A Brief Guide to

Researching and Writing your Dissertation

and

Using the Harvard Referencing System

1
 Contents

Part one
Writing your dissertation
Page
1. Introduction 4

2. What makes a good dissertation? 4

3. Practical points to consider 4

4. Drawing up an Action Plan for your Dissertation 4

5. Suggested Timescales 5

6. Choosing your topic 5

7. Narrowing down the topic 6

8. Dissertation Structure 7

9. Choosing the Research Methods 8

9.1 Main Research Styles 9
9.1.1 Traditional/Experimental 9
9.1.2 Action Research 9
9.1.3 Ethnographic 10
9.1.4 Case Study 10
9.1.5 Survey 11
9.1.6 Historical/Documentary 11

10. Research Tools 11

10.1 Observation 11
10.1.1 Unstructured 11
10.1.2 Structured 12
10.2 Questionnaire 12
10.2.1 Administration 12
10.2.2 Sample 12
10.2.3 Design 12
10.3 Interviews 13
10.3.1 Structured 13
10.3.2 Unstructured 13
10.3.3 Guided/focussed 13
10.3.4 Be professional 13
10.4 Diaries, critical incident and problem portfolios 13
10.4.1 Diary 13
10.4.2 Critical Incident 13
10.5 Problem portfolio 13
10.6 Vignette 14

11. Analysis of Findings 14

12 Additional Resources 15

2
 Part Two
A Guide to the Harvard Referencing System
Page
1. Plagiarism 16

2. Citation and referencing 16

2.1 Citing References in text using the Harvard System 17
2.1.1 Author‟s name cited in the text 17
2.1.2 Author‟s name not cited directly in the text 17
2.1.3 More than one author cited in the text 17
2.1.4 More than one author not cited directly in the text 17
2.1.5 No author 18
2.1.6 Quoting portions of published text 18
2.1.7 Secondary sources (second-hand references) 18
2.1.8 Tables and diagrams 19
2.1.9 Websites 19
2.1.10 Corporate authors 19

3. Compiling the reference list and bibliography 20

3.1 General guidelines, layout and punctuation 20
3.2 Books 20
3.2.1 Books with two, three or four authors 20
3.2.2 E-books 21
3.3 Journal articles and newspapers 21
3.3.1 Journal articles 21
3.3.2 Journal articles from an electronic source 21
3.3.3 Journal abstract from a database 21
3.3.4 Newspaper articles 22
3.3.5 Online newspaper articles 22
3.4. Other types of document 22
3.4.1 Acts of Parliament 22
3.4.2 Statutory Instruments 23
3.4.3 Command Papers and other official publications 23
3.4.4 Law report 23
3.4.5 Annual report 23
3.4.5 Dissertation 24
3.4.6 DVD or video, film and broadcasts 24

Further links for referencing techniques: 25

3
PART ONE
Writing your dissertation
1. Introduction

This guide provides a general introduction to planning and writing a dissertation. The
guide begins by outlining what makes a good dissertation and gives guidance on how to
structure your dissertation. The latter part of the guide provides advice on how to
research, using appropriate research methods and tools.

You should work closely with your dissertation supervisor to ensure that you are
undertaking your dissertation appropriately.

2. What makes a good dissertation?

A good dissertation should be ORIGINAL and it should demonstrate

 extensive, relevant reading

 an understanding of underpinning themes
 the ability to collect data and evidence systematically
 the ability to interpret, analyse and evaluate data and evidence
 the ability to present data and evidence accurately and appropriately
 critical thinking – raise and discuss issues, not just present findings
 an ability to report and write effectively
 good referencing skills

3. Practical points to consider

Make sure you have the correct information about the following:

 Submission date (14th March 2011)

 Word limit (15,000 – 20,000)
 Intermediate dates (e.g. for submission of literature review, or other points agreed
with your supervisor)
 Tutorial sessions
 Times and dates for meeting with your supervisor

4. Drawing up an Action Plan for your Dissertation

 Select a provisional title for your dissertation and discuss this with your supervisor
 Decide which research methods you will use
 Draw up a timetable for your dissertation which includes completion of the proposal,
research time, writing time, drafting and redrafting time.
 Begin to collect the data for your research
 Sort/study data
 Analyse/interpret data
 Prepare an outline structure for writing up your dissertation
 Draft one section of your dissertation and discuss it with your supervisor
 Redraft if necessary
 Draft and redraft all sections of your dissertation
 Submit final report

4
5. Suggested Timescales

Weeks 1-3 tutorial sessions covering: moodle, an introduction to the dissertation

process, writing a proposal, sources of information, research methods,
writing the literature review, analysing your findings, writing a conclusion,
referencing. Begin your research....!

Weeks 4-6 Research and read, make notes, plan, set-up systems, confirm your
proposal

Weeks 7-8 Write up the literature review

Week 9 Refine and write up the research methods

Weeks 10-11 collect data and evidence

Weeks 12-13 Analyse data and write up findings

Week 14 Write conclusions and compile detailed bibliography and appendices

Weeks 15 Proofread, correct, bind and submit.

6. Choosing your topic

General guidance
 Try to choose a topic which interests you but about which you do not have any pre-
conceived ideas of the likely outcome. Do some initial research to see how much
information is available – eg on a specific company.
 Jot down possible areas of interest.
 Draw up a shortlist of topics.
 Check in the library how much has been written about the topic.
 Ask about dissertations/articles written on similar topics.
 Read papers and articles to raise issues.
 Compare/contrast a couple of articles on the topic.
 Discuss with other students.
 Consider feasibility of your chosen topic:
Access to sites
Tutorial support available
Equipment needed
Costs
“Life” of topic
Likely result/usefulness
Timescales
Literature available
Ethical/moral considerations
Anticipated problems
 Seek your supervisor‟s guidance:
Put forward three possible dissertation titles.
Your supervisor will help to refine and clarify your title.

5
7. Narrowing down the topic

The process of refining and clarifying your topic is as follows:

1. Identify broad area of study

2. Refine your area of study to an aspect of particular interest

3. Decide purpose (to develop theory, monitor practice, evaluate, increase

understanding, practical outcomes?)

4. Ask basic initial questions to narrow down to specific area (who, what, where,
when, why, how?)

5. Refine questions to define precise focus.

6. Draft title - use positive terms in title to reflect purpose (e.g. evaluate, examine,
measure, survey, assess)

Narrowing down the topic – an example

Broad area of study: Unemployment

Particular interest: Youth unemployment

Initial questions:
Who do I mean by youth?
Which young people in particular am I interested in?
What is the context?
What aspects of unemployment am I concerned about and why?

Specific area:
Unemployment among 16 to 25 year olds in Huntingdon

Purpose:
To find out how many young people are unemployed and how this affects them and
their community. To suggest ways of improving things.

Precise focus:
The effects of unemployment on16-25 year olds in Huntingdon and on the local
community.

Draft title:
An examination of the extent of unemployment in 16-25 year olds in Huntingdon and
its effect on the young unemployed people themselves and on the local community,
with a brief examination of possible solutions.

6
8. Dissertation Structure

A typical structure for a dissertation is as follows:

Title page

Acknowledgements

Contents page: chapters, appendices, tables, figures, illustrations

Abstract

Summary and outline of main findings

Introduction

Outline scope of study and what background material will be discussed.

Define abstract concepts in the context

Explain complex or technical words

Describe how study conducted – data collection methods used.

Outline and explain order of material.

State major findings.

Summarise conclusion.

Literature Survey

Put your own work into context.

Move from general background/standard theoretical works to more precise, recent

work relevant to your topic.

Cover range of positions – not just those that agree with you.

Show how existing theories/research findings illuminate your work.

Methodology

(Explain approach taken and why particular methods and techniques used.

Describe procedures, size of samples, methods of selection, choice of variables and

controls, any tests of measurement etc.

Mention deficiencies and limitations of the methods used.

Results

Present findings clearly.

7
 Use tables, charts, diagrams etc if appropriate.
Highlight significant aspects of findings in text.

Avoid interpretation/conclusions – this should be in the next sections.

Discussion/Analysis

Interpret findings.

Construct a logical, consistent argument based on findings.

Conclusion (and Recommendations)

Summarise main points and state any conclusions which can be drawn.

Indicate how firm the conclusion is

Do not introduce anything new in this section

Make any recommendations

References

This should include a list of ALL the references used and cited in your dissertation.
See below for how to compile the reference list using the Harvard Style.
Note: References should also be cited in the text.

Bibliography – background reading but not cited (ie not included in the list of references

Appendices

e.g. blank questionnaire, transcript of interview, extended case studies, letter of

invitation.

9. Choosing the Research Methods

Select the method to suit the task – consider the following:

What sort of data do you want and how much data do you need for the purpose of
analysis?
 What method will best generate the right type and amount of data?
 Where is the relevant literature held?
 How will you gather the data?
 How will you store the data?
 Is there enough time to use this method?
 Will there be enough time to analyse the data?

What sort of questions would you ask to analyse the data?

 Are interviewees likely to co-operate (if this is the selected method)?
 How would you validate the evidence?

Quantitative or Qualitative data?

8
Quantitative data is
 objective
 concerned with observable, objective, measurable facts, physical
characteristics and the outside world
 linked to a hypothesis indicated at beginning of research then tested through
experiment
 associated with measurement and comparison of data at beginning and end
of period
 used for large samples
 is presented as %s and in graphs
 used where the researcher is more remote from group

Qualitative data is
 subjective
 often concerned with social aspects of lives of groups and individuals
 concerned with immeasurable features – meanings and experience
 used to generate new hypothesis or theory
 concerned with explanation and interpretation
 associated with techniques such as case study, informal discussion, self
discovery
 used for smaller samples
 analysed and reported
 used where the researcher is more involved with group

9.1 Main Research Styles

9.1.1 Traditional/Experimental

 Used especially in physical sciences, medicine and social science projects.

 Starts with hypothesis (i.e. expression of relationship between two variables) based
on observation/theory
 Hypothesis tested by experiment and proved or refuted
 Quantitative. Collects facts and studies relationships between different sets of facts.
 Effective where large scale calculations and measurements involved.
 Precision/accurate measurement/careful duplication, using scientific techniques.
 Rational and objective.
 Exact prediction and generality.
 Results presented as %s, graphs etc.
 May involve before and after situations – matched groups (with control group) given
different treatments and results compared.
 Researcher removed from group.

The disadvantages of this research style are:

 In some areas may need to know more about process, not just before and after
measurements.
 Changes in behaviour cannot be tested
 There may be too many variations and ambiguities.

9.1.2 Action Research

 Can follow on from case study or survey study.

 Practitioner = researcher.

9
 Reflective, self evaluation involved.
 Tackles real problems and aims for increased knowledge and understanding and
improved practice.
 Where are we now? Where do we want to get to? How will we get there? How will we
know when we‟ve got there?
 Intervenes, makes changes, monitors effects
 Subjects participate and implement interventions – leading to more changes.
 Continuous process.
 May involve use of reflective diary, detailed observation methods
 Evidence gathered by e.g. photos, audio/video tape, notes, interviews,
questionnaires

The advantage of Action Research is that there is scope for inventiveness and
creativity

The disadvantages is that it may result in an invasion of privacy (ground rules needed)

9.1.3 Ethnographic

 Study by integration with and observation of the group

 Qualitative/descriptive - seeking insight not statistical analysis

The advantages of this research style are:

 shared experience can help to understand subjects‟ actions;
 can provide fresh perspectives on and valuable
 insights into what is taken-for-granted

The disadvantages of this research style are:

 difficult to verify findings by repeating research;
 researcher‟s personal involvement could make it difficult for him to step back and
focus on observation;
 care needed to avoid affecting the action;
 time limitations;
 not representative or generalisable – but can be related to similar problems.

9.1.4 Case Study

 In depth, systematic examination of individual, group

or focussed area/setting/institution
 Observes, questions, studies relationships between variables, interaction of factors
and events
 Focus on describing the features of and understanding a particular case
 Case can be used to explain or illustrate wider themes
 Can stand alone or provide the starting point:
- for an experimental study, clarifying the hypothesis
- for a survey – identify key issues for further investigation
- for action research
 Qualitative – commonly uses observation and interviews but can use quantitative
techniques

The advantages of this research style are:

 can focus in depth on shifting relationships;
 can explore complex sets of inter relationships;

10
 participants‟ voices can be heard;
 brings research to life – gives a 3D picture

The disadvantages of this research style are:

 can intrude in lives of others;
 situation and time bound;
 requires carefully collected, high quality data; appropriate data collection takes time;
 researcher‟s close involvement – risk of distortion
 generalisation not always possible – but still valid if can be related to similar
situations

9.1.5 Survey

 Aims to obtain information from a representative selection/sample and present

findings as representing population as a whole
 Describes situation/population and explores reasons
 Gives snapshot of setting/views/attitudes
 Identifies relationships, patterns
 Used e.g. for : demographic research; patient/client/use satisfaction surveys; market
research; workload evaluation and human resource planning; monitoring standards
 May use questionnaires, attitude scales, archival data, interviews

The advantage of this research style is:

 can gather large amount of data quickly and easily

The disadvantages of this research style are:

 difficult to make sample truly representative
 difficult to get questions right
 can answer “who, what, where, when, how?” but not so easily “why?”
 can identify relationships but not prove cause and effect

9.1.6 Historical/Documentary

 Use of documents may sometimes be only available method

 May involve use of historical documents, e.g. parish records, population statistics
 May involve use of more recent records, e.g. minutes of meetings
 May involve primary or secondary sources (i.e interpretations of primary sources)

The disadvantages of this research style are:

 documents may be missing/incomplete;
 questions of authenticity, reliability, validity and purpose;
 sampling often not possible
 difficulties of making inferences

10. Research Tools

10.1 Observation

10.1.1 Unstructured

 No pre-conceived ideas about what to observe

11
 No checklists
 Written up immediately after

10.1.2 Structured

 Decide what to observe in advance – content? process? interaction?

 Decide appropriate recording system:
- Checklists/charts
- Event sampling
- Video/audio tape
- Photos
- Field notes and analytic memos
 For further information on recording systems see:
Bales, Flanders, OU

10.2 Questionnaire

10.2.1 Administration

 build in time for correspondence/travel/ analysis

 distribute personally (face to face/telephone)?
 post? accompanying letter – state return date
 note dates sent and returned
 chaser to non respondents (unless anonymous!)
 consider how you will classify/analyse responses
 pilot run (with similar group) and debug/revise

10.2.2 Sample

 know your subject group

 sample should be as representative as possible of study “population”
 random? Every 5th name?
 include representative sub-groups

10.2.3 Design

 make sure respondent sure what‟s required

 use simple, direct, appropriate language
 make layout clear and user friendly
 questions should :
- be relevant and appropriate to your objectives
(Open or closed? Facts or beliefs?)
- be precise to avoid confusion, ambiguity, hesitation
- require consistent types of answer
- not “lead” the respondent
- not be hypothetical or offensives
- carefully ordered – start with most straightforward

 Types of response
Verbal
Structured: list , category, ranking, scales, quantity, grid

12
10.3 Interviews

10.3.1 Structured:

- Questionnaire/Checklist – same questions to each in same order

- Can ensure all topics covered
- Analysis quick and easy
- Questions often “closed”

10.3.2 Unstructured:

- No set questions
- Skill in paraphrasing, probing, summarising, echoing, non verbal communication
- Analysis needs time and care
- Useful preliminary to gain overview and identify areas to explore further
- Record responses by notes/tape recording – verify “quotes”

10.3.3 Guided/focussed:

- Framework of selected topics

- Questions asked but interviewee also has chance to talk/give views
- Record responses under prepared headings

10.3.4 Be professional:

- Clear official channels

- Make appointments and stick to them
- Make your purpose clear
- Make it clear what you will do with the information
- Make no promises that you can‟t keep
- Be polite and respectful
- Be objective/unbiased (no “leading” questions)

10.4 Diaries, critical incident and problem portfolios

10.4.1 Diary

 Records behaviour – make clear what behaviour

 Useful where observation difficult
 Could be preliminary to interview
 Time consuming and relies on honesty/accuracy of writer

10.4.2 Critical Incident

 Identify most “noteworthy” aspects of job behaviour

 Can show what particularly contributes to good performance
 Centres on specific events and effective behaviour

10.5 Problem portfolio

 Record how problem arose, methods used to solve, difficulties encountered etc
 Raises questions re use of time, prioritising and approach to problems

13
10.6 Vignette

 a short scenario to give a context to a question(s)

 people reflect and give answers based on their view of the scenario
 useful to inquire into sensitive areas
 must be realistic and easy to understand
 stops people relating questions to themselves directly
 less threatening
 can help to focus on a particular aspect
 questions must be relevant to research objectives
 questions must be carefully worded

11. Analysis of Findings

It is not enough to present findings, you need to show how the findings support your
argument:
 what light do they shed on the topic?
 what significance do they have for the topic?
 what weight can be given to them?
 how do they relate to other views?

You need to interpret, analyse, criticise:

 Look for similarities, groupings, patterns, items of particular significance
 Need to raise/discuss issues

Determine what is fact and what opinion?

Consider whether there are any weaknesses, errors, omissions in the findings. Are there
other explanations possible?

Do not claim more for the results than they provide, and consider whether they are
reliable and valid?

Do not attempt to make generalisations based on insufficient data

This short guide is adapted from an Anglia Ruskin University Guide to writing a dissertation.

14
 12 Additional Resources

You may find the following publications useful when writing your dissertation. This is not
an extensive list and there are many other publications which may help you.

Fisher, C. M. (2010). Researching and writing a dissertation: an essential guide for

business students. Harlow :Financial Times Prentice Hall,

Gill, John, (2010). Research methods for managers. 4th ed. London, SAGE

McIntosh, Paul. (2010). Action research and reflective practice [electronic

resource] creative and visual methods to facilitate reflection and learning (e book)
London ; New York : Routledge,

Hair, Joseph [et al.] (2007).Research methods for business, Chichester, John Wiley &
Sons Ltd

Fink, Arlene. (2009). 4th ed. How to conduct surveys :a step by step guide London,
SAGE
Grix, Jonathan (2010). Information skill : finding and using the right resources.
Basingstoke :Palgrave Macmillan

McMillan, Kathleen and Weyers , Jonathan ( 2010). How to write dissertations & project
reports, Harlow :Prentice Hall

Brace, Ian, (e book) and in hard copy) (2008). Questionnaire design [electronic resource]
: how to plan, structure and write survey material for effective market research 2nd ed.
London: Kogan Page

Gillham, Bill, (2008). Developing a questionnaire 2nd ed London :Continuum

.

15
PART TWO
A Guide to the Harvard Referencing System

The following is a brief guide to the Harvard Referencing System adapted from the Anglia
Ruskin Guide. A full copy of the guide can be downloaded from:

http://libweb.anglia.ac.uk/referencing/harvard.htm

1. Plagiarism

Plagiarism is passing off the work of others as your own. This constitutes
academic theft and is a serious matter which will be penalised when your dissertation is
marked.

Examples of plagiarism are:

 verbatim copying of another person‟s work without acknowledgement

 close paraphrasing of another person‟s work by simply changing a few words or
altering the order of presentation without acknowledgement
 unacknowledged quotation of phrases from another person‟s work and/or
presentation of another person‟s idea(s) as one‟s own.

Copying or close paraphrasing with occasional acknowledgement of the source

may also be deemed to be plagiarism if the absence of quotation marks implies that the
phraseology is the student‟s own.

Plagiarised work may belong to another student or be from a published source

such as a book, report, journal or material available on the internet.”

To avoid being accused of plagiarism, follow the guidelines in this section for citations
and references.

2. Citation and referencing

During the course of writing your dissertation your should support your arguments by
reference to other published work. These references may be from work presented in
journal or newspaper articles, government reports, books or specific chapters of books,
research dissertations or theses, material over the internet etc.

Citation is the practice of referring to the work of other authors in the text of your work.
Such works are cited to show evidence both of the background reading that has been
done and to support the content and conclusions.

Each citation requires a reference at the end of the work; this gives the full details of the
source item and should enable it to be traced. Referring accurately to such source
materials is part of sound academic practice and a skill that should be mastered. Other
reasons for accurate citation and referencing are to:

 give credit to the concepts and ideas of other authors

16
  provide the reader (often the marker/examiner of the dissertation) with evidence
of the breadth and depth of your reading
 enable those who read your work to locate the cited references easily

Remember to write down the details of all the documents you read. This guide will help
you to reference the different sources you access correctly.

2.1 Citing References in text using the Harvard System

Any in-text reference should include the authorship and the year of the work. Depending
on the nature of the sentence/paragraph that is being written, references to sources may
be cited in the text in the following manner:

2.1.1 Author’s name cited in the text

When making reference to an author‟s work in your text, their name is followed by the
year of publication of their work:

Example:
In general, when writing for a professional publication, it is good practice
to make reference to other relevant published work. This view has been
supported in the work of Cormack (1994).

Where you are mentioning a particular part of the work, and making direct
reference to this, a page reference should be included:

Example:
Cormack (1994, pp.32-33) states that 'when writing for a professional readership, writers
invariably make reference to already published works'.

2.1.2 Author’s name not cited directly in the text

If you make reference to a work or piece of research without mentioning the

author in the text then both the author‟s name and publication year are placed at
the relevant point in the sentence or at the end of the sentence in brackets:

Example:
Making reference to published work appears to be characteristic of writing
for a professional audience (Cormack, 1994).

2.1.3 More than one author cited in the text

Where reference is made to more than one author in a sentence, and they are
referred to directly, they are both cited:

Example
Jones (1946) and Smith (1948) have both shown …

2.1.4 More than one author not cited directly in the text

List these at the relevant point in the sentence or at the end of the sentence,

17
putting the author‟s name, followed by the date of publication and separated by a semi-
colon and within brackets.

Where several publications from a number of authors are referred to, then the
references should be cited in chronological order (i.e. earliest first):

2.1.5 No author

If the author cannot be identified use „Anonymous‟ or „Anon.‟ and the title of the work
and date of publication. The title should be written in italics. Every effort should be made
to establish the authorship if you intend to use this work as supporting evidence in an
academic submission:

Example
Marketing strategy (Anon., 1999)

See pages XX to XX of the Anglia Ruskin Guide for guidance on how to quote from other
sources where part of the reference is missing.

2.1.6 Quoting portions of published text

If you want to include text from a published work in your essay then the
sentence(s) must be included within quotation marks, and may be introduced by
such phrases as:
the author states that “……..”
or
the author writes that “……..”

The quotation should also be emphasized (especially if it runs to 50 words or more) by

indenting it and using quotation marks. This clearly identifies the quotation as the work of
someone else:

Example
On the topic of professional writing and referencing
Cormack (1994, p.32) states:
'When writing for a professional readership, writers invariably make
reference to already published works'.

Quotations should not be more than 4 lines in length.

2.1.7 Secondary sources (second-hand references)

You may come across a summary of another author‟s work in the source you are
reading, which you would like to make reference to in your own document; this is
called secondary referencing .

Example of a direct reference:

Research recently carried out in the Greater Manchester area by Brown
(1966 cited in Bassett, 1986, p.142) found that …

In this example, Brown is the work which you wish to refer to, but have not read directly
for yourself. Bassett is the secondary source, where you found the summary of Brown‟s
work.

18
Or indirectly:
(Brown, 1966 cited in Bassett, 1986, p.142)

In the example below White is the primary or original source and Black is the
secondary source. It is important to realise that Black may have taken White's
ideas forward, and altered their original meaning. If you need to cite a secondary
reference it is recommended that, where possible, you read the original source
for yourself rather than rely on someone else‟s interpretation of a work.

Example
White, (1990) as cited in Black (1994), suggests that …

2.1.8 Tables and diagrams

When reproducing selected data, or copying an entire table or diagram, a reference must
be made to the source. A reference within the text to a table taken from e.g. a book,
should include the author and page (Smith, 2005, p.33) to enable the reader to identify
the data. If the source of the data is not the author‟s own, but obtained from another
source, it becomes a secondary reference and needs to be cited as such:

Example
(United Nations, 1975 cited in Smith, 2005, p.33)

If the table is reproduced in its entirety, place the citation as a footnote. Be

particularly careful to note the original source of data, as well as the authorship of
the document you are using. Full details should be included in the reference list.

2.1.9 Websites

When citing material found on a website, you should identify the authorship of the
website. This may be a corporate author, an organisation or a company; a guide
to this can be found by looking at the URL or web address. To find the date of
publication, reference to this might be found at the bottom of a web page relating
to copyright, or from a date headline. In this example the authorship would be BBC and
the date 2009.

Example
Recent research on meningitis (BBC, 2009) has shown …

2.1.10 Corporate authors

If the work is by a recognised organisation and has no personal author then it is

usually cited under the body that commissioned the work. This applies to publications by
associations, companies, government departments etc. such as Department of the
Environment or Royal College of Nursing.

It is acceptable to use standard abbreviations for these bodies, e.g. RCN, in your
text, providing that the full name is given at the first citing with the abbreviation in
brackets:

Example
1st citation:
… research in 2006 undertaken by the Royal College of Nursing (RCN)
has shown that …

19
2nd citation:
More recently the RCN (2007) has issued guidelines …

Note that the full name is the preferred format in the reference list. Some reports
are written by specially convened groups or committees and can be cited by the
name of the committee:

Committee on Nursing (1972)

Select Committee on Stem Cell Research (2002)

3. Compiling the reference list and bibliography

3.1 General guidelines, layout and punctuation

The purpose of a reference list is to enable sources to be easily traced by another

reader. Different types of publication require different amounts of information but there
are certain common elements such as authorship, year of publication and title.

The Harvard Style lays down standards for the order and content of information in the
reference. Some variations of layout are acceptable provided that they are used
consistently.

All Items should be listed alphabetically by author or authorship, regardless of the format,
ie. whether books, websites or journal articles etc. Where there are several works from
one author or source they should by listed together but in date order with the earliest
work listed first.

3.2 Books

Use the title page, not the book cover, for the reference details. The required elements
for a book reference are:

Author, Initials/First name., Year. Title of book. Edition. Place of publication: Publisher.

Example
Redman, P., 2006. Good essay writing: a social sciences guide. 3rd ed.
London: Open University in assoc. with Sage.
th
Baron, David P., 2008. Business and the organisation. 6 ed.
Chester (CT): Pearson.

3.2.1 Books with two, three or four authors

For books with two, three or four authors of equal status the names should all be
included in the order they appear in the document. Use an ampersand (&) to link the last
two multiple authors.
The required elements for a reference are:

Authors, Initials., Year. Title of book. Edition. (only include this if not the first edition)
Place: Publisher.

20
Example
Barker, R. Kirk, J. & Munday, R.J., 1988. Narrative analysis. 3rd ed. Bloomington:
Indiana University Press.

3.2.2 E-books

For e-books the required elements for a reference are:

Author, Year, Title of book. [type of medium] Place of publication: Publisher. Followed by
“Available at:” include e-book source and web site address/URL(Uniform Resource
Locator) and routing details if needed. [Accessed date].
Example
Fishman, R., 2005. The rise and fall of suburbia. [e-book] Chester: Castle Press.
Available at: University Library/Digital Library/e-books http://libweb.anglia.ac.uk / E-books
[Accessed 5 June 2005].

3.3 Journal articles and newspapers

3.3.1 Journal articles

For journal articles the required elements for a references are:

Author, Initials., Year. Title of article. Full Title of Journal, Volume number (Issue/Part
number), Page numbers.

Example
Boughton, J.M., 2002. The Bretton Woods proposal: an in depth look. Political Science
Quarterly, 42 (6), pp.564-78.
Perry, C., 2001. What health care assistants know about clean hands. Nursing Times, 25
May, 97(22), pp.63-64.

3.3.2 Journal articles from an electronic source

For journal articles from an electronic source the required elements for a reference are:

Author, Initials., Year. Title of article. Full Title of Journal, [type of medium] Volume
number (Issue/Part number), Page numbers if availalble.
Available at: include web site address/URL(Uniform Resource Locator) and additional
details of access, such as the routing from the home page of the source. [Accessed
date].

Example
Boughton, J.M., 2002. The Bretton Woods proposal: an in depth look. Political Science
Quarterly, [Online]. 42 (6),
Available at: Blackwell Science Synergy http://www.pol.upenn/articles
[Accessed 12 June 2010].

3.3.3 Journal abstract from a database

For a journal abstract from a database where you have been unable to access the full
article, the required elements for a reference are:

21
Author, Initials., Year. Title of article. Full Title of Journal, [type of medium] Volume
number (Issue/Part number), Page numbers if available, abstract only.
Available at: include web site address/URL(Uniform Resource Locator) and additional
details of access. [Accessed date].

Example
Boughton, J.M., 2002. The Bretton Woods proposal: an in depth look. Political Science
Quarterly, [e-journal] 42 (6). Abstract only.
Available at:BlackwellScienceSynergydatabase
http://www.pol.upenn/articles, Blackwell Science Synergy
[Accessed 12 June 2005].

3.3.4 Newspaper articles

For newspaper articles the required elements for a reference are:

Author, Initials., Year. Title of article. Full Title of Newspaper,

Day and month before page number and column line.

Example
Slapper, G., 2005. Corporate manslaughter: new issues for lawyers. The Times, 3 Sep.
p. 4b.

3.3.5 Online newspaper articles

For newspaper articles found in online newspapers, the required elements for a
reference are:
Author or corporate author, Year. Title of document or page. Name of newspaper, [type
of medium] additional date information.
Available at: include web site address/URL(Uniform Resource Locator) and additional
details of access, such as the routing from the home page of the source.[Accessed date].

Example
Chittenden, M., Rogers, L. & Smith, D., 2003. Focus: „Targetitis ails NHS. Times Online,
[internet] 1 June.
Available at: http://www.timesonline.co.uk/printFriendly/0,,11-1506-669.html
[Accessed 17 March 2005].

3.4. Other types of document

There are other types of documents which you may wish to include in your reference list
or bibliography. There is no official Harvard guide for these but some suggestions are set
out below:

3.4.1 Acts of Parliament

The required elements are:

Short title with Key words capitalized, which includes the year followed by the chapter
number in brackets. Key words of titles are capitalized. Place of publication: Publisher.

Example
Higher Education Act 2004. (c.8), London: HMSO.

22
For Acts prior to 1963, the regal year and parliamentary session are included:
Road Transport Lighting Act 1957. (5&6 Eliz. 2, c.51), London: HMSO.

3.4.2 Statutory Instruments

The required elements for a reference are:

Short title with Key words capitalized. Year. the abbreviation 'SI' followed by the year of
publication and the SI number. Place of publication: Publisher.

Example
Public Offers of Securities Regulations 1995. SI 1995/1537, London: HMSO.

3.4.3 Command Papers and other official publications

The required elements for a reference are:

Authorship, which may be part of the title. Year. Title, in italics if a separate element,
Command number as it is on the document, within brackets, Place of publication:
Publisher.

Example
Royal Commission on civil liability and compensation for personal injury, 1978. (Pearson
Report) (Cmnd. 7054) London: HMSO.

3.4.4 Law report

Following normal legal practice the required elements for a reference are:
Name of the parties involved in the law case, Year of reporting (in square brackets,
where there is no volume) number Law reporting series, Volume and number, Page
reference if available.

Example
R v White (John Henry) [2005] EWCA Crim 689, 2005 WL 104528.
Jones v Lipman [1962] 1 WLR 832.
Saidi v France (1994) 17 EHRR 251, p.245

3.4.5 Annual report

The required elements for a reference are:

Corporate author, Year*. Full title of annual report, Place of publication: Publisher.

Example
Marks & Spencer, 2004. The way forward, annual report 2003-2004, London: Marks &
Spencer.

For an e-version of an annual report the required elements for a reference are:

Author or corporate author, Year. Title of document or page, [type of medium]

Available at: include web site address/URL(Uniform Resource Locator) and additional
details of access, such as the routing from the home page of the source. [Accessed date]

Example
Marks & Spencer, 2004. Annual report 2003-2004. [Online] Available at: http://www-
marks-and-spencer.co.uk/corporate/annual2003/ [Accessed 4 June 2005]

23
3.4.5 Dissertation

The required elements for a reference are:

Author, Year of publication. Title of dissertation. Level. Place of University (If not clear
from the name of the University): Name of University.

Example
Richmond, J., 2005. Customer expectations in the world of electronic banking: a case
study of the Bank of Britain. Ph. D. Chelmsford: Anglia Ruskin University.

3.4.6 DVD or video, film and broadcasts

The required elements for a reference are:

Full title of DVD or video. Year of distribution. [Medium] Director (if relevant) Country or
origin: Film studio or maker. (Other relevant details).

Example
Great films from the 80s: a selection of clips from Warner Brothers top films from the
1980s. 2005 [DVD] New York: Warner Brothers.

For a Film the suggested elements should include:

Title. Year of release. [Medium] Director. Country of origin: Film studio.

Example
Macbeth, 1948. [Film] Directed by Orson Wells. USA: Republic Pictures.

For a broadcast the suggested elements should include:

Series title and episode name and number if relevant, Year of broadcast. [Medium]
Broadcasting organisation and Channel, date and time of transmission.

Example
Little Britain, 2006. [TV programme] BBC, BBC2, 30 January 2006 20.00.

24
Further links for referencing techniques:

Cardiff University's Information Literacy Resource Bank features a section on citing

references. The Harvard referencing materials include activities, quizzes and a Harvard
Referencing Tutorial. The tutorial incorporates interactive exercises to check whether
you have understood the style guidelines

Anglia Ruskin University's Harvard System of Referencing Guide is a comprehensive

guide to using the Harvard style which features examples of how to reference a wide
variety of publication formats

The University of Sussex has developed a Harvard Style Information Literacy

Tutorial which also features a quiz to test your knowledge of the Harvard system

NOTE

This guide draws information from a number of resources. In particular:

The University of Wales Guidelines for Dissertations

Anglia Ruskin Guide to Dissertations
Anglia Ruskin Guide to the Harvard Referencing System

25