bushings, and disconnected switches at substations.
Major damage to lifelines observed during recent earthquakes is summarized in the
below table.
4.4.5 Effects on the Ground

Analysis of earthquake‐induced damage indicates that ground effects are a serious
contributor to damage to the built environment. Local geology and topography
influence the travel path and amplification characteristics of seismic waves. For
example, natural and artificial unconsolidated foundation materials, such as
sediments in river deltas and materials used as landfill, amplify ground motions in
comparison to motion measured on consolidated sediments or bedrock. The
thickness of unconsolidated soil also affects the ground shaking. Quasi‐resonance
between the underlying soil layers and the structures has led to increased damage
during past earthquakes.
Ground motions may be amplified by sedimentary layers with various thicknesses

and degrees of consolidation. In addition to direct shaking effects, earthquakes may
lead to several forms of ground failure which cause damage to the built environment.
For example, the more than $200 million in property losses and a substantial number
of deaths in the 1964 Alaska earthquake (MS = 8.6) were due to earthquake‐induced
ground failures. Similarly, soil effects were clear in the 1971 San Fernando and the
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1989 Loma Prieta earthquakes in California. In particular, many apartment buildings
in the Marina District of San Francisco suffered damage because of soil liquefaction.
Failure modes that are of primary concern for structural earthquake engineering are
summarised below. Effects of water waves, such as tsunamis (or sea waves) and
seiches (or lake waves), are not discussed hereafter.
4.4.5.1 Surface Rupture

Rupture of the ground surface may be induced by intense and long shaking as well
as fault ruptures. These may generate deep cracks and large gaps (ranging in size
from a few meters to several kilometers). Damage by fault rupture is more localized
than the widespread damage caused by ground shaking. Nine kilometers of surface
rupture along the Nojima Fault on Awaji Island was observed in the 1995 earthquake
in Japan (see figure below). From left to right along the rupture shown in the figure,
an earthquake‐induced landslide covers a road, a fault scarp across a rice paddy,
and a right‐lateral offset in a dirt road. The section of rice paddy to the right has been
uplifted by more than 1 m; light damage was experienced by buildings even at very
close distances to the fault.
The effects of major fault ruptures can be extreme on structures; buildings can be
ripped apart. Cracks and gaps in the ground may also cause serious damage to
transportation systems (highways, railways, ports, and airports) and underground
networks (water, wastewater and gas pipes, electric and telephone cables).
Earthquake‐induced ground shaking may cause cracking of the ground surface in
soft, saturated soil (defined as ‘lurching’ or ‘lurch cracking’). Movements of soil or
rock masses at right angles to cliffs and steep slopes occur. Structures founded
either in part or whole on such masses may experience significant lateral and vertical
deformations.
4.4.5.2 Settlement and Uplift

Fault ruptures may cause large vertical movements of the ground. These
movements in turn cause severe damage to the foundations of buildings, bridge
footings, and underground networks. The collapse of several approach structures
and abutments of bridges was observed in the San Fernando (1971), Loma Prieta
(1989), Northridge (1994), and Kobe (1995) earthquakes. Settlement, tilting, and
sinking of buildings have been observed in the aftermath of several earthquakes
worldwide. Differential ground settlements may cause structural distress. Granular
soils are compacted by the ground shaking induced by earthquakes, leading to
subsidence. This type of ground movement affects dry, partially saturated, and
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saturated soils with high permeability. Subsidence of 6–7 m was observed during the
New Madrid earthquakes (1811–1812) in the Mississippi Valley in the USA.
Subsidence of areas close to sea, lakes, and river banks may cause flooding of
ports, streets, and buildings. In some cases, artificial waterfalls may also be
generated by settlements and uplifts as shown below, from the Kocaeli, Turkey,
earthquake of 1999.
4.4.5.3 Liquefaction
Excessive build‐up of pore water pressure during earthquakes may lead to the loss
of stiffness and strength of soils. The excessive pore water pressure causes the
ejection of the soil through holes in the ground, thus creating sand boils. The figure
below shows two examples of liquefaction during the 1998 Adana–Ceyhan (Turkey)
and the 2001 Bhuj (India) earthquakes. The ejection of soil causes loss of support of
foundations and thus structures tilt or sink into the ground. Massive liquefaction‐
induced damage has been observed in the two Niigata earthquakes of 1964 and
2004 as well as the recent Pisco‐Chincha (Peru) earthquake of 2007.
Retaining walls may tilt or break from the fluid pressure of the liquefied zone. Heavy
building structures may tilt due to the loss of bearing strength of the underlying soil.
During the 1964 Niigata, Japan, earthquake (MS = 7.5), four‐storey apartment
buildings tilted 60° on liquefied soils as shown in the figure below. Similarly, in the
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1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, liquefaction of the soils and debris used to fill in a
lagoon caused major subsidence, fracturing, and horizontal sliding of the ground
surface in the Marina district in San Francisco.
Soil liquefaction may cause the floating to ground surface of pile foundations with low
axial loads and underground light‐weight storage tanks. In Kobe lateral spreading
damaged the pile foundations of several buildings and bridges (above figure)
because of horizontal movements. Quay walls and sea defenses in the port of Kobe
were also affected by soil liquefaction.
4.4.5.4 Landslides
Landslides include several types of ground failure and movement, such as rockfalls,
deep failure of slopes, and shallow debris flows. These failures are generated by the
loss of shear strength in the soil. Landslides triggered by earthquakes sometimes
cause more destruction than the earthquakes themselves. Immediate dangers from
landslides are the destruction of buildings on or in the vicinity of the slopes with
possible fatalities as rocks, mud, and water slide downhill or downstream. Electrical,
water, gas, and sewage lines may be broken by landslides. The size of the area
affected by earthquake‐induced landslides depends on the magnitude of the
earthquake, its focal depth, the topography and geologic conditions near the
causative fault, and the amplitude, frequency content, and duration of ground
shaking. During the 1964 Alaska earthquake, shock‐induced landslides devastated
the Turnagain Heights residential development and many downtown areas in
Anchorage. One of the most spectacular landslides observed, involving about 9.6
million m3 of soil, took place in the Anchorage area. The scale of such landslides on
natural slopes can be large enough to devastate entire villages or towns, such as the
Huascaran Avalanche triggered by the Peru earthquake (1970, Mw = 7.8). Most of
the more than 1000 landslides and rockfalls occurred in the epicentral zone in the
Santa Cruz Mountains during the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. One slide, on State
Highway 17, disrupted traffic for about 1 month. In the 1994 Northridge earthquake,
landslides that occurred in Santa Monica, along the Pacific Coast Highway, caused
damage to several family houses built on the cliffs overlooking the ocean. This is
shown in the below figure. Relatively few landslides were triggered by the Hyogo‐ken
Nanbu earthquake in Japan. This is partly because the earthquake occurred during
the dry season. Landslides are often triggered by rainfall pressure generated inside
the fractured ground.
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In the Kashmir earthquake of 8 October 2005, land‐sliding and critical slope stability
was a multi‐scale problem that ranged from limited sloughing of a superficial nature
to a scale that encompassed entire mountainsides (Durrani et al., 2005). The land‐
sliding problem in the mountains of Azad Jammu and Kashmir and Northwest
Frontier Province, Pakistan has similarities to land‐sliding that occurred in the
mountains of Central Taiwan due to the 1999 Chi‐Chi earthquake. The figure below
shows a large‐scale landslide in the Neela Dandi Mountain to the north of
Muzaffarabad. The satellite image shows that the landslide blocked the Jhelum
River.
4.4.6 Human and Financial Losses

During the twentieth century over 1200 destructive earthquakes occurred worldwide
and caused damage estimated at more than $1 trillion (Coburn and Spence, 2002). If
these costs are averaged over the century, annual losses are about $10 billion.
Monetary losses from earthquakes are increasing rapidly. Between 1990 and 1999
annual loss rates were estimated at $20 billion, twice the average twentieth‐century
annual losses. The Federal Emergency Management Agency released a study
(FEMA, 2001) estimating annualized earthquake losses to the national building
stocks in the USA at $4.4 billion, with California, Oregon, and Washington
accounting for $3.3 billion of the total estimated amount. An update of the above
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landmark study was released in 2006 (www.fema.gov) to include in the estimation of
the annualized losses three additional features of earthquake risk analysis, that is
casualties, debris, and shelter. In the latter study, it is estimated that the annualized
earthquake losses to the national building stock are $5.3 billion, and about 65% is
concentrated in the State of California.
The largest earthquake in modern times in the USA was the 1964 Alaska
earthquake, measuring 8.4 on the Richter scale. The earthquake caused $311
million in damage and 115 fatalities. In a historical context, the largest recorded
earthquakes in the contiguous USA are the New Madrid earthquakes of 1811 and
1812. In the USA, 39 out of 50 states (nearly 80%) are at risk of damaging
earthquakes. The Central and Eastern States in the USA now recognize
earthquakes as a major threat. In particular, the eight central States of Illinois,
Arkansas, Indiana, Tennessee, Kentucky, Mississippi, Alabama, and Missouri have
dedicated considerable resources to work with FEMA and other earthquake
engineering organizations to assess the possible impact of earthquakes and to
mitigate as well as plan for response and recovery from their effects.
About loss of life on average 10 000 people per year were killed by earthquakes
between 1900 and 1999 (Bolt, 1999). In 2001 three major earthquakes in Bhuj (India,
MS = 7.9), El Salvador (MS = 7.6) and Arequipa (Peru, MS = 8.4) caused more than
26,000 casualties. The Bam (Iran, MS = 6.6) and Sumatra (Indian Ocean, MW = 9.3)
earthquakes, which occurred in 2003 and 2004, both on 26 December, caused more
than 26,000 and 280,000 deaths, respectively. The Kashmir earthquake of 8 October
2005 caused over 85 000 deaths. The human death toll due to earthquakes between
1900 and 2007 is given in the below Figure (www.usgs.gov). Over these 108 years,
deaths due to earthquakes totaled about 1.8 million. China accounted for more than
30% of all fatalities.
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Figure below compares the human death toll due to earthquakes with that caused by
other natural hazards (www.usgs.gov). It is observed from the figure that
earthquakes rank second after floods; earthquakes account for about 3.6 million
fatalities. If the death toll caused by tsunamis is added to that caused by
earthquakes, the total figure would amount to around 4.5 million.
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Monetary losses due to collapsed buildings and lifeline damage are substantial.
Furthermore, the economic impact of earthquakes is increasing due to the expansion
of urban development and the higher cost of construction. For example, the 1994
Northridge earthquake, which is said to be the most costly natural disaster in the
history of the USA, caused $30 billion in damage and $800 billion replacement value
on taxable property (Goltz, 1994). In this event, 25,000 dwellings were declared
uninhabitable, while buildings with severe and moderate damage numbered 7,000
and 22,000, respectively. Unexpected brittle fractures were detected in more than
100 steel‐framed buildings. Damage to the transportation system was estimated at
$1.8 billion and property loss at $6.0 billion. In the above‐mentioned earthquake, the
most severe damage occurred to non‐retrofitted structures, designed in compliance
with seismic regulations issued in the 1970s.
Several reconnaissance reports have concluded that building collapses caused 75%
of earthquake fatalities during the last century. Other major causes of death were
fires and gas explosions, tsunamis, rockfalls, and landslides. In the Loma Prieta
earthquake, 42 out of 63 deaths (about 63%) were attributed to bridge failures.
However, in the 1995 Kobe earthquake in Japan, 73% of the deaths were caused by
collapsed houses. The likelihood of the collapse of multi-story RC structures in
developing countries, where the quality of construction remains relatively
substandard, is high.
Earthquake damage resulting in the collapse of monuments, historical places of

worship, and stately buildings represents an irreplaceable loss in terms of cultural
heritage, while their restoration costs exceed by far the GNP of many affected
nations. The expense of reconstructing the world‐famous vault of the Basilica at
Assisi (Italy) with its early Renaissance frescoes caused serious repercussions for
the national economy after 1997. Even more problematic are the implications for
important heritage sites in seismically active developing countries. The earthquakes
of Gujarat (India), Bam (Iran), Arequipa (Peru), and Yogyakarta (Indonesia) have
caused major damage to invaluable historical sites that may or may not be restored
over several years and at an extremely high cost.
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One of the most severe consequences of earthquakes is the cost of recovery and
reconstruction. It is instructive to note, however, that the absolute financial loss is
less critical to an economy than the loss as a percentage of the GNP. For example,
in some 6 to 8 seconds, Nicaragua lost 40% of its GNP due to the 1972 Managua
earthquake (see above table), while the 800% higher bill ($17 billion versus $2
billion) from the 1988 Yerevan, Armenia earthquake constituted only 3% of the
USSR’s GNP (Elnashai, 2002).
The ‘business interruption’ element of earthquake impact has emerged lately as a

major concern to industry and hence to communities. This is the effect of largely
non‐structural building damage (e.g. suspended light fixtures, interior partitions, and
exterior cladding) which affects businesses adversely, in turn leading to financial
disruption and hardship (Miranda and Aslani, 2003). In several countries, such as the
Mediterranean regions and Central America, where tourism is a vital industry, major
economic losses have resulted from damage to hotels and negative publicity due to
earthquakes. Another aspect of the economic impact is the ‘loss of market share’
which results from an interruption to production in industrial facilities and difficulties
in reclaiming the share of the market that the affected business previously held.
The consequences of direct financial losses, business interruption, and loss of

market share on communities and industry have led major multinationals to create
risk management departments in an attempt not only to reduce their exposure, but
also to minimize insurance premiums. Global seismic risk management is therefore
one of the highest growth areas in the industry.
Answer the following:
1 What are the three fundamental parameters influencing spectra and explain?
2 Explain elastic spectra.
3 Explain inelastic spectra.
4 Explain simplified spectra.
5 Give a type of simplified spectra and explain it.
6 Explain what is earthquakes effects?
7 Discuss about the earthquake damage to buildings.
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8 Discuss about the earthquake damage to lifelines.
9 Discuss what is surface rupture caused by an earthquake.
10 Discuss what is settlement and uplift caused by an earthquake.
11 Discuss what is liquefaction caused by an earthquake.
12 Discuss what is landslides caused by an earthquake.
13 Discuss about the earthquake damage to human losses.
14 Discuss the earthquake damage to financial losses.
4.6 Post-Assessment
1 2 3 4
Topics
idea
Earthquake Spectra
A. Factors Influencing
Response Spectra
B. Elastic and Inelastic
Spectra
Effects of Earthquakes
A. Damage to
Buildings and Lifelines
B. Effects on the
Ground
C. Human and
Financial Losses
Page 109
5. Eathquake Engineering, Part 4

5.1 Duration
18 hours.
5.2 Objectives
Acquire a thorough knowledge of the NSCP Code and Specifications used in

earthquake design.
5.3 Pre-Assessment
topics.
1 2 3 4
Topics
idea
Basis for Design
A. Occupancy
Categories
B. Site Geology and
Soil Characteristics
C. Site Seismic
Hazard Characteristics
D. Configuration
Requirements
E. Structural Systems
F. Height Limits
G. Selection of Lateral
Forces Procedure
H. System Limitations
I. Determination of
Seismic Factors
Minimum Design
Lateral Forces and
Related Effects
A. Simplified Static
Force Procedure
B. Static Force
Procedure
C. Dynamic Analysis
Procedure
D. Earthquake Loads
and Modeling
Requirements
Page 110
5.4 Notations
AB ground floor area of the "i l" designates the first level
structure to include the area above the base
covered by all overhangs and Level n = that level that is uppermost
projections, m2 in the main portion of the
AC the combined effective area of structure
the shear walls in the first storey Level x = that level that is under
of the structure, m2 design consideration
Ae the minimum cross-sectional "x l" designates the first level
area in any horizontal plane in above the base
the first storey of a shear wall, M maximum moment magnitude
m2 Na near-source factor used in the
Ax the torsional amplification factor determination of Ca in Seismic
al Level x Zone 4 related to both the
ap numerical coefficient specified in proximity of the building or
Section 208. 7 and set forth in structure to known faults with
Table 208-13 magnitudes as set forth in
Ca seismic coefficient, as set forth Tables 208-4 and 208-5
in Table 208-7 Nv near-source factor used in the
Ct = numerical coefficient given in determination of Cv in Seismic
Section 208.5.2.2 Zone 4 related to both the
Cv seismic coefficient, as set forth proximity of the building or
in Table 208-8 structure to known faults with
D dead load magnitudes as set forth in
De the length of a shear wall in the Tables 208-4 and 208-6
first storey in the direction Pl plasticity index of soil
parallel to the applied forces, m determined by approved
E,Eh,Em,Ev = earthquake loads set national standards
forth in Section 208.6 R numerical coefficient
Fx design seismic force applied to representative of the inherent
Level i, n or x, respectively over-strength and global
Fp design seismic force on a part ductility capacity of lateral-force-
of the structure resisting systems, as set forth in
Fpx design seismic force on a Table 208-11 or 208-12
diaphragm r a ratio used in determining pnr I
Ft that portion of the base shear, the redundancy/reliability factor.
V, considered concentrated at See Section 208.5.
the top of the structure in SA,SB,Sc,SD,SE,SF = soil profile types
addition to Fn as set forth in Table 208-2
fi lateral force at Level i for use in T elastic fundamental period of
Equation 208- 14 vibration of the structure in the
g acceleration due to gravity= direction under consideration,
9.815 m/sec2 sec
hi, hn, hx = height above the base to V base shear is given by
Level i, n or x, respectively, m Equations. 208-8, 208-9, 208-
I importance factor given in Table 10, 208-11 or 208-15
208-1 Vx the design storey shear in
Ip importance factor for Storey x
nonstructural component as W the total seismic dead load
given in Table 208-1 defined in Section 208.5.2.l
L live load wi,wx that portion of W located at or
Level i = level of the structure referred assigned to Level i or x,
lo by the subscript i respectively
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Wp the weight of an element or ∆S Design Level Response
component the weight of the Displacement, which is the total
diaphragm and the element drift or total storey drift that
tributary thereto at Level x, occurs when the structure is
including applicable portions of subjected to the design seismic
‰L
other loads defined in Section forces, mm
208.6.1 horizontal displacement at Level
Z seismic zone factor as given in i relative to the base due to
Table 208-3 applied lateral forces, /i, for use
Š
∆M Maximum Inelastic Response in Equation 208-14, mm
Displacement, which is the total Redundancy/Reliability Factor
drift or total storey drift that
Ω}
given by Equation 208-20
occurs when the structure is Seismic Force Amplification
subjected to the Design Basis Factor, which is required to
Ground Motion, including account for structural over-
estimated elastic and inelastic strength and set forth in Table
contributions to the total 208-11
deformation defined in Section
208.6.4.2, mm
5.5 Basis for Design
5.5.1 Occupancy Categories

For purposes or earthquake-resistant design, each structure shall be placed in one
of the occupancy categories listed in NSCP Table 103-1. Table 208-1 assigns
importance factors, I and Ip, and structural observation requirements for each
category.
5.5.2 Site Geology and Soil Characteristics

Each site shall be assigned a soil profile type based on properly substantiated
geotechnical data using the site categorization procedure set forth in Section
208.4.3.1.J and Table 208-2.
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Exception:
When the soil properties are not known in sufficient detail to determine the soil profile
type, Type SD shall be used.
Soil Profile Type SF is defined as soils requiring site-specific evaluation as follows:
1. Soils vulnerable to potential failure or collapse under seismic loading, such as

liquefiable soils, quick and highly sensitive clays, and collapsible weakly
cemented soils.
2. Peats and/or highly organic clays, where the thickness of peat or highly
organic clay exceeds 3.0 m.
3. Very high plasticity clays with a plasticity index, PI > 75, where the depth of
clay exceeds 7.5 m.
4. Very thick soft/medium stiff clays, where the depth of clay exceeds 35 m.
5. The criteria set forth in the definition for Soil Profile Type SF requiring site-
specific evaluation shall be considered. If the site corresponds to these
criteria, the site shalt be classified as Soil Profile Type SF and a site-specific
evaluation shall be conducted.
5.5.3 Site Seismic Hazard Characteristics

Seismic hazard characteristics for the site shall be established based on the seismic
zone and proximity of the site to active seismic sources, site soil profile
characteristics, and the structure's important factor.
5.5.3.1 Seismic Zone

The Philippine archipelago is divided into two seismic zones only. Zone 2 covers the
provinces of Palawan (except Busuanga), Sulu, and Tawi-Tawi while the rest of the
country is under Zone 4 as shown in Figure 208-1. Each structure shall be assigned
a seismic zone factor Z, by Table 208-3.
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5.5.3.2 Seismic Source Types

Table 208-4 defines the types of seismic sources. The location and type of seismic
sources to be used for design shall be established based on approved geological
data; see Figure 208-2A. Type A sources shall be determined from Figure 208-2B,
2C, 2D, 2E, or the most recent mapping of active faults by the Philippine Institute of
Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS).
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5.5.3.3 Seismic Zone 4 Near-Source Factor
In Seismic Zone 4, each site shall be assigned near-source factors by Tables 208-5
and 208-6 based on the Seismic Source Type as set forth in Section 208.4.4.2.
for high rise structures and essential facilities within 2.0 km of a major fault, a site-
specific seismic elastic design response spectrum is recommended to be obtained
for the specific area.
Notes for Tables 208. 5 and 208. 6:
1. The Near-Source Factor may be based on the linear interpolation of values for
distances other than those shown in the table.
2. The closest distance to the seismic source shall be taken as the minimum
distance between the site and the area described by the vertical projection of
the source on the surface (i.e., surface projection of fault plane). The surface
projection need not include portions of the source at depths of 10 km or
greater. The largest value of the Near-Source Factor considering all sources
shall be used for design.
5.5.3.4 Seismic Response Coefficients

Each structure shall be assigned a seismic coefficient, Ca by Table 208-7, and a
seismic coefficient, Cv, by Table 208-8.
Page 115
5.5.4 Configuration Requirements

Each structure shall be designated as being structurally regular or irregular by
Sections 208.4.5.1 and 208.4.5.2.
5.5.4.1 Regular structures

Regular structures have no significant physical discontinuities in plan or vertical
configuration or their lateral-force-resisting systems such as the irregular features
described in Section 208.4.5.2.
5.5.4.2 Irregular structures

Irregular structures have significant physical discontinuities in configuration or their
lateral-force-resisting systems. Irregular features include, but are not limited to, those
described in Tables 208-9 and 208-10. All structures in occupancy Categories 4 and
5 in Seismic Zone 2 need to be evaluated only for vertical irregularities of Type 5
(Table 208-9) and horizontal irregularities of Type l (Table 208-10).
Structures having any of the features listed in Table 208-9 shall be designated as if
having a vertical irregularity.
Exception:
Where no storey drift ratio under design lateral forces is greater than 1.3 times the
storey drift ratio of the storey above, the structure may be deemed to not have the
structural irregularities of Type I or 2 in Tabie 208-9. The storey drift ratio for the top
two stories need not be considered. The storey drifts for this determination may be
calculated neglecting torsional effects.
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5.5.5 Structural Systems

Structural systems shall be classified as one of the types listed m Table 208-11 and
defined in this section.
5.5.5.1 Bearing Wall System

A structural system without a complete vertical load carrying space frame. Bearing
walls or bracing systems provide support for all or most gravity loads. Resistance to
lateral load is provided by shear walls or braced frames.
5.5.5.2 Building Frame System

A structural system with an essentially complete space frame providing support for
gravity loads. Resistance to lateral load is provided by shear walls or braced frames.
5.5.5.3 Moment-Resisting Frame System

A structural system with an essentially complete space frame providing support for
gravity loads. Moment resisting frames provide resistance to lateral load primarily by
flexural action of members.
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5.5.5.4 Dual System
A structural system with the following features:
1. An essentially complete space frame that provides support for gravity loads.
2. Resistance to lateral load is provided by shear walls or braced frames and
moment-resisting frames (SMRF, TMRF, MMRWF, or steel OMRF). The
moment resisting frames shall be designed to independently resist at least 25
percent of the design base shear.
3. The two systems shall be designed to resist the total design base shear in
proportion lo their relative rigidities considering the interaction of the dual
system at all levels.
5.5.5.5 Cantilevered Column System

A structural system relying on cantilevered column elements for lateral resistance.
5.5.5.6 Undefined Structural System

A structural system is not listed in Table 208-11.
5.5.5.7 Non-building Structural System

A structural system conforming to Section 208.8.
5.5.6 Height Limits

Height limits for the various structural systems in Seismic Zone 4 are given in Table
208-11.
Exception:
Regular structures may exceed these limits by not more than 50 percent for
unoccupied structures, which are not accessible to the general public.
5.5.7 Selection of Lateral Force Procedure

Any structure may be, and certain structures defined below shall be, designed using
the dynamic lateral-force procedures of Section 208.5.3.
5.5.7.1 Simplified Static

The simplified static lateral-force procedure set forth in Section 208.5. 1. 1 may be
used for the following structures of Occupancy Category IV or V:
1. Buildings of any occupancy (including single-family dwellings) not more than

three stories in height excluding basements that use light-frame construction.
2. Other buildings not more than two stories in height excluding basements.
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5.5.7.2 Static
The static lateral force procedure of Section 208.5 may be used for the following
structures:
1. All structures, regular or irregular in Occupancy Categories IV and V in

Seismic Zone 2.
2. Regular structures under 75 m in height with lateral force resistance provided
by systems listed in Table 208-11, except where Section 208.4.8.3, Item 4,
applies.
3. Irregular structures not more than five stories or 20 m in height.
4. Structures having a nexible upper portion supported on a rigid lower portion
where both portions of the structure considered separately can be classified
as being regular, the average storey stiffness of the lower portion is at least
10 times the average storey stiffness of the upper portion and the period of
the entire structure is not greater than 1.1 times the period of the upper
portion considered as a separate structure fixed at the base.
5.5.7.3 Dynamic
The dynamic lateral-force procedure of Section 208.5.3 shall be used for all other
structures, including the following:
1. Structures 75 m or more in height, except as permitted by Section 208.4.8.2,

Item 1.
2. Structures having a stiffness, weight, or geometric vertical irregularity of Type
I, 2, or 3, as defined in Table 208-9, or structures having irregular features not
described in Table 208-9 or 208-10, except as permitted by Section
208.4.10.3.1.
3. Structures over five stories or 20 m in height in Seismic Zone 4 not having the
same structural system throughout their height except as permitted by Section
208.5.3.2.
4. Structures, regular or irregular, located on Soil Profile Type SF, have a period
greater than 0.7 s. The analysis shall include the effects of the soils at the site
and shall conform to Section 208.5.3.2, Item 4.
5.5.8 System Limitations
5.5.8.1 Discontinuity
Structures with a discontinuity in capacity, vertical irregularity Type 5 as defined in
Table 208-9, shall not be over two stories or 9 m in height where the weak storey
has a calculated strength of less than 65 % of the storey above.
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Exception:
Where the weak storey is capable of resisting a total lateral seismic force of Ω times
the design force prescribed in Section 208.5.
5.5.8.2 Undefined Structural Systems

For undefined structural systems not listed in Table 208-11, the coefficient R shall be
substantiated by approved cyclic test data and analyses. The following items shall be
addressed when establishing R:
1. Dynamic response characteristics,

2. Lateral force resistance,
3. Over-strength and strain hardening or softening,
4. Strength and stiffness degradation,
5. Energy dissipation characteristics,
6. System ductility, and
7. Redundancy.
5.5.8.3 Irregular features

All structures having irregular features described in Table 208-9 or 208-10 shall be
designed to meet the additional requirements of those sections referenced in the
tables.
5.5.9 Determination of Seismic Factors
5.5.9.1 Determination of Ω
For specific elements of the structure, as specifically identified in this code, the
factor Ω and the design seismic forces set forth in Section 208.5. For both Allowable
minimum design strength shall be the product of the seismic force over-strength
Stress Design and Strength Design, the Seismic Force Over-strength Factor, Ω ,
shall be taken from Table 208-11.
5.5.9.2 Determination of R
The value for R shall be taken from Table 208-11.
5.5.9.3 Combinations of Structural Systems

Where combinations of structural systems are incorporated into the same structure,
the requirements of this section shall be satisfied.
5.5.9.3.1 Vertical Combinations

The value of R used in the design of any storey shall be less than or equal to the
value of R used in the given direction for the storey above.
Exception:
Page 120
This requirement need not be applied to a storey where the dead weight above that
storey is less than 10 percent of the total deadweight of the structure.
5.5.9.3.2 Combinations along Different Axes

In Seismic Zone 4 where a structure has a bearing wall system in only one direction,
the value of R used for design in the orthogonal direction shall not be greater than
that used for the bearing wall system.
Any combination of bearing wall systems, building frame systems, dual systems, or
moment-resisting frame systems may be used to resist seismic forces in structures
less than 50 m in height. Only combinations of dual systems and special moment-
resisting frames shall be used to resist seismic forces in structures exceeding 50 m
in height in Seismic Zone 4.
5.5.9.3.3 Combinations along the Same Axis

Where a combination of different structural systems is utilized to resist lateral forces
in the same direction, the value of R used for design in that direction shall not be
greater than the least value for any of the systems utilized in that same direction.
Page 121
Page 122
Page 123
5.6 Minimum Design Lateral Forces and Related Effects
5.6.1 Simplified Static Force Procedure

Structures conforming to the requirements of Section 208.4.8.1 may be designed
using this procedure.
5.6.1.1 Simplified Design Base Shear

The total design base shear in a given direction shall be determined from the
following equation:
3‹}
_ Œ ••. 208 5
V
where the value or Ca shall be based on Table 208-7 for the soil profile type. When
the soil properties are not known in sufficient detail to determine the soil profile type,
Type SD shall be used in Seismic Zone 4, and Type SE shall be used in Seismic
Zone 2. In Seismic Zone 4, the Near Source Factor, Na, need not be greater than 1.2
if none of the following structural irregularities are present:
1. Type 1, 4, or 5 of Table 208-9, or

2. Type I or 4 of Table 208-10.
5.6.1.2 Vertical Distribution

The forces at each level shall be calculated using the following equation:
3‹}
j~ Œ ••. 208 6
V L
where the value of Ca shall be determined as in Section 208.5.1.1.
5.6.1.3 Horizontal Distribution of Shear

The design storey shear, Vx, in any storey is the sum of the forces Ft and Fx above
that storey. Vx shall be distributed to the various elements of the vertical lateral force-
resisting system in proportion to their rigidities, considering the rigidity of the
diaphragm. Sec Section 208.7.2.3 for rigid elements that are not intended to be part
of the lateral force-resisting systems.
Page 124
Where diaphragms are not flexible, the mass at each level shall be assumed to be
displaced from the calculated center of mass in each direction a distance equal to 5
percent of the building dimension at that level perpendicular to the direction of the
force under consideration. The effect of this displacement on the storey shear
distribution shall be considered.
Diaphragms shall be considered flexible for distribution of storey shear and torsional
moment when the maximum lateral deformation of the diaphragm is more than two
times the average storey drift of the associated storey. This may be determined by
comparing the computed midpoint in-plane deflection of the diaphragm itself under
lateral load with the storey drift of adjoining vertical-resisting elements under the
equivalent tributary lateral load.
5.6.1.4 Horizontal Torsional Moments

Provisions shall be made for the increased shears resulting from horizontal torsion
where diaphragms are not flexible. The most severe load combination for each
element shall be considered for design.
The torsional design moment at a given storey shall be the moment resulting from
eccentricities between applied design lateral forces at levels above that storey and
the vertical-resisting elements in that storey plus an accidental torsion.
The accidental torsional moment shall be determined by assuming the mass is

displaced as required by Section 208.5.1.3.
Where torsional irregularity exists, as defined in Table 208-10, the effects shall be
accounted for by increasing the accidental torsion at each level by an amplification
factor, Ax, determined from the following equation:
‰|}~
,~ q r ••. 208 7
1.2‰}zD
where
‰}zD the average of the displacements at the extreme points of the structure
‰|}~
at Level x, mm
the maximum displacement at Level x, mm
5.6.1.5 Overturning
Every structure shall be designed to resist the overturning effects caused by
earthquake forces specified in Section 208.5.2.3. At any level, the overturning
moments to be resisted shall be determined using those seismic forces (Ft and Fx)
that act on levels above the level under consideration. At any level, the incremental
changes or the design overturning moment shall be distributed to the various
resisting elements in the manner prescribed in Section 208.5.1.3. Overturning effects
on every element shall be carried down to the foundation. Sec Sections 207.1 and
208.7 for combining gravity and seismic forces.
Page 125
5.6.2 Static Force Procedure
5.6.2.1 Design Base Shear

following equation:
‹Ž J
_ Œ ••. 208 8
V
The total design base shear need not exceed the following:
2.5‹} J
_ Œ ••. 208 9
V
The total design base shear shall not be less than the following:
_ 0.11‹} JŒ ••. 208 10
Also, for Seismic Zone 4, the total base shear shall not be less than the following:
0.8••Ž J
_ Œ ••. 208 11
V
5.6.2.2 Structure Period
The value or T shall be determined from one of the following methods:
5.6.2.2.1 Method A:
For all buildings, the value T may be approximated from the following equation:
N‘
‹„ ℎ% @ ••. 208 12
Ct 0.0853 for steel moment-resisting frames, 0.0731 for reinforced concrete

moment resisting frames and eccentrically braced frames or 0.0488 for all
other buildings
5.6.2.2.2 Method B:
The fundamental period T may be calculated using the structural properties and
deformational characteristics or the resisting elements in a properly substantiated
analysis. The analysis shall be by the requirements of Section 208.6.2. The value of
T from Method B shall not exceed a value 30 percent greater than the value of T
obtained from Method A in Seismic Zone 4, and 40 percent in Seismic Zone 2.
The fundamental period T may be computed by using the following equation:
∑%L”: “L ‰L
2 " ••. 208 14
• ∑%L”: “TL ‰L
The values of fi represent any lateral force distributed approximately by the principles
elastic deflections, ‰L shall be calculated using the applied lateral forces, fi.
of Equations. 208-15, 208-16 and 208-17 or any other rational distribution. The
Page 126
5.6.2.3 Vertical Distribution of Force
The total force shall be distributed over the height of the structure in conformance
with Equations 208-15, 208-16, and 208-17 in the absence of a more rigorous
procedure.
%
_ j„ – jL ••. 208 15
L”:
The concentrated force Fi. at the top, which is in addition to Fn, shall be determined
from the equation:
j„ 0.77 _ ••. 208 16
The value of T used to calculate Ft shall be the period that corresponds with the
design base shear as computed using Equation 208-4. Ft. need not exceed 0.25V
and may be considered as zero where T is 0.7s or less. The remaining portion of the
base shear shall be distributed over the height of the structure, including Level n,
according to the following equation:
_ j„ “~ ℎ~
j~ ••. 208 17
∑%L”: “L ℎL
At each level designated as x, the force Fx shall be applied over the area of the
building by the mass distribution at that level. Structural displacements and design
seismic forces shall be calculated as the effect of forces Fx and Ft applied at the
appropriate levels above the base.
5.6.3 Dynamic Analysis Procedures

Dynamic analysis procedures, when used, shall conform to the criteria established in
this section. The analysis shall be based on an appropriate ground motion
representation and shall be performed using accepted principles of dynamics.
Structures that are designed by this section shall comply with all other applicable
requirements of these provisions.
5.6.3.1 Response Spectrum Analysis

An elastic dynamic analysis of a structure utilizing the peak dynamic response of all
modes having a significant contribution to total structural response. Peak modal
responses are calculated using the ordinates of the appropriate response spectrum
curve which corresponds to the modal periods. Maximum modal contributions are
combined statistically to obtain an approximate total structural response.
5.6.3.2 Time History Analysis

An analysis of the dynamic response of a structure at each increment of time when
the base is subjected to a specific ground motion time history. The time-history
analysis shall be performed with pairs of appropriate horizontal ground-motion time-
history components that shall be selected and scaled from not less than three
recorded events. Appropriate time histories shall have magnitudes, fault distances,
and source mechanisms that are consistent with those that control the design-basis
earthquake (or maximum capable earthquake). Where three appropriate recorded
ground-motion time-history pairs are not available, appropriate simulated ground
motion time-history pairs may be used to make up the total number required. For
Page 127
each pair of horizontal ground-motion components, the square root of the sum of the
squares (SRSS) of the 5 percent-damped site-specific spectrum of the scaled
horizontal components shall be constructed. The motions shall be scaled such that
the average value of the SRSS spectra does not fall below 1.4 times the 5 percent-
damped spectrum of the design-basis earthquake for periods from 0.2T second to
1.5T seconds. Each pair of time histories shall be applied simultaneously to the
model considering torsional effects.
5.6.4 Earthquake Loads and Modeling Requirements
5.6.4.1 Earthquake Loads

Structures shall be designed for ground motion producing structural response and
seismic forces in any horizontal direction. The following earthquake loads shall be
used in the load combinations set forth in Section 203:
X ŠXf Xz ••. 208 18
X| Ω Xf ••. 208 19
where:
E the earthquake load on an element of the structure resulting from the

combination of the horizontal component, Eh, and the vertical
component, Ev
Eh the earthquake load due to the base shear, V, as set forth in Section
208.5.2 or the design lateral force, Fp, as set forth in Section 208.9
Em the estimated maximum earthquake force that can be developed in the
structure as set forth in Section 208.6.1, and used in the design of
specific elements of the structure, as specifically identified in this
section
Ev the load effect resulting from the vertical component or the earthquake
ground motion and is equal to an addition of 0.5CalD to the dead load
effect, D, for Strength Design, and may be taken as zero for Allowable
Ω
Stress Design
the seismic force amplification factor that is required to account for
Š
structural overstrength, as set forth in Section 208.4.10.J
6.1
Reliability/Redundancy Factor as given by the following equation:
Š 2 ••. 208 20
O|}~ g,—
rmax the maximum element-storey shear ratio. For a given direction or

loading, the element-storey shear ratio is the ratio of the design storey
shear in the most heavily loaded single element divided by the total
design storey shear.
5.7 Problems
Problem 1
Beam A-B and Column C-D are elements of the special moment-resisting frame.
Structural analysis has provided the following individual beam moments at A, and the
column axial loads and moments at C due to dead load, office building live load, and
lateral seismic forces.
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Dead Load D Live Load L Lateral Seismic Load Eh
Beam Moment at A 100 kip-ft 50 kip-ft 120 kip-ft
Find the strength design moment at beam end A.
Solution:
Strength design moment at beam end A.
To determine strength design moments for design, the earthquake component E

must be combined with the dead and live load components D and L. This process is
illustrated below.
The earthquake load E consists of two components, Eh is due to horizontal forces,

and Ev is due to vertical forces.
X ŠXf Xz
The moment due to vertical earthquake forces is calculated as
Xz 0.5‹} J˜ 0.5 0.44 1.0 100 22 . T
The moment due to horizontal earthquake forces is given as Eh = 120 k.ft, therefore:
X ŠXf Xz 1.1 120 22 154 . T
Apply earthquake load combinations:
1.2˜ 1.0X T: ™;
(d 1.2(š 1.0(› T: (I 1.2 100 1.0 154 0.5 50 299 . T
0.9˜ œ 1.0X
(d 0.9(š œ 1.0(› 0.9 100 œ 1.0 154 244 . T •O 64 . T
∴ (d 299 . T •O 64 . T
Page 129
Problem 2
A five-story concrete special moment-resisting frame is shown below. The specified

lateral forces Fx from Equations (30-14) and (30-15) have been applied and the
corresponding floor level displacements Dx at the floor center of mass have been
found and are shown below.
Story
Height Displace
Level
(m) ment
(mm)
5 3.048 51.308
4 3.048 44.450
3 3.048 36.830
2 3.048 27.432
1 3.658 18.034
Determine if a Type 1 vertical irregularity—stiffness irregularity-soft story— exists in

the first story.
Solution:
To determine if this is a Type 1 vertical irregularity—stiffness irregularity-soft story—

here are two tests:
1. The story stiffness is less than 70 percent of that of the story above.
2. The story stiffness is less than 80 percent of the average stiffness of the three
stories above.
Page 130
Level 1 Story Drift = ∆s1
= 18.034 mm
Level 2 Story Drift = ∆s2 - ∆s1
= 27.432 – 18.034 = 9.398 mm
= 36.83 – 27.432 = 9.398 mm
= 44.45 – 36.83 = 7.62 mm
= 51.308 – 44.45 = 6.858
Level Story Drift Ratio = Level Story Drift / Level height

Level 1 Story Drift Ratio = 18.034 mm / (3.658 m * 1000mm / m) = 0.00493
Below is the tabulated values including the 70 and 80 percent computation
Story Story
Height Story Drift 0.7 (Story 0.8 (Story
Level Displacement Drift
(m) Ratio Drift Ratio) Drift Ratio)
(mm) (mm)
3.04 0.0022
5 51.308 6.858 0.00158 0.00180
8 5
3.04 0.0025
4 44.450 7.620 0.00175 0.00200
8 0
3.04 0.0030
3 36.830 9.398 0.00216 0.00247
8 8
3.04 0.0030
2 27.432 9.398 0.00216 0.00247
8 8
3.65 0.0049
1 18.034 18.034 0.00345 0.00394
8 3
The story stiffness is less than 70 percent of that of the story above.
Level 1, 70% Story Drift ratio = 0.00345 > Level 2 Story Drift ratio = 0.00308
Level 2, 70% Story Drift ratio = 0.00216 < Level 3 Story Drift ratio = 0.00308
The story stiffness is less than 80 percent of the average stiffness of the three stories
above.
Level 2, 3, & 4 average = (0.00308 + 0.00308 + 0.00250) / 3 = 0.00289 < 0.00394
Level 3, 4, & 5 average = (0.00308 + 0.00250 + 0.00225) / 3 = 0.00261 > 0.00247
The highlighted shows that the soft story exists.
Page 131
Problem 3
The five-story special moment frame office building has a heavy utility equipment
installation at Level 2. This results in the floor weight distribution shown below:
Determine if there is a Type 2 vertical weight (mass) irregularity.
Solution:
A weight, or mass, vertical irregularity is considered to exist when the effective mass
of any story is more than 150 percent of the effective mass of an adjacent story.
However, this requirement does not apply to the roof if the roof is lighter than the
floor below.
Checking the effective mass of Level 2 against the effective mass of Levels 1 and 3
At Level 1
1.5 * W 1 = 1.5(100 k)= 150 k
At Level 3
1.5 * W 3 = 1.5(110 k)= 165 k
W2 = 170 k > 150 k
Therefore, Weight irregularity exists
Problem 4
The lateral force-resisting system of the five-story special moment frame building
shown below has a 25-foot setback at the third, fourth, and fifth stories.
Page 132
Determine if a Type 3 vertical irregularity, vertical geometric irregularity, exists.
Solution:
A vertical geometric irregularity is considered to exist where the horizontal dimension

of the lateral force-resisting system in any story is more than 130 percent of that in
the adjacent story. One-story penthouses are not subject to this requirement.
In this example, the setback of Level 3 must be checked. The ratios of the two levels
is:
ŒŸh ℎ •T ™• • 2 100′
1.33
ŒŸh ℎ •T ™• • 3 75′
133 percent > 130 percent
Therefore, vertical geometric irregularity exists.
Problem 5
A concrete building has the building frame system shown below. The shear wall
between Lines A and B has an in-plane offset from the shear wall between Lines C
and D.
Page 133
Determine if there is a Type 4 vertical irregularity, in-plane discontinuity in the vertical

lateral force-resisting element.
Solution:
A Type 4 vertical irregularity exists when there is an in-plane offset of the lateral load
resisting elements greater than the length of those elements. In this example, the left
side of the upper shear wall (between lines A and B) is offset 50 feet from the left
side of the lower shear wall (between lines C and D). This 50-foot offset is greater
than the 25-foot length of the offset wall elements.
Therefore, in-plane discontinuity exists
Problem 6
A concrete bearing wall building has the typical transverse shear wall configuration
shown below. All walls in this direction are identical, and the individual piers have the
shear contribution given below. Vn is the nominal shear strength calculated, and Vm
is the shear corresponding to the development of the nominal flexure strength.
Page 134
Determine if a Type 5 vertical irregularity, discontinuity in capacity – weak story,

condition exists.
Solution:
A Type 5 weak story discontinuity incapacity exists when the story strength is less
than 80 percent of that in the story above. The story strength is considered to be the
total strength of all seismic force-resisting elements sharing the story shear for the
direction under consideration.
Using the smaller values of Vn and Vm given for each pier, the story strengths are
First story strength = 20 + 30 + 10 = 60 k
Second story strength = 80 + 10 = 90 k
Check if first story strength is less than 80 percent of that of the second story:
60k < 0.8(90) = 72 k
Therefore, a weak story condition exists
Problem 7
The plan configuration of a ten-story special moment frame building is as shown

below:
4 @ 20’ = 60’
Page 135
Determine if there is a Type 2 re-entrant corner irregularity.
Solution:
A Type 2 re-entrant corner plan irregularity exists when the plan configuration of a
structure and its lateral force-resisting system contain re-entrant corners, where both
projections of the structure beyond a re-entrant corner are greater than 15 percent of
the plan dimension of the structure in the direction considered.
The plan configuration of this building, and its lateral force-resisting system, have
identical re-entrant corner dimensions. For the sides on Lines 1 and 4, the projection
beyond the re-entrant corner is
100 ft - 75 ft = 25 ft
This is 25 / 100 or 25 percent of the 100 ft plan dimension.
For the sides on Lines A and E, the projection is
60 ft - 40 ft = 20 ft
This is 20 / 60 or 33.3 percent of the 60 ft plan dimension.
Since both projections exceed 15 percent, there is a re-entrant corner irregularity.
Therefore, Re-entrant corner irregularity exists
Problem 8
A five-story concrete building has a bearing wall system located around the
perimeter of the building. Lateral forces are resisted by the bearing walls acting as
shear walls. The floor plan of the second floor of the building is shown below. The
symmetrically placed open area in the diaphragm is for an atrium and has
dimensions of 40 ft x 75 ft. All diaphragms above the second floor are without
significant openings.
Determine if a Type 3 diaphragm discontinuity exists at the second-floor level.
Page 136
Solution:
A Type 3 diaphragm discontinuity irregularity exists when diaphragms have abrupt

discontinuities or variations in stiffness, including cutout or open areas greater than
50 percent of the gross enclosed area of the diaphragm, or changes in effective
diaphragm stiffness of more than 50 percent from one story to the next.
Gross enclosed area of the diaphragm is 80 ft ´125 ft = 10,000 sq ft
Area of opening is 40'´75'= 3,000 sq ft
50 percent of gross area = 0.5(10,000) = 5,000 sq ft
3,000 < 5,000 sq ft
Therefore, No diaphragm discontinuity irregularity exists
Problem 9
A four-story building has a concrete shear wall lateral force-resisting system in a

building frame system configuration. The plan configuration of the shear walls is
shown below.
Page 137
Determine if there is a Type 4 out-of-plane offset plan irregularity between the first
and second stories.
Solution:
An out-of-plane offset plan irregularity exists when there are discontinuities in a

lateral force path, for example: out-of-plane offsets of vertical resisting elements
such as shear walls. The first story shear wall on Line D has 25 ft out-of-plane offset
to the shear wall on Line E at the second story and above. This constitutes an out-of-
plane offset irregularity.
Therefore, Offset irregularity exists
Problem 10
A ten-story building has the floor plan shown below at all levels. Special moment
resisting-frames are located on the perimeter of the building on Lines 1, 4, A, and F.
Page 138
Determine if a Type 5 nonparallel system irregularity exists.
Solution:
A Type 5 nonparallel system irregularity is considered to exist when the vertical

lateral load resisting elements are not parallel to or symmetric about the major
orthogonal axes of the building’s lateral force-resisting system.
The vertical lateral force-resisting frame elements located on Line F are not parallel
to the major orthogonal axes of the building (i.e., Lines 4 and A). Therefore a
nonparallel system irregularity exists.
Therefore, a nonparallel system irregularity exists
Problem 11
Find the design base shear for a 5-story steel special moment-resisting frame
building shown below, given the following information:
Solution:
1. Determine the structure period.

Method A to be used. Ct for steel moment-resisting frames is 0.035.
N N
‹„ ℎ% ‘@ 0.035 60′ ‘@ 0.75¢•
Page 139
2. Determine the seismic coefficients Ca and Cv (Table 208-7 and 208-8), SC and
Z = 0.4
Ca = 0.40 Na Cv = 0.56 Nv
Determine near-source factors Na and Nv (Table 208-5 and 208-6), seismic
source type B, and 5 km.
Na = 1.0 Nv = 1.2
Therfore:
Ca = 0.40 *1.0 = 0.4
Cv = 0.56 *1.2 = 0.672
3. Determine the base shear:
following equation:
‹Ž J 0.672 1
_ Œ 1626 171.4 Ÿ£¢
V 8.5 0.75
The total design base shear need not exceed the following:
2.5‹} J 2.5 ∗ 0.4 ∗ 1
_ Œ 1626 191.3 Ÿ£¢
V 8.5
The total design base shear shall not be less than the following:
_ 0.11‹} JŒ 0.11 ∗ 0.40 ∗ 1.0 ∗ 1626 71.5 Ÿ£¢
Also, for Seismic Zone 4, the total base shear shall not be less than the following:
0.8••Ž J 0.8 ∗ 0.4 ∗ 1.2 ∗ 1.0
_ Œ 1626 73.5 Ÿ£¢
V 8.5
∴ _ 171.4 Ÿ£¢
In this example, the design base shear is:
Problem 11
A 9-story building has a moment resisting steel frame for a lateral force-resisting
system. Find the vertical distribution of lateral forces Fx. The following information is
given:
Page 140
Solution:
1. Determine Ft
This is the concentrated force applied at the top of the structure. It is
determined as follows. First, check that the Ft is not zero.
T = 1.06sec. > 0.7sec; Ft > 0
Ft = 0.07TV = 0.07 (1.06)(233.8) = 17.3 k
2. Find Fx at each level.
The vertical distribution of seismic forces is
_ j„ “~ ℎ~
j~
∑%L”: “L ℎL
_ j„ 233.8 17.3 216.5

where
Since there are nine levels above the ground, n = 9. Therefore

216.5“~ ℎ~
j~
∑0L”: “L ℎL
¤¥ f¥
∑ ¤¦ f¦
Level x Level Ht hx Wx W xhx Fx Fx / W x
9 12 116 214 24,824 0.10262 39.561 0.185

8 12 104 405 42,120 0.17412 37.690 0.093
7 12 92 405 37,260 0.15403 33.341 0.082
6 12 80 405 32,400 0.13394 28.992 0.072
Page 141
¤¥ f¥
Level x Level Ht hx Wx W xhx ∑ ¤¦ f¦ Fx Fx / W x
5 12 68 584 39,712 0.16417 35.535 0.061

4 12 56 422 23,632 0.09769 21.146 0.050
3 12 44 422 18,568 0.07676 16.615 0.039
2 12 32 440 14,080 0.05821 12.599 0.029
1 20 20 465 9,300 0.03845 8.322 0.018
Σ 3,762 241,896 233.800
V 233.8
0.25V 58.45
T 1.060
Ft 17.348
V - Ft 216.452
Page 142
Solve the following problems:
Problem 1
Beam A-B and Column C-D are elements of the special moment-resisting frame.
Structural analysis has provided the following individual beam moments at A, and the
column axial loads and moments at C due to dead load, office building live load, and
lateral seismic forces.
Dead Load D Live Load L Lateral Seismic Load Eh

Beam Moment at A 58 kNm 75 kNm 98 kNm
Column C-D Axial Load 1500 kN 1800 kN 1650 kN
Column Moment at C 65 kNm 84 kNm 105 kNm
Find the following:
1. Strength design moment at beam end A.

2. Strength design axial load and moment at column top C.
Problem 2
A five-story concrete special moment-resisting frame is shown below. The specified

lateral forces Fx from Equations (30-14) and (30-15) have been applied and the
corresponding floor level displacements Dx at the floor center of mass have been
found and are shown below.
Page 143
Story
Height
Level Displacement
(m)
(mm)
5 3.200 55.000
4 3.200 50.000
3 3.200 40.000
2 3.200 28.000
1 4.000 20.000
Determine if a Type 1 vertical irregularity—stiffness irregularity-soft story— exists in

the first story.
Problem 3
building, given the following information:
Z 0.4 I 1
Seismic Source Type A R 8.5
Distance to seismic source 5 km W (kN) 35,561
Soil profile type Sc Total Height (m) 35
Problem 4
Z 0.4 I 1
Soil profile type Se Total Height (m) 36
Problem 5
Page 144
Z 0.4 I 1
Soil profile type Sd Total Height (m) 38
Problem 6
Z 0.4 I 1
Soil profile type Se Total Height (m) 40
Problem 7
Find the vertical distribution of lateral forces Fx of problem no. 3, consider that the
height and weight distribution are as follows.
Level x Level Ht Wx
10 0.098 H 0.040 W
9 0.098 H 0.103 W
8 0.098 H 0.106 W
7 0.098 H 0.102 W
6 0.098 H 0.109 W
5 0.098 H 0.112 W
4 0.098 H 0.101 W
3 0.098 H 0.102 W
2 0.098 H 0.110 W
1 0.118 H 0.115 W
Problem 8
Page 145
Level x Level Ht Wx
10 0.098 H 0.040 W
9 0.098 H 0.103 W
8 0.098 H 0.106 W
7 0.098 H 0.102 W
6 0.098 H 0.109 W
5 0.098 H 0.112 W
4 0.098 H 0.101 W
3 0.098 H 0.102 W
2 0.098 H 0.110 W
1 0.118 H 0.115 W
Problem 9
Level x Level Ht Wx
10 0.098 H 0.040 W
9 0.098 H 0.103 W
8 0.098 H 0.106 W
7 0.098 H 0.102 W
6 0.098 H 0.109 W
5 0.098 H 0.112 W
4 0.098 H 0.101 W
3 0.098 H 0.102 W
2 0.098 H 0.110 W
1 0.118 H 0.115 W
Problem 10
Level x Level Ht Wx
10 0.098 H 0.040 W
9 0.098 H 0.103 W
8 0.098 H 0.106 W
7 0.098 H 0.102 W
6 0.098 H 0.109 W
5 0.098 H 0.112 W
4 0.098 H 0.101 W
Page 146
Level x Level Ht Wx
3 0.098 H 0.102 W
2 0.098 H 0.110 W
1 0.118 H 0.115 W
Page 147
5.9 Post-Assessment
Post-Assessment:
1 2 3 4
Topics
idea
Basis for Design
A. Occupancy
Categories
B. Site Geology and
Soil Characteristics
C. Site Seismic
Hazard Characteristics
D. Configuration
Requirements
E. Structural Systems
F. Height Limits
G. Selection of Lateral
Forces Procedure
H. System Limitations
I. Determination of
Seismic Factors
Minimum Design
Lateral Forces and
Related Effects
A. Simplified Static
Force Procedure
B. Static Force
Procedure
C. Dynamic Analysis
Procedure
D. Earthquake Loads
and Modeling
Requirements
Page 148
6. References
PHIVOLCS. 2004. Earthquake Portfolio. Manila, Philippines.
Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines. 2003. Earthquake Design

Manual Volume 1—Code Provisions for Lateral Forces. Manila: Association of
Structural Engineers of the Philippines.
Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines. 2003. Earthquake Design

Manual Volume 2 —Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures: Manila: Association
of Structural Engineers of the Philippines.
Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines. 2001. The National Structural

Code of the Philippines, 5th Edition. Manila: Association of Structural Engineers of
the Philippines.
Di Sarno, Luigi Elnashai, Amr S 2015, Fundamentals_of_Earthquake_Engineering,

John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, United Kingdom
Fundamental Concepts of Earthquake Engineering 1420064959 (CRC Press, 2009)
Hart, G., Kai Fai Wong, K. 2000. Structural Dynamics for Structural Engineers. Wiley
& Sons, New York.
Rotterdam, Balkens. 2001. Dynamic Analysis and Earthquake Resistant Design.

New York, USA: Mc Graw-Hill.
Structural Engineers Association of California (SEAOC) 1999, Seismic Design

Manual Volume I Code Application Examples, Structural Engineers Association of
California (SEAOC) 555 University Avenue, Suite 126 Sacramento, California
Page 149

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Republic of the Philippines

Bulacan State University

Radger Teddy L. Manuel

Overview of the Module

By the end of the module students will:

Understand the occurrence and origin of earthquakes

Bulacan State University is a progressive knowledge generating institution globally-

1.2 University Mission

Attributes of Ideal Graduate (AIG) extracted from university mission:

a. to produce highly competent graduates

1.3 BSCE Program Educational Objectives (PEO)

Program Educational Objectives UNIVERSITY MISSION

Provide professional and technical knowledge and

Perform supervisory, managerial and consultancy role

1.4 Program Outcomes

LO4 – Identify advanced seismic design

LO6. Design civil engineering structures

LO7. Understand the importance and

LO8. Lead or function as a member on

LO9. Identify the impact of engineering

1.6 COURSE DESCRIPTION:

1.7 LEARNING OUTCOMES (LO):

On completion of the course, the student is expected to

1.9 RUBRIC FOR ASSESSMENT:

1.10 OTHER REQUIREMENTS AND ASSESSMENTS:

1.11 GRADING SYSTEM:

Passing Grade: 75%

1.12 LEARNING EPISODES:.

1.1 Discussion of Vision,

Earthquake effects and design of 10 to Discussion/

National Structural Code of the

2. Earthquake Engineering, Part 1

To know what is earthquake

2.4.1 What is Earthquake Engineering

More specifically, earthquake engineering provides the principles and procedures

It is based on concepts from seismology, geology, probability theory, geotechnical

2.4.2 Damaging Effects of Earthquakes

(a) by causing a ground failure

d. landslides - are often triggered by strong earthquakes, these landslides

e. soil liquefaction - is a phenomenon by which fine saturated granular

b. seiches - are long-period oscillating waves generated by distant

2.4.3 Earthquakes Forces

Furthermore, earthquake forces depend on the properties of the structure. This

2.4.4 Design for Earthquake Forces

2.4.5 Historical Background

Modern research on earthquake-resistant structures, however, began in Japan in

Similar developments in Italy after the devastating Messina earthquake in 1908

2.5 Types of Earthquakes

The earthquakes produced by volcanic activity, a soil or rock mass collapse, a

2.6 Earth Structure

Internal structure of the earth.

Cross-section of the earth’s crust under the oceans and continents.

2.8 Plate Interaction, Formation of Earth’s Surface Features, and

2.9 Earthquake Faults

2.10 Faulting and Seismic Zones of the Philippines

2.10.1 Types of Earthquake:

2.10.2 Earthquake Monitoring System:

2.10.3 Earthquake Hazards

2.10.3.1 Ground Rupture:

Effects: fissuring, displacement of the ground due to movement of the fault

2.10.3.2 Ground Shaking:

Effects: ground shaking are damage or collapse of structure; may consequently

Effects: flooding; coastal erosion; drowning of people and damage to properties

2.10.4 PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS)