MayegaKirinyaDeogratius@0702644725

EXAMINATION 2
SECTION A (40 MARKS)
1. The figure below shows the effects of different factors on the rate of an enzyme-catalyzed
reaction:

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(a) Figure 1 shows the effect of temperature.

Account for the shape of the graph:
(i) From 100C to 300C. (06 marks)

(ii) From 400C to 500C. (06 marks)

(iii) At 00C and 600C. (06 marks)

(b) Figure 2 shows the effect of pH.

Explain the behaviour of graph away from pH 8. (06 marks)

(c) Figure 3 shows the effects of increasing substrate concentration in presence of

inhibitors A and B, in relation to the control experiment with no inhibitor.
(i) Describe the effect of each inhibitor on the rate of reaction. (05 marks)
(ii) Fully account for the differences in the effect of the inhibitors A and B on the rate of
reaction. (11 marks)

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SOLUTIONS
SECTION A (40 MARKS)
1. (a) Accounting for the shape of the graph:
(i) From 100C to 300C:

At the lowest temperature of 100C the rate of reaction is low, because enzymes are nearly
inactivated / low activation, by near-freezing temperatures, below the optimum temperature.
Increase in temperature from 100C to 300C causes rapid increase in the rate of reaction, due to
rapid increase in activity of enzymes, caused by rapid increase in kinetic energy of enzyme and
substrate molecules, causing rapid increase in the number of molecular collisions between the
enzyme and substrate molecules, causing rapid increase in the rate of formation of enzyme-
substrate complexes, and thus rapid increase in catalysis.

(ii) From 400C to 500C:

At 400C the rate of reaction attains a peak, because 400C is the optimum temperature for enzyme
activity.
As temperature increases from 400C to 500C the rate of reaction decreases rapidly, as enzymes
are rapidly denatured, due to heating beyond the optimum temperature.

(iii) At 00C and 600C:

At 00C there is no enzyme activity, as enzymes are inactivated, by freezing temperatures

At 600C there is no enzyme activity, as all enzymes are completely denatured, by excessive
heating far beyond the optimum temperature.

(b) Explaining behaviour of graph away from pH 8.

At pH 8 the rate of reaction attains a peak, because pH 8 is the optimum pH for its activity.
When the pH is changed below or above the optimum pH 8, the rate of enzyme activity
decreases rapidly, because the hydrogen bonds which give enzymes their molecular shape are
rapidly broken, causing rapid enzyme denaturation.

1. (c) (i) Describing the effect of each inhibitor on the rate of reaction.

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Inhibitor A reduces the rate of reaction.

However the rate of reaction continues to increase slightly with increase in substrate
concentration, until the rate of reaction is equal to that in absence of the inhibitor at substrate
concentration 40 μmol cm-3.

Inhibitor B reduces the rate of reaction greatly; and the rate of reaction remains constant with
further increase in substrate concentration.

(ii) Accounting for the differences in the effect of the inhibitors on the rate of reaction.
Inhibitor A:
Molecules of inhibitor A are competitive inhibitor molecules, with similar shape to the substrate
molecules, and so fit into the active sites of the enzymes, preventing the substrate molecules
forming enzyme-substrate complexes, by occupying the active sites of the enzymes.

Increase in the concentration of the substrate molecules increases the chances of the substrate
molecules filling the active sites of the enzymes, reducing competition for the enzymes active
sites by the molecules of inhibitor A, thereby increasing the rate of reaction.

At substrate concentration 40 μmol cm-3 increase in substrate molecules as the concentration of

inhibitor molecules remains constant, reduces the effect of the inhibitor molecules to zero, as the
substrate molecules outcompete the inhibitor molecules, thus the rate of reaction is equal to that
in absence of inhibitor.
Inhibitor B:
Molecules of inhibitor B are non-competitive inhibitor molecules, which bind to a site other than
the active site of the enzyme, called an allosteric site, altering the shape of the active site,
preventing formation of enzyme-substrate complexes, so do not compete with the substrate
molecule fore the active site.
Increase in the concentration of the substrate molecules does not affect the effect of the inhibitor
molecules on the rate of reaction, and so the rate of reaction remains at a constant lower rate.

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SECTION B (60 MARKS)

2. (a) Alternation of generations in Funaria / the common moss

The life cycle of Funaria comprises a dominant, haploid, gametophyte generation, reproducing
sexually, by means of haploid gametes, produced by mitosis; alternating with a diploid,
sporophyte, reproducing asexually, by means of haploid spores, produced by meiosis.

The gametophyte bears male antheridia and female archegonia at the tips of separate branches.
When the moss surface is wet, mature antheridia absorb water and burst, releasing haploid
sperms / antherozoids onto the surface.

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The biflagellate, antherozoids swim towards the open necks of archegonia, in a film of moisture,
with the aid of their two flagella, and water currents / rain splashes, while being attracted by
chemicals / sucrose solutions secreted by the necks of archegonia.
The antherozoids swim down the neck of each archegonium, to the venter at its base, which
contains the ovum.

At the base of an archegonium the haploid sperm fuses with the haploid ovum, to form a diploid
zygote / oospore, in the process of fertilization.
Only one zygote per group of archegonia, develops into a diploid sporophyte / embryo, which
remains attached to, and dependent on the gametophyte for nutrients / food.
The sporophyte consists of a foot, seta, and capsule / sporangium.

The capsule / sporangium of the diploid sporophyte contains spore sacs, containing diploid spore
mother cells, which undergo meiosis, to yield numerous haploid spores.
Mature thin-walled cells of the annulus swell with water, and force the lid / operculum off the
capsule / sporangium, exposing the inner and outer rings of teeth.

In damp conditions, the outer teeth curl inwards and close over the end of the capsule.
In dry conditions, the outer teeth curl outwards, and the inner teeth part, allowing spores to
escape.
The long seta increases chances of wind / air currents catching and dispersing, the very light
spores.

During damp / moist conditions each spore germinates, into a green filamentous protonema,
which produces several buds, each of which later develops into a haploid moss leafy
gametophyte.

2. (b) Significance of the gametophyte generation

Sexual reproduction by random fusion of haploid gametes produced by the gametophyte
promotes genetic variation.
Increased genetic variation increases chances of evolution of new species and survival.

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Gametophyte supports and provides food / nutrients to the sporophyte generation, increasing
chances of species survival and reducing chances of extinction.
3. (a) Comparison of transmission electron microscope and compound light microscope
Similarities:
Both the transmission electron microscope and the compound light microscope magnify images

of objects.

Both the transmission electron microscope and the compound light microscope use the same

principle where a beam of radiation is focused by a condenser through the specimen and the

image is magnified by further lenses.

In both microscopes special techniques of preparing and staining the specimen for observation

may be used.

Differences:
Transmission electron microscope Compound light microscope
Source of radiation are electrons Source of radiation is light
Electrons have a shorter wavelength / about Light has a longer wavelength / about

0.005nm 400nm to 700nm

Maximum magnification is higher / about x Maximum magnification is lower / about x

250,000 1,500
Focuses beam of electrons using powerful Focuses light rays using glass lenses

electromagnets
Maximum resolution is greater / about Maximum resolution is lower / about

0.5nm 200nm
Specimen is dead, dehydrated , relatively Specimen may be living or non-living

small and thin

Specimen is supported on a small copper Specimen is supported on a glass slide.

grid in a vacuum
Stains used contain heavy metals to reflect Stains used are coloured dyes

electrons
The image is black and white The image is usually coloured
Expensive to purchase and operate Cheap to purchase and operate
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Very large and fixed Small and portable

Operated in special rooms Can be used almost anywhere.
Affected by magnetic fields Unaffected by magnetic fields
Has a greater depth of field Has a restricted depth of field
Specimen gradually deteriorates in the Specimen does not deteriorate easily

electron beam allowing less study time allowing more study time
Preparation of material is lengthy, requires Preparation of material is relatively quick,

considerable expertise, and complex requires little expertise, and simple

equipment equipment
Material is distorted by the preparation Material rarely distorted by the preparation.

3. (b) Advantages of compound light microscope over electron microscope

Advantages of compound light Disadvantages of electron microscope
microscope
Cheap to purchase, and operate Expensive to purchase, and operate
Small, and portable Very large, and fixed
Can be used almost anywhere Operated in special rooms
Unaffected by magnetic fields Affected by magnetic fields
Preparation of material is relatively quick Preparation of material is lengthy and

and simple, requires little expertise, and complex, requires high expertise, and

simple equipment complex equipment.

Materials rarely distorted by preparation Material distorted by preparation
Natural colour of material can be observed Images are black and white
Specimen may be living Specimen is dead, as it is viewed in a

vacuum
Specimen does not deteriorate easily, Specimen gradually deteriorates in the

allowing more study time electron beam, further study requires taking

of photomicrographs.

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3. (c) Differences between a bacterial cell and a higher plant cell

Bacterial cell Higher plant cell

Has no distinct / true nucleus
DNA not incorporated in chromosomes
DNA is circular
No spindle is formed during cell division
Few organelles
Lacks organelles surrounded by two
Has distinct / true nucleus
DNA incorporated in chromosomes
DNA is linear
A spindle is formed during cell division
Many organelles
Has organelles surrounded by two

membranes / envelope membranes/ envelope

Cell wall made of amino acids & Cell wall made of polysaccharides

polysaccharides strengthened by murein strengthened by cellulose

Smaller /average diameter 0.5-10μm Larger /average diameter 10-100μm
No chloroplasts; photosynthesis occurs on Has chloroplasts, containing membranes

unstacked membranes stacked into lamellae or grana

Some can fix nitrogen None can fix nitrogen
Respiration occurs on mesosomes in Aerobic respiration occurs in mitochondria,

bacteria, and cytoplasmic membranes in and anaerobic respiration occurs in

blue- green bacteria cytoplasm

Some have flagella None has flagella
Has smaller /70S ribosomes Has larger/ 80S ribosomes
Divide by binary fission mostly Divide by mitosis, meiosis, or both

4. (a) How structure of epidermal tissue is suited to its functions

Transparent, to allow passage of light to the mesophyll cells for photosynthesis.

Thick and tough, to protect the inner tissues from mechanical damage.

Secretes a waxy cuticle, to reduce water loss, and entry of pathogens.

Epidermal cells modified into guard cells, to control opening and closing of stomata.

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Epidermal cells of roots grow unicellular hair-like extensions called root hairs, which increase
the surface area for absorption of water, and mineral salts.

Epidermal cells of climbing plant stems may develop hooked hairs, to prevent the stems slipping
from their supports as in goose grass.

Epidermal hairs of leaves and stems reduce water loss from plant tissues, by trapping a film of
moist air near the plant, as well as reflecting the Sun’s radiation.

Short and stiff epidermal hairs, offer mechanical protection, and discourage eating by herbivores,
as in the stinging nettle.

Floral epidermis may develop hairs which form a barrier around the nectarines of flowers,
preventing access to crawling insects, and promoting cross pollination by larger flying insects.
Glandular epidermal cells secrete a sticky substance, that traps, and kills insects, either for
protection, or, if the secretion contains enzymes, for catalyzing digestion and subsequent
absorption of food.
Some epidermal cells develop glandular hairs which produce scents, needed to attract agents of
pollination and dispersal, as in lavender.

In some plants the epidermis contains chloroplasts, containing chlorophyll for photosynthesis.

4. (b) How structure of phloem is suited to its functions

Sieve elements joined end-to-end, end walls perforated with sieve pores in sieve plates, allowing
unimpeded passage of materials from one cell to another.

Sieve elements lack nuclei, possess thin peripheral cytoplasm, creating room for passage of
organic materials in solution with minimal obstruction.

Plasmodesmata connect sieve elements to companion cells, allowing communication, and

exchange of materials between sieve elements and companion cells.

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Sieve elements contain fine cytoplasmic filaments, continuous with similar filaments in other
sieve elements via sieve pores in the sieve plate, which consist of a contractile phloem protein
capable of streaming, and sliding organic materials from one sieve element to another by wave
like movements of the filaments.

Companion cells contain dense cytoplasm, with numerous mitochondria, a large nucleus,
plastids, small vacuoles and extensive endoplasmic reticulum, making them adequately
metabolically active, to meet the metabolic needs of sieve elements.
Numerous mitochondria in companion cells, provide much energy, in form of much Adenosine
Triphosphate/ATP, for the rapid active transport of materials.

Modified parenchymatous companion cells called transfer cells, found next to sieve tubes bear
numerous internal projections, increasing the surface area of the cell membrane lining the cell
wall, and bringing it into closer association with the cytoplasm.

Numerous mitochondria in transfer cells, provide much energy, for rapid active uptake of solutes
from neighbouring cells during loading of sieves tubes.

Phloem consists of living cells,, allowing live active transport of materials since the mechanism
of loading sieve tubes and translocation of solutes requires energy.

Sclereids are lignified, to provide support to the vascular tissue of the phloem.

Companion cells have a prominent large nucleus, to effect metabolic control over both the
companion cell and the sieve tube element.

5. (a) Structural features of carbohydrates accounting for wide variety of polysaccharides

Both pentoses and hexoses can be used to make polysaccharides

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Two types of linkage 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds occur between sugar units leading to
branching.

Lengths of chains vary enormously

Lengths of branches vary enormously

Extent of branching varies enormously

Monosaccharides have alpha and beta isomeric ring forms.

Sugars may be ketoses or aldoses

Aldehyde, ketone, and hydroxyl groups of sugars, make them highly reactive molecules.

5. (b) Differences between cellulose and glycogen

Cellulose Glycogen
Polymer of beta glucose Polymer of alpha glucose
Monomers rotate alternately at 1800 to each No rotation of adjacent monomers
other
Straight chains with cross-linking, due to Branched chains

hydrogen bonds
Beta -1,4 linkages Alpha – 1,4 and 1,6 linkages
Forms microfibrils Does not form microfibrils
Hydroxyl groups project outwards Hydroxyl groups project inwards
Performs structural role, not for storage Performs storage role, no structural role
Found in plants Found in animals and fungi
Few organisms can digest cellulose / Many organisms can digest cellulose /

difficult to digest easily digested

5. (c) Suitability of lipids over glycogen

Lipids yield more metabolic water on oxidation, important for survival of desert animals

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Fat insulates the body against heat loss, whereas glycogen does not.

Fats stored around delicate organs protects them from mechanical/ physical damage

Fats stores fat-soluble vitamins, A, D, E and K.

Fats are more compact than glycogen, and so occupy less space.

Lipids are lighter than glycogen, hence contribute less weight to organisms and structures.

Lipids store, and yield more energy than glycogen.

Lipids are less dense than water, and so aid buoyancy of aquatic animals.

6. (a) The structure of a mitochondrion

A mitochondrion is bound by two membranes / mitochondrial envelope.

The outer membrane is separated from the inner membrane by a narrow fluid-filled,
intermembranal space.
The inner membrane is highly folded, to form shelf-like extensions, called cristae.
The surface of cristae has elementary stalked particles.
Each stalked particle consists of a head piece, stalk, and base piece.
The remainder is a matrix containing protein, lipids, enzymes, mitochondrial DNA, RNA and
70S ribosomes.

6. (b) Differences between a chloroplast and a mitochondrion

Mitochondrion Chloroplast
Not pigmented with chlorophyll Pigmented with chlorophyll
Structures for increasing surface area are Structures for increasing surface area are
closed flattened sacs, which may be
infolds of the inner membrane
stacked together
Contain no lamellae, grana, or thylakoids Contain thylakoids, grana, and lamellae.
Inner membrane of envelope folded, to Inner membrane of envelope not folded

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form cristae
May be spherical, spiral, cup–shaped, May be spherical, or disc-shaped

branched sausage–shaped, or highly

elongated
For aerobic respiration For photosynthesis

6. (c) The endosymbiotic theory of the origin of a chloroplast and mitochondrion

Endosymbiotic theory suggests that chloroplasts and mitochondria evolved from endosymbiotic
bacteria.

Initially a heterotrophic eukaryote may have ingested an autotrophic prokaryote/ bacterium and/
or an aerobic prokaryote/bacterium, which, instead of being digested, entered a permanent
symbiotic relationship as inhabitant(s) of the eukaryotic cell.

The aerobic prokaryote provided the eukaryotic cell with more Adenosine Triphosphate/ATP,
while the eukaryotic cell provided glucose and shelter.
The aerobic prokaryote became a mitochondrion.

The photosynthetic prokaryote provided the eukaryotic cell with an organic food source, while
the eukaryotic cell provided inorganic raw materials and shelter.
The photosynthetic prokaryote became a chloroplast.

The eukaryotic cell containing both the aerobic prokaryote and photosynthetic prokaryote
became a plant cell, while the eukaryotic cell containing only the aerobic prokaryote became an
animal cell.

Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA, and make some of their own proteins, and
thus divide inside the host cell every time the host cell itself divides.

However, with time some of their genes moved to the nucleus of the host cell, and so the tasks of
making the mitochondrial and chloroplast proteins is now shared with the nuclear DNA.

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This explains why these organelles can no longer live independently.

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