Chapter I: Introduction 6 marks

1.1 Introduction to surveying and its importance to civil engineering

1.2 History and the development of surveying
1.3 Classification of surveying
1.4 Principle of surveying
1.5 Plans and Maps
1.6 Introduction to scales used in surveying

1.1 Introduction to surveying and its importance to civil engineering

The traditional view on Surveying focuses much on Surveying as an art and emphasizes only on
collection of data over its depiction on usable form. As such, the definition given by Dr. B.C
Punmia defines Surveying as, “The art of determining the relative positions of points, on
above or beneath the surface of the earth by means of direct or indirect measurements of
distance direction and elevation. It also includes the art of establishing points by
predetermined angular and linear measurements.”

In accord to the rapid pace and huge scale of development works, the demand for surveying
technology to bestow precise data in a small span of time has resulted development of complex
surveying technology and with it there has been considerable paradigm shift in the way
surveying was once perceived. The modern view has expanded the vista of surveying to
incorporate survey not just as an art but also science. Also the modern view emphasizes not
only the part of data collection but also the depiction/presentation of data in usable form. In
conformance to this modern view, The American Congress on Surveying and Mapping (ACSM)
defines Surveying as, “The science and art of making all essential measurements to determine
the relative position of points and/or physical and cultural details above, on, or beneath the
surface of the Earth, and to depict them in a usable form, or to establish the position of
points and/or details.”

Some other ways in which Surveying has been defined are as follows.
Surveying or land surveying is the technique, profession, and science of accurately determining
the terrestrial or three-dimensional position of points and the distances and angles between
them.

Surveying refers to the collection of data relating to the recording of surface and near surface
features of the earth and generally their representation as a map, plan or digital model of those
features.

Survey I: Introduction to Survey

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Importance of Surveying to Civil Engineers
In general, Civil Engineering works progresses in three steps.

Determining
Establishing
Designing

 Determining: This includes determination of boundaries and ascertaining the

topography intended to assist the designing. This is done through application of
different methods of survey according to the end-purpose.
 Designing: This includes designing the engineering plans in accordance to the data
obtained through survey.
 Establishing: Once the designing works are done on paper or computer, these should
be implemented in the ground. For this the structures are staked out through
surveying.

Success of any engineering projects such as transmission line, road, mines, hydropower,
bridges, etc depends upon the quality of the survey work.

Uses of Surveying

1. To prepare topographical map which shows the hills, valleys, rivers, villages, towns,
forests, etc. of a country.
2. To prepare cadastral map showing the boundaries of fields, houses and other
properties.
3. To prepare an engineering map which shows the details of engineering works such as
roads, railways, reservoirs, irrigation canals, etc.
4. To prepare a military map showing the road and railway communications with different
parts of a country. Such a map also shows the different strategic points important for
the defense of a country.
5. To prepare a contour map to determine the capacity of a reservoir and to find the best
possible route for roads, railways, etc.
6. To prepare an archeological map including places where ancient relics exist.

Survey I: Introduction to Survey

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1.2 History and the development of surveying
The Egyptians were the pioneers in Surveying. Historical and archaeological studies have
revealed the following ways in which Egyptians were motivated for surveying works.

1. Rope Stretchers
The early motivation of surveying in the ancient era was linked up with the value of land and
the tax it fetched for the kings and emperors. Egyptians were among the earliest Land
Surveyors. Around 3,000 BC, the fertile land along the Nile was divided into quadrangles by the
King, and distributed among the people. The people were then taxed for their land. When the
great river flooded, the size of the parcels of land changed. The King then sent out his Land
Surveyors, who would measure the boundaries and the taxes would be adjusted accordingly.
The measuring device used by these surveyors was a knotted rope, which had been stretched
and soaked with bee’s wax.

2. Egyptian Pyramid
Knowledge and ability of the ancient Egyptian Land Surveyors is evidenced by the pyramids.
The Great Pyramid is the largest and finest of three large pyramids on the Giza plateau near
modern-day Cairo, Egypt. It is the only surviving member of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient
World. The 755 foot base of the Great Pyramid (2900 B.C.) is only a few inches out of square
and only a couple of arc-minutes from being oriented in the cardinal directions.

3. The Babylonian Kudurru

A 3,000 year old Kudurru, or boundary stone of ancient Babylon, was inscribed with all the
information of the land on which it was set. The information included the description of the
property, the name of the surveyor, the owner of the land, how the owner acquired the land
and most important were the lengthy and detailed curses put on anyone who dared to deny the
owner of his rights to his land or move his boundary stone.

This state of surveying has had an enormous growth since the Egyptian era. Technologies like
Global Positioning System, Remote Sensing, Photogrammetry, LIDAR along with precise
instruments for field survey such as Theodolite, Total Station, etc have changed the face of
surveying. The development of surveying technologies is briefly discussed now.
Historically, distances were measured using chains having links of known length like Gunter’s
chain (named after its inventor) and measuring tapes made of steel or invar. The angles were
measured using compass which provided magnetic bearing from which deflections could be
measured. The height was measured using altimeter, which is basically a barometer modified to
give an indication of height based on difference in air pressure.
Survey I: Introduction to Survey
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Now, several optical and even more precise electronic equipments have been invented for the
measurement of distance, angle and elevation. EDM (Electronic Distance Measurement) are
used for measuring distance which uses reflective property of electromagnetic waves to
measure distance. Theodolites (optical-mechanical or electronic) are used to measure angles.
Compositely, EDM and Electronic Theodolites make up Total Station as a single unit which has
shifted the technology of surveying from optical-mechanical to fully electronic. Precise height
measurements are performed using automatic levels which have compensator that uses a
combination of fixed prisms or mirrors and a moving prism suspended on a pendulum to
give a horizontal reference.

Several other means of surveying have also been developed that has increased the accuracy of
survey while at the same time reduced the time and cost. Surveys are performed using aerial
photographs (Photogrammetry) or Satellite Images (Remote Sensing) which significantly reduce
the time of data acquisition. LIDAR technologies have also been developed which uses laser to
map the surfaces.

Satellite Positioning System or commonly known as GPS (Global Positioning System) provide
location using signals from the satellites, anywhere on Earth and at anytime.
This system has made possibility of navigation in real time like auto-pilot.

Survey I: Introduction to Survey

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 History and Development of Surveying in Nepal ( for information only)
The motivation for surveying, even in case of Nepal, was the value of land and tax it fetched to
the State treasury. The history of surveying in Nepal can be divided into four time periods:

a. Before 1300 B.S

Even before 1300 B.S, in Lichchhivi era, “Panchali” were allocated for keeping records of
boundary of territory and local community.

b. Between 1300 B.S – 1980 B.S

Provision for “Chhetrakar” who measured land and “Tashhakar” who measured house and
made sketch were made by Jayasthithi Malla. In the era of Ram Shah, units of measurement of
land were defined as Hale, Pate, Kute and Kodale. Dangol were recruited as special caste who
conducted land survey. “Sarpat Napi” (Systematic Survey) was initiated by Bir Shamsher in 1952
B.S along with standardization of units for measurement of land as Ropani-Ana-Paisa in valley,
Muri-Pathi in hills and Bigha-Katha in Terai. Army returning from First World War started
compass survey and established school to train civilians.

c. 1980 B.S – 2019 B.S

The military initiated Plane Table survey in Bhaktapur for the first time. Survey circle was
established in 1996 B.S and the Survey Department was established in 2014 B.S.

d. After 2019 B.S

Land Survey and Measurement Act were introduced in 2019 B.S along with introduction of Land
Reform Programme. Technical circulars, rules, regulations, working manuals were prepared by
British Personnel JRG Harrop (Director of Survey Department). “The Geodetic Survey and
Topographical Survey in Nepal was established during 1970s. The initiation to define the
spheroid with projection system and the national datum of the country was taken during those
periods. Earlier the system of map projection and preparation of topographical maps were all
done with the help of Survey of India through Colombo Plan agreement. The ground control
systems were prepared by extrapolating the trigonometric control network system of India and
adjacent countries (Krishna Raj Adhikary).” Surveying has took a rapid growth since and now
with global connectivity, use of Surveying technologies in Nepal is not much far from the state-
of-art technologies that is being used in developed nations.

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 1.3 Classification of surveying

Shape of the Earth

The earth is an oblate spheroid with its polar axis (12,713,800 m) being less than equatorial axis
(12,756,750 m) by 42.95 km which is 0.34 percent relative to the diameter of the earth. The
intersection of such a surface with any plane passing through the center of the earth will form a
curved line continuous around the earth. The portion of such a line is known as ‘Level Line’ and
the circle defined by the intersection is known as ‘Great Circle’.

Consider three points P,Q,R on the surface

of the earth and level lines connecting
them. The level lines are always greater
than the chords joining the points. The
triangle formed by the level lines gives a
spherical triangle whose angles p, q and r
are greater than the angles of the plane
triangle p’, q’ and r’. The difference in the
angle and the distance depends on the
extent of survey. If the distance is large,
there will be considerable difference, while
for small distances the differences are
negligible.

Primary divisions of Survey

In regard to whether the mean earth surface is regarded as plane surface or curved surface,
surveying is primarily divided into the following types:

1. Geodetic Surveying
2. Plane Surveying

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1. Geodetic Surveying
In Geodetic Surveying, the curvature of earth is taken into consideration. The line joining any
two points is considered as a curve line and the triangle formed by any three points is
considered to be spherical. Hence, Geodetic Surveying involves spherical trigonometry. The
plumb lines converge at the center of the earth. Geodetic Surveying is conducted for works of
higher precision and that includes large magnitude like establishment of national control
network.

2. Plane Surveying
In case the surveying works involves small area, the curvature of the earth is generally
neglected and the mean surface of the earth is assumed to be plane. In this case, the lines
joining any two points are considered to be straight and the triangles formed by joining any
three points are considered to be plane triangle. Hence, plane triangle involves plane
trigonometry. In plane surveying, all plumb lines are considered to be parallel. Surveying of
areas covering less than 260 sq. km can be safely assumed to plane.

Besides the primary divisions of surveying, surveying can be classified under the following
headings.

1. Classification based upon the nature of the field survey

a. Land Surveying
i. Topographical Surveys
ii. Cadastral Surveys
iii. City Surveys
b. Marine or Hydrographic Survey
c. Astronomical Survey

2. Classification based on the object of survey

a. Engineering Survey
b. Military Survey
c. Mine Survey
d. Geological Survey

3. Classification based on instruments/methods used

a. Chain Survey e. Plane Table Survey
b. Theodolite Survey f. Photogrammetric Survey
c. Traverse Survey g. Aerial Survey
d. Triangulation Survey h.GPS survey
e. Tacheometric Survey
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 1.4 Principles of surveying
The principles which guide every surveying works are as follows:

a. To work from whole to the part

According to this principle, the whole area to be surveyed is first enclosed by control points
(main stations) and control lines (main survey lines) which are established with higher
precision. Once the major control points are established, then the minor control points are
established from the major control points generally by running minor traverses. Only then the
details are surveyed. Surveying proceeded in this way, localizes the errors and hence prevents
accumulation of errors. If surveying is done in reverse trend that is from part to the whole there
is accumulation of errors making the work uncontrollable.

b. Location of a new point by measurements from two points of reference

The relative positions of new stations or points are located by measurements from at least two
points of reference. The measurements can be either angular, linear or both. If we suppose P
and Q can be two reference points on ground, then these are measured accurately and plotted
on the sheet to some suitable scale. Now these points serve as reference points for plotting of
other points. For plotting of other points, any of the following methods can be used.

i.) Measurement of distance QA and PA. Then point A can be plotted on the sheet by swinging arcs
with radius equaling QA and PA in the same scale as that of QP. This is a preferred method in
Chain Survey.
ii.) A perpendicular can be measured from point A on line QP meeting at point T along with the
measurement of QT or PT. This method is used for detailing in chain survey.
iii.) Angle <a along with distance PA is measured. This method is used in traversing.
iv.) Angles <a and <b are measured. No linear measurements are made. This method is used in
triangulation.
v.) Seldom used, this method is used in traversing resorts to measurement of angle <a and
distance QA.

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c. Provision for independent check
To err in survey is human and hence to check in order to assure there is no error must be
obvious. If mistakes in field measurements and calculations cannot be detected in time, a
considerable amount of subsequent work will be wasted. Every survey operation should be
subjected to a check, as far as possible, a completely independent check, and not repetition of
the operation.

d. Consistency and economy of work

The precision of different parts of a survey within a control framework should always be
consistent. The final accuracy of a survey is dependent upon the accuracy of the overall
controlling framework. It must be understood that subsequent survey can never exceed the
accuracy of the controlling framework. If a survey is done using instruments ranging from
compass to theodolite, then the accuracy of the overall survey cannot be expected to be in
accord with the precision of theodolite only but there is also the influence of using compass. So,
it is necessary to be consistent in use of instruments, sets of observation, etc.
“A good surveyor is not the one who does the work most accurately but one who does it
accurately enough.” In doing so, a surveyor maintains a tradeoff between accuracy and
economy of the work.

1.5Plans and Maps

Plans/Maps are graphical representation of ground reality (i.e. features on, above or below the
surface of earth) drawn on a flat piece of paper to some fixed scale. Plans and maps differ in the
following ways.

PLAN
A plan is relatively of a large scale.
Generally, only horizontal distances
and directions are shown in a plan.
Plans may not necessarily show its
geographical position on the globe.
MAP
Maps are drawn relatively in small scales.
In maps even elevations can be represented
by use of contour or hachure.
Maps have provision to show its geographical
position on the globe.

Survey I: Introduction to Survey

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 1.6 Introduction to scales used in surveying
Any plan or map cannot be drawn in the same size as that of survey. Hence, plan or maps are
drawn to some scale. Scale is defined as the fixed proportion which every distance between the
points on the plan/map bears to the corresponding distances between the points on the
ground. If a distance of 1cm on a map represents 100m on the ground, then we can say that the
map is drawn on a scale of 1cm = 100m. Scale on a map can be represented in following ways:

a. Numerical Scale
i.) Engineer’s Scale
1cm = 100m
ii.) Representative Fraction (or Fraction Scale)
1/1000
A representative fraction is unit less unlike engineer’s scale.

b. Graphical Scale

A graphical scale is a line subdivided into plan distances corresponding to some convenient
units of length on the surface of the earth.

Types of Graphical Scale (Note: Some books refer these as types of Scales)
The following types of scales are used in Surveying:
1. Plane Scale
2. Diagonal Scale
3. Vernier Scale
4. Scale of Chords

1. Plane Scale
A plane scale is such a type of scale in which only two dimensions can be measured.
E.g. Meters - Decimeters; Kilometers – Hectometers; Miles - Furlongs.
 A plain scale consists of a line divided into suitable number of equal units.
 The first unit is subdivided into smaller parts.
 The zero should be placed at the end of the 1st main unit.
 From the zero mark, the units should be numbered to the right and the sub-divisions to
the left.
 The units and the subdivisions should be labeled clearly.

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  The R.F. should be mentioned below the scale.

Construct a scale of 1:4, to show centimeters and long enough to measure up to 5 decimeters.

Solution:
Step I
Length of the one major division on the scale = R.F. * 1 decimeter = ¼ * 1 dm = 2.5 cm
Step II
For 5dm length of scale = 2.5cm * 5 = 12.5cm
Step III
Now divide the length of 12.5cm into 5 divisions of equal length 2.5cm. Divide the first major
division into 10 minor divisions.

2. Diagonal Scale
In a diagonal scale it is possible to measure three dimensions like Kilometer-Hectometer-
Decameter; Yards – Feet – Inches. That means measurement can be made up to second decimal
place.

Principle of Diagonal Scale

The construction of diagonal scale is based upon the principle of similar triangles as shown
below.

Draw line AB perpendicular to BC and join AC. Divide BC into 10 equal

divisions at points 1, 2, 3…..10. Draw lines parallel to AB from each of
these points which also divide line AC into 10 equal divisions. Now from
similar triangles, we obtain:
1 - 1’ = 1/10 of AB
2 - 2’ = 2/10 of AB
: : :
: : :
10 – 10’ = 10/10 of AB
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 Gives divisions of a given short line AB in multiples of 1/10 its length, e.g. 0.1AB, 0.2AB, 0.3AB,
etc.
Construct a Diagonal scale of RF = 3:200 showing meters, decimeters and centimeters. The
scale should measure up to 6 meters. Show a distance of 4.56 meters.

Solution:
Step I
Length of the one major division on the scale = R.F. * 1 meter =3/200 * 1 m = 1.5 cm

Step II
For 6m (we can assume it to be of any length greater than 5m),
Length of scale = 1.5cm * 6 = 9cm

Step III
Now divide the length of 9 cm into 6 equal divisions of length 1.5cm each. Divide the first major
division into 10 minor divisions. Draw AD perpendicular to AB at any comfortable length and
divide it into 10 equal divisions.
Complete the rectangle ABCD.
Draw perpendiculars at meter-divisions i.e. 1, 2, 3, and 4.
Draw horizontal lines through the division points on AD.
Join D with the end of the first division along A0 (i.e. 9).
Through the remaining points i.e. 8, 7, 6,…draw lines // to D9.

3. Vernier Scale
Vernier is a device which is used to measure the fractional part of one of the smallest divisions
of a graduated scale. It was invented by Pierre Vernier in 1631. Vernier Scale consists of two
scales. One of them called the primary scale is fixed while the other called the Vernier is
movable. The principle of venier is based on the fact that the eye can perceive without strain
Survey I: Introduction to Survey
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 and with considerable precision when two graduations coincide to form one continuous
straight line.
Least Count:
The fineness of the reading, popularly known as least count is equal to the difference between
the smallest division on the main scale and the smallest division on the Vernier. It can also be
computed by obtained as:
Least Count = Smallest division of the main scale / Number of divisions on the vernier

Depending upon the graduations on the main scale, the venier may be called either single
vernier or double vernier.

i.) Single Vernier

In a single vernier the graduations on the main scale are numbered only in one direction and
the vernier also extends only in one direction.

ii.) Double Vernier

In a double vernier graduations on the main scale are numbered in both directions and vernier
also extends in both directions.

Further Vernier is classified into the following two types:

1. Direct Vernier 2. Retrograde Vernier

i.) Direct Vernier

In direct vernier the graduations in the vernier extend or increase in the same direction in
which the graduations on main scale increases or extends. n divisions of the main scale is equal
to the (n+1) divisions on the vernier. It means that the smallest division of the vernier is always
shorter than the smallest division of their main scale.

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ii.) Retrograde Vernier
In Retrograde Vernier, the graduations in vernier extend or increase in opposite direction of
their main scale. (n + 1) divisions of the main scale are equal to n divisions of the vernier. It
means that the smallest division of the vernier is always greater than the smallest division of
their main scale.

4. Scale of Chords

A scale of chords is used to measure or to set off angles. It is marked either on a rectangular
protractor or on an ordinary box wooden scale.

CONSTRUCTION:

1. Draw sector of a circle of 900 with ‘OA’

radius. (‘OA’ any convenient distance)
2. Divide this angle in nine equal parts of 10 0
each.
3. Name as shown from end ‘A’ upwards.
4. From ‘A’ as center, with cords of each angle
as radius draw arcs downwards up to ‘AO’ line
or its extension.
5. Form a scale with proper labeling as shown.
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 Uses of Chord of Scales

A. Construction of angle

To construct 250 angle at O.

Take O-A distance in compass from cords scale and mark it on the
line drawn, from O and then continue to draw the arc. Take cord
length of 250 angles from scale of cords in compass and from A cut
the arc at point B. Join B with O. The angle AOB is thus 250 .

B. Measurement of angle

To measure angle at x.

Take O-A distance in compass from cords scale and mark

it on lower side of triangle as shown from corner x. Then
taking O as center and O-A radius, draw an arc upto
upper adjacent side. Name the point B.
Take A-B cord in compass and place on scale of cords
from Zero. It will give value of angle at x

Survey I: Introduction to Survey

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Past Questions

1. Define Surveying. Explain four basic principles of surveying in brief.

2. Define Scale. How can it be represented in map? Explain different types of scale with
necessary figures.
3. What do you mean by surveying? Write down the uses of surveying in the engineering field.
4. What are the measurements used in plane surveying? Write the difference between plan
and maps.
5. Explain about “Working from whole to part” with neat sketches. “Location of a point by
measurement form two control points” is another principle of surveying. How can you apply
this in plane table and compass surveying? [4+4]

Survey I: Introduction to Survey

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