Introduction to PLCs

What does ‘PLC’ mean?

A PLC (Programmable Logic Controllers) is an industrial computer used to
monitor inputs, and depending upon their state make decisions based on its
program or logic, to control (turn on/off) its outputs to automate a machine
or a process.

NEMA defines a PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER as:

“A digitally operating electronic apparatus which uses a programmable
memory for the internal storage of instructions by implementing specific
functions such as logic sequencing, timing, counting, and arithmetic to
control, through digital or analog input/output modules, various types of
machines or processes”.

Traditional PLC Applications

*In automated system, PLC controller is usually the central part of a process
control system.
*To run more complex processes it is possible to connect more PLC
controllers to a central computer.

Disadvantages of PLC control

- Too much work required in connecting wires.
- Difficulty with changes or replacements.
- Difficulty in finding errors; requiring skillful work force.
- When a problem occurs, hold-up time is indefinite, usually long.

Advantages of PLC control

* Rugged and designed to withstand vibrations, temperature, humidity, and
noise.
* Have interfacing for inputs and outputs already inside the controller.
* Easily programmed and have an easily understood programming language.

Major Types of Industrial Control Systems (overview)

Industrial control system or ICS comprise of different types of control
systems that are currently in operation in various industries. These control
systems include PLC, SCADA and DCS and various others. The information
that is received from the remote stations is forwarded to the control devices
by either automated or supervisory commands.

PLCs
They are based on the Boolean logic operations whereas some models use
timers and some have continuous control. These devices are computer based
and are used to control various process and equipments within a facility. It is
worth noticing that the PLCs control the components in the DCS and SCADA
systems but they are primary components in smaller control configurations.

DCSs
Distributed Control Systems use in automotive industry is increasing with
passing time and they are also used in canned food preparation plants. A
DCS system consists of decentralized elements and all the processes are
controlled by these elements. Human interaction is minimized so the labor
costs and injuries can be reduced.

Embedded Control
In this control system, small components are attached to the industrial
computer system with the help of a network and control is exercised.

SCADA
Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition refers to a centralized system and
this system is composed of various subsystems like Remote Telemetry Units,
Human Machine Interface, Programmable Logic Controller or PLC and
Communications. Data is collected by RTUs and sent via communications to
the central system and the information is displayed in easy to understand
graphical form by HMI for the users.

PLC History

PLC development began in 1968 in response to a request from an US car

manufacturer (GE). The first PLCs were installed in industry in 1969.

Communications abilities began to appear in approximately 1973. They could

also be used in the 70′s to send and receive varying voltages to allow them
to enter the analog world.

The 80′s saw an attempt to:

standardize communications with manufacturing automation protocol (MAP),
reduce the size of the PLC, and making them software programmable
through symbolic programming on personal computers instead of dedicated
programming terminals or handheld programmers.

The 90′s have seen a gradual reduction in the introduction of new protocols,
and the modernization of the physical layers of some of the more popular
protocols that survived the 1980′s.

The latest standard “IEC 1131-3″ has tried to merge plc programming
languages under one international standard. We now have PLCs that are
programmable in function block diagrams, instruction lists, C and structured
text all at the same time.

PLC Hardware

Hardware Components of a PLC System

Processor unit (CPU), Memory, Input/Output, Power supply unit,
Programming device, and other devices.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

CPU – Microprocessor based, may allow arithmetic operations, logic
operators, block memory moves, computer interface, local area network,
functions, etc.
CPU makes a great number of check-ups of the PLC controller itself so
eventual errors would be discovered early.

System Busses
The internal paths along which the digital signals flow within the PLC are
called
busses.
The system has four busses:
- The CPU uses the data bus for sending data between the different
elements,
- The address bus to send the addresses of locations for accessing stored
data,
- The control bus for signals relating to internal control actions,
- The system bus is used for communications between the I/O ports and the
I/O unit.

Memory
System (ROM) to give permanent storage for the operating system and the
fixed data used by the CPU.
RAM for data. This is where information is stored on the status of input and
output devices and the values of timers and counters and other internal
devices. EPROM for ROM’s that can be programmed and then the program
made permanent.

I/O Sections
Inputs monitor field devices, such as switches and sensors.
Outputs control other devices, such as motors, pumps, solenoid valves, and
lights.

Power Supply
Most PLC controllers work either at 24 VDC or 220 VAC. Some PLC
controllers have electrical supply as a separate module, while small and
medium series already contain the supply module.

Programming Device
The programming device is used to enter the required program into the
memory of the processor.
The program is developed in the programming device and then transferred
to the memory unit of the PLC.

PLC Operation

Input Relays
These are connected to the outside world. They physically exist and receive
signals from switches, sensors, etc. Typically they are not relays but rather
they are transistors.

Internal Utility Relays

These do not receive signals from the outside world nor do they physically
exist. They are simulated relays and are what enables a PLC to eliminate
external relays.
There are also some special relays that are dedicated to performing only
one task.

Counters
These do not physically exist. They are simulated counters and they can be
programmed to count pulses.
Typically these counters can count up, down or both up and down. Since
they are simulated they are limited in their counting speed.
Some manufacturers also include highspeed counters that are hardware
based.

Timers
These also do not physically exist. They come in many varieties and
increments.
The most common type is an on-delay type.
Others include off-delay and both retentive and non-retentive types.
Increments vary from 1ms through 1s.

Output Relays
These are connected to the outside world. They physically exist and send
on/off signals to solenoids, lights, etc.
They can be transistors, relays, or triacs depending upon the model chosen.

Data Storage
Typically there are registers assigned to simply store data. Usually used as
temporary storage for math or data manipulation.
They can also typically be used to store data when power is removed from
the
PLC.

PLC Communications

Extension modules
PLC I/O number can be increased through certain additional modules by
system extension through extension lines. Each module can contain
extension both of input and output lines.
Extension modules can have inputs and outputs of a different nature from
those on the PLC controller. When there are many I/O located considerable
distances away from the PLC an economic solution is to use I/O modules and
use cables to connect these, over the long distances, to the PLC.

Remote I/O connections

When there are many I/O located considerable distances away from
the PLC an economic solution is to use I/O modules and use cables to
connect these, over the long distances, to the PLC.

Remote PLCs
In some situations a number of PLCs may be linked together with a master
PLC unit sending and receiving I/O data from the other units.

Cables
Twisted-pair cabling, often routed through steel conduit. Coaxial cable
enables higher data rates to be transmitted and does not require the
shielding of steel conduit.
Fiber-optic cabling has the advantage of resistance to noise, small size and
flexibility.
Parallel communication

Parallel communication is when all the constituent bits of a word are

simultaneously transmitted along parallel cables. This allows data to be
transmitted over short distances at high speeds. Might be used when
connecting laboratory instruments to the system.

Parallel standards
The standard interface most commonly used for parallel communication is
IEEE-488, and now termed as General Purpose Instrument Bus (GPIB).
Parallel data communications can take place between listeners , talkers , and
controllers. There are 24 lines: 8 data (bidirectional), 5
status & control, 3 handshaking, and 8 ground lines.

Serial communication

Serial communication is when data is transmitted one bit at a time. A data

word has to be separated into its constituent bits for transmission and then
reassembled into the word when received. Serial communication is used for
transmitting data over long distances. Might be used for the connection
between a computer and a PLC.

Serial standards
RS-232 communications is the most popular method of plc to external device
communications. RS 232 is a communication interface included
under SCADA applications. Other standards such as RS422 and RS423
are similar to RS232 although they permit higher transmission rates and
longer cable distances.

There are 2 types of RS-232 devices:

DTE – Data Terminal Equipment and a common example is a computer.
DCE – Data Communications Equipment and a common example is a
modem.
PLC may be either a DTE or DCE device.

ASCII
ASCII is a human-readable to computer-readable translation code
(each letter/number is translated to 1′s and 0′s). It’s a 7-bit code, so we can
translate 128 characters (2^7 is 128).

Protocols
It is necessary to exercise control of the flow of data between two devices so
what constitutes the message, and how the communication is to be initiated
and terminated, is defined. This is termed the protocol.
One device needs to indicate to the other to start or stop sending data.
Interconnecting several devices can present problems because of
compatibility problems.
In order to facilitate communications between different devices the
International Standard Organization (ISO) in 1979 devised a model to be
used for standardization for Open System Interconnection (OSI).

PLC Communication II

START/STOP Bits

start bit. This is a synchronizing bit added just before each character we are
sending. This is considered a SPACE or negative voltage or a 0.
stop bit. This bit tells us that the last character was just sent.
This is considered a MARK or positive voltage or a 1.

Parity bit
Parity bit is added to check whether corruption has occurred. Common forms
of parity are: None, Even, and Odd. During transmission, the sender
calculates the parity bit and sends it. The receiver calculates parity for the
character and compares the result to the parity bit received. If the calculated
and real parity bits don’t match, an error occurred and we act appropriately.

Baud rate
it is the number of bits per second that are being transmitted or received.
Common values (speeds) are 1200, 2400, 4800, 9600, 19200, and 38400.

RS232 data format

RS232 data format (baud rate-data bitsparity-stop bits). 9600-8-N-1 means
a baud rate of 9600, 8 data bits, parity of None, and 1 stop bit.

Software handshaking
Software handshaking (flow control) is used to make sure both devices are
ready to send/receive data. The most popular “character flow control” is
called XON/XOFF. The receiver sends the XOFF character when
it wants the transmitter to pause sending data. When it’s ready to receive
data again, it sends the transmitter the XON character.

STX & ETX

Sometimes an STX and ETX pair is used for transmission/reception as well.
STX is “start of text” and ETX is “end of text”. The STX is sent before the
data and tells the external device that data is
coming. After all the data has been sent, an ETX character is sent.
ACK / NAK Pair
The transmitter sends its data. If the receiver gets it without error, it sends
back an ACK character. If there was an error, the receiver sends back a NAK
character and the transmitter resends the data.

RS-232 Communications

RS-232 is an asynchronous communications method (a marching band must

be “in sync”
with each other so that when one steps they all step. They are asynchronous
in that they follow the band leader to keep their timing).

We use a binary system to transmit our data in the ASCII format. PLCs serial
port is used for transmission/reception of the data, it works by
sending/receiving a voltage, With RS232, normally, a 1 bit is represented by
a voltage -12 V, and a 0 by a voltage +12 V. (The voltage between +/- 3
volts is considered There are 2 types of RS-232 devices.)

DTE – Data Terminal Equipment and a common example is a computer.

DCE – Data Communications Equipment and a common example is a
modem.
PLC may be either a DTE or DCE device.
When plc and external device are both DTE, (or both DCE) devices they can’t
talk to each other. The solution is to use a null-modem connection.

Usually, The plc is DTE and the external device is DCE.

Using RS-232 with PLC

Some manufacturers include RS-232 communication capability in the main

processor. Some use the “programming port” for this. Others require a
special module to “talk RS-232″ with an external device.

External device may be an operator interface, an external computer, a motor

controller, a robot, a vision system, etc.

To communicate via RS-232 we have to setup:

1. Where, in data memory, will we store the data to be sent?
2. Where, in data memory, will we put the data we receive from the external
device?

ISO/OSI model
Interconnecting several devices can present problems because of
compatibility problems. In order to facilitate communications between
different devices the International Standard Organization (ISO) devised a
ISO/OSI model to be used for standardization for Open System
Interconnection (OSI).

A communication link between items of digital equipment is defined in terms

of:
* physical,
* electrical,
* protocol and
* user standards.

Each layer is self contained and only deals with the interfaces of the layer
immediately above and below. It performs its tasks and transfers its results
to the layer above or the layer below.
It enables manufacturers of products to design products operable in a
particular layer that will interface with the hardware of other manufacturers.
ISO/OSI Protocols

ControlNet
The ControlNet network uses the Common Industrial Protocol (CIP) to
combine the functionality of an I/O network and a peer-to-peer network.
ControlNet take precedence over program uploads and downloads and
messaging. Supports a maximum of 99 nodes.

DeviceNet
DeviceNet is mainly used in industrial and process automation. It is based on
CAN technology.
It is a low-cost communication link to connect industrial devices to a network
and eliminate expensive hard wiring. Power and communication supplied
over a 4-wire bus. Supports up to 62 devices on the same bus network.

ModBus
ModBus is an open, serial communication protocol based on the
master/slave architecture. The bus consists of a master station, controlling
the communication, and of a number of slave stations.

MODBUS is an application layer messaging protocol, positioned at level 7 of

the OSI model, that provides client/server communication between devices
connected on different types of buses or networks. MODBUS is used to
monitor and program devices; to communicate intelligent devices with
sensors and instruments; to monitor field devices using PCs and HMIs.
MODBUS is an ideal protocol for RTU applications where wireless
communication is required.

Modbus offers two basic communication mechanisms:

* Question/answer (polling): The master sends an inquiry to any of the
stations, and waits for the answer.
* Broadcast: The master sends a command to all the stations on the
network, and these execute the command without providing feedback.

Serial Transmission Modes of MODBUS Networks

The transmission mode defines the bit contents of the message bytes
transmitted along the network, and how the message information is to be
packed into the message stream and decoded. The mode of transmission is
usually selected with other serial port communication parameters as part of
the device configuration.

Standard MODBUS networks employ:

1. ASCII Mode: Each character byte in a message is sent as 2 ASCII
characters. This mode allows time interval of up to a second between
characters during transmission without generating errors.
2. RTU Mode: Each 8-bit message byte contains two 4-bit hexadecimal
characters, and the message is transmitted in a continuous stream. The
greater effective character density increases throughput over ASCII mode at
the same baud rate.

PROFIBUS
PROFIBUS-DP purpose is for larger devices like PCs and PLCs to talk with
multiple smaller devices like sensors, drives, valves, etc. It uses RS-485 for
transmission of data. It uses a shielded twisted pair cable and enables data
transmission speeds up to 12 Mbit/sec.

A maximum of 9 segments (trunk line) are allowed on a network. The

devices are the branches coming off the trunk line. Up to 32 individual
devices can be connected to a single segment. That number can be
expanded up to 126 if repeaters are used. Each PROFIBUS segment can be a
maximum of 1200 meters in length. There are 10 defined communication
speeds and each has a maximum defined cable length that’s permitted.

Master /Slave
PROFIBUS uses a master/slave configuration for communication. It is usually
a single master device (aPLC) that talks with multiple slave devices
(sensors). The master devices poll the slaves when
they have the token. Slave devices only answer when asked a question.
They are passive and the master can be said to be active. The slave devices
just collect data and pass it to the master device when asked to do so.

Ethernet
Ethernet is one of the most widely implemented LAN architecture. It uses a
bus, star or tree topologies. It uses the CSMA/CD access method to handle
simultaneous demands. It supports data transfer rates of 10 Mbps, Fast
Ethernet (100 Base-T)- 100 Mbps, and Gigabit Ethernet – 1000 Mbps.

Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)

This is a system where each computer listens to the cable before sending
anything through the network. If the network is clear, the computer will
transmit. If some other node is already
transmitting on the cable, the computer will wait and try again when the line
is clear.

TCP/IP PROTOCOL
Most manufacturers who offer Ethernet compatibility to implement
supervisory functions over equipment controlling plant floor functions use a
transmission control protocol/internet protocol (TCP/IP) for layers 3 and 4 of
the OSI model. Some PLC manufacturers offer programmable
controllers with TCP/IP over-Ethernet protocol built into the PLC processor.
This allows the PLC to connect directly to a supervisory Ethernet network.
Note that the PLC can also have a control network with other PLCs.

Sinking Sourcing I/O

“Sinking” and “Sourcing” terms are very important in connecting a PLC

correctly with external environment. These terms are applied only for DC
modules.
The most brief definition of these two concepts would be:
SINKING = Common GND line (-)
SOURCING = Common VCC line (+)

Most commonly used DC module options in PLCs are:

*Sinking input and
*Sourcing output module

• Sinking I/O circuits on the I/O modules receive (sink) current from
sourcing field devices. Sinking output modules used for interfacing
with electronic equipment.

• Sourcing I/O: Sourcing output modules used for interfacing with

solenoids.
PLC AC I/O circuits accommodate either sinking or sourcing field devices.
Solid-state DC I/O circuits require that they used in a specific sinking or
sourcing circuit depending on the internal circuitry.

PLC contact (relay) output circuits AC or DC accommodate either sinking or

sourcing field devices.

PLC Input Units

Example of input lines can be connection of external input device. Sensor

outputs can be different depending on a sensor itself and also on a particular
application.

In practice we use a system of connecting several inputs (or outputs) to one

return line. These common lines are usually marked “COMM” on the PLC
controller housing.

DC Inputs
DC input modules allow to connect either PNP (sourcing) or NPN (sinking)
transistor type devices to them. When we are using a sensor have to worry
about its output configuration. If we are using a regular switch (toggle or
pushbutton) we typically don’t have to worry about whether we wire it as
NPN or PNP.

AC Inputs
An ac voltage is non-polarized. Most commonly, the AC voltage is being
switched through a limit switch or other switch type. AC input modules are
less common than DC input modules, because today’s sensors typically have
transistor outputs. If application is using a sensor it probably is operating on
a DC voltage.

Typical connection of an AC device

to PLC input module
Typically an AC input takes longer than a DC input for the PLC to see.
In most cases it doesn’t matter to the programmer because an AC input
device is typically a mechanical switch and mechanical devices are slow.

It’s quite common for a plc to require that the input be on for 25 ms (or
more) before it’s seen. This delay is required because of the filtering which is
needed by the PLC internal circuit.

PLC Output Units

PLC Output units can be:

Relay,
Transistor, or
Triac.

Check the specifications of load before connecting it to the plc output.

Make sure that the maximum current it will consume is within the
specifications of the plc output.

Relay Outputs
One of the most common types of outputs available is the relay output.
Existence of relays as outputs makes it easier to connect with
external devices. A relay is non-polarized and typically it can switch either
AC or DC.

Transistor Outputs
Transistor type outputs can only switch a dc current. The PLC applies a small
current to the transistor base and the transistor output “closes”. When it’s
closed, the device connected to the PLC output will be turned on.

A transistor typically cannot switch as large a load as a relay. If the load

current you need to switch exceeds the specification of the output, you can
connect the plc output to an external relay, then connect the relay to the
large load.

Typically a PLC will have either NPN or PNP transistor type outputs. Some of
the common types available are BJT and MOSFET. A BJT type often has less
switching capacity than a MOSFET type. The BJT also has a slightly faster
switching time.

A transistor is fast, switches a small current, has a long lifetime and works
with dc only. A relay is slow, can switch a large current, has a shorter
lifetime and works with ac or dc.
Triac Output
Triac output can be used to control AC loads only. Triac output is faster in
operation and has longer life than relay output.

Inductive loads have a tendency to deliver a “back current” when they

turn on. This back current is like a voltage spike coming through the system.
This could be dangerous to output relays. Typically a diode, varistor, or
other “snubber” circuit should be used to protect the PLC output from any
damage.

PLC Networks

As control systems become more complex, they require more effective

communication schemes between the system components. Some machine
and process control systems require that programmable controllers be
interconnected, so that data can be passed among them
easily to accomplish the control task.

Other systems require a plantwide communication system that centralizes

functions, such as data acquisition, system monitoring, maintenance
diagnostics, and management production reporting, thus providing
maximum efficiency and productivity.

Local Area Networks

The term local area network (LAN) is used to describe a communication

network designed
to link computers and their peripherals within the same building or site. A
LAN is a high-speed, mediumdistance communication system.

For most LANs, the maximum distance between two nodes in the network is
at least one mile, and the transmission speed ranges from 1 to 20
megabaud. Also, most local networks support
at least 100 stations, or nodes.

Industrial Network

A special type of LAN, the industrial network, is one which meets the
following criteria:
? capable of supporting real-time control.
? high data integrity (error detection).
? high noise immunity.
? high reliability in harsh environments.
? and suitable for large installations.
PLC Programming

Programming Languages
A program loaded into PLC systems in machine code, a sequence of binary
code numbers to represent the program instructions.
Assembly language based on the use of mnemonics can be used, and a
computer program called an assembler is used to translate the mnemonics
into machine code.
High level Languages (C, BASIC, etc.) can be used.

Programming Devices
PLC can be reprogrammed through an appropriate programming device:
Programming Console
PC
Hand Programmer

Introduction to Ladder Logic

Ladder logic uses graphic symbols similar to relay schematic circuit
diagrams.
Ladder diagram consists of two vertical lines representing the power rails.
Circuits are connected as horizontal lines between these two verticals.

Ladder diagram features

Power flows from left to right.
Output on right side can not be connected directly with left side.
Contact can not be placed on the right of output.
Each rung contains one output at least.
Each output can be used only once in the program.
A particular input a/o output can appear in more than one rung of a ladder.
The inputs a/o outputs are all identified by their addresses, the notation
used depending on the PLC manufacturer.
Introduction to Statement list
Statement list is a programming language using mnemonic abbreviations of
Boolean
logic operations. Boolean operations work on combination
of variables that are true or false.
A statement is an instruction or directive for the PLC.

Statement List Operations

* Load (LD) instruction.
* And (A) instruction.
* Or (O) instruction.
* Output (=) instruction.

Function Block Diagrams

Function block is represented as a box with the function name written in.
Example

‡please note:
LD: load
O: or
AN: and not (and a normally closed contact)
ALD: AND the first LD with second LD

PLC Instructions

Functions and Instructions

Relay-type (Basic) instructions: I, O, OSR, SET, RES, T, C
Data Handling Instructions:
Data move Instructions: MOV, COP, FLL, TOD, FRD, DEG, RAD (degrees
to radian).
Comparison instructions: EQU (equal), NEQ (not equal), GEQ (greater
than or equal), GRT (greater than).
Mathematical instructions.
Continuous Control Instructions ( PID instructions ).
Program flow control instructions: MCR (master control reset), JMP, LBL,
JSR, SBR, RET, SUS, REF
Specific instructions:
BSL, BSR (bit shift left/right), SQO (sequencer output), SQC (sequencer
compare), SQL (sequencer load).
High speed counter instructions: HSC, HSL, RES, HSE
Communication instructions: MSQ, SVC
ASCII instructions: ABL, ACB, ACI, ACL, CAN

Internal Relays
Auxiliary relays, markers, flags, coils, bit storage.
Used to hold data, and behave like relays, being able to be switched on or
off and switch other devices on or off. They do not exist as real-world
switching devices but are merely bits in the storage memory.

Internal Relays Use

In programs with multiple input conditions or arrangements. For latching a
circuit and for resetting a latch circuit. Giving special built-in functions with
PLCs.

Retentive relays (battery-backed relays)

Such relays retain their state of activation, even when the power supply is
off. They can be used in circuits to ensure a safe shutdown of plant in the
event of a power failure and so enable it to restart in an appropriate
manner.

Latch Instructions (Set and Reset)

The set instruction causes the relay to self-hold,, i.e. latch. It then remains
in that condition until the reset instruction is received.
The latch instruction is often called a SET or OTL (output latch).
The unlatch instruction is often called a RES (reset), OTU (output unlatch)
or RST (reset).

PLC Instructions II ‘Timers’

Timers

Timer is an instruction that waits a set amount of time before doing

something (control time). Timers count fractions of seconds or seconds using
the internal CPU clock. The time duration for which a timer has been set is
termed the preset and is set in multiples of the time base used.

Most manufacturers consider timers to behave like relays with coils which
when energized result in the closure or opening of contacts after some
preset time. The timer is thus treated as an output for a rung with control
being exercised over pairs of contacts elsewhere. Others treat a timer as a
delay block which when inserted in a rung delays signals in that rung
reaching the output.
Timers Types
On-Delay timer- simply “delays turning on”. It is called TON, TIM or TMR.
Off-Delay timer- simply “delays turning off”. It is called TOF and is less
common than the on-dellay type.
The on/off delay timers above would be reset if the input sensor wasn’t
on/off for the complete timer duration.
Retentive or Accumulating timer- holds or retains the current elapsed time
when the sensor turns off in mid-stream. It is called RTO or TMRA.
This type of timer needs 2 inputs.

We need to know 2 things when using timers:

1. What will enable the timer?
Typically this is one of the inputs (a sensor connected to one input).
2. How long we want to delay before we react?
Wait x seconds before we turn on a load.

When the instructions before the timer symbol are true the timer starts
“ticking”.
When the time elapses the timer will automatically close its contacts.
When the program is running on the plc the program typically displays the
current value.
Typically timers can tick from 0 to 9999 (16-bit BCD) or 0 to 65535 times
(16-bit binary).

Timer Accuracy
There are software and Hardware Errors when using a timer.

Software Errors
Input error depending upon when the timer input turns on during the scan
cycle.
Output error depending upon when in the ladder the timer actually “times
out” and when the plc finishes executing the program to get to the part of
the scan when it updates the outputs.
Total software error is the sum of both the input and output errors.

Hardware Error
There is a hardware input error as well as a hardware output error. The
hardware input error is caused by the time it takes for the plc to actually
realize that the input is on when it scans its inputs. Typically this duration is
about 10ms (to eliminate noise or “bouncing” inputs).
The hardware output error is caused by the time it takes from when the plc
tells its output to physically turn on until the moment it actually does.
Typically a transistor takes about 0.5ms whereas a mechanical relay takes
about 10ms.
PLC Instructions III ‘Counters’

Counters

A counter is set to some preset value and, when this value of input pulses
has been received, it will operate its contacts.
The counter accumulated value ONLY changes at the off to on transition of
the pulse input.
Typically counters can count from 0 tto 9999, -32,768 to +32,767 or 0 to
65535.

The normal counters are typically “software” counters – they don’t physically
exist in the plc but rather they are simulated in software. A good rule of
thumb is simply to always use the normal (software) counters unless the
pulses you are counting will arive faster than 2X the scan time.

Counter Types

Up-counters counts from zero up to the preset value. These are called CTU,
CNT, C, or CTR.
Down-counters count down from the preset value to zero. These are
calllled CTD.
Up-down counters count up and/or down. These are called CTUD.
For CTU or CTD counter we need 2 inputs, but in CTUD we need 3 (up,
down and preset).

To use counters we must know 3 things:

1. Where the pulses that we want to count are coming from. Typically this is
from one of the inputs.
2. How many pulses we want to count before we react.
3. When/how we will reset the counter so it can count again.

Counter Formats

Some manufacturers consider the counter as a relay and consist of two basic
elements:
One relay coil to count input pulses and one to reset the counter, and the
associated contacts of the counter being used in other rungs.

Others (Siemens for example) treat the counter as an intermediate block in

a rung from which signals emanate when the count is attained.

High Speed Counter

Most manufacturers also include a limited number of high-speed counters
(HSC). Typically a high-speed counter is a “hardware” device. Hardware
counters are not dependent on scan time.

Sequencers

The sequencer is a form of counter that is used for sequential control. It

replaces the mechanical drum sequencer that was used to control machines
that have a stepped sequence of repeatable operations.

The PLC sequencer consists of a master counter that has a range of presets
counts corresponding to the different steps and so, as it progresses through
the count, when each preset count is reached can be used to control
outputs.

Advanced Instructions

Data Handling Instructions

Timers, counters and individual relays are all concerned with the handling of
individual bits, i.e. single on-off signal. PLC operations involve blocks of data
representing a value, such blocks being
termed words.

Data handling consists of operations involving moving or transferring

numeric information stored in one memory word location to another word in
a different location, comparing data values and carrying out simple
arithmetic operations.

A register is where data can be stored.

Each data register can store
The number of bits determines
(2n
4-bit register can store a
8-bit:
16-bit: 0 and +65535.
a binary word of usually 8 or 16 bits.
the size of the number that can be stored
– 1).
positive number between 0 and +15.
0 and +255.

Data movement instructions

There are typically 2 common instruction “sets“:

The single instruction is commonly called MOV (move) copies a value from
one address to another.
The MOV instruction needs to know 2 things:
Source – where the data we want to move is located.
Destination – the location where the data will be moved to.
 We write an address here. Allso, the data can be moved to the physical
outputs.

Data comparison

The data comparison instruction gets the PLC to compare two data values.
Thus it might be to compare a digital value read from some input device
with a second value contained in a register.
PLCs generally can make comparisons for:
less than (< or LESS),
equal to (= or EQU),
less than or equal to (<= or LEQ),
greater than (> or GRT),
greater than or equal to (>= or GEQ), and
not equal to ( NEQ).

Arithmetic (mathematical) Instructions

PLCs almost always include math functions to carry out some arithmetic
operations:
Addition (ADD) – The capability to add one piece of data to another.
Subtraction (SUB) – The capability to subtract one piece of data from
another.
Multiplication (MUL) – The capability to multiply one piece of data by
another.
Division (DIV) – The capability to divide one piece of data from another.

Overflow

Typically the memory locations are 16-bit locations. If a result is greater

than the value that could be stored in a memory location then we get an
overflow. The plc turns on an internal relay that tells us an overflow has
happened. We get an overflow if the number is greater than 65535
(2^16=65536).

Depending on the plc, we would have different data in the destination

location. Some use 32-bit math which solves the problem. If we’re doing
division, and we divide by zero the overflow bit turns on.

Advanced Instructions II

Continuous control (PID Instruction)

 Continuous control of some variable can be achieved by comparing the
actual value of the variable with the desired set value and then giving an
output depending on the control law required. Many PLCs provide the PID
calculation to determine the controller output as a standard routine. All that
is then necessary is to pass the desired parameters, i.e. the values of Kp, Ki,
and KD, and input/output locations to the routine via the PLC program.

Control instructions are used to enable or disable a block of logic program

or to move execution of a program from one place to another place.
The control instructions include:
Master Control instruction (MC/MCR)
Jump to label instruction (JMP)
Label instruction (LBL)
Jump to Subroutine instruction (JSR)
Subroutine instruction (SBR)
Return from Subroutine instruction (RET)
Shift Registers

Master Control/ Master Control Reset (MC/MCR)

When large numbers of outputs have to be controlled, it is sometimes

necessary for whole sections of program to be turned on or off when certain
criteria are realized. This could be achieved by including a MCR instruction. A
MCR instruction is an output instruction.

The master control instruction typically is used in pairs with a master control
reset. Different formats are used by different manufacturers:
MC/MCR (master control/master control reset),
MCS/MCR (master control set/master control reset) or
MCR (master control reset).

The zone being controlled begins with a rung that has the first MC
instruction, which status depends on its rung condition. This zone ends with
a rung that has the second MCR instruction only.

When the rung with the first MCR instruction is true, the first MCR
instruction is high and the outputs of the rung in the controlled zone can be
energized or denergized acording to their rung conditions. When the this
rung is false, all the outputs in the zone are denrgized, regardless their rung
conditions.

Timers should not be used inside the MC/MCR block because some
manufacturers will reset them to zero when the block is false whereas other
manufacturers will have them retain the current time
state.Counters typically retain their current counted value.

Jump Instructions

The JUMP instructions allow to break the rung sequence and move tthe
program execution from one
rung to another or to a subroutine. The Jump is a controlled output
instruction.
You can jump forward or backward.
You can use multiple jump to the same label.
Jumps within jumps are possible
There are:
1. Jump to Label. 2.Jump to subroutine

RETURN / END

A Return from Subroutine instruction marks the end of Subroutine

instruction. When the rung condition of this instruction is true, it causes the
PLC to resume execution in the calling program file at the rung following the
Jump to Subroutine instruction in the calling program.

When a Return from Subroutine instruction is not programmed in a

subroutine file, the END instruction automatically causes the PLC to move
execution back to the rung following the Jump to Subroutine instruction. A
Jump to Subroutine instruction can be used either in a main application
program or a subroutine program to call another subroutine program.

Shift Registers

The shift register is a number of internal relays grouped together (normally

8, 16, or 32) which allow stored bits to be shifted from one relay to another.
The grouping together of internal relays to form a shift register is done
automatically by a PLC when the shift register function is selected. This is
done by using the programming code against the internal relay number that
is to be the first in the register array.

Shift registers can be used where a sequence of operations is required or to

keep track of particular items in a production system. The shift register is
most commonly used in conveyor systems, labeling or bottling applications,
etc.

Programming Examples I
Example 1:

Write a program (instruction list) to put the number (4000) in a memory

location, and the number (41) in another location. divide the first one by the
second and put the result in a memory location.

solution:

Example 2:

Make a program to increase the counter by one with each pulse from the
pulse generator SM0.4 (on rising edge) , and decrease another counter by
the same pulse.

Solution:
 steps of solution would be
like this:

1. put zero in memory

location vw100.

2. put (10) in the memory

location vw110.

3. with each rising edge

from SM0.4 (every 30 sec),
we increase memory location
vw100 by one. and at the
same time decrease vw110
by one. the program will
continue like that without
any instruction to stop.

#please note that:

MOVW => move word
INCW => increment word
DECW => decrement word

Programming Examples II

Example 3:

Put a value in memory

location vw200, and using
shifting method, move this
value to the output of the
PLC.

Solution:
when we press the PLC input button (I0.0), the PLC will put the value (980)
inside memory location vw200, and when the rising edge of the pulse
arrives, the contents of memory location will be shifted to the left for one bit
(the instruction SLW = shift left word). we could put 2 after # to shift two
bits to left. If we put 7 after the #, the overflow indicator will be activated
(SM1.1=1) which will activate the output in question.

here is the ladder diagram:

Example 4:
Using two timers, write a program so we have a pulse on PLC output with
(TON = 10 sec.) and (TOFF = 10 sec.)
*TON: timer output on, TOFF: timer output off.

Solution:

Example 5:

Using up-counter (CTU), make the PWM algorithm.

solution:
there is inside the PLC places for generating a series of pulses with fixed
durations, one of these places is SM0.5, it generates a pulse of 1 second (on
time is 0.5 sec and off time is 0.5 sec). another one is SM0.4, it generates a
60 second pulses.

.. and timing diagram:

Programming Examples III

Example 6:
In the next figure we want to fill the two tanks with water by a pump. The
pump is operating manually by a push-button “Start”. When the first tank
becomes full, the circuit should automatically start to fill the second tank by
closing the first valve, and opening the second valve, and when the
second tank is full, the pump disconnects automatically and a “sign lamp” is
turned on to show that 2nd tank is full.

solution:
We need first to identify the inputs and outputs of the system, so we can set
relations between the outside world and the inputs/outputs of the
programmable logic controller.
This table makes it clear: (remember NC: normally closed, NO:normally
open)
.. and here is the ladder diagram and instruction list for the system:

Programming Examples IV

Example A:
Use the instructions (set, reset) with the timer (SM0.4) to turn an output
on/off after several pulses from the SM0.4 timer.
and timing diagram:

Example B:
The next figure represents the process of making tea every day in the
morning for seven days (water in the tank is enough for 7 days only)
Procedure:
When pressing the ‘start’ button, the valve 1 (V1) opens,so the water pass
through the valve to the heating tank. And when the water level reaches the
float switch (FS), the valve should close and heating must begin.

When the temperature reach the required level the thermostat disconnects
the heater and opens valve 2 (V2) for 10 seconds then the alarm bell is
activated (as a sign that the tea jug is filled now with hot water)
Vendor selection

The range of PLC suppliers is vast and many offer a number of alternative
product ranges with any number of modules, boasting special features.
Our choice must meet the application requirements, provide extra capacity
for future development and provide a costeffective solution.

Price is the most commonly stated reason for making a choice, but the true
price of a PLC to meet the requirements of a particular application is often
much the same over a wide range of supplier equipment.

The final choice of supplier for our PLC will depend upon functionality,
support available, customer preferences, user knowledge and price.

These are the issues that must be addressed:

- Functionality: We have to match the application requirements with the
features of each of the contending suppliers’ equipment to identify the one
that best meets our requirements.
- Support: Before any purchase is made the following points should be
confirmed with any manufacturer:
 *Training;
*Technical support (on site and over the phone);
*Application support to configure and design a system;
*Rapid exchange/repair of failed equipment;
*Guaranteed support for any products for at least 10 years from purchase.

Choosing the correct processor

For Selecting Modular Processors the following Criteria examined include:

I/O points (local I/O points and expandable points).
Each PLC processor will only be capable of working with a limited number of
each type of I/O modules.

Memory size (for data storage or program storage) and Performance (scan
time depends on the processor).
The size of program is dependent upon the complexity of the control
problem and the skill and style of the programmer.

The required operating speed for all the I/O must be determined, with a PLC
selected to match. This requires the estimation of the program size and the
proportion of slow instructions. The scan speed is normally expressed in
terms of
ms/K for a stated mix of simple and complex instructions. A PLC with an
appropriate memory capacity and speed can be selected.

For any particular application it is essential to ensure that the

PLC selected can handle the required operations.
When a communications facility is required we need to determine whether
the built-in port is adequate for the application, or whether a separate
module will be required.

PLC Installation & Commissioning

PLC Installation, Commissioning and Recommendations

Typical installation

• Typical installation (enclosure, disconnect device, fused isolation

transformer, master control relay, terminal blocks and wiring ducts,
suppression devices).

• Spacing controllers – follow the recommended minimum spacing to

allow the convection cooling.
 • Preventing excessive heat (0–60?) C

• Grounding guidelines.

• Power considerations.

• Safety considerations.

• Preventive maintenance considerations.

Commissioning and testing of a PLC system

• Checking that all cable connections between the PLC and the plant are
complete, safe, and to the required specification and meeting local
standards.

• Checking that all the incoming power supply matches the voltage
setting for which the PLC is set.

• Checking that all protective devices are set to their appropriate trip
settings.

• Checking that emergency stop button work.

• Checking that all input/output devices are connected to the correct

input/output points and giving the correct signals.

• Loading and testing the software.

Testing inputs and outputs

Input devices can be manipulated to give the open and closed contact
conditions and the corresponding LED on the input module observed. Forcing
also can be used to test inputs and outputs. This involves software, rather
than mechanical switching on or off, being used with instructions to turn off
or on inputs/outputs.

Testing Software
Most PLCs contain some software checking program. This checks through the
installed program and provides a list on a screen or as printout with any
errors detected.

Fault detection techniques

For any PLC controlled plant, by far the greater percentage of the faults are
likelly to be with sensors, actuators, and wiring rather than with PLC itself.
The faults within the PLC most are likely to be in the input/output channells
or power supply than in the CPU.

Case 1
Consider a single output device failing to turn on though the output LED is
on.
If testing of the PLC output voltage indicates that it is normal then the fault
might be a wiring fault or a device fault.
If checking of the voltage at the device indicates the voltage there is normal
then the fault is the device.

Case 2
Failure of an input LED to illuminate as required could be because:
*Input device is not correctly operating,
*Input device is not correctly powered,
*Incorrect wiring connections to the input modulle, or LED or input module
is defective.

Many PLCs provide built-in fault analysis procedures which carry out self-
testing and display fault codes, with possibly a brief message, which can be
translated by looking up code in a list to give the source of the fault and
possible method of recovery.

Applications

Conveyor system
This simple application is for a conveyor (moving material machine) and how
we implement it using ladder diagram and instruction list.
System requirements:

1. A plc is used to start and stop the motors of a segmented conveyor belt,
this allows only belt sections carrying a copper plate to move.
2. The system have three segmented conveyor belts, each segment runs by
a motor.
3. A proximity switch located at the end of each segment to detect the
position of the plate.
4. The first conveyor segment is always on.
5. The second conveyor segment turns on when the proximity switch in the
first segment detects the plate.
6. when the proximity switch at the second conveyor detects the plate, the
third segment conveyor turns ON.
7. the second conveyor is stopped, when the plate is out of detection range
of the second proximity switch, after 20 seconds.
8. the third conveyor is stopped after 20 seconds, when the proximity swtch
located at the segment doesn’t detect the plate.
PLC LAN Applications
Centralized data acquisition and distributed control are the most common
applications of LANs. Data collection and processing, when performed by an
individual controller, can burden the processor’s scan time, consume large
amounts of memory, and complicate the control logic program.

A data highway configuration, in which all data is passed to a host computer

that performs all data processing, eliminates these problems.

Also, distributed control applications allocate control functions, once

performed by a
single controller, among several controllers, this eliminates dependence on a
single controller and improves performance and reliability.

To use the distributed processing approach, a LAN and the PLCs attached to
it must provide the functions:
- communication between PLCs
- upload capability to a host computer from any PLC
- download capability from a host computer to any PLC
- reading/writing of I/O values and registers to any PLC
- monitoring of PLC status and control of PLC operation

I/O BUS NETWORKS

This network lets controllers better communicate with I/O field devices, to
take advantage
of their growing intelligence. This configuration decentralizes control in the
PLC system,
yielding larger and faster control systems.

Three types of I/O bus networks:

?Sensor Bus Networks
?Device-level Bus and
?Process Bus.

Sensor Bus Network

At the lowest level of process automation, the Sensor Busses focus solely on
discrete devices. AS-I (Actuator Sensor Interface) is the most common
Sensor Bus Network.
Field devices typically connected to Sensor Bus Networks include on/off
valves, limit switches,….

Device Bus Networks

Device bus networks interface with lowlevel information devices, which
primarily transmit data relating to the state of the device (ON/OFF) and its
operational status. They used in areas with a high density of discrete
devices. These networks generally process only a
few bits to several bytes of data at a time. The most commonly used include
DeviceNet
and ProfiBus-DP.

Troubleshooting

Program troubleshooting
There are severall causes off alteration to the user
program:
extreme environmental conditions,
electromagnetic Interference (EMI),
improper grounding,
improper wiring connections, and Unauthorized tampering.
If you suspect the memory has been altered, check the program against a
previously saved program on an EEPROM, UVPROM or flash EPROM modulle.

Hardware troubleshooting
Tips for troubleshooting control system
If installation and start-up procedures were followed closely, controller will
give reliable service.
If a problem should occur, the first step in the troubleshooting procedure is
to
identify the problem and its source.
Do this by observing your machine or process and by monitoring the
diagnostic LED indicators on the CPU, Power Supply and I/O modules.

By observing the diagnostic indicators on the front of the processor unit and
I/O modules, the majority of faults can be located and corrected. These
indicators, along with error codes identified in the programming device user
manual and programmer’s monitor, help trace the source of the fault to the
user’s input/output devices, wiring, or the controller.

Troubleshooting II

Power distribution

The master control relay must be able to inhibit all machines motion by
removing power to the machine I/O devices when the relay is de-energized.
The DC power supplly shoulld be powered directly from the fused secondary
of the transformer. Power to the DC input, and output, circuits is connected
through a set of master control relay contacts. Interrupt the load side rather
the AC line power. This avoids the additional delay of power supply turn-on
and turn-off.

Power LED

The POWER LED on the power supplly indicates that DC power is being
supplied to the chassis. This LED could be off when incoming power is
present when the:
Fuse is blown;
Voltage drops below the normal operating range;
Power supply is defective.

Safety Considerations

Actively thinking about the safety of yourself and others, as well as the
condition of your equipment, is of primary importance.

When troubleshooting, pay carefull attention to these general warnings:

Have all personnel remain clear of the controller and equipment when
power is applied.
The problem may be intermittent and sudden unexpected machine motion
could result in injury.
Have someone ready to operate an emergency-stop switch in case it
becomes necessary to shut off power to the controller equipment.
Never reach into a machine to actuate a switch since unexpected machine
motion can occur and cause injury.
Remove all electrical power at the main power disconnect switches before
checking electrical connections or inputs/outputs causing machine motion.
Never alter safety circuits to defeat their functions. Serious injury or
machine damage could result.

Calling for assistance

If you need to contact manufacturer or local distributor for assistance, it is

helpful to obtain the following (prior to calling):
Processor type, series letter
Processor LED status
Processor error codes
Hardware types in system (I/O modules, chassis)
Revision of programming device (HHT or APS).

System documentation
The documentation is the main guide used by the users and for
troubleshooting and fault finding with PLCs.
The documentation for a PLC installation should include:
A description of the plant.
Specification of the control requirements.
Details of the programmable logic controller.
Electrical installation diagrams.
Lists of all inputs and outputs connections.
Application program with full commentary on what it is achieving.
Software back-ups.
Operating manual, including details of all start up and shut down
procedures and alarms.

Distributed Control Systems

What are Distributed Control Systems (DCS)

Various systems are introduced to automate the processes in the
manufacturing industry and minimize the human interaction with the
machines. These systems not only save the cost but also keep the injuries to
minimum. Distributed processes are controlled by decentralized elements in
a distributed control system or DCS.

Routine operations are carried out without the need of user intervention.
There is an interface known as SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition) which lets the user interact with the system. A DCS consists of a
remote and a central control panel with a communication medium. Two
different names are given to the remote control panels by different
suppliers. The names are

1) Remote transmission Unit or RTU

2) Digital Communication Unit or DCU

The functions of these remote units are same as they contain I/O modules
and communication mediums and processors. These remote control units
can be connected to the central control panel or SCADA with the help of a
wireless or wired connection.
The software used to read the I/O command is of specialized nature.

A detailed analysis of network protocols is required before the selection of

DCS is finalized. The systems differ in terms of applications and complexity
and the applications depend on the implementation of the system. A DCS
with smaller implementation may only consist of a single Programmable
Logic Controller or PLC. This controller will be connected to a computer in
the remote office.
PLC is also an attribute of the large and complex DCS installations like in
electrical grids and in power generation fields. They are also widely used in
water treatment plants and in systems for environmental control. Petroleum
refineries and petrochemical industry also uses these systems on a mass
scale as these are intelligent systems and save all the process data
necessary to continue the operations in case of a communication failure.

SCADA

What is SCADA?
Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition or SCADA is a system used to
monitor and control a plant form a central location. This is not frequently
used because of the control override possibility. SCADA itself changes the
control set points quite frequently. It is widely used in water treatment
plants and lately it has been used chlorination and pumping stations.

SCADA system is composed of 3 main elements.

• RTU (Remote Telemetry Unit)

• HMI (Human Machine Interface)
• Communications

The function of an RTU is to collect the onsite information and this

information is sent to a central location with the help of the communication
element. If system wants to send information back to the RTU then this
communication element take it back too.
The function of the HMI element is to display the information received in an
easy to understand graphical way and also archive all the data received. It is
usually a high end computer system capable of displaying high quality
graphics and running advanced and complex software.

Communication happens through various means. It will happen via data

cable within a plant or through a fiber optic. The communication may happen
via radio between different regions.

Why is SCADA Popular?

The major reason of its popularity in the manufacturing industry is that it
significantly reduces the labor costs and improves the performance of the
plant. Management can save time as well because the information is
gathered by SCADA at a central location so the personnel do not have to go
and wander about on site.

Another feature of this system which is seldom appreciated is its capability

of displaying the trends. When information gathered is displayed graphically,
the system shows the developing problems and helps the management in
taking the corrective measures. The SCADA system may be difficult to
configure at first but it is extremely user friendly and easy to use. ?

Industrial Safety Systems

The Industrial Safety Systems and Their Types

Industrial automation has minimized the human interaction with the
machines but has not completely eliminated it. Industrial safety systems are
introduced to protect the human who work in hazardous plants. Some
examples of these are oil and gas, chemical and nuclear plants. The
industrial safety systems not only protect the humans but also protect the
environment and the plant itself from the chemical reactions.

These systems do not control any process but in fact come into play when it
is not possible to control a process through normal means. They are rather
installed as a protective measure and are quickly becoming the need of
every working environment. There are various types of safety systems in
place and their use depends on the type of industry they are used in. Here is
a look at some of them.

Process Control Systems (PCS)

They are installed for the monitoring of the manufacturing environment and
they control the manufacturing process electronically. A laser diode is used
for the detection of liquid or gas present in the environment. If the gas or
liquid is detected then their particular frequency signature is converted to a
digital signal and the processor identifies the signal received.

Safety Shut-down Systems (SSS)

These systems are particularly helpful in the state of emergency as they
automatically shut-down a system to a safe state whenever they sense a
danger. They can be connected to the fir and gas systems to achieve securer
working environment.

Fire and Gas Systems (FGS)

These systems are highly sensitive
inflammable gas, material or liquid spill
the fire within the working environment
of the threat detected. These systems
manually.
and intelligent. They sense the
at an early stage. They also detect
and give audible and visual signals
can be activated automatically or

There are other systems like Pressure Safety Valves (PSV) and Emergency
Shutdown Systems (ESS) that are widely used in the manufacturing
industry.
Signature Image Processing (SIP)

It is a technology used to analyze the electrical data collected through a

welding process. This data is usually collected through robotic or automated
welding processes. Automated welding plants are used in almost 50% of the
manufactured products in the developed countries.

Certain conditions are necessary for welding to be acceptable and little

variation in it can become the cause of rejection. There was a need of a
reliable system that could detect welding fault in real time. SIP is a system
that can identify the smallest of faults in the welding process. Powerful
computers make this real time computing happen and help in optimizing the
welding process.

The use of SIP has increased significantly in the automotive industry and it
has resulted in the improved quality and safety of the vehicles. The
automatic welding system can eliminate the need to rework and recall a
product and manufacturers can reduce the number of humans in the work
place and can save more on labor costs.

SIP was developed for arc welding with the assistance and help of the grant
given by Australian government. This system has a front end interface and
software and gives accurate results as it only depends on the electrical
signals received. It can survive in any industrial welding environment and is
easy to use and install as well.

GM Holden was the first purchaser and user of the technology. Significant
improvements were made in this system depending on the feedback
received from GM Holden and these improvements increased the commercial
value of this system. The improvements were made in algorithms and the
system was optimized to achieve accurate fault detection. The interface and
installation is simple but the mathematics involved in the working of SIP is
complex and the technology has been adopted and appreciated by the
world’s top auto manufacturers.

Programmable Automation Controller

Programmable Automation Controller (PAC)

Programmable Automation Controller or PAC is an easy to configure PLC
style device. It has advanced capabilities and they are already built into its
design. It can perform complex functions like loop control, latching, and data
acquisition and delivery. They have other advantages too as open
architectures are used in their manufacturing and they can connect to
almost any device or business system present today.
Characteristics of a PAC
The term PAC was given by ARC and there were two reasons behind it.

1. To help the users of automated hardware define the applications they

need.
2. Give the vendors a term to effectively communicate the characteristics
and abilities of their product.

ARC also made and explained a few rules or guidelines for a device to be
considered as a programmable automation controller.

Operate using a single platform: It should be true for single or multiple

domains and in drives, motions and process controls.
Employ a single development platform: It should use single database for
different tasks in all the disciplines.

Functional Benefits
The characteristics used to define a PAC also explain the benefits that can be
obtained from its industrial installation and application. A PAC can meet
complex requirements and does not need additional components like a PLC.
Due to high integration of hardware and software, improved control system
performance is experienced. Integrated Development Environment or IDE
which is used in the manufacturing of a PAC uses a tagname database that is
used and shared by all the development tools.

A PAC only needs one software package to cover all the existing automation
needs and the ones that may arise in the future and does not need utilities
from different vendors. The control systems can be upgraded easily and due
its compact size, a programmable automation controller uses lesser space
compared to other options.

HART Communications Protocol

People use to think that field networks were the only solution when it came
to the use of smart field devices but HART proved it wrong. HART
communication protocol provides the easy installation that is equipped with
4 to 20mA technique. Today HART is a preferred choice for the smart field
devices.

HART communication protocol is a reliable and globally acknowledged

Protocol used for digital communication between the host and smart devices
and enables powerful control and monitoring system for the user. In simple
words, HART provides two dimensional Communication and data access i.e.
from smart device to host and from host to the smart device.
A smart device can be any intelligent field instrument and the host is any
software application on a laptop or other device used by technician which
controls the plant processes, enables security features and is basically the
control point of the plant.
HART technology has proven to be efficient in modern technology and is
more efficient and provides reliable results but it can only be used with the
intelligent devices that understand digital data. Almost all the new smart
devices accept digital language provided by HART protocol but some may
not.

If the smart device is not equipped with 4 to 20mA analog wiring, the
benefits of HART digital communication cannot be achieved because it
provides communication along with 4 to 20mA wiring and signals. So it is
important to provide the plant a digital upgrade if it is does not have these
analog wirings.

Hart technology plays a very important and critical role in the device
management and operation. It provides device configuration, device
troubleshooting and diagnostics. Its current status of health and it reads all
the extra values provided by the machine and HART technology makes this
communication possible between the host and the smart device.

PROFIBUS

PROFIBUS or Process Field Bus was introduced in 1989 and it is sometimes

confused with PROFINET. It links plant automation modules with the process
control. PROFIBUS uses a multi drop single cable to connect the devices.
This method is cost effective especially for larger sites when compared to old
methods. Its installation cost is low and it is easy to find faults as well
because it is a single cable.

Types of PROFIBUS

There are two types or versions of PROFIBUS commonly known as

1. PROFIBUS DP
2. PROFIBUS PA

Here is a brief introduction to both of these types.

PROFIBUS DP
It runs over two core screened cable that is violet sheathed and its speed
varies from 9.6Kbps to 12Mbps. A particular speed can be chosen for a
network to give enough time for communication with all the devices present
in the network. If systems change slowly then lower communication speed is
suitable and if the systems change quickly then effective communication will
happen through faster speed. The RS485 balanced transmission that is used
in PROFIBUS DP only allows 32 devices to be connected at once but more
devices can be connected and network can be expanded with the use of
hubs or repeaters.

PROFIBUS PA
It is slower than PROFIBUS DP and runs at fixed speed of 31.2Kbps via blue
sheathed two core screened cable. The communication may be initiated to
minimise the risk of explosion or for the systems that intrinsically need safe
equipment. The message formats in PROFIBUS PA are identical to PROFIBUS
DP.

Note: PROFIBUS DP and PROFIBUS PA should not be confused with ProfiNet.

ProfiNet is an Ethernet communication standard and it is used for process
control and process measurement. It is basically used to link computer
systems in an office or a network.

CoDeSys

CoDeSys is the acronym of Controller Development System. It is a

development program which enables the user to create visualizations of the
operations and processes of the applications. CoDeSys contains an
integrated visualization system which is unique and very useful. Its
applications of programiming controllers are built according to the
International indsutrial standadrs.
CodeSys software is easy to install and is freely available from the
company’s site.

This software enables the operator to draw a visual chart of the controller’s
data and can watch and assess the performance easily. No additional tools
are required for this software. A manual comes with the software which
contains all the information and it has integrated visual program.

The credit of developing CoDeSys goes to the software company located in

Germany and its most recent version was released by the company in 1994.
Five programming languages are used in CoDeSys which enable the
programming of different applications.

The five programing languages of CoDeSys software include two textual

editors, and three graphical editors that are comprehensively explained in
IEC standards. Textual editors comprise of an instruction list which is a type
of programming language, and a structure test which has similar programing
like PASCAL or C.

The graphical editor has three units, ladder diagram (LD), Function block
diagram (FBD,) and sequential function chart (SFC). The user can combine
the contacts and coils with the use of LD and FBD which will provide ease of
rapid programing of analogue and Boolean expressions. Thridly SFC enables
the user to conveniently program the sequential processes of the
application.

Function Chart of CoDeSys

Apart from these five, there is another additional graphical editor in CoDeSys
which is not included in IEC standard protocol and it is called the Continues
Function Chart (CFC). It can be seen as the extension of the function block
diagram editor. In FBD, the connections are set automatically by the
operators but in CFC they have to be drawn manually by the programmer. It
also gives free hand to the programmer as all the boxes can be placed freely
and feedback loops can be programmed without the use of interim variables.

PLC Books

Here are some of the useful and recommended books you can find on
Amazon :

Introduction To PLCs

STEP 7 in 7 Steps
 A Complete Guide to Implementing S7-300/S7-400 Programmable Logic
Controllers

Programmable Logic Controllers, Fourth Edition

http://www.plcmanual.com/plc-books