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И. В. З Ы К О В А
ПРАКТИЧЕСКИЙ КУРС
АНГЛИЙСКОЙ
ЛЕКСИКОЛОГИИ
A PRACTICAL COURSE
IN ENGLISH LEXICOLOGY
Рекомендовано
Учебно-методическим объединением по образованию в области лингвистики
Министерства образование и науки Российской Федерации
в качестве учебного пособии для студентов лингвистических вузов
и факультетов иностранных языков
Москва
Издательский центр "Академия"
2008
У Д К 8 0 2.0 :80 1.3(075.8)
Б Б К 81.2А нгл-3 я 73
З-9 66
Р е ц е н з е н т ы:
доктор филологических наук, профессор кафедры стилистики английского
язы ка М о с к о в с к о го го с у д а р с т в е н н о го л и н гв и с т и ч е с к о го у н и в е р с и те та
Е. Г. Б е л я в с к а я
доцент к а ф едры а н г л и й с к о г о я з ы ка М о с к о в с к о го государствен ного
л и н гв и с т и ч е с к о го ун и в е р с итета Т. В. Тадевосян;
канди дат ф и л о л о г и ч е с к и х н аук , д о ц ен т к а ф е дры ан гл и й с ко го язы к а
М о ск о в с к о й го су д а р ст в е н н о й ю р и д и ч ес к о й ак а д ем и и А. В. Д ор ош енко
Зыкова И .В.
З -9666 П р а к т и ч е с к и й к урс а н г л и й с к о й л ек с и к о л о ги и - A Practical
C o u rs e in English Lexicology : учеб. п о с о б и е д ля сту д . л и н г в .
в у зов и ф а к . ин. я з ы к о в / И. В. Зы кова — 3-е изд. стер . - М.:
И зд ател ьски м ц е н тр "А к а д е м и я ", 2008. — 288 с
IS B N 9 78- 5 - 76 9 5 -5 5 6 8 -8
УДК 802.0:801.3(075.8)
ББК 81.2Англ-3 я73
ПРЕД ИСЛО ВИЕ
D ia g ra m I
LEXICOLOGY
General Special
Historical Descriptive
1 Derived word — a won! formed or originated from another or from a root in the
same or another language
2 Back derivation - the formation of a word from the stem <base» of another word,
i.e. by means o f cutting off suffixes <prefixes» from the source word See also the
formation of the words: to burgle from the word burglar, to enthuse from enthusiasm,
to legislate from legislator
8
3 . THE C O U R S E O F M O D E R N E N G L IS H LEX ICO LO G Y
QUESTIONS
1. What Greek m orphem es is the term 'lexicology' composed of?
2. What does lexicology study?
3. What does the term ẁord' denote?
4. What is the term 'vocabulary` used to denote?
5. What is the object o f study o f General Lexicology?
6. What does Special Lexicology study?
7. What forms the object o f study o f Historical Lexicology?
8. What does Descriptive Lexicology deal with?
9. What branches o f linguistics does lexicology have d o s e ties w ith ?
10. W hat are th e p rin cip al a p p ro a c h e s in linguistic science to
the study o f language material?
9
11. What scientist made the distinction between a synchronic and
a diachronic approach?
12. What is the literal m eaning o f the term 'synchronic' which is
Greek by origin?
13. What is the synchronic approach concerned with?
14. What is the literal m eaning o f the term ‘d iach ro n ic' which is
Greek by origin?
15. What does the diachronic approach deal with?
16. Why are the synchronic an d the diachronic approaches inter
connected and interdependent? Give an example.
17. What does M odem English Lexicology aim at?
18. What problems does Modern English Lexicology investigate?
19. W hat se c tio n is also tra d itio n a lly in c lu d e d in a c o u rse o f
Lexicology? Why?
20. Why is the course o f M odem English Lexicology o f great practical
importance for the language learner?
SEMASIOLOGY
C h a p te r 1
1 . 1 . R e f e r e n t i a l or Ana ly ti c al D e f i n i t i o n s
of M eaning
can be d e n o te d by th e w ord c a t.
a n im a l, p u ssy . Tom. th is. p e t. etc. All those words have the sam e
referent, but different meanings. Besides, there are words that have
distinct meaning but do not refer to any existing thing, e.g. m erm a id —
*an imaginary sea creature that has the upper body o f a woman and a
fish’s tail': a ngel — “a spirit that in some religions is believed to live in
heaven with G od: in pictures, angels are shown as people with wings':
p h o e n ix — ‘in ancient stories, an imaginary bird which set tire to itself
every 500 years and was b o m again, rising from its ashes ( = the powder
left after its body has been burnt)': etc
The conclusion is that m eaning is not to be identical w ith any o f the
three points o f the triangle — the sound-form . the concept and the
referent, but is closely connected with them.
The referential definitions o f meaning are usually criticized on the
ground that: I) they cannot be applied to sentences: 2) they cannot
accoun t for certain sem antic add itions em erging in th e process of
com m unication: 3) they fail to account tor the tact that o n e word may
denote different objects and phenom ena (polysemy) while one and the
same object may be denoted by different words (synonymy).
13
1 . 2 . F u n c t i o n a l or C o n t e x t u a l D e f i n i t i o n s o f M e a n i n g
1 . 3 . O p e r a t i o n a l o r I n f o r m a t i o n - O r i e n t e d D e f in itio n s
o f M e a n in g
2 . TW O A P P R O A C H E S TO TH E C O N T E N T FACET
O F L IN G U IS T IC U N IT S . N A M IN G
Ihc denotatum of the wool cat the denotatum of the word тои.н-г
• small fur> domestic amm.il often n e r o t am cat. but 'a cat that
kept as a pet, to catch mice, etc.') catches mice')
16
The dcnotational р а л o f meaning is relatively stable and it stands to
represent all the characteristics o f the object — general, individual, and
those to he discovered.
3. D efining a set o f denotational features constitu ting th e most
im portant p a n o f m eaning (i.e. the sem antic core) in the process of
nom ination is not the final stage. The next step is the form ation o f
functional significance o f a linguistic unit. T he attitude o f the speaker
towards the object, the place it is ascribed am ong other things also finds
its reflection in shaping lexical meaning. Information suggested in
addition to the denotatum may refer to the positive or negative attitude
o f th e n o m in a to r , o r it m ay in d ic a te a c e rta in s itu a tio n o f
com m unication and point out at the panicipants and their roles. This
add itio nal info rm atio n shap es th e co m m u n icativ e value o f lexical
meaning.
4. Coming to the final stage it should be noted that to become з word,
the semantic side formed in the process of nomination is to be correlated
with certain material structure, i.e. the sound form and the graphic
form. The acquisition o f the sound and graphic forms makes it possible
for the word to be conveyed from one person to ano ther to serve the
purposes o f communication.
3 . T Y P E S O F M E A N IN G
MEANING
1 "
Expressiveness Imagers
/
Information on the “ time and space"
relationship of the participants
20
Q U E S T IO N S AND T A S K S
' (J'JEST!ONS
II TASKS
21
or som ething; 2) a series o f actio n s d o n e by a c o m p u te r to find in form ation.
3) a n a ttem p t to find an explanation or solution
renewal
I a renewal o f war; a renewal o f hostilities; a renewal o f an old
friendship; the renewal o f youth. Recently there has been a renewal
o f interest in environmental issues. He felt the renewal o f affection.
2 a renew al o f lease (а р е н д а ); a renew al o f b ill, a renew al o f
a p assp o rt: a renew al o f a driving licence. T h e renew al o f your
contract is just a formality. My m em bership is up for renewal again
next year. 3 a p erio d o f e c o n o m ic renew al, th e need for u rb a n
renewal.
to renew
I to renew a passport, lo renew a book. He failed to renew his
contract, w hich expired last month. 2 The reunion offers an opportunity
to renew acquaintance with old friends. She will renew her strength
when she com es back from her holiday. 3 The parties reneued their
efforts lo agree the treaty. Student organizations renewed their call for
a reduction in tuition fees. In the morning the enemy renewed his attack.
4 You may need to renew the brake linings 1 must renew my library
ticket.
Meaning Sense
to m ake the short sharp (loud) such behaviour of the dog implies
soun d that dogs an d som e o th er that th e dog itself is frightened
anim als make by the a p p earan ce o f th e people
1. The discreet door was shut with a bang. 2, She failed to buy an
expensive little box and she felt a strange pang. 3. I turned to my friend
but he had gone to the house and was leaning against it with his face
to th e w all. 4. R o se m a ry b ro u g h t th e b eg g a r to h e r lu x u rio u s
apartm ent. She helped the girl o ff with her coat. But what was she to
do with it now? Rosemary left the coat on the floor. 5. She didn't dine
with them. She insisted on leaving, b. He got up from his chair, but
he was moving slowly, like an old man. He put the newspaper down
very carefully, adjusting its creases with lingering fingers. They were
trembling a little. ?. He felt that he had behaved badly in losing his
tem per while she had so admirably co ntrolled hers. He sought for
a crushing phrase, som e final intimidating repartee. But before that
(the phrase) cam e she closed q u ietly the door in his face. 8. The girl
went to her father and p u lle d his sleeve lie was longing to begin to
be generous. 10. She was a resigned little woman with shiny red hands
and work-swollen finger knuckles
3 .1 . Analyze th e following leutures regarded as the basic c h an icten stic s ot
the given objects form ing the den o tatu m .
3 . 2 . * A n a ly z e ih e g iv en e x p r e s s io n s a n d a n sw e r t h e q u e s t io n : w hat
characteristics ol the lion a n d the oak not reflected in the d e n o ta tu m are proper
to th e c o n ce p ts about these objects'.’
23
M o d e l: celebrated — notorious
(..’otnponcnl*
Dcnofaiiunal A cor.notanonai of the connotation;») aspect
Wotd' of lexical meaning which
aspects
specify the difference between
the words
7*. State the difference in the pragmatic aspect of lexical meaning in the
following pairs ol words. Pay special attention to the register of communication
State the possible participants of the communicative situation and their roles
on winch tenors of discourse are based
24
M o d e I; to interrupt - to butt in I >nnt interrupt when your mother is
speaking There is an awful man in ihc Irutn mw who butts in whenever you
pause
Roles, which
Register l\»iiu ip.mis of ihc tenors of
Words discourse arc
ol communication communicative situation
based on
interrupt neutral parent child family roles
Chapter 2
1. W O R D -M E A N IN G AND MOTIVATION
M orphem e — the smallest meaningful language ur.il. e.g. ihc word writer
consists of two morphemes unt(e) -er.
2 . CAUSES, NATURE AND RESULTS
OF SEMANTIC CHANGE
Ihc etymological sen>c expresses the relation o f гhe head ot a household to hi*
dependant* w h o cat hi* bread’. « T h e C o n c i \ e O x / n r J D i c t i o n a r y o j Г itg iish
Ttx/nuiony. / |
N ature o f S em an tic C han ge. A necessary c o n d itio n o f any
semantic change is some connection, some association between the old
meaning and the new one. There are two kinds o f association involved
in various semantic changes:
a) similarity o f meanings:
b) contiguity o f meanings.
S im ilarity o f m eanings o r m etaphor may be d esc rib ed as the
semantic process o f associating two referents, one o f which in some wav
resembles the other. The word h a n d , for instance, acquired in the I6,r
century the meaning o f 'a pointer o f a clock or a watch' because o f the
similarity of one o f the functions performed by the hand ( to point to
s m th .) and the function o f the clock-pointer. See the expression hands
o f th e clock (watch).
C ontiguity o f m eanings o r metonymy may be described as the
semantic process o f associating two referents one o f w hich makes pan
o f the other or is closely connected with it. This can be illustrated by
the use o f the word tongue — ’the organ o f speech' in the meaning ot
■language' (as in m o th er tongue). The word bench acquired the meaning
judges' because it was on the bench that judges used to sit in law courts,
similarly th e H ouse acquired the meaning o f'm e m b e rs o f the House'
(Parliament) (Diagram 8).
Diagram 8
S p e c ia liz a t io n
Generalize Ikm
D iagram 10
C hange С lu n g e
o f the denotational component of ihe connotational component
M- '"ж
Restriction Extension Deterioration Amelioration
of meaning o f meaning of meaning of meaning
3 . POLYSEMY
3 . 1 . D ia c h r o n i c a n d S y n c h r o n i c A p p r o a c h e s to P o l y s e m y
30
slab o f stone or w ood’ which is proper to the word in the OE period.
All other meanings are secondary as they are derived from the primary
meaning. Semantic changes result as a rule in new meanings which are
added to the ones already existing in the semantic structure o f the word.
Som e o f the old m eanings may becom e obsolete o r even disappear
but the bulk o f English words tend to an increase in the num ber o f
meanings.
Synchronic ally polysemy is understood as the coexistence o f various
m ean in g s o f th e sam e w ord at a c e rta in h isto rical p erio d o f th e
development o f the English language. In the course o f a synchronic
semantic analysis o f the word table the follow ing question arises: do all
the nine meanings o f the word table equally represent the semantic
structure o f this word? The meaning that first occurs to us whenever
we hear or see the word ta b le is ‘an article o f furniture? This emerges
as the central to r basic) meaning o f the word, and all other meanings
are marginal (or minor) meanings. The central m eaning occurs in
various and widely different contexts, marginal meanings are observed
only in certain contexts. There is a tendency in m odern linguistics to
interpret the concept o f the central meaning in terms o f the frequency
o f occurrence o f this meaning. As far as the word table is concerned
the meaning ‘piece o f furniture’ possesses the highest frequency o f value
and makes up 52 Ъ o f all the uses o f this word.
3 . 2 . His to ri ca l C h a n g e a b i l i t y of S e m a n t i c S t r u c t u r e
3 .3 . P o ly se m y a n d C o n te x t T y p e s of C o n te x t
T h e te rm ‘context* d e n o te s th e m in im a l s tre tc h o f sp e e c h
determining each individual meaning o f the word. Contexts may be of
two types: linguistic (verbal) and extra-linguistic (non-verbal).
Linguistic contexts may be subdivided into lexical and grammatical.
in lexical contexts o f primary im portance are the groups o f lexical
items com bined w ith the polysemantic word under consideration. This
can be illustrated by th e results o f the analysis o f different lexical
contexts in w hich a p olysem antic word is used. F o r exam ple, the
adjective heavy used with the words load, table m eans “o f great
weight*. W hen com bined with th e words denoting natural phenom ena
such as rain, storm, snow, w ind the adjective heavy is understood as
denoting 'abundant, striking, falling with force*. If used with the words
industry\ artillery, arm s and the like, heavy has the m eaning the
larger kind o f smth*.
It can be easily observed that the main factor in bringing out the
individual meanings o f the adjective heavy is the lexical meaning ol
the words with which this adjective is com bined. T hus, the meanings
o f heavy may be analyzed through its collocabilitv with th e words
weight, safe, table, snow, wind: industry, artillery, etc. The meaning
at the level o f lexical contexts is sometimes described as meaning by
collocation.
In grammatical contexts it is the grammatical (syntactic) structure
o f the context that serves lo determine various individual meanings o f a
polysemantic word. The meaning o f the verb to m ake — ‘to force, to
induce’ is found only in the grammatical context possessing the syn
tactic structure to make + pm . + verb (to m ake smb. laugh, to make
smb. июгк. to m ake smb. sit). A nother meaning o f this verb — ‘to be
come* is observed in the context o f a different syntactic structure — to
make + adj. ♦ noun (to m ake a good wife, to m ake a good teacher).
Such meanings are sometimes described as grammatically bound m ean
ings.
32
There are cases when the meaning of a word is ultimately determined
by the actual speech situation in which the word is used. i.e. by ihe
extra-linguistic context (or context of situation1). In the sentence
The bill is large, the meaning of the word hill is clearly ambiguous as
it has two “ readings" resulting from the two meanings o! the word bill.
The sentence can. however, be disam biguated? i.e. one o r the other
o f its two readings can be established if it is extended with ... bur need
nor be paid This extension is. o f course, possible only with one of the
meanings o f the word bill. The noun ring in to give smb. a ring* may
possess the m eaning a circlet o f precious metal* o r ‘a call on the
telephone* depending on the situatio n in which the word is used.
Another example is the word glasses in the sentence: John was looking
fo r the glasses. This j> ambiguous because it might refer to 'spectacles'
or to drinking vessels*- So it is possible to state the meaning o f the word
glasses only through the extended context or situation’
4 . H O M O N Y M Y . C L A S S IF IC A T IO N O F H O M O N Y M S
■ 1 1 j
I-----
33
2. Homophones are words o f the same sound-form but o f different
spelling and meaning. Com pare the words:
I. Q>irZTiCihS
n TASKS
1.* Suggest the meaning.'» ot ihc words according to th eir so u n d -fo m i. C heck
уo n i sell by a dictionary
Buzz, click, bang, sizzle, boom, quack.
2 .* A nalyze i h e m e a n i n g s o f t h e g iv en w o rd s. S l a te wh a t c o m m o n
associations. gi\cn by the graphic so u n d -c lu sters \p- |sp- 1. -ash 1-a: I ( and gl-
Jgl-i unite these words.
Sprinkle (to shake small am o u n ts o f a liquid over the surface of
something), spray {to send liquid through the air in tiny drops either
by the wind or some instrum ent), splash (to wet o r soil by dashing
masses or particles o f water», spit (send liquid out from the m outh).
spatter (to scatter drops of a liquid on a surface), spill (to accidentally
pour a liquid out o f its container), spurt (if a liquid spurts from smth..
it com es out in a sudden strong flow).
Sm ash (break violently into small pieces), dash (move o r be moved
violently). crash (strike suddenly violently and noisily), bash (to hit hard
and violently ), gash (a long deep cut or wound), slash (to move in a
violent way that causes a lot o f dam age), trash (to criticize in a very
strong way).
Glamour (a special quality that makes a person, place, o r situation
seem very exciting, attractive, o r fashionable), gleam (a bright light
reflected from something), glisten (to shine and look wet or oily), glossy
(shiny in an attractive way), glint (to shine w ith quick flashes o f light), glow
(to shine with a soft light), glimmer (a soft weak light that is not steady ).
3.* Analyze ihe meanings o f the italicized words. G r o u p the words according
to their type of motivation: a) words morphologically motivated; b) words
semantically motivated.
Driver — someone who drives a vehicle, especially as h is/her job;
careless — not taking enough care: leg — the part o f a piece o f furniture
such as a table or chair that supports it and raises it off the floor: horse —
a piece o f equipment shaped like a large box that is used in gymnastics.
singlehood — the state o f being single rather than married: wall —
em otions o r behaviour that prevent people from feeling close to each
other: hand-m ade — made by hand, not machine; piggish — selfish;
blue-eyed — having blue eyes; sound bite — a short co m m en t by
a politician o r a n o th e r fam ous p erso n that is taken from a longer
conversation o r speech and broadcast alone because it is especially
interesting or effective; leajlet — a small, often folded piece o f printed
paper, o ften advertising so m e th in g , usually given free to people;
streamlet — a small stream (a natural flow o f water).
4.* D efine ih c kind o f association involved in the sem antic change
M u <} e I: glass (a transparent solid substance used for m aking windows,
bottles, etc » — a glass (a c o n ta in e r used for drinking, m ad e o f glass»
T he kind o f association involved in the sem antic change hi Ihe words.g/u.vv —
a glass is know n as m elonym y o r the contiguity o f m eaning.
I) the fo o t o f a person - the fo o t o f a m ountain; 2) jean (heavy
(willed coiton cloth, esp. denim ) — jeans (trousers made ol denim );
3) Matisse (proper name) — a Mattisse (a painting); 4) the wing o f
a bird — the wing o f a building; 5) ihe key to a d o o r - ihe key to
a mystery; 6) copper Imetal) - copper (coin): 7» Ihe heart o f л man —
the heart o f a city; S) crown (a circular ornamental headdress w orn by
a m onarch) — crown (monarchy): 9) a whip (a lash used to urge horses
on) — a whip (an official in the British Parliament to see lhal members
are present at debates): 10) China (a country ) china (dishes made
o f porcelain (ф арфор)
5 ." Analyze ih e m ea n in g s o f th e italicized words. Identify th e result o f
changes of th e d c n o ta h o n al aspect o f lexical m ean in g in the given words.
M о d e I: loan ’a gift from a superior: a thing borrow ed - a sum o f money
which is borrow ed, often from л bank, a n d has to be paid back, usually together
wi t h an a d d itio n a l a m o u n t o f m o n e y th a t you have to pay as a c h arg e tor
borrow ing'
I h e result o f th e change o f th e denotational aspect o f lexical m eaning o f t he
w ord loan is that the w ord becam e m o re specialized in m eaning (restriction
o f m eaning, specialization)
1) camp : a place where troops are lodged in tents — a place where
people live in tents o r h u nts': 2) girl: a small child o f either sex* -
a small child o f the female sex'; 3) bird: л young bird’ — ‘a creature
w ith wings and feathers w hich can usually fly in the air'; 4) arrive: reach
the shore after a voyage' — ’reach a place at the end o f a journey or
a stag e in a j o u r n e y ': 5) deer: any q u a d r u p e d (ч е т в е р о н о г о е
ж и вотное)' — 'a hoofed grazing or browsing anim al, with branched
bony antlers that are shed annually and typically borne only by the
m ale'; 6) rug: rough woolen stuff — a small carpel*: 7) ham: ‘a place
for keeping barley’ — ‘a large farm building used for storing grain, hay.
o r straw o r for housing livestock’: 8) glide: ’to m ove gently and
smoothly* — ’fly with n o engine'; 9) room: space' — a part or division
o f a building enclosed by walls, floor, and ceiling'; 10) J lv move with
3b
wings’ — to move through the air o r in the o u ter space’: I I ) a rtist:
*a master o f the liberal arts <i> маннтарные науки)' — *a person who
produces paintings o r drawings as a profession o r hobby': 12) cham pion.
‘a fighting m an ’ — a person who has defeated o r surpassed all rivals in
a com petition, especially a sporting co ntest': 13) cam paign: army s
operations in the field' — a connected set o f actions intended to obtain
a particular result, in military operations, in politics and business’.
6.* Analyze th e m eanings o f th e italicized words. Identify th e result o f the
changes o f th e c o n n o ta tio n a l aspect o f lexical m ean in g in the given words.
^ t o n t i: ci/lam: a feudal serf, peasant cultivator in subjection to a lord —
“a person guilty or capable of a crime or wickedness'
Ш The result of the change of the connotational aspect of lexical meaning of
th e word v illa in is th a t th e w ord a c q u ire d a d e ro g a to ry em otive charge
tdeterioration o f meaning).
I) cu n n in g : ‘possessing erudition or skill’ — ‘clever in deceiving’:
2) knight: ‘manservant’ — ‘noble courageous m an ’: 3) fo n d : ‘foolish,
infatuated (лиш ивш имся рассудка)’ — 'loving, affectionate’: 4) gang:
‘a group o f people going together’ — an organized group ofCriminals':
5) m arshal: manservant attending horses’ ‘an officer o f the highest
rank in the arm ed forces’: 6) coarse, ordinary, c o m m o n ’ ‘rude or
vulgar': 7) m inister. *a servant’ — ‘a head o f a government departm ent’:
8) enthusiasm : a prophetic or poetic frenzy (безумие, беш енство)’ —
‘intense and eager enjoyment, interest, or approval': 9) v io le n r having
a m arked o r powerful e ffe c t’ - 'u sin g o r involving physical force
intended to hurt, damage, or kill som eone o r som ething’: 10) gossip:
‘a g o d p a re n t, a person related to one in G o d ' — the one w ho talks
scandal: tells slanderous stones about other people'.
7. Read the given passage. Speak on the linguistic phenomenon described
in it. f ind examples of your own.
COWBOY
This is an interesting example o f how a lexeme can have its
meaning deteriorate in several directions at once. C o u b o y originally’
developed quite positive connotations, with its romantic associations
of the Wild West. To these have now been added a num ber of
distinctly negative overtones in certain regional varieties.
• In British English, it can mean an incompetent or irresponsible
workman or business: c o u b o y p lu m b e rs, c o u b o y dou bie-gU cdn gJirm .
• In Northern Ireland, it can mean a member of a sectarian gang.
• In American English, it can mean an automobile driver who docs
not follow the rules of the road or a factory worker who does more
than the piece-work norms set by his union or feUow-worlcers.
(from th e C am bridge Encyclopedia
o f the English language by David Crystal)
8.* Read the sentences in which the polysemantic word simple is used, Give
all the lexico-semantic variants constituting the semantic structure of this word.
Check yourself by a dictionary.
I. Intralinguistic Relations ol W o rd s
2 Types o f Semantic Relations
2.1. Proximity
2.2 Pqtiivalence
2.3 Inclusion. Hyponymic Structures
2.4. Opposition
3. Semantic C lassification of Words
3.1 Synonvmy. Classification o f Synonyms
3.2 l exical an d Terminological Sets. Lexico-Sem antic Ciroups
t
and Semantic Fields
3.3 Antonvmv Classification o f \n t o m n i s
1. I N T R A L I N Q U I S T I C R E L A T I O N S O F W O R D S
’Я 1£
w Sue o b ta in e d a n o te
A
etc
2 . T Y P E S O F S E M A N T IC R ELA TIO N S
2 . 1 . P r o x i m it y
Words very seldom are the sam e semantically, i.e. they are not
identical in meaning and show a certain semantic difference as well as
similarity. Meaning similarity is seldom complete and is nearly always
partial which makes it possible to speak about the semantic proximity
o f words an d, in general, about the relations o f sem antic proximity,
Com pare the words used for describing a female appearance from the
point o f view o f similarity and dissimilarity in their content side:
2 . 2 . E c jU 'v a le n c e
2 . 3 . I n c lu s i o n . H y p o n y m tc S t r u c t u r e s
p la n t
' - f -
grass bush tre e s h ru b flo w e r
* **
p in e oak ash m a ple
Я X
while pmc yellow pine
From the diagram above it is quite clear that the words tree and pine
are both hyperonyms (the classifiers) and hyponyms (the members of
the group).
,2.4. O pp osition
3 . S E M A N T IC C L A S S IF IC A T IO N O r 3N Q R D S
3.1 - S y n o n y m y C is s t r f ic t t io n of S y r o n y m ;
3 . 2 . L e x ic a l a n d T e r m i n o l o g i c a l S e t s . L e x i c o - S e m a n i i c
G r o u p s a n d S e m a n t i c F ie ld s
3 . 3 . A n t o n y m y . C l a s s i f i c a t i o n ot A n t o n y m s
о U£ T ГО N S д v lD t a s k s
I ш ш т ю т
II. TASKS
I.* С oi Праге the meaning** o f ihc given word** Define w hat semantic features
arc shared by all the members of ihc group and what semantic properties
distinguish them from each other
I)
wage a fixed regular paym ent, typically paid on a daily or weekly
basis, m ad e by a n em ployer to a n em ployee, especially
to a m an u al o r unskilled worker
--------- J
salary a fixed regular pay m en t, typically paid o n a m onthly basis but
often expressed as a n a nnu al sum . m ad e by an em ployer lo an
em ployee, especially a professional or w hite-collar worker
47
2)
reputation th e general o p in io n that people have about a person,
org an ization based on what they have h e ard , read. seen,
or experienced
image the idea or o p inio n that people have about a person,
org an izatio n , especially w h en this has been deliberately m ade
o r p lanned
n am e th e reputation л p erso n or a n organization has because j
o t som eth in g they d o o r because o f the quality o f what they
p ro d u ce, usually w hen this is good
. pn-srige th e respect a n d g o o d reputation a person, organization has
because thev have a high position in society, are adm ired
b \ people
siattt re a reputation for being very goo d at so m ethin g very im portant
or influential that m akes people respect you
2.* Organize the given words in accordance with their hypoiiymic relations
Enumerate the general terms (hvperonyms).
1) tram, light lorry, bicycle, vehicle, cabriolet, car. heavy lorry, estate
car. motorcycle, bus. lorry, three-door hatchback, three-way dump truck:
2) turtle, m am m al, squirrel, anim al, reptile, seal, tiger, lizard,
leopard, fox, wolf, iguana, bear, snake, leline, panther.
3.* Group ihe sentences into pairs so that in one sentence there should be л
hvperonym (the more general term) and in ihe other - the hyponym ithe more
concrete term).
M o d e l : The m an w as m urdered —- The m an u a s poisoned
He gave her a ring with five emeralds as a birthday present. 2 The
I.
m an uas poisoned 3. She looked at him. 4. He heard a nightingale
singing. 5. He is an officer, 6 It's an old car n She was wearing a black
dress. 8. They built a boat. 9. The man uas murdered. 10. She stared
at him 11 He is a colonel. 12. It's an old vehicle. 13. He gave her a ring
with five precious stones as a birthday present. 14. They bought flowers
in the shop. 15. She was wearing a dark dress. 16. She has got a child.
I7. They built a yacht. 18. They bought lilacs in the shop. 19 She has
got a daughter. 20. He heard a bird singing.
4.* Cine meanings ot the following synonyms Slate the difference ir. the
connotational aspect of their meaning.
M o d e l ; lot e — worship
j• i (
■ ‘ lore — an intense feeling of deep affection Emotive charge and j
worship — the feeling of profound reverence expressiveness (intensity i
■and strong adoration I are different.
48
C onfidence — assurance; to satisfy — to delight; alone - lonely;
to create - to m a n u fa ctu re; to blush — to redden; lo trem ble —
to shudder.
5 .* State the difference in th e p rag m atic aspect o f m e a n in g o f th e given
synonym s. C on sult a dictionary.
\ 1 о С й* I; to set" — to behold
GL T h e verb to behold is form al, w hereas the verb to sec is neutral.
Happy tadji, careful (adj). dwarf (adj), obedience (n). criticism (n>.
above (adv), regular (adj). asleep (ad j). back tad v ). polite (adj).
triumph (n), hope (n). artistic (adj). appear (v ). prewar (adj). far ( a d \ ).
logical (adj). love (n). known (adj).
1 1 .* C lassify a n t o n y m o u s p a ir s i n to c o n t r a d i c t o r i e s , c o n t r a r i e s a n d
m c o m p a t i b le s T o prov e th e d iv is io n give i n te r m e d i a t e m e m b e r s o f t h e
a n to n y m o u s set where it is necessary, o r give o th e r m em b ers o f th e g ro u p w hich
are excluded in the given a n to n y m o u s pair.
V o i l ® I: a rid — a u a sh
These antonym s refer to the group o f contranes as they are polar m em bers o f a
gradual opposition which lias the following intermediate members: dry — u e t
5f)
• By contrast, in the field of health (for Caucasians), colour can
mean only red, or at least pink (in the аЯоиг came back to his cheeks)-
• In publishing, a book primed in Mack type on white paper is
not considered to be in colour. Yet if blue, say. is introduced to add
interest to the page, this is called using a second colour {black being
the ‘first’ colour).
• In the field of South African racial relations, coloured excludes
Chapter 1
1. M O R P H E M E S . C L A S S I F I C A T I O N O F M O R P H E M E S
2 . T v p f s O F M E A N IN G i xl M O R DH E M E i
\ stem i* ihc ;>.!Г .it j vkord that п т .'и 'Ъ u:u'h.ms.cd 'hro.uihow t IS pa r.idicr-
s "»
m ean in g . A ffix atio n al m o rp h e m e s have lexical. p a rt-o f* sp e e c h .
differential and distributional types o f meaning. Both root-m orphem es
and affixational m orphem es are devoid o f grammatical meaning.
Lexical meaning. The lexical meaning o f root-m orphem es differs
from that o f affixatio nal m o rp h e m e s . R o o t-m o rp h e m e s have an
individual lexical m eanin g shared by n o o th e r m o rp h em es in the
language. T he lexical meaning o f affixational morphem es is. as a rule,
o f a m ore generalizing character. For example, the suffix -en carries the
meaning the change o f a quality’. Verbs formed with the help o f this
suffix express the idea that someone or something has more o f a quality
than it had previously. If. for example, a river deepens, it becomes deeper
than it was before, and if a person is deafened, he has lost temporarily
the power o f hearing.
As in words lexical meaning in morphemes may also be analyzed into
d e n o ta tio n a l a n d c o n n o ta tio n a l c o m p o n e n ts. T h e c o n n o ta tio n a l
com ponent o f meaning may be found not only in root-m orphem es but
in affixational morphemes as well. Endearing and diminutive suffixes,
such as -etie ( kitchenette. ieajlette): -ie(y) ( dearie. girlie ); -ling
<duckling. u'olfling) bear a heavy emotive charge. The affixational
morphemes w ith the same denotational meaning sometimes differ only
in connotation. For example, the m orphem es -ly. -like, -ish in the
words womanly, womanlike, womanish have the same denotational
meaning o f similarity but differ in the connotational com ponent (cl. the
Russian equivalents: ж енственны й — женский — бабий).
Stylistic reference may also be found in morphemes o f different types.
For e x a m p le, th e a ffix atio n a l m o rp h e m e s -ine (ch lo rin e). - oid
(rhomboid) are bookish.
D ifferen tial m eaning. D ifferential m e a n in g is th e sem an tic
component that serves to distinguish one word from all others containing
identical morphemes. In words consisting o f two or more morphemes,
one o f the constituent m orphem es always has differential meaning. For
e x a m p le, in the w ord b o o k sh e lf 't h e m o rp h e m e -s h e lf serves to
distinguish the word from other words containing the morpheme book-:
Ьсюксазе. bookstall.
Distributional Meaning. Distributional meaning is the meaning of
the order an d arrangement o f m orphem es making up the word It is
found in all words containing m ore than one morpheme. For example,
the word singer is composed o f two morphemes sing- and -er both of
which possess the denotational meaning — *to make musical sounds’
an d ’the d o e r o f the action*. A different arrangem ent o f the sam e
morphemes *ersing would make the word meaningless.
Part -of- speech meaning. In most cases affixational morphemes are
indicative o f the part o f speech to which a derivational word belongs.
For example, the affixational m orphem e -m ent ( m ovem ent ) is used to
54
form nouns, while the affixational m orphem e -less {careless) forms
adjectives. S om etim es th e p art-o f-sp ee ch m eaning o f m orph em es
predom inates. For exam ple, the m orphem e -ice in th e word justice
serves principally to tra n s fe r th e p a r t- o f-s p e e c h m ean in g o f th e
m orphem e just- into another class and namely that o f the noun.
3. M O R P H E M I C T Y P E S OF W O R D S
4 , T Y P E S OF W O R D В EG ME NT ABILITY
C f . ih e R u s s ia n ic r n is ahboc . ус л о вн о е и д е ф ектн ое м о р ф о л о ги ч е с ко е
ч л е н е н и е с .ю н
transparent m orphem ic structu re ol the segm entable words e n d le s s ,
useless is conditioned by the fact that their constituent m orphem es recur
with the sam e meaning in a num ber o f o th er words: a n e n d . to e n d :
u se . to u se and nam eless, p o u erless.
C o n d itio n a l se g m e n ta b ility c h a r a c t e r i z e s w o rd s w h o s e
segmentation into the constituent m orphem es is doubtful for sem an tic
reasons. In the words reta in , d e ta in o r receive, d eceive the s o u n d -
clusters — [ri- 1. |d i-l seem to be singled o u t quite easily due to th e ir
recurrence in a num ber of words. On the o th er hand, they have n o th in g
in com m on with ihe phonetically identical m o rphem es re-, d e - w h ich
are found in the words re w rite , re o rg a n ize , d e c o d e , d e o rg a n ic e .
N either the sound-clusters |r i - j . |d i - | n o r the |- i e m |. [-si:v| possess
any lexical o r p a rt-o f-s p e e c h m ean in g o f th eir own. T h e ty pes ol
meaning that can be ascribed to them is differential and distributional:
the [ri-J distinguishes retain from d e ta in an d the |- te m | distinguishes
retain from receive, whereas their ord er an d arrangem ent point to th e
status o f the re-, d e - as different from that o f the rain and - c e ir e
within the structure o f the words. The m orphem es making up w ords
o f c o n d i t io n a l s e g m e n ta b ility d o n o t rise to th e s t a t u s o f fu ll
m orphem es for sem antic reasons an d that is why are called pseudo-
m orphem es or quasi -m orphem es.
D e fe c tiv e se g m e n ta b ility is th e p ro p e rty o f w o rd s w h o s e
com ponent m orphem es seldom or never recur in other words. O n e ol
the com ponent m orphem es ol these words is a unique m orphem e in the
sense th at it d o es not recur in a different linguistic e n v iro n m e n t
Л unique m orphem e is isolated and understood as meaningful because
the constituent m orphem es display a more o r less clear denotational
meaning. In the word h a m let (деревушка» the m orphem e -let has the
meaning ol diminutiveness. This m orphem e occurs in the words ringlet,
le a fle t, s tr e a m le t T he s o u n d -c lu ste r |lnv m -j that is left after th e
isolation o f the m orpheme -/e/d o es not recur in any other English word
The m orphem e h a m - carries a differential and distributional m eaning
as it distinguishes h a m let from stream let, ringlet This m orphem e is
qualified as unique.
5 . P R O C E D U R E O f M O R P H E M IC A N A '.T S iS
><>
T his m ethod is based on a binary principle, i.e. each stage ot the
procedure involves two components the word immediately breaks into
At each stage these two com ponents are referred to as the Immediate
Constituents (ICs). Each IC at the next stage o f analysis is in its turn
broken into smaller meaningful elements. The analysis is completed w hen
we arrive at constituents incapable o f further division, i.e. morphemes.
These morphemes are referred to as the Ultimate Constituents ( UC\i.
F or exam ple, the nou n friendliness is first segm ented into the ICs
I) frie n d ly - (recurring in the adjectives friendly and friendly-looking )
an d 2) -ness (found in a countless number o f nouns, e.g. happiness,
darkness). The IC -ness is at the same time a U C o f the noun, as it cannot
be broken into any smaller elements possessing both sound-form and
meaning. The IC friendly ■- is next broken into the ICs I )friend- (recurring
in friendship, unfriendly) and 2) -ly (recurring in uifely, brotherly). ITie
ICs friend- and -ly are both I C s of the word under analysis.
The division into ICs and U C s can be carried out on the basis o f tw o
principles: 1) the affix principle and 2) the root principle. According to
th e affix principle the segm entation o f the word into its constituent
m orphem es is based on the identification o f an affixational m orpheme
within a set of words, e.g. the identification of the m orpheme -less leads
to the segmentation of words like useless, hopeless, merc iless into the
suffixational m orphem e -less and the root-m orphem es use-, hope-,
m erci - within a w ord-cluster. A ccording to the root principle the
identification o f the root-m orphem e agree- in the words agreeable,
agreement, disagree makes ii possible to split these words into the root
agree - and the affixational m orphem es -able. -ment. dis
As a rule, the application o f one o f these principles К sufficient for
the m orphem ic segmentation o f words.
O U E S T .O N S AND TASKS
I CUES 7 >Q\':5
п. task s
1.* Segment the following words into morphemes. Define (a) the semantic
types and (Ы the structural types of morphemes constituting the given words.
M o d e l : a ini/ess
cLi The word aimless can be segmented into two morphemes: aim- - -less.
a) semantically aim- is a root-morpheme, -less is an affix.
bl structurally aim- is л free morpheme: -less is a bound morpheme.
Beggarly, p o stm an , shorten, destabilize, sym pathy, fruitfulness,
maltreatment, disaffected, overrule, photographic, half-eaten, theory,
rent-free.
2. Read the following passage. Speak on the difference between inflectional
and affixations! morphemes and their peculiarities.
Chapter 2
1. ; Derivational Structure
2. ■ Derivational Bases
3. ; Derivational Affixes
4. Derivational Patterns
5. Historical Changeability of Word-Struciure
1. D E R I V A T I O N A L S T R U C T U R E
T a b le '
1
A Morphological A Derivational
Stem Base |
1) the starting point for the forms 1) the starting point for different
of the word words
(e.g. heart — hearts) (e.g. heart — hearty, heartless,
heartbeat)
3 . D E R 'V A T iO N A L a c FIX ES
4 . DERIVATIONAL P A T T E R N S
Simplification 6 d e f i n e d л * a m o r p h o l o g i c : * ! p r o c e s s b \ w h u b a w o r d o : .i
c o m p l e x m o r p h o l o g i c a l s i m c t u r e l o s e s i h c m e a n i n g o ’ i t s s c p . t r . i t c m o r p h o l o g i c a l p a r t s
a n d b e c o m e s a m e r e s v m b o l o f t h e n o t i o n g i v e n (A p ito .ib d f t В М е к е и к о i o i л я
с о в р е м е н н о ю a i H . i m i c k o i o я ш к а — X ! . . i 9 “ .i t S t П .
65
the m eaning ‘decision, judgm ent, ordinance*. The whole com pound
word meant ‘a wise decision, judgment*. In the course o f its historical
development the meaning o f the second c o m p o n e n t dom became
more and m ore generalized till it turned into the suffix forming abstract
nouns (cf.: fre e d o m . boredom ).
The noun la d y is a simple m onom orphic word in M odem English.
This noun underwent the process o f simplification and shortening as
in Old English it was a com pound word h lx fd iy e consisting o f h t a f
meaning ‘bread* and d ije having the meaning kneading* (месящ ая,
замеш ивающ ая).
Sometimes the spelling o f some M odem English w ords as compared
with their sound-form reflects the changes these words have undergone.
The M odem English word cupboard judging by its sound-form |k\badl
is a m onom orphic non-m otivated simple word. But earlier it consisted
o f two bases represented by m onom orphic stems |k \p | and |bs:d| and
was pronounced |'клр bo:dJ. The word signified ‘a board to put cups on
Nowadays, however, having been structurally transformed into a simple
word, it denotes neither cup nor board as may be seen from the phrases
a boot cu p b o a rd . a clothes cupboard.
I. Q U E S T IO N S
n. TASKS
1.* Group the given words according to their derivational structure into
suffival and prefixal derivatives.
M o d e l : unu'ifely - un- -+• -wifely (a prefixal derivative), em bittered —
embitter ed (a sufllval derivative)
Insensible, discouragement, unwomanly, impassioned, befriended,
a s v s te m ic . u n im a g in a b le , d isco v ery , irre s p o n s ib le , im p re s s io n ,
d is h e a rte n , in d efen sib le, d isg u ise m e n t. a c c o u n ta b le , unfriendly,
outrageous, impersonal, renewable, underdeveloped, endangerment.
2.* Group derivational bases of the given words into three structural classes:
a) bases that coincide with morphological stems of different degrees of
complexity; bi bases that coincide with word-forms; c) bases that coincide with
word-groups.
M o d e l : colour-blindness, unw rapped. u h ite -sk in n e d
Ё The derivational base of the word co lo u r-b lin d n ess coincides with the
compound morphological stem colour-blindness which consists of one
simple and one derived stem (class a) The derivational base of the word
unw rapped coincides with the verbal word-form -w rapped — the past
participle (class b>. The derivational base of the word u h ite - s k in n e d
coincides with the word-group w hite skin (class c)
Illiterate ness, waterskier. unprotected, bra irest ruster . three-cornered,
frie n d lin e s s , a llrig h tn ik . im p o s s ib le , g re e n -e y e d , p a in s -ta k in g ,
lan dlord ism , a b se n t-m in d e d , brainless, understanding!)', w eath er
beaten. long-legged, broaden, heart-breaking, freestyler. seemingly,
livelihood, un inspiring , b ac k -b en ch er, acceptability, d o -g o o d ism .
laughingly, d o -it-y o u rse lfer, u n im p o rta n c e , o n e -sid e d , u n n am ed ,
allatonceness. familiarity, whitefeathery. snow-covered, weekender,
long-running, idletalker.
3.* Combine the words the derivational affixes of which express: ai ’not'
without' or opposite o f; b) ‘exceeding/a great extent' or *a large amount of.
a great deal o f; ci similarity/resemblance'; d) (very ) small' or not enough .
e) ‘liking for'
Nameless, hyperactive, sneaky, oversleep, microsurgery, frolicsome,
anti-war. disapprove. booklet, priceless, cuboid, overwork, superclever.
B ra in s tr u s t (B rit.) a g ro u p o t expert» w h o g o o im p ro m p tu m o l p la n n e d nr
prepared» answer» t oq u e s tio n s o n to p ics o f g en era l o r c u rre n t in fro nt o f an
i n t e r e s t
au d ien ce or o n d ie radio
d e p o p u la te d , w h itis h , b ib lio p h ile , n o n s m o k e r, o u tg ro w ,
parapro fcssion al, apolitical, sp h eru le , talkative, lifeless, fiendish,
duckling, mistrust, Francophilia, feathery', unhappiness, m uch-w orn,
superrich, underdevelopm ent, childless, m ini-m arket, multicolored,
kitchenette, disorder, ladylike, quarrelsom e, hy p crcreatb e. am oral,
m icrofilm , babyish, ageless, u ltra m o d e rn , in a tte n tio n , flowerlike,
h u m a n o id , creativ e, u n d e rc o o k e d , m u ltita le n te d . su b -V ic to ria n ,
miniskirt, anticlimax, extra-soft, hypotherm ia, outlive, paramilitary,
greyish, countless, clockwise, lambkin, duty-free, megabucks, starlet
4.* Give structural formulas of the following words. Classify the words into.
1) sufftxa! derivatives; 2) prefixa! derivatives; 3) conversions; 4 1 compound words
M o d e l : blackness, table-cloth
The structural formula ot the word blackness is a + -sf —* N. The given
word is a suffixa! derivative. I he structural formula of the word table-cloth
is n + n -» N. Table-cloth is a compound word
l o p ap er, sp eechless, p e n -h o ld e r. irrep laceable, n o th in g n ess,
to winter, age-long, fearsomely. sharpen. wind-Unvcn. independence,
ex-housewife.
5.* Give siruciural patterns of the following words Stale to wfi.it parts of
speech and lexical subscls affixes refer the given derivatives
M o d e ! : threesome
[yj The structural pattern of the word threesome is num + -some -• N. The
DP signals a set of nouns with the lexical meaning of a group consisting of
a certain number o! people’
Yearly, engineer, diseased, completion, incurable, to ape. lair-haired,
customary, overtime, miscalculation.
6.* G oe structural semantic patterns of the following words Specify
semantic peculiarities of derivational bases and individual meanings of affixes
of the words under analysis.
M o d e l : ex-president, ex -secretary. ex-journalist, ex policeman
v~! The structural-semantic pattern of the given words is ex- + n —* N In this
DP the nominal bases are confined to nouns denoting professions The prefix
ел- combined with these bases possesses the meaning 'former*
I) L ondoner, villager. New Yorker, towner: 2) tall ish. thinnish.
biggish, longish. low ish: 3 1 lungful, a rm fu l, m o u th fu l, han dful;
4» savagery, foolery, snobbery, roguery ; 5) decency, com placency,
obstinacy, hesitancy: 6) advocacy , accountancy , presidency, consultancy;
7) demist, defrost, deice, dewater, degas; 8) rapidly, slowly, gradually,
quickly: 9) schoolm ate, clubm ate, flatm ate, room m ate: 10) joyful,
delightful, hateful, cheerful, sorrowful.
68
7.* Analyze the historical changeability «>l the word-structure of the following
words.
M © d 11:
Chapter 1
2 . AFFIXATION
3 . P R O D U C T IV E AND N O N -P R O D U C T IV E A FFIX ES
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Adject ine- forming -able (tolerable), -ic <deitrunic), -ish (smartish).
suffixes -ed (learned), -less (jobless), у (tweedy)
Verb-forming -ize.!-ise (vilamini/e). ate (oxidate). -if\*(falsify )
suffixes
Adverb-forming -fy (equally)
suffixes
-
Non-productive affixes are the affixes which are not able to form
new w ords in the period in q uestion. N o n -p ro d u c tiv e affixes are
recognized as separate m orph em es a n d possess clear-cut sem antic
characteristics. In some cases, however, the lexical meaning o f a n o n
productive affix fades o ff so that only its p a rt-o f-sp e e c h m eaning
rem ains, e.g. the adjective-form ing suffix -so m e ( lo n eso m e. lo a th
som e).
Some non-productive English suffixes are given below:
It is worthy o f note that an affix may lose its productivity and then
beco m e produ ctive again in th e process o f w o rd -fo rm a tio n . T his
happened to the suffix -d o m . For a long period o f time it was n o n
productive but in the last hundred years -dom got a new lease o f life so
that a great am ount o f words was coined with its help. e.g. serfdom ,
s la te dom .
T h e p ro d u c tiv ity o f an affix s h o u ld not be c o n fu se d w ith its
frequency o f occurrence. The frequency ol occurrence is understood
as the existence in the vocabulary o f a great num ber o f words containing
the affix in question. An affix may occur in hundreds o f words, but if it
is not used to form new words, it is not productive. For example, the
adjective suffix -fu l is met in hundreds o f adjectives ( beautiful, hopeful.
trustful, useful), but no new words seem to be built with its help, and
so it is non-productive.
4. E T Y M O L O G Y O F D E R IV A T IO N A L A F F IX E S
From the point o f view o f their etymology affixes are subdivided into
two main classes: native affixes and borrowed affixes.
Native affixes are those existed in the Old English period or were
form ed from Old English words. T h e latter category is o f special
75
importance. The changes a m orphem e undergoes in the course ot time
may be o f different kinds. A bound m orphem e, for example, may be
developed from a free one. Such are the suffixes -d o m << d a m Tate,
power'); -h tw d (< h a d state ): -lock (< lac ’actions or proceedings,
practice'). -sh ip (< scip e state, co n d itio n ’), and th e prefixes over-
К ofer 'in excess, extra, upper’), o u t- (< tit ‘foreign, external ), etc.
Some native English affixes are given below:
T
Noun-forming suffixes -er teacher. driver, painter
-n ess lovelinevs. ugliness, coldness
-ing meaning, singing, understanding
-dom wisdom, freedom, kingdom
-hood manhood, motherhood. neighbourhood
-ship mastership, workmanship, leadership
-tb health, length, truth
-lc( booklet, coverlet, islet
Adject ive - fo mu ng -ful joyful, sinful, skilful
suffixes -less sleepless, sensclcs». harmless
-y tidy, merry, cozy
-ish childish, stylish, snobbish
-ly ugly, likely, lovely
-en silken, golden, wooden
-so m e handsome, tiresome, burdensome
-like dreamlike, ladylike, cow like
Verb-forming suffixes -en redden, sadden, widen
Adverb-fonn ing -ly hardly, rarefy, simply
suffixes -w ise clockwise, otherwise, likewise
1Prefixes bc- befool. befriend, befog
m is- mismanage, misname, misuse
un- unselfish, unacademic
over- i overdo, overact, overanalyze
Borrowed affixes are those that have com e to the English language
from different foreign languages. T h e affixes o f foreign origin are
classified according to their source into:
76
anti- anli-pollution. anti democratic
sy m -/sy n - symmetrical, synthesis
••
French -a g e wreckage, peerage, percentage
-a n c e /-e n c e perseverance, extravagance, coherence
-ard wizard, drunkard
-a te doctorate, elector ate. filtrate
-е е employee, addressee, absentee
-e ss princess, captainesv authoress
e n -/e m - enlist, enclose, embed
I. QUESTION'S
1. What is word-formation'*
2. What arc the principal types o f word-formation?
3 What are the basic ways o f forming words in word-derivation?
4 What is meant by word-composition?
5. What are the m inor types o f m odem word-formation?
6. What is shortening'* What groups o f shortenings can be singled out ?
7. W hat d o e s b le n d in g m e a n ? W hat ty p es o f b le n d s c a n be
distinguished?
8. What type ofword-form ation is called acronymy? What basic types
of acronyms d o you know ?
9. What is sound-interchange? What groups does sound-interchange
fall into?
10. What is meant by sound imitation or onomatopoeia? What groups
o f onom atopoeic words can be singled out according to the semantic
principle?
11. What do we call back-formation?
12. What type o f word-fbrmaiion is known as distinctive stress?
13. What is affixation?
14 What is the role of suffixes m the formation o f new words?
15. What are the principles o f the classification o f suffixes *
16. What is prefixation'*
17. What principles o f the classification o f prefixes can be singled out ?
IS. What does the term ' productivity o f derivational affixes' denote?
19. What affixes arc called productive?
20. What affixes are known as non-productive *
21. In what way can the productivity o f an affix change in the course
of time?
22. What is the difference between the productivity o f affixes and
their frequency o f occurrence?
23. What main classes o f affixes can be distinguished from the point
o f view o f their etymology ?
24. What affixes are called native?
25 What are the sources o! borrowed affixes?
7S
26. What words are called hybrids'* What arc the basic types o f hybrid
words?
27. What is meant by the valency o f affixes'*
28. What is the valency o f bases.*
29. Why is it im portant to investigate o r to take into account the
combining povsibililies o f affixes and bases?
II. T A S K S
1 * In accordance with the part that is cut off to form a new word classify
cases of shortening into four groups: I >initial shortenings taphesisi. 2) medial
shortenings (syncope): 5) final shortenings (apocope): 4i both initial and final
shortenings
M o d e l : net < internet
0 The initial pan of ihe ongmal word is cut off. Consequently, the new word
refers to the first group.
hols < holidays; va c vacuum cleaner: tec < detective: p la n e <
aeroplane: Frisco < (San) Francisco: q u iz < inquisitive; bus < omnibus;
curio < curiosity; m iss < mistress; sport < disport: soccer < Association
Football: f a n < fanatic: circs < circumstances; ch u te < parachute: A line
< Adeline; cert < certainty: te n d < attend: m a n < market: coke < coca-
cola: L iz < Elizabeth: p r e p -s c h o o l < p reparatory-sch ool: g a to r <
alligator: cuss < customer.
2.* Determine the original components of the following Wends Define which
type (additive or restrictive) the Wends belong to
M o d e l : to guesstimate, seadrome
0 Ihe verb to guesstimate is formed by combining the words guess and
estimate. I lie given Wend may be transformed into a phrase consisting of
complete stems combined by the conjunction and. Thus, to guesstimate
belongs to the additive type of blends
0 The noun seadrome is formed by combining the words sea and airdrome.
I hegiven blend may be transformed mm л phrase, the first element of which
serves as modifier to the second. I hus. seadrome belongs to the restrictive
type of blends.
Positron, brunch, abxoiivcly. motel, spam. Hush, slanguage, twirl, bit.
mingy, transceiver, paratroops, crocogator, oihtics. dipward, w indoor,
newtopia. glumpy. cablegram, smazc, flextime. Oxbridge.
3.* Define which words have been combined to form the following computer
terms. Give their meanings.
Netiquette, emoticon, neti/en. technophobe
4.* According to their pronunciation classify the given acronyms into two
groups 11 those that are read as ordinary English words: 2) those with the
alphabetic reading.
74
VI о d е I: \ А I f НЕ' | ‘nur(Il:| — National Association oflcachers in Further
and Higher Education (group 1): M P |'em 'ре| — Member of Parliament
(group 2 1
N A T O — N orth A tlantic Treaty O rganization. U N O — L niied
N ations O rg a n izatio n . W H O — T h e World H ealth O rg an ization .
HI PA — British I nitcd Provident Association. A G M — annual general
meeting. B 7 — W omen's Institute. U C A S — Universities and Colleges
Admissions Service. IR A — Irish Republican Army. V4.S4 — National
Aeronautics and Space Administration. C IO — Criminal Investigation
Department. SA L E - Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. UEEA - L nion
o f E u ro p e a n F o o tb all A sso ciatio n s. IQ — intellig en ce q u o tie n t.
X A A f l — Navy. Army, and Air Force Institutes. M R R M — medium-
range ballistic missile. E B I — Federal Bureau o f Investigation. TEEL —
teaching o f English as a foreign language. UFO — unidentified flying
object. U N R R A — United Nations Relic! and Rehabilitation Adm ini
stration. I I P — very important person. FIFA — Federal International
Football Association. <7/ — government (or general) issue.
5.* Group the words formed b> sound-interchange into 1) those formed by
vowel-interchange or ablaut (& suffixation >. 2i those formed by consonant-
interchange; 3) those formed by combining both means, i e vowel- and
consonant-interchange.
M o d d : relief (Ю — relieve is) eonsonant-interehange
Long (adj) - length (n). speak <v) speech (n). wreathe (v)
wreath (n). bake (v> - batch (n). strike (v ) — stroke <n>, house in ) —
house (v). breathe (v ) — breath (n>. believe (v) — belief in), full (adj) —
fill (V). lose tv) — loss (ii), prove (v) — proof in), knot (n) — knit (v).
glaze (v) — glass in ), shelve <v) — shelf (n). wake tv) —watch (n).
lo ath e ( n ) lo ath <n>. use (v) use (n>. sing (v) song (n).
c lo th e (v) - c lo th (n ). bite <v> - bn <n>. halve (v) — h a l f t n ) ,
abide (v) — abode lit), serve (vi — serf (n). deep (adj) — depth (n>.
bathe (v ) — bath (n). ride (v) — road (n).
6.* Match the Russian words with their English equivalents.
Russian English
1. и иск 1. grumble
2. бал. баи: сильны )! улар 2. hushaby hush
3. хихикать 3. pop
4 мычать 4. ihum p-thum p
5. квакать 5. cheep
6. ворчать b. giggle
7 свист 7. m oo
8. тук-тук. наносит тяжелый 8. croak
улар
9. баю -бай. убаюкивать 9. whiz
SO
1 0 . куковать 10 bang
11. мяукать 11. babble
12. ш икать 12. quacking
13. жужжать 13. neigh
14. лепет 14. mew
15. хлоп, хлопнуть 15. mumble
16. крякайьс 16 fizz
17. ш амкать 17. boo
18. ш ипение 18. cackle
19. кудахтать 19. buzz
20. ржание 20. cuckoo
7.* f rum the sentences given below wnte out the words built up by back-
formation Give the original words from which they arc formed
M o d e l : They commentate on live Monday matches.
The derivational base of the noun arrival is arricie)-. The suffix ol is added
to the verbal base and thus it ma> be qualified as a devcrbal suffix
10.* Distribute the given words formed b> means of the polysemantic suffix
-ship according to three meanings of this suffix into three corresponding groups:
1> skills or ability*. 2) position or occupation', л) ‘relationship or connection
between people'.
Workmanship, comradeship, musicianship, chairmanship, friendship,
professorship, show m anship, lectureship, kinship, sportsm anship,
acquaintanceship, studentship, salesmanship, dociorship. partnership.
11.* Classify suffixes forming the given nouns according to their generalizing
meaning into three groups: I ) suffixes denoting people of different professions
or of different kinds of activity; 2) suffixes denoting collectivity or collection of;
3) suffixes denoting diminutivcncss.
Membership, assistant, lecturette. trainee, sisterhood, actress, piglet,
painter, m achinery, aunty, yup piedom , historian, duckling, finery,
scientist, babykins. readership, supervisor, nightie, aristocracy.
82
12." Translate the given combinations of words into English. Pay special
attention to the formation of different m meaning adjectives by means of adding
different suffixes to one and the same derivational base.
M © d r!: fa v o u r любимый актор благоприятная погода
д! The Fnglish for любимый auiop is a faiourite author. The English for
благоприятная погода is fm ourahte weather.
1) e x h a u st: изнуригсльная работа — и сч ерп ы ваю щ и й o i b c i:
2) history, историческая победа - исторический фильм; 3) h o n o u r
почетный гражданин — п о чеж л я обязанность: 4) respect: почти
тельное молчание — почтенный человек; 5) skill: квалиф ицирован
ный рабочий опытный, искусный хирург; 6) culture, культурная
жизнь — культурный человек: 7) touch, трогательные слова — обид
чивый человек: 8) delighr. восхищенные зрители - восхитительные
каникулы; 9) econom y: экономический кризис — экономные рас
ходы; 10) co n tem p t презренный предатель — презригсльная улыбка.
13 .* Combine the prefixes in the box with the appropriate derivational base
from the list Classify the prefixes according to the Icxico-grammatieal character
of the base they are attached to and according to the pan of speech they form
\ l a d r l : dis-
Gl The prefix dis- can be combined with the bases: -advantage, -favour,
-order. It is added to the nominal bases to form new nouns. Thus, this prefix
can be qualified as a denominal and noun-forming prefix.
5. The jury unanimously reached the decision that the killing was
prem editated.
16.* Wnte out the italicized words from the sentences taken from “ The
Independent" and classify them according to the productivity o f their
derivational affixes. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Then he read extracts from it. secret histories o f those whom he
chooses to call the unpeople o f this world — the slave labourers <...>
sacked in the winter o f 1995. w ho were refused support by their union.
2. 1 am not over-optimistic about my chances o f winning any o f these
three f i r s t ships.
3. The locals call this place Pitta straat due to the num ber o f ethnic
fast-food places, which becom e a w elcom e refuge for p u b b e rs an d
clubbers.
84
4 T he key players left the encounter sounding unimpressed by Mr
Yeltsin's efforts to cajole them into supporting the 35-year-old ex-
p ro vin cia l banker and former energy minister. Sergei Kiriyenko.
5. But the interesting point about the legend is that it shows the
iconisrs had the notion o f painting from life’.
6. The problem in my own case is not sexism, but alphabetism . My
partner can vote in the proposed Halifax conversion, but I cannot. My
surname begins with G and hers with C. Only the first-named person
in a joint mortgage is entitled to vote and to participate in any subsequent
shares handout.
7. Bespectacled Kate spanned some eighteen p e e p fu l years before
being yanked back from retirement for further snoop ings.
8. He may say the same thing with the release o f every new movie,
but this time it needs to be said more forcibly, because Harry Block is a
writer who specializes in talxxnsh relationships...
9. The risk lies not in these elements singlely but in the danger that
they might combine to create a whole, which is greater than the sunt ol
its p an s producing a chain reaction.
10. Some people have cup boa r d f и Is o f u n u e a ruble outfits without
which they simply cannot live: badly Hared trousers, nickel belts that give
you a nasty rash, and expensive peep-to ed stilettos with em balm ed
goldfish in the heels.
11 My mother-in-law is a hatahotic person.
12. It’s lovely to come back and revisit these places arid reject these
emotions.
13. There are still one or two paintings that strike me as having a
uro n g ish size, and therefore give an eccentric scale to the figure.
14. Invariably, some not just name but place-dropping m em ber ol
London s C e/ebritoiracy is boasting about her high-powered, action
packed day beginning with breakfast in bed.
17.* Study the given words illust rating the tact that productivity of affixes 's
a historical phenomenon
txplam what the derivational affixes mean
XI о tl e I: arrestee, itnpeachee. pvrsuadee. secondee
гт
щ*
cil Ih e suffix tv means ‘recipient of an action'.
1) g ro c eteria, b o o te te ria . b o o k e te ria . w asheteria: 2i sp ydo m .
b lo k e d o m . c o m p u t e r d o m , s n u b d o m , b tk e rd o m : 3) u n ta k e a b le .
uneducative, undutiful. unbrotherly; 4» taxiful. polful. cupboardfui.
harpful: 5» entailable, ndeable. passable, doable; 6) emailer. channeler.
bagger, clubber: n ) co o lth . th ickth. rcsid eth: 8) to belgium ize. to
vacatiom/e. to citizenize. to IrcteHze; 9) ex analyst, ex-wages (clerk),
ex-superior, ex-provincial. 10) milkahoiic. newsacholic. btvokachohc.
chocoholic, halaholic. workacholic. shopachohc: II) refeel, reintercst.
re-aim. rebalance. 12) genderism. ableism, heighiyism. alphabetism
\S
18.* Define the etymology of the derivational affixes forming the given
words.
A1 © <1H: risky (full o f the possibility of danger. failure, or loss)
a. The suffix v is Old English.
!) refu sen ik (a Jew in the former Soviet U nion who was refused
permission to emigrate to Israel), b ea tn ik (a young person in the 1950s
an d early 1960s belonging to a subculture associated with the beat
generation); 2) p ro -fa m ily (promoting family life and traditional moral
values); 3) do a b le (within one's powers); 4) m e m m e n t (gaiety and fun):
5) fo r e te ll (to predict the future or a future event): 6) breakage (a thing
that has been broken): 7) n o n -citizen (a person who is not an inhabitant
or national o f a particular state or town): 8) tru ism <a statement that is
obviously true and says nothing new or interesting); 9) ot'erexcite (excite
excessively): 10) h in d ra n ce (a thing that provides resistance, delay, or
obstruction to something o r som eone): 11) coolant (a languid or gas that
is used to remove heat from something): 12) p a ra leg a l (a person trained
in subsidiary legal matters but noi fully qualified as a lawyer).
19.* Form adjectives from the italicized words given in brackets by means ol
attaching appropriate suffixes to them. Analyze the valency ol ihc adjective-
forming affixes in terms of the bases they are attached to.
M o d с t. The time seemed to stretch out in a (dream .) manner
L*Z The adjective-forming suffix -tike is attached to the nominal base dream-
to form the adjective dreamlike
1. She smiled a slightly {ironic...) smile. 2 He felt very (protect...)
towards her and loved her dearly 3 The newspapers printed a shocking
and (sh a m e...) story. 4. She slept on a (collapse...) bed with rough.
\p rickle...) sheets. 5. He filled the frequent silences with (com ic...)
anecdotes. 6. There were two letters from Michael, warm, (hum or...), and
lull o f information. 7. Mr and Mrs Bixby lived in a (sm all...) apartment
S. His voice was cold and (dead...). 9. 1 have extra French lessons with a
(retire...) schoolmaster. 10. Judy was very (complim ent... >about my work.
II There is the danger o f an (accident...) explosion that could be caused
by a gas leak. 12. I understood that it was (permit.. ) to ask a question.
13. She thought how (fool...) h e'd been and was not angry any more.
14. It’s time you chose between the two (alternate ) lifestyles.
20.* Add appropriate suffixes to the verbal bases to form words corresponding
to the meaning of the given sentences. Analyze the valency of the verbal bases
in terms of the suffixes they can be combined with.
M о d e l : There was an story in the paper this morning (amuset
r l The verbal base amuse- is combined with the adjective-forming suffix -me
to form the adjective amusing.
86
I. He made himself... by handing round the coffee cups, (use) 2. He
felt strongly that schools did not provide the kind o f ... needed for the
development o f good leadership qualities which should be instilled from
early childhood, (encourage) 3. The photos made him look quite
(attract) 4. He explained that he would like to becom e ... in industry,
(m anage) 5. Mr Sm ith told me a lot about ... o f printing in the 15:
century, (invent) 6. Deaths caused by reckless driving are ... . (avoid)
7. Her ... on staying in the best hotel was very ... and ... . (insist, tire,
annoy I S. She is suing the company lor unfair ... . (dismiss) 9 My little
daughter has an ... friend (imagine) 10 I did not want to encounter
other ... to the post, (appoint)
Ohapter 2
3 . B A S IC C R IT E R IA O F S E M A N T IC DERIVATION
IN C O N V E R S IO N
90
4 . W O R D - C O M P O S I T I O N . T Y P E S OF MEANING
OF C O M PO U N D W O R D S
5 , C L A S S IF IC A T IO N O F C O M P O U N D W O R D S
6 . C O R R E L A T IO N A L T Y P E S O F C O M P O U N D S
Compound
Derivational
Г
The compound The structural pattern The corresponding
пенш of the compound noun free phrase
Compound
Verbal-nominal
Nominal
Derivational
Verbal-adverbial
94
Га Ы с 5
adjectives proper
a) as + A as + N a) of resemblance
Ы A + рф + N b) adverbial
Nuxn 4 N quantitative
.
compound adjectives
with/having + A + N possessive
with/having + Num -r N possessive
with + N + of ■+N possessive
T ab
nouns proper
compounds
V + рф + N agentivc
V+ N agentivc
V+ N agenlive
V+ N agentive
compounds
-- • - -....—..........—
------------------------- ------ — ---
com pound m m d s
compounds
V + Adv of result
95
The three o th e r types arc classed as compound nouns. Verbal-
nominal and nominal represent com pound nouns proper and verbal-
adverbial — derivational com pound nouns.
Tire structural-sem antic correlation o f com pound nouns with free
phrases is presented in Table 6.
/. QUESTIONS
1. What is conversion?
2. In what way is a new word formed under conversion * What does
a converted word acquire?
3. What are the main varieties o f conversion?
4. What parts o f speech are especially affected by conversion?
5. What verbs are called dcnom inal? What may the converted verb
denote if the noun from which it is formed refers to some object o f reality?
6. W hat n o u n s arc called deverbal substantives? W hat m ay the
converted noun denote if the verb from w hich it is formed refers to an
action?
7. Why have nouns and verbs become identical in form?
8. What two groups of words identical in form should be distinguished
from the diachronic point o f view?
9. What is m eant by the term ‘reconversion’?
10. What arc the basic criteria o f semantic derivation in conversion?
11. What is word-composilion?
12. What ty pes o f bases d o the ICs o f com pound w ords represent?
13. What is the difference between com pound words and polymor
phic words o f secondary derivation?
14. What com ponents does the meaning o f a com pound w ord consist
of?
15. What is meant by the structural meaning o f a com pound word?
16. What is the formation o f the lexical meaning o f com pounds based
on?
17. What classes o f com pounds can be singled out according to the
relations between the ICs that constitute them?
18. What groups d o com pound words fall into according to the part
o f speech they represent?
19. How can co m poun ds be classified according to the m eans o f
composition?
20. What classes o f com pound words can be singled out according
to the type o f bases?
21. What does correlation between the system o f free phrases and
com pound words embrace?
22. What four m ajor classes o f com pounds can be singled out on the
basis o f their correlation with free phrases?
96
23. What subgroups do adjectival-nominal com pounds comprise?
24. What structural patterns o f com pound adjectives can be singled
d u i ? W'hat sem antic relations may c o m p o u n d adjectives an d th eir
« 7J3WS
I.* D e fin e ihe part o f speech o f th e italicized word*. State what p a rts of
speech they are d e m e d from a n d what word form ation m e a n s is applied here.
Translate ihe sentences into Russian
V о d e .. Still water o f th e lake mirrors th e trees.
i f T h e w ord mirror is a verb which is derived from th e n o u n mirror by m eans
o f conversion. Н е п о д в и ж н а я п а д ь о з е р а о г р а ж а е ! деревья
1. T h a t fellow really w h a te c e r s m e. 2. S he m ad e a tw o -p a rt
docum entary about the war in Kosovo. 3. Local politicians were found
to p o cket the money o f fund-raisers. 4. This \ ideo is a m ust for everyone.
5. The story was in ail the dailies. 6. Will you h o lid a y in Switzerland?
7. He b usied himself with plans for the future. S. There is a great deal
of difference between before and after. 9. 1 asked him to m odem this
information tomorrow. 10. It was a good buy 11.1 don't like a chemistry
practical 12. His skin was w eathered almost black by his long outdoor
life 13. The path is steep and dangerous in the w et 14. 1 w o n t join your
plan There arc too many i/s and huts in it. 15. I he arm y's actions
dirtied its reputation.
2.* In th e given conversion pairs state the sem antic relations betw een the
den om ina! verb an d th e n oun it is derived from
\ l u i e l : coat to coat lo cover something with a coat'
.•£l T h e se m an tic relation betw een the w ords m aking up ih e con versio n p a n
coat — to coot is 'th e a d d itio n o f th e object".
1) b o n e — to bone ‘to remove the bones from (meat or fish) before
cooking i f ; 2) eye — to eye to watch carefully (with eyes)’: 3 1 c n u c d —
to c r o u d to come together m large num bers': 4) garage — to garage
to put or keep (a motor vehicle) in a garage': 5) n u t — to n u t ‘to gather
nuts*; 6) fo o l — to fo o t to act in a joking, frivolous, o r leasing wav';
7 ) sto n e — to stone to throw stones at' <k “to remove the stone from
(a fruit)’; 8) leather — to lea ther to cover with leather'; 9) skin — to
97
skin 'to remove the skin from (an anim al o r a fruit o r vegetable)’:
10) w o lf — to w o l f' to devour (food) greedily’: 11) la n d - to la n d to
put ashore: to com e down through the air and alight on the ground’:
12) grill — to g rill ‘to cook (something) using a grill*: 13) m ushroom —
to m ushroom ’to gather m ushroom s': 14) breakfast — to breakfast 'to
eat breakfast'.
3.* In the given conversion pairs state the semantic relations between the
dcvcrhal substantive and the verb it is derived from.
Vf» i] e I: to leak — leak a hole in a container or covering through which
contents, especially liquid or gas. may accidentally pass’
I1л
The semantic relation between the words making up the conversion pair to
teak — leak is "the place of Ihe action'
1» to flir t — f l i r t ‘a person who habitually flirts’: 2) to kn o ck
kn o ck a sudden short sound caused by a blow, especially on a door to
attract attention or gain entry ? 3) to cu t — c u t ‘damage from something
sharp': 4) to w atch — w atch a film or programme considered in terms
ol its appeal to the public? 5) to ch ea t — cheat *a person who behaves
dishonestly in order to gain an advantage? 6) to sta n d — sta n d a place
where or object on which someone o r something stands, sits, or resiv
in particular’: 7) to go — go an attem pt or trial at som ething? 8) to
like — likeis) ‘the thing(s) one likes or prefers’: 9) to tea r — rear a
h ole o r split in so m eth in g ca u sed by it having been pulled ap a rt
forcefully? 10) to w ail — w a it ‘a period o f waiting? 11) to forge Jorge
‘a blacksmith’s workshop? 12) to scold — scold ‘a woman who nags or
grumbles constantly? 13) to rea d — read ‘something o f the stated kind
to read? 14) to lift — lift a rise in price or am ount'.
4.* Analyze ihe origin of the given pairs of words. State whether ihe given
word-pairs from Ihe diachronic point of view are homonymous or they are
formed by means ol conversion
M o d e l : h a ivi — hit i n ) (OE hittan v i; hope (ni hope <v > <OE
hopa n. — hopiun v i
'.ill I he words hit <v) —hit nil form a conversion pair. 1he words hope <n) —
hope (v) are a homonymous pair.
I) sm oke i n) — sm oke (v) (OE smoca n. — smocian v ); 2) smile (v) —
smile (n) (Scan, smirk v.): 3)ux>rk (n) — u o rk (v) (OE wcore n. — wyrcan
v ): 4) note <n) — note <v ) (O F note n., noter v.): 5) dream <n) — dream
(v) (OE dream n.): 6) drink (v) — drink (n) (OE drincan v. — drinc n );
7 1 m ove (v) — m o te (n) (O F movier v.): 8) no.se (n) — nose (v) (OE nosu
n.): 9) rest (vi — rest (n) (OE restan/rrestan v. — rest/nest n ): 10) laugh
(v) - laugh in) (OE hkehhan. hhehhan v ); 11) change ( \ ) — change (n)
(O F change п.. changer v.); 12) p la ce (n) — p la ce <v) (I. platen n.):
13) a n su vr{n ) — a n s u v r is ) (OE andswaru n. andswarian v): 14) hand
(n) — h a n d (v) (OE hand/hond n.): 15) p ity (n) — p ity (v) (O F pile n.i:
98
16) hate ( \ ) — h ate (n) (OL hatian v. — hole n ); 17) praise (v) — praise
(n) (OF preisier to prize, to praise ); IS) point (n) — point (v) (O F point,
pointe n.. pointer v.); 19) ch a n ce (n) — ch a n ce (v) (O F cheance n.):
20) х о т ы ' (n) - sorrxMV (v) (OF si)rti/M>rg n — sotgian v).
5.* Apply the criterion o f derivational relations to define the derived m em b er
in th e given conversion pairs.
M o d e l : float i n. v): floatable, floater. floatation, floating
As th e derived w ords o f th e first degree o f derivation have affixes a d d e d to
the verba! base, ih c n o u n flm it is the derived member
Call (n. v). tim e (n. v ». break (n, \ ), age (n. \ ) . effect (n . v).
recover (n. v). harm <n. v), mix (n. v). sleep (n. v). wash <n. v).
6.* S tate th e difference in m e a n in g o f th e given c o m p o u n d s possessing
different distributional patterns. Find exam ples o f your ow n
X’ o; d e 1: finger-ring — ring finger
E Fh e c o m p o u n d w otd fin g er-rin g d e n o te s *a ring which is w orn o n a finger .
whereas the c o m p o u n d word ring-finger m ean s Ihe finger next to the little
finger, especially o f th e left h a n d , o n which th e wedding ring is w o rn ' The
different o rd er an d a rran g em en t o f the sa m e IC s (i.e. different distributional
pattern s) signal the difference in m eaning.
Boathouse — houseboat: play-boy — boy-play; poi-flower — flower
pot; life-boat — boat-life; board-school — school-board: dog-house —
house-dog; pot-pie — pie-po t: boy-toy — toy-hoy, p lan t-h o u se —
house-plant.
7.* D istribu te th e given c o m p o u n d words a cc o rd in g to th eir derivational
patterns into three groups: 1) c o m p o u n d s o f the n - n —* N pattern: 2 1co m p o u n d s
ot th e a * a -» A pattern. 3) c o m p o u n d s o f the n * v t —* N pattern. D efine the
generalized m eaning o f these patterns.
Mode : greenhouse. sweetmeat. lazybones. lo u -cla ss. darkroom
L*l. T he derivational pattern a n ♦ \ expresses the generalized m eaning. 1) of
p u rp o s e : g reenhouse, d a r k r o o m : 2> o f c e r ta in q u a litie s o f a n o b je c t
sw eetm eat, lazy bones, low-class
Dog-flghiing. garden-party, white-hot. sum m er-house, south-east,
peace-loving, raincoat, breath-taking, light-green, sea-front, picture-
going. suitcase, blue-black, day-train. summer-flowering, dark-purple,
textbook, tea-teaching, season-ticket, awe-inspiring. red-hot. hath-robe.
8.* C h o o s e o n e ol the c o m p o u n d words from the box to fill in the gaps in
the sen ten ces given below. G ive lexical m eanings o f these c o m p o u n d words
99
1. Today's ... forced drivers to slow down that caused an enorm ous
traffic congestion. 2. All the data then has to be ... . 3. You are getting
on my nerves. I won’t discuss this matter with such a ... as you are. 4. She
moved to London after the ... o f her marriage. 5. Fred has been working
as a ... for the last few years. 6. He has to leave the club as all its
m em bers ... him 7 H er aunt is a ... o f a big prosperous company.
S. I c a n ’t stand many ... programmes showed on TV' every day. 9. She
has a reputation as a real ... . 10. We sat in ... silence hearing the truth
at last. II. We d idn ’t know how to plant these bushes and asked a ... to
consult us. 12. We became unintentional witnesses o f a bit ... between
actors and their director.
9.* Group the given compound words according to the relations between
the ICsinto: I ) coordinative compounds; b) su b o rd in ate compounds Within
the coordinative type of compound words single out; ni reduplicative
com pounds; hi phomcally varialed rhythmic twin form»; cl additive
compound».
M o d e l : tip-top. snow-white
Ihe compound tip-top meaning 'of the very best с Ias» or quality; excellent’
is a coordinative compound formed by joining the phomcally vanated
rhythmic twin forms (group b). The compound word snow-white meaning
'very white' is a subordinative compound
W olf-dog, d uty -free, b la h -b la h 1, secretary-sten ograph er, ticky-
tacky? road-building, chi ch i? wrist-waich, dark-brown, ping-pong.
ha-ha4, a baby-sitter. Anglo-Saxon. riff-rafF, know ledge-hungry (eyes),
willy-willy'? fighter-bom ber. w eek-long, rugger-bugger . fact-filled
(report), easy-peasy*. boy-friend, war-weary (people), hush-hush? iron-
poor (blood). h o b -n o b 1", home-sick, oak-tree, hand-m ade, willy-nilly1?
world -famous.
Hah hluh ‘ used lo ret or to som ethin g w hich is boring or without m eaningful
con ten t’
• tu k y -tm ky — '(c»peuaii> o f a building or h ou sin g d evelopm ent) made o f inferior
'n a le n al ch e ap or in poor taste'
c h i-c h t — 'a tt e m p tin g »t\li»h e le g a n c e hut a c hi e vi ng on!> an m e r - e l a h o r a i c
a ffc c tc d n c ss'
4 h a -h a a ditch with a wall o n its in n e r sid e below g ro u n d level, fo rm in g a
boundary to park o r garden without interrupting the view '
nfJ-raQ 'disreputable or undesirable p e o p le '
u itiy -u tily - 'a whi r l wi nd or du»t storm '
rugger-hugger — a b o o rish , .iggre»»ivelv m ascu lin e you n g m an win» 1» d e v o icd
lo spo*i'
’ rtrv y -pcasy — (inf) 'v e r s string hi forward a n d easy (used by or a» i f by children 1
4 h u s h -h u s h — '( e s p e c i a l l y o f a n o f f i c i a l p . a n o r p r o je c t 1 hi g hl y s e c r e t o r
co n fid e n tia l'
" hub nob 'to m ix socially, especially with those ot perceived higher social status'
u iily-n i/ly - 'w hether one hkes it or n o t'
MX)
10.* Distribute the given compound words according to the part ot'speech
they represent into five groups: I ) compound nouns; 2) compound adjectives;
3) compound pronouns; 4) compound adverbs; 5) compound verbs Make a
diachronic division of the compound verbs into: a) verbs formed by means of
conversion; b) verbs formed by means of back -derivation.
XI о 4 t*!: heartfree, to postcard
f—'
Hearrfree is a compound adjective (group 3). To postcard is a compound
verb (group 5) formed bv means of conversion from the noun a postcard
(subgroup a).
N ation -w ide, everyone, elsewhere, sleeping-car. to h oneym o on,
sweet-smelling, to vacuumclean. sunbeam , anybody, to finger-print,
tim e-server, upright, housekeeping, to care-tak e. som ething, sick-
making. to nickname, maidservant, to sightsee, reddish-brown, outside,
to whitewash, nobody, to type write, dog-tired, to week-end. downhill,
broad way. to fortune-hunt. everything, to hunger-strike, knee-deep,
indoors, to merry-make.
1 1.* Classify the given compound words according to the means of
composition into three groups: 1>compounds composed without connecting
elements; 2> compounds composed with the help of vowels or consonants as
linking elements: 3) compounds composed with the help of prepositions or
conjunctions as linking elements.
V J o d e l: Oxford-educated, electro-magnetic, up-and-up
— Oxford-educated is a compound composed without connecting elements
(group 11 . Electro-magnetic is a compound composed with the help of the
linking vowel о (group 2). ip -u n d -u p is a compound composed with the
help of the conjunction and as a linking element (group 3).
M ake-and-break, saleswoman, up-to-date, heart-beat. dow n-and-
o u t. electromotive, pale-blue, tragicom ic, m atter-of-fact, day-tim e,
handiw ork, u p -a n d -c o m in g , w ind-driven, m o th er-in-law . oil-rich,
craftsmanship, spokesman, sit-at-hom e. play-acting, good-for-nothing.
Anglo-Saxon, blacklist, bridesmaid, on e-to -o n e. water-mark. step-by-
step. politico-military, sunflower, Anglo-Catholic, door-handle, out-of-
town.
12.* Group the given compound words in accordance with the type of their
bases into; 1>compounds proper; 2) derivational compounds. Give derivational
patterns that will help you to distribute the derivational compounds into: a) those
formed by means of suffixation: b) those formed by means of conversion
X! о «1r It sky-blue, a show -off
fл
Sky-blue is a compound proper (group 1). A shou -o ff is a derivational
compound (group 2). Its derivational pattern is | \ advi + conversion
(subgroup b).
Heavv-hcartcd. low-born, a buyout, a peace maker, a scatterbrain,
pea-souper, thoroughgoing, to blackball, a businesswom an, an old-
101
timer, a side-track, to keyboard, ill-mannered, awestruck, a baby-sitter,
a low-brow, bluish-black, a go-getter, a looking-glass, a getaway, a type
w rite r. o n e - e y e d , a m ill-o w n e r. to b lu e - p e n c i l, h o m e - m a d e ,
a sportsman, a teenager, stone-deaf, a castaway, a videodisc.
13.* State the structural-semantic correlation between the given compound
adjectives and corresponding free phrases following the scheme that consists in
defining: I ) the structural pattern of a compound adjective; 2) the corresponding
free phrase; 3) the structural type of the corresponding free phrase: 4) the
semantic relations between a compound adjective and its corresponding tree
phrase
XI ?>d e l: home-made
l l n + v-tl
2) “made at home'
3) V„, - рф + N
4) semantic relations of place
Summer-flowering, noteworthy, black-haired, blood-red. awestruck,
k in d -h e a rte d , seven-year (p lan ), safety-tested, pitch-black, three-
coloured, sea-going, m an-m ade.
14 .* State the structural-semantic correlation between the given compound
nouns and corresponding free phrases following the scheme that consists in
defining: I) ihc type of a compound noun; 2) the structural pattern of a
compound noun: 3 ) the corresponding free phrase; 4) the structural type of the
corresponding free phrase; 5) semantic relations between a compound noun
and its corresponding free phrase.
M odel: maidseriHint:
!) a nominal compound
2 1 n: + n i
3) the servant is a maid'
4) N; * is + N.
5) oppositional relations
Make-up. door-handle, bottle-opener, getaway, pencil-case, shop-
owner, teach-in. office-m anagem ent, country-club, setback, m atch-
breakcr. football-playing, windmill, go-between, woman-doctor.
ETYMOLOGY
OF THE ENGLISH WORD-STOCK
1. O R IG IN ОГ E N G L IS H W O R D S
1 . 1 . W o r d s o f N a t iv e O rig in
1.2. 3o r:o .v e d W o r d s
2 . ASSIMILATION OF BORROWINGS
Borrow injp> proper arc words taken over from anoiher language and modified
in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according lo ihe standards of the
English language.
106
Completely assimilated words are found in all the layers ot older
borrowings, e.g. cheese (the word of the first layer o f Latin borrowings).
h u sb a n d (S cand). fa c e ( Fr>. a n im a l (the Latin word borrowed during
the revival o f learning).
It is im portant to m ention that a loan word never brings into the
re ceiv in g la n g u ag e th e w h o le o f its s e m a n tic s t r u c t u r e if it is
polysemantic in the original language. And even the borrowed variants
may change and becom e specialized in the new system. For example,
the w ord sp o rt had a m u ch w ider sco p e in O ld F ren c h d en o tin g
pleasures, making merry and entertainm ents in general. Being borrowed
into Middle English in this character it gradually acquired the meaning
o f outdoor games and exercise.
2. Partially assim ilated borrowed words may he subdivided
depending on the aspect that remains unaltered into.
a) borrow ings not completely assimilated graphically. These are. for
instance, words borrowed from French in which the final consonant is
not pronounced: ballet, buffet. Some may keep a diacritic mark: cafe,
cliche. Specifically French digraphs {ch. q u . ott. etc.) may be retained
in spelling: bouquet, b ritxh e:
b) borrowings not completely assimilated phonetically. For example,
som e o f French borrow ings keep the accen t on the final syllable:
m a c h in e , cartoon, police. Others, alongside the peculiarities in stress,
contain sounds o r com binations o f sounds that are not standard for the
English language an d d o not o ccu r in the native words, e.g . |з| —
bourgeois, prestige, regime:
c) borrowings not assimilated grammatically. For example, nouns
borrowed from l atin o r G reek have kept their original plural forms:
crisis :: crises, p h en o m en o n :: p hen o m en a . Some o f these also have
English plural forms, but in that case there may be a difference in lexical
meaning, as in indices r a n alphabetical list of names, subjects, etc. at
the back o f a book, w ith the numbers o f the pages where they can be
found ) :: indexes ( ‘a standard by which the level o f something can be
judged or measured ):
d) borrowings not assimilated semantically because they denote objects
and notions peculiar to the country from which they come. They may
denote foreign clothing (e.g. sari, som brero); foreign titles and professions
(e.g. sh a h , rajah, toreador); foreign vehicles (e.g. rickshaw (Chinese));
foreign food and drinks (e.g. pilau (Persian), sherbet (Arabian)); etc.
3. L nassimilated borrowings or barbarisms'. This group includes
words from other languages used by English people in conversation o r in
writing but not assimilated in any way. and for which there are correspond
ing English equivalents, e.g. the Italian a d d io , ciao — 'good-bye*.
The third group i*. пей universal!) accepted, as u mav be argued that words not
changed at all cannot form a part o! the Fnglish vocabulary as they occur in speech
only, bill do not enter the language.
107
ITie changes a borrowed word has had to undergo depending on the
date o f its penetration are the main cause for the existence o f the so-
called etymological doublets. Etymological doublets are two o r more
words originating from the same etymological source, but differing in
phonetic shape and meaning. For example, the words w hole (originally
meant healthy? 'free from disease’) and h a le both com e from OE h a t:
one by the normal development o f OE a into d. the other from a northern
dialect in which this modification did not take place. Only the latter has
survived in its original meaning.
3 . IN FLU EN CE С - B O R R O W IN G S
The role o f borrowings was so great that they exerted much influence
on the development o f English and brought about different changes or
innovations practically on all the levels o f the language system. Borrowed
words have influenced: I ) the phonetic structure o f English words and
th e soun d system: 2) the w o rd -stru c tu re a n d th e system o f word-
building: 3) the sem antic stru ctu re o f English words: 4) the lexical
territorial divergence.
1. The influence o f borrowings on the phonetic structure o f
English words and the sound system resulted in:
1) the appearance o f a num ber o f words o f new phonetic structure
with strange sounds or familiar sounds in unusual positions, e.g. u a t(z.
p syc h o lo g y , so u ffle. The initial |p s |. |p n |. |p t | are used in English
alongside the forms without the initial sound |pj;
2) the appearance o f a new diphthong |oiJ w hich came into English
together with such French words as p o in t, jo in t, poise.
3) the reappearance o f the initial [sk] mostly due to Scandinavian
borrowings:
4) the development o f the Old English variant phonem es |f| and jv)
into different phonemes: jv | came to be used initially [vain, valley) and
[!] in the intervocal position (effect. affair):
5) the appearance o f the affricate |d>j at the beginning o f words? e.g.
ju n g le, jo u rn e y , gesture.
2. The influence o f borrowings on the word-structure and the
system of word-building resulted in:
I) the appearance o f a num ber o f new structural types in which some
highly-productive borrow ed affixes (e.g. r e - , in te r -, -er. -ism ) can
combine with native and borrowed bases. O ther borrowed affixes, not
so productive (e.g. с о -, d e - . -a n t. -ic). com bine only with Latinate
bases, i.e. bases o f Latin. G reek o r French origin, e.g. in fo r m -a n t
In the Middle E n g lis h period th e affricate |ф| *as found ai fhc end or in the
m iddle of words, с g bridge О Г brieу. singe —OE sencytran
108
(in fo rm - < Old French < Latin), d efen d a n t (d e fe n d - < Old French <
Latin);
2) the ousting o f native affixes by borrowed ones. e.g. the prefix pre-
has replaced the native prefix fo re - which was highly-productive in
Middle and Early New English;
3) the appearance o f a great num ber o f words with b o u n d m o r
phemes. e.g. tolerate. tolerable, tolerance, toleration;
4) the change o f the very nature ol word clusters which now unite
not only words o f the root-m orphem es, but o f different synonymous
root-m orphemes, e.g. spring — vern a l; sea — m a ritim e
3. The influence o f borrowings on the sem antic structure of
English words resulted in;
1) the differentiation o f borrowed words and synonym ous native
words in meaning and use. cf.; fe e d (native) — nourish (L);
2) the narrow ing o f meaning o f native words due to the diff erentiation
o f synonyms. For instance, the word stool o f native origin in Old English
denoted any article o f furniture designed for sitting on'. U nder the
influence o f Ihc French borrow ing c h a ir the word stool cam e to be used
as the name for only one kind o f furniture, i.e. ‘a seat that has three or
four legs, but no back or arm s’:
3) the extension o f meaning o f native English words or the acquisition
o f additional o r new meanings, e.g. the political meanings o f shock and
deviation have come from the Russian уд а р н ы й and у к. ю н.
4 The influence o f borrowings on the lexical territorial
divergence resulted in:
1) the intensification o f the difference between the word-stock o f the
literary national language and dialects owing to the borrowing o f words
into the literary national language which arc not found in the dialects,
and vice versa:
2) the enlargement of ihc word-stock o f different dialects and national
variants o f English in the l.’K. For example. Irish English has the following
words o f Celtic origin: sh a m ro ck — т р и л и с т н и к . d u n — х о л м ,
colleen — девуш ка, etc. In the Northern and Eastern dialects there are
many Scandinavian borrowings, e.g. busk — gel ready "; т ип — ‘mouth';
3) the acquisition bv literary national words o f a status o f dialectal
words, e.g. h ea l скры ват ь, покры ват ь (OF helan).
О d t S i i О ‘J S AN О •A S K S
i. j l i f s F.'UiVS
II. TASKS
I.* Subdivide the following words ol native origin into 1) word» of Indo-
European origin: 2) words of Common Germanic origin; English words
proper. In case of difficulty consult the Concise Oxford Dictionary o f English
Etymology.
M o d e i tell, sheriff , и hot
The name Fngli»h word tell i» ol Common Germanic origin (group 2>. 1he
name English word sheriff'belongs to the English words proper (group 5i
I he native English word и hat I» of Itido-Luropean origin (group 11
110
Woman, blast ( “gust o f wind or a i r ) , sister, glove, lady, tooth, always,
slow, green, know, daisy, sand. long, grass, flood, boy. seven, high. eat.
sheriff, widow, answer, life. lip. call, swine, small, bird. co m . silver, ten.
day. lord. ship. we. bench, sun. girl.
2. Analyze the original meanings ol the given native words of ihe English
language. State: ai the lexical and grammatical \alency of these words: hi ihe
semantic development of these words
\ f о d e 1. foot (n) • OF fin pan of the leg beyond the ankle'
0 a) the lexical as well as grammatical valency of the wordJoot (feet pi 11» very
high. The word can be used in different sentence patterns in various
meanings, e.g.: He stepped on и nut/, and his Joot is eery sore. Mary slid
her feel info her sandals She paused at the foot o f the stairs. There u as
an error message at the foot o f the page. -1young officer at the foot of the
table objected to the plan.
hi the word foot (feet pl.t lias extended its semantic structure by acquiring
new meanings and is now a polysemantic word: 'the pan ofn sock or stocking
that covers the toot', 'particular manner of walking; »iep? 'the bottom pan
or tower end', a device on a sew ing machine for holding the material steady
as it is sewn'. *a unit of leaner measure equal to 12 inches’, 'a division of a
line in poetry, in which there is usually a strong heat and one or two weaker
ones'.
I ) fa th er (n i < ОГ. f x d e r a male parent o f a child or anim al': 2) sing
(v ) < ОГ singan utter with musical inflexions of the voice': 3) lord {nl
< OE hla ford bread-keeper? 4) high (adj) < OE he ah “ofgrc.it vertical
extent’: 5) m a k e (v) < OE m acian ‘bring into existence, subject to an
operation? 6) book (n) < Of. Ык 'beech' (on which runes were carved);
7 ) silly (adj) < OE s x i i j deserving o f pity or sympathy? 8) s ta n d (v ><
ОГ. s ta n d a n assum e or m aintain an erect position on the feet, be
upright? 9) fj/r/(adj) < OE ea ld (aid) grown-up. adult? 10) h ea d (n>
• OE h ea fo d anterior (in man. upper) part o f the body, containing the
m outh, sense organs, and brain*.
3.* Give derivatives of ihe following word» of name origin in ease of
difficulty consult a dictionary.
\ I <*d e I: heat
The word hear has ihe following derivatives: to heat, heater, heated,
heatedly, heating, heatstroke, heatproof. heat-lightning
Lord. hat. red. grass, to feed, quick, stone, to feel, heavy, to look.
4 . * Write o u t phraseological unils formed with ihe help ol the italicized
words which arc of native ongin. Slate what these phraseological units denote
Translate the sentences into Russian
M o d e l : I am completely at one with Michael on this issue.
• Theph raseologic.il unit at one with smb. denotes in agreement or harmony
Я полностью согласен с Майклом н »гом вопросе.
1. Г т sure I can finish ihe article — I jusi need lo gel my h e a d
dow n Ihis afternoon. 2. I ’m afraid Lisa's family do not sta n d a chance.
1 doubt if their advisers w ill let them take it to court. 3. You know Jack.
He c a n 't help chatting up any pretty girl he meets. It d o e sn 't m ean
a thing, but if you d o n 't like it why not show him it s a gam e that
tw o can play. 4. T he sm a ll fry are soon going to be pushed out of
business by all these m ultinationals. 5. T he organization that looked
so solid an d d ep en d ab le tu rn e d out to be a h o u se o f cards. 6. It
really knocked me for s ix when my ex-boyfriend an n o u n ced he was
getting m arried. 7. M alcolm , w ho is a quiet but d eterm ined young
rider, has now m a d e his m ark on the international show jumping
front. 8. I swept the floor and polished the table, an d then, for .cooz/
measure. 1 cleaned the windows. 9. He was very m uch the blue-eyed
hoy in the office. 10. She criticized m em bers o f the com m ittee for
siltin g on the fence and failing to make a useful contribution to the
debate. II. T he legal difference between negligence an d recklessness
is a bit o f a g rey area. 12. If the insurance com pany won t pay for
the dam age. Г 11 be up a tree.
5.* State whether the given words were borrowed into the Fnglish language
directly or indirectly, i. e. through another language Define the source and origin
of Ihc given borrowed words
M о <1e I: sphinx < MF •' L < Gr Sphigx
0 The word sphinx was borrowed into the English language indirectly, i e
ihrough another language Ihc -source of borrowing is Laiin. whereas the
ongin of borrow ing is Greek.
I ) obelisk < L obeliscus < G r obelfskos: 2) please iv ) < MF plaisc.
plese < O F plaisir < I placcre; 3) easy < ME < O F aisfe: 4) character
< ME caracter < O F caractere < L character < G r kharaktcr: 5) p o o r <*
ME povere. pore O F povre < L pauper: 6) a ve rse '' L aversus:
7) c lim a te < (O )F clim at or I cITma. c lim at < G r klim a. klimat;
8 1 m ania < ME < L mania < G r mania, 9) hurricane < Sp huracan;
10) risk < F risque < It risco: 111 fa te < It fato < L latum: 12) d a m e <
(O )F dam ner < !. dam nare; 13) obese < I. obesus: 14) ten d er < O F
tender < L tener: 15) g nosis < G r gnosis; 16) alarm < ME < OF alarme
<■ It allarme.
6.* Write down in the space provided a letter, which indicates the language
from which the given words were borrowed In case of difficulty consult the
Concise Oxford Dictionary o f English Etymology
a Celtic с — Scandinavian e Greek g — Spanish i - German
b Latin d — French f Russian h - Italian
M o d e l : muzhik f
tobacoo ... g
s tr o ll. . . i
112
cup ... criterion ... wall ...
to cast ... armada eponvm ...
anemia ... Exe ... Kilbride .
samovar ... cosmonaut guerilla ...
Avon ... anger ... poodle ...
kindergarten ... motto lieutenant ...
banana ... power ... tornado ...
law ... candle ... the Downs ...
government ... mosquito kvass ...
violin ... waltz ... bandit ...
halt ... hormone ... interior ...
fellow ... plant ... restaurant ...
London ... verst ... tundra ...
promenade ... to take ... gondola ...
umbrella ... nickel ... anamnesis ...
7.* Identify the period of borrowing of the French, Greek. Russian and
German words given in task 6.
M o d e l : muzhik, stroll
E The word muzhik was borrowed from Russian in the 1" century. The word
stroll was borrowed from German in the century.
8.* Match the translation borrowings on the left with the original phrases
words on the right. State the origin of ihc latter
M o d e l : / / — h i Latin)
1. the moment o f truth a I infra dignitatem
2. word-combi nation Ы W'underkind
3. below o n e ’s dignity c ) попутчик
4. first dancer d ) el m o m c n t o d e la verdad
5. that goes without saying e) circulus vitiosus
6. fellow-traveller 0 колхоз
wonder child g) с л о в о с о ч е т а н и е
S. vicious circle h I su b ju d ic e
9. famous case i) cela va s a n s dire
10. collective farm j l ca u se celebre
11. u n d e r consideration k) prim a-b allerin a
M n h a ra n i. p e re s tro ik a , s h e ik h , b a g el, s h a m a n , a lc a z a r, s p a h i.
h i b a k u s h a . t z a tz i k i. S o y u z . t o r e r o , y i n . t z i g a n e . b a g h . s h i a ts u . s h a p k a .
1 6 .* Translate or give the Fngh*h equivalents to th e unassim tlaied words
w ord -com bin alions (or barbarism s) given in task 11. Stale the origin of these
words C onsult the Concise Oxford D ictionary o f English Etym ology
M o d e l : a p ie he
W. T he Fngiish cquivaient to the borrow ing a jjiche is p lacard I h c origin of
afficfw is the Italian language.
17.* In the given sentences find etym ological doublets Slate their origin
M o d e I: 1 -.pent the afternoon reading u n d e r the shade o f an umbrella
T he trees cast long, scary shadow s in the evening light.
1. W e tr ie d t o c a l m h e r. b u t s h e just s c r e e c h e d m o r e lo u d ly . 2. T h e
a u d i e n c e s h r ie k e d w ith la u g h t e r 3. Fie a lw a y s s ta y s in t h e b e s t hotel**
4. H e s p e n t a w e e k in h o s p i t a l w ith l o o d p o i s o n i n g 5. F o r b i r th ra te s
in t h e 1990s. see t h e c h a n o n p a g e 2 4 7. b. S h e s e n t m e a lovely c a r d o n
my b ir th d a y . “ 1 h e E d i t o r re s e rv e s t h e rig h t to a b r i d g e r e a d e r s le tte rs
5. I h is b o o k is a n a b b r e v i a t e d v e r s i o n o f t h e e a r l i e r w o r k . 9. T h i s is
a d v ic e l o r t h o s e w h o w ish lo save g r e a t so rro w a n d tra v a il. 10. I h a v e a
j o b w h i c h in v o lv e s q u i t e a lot o f travel. 11. A n n e s ta y e d c lo s e e n o u g h to
c a tc h t h e c h ild if h e fell 12. T h e b a n d have o fte n b e e n c h a s e d d o w n th e
s tre e t by e n th u s ia s tic Ian s 13. 1 d i d n 't kn ow t h a t h is g r a n d f a t h e r w as a
c h ie f ta in o f t h e c la n . 14. S h e w a s c a p t a i n o f t h e O l y m p ic s w im m in g t e a m
1 8 .’ Write out trorn the given extract words borrow ed from: 1> L3tin. 2) Old
French French: Vi Old N orse Scandinavian. 4 | Spanish o r Italian C o m m en t
o n th e peculiarities o f their phonetic structure a n d w ord -stru ctu re. Speak on
the influence ot borrowing*, from the language-* m question o n the sou nd system
a n d the system of word building o f the English language
I n 1 922 w h e n A n s o n w e n t a b r o a d w i t h t h e j u n i o r p a r t n e r t o
in v e s tig a te s o m e L o n d o n lo a n s , t h e j o u r n e y i n t i m a t e d t h a t h e w a s t o be
t a k e n in to t h e f ir m H e w a s t w e n t y - s e v e n n o w . a little heavy w i t h o u t
b e in g d e fin ite ly s t o u t , a n d w ith a m a n n e r o l d e r t h a n h is y e a r s O ld
p e o p l e a n d y o u n g p e o p le liked h i m a n d i r u s t e d h i m . a n d m o t h e r s felt
safe when their daughters were in his charge, for he had a wav. when he
came into a room , o f putting himself o n a footing with the oldest and
most conservative people there. "You and 1," he seemed lo say. “we're
solid. We understand."
H e had a n instinctive an d ra th e r ch a rita b le know ledge o f the
weaknesses o f men and women, and. like a priest, it made him the more
concerned for the maintenance o f outward forms. It was typical o f him
that every Sunday morning he taught in a fashionable Episcopal Sunday-
school - even though a cold shower and a quick change into a cutaway
coat were all that separated him from the wild night before.
(from Ih e Rich Boy. C h . V by F.S. Fitzgerald»
19.* State th e source o f borrow ing o f affixes a n d bases o f the following words
M o d e l; copilot
ic Hie prefix со- is l.atin; th e base pilot is French.
1Г
T h e i n f l u e n c e o f V ik in g l a n g u a g e o n t h e re g io n a l s p e e c h v a rie tie s
o f n o r t h e r n a n d e a s t e r n E n g la n d is w e ll d o c u m e n t e d . It is n o t su rp risin g ,
t h e re f o re , th a t n u m e r o u s 'V ik in g le x ica l ite m s a r e t o h e f o u n d in th e
tr a d itio n a l d i a l e c t s o f p l a c e s s u c h a s , io r in s ta n c e , Y o rk sh ire .
Y ork h a s fo r m a n y c e n t u r i e s b e e n a n i m p o r t a n t p l a c e in t h e h isto ry
a n d g e o g r a p h y o f E ng land - R o m a n s , A n g le s, V ik in g s a n d N o r m a n s all
u s e d Y ork a s a c a p ita l to r g o v e r n i n g a n d k e e p i n g military' c o n tr o l o v e r
a la rg e p a r t o f n o r t h e r n E n g la n d . It a l s o w a s a n i m p o r t a n t r e l i g io u s
c en tre.
Eoforvxic1 Tell to S c a n d in a v ia n i n v a d e r s in A D 8 6 6 . T h e v e te r a n s of
t h e V ik in g G r e a t A rm y s e t tl e d , “ p r o c e e d e d t o p l o u g h a n d s u p p o r t
t h e m s e lv e s " , a n d m ix e d w ith t h e lo cal p o p u l a t i o n t h r o u g h m a rr ia g e . T he
V ik in g s , l ik e t h e R o m a n s a n d A n g le s b e f o r e t h e m , a p p r e c i a t e d t h e
i m p o r t a n c e o f j o r v ic 's lo c a tio n for c o n tr o l o f t h e r e g io n . It b e c a m e t h e
c a p i ta l o f a V ik in g k i n g d o m w i t h in t h e D a n e la w * , a k i n g d o m w h i c h
m o r e o r less e x t e n d e d o v e r w h a t b e c a m e k n o w n a s Y o rk sh ire ( M a p I ).
T h e V ik ing s s p o k e O l d N o r s e w h i c h , like O l d E nglish s p o k e n b y th e
A n g lo -S a x o n s, h a d a G e r m a n i c o r ig in . A tew h u n d r e d y e a r s b e f o r e th e
V ik in g A g e, t h e t w o l a n g u a g e s m u s t h a v e b e e n very sim ila r, p r o b a b ly
d i a l e c t s o f t h e « m e l a n g u a g e . By t h e V ik in g A g e th e y h a d d e v e l o p e d
in to t w o d is tin c t l a n g u a g e s , t h o u g h still sim ila r in m a n y w a y s .
In t h e D a n e l a w , w h e r e t h e V ik in g s s e ttle d a n d s ta rte d t o m e r g e w ith
t h e E n g lish , t h e r e h a d t o q u ic k ly d e v e l o p a fo rm o f l a n g u a g e w h i c h
e v e ry o n e c o u ld s p e a k a n d u n d e rs ta n d , so th a t p e o p le c o u ld
c o m m u n i c a t e w ith e a c h o t h e r e a s ily in m a tte r s o f w o r k , t h e h o m e , tr a d e
a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . If, fo r i n s t a n c e , a n O l d N o r s e s p e a k e r w i s h e d to
d i s c u s s t h e s a l e o f a h o r s e w ith a n O l d E n g lish s p e a k e r , t h e y w o u l d
1 E b o r a c u m — E o f o r w k : — J o r v k — Y o r k T o i h c R o m a n i it w as F h o r a e u m
It is s a id I h a t th is n a m e c o m e s f r o m t h e C e ltic p e r s o n a l n a m e . E h u ro s . f o r a l m o s t lo u r
h u n d r e d y e a rs t h e R o m a n s ke p t a s tr o n g m ilita ry p r e s e n c e in F h o r a e u m . l o h e ld c o n tr o l
o \ c r t h e Celtic* B ritish t r ib e s a n d t o p r o v id e r e i n f o r c e m e n t s for H a d r i a n s W alt t o t h e
n o r t h T h e R o m a n s b u i l t t h e f i r s t s t o n e w a l ls a r o u n d F b n r a c u m . s o it c o u l d b e
defended.
W h e n t h e a r e a w a s in v a d e d a n d s e ttle d by t h e A n g le s, f r o m t h e 5 th c e n tu r y o n w a r d s ,
it is s a id th a t they m i s t o o k **cbor“ fo r " e o f o r " . w h ic h in O l d E n g lis h m e a n t “ w ild b o a r "
T o t h i s th ey a d d e d t h e O l d E n g lis h " w i c " , g iving t h e n a m e E o f o rw ic . Eofitmic b e c a m e
t h e c a p i t a l o f i h c A n g iia n k in g s o f N o r t h u m b r i a a n d . w h e n t h e A n g l o - S a x o n s w e re
e v c n iu a lly c o n v e r t e d t o C h r i s t i a n i ty , it a ls o b e c a m e a c e n t e r for t h e new religion
T h e city tell t o S c a n d i n a v i a n in v a d e r s in A D X66 T h e first p a r t o f t h e n a m e wa*
s im p l if ie d t o " jo r ~ . p e r h a p s a resu lt o f t h e O l d E n g lis h a n d S c a n d i n a v i a n lan g u a g e *
b e in g c o m b in e d T h e O ld E n g lish " w ic " b e c a m e th e S c a n d in a v ia n ”v ik “ a n d th e
s e tt le m e n t s new n a m e . J o r v i k . e m e r g e d .
: F ive s e t t l e m e n t s b e c a m e p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o n a n t a l t e r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f T h e
D a n e la w w h e n th e y b e c a m e fo rtifie d " b o r o u g h s " to h e lp d e f e n d ag ain st E n g lish
r e c o n q u e s l T h e s e w e r e L i n c o l n , N o t t i n g h a m . S t a m f o r d . L e ic e s te r a n d ( t h e o n l y o n e
r e n a m e d by t h e V ik in g s) D e rb y T h e s e h a v e b e c o m e k n o w n c o lle c tiv e ly a s T h e Five
B o r o u g h s ' o f t h e D a n e la w
1IX
ixjth u n d e r s t a n d th a t a h o r s e s a le w a s in v o lv e d bec a u s e t h e l a n g u a g e s
w e r e s im ila r e n o u g h to r th is. But b e c a u s e O l d N o r s e a n d O l d E nglish
h a d d iffe re n t ru le s o f g r a m m a r , it c o u l d le a d to c o n f u s i o n b e t w e e n it
b e i n g o n e h o r s e , o r m o r e t h a n o n e h o r s e , th a t w a s fo r sale.
V ik in g s affec te d t h e l a n g u a g e > p o k e n t h r o u g h o u t E n g la n d , b u t in th e
D a n e l a w t h e e ffe c t w a s m u c h m o r e p o w e r f u l , g o i n g b e y o n d l o a n
w o r d s t o t h e c r e a t i o n o f n e w A n g l o N o r s e d ia le c ts w h i c h w e r e , in m a n v
w a y s , m o r e S c a n d i n a v i a n t h a n E n g li s h . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l ' d i a l e c t s ,
a m o n g s t o th e r s , o f Y o rk sh ire . L a n c a s h ire , T h e L ake D istric t a n d
L in c o ln s h ire e m e r g e d fro m th is p r o c e s s .
In Y o rk s h ire , t h e V ikin g ru le rs d i v i d e d t h e c o u n t y in to t h r e e s e p a r a t e
u n its f o r e a s e o t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . T h e O l d N o r s e w o r d fo r a t h ir d o f
s o m e t h i n g ' U hrilhjungn b e c a m e m o d if i e d to r i d i n g ’, g iv in g rise to th e
E ast R i d i n g , N o r t h R i d i n g a n d W e s t R i d i n g o f Y o r k s h i r e . T h e s e
a d m in is tr a tiv e R idings e x is te d right fro m t h e V ik ing a g e u n til 1 9 7 4 , w h e n
th e y w e r e d i s m a n t l e d b y t h e UK B o u n d a r y C o m m i s s i o n . S in c e 1 9 7 4 ,
Y o rk s h ire p e o p le c o n s c i o u s o f th e ir h e rita g e h a s p r e s s e d for th e
r e s to r a tio n o f t h e a n c ie n t V ik in g R id in g s, At t h e s u b - s h ir e c o u n t y level,
t h e V ik in g a d m in is tr a tiv e u n i t w a s t h e vapnatak . w h i c h is e x p r e s s e d
'w a p e n ta k e to d a y . T h e t e r m s u g g e s te d t h e f r e e m e n v o t e b y a sh o w
119
ot weapons, which w ere then counted at the periodic meetings ot the
wapentake (a kind of local parliament and court). The wapentakes still
exist today tor certain administrative purposes and they can be found
marked on local maps.
Yorkshire
O l d N o r s e
dialeci.il G e n e r a l l y a c c e p i e d m e a n i n g
s o u r c e w o r d
w o r d s
5. m e n s e tja r n h o rs e o f in fe rio r b re e d
*-----*---
6. beck jald a lake o r p o n d (especially in a n u p la n d lo c a tio n )
7. c a rr b ja rd a s tr e a m , a b ro o k
8 nang skutill
. d e c e n c y ; n e a tn e s s , tid in e ss
f— -------
9. ta rn m ennska large b o x . c h e s t o r t r u n k
Chapter 1
1. L E X I C A L A N D G R A M M A T I C A L V A L E N C Y
3 . T Y P E S O F M E A N IN G O F W O R D - G R O U P S
4 S MOTIVATION IN W ORD-GROUPS
Q U E S T I O N S A N D TASK5
/. QUESTIONS
//. TASKS
I.* Fill in the blanks in the sentences with the correct form of the italicized
words. Pay special attention to the restrictions of their collocability What
conditions these restrictions.' Give meanings of the italicized words.
а) ю mend, to repair
I. These socks need to be ... . 2. It is difficult to find anyone who
knows how ... a clock. 3 The convicts were employed in ... the highway.
4. He had been ... a tiny hole in the lining o f his leather coat. 5. Please
have this typewriter ... . 6. The gate needs to be ... so it closes properly
7. I know how ... my car myself but 1 can t do w ithout necessary tools.
8. I cl me ... your shin. 9. In those days, all the farming equipment was
made an d ... in (he village. 10. I got into conversation with the man w ho
cam e ... the roof.
b) mistake, error
I. 1 was trying to dial my m other's number but I ended up phoning
my friend by ... . 2. G oods dispatched to your branch were in .... 3. The
crash was caused by human .... 4. She made the ... o f thinking they were
im p o rtan t. 5. It s lim e you poin ted out to him the ... o f his ways
6. Children learn from their ... . 7. Mrs S m ith’s huge phone bill was the
rcsull o f a com puter — 8. The accident was caused by a(n ) ... of
judgment on the p an o f the pilot. 9. He is an odd character and n o ...
10. If we d o n 't finish the job today they won t pay us: make no
aboul it. 11. I taught myself how to cook through trial and ... .
2.* Stale m ean ing s o f the given polysem antic adjectives o n th e basis of their
lexical valency, i.e with th e help o f n o u n s they arc c o m b in ed with.
X! mil e I: sm arr \ l shirt, car. garden, officer: 2) person, child, carpenter:
3) blow, rise tall, attack: 4) restaurant, set (society )
0 A c co rd in g to its lexica! valency t h e a d je ctiv e sm a rt has th e follow ing
m eanings: 11 neat an d stylish in a p p e a ra n c e ': 2> ‘good o r quick in thinking,
clever': 3) ‘quick a n d forceful : 4) being o r used by very fashionable p e o p le '
л . л и н е й н ы е v viep
Г т и m to.io.ia.
o t к а гол о к о л о
ж д ы й 4 0 0 . 0 0 0 американ
це» учшраЮ! u i iHiie ш е й . е ь я и н н ы ч с курен ием .
12b
Russian, умирать от чсго-.i. Fnglish to die of smth.: to succumb to smth.
1. to suffocate - to choke: The dog was suffocated by smoke. I broke
the windows for us not to be suffocated by the petrol. She was choked
with sobs. He was choked with angry emotion.
2. to ride —to g o My little daughter can ride a bike. He rides a horse
perfectly I don't want to # o by train. If we#> by bus we'll be in time there.
3. to cure — to trear. T h i s m e d i c i n e w ill cure y o u o f y o u r c o u g h
N o t h i n g s e e m e d t o cure h i m o f It is n e r v o u s n e s s . I n t h i s h o s p i t a l A n n is
treated f o r h e r h e a d a c h e s w ith q u i t e a new d r u g . T h e b o y s u ere treated
f o r c u t s a n d b r u i s e s r a t h e r lo n g .
4. to blame - to accuse. The investigator blam ed the driver for
meeting with the accident He blamed her sister for her child's death I
d o n 't want to accuse hint of telling lies. She said that her employers
accused her o f theft
5. to let - to allow: I et m e h a v e a l o o k at t h a t letter. S u e d o e s n 't
let h e r k id s e a t c a n d y . W e d o n o t allow p e o p l e t o s m o k e a n y w h e r e in
t h e b u ild in g . D o n ' t allow y o u r p r o b l e m s t o d o m i n a t e y o u r life.
R u ssian : б ы т ь ч в е р е й н ы м в n e x t- I - E n g lish to b e s u re of sm th .
!. H e firm ly b e lie v e s th a t s h e is m w * < v / / o f t h e c r i m e . 2. I explained
t h e s i t u a t i o n t o t h e b a n k m a n a g e r a n d h e a r r a n g e d a l o a n 3 S e v e ra l
c h i l d r e n in t h e c la s s c a n n o t speak E n g lis h . 4 D i d t h e n e w s p a p e r s really
affect t h e o u t c o m e o f t h e e l e c t i o n " 5 R o b s o n s t r o n g ly objected t o th e
t e r m s o f t h e c o n t r a c t , b. I f ir s t encountered h i m w h e n s t u d y i n g at
C a m b r i d g e . 7 A 2 3 - y e a r - o l d w o m a n w a s f o u n d guilty o f * m u r d e r in t h e
C e n t r a l C o u r t t o d a y . S. H e r f a m i l y s t r o n g l y disapproi ed o f h e r
b e h a v i o u r 9 D o n ' t bother h i m w i t h y o u r 'c o m p l a i n t s . If) Г И stay h e re
a n d wait fo r Mi k e
6 . ’ R e a d th e p a s s a g e b e lo w . W rite o u t c o m b i n a ti o n * o t w o r d s d is tr ib u tin g
t h e m a m o n g t h e f o l l o w i n g g r o u p s . :i> p r e d i c a t i v e b» n o n - p r e d i c a t i v e In t h e
n o n - p r e d i c a t i v e g r o i p ' t n g l c o u t c o o r d i n a t e e w o r d _■ u n b m u t i o n s
12“
She was silent. Vaguely, as when you are studying a foreign language
and read a page which at first you can make nothing of. till a word o r a
sentence gives you a clue; and on a sudden a suspicion, as it were, of
the sense flashes across your troubled w its, vaguely she gained an inkling
into the working o f Walter s m ind It was like a dark and o m in ous
landscape seen by a flash o f lightning and in a m oment hidden again by
the night. She shuddered at what she saw.
(from The Painted Veil. XXVI by W S M augham )
7.* Taking into a c c o u n t th e criterio n o f distribution, from the passage given
in к ь к 6 . write ou t; I) e n d o c e n tric ; 2) cxocentric w o rd -c o m b in a tio n v What
subgroups o f e n d o ce n tric w o rd -c o m b in a tio n s can be singled out ?
M o d e l : tv study a language
И The w o rd -c o m b in a tio n to stu d y a language ь e n d o ce n tric. A ccording to its
central m em ber, i.e. the verb to study, this w o rd-co m b in atio n is verbal.
8.* Arrange the w o rd -g ro u p s according to the degree o f their m otivation,
starting wi t h th e highest
I) gay bird, beautiful bird, blackbird; 2) cold wind, cold feet, cold
war, cold hands; 3) light hand, light burden, light supper, light artillery;
4) blue funk (crpaM. blue skirt, blue stocking, blue fox; 5) big cheese,
delicious cheese, w hite cheese. Sw iss cheese; 6 1 w icked tongue, smoked
tongue, coated tongue; 7) big boy. big house, big m oney, big talk;
K) angry tone, high tone, mental tone.
Chapter 2
1 .1 . S t r u c t u r a l C r i t e r i o n
1 F o r m o r e d e r a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t 'd i v i s i b i l i t y ' o f p h r a s e o l o g i c a l u n i t s a n d
w o r d - c o m b i n a t i o n s a n d ‘in te g rity * o f w o r d s s e e A . I S m ir n ils k y . ' E n g l i s h
L e x ico lo g y ".
129
1.2. Se mantic Criterion
The sem an tic criterion is o f great help in stating the sem antic
dHTcrence/similarity between free word-groups and phraseological units,
(a), and between phraseological units and words (b).
(a) T he m ean in g in p h raseo lo g ical units is created by m utual
interaction o f elem en ts an d conveys a single co n c ep t T h e actual
m eaning o f a phraseological unit is figurative (tran sferred ) an d is
opposed to the literal meaning o f a w ord-combination from w hich it is
derived. T he transference o f the initial w ord-group can be based on
simile, m etaphor, metonymy, an d synecdoche. The degree o f tran s
ference varies and mav affect either the whole unit or only one of its
constituents, cf: to skate on thin ice — *to take risks'; the small hours —
‘the early h o u rs o f th e m orn ing '. Besides, in the form ation o f the
semantic structure of phraseological units a cultural com ponent plays a
special and very important role. It marks phraseological units as bearers
o f cultural information based on a unique experience o f the nation. For
example, the phraseological unit red tape originates in the old custom
o f G overnm ent officials and lawyers tying up (п еревязы вать) their
papers with red tape. Heads or tails com es from the old custom o f
deciding a dispute or settling which o f two possible alternatives shall be
followed by tossing a coin (heads refers to the sovereign's head on one
side o f the coin, and tails means the reverse side).
In a free phrase the sem antic correlative ties are fundam entally
different. T h e m eaning in a w ord-group is based on the com bined
meaning o f the words constituting its structure. Each element in a word-
combi nation has a m uch greater semantic independence and stands for
a separate concept, e. g. to cut bread. to cut cheese, to eat bread. Every
word in a free phrase can form additional syntactic tics with other words
outside the expression retaining its individual meaning.
(b) The semantic unity, however, makes phraseological units similar
to words. T he semantic similarity between the two is proved by the fact
that, for instance, kick the bucket whose m eaning is understoinl as a
w hole an d not related to th e m eaning o f individual words can be
replaced within context by the word to die . the phraseological unit in a
brown study — by the word gloomy.
1 .3 . Syntactic Criterion
The sy ntactic criterion reveals the close tics between single words and
phraseological units as well as free word-groups. Like words (as well as
word-combinations), phraseological units may have different syntactic
functions in the sentence, e.g. the subject (narrou’ escape, fir s t night.
baker s dozen), the predicate (to have a good m ind, to play Russian
roulette, to m ake a virtue o f necessity), an attribute (high a nd mighty,
130
qu ick on the trigger, as ugly as sin), an adverbial (in f u l l sw ing, on
seco n d thoughts. o f f th e record). In accordance with the function they
perform in the sentence phraseological units c a n be classified into:
substantive, verbal, adjectival, adverbial, intcrjectional.
Like free w o rd-group s phraseological units c a n be divided into
coordinative (e.g. the life a n d soul o f som ething, fr e e a n d ea sy, neck
a n d crop) and s u b o r d i n a t e (e.g. long in th e tooth, a big fis h in a little
p o n d , th e villain o f the piece)
Thus, the characteristic features o f phraseological units are: ready
m ade repro d u ctio n , stru ctu ral divisibility, m orphological stability,
perm anence o f lexical composition, semantic unity, sy ntactic fixity.
2. S E M A N T I C S T R U C T U R E C - P H R A S E O L O G I C A L J N t ГS
1 T h e m a c fo c o m p o n e n ia ] m o d e l o f p h ra s e o lo g ic a l m e a n in g w as w o rk e d o u t by
V N .T c liy a | J9HX. 1990. I996|
: The inner form o f a p h ra se o lo g ic a l u n it is th e m e a n in g o f its p ro to ty p e o n th e
b a s is o f w h ic h p h ra s e o lo g ic a l m e a n in g is fo rm e d i К ум ин А В К урс ф р а l e a 'i o n o i
с о в р е м е н н о г о а н г л и й с к о г о я зы ка. — 1996. С . 1?3>
131
evokes associations connected with physical strength of a person. I he
idea that broad shoulders are indicative o f a person s strength and
endurance actualizes, becomes the base for transference and forms the
follow ing m e a n in g : to be ab le to b e a r th e full weight o f o n e 's
responsibilities'.
4. Em otive m acrocom ponent that is the co nten ts o f subjective
modality expressing feeling-relation to what is denoted by a phraseo
logical unit within the range o f approval/disapproval, e.g. a leading
light in som ething — *a person who is important in a particular group'
(spoken with approval), to lea d a e a t a n d dog life — used to describe
a husband and wife who quarrel furiously with each other most of the
tim e ' (spoken with disapproval). Em otiveness is also the result o f
interpretation o f the imaginary base (образное основание) in a cultural
aspect.
5. S tylistic m a c r o c o m p o n e n t that points to the communicative
register in which a phraseological unit is used and to the social-role
relationships between the participants o f com m unication, e.g. sick a t
h ea rt — ‘very sad’ (formal), b e sick to dea th - ‘to be angry and bored
because so m e th in g u n p le a sa n t has been h a p p e n in g for to o lo n g '
(informal), p a ss b y o n th e o th e r sid e — to ignore a person w ho needs
help’ (neutral).
6. Grammatical m acrocom ponent that contains the information
about all possible morphological and syntactic changes o f a phraseo
logical unit. e.g. to be in deep u a te r = to be in deep w aters: to ta ke
a w a y sm b 's breath = to ta k e sm b 's breath aw ay, A chilles' h eel = the
h e e l o f A chilles.
7. Gender m acrocom ponent1that may be expressed explicitly, i.e.
determined by the structure a n d /o r semantics o f a phraseological unit,
and in that case it points out to the class o f objects denoted by the p h ra
seological unit: m en. wom en, people (both m en and w om en). For
example, compare the phraseological units e tv r y Tom. D ick a n d Harry
meaning every o r any m an' and every Tom. D ick a n d S h eila which
denotes ‘every or any m an and woman'. G ender m acrocom ponent may
be expressed implicitly and then it denotes the initial (or historical)
reference o f a phraseological unit to the class o f objects denoted by ii
which is as a rule stipulated by the historical development, traditions,
stereotypes, cultural realia o f the given society, e.g. to w ash o n e's d irty
linen in public — ‘discuss or argue about one's personal affairs in public’.
The implicit presence o f the gender m acrocom ponent in this phraseo
logical unit is conditioned by the idea about traditional women’s work
(cf. with Russian: вы н о си т ь cop и з избы ). G ender, implicitly as well
as explicitly expressed, reveals knowledge about such cultural concepts
as masculinity and femininity that are peculiar to this or that society.
The implicit gender m acrocom ponent is defined within the range of
1 T h e g en d er m a c ro c o m p o n c n l wa* * in g k d o u t by I V .Z y k m a |2 0 0 2 . 2003)
132
three conceptual spheres: masculine, feminine, intergender. Com pare,
for instance, the implicitly expressed intergcndcr m acrocom ponent in
to fe e l like roya lty meaning ‘to feel like a m em ber o f the Royal F am i
ly. to feel majestic' and its counterparts, i.e. phraseological units with
explicitly expressed gender m acrocom ponent. to fe e l like a queen and
to fe e l like a king.
3 T Y P E S OF T R A N S F E R E N C E
C F P H R A S E O L O G IC A L U N ITS
4 C l A SSIFJC A TIC N o - p h r a s e o l o g ic a l u n it s
134
origin all phraseological units may he divided into two big groups: native
and borrowed.
The main sources o f native phraseological u n its arc:
l l term inological and professional levies, e.g. physics: c e n te r o f
gra vity (центр тяжести), specific w eight (удельный вес): navigation:
c u t the p a in ter (обрубить канат) — to become independent', lower
o n e's colours (спустить свой фла! I — to yield, to give in': military
sphere:.fa ll into line (стать в строй) - ‘conform with others':
2) British literature, e.g . th e g r c e n -e v e d m o n ste r - ‘jealousy '
(W .S h ak esp eare), lik e H a m le t w ith o u t th e p r in c e — ‘th e m ost
im portant person at event is ab sen t' (W .Shakespeare): fa ll on evil
days — ‘live in poverty after having enjoyed better times <J.Milton):
a sight fo r sore eyes — ‘a person o r thing that one is extremely pleased
or relieved to see’ (J.Swift): h o w goes th e e n e m y ? (Ch. Dickens) —
‘what is the time?*: n ever say d ie — ‘do not give up hope in a difficult
situation' (Ch. Dickens);
3) British traditions and customs, e.g. b a ker's dozen — ‘a group of
thirteen’. In the past British merchants o f bread received from bakers
thirteen loaves instead o f twelve and the thirteenth loaf was merchants
profit.
4) superstitions and legends, e.g. a black sheep — ‘a less successful
or more immoral person in a family o r a group'. People believed that a
black sheep was marked by the devil; the halcyon days a very1happy
or successful period in the past' According lo an ancient legend a halcyon
(зимородок) hatches/grows its fledglings in a nest that sails in the sea
and during this period (about two weeks) the sea is completely calm;
5) historical facts and events, personalities, e.g. as w ell be hanged
{or h u n g ) f o r a sheep a s a lam b — something that you say when you
are going to be punished for something so you decide to do something
worse because your punishment will not be any more severe'. According
to an old law a person who stole a sheep was sentenced to death by
hanging, so it was worth stealing something more because there was no
worse punishm ent: to d o a T h a tc h e r — to stay in power as prime
m inister for three consecutive term s (from (he form er Conservative
prim e minister Margaret Thatcher)':
6) p h e n o m e n a a n d facts ol everyday life. e .g . c a r r y coals to
N ew castle - ‘to take something to a place where there is plenty ol it
available' Newcastle is a town in Northern England where a lot o f coal
was produced; to get o u t o f w o o d — ‘to be saved from danger or
difficulty'
The main sources o f borrowed phraseological units are:
1) the Holy Script, e.g. th e left h a n d does n o t k n o w w h a t the right
h a n d is doing — 'com m unication in an organization is bad so that one
part does not know what is happening in an o th er p a rt': th e kiss o f
J u d a s - any display o f affection whose purpose is to conceal any act
o f treachery (Matthew XXVI: 49);
2) an cien t legends an d m yths belonging to different religious or
cultural traditions, e.g. to c u t th e G ordian k n o t — 'to deal with a
difficult problem in a strong, simple and effective wav' (from the legend
saying that G o rd iu s. king o f G o rd iu m . tied a n in tricate knot and
prophesied that whoever untied it would become the ruler o f Asia. It
was cut through with a sword by Alexander the G reat): a Procrustean
b ed — a harsh, inhum ane system into which the individual is fitted by
force, regardless o f his own needs and w ishes' (from Greek Mythology.
Procrustes - a robber who forced travelers to lie on a bed and made
them fit by stretching their limbs or cutting off the appropriate length
of leg):
3» facts and events o f the world history, e.g. to cross th e Rubicon
to d o something which will have very important results which cannot
be changed after' Julius C aesar started a war which resulted in victory
for him by crossing ihe river Rubicon in Italy; to m eet o n e's W aterloo —
"be faced with. esp. after previous success, a final defeat, a difficulty or
obstacle one cannot overcome (from the defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo
IS 15 )*:
4) variants o f the English language, e.g. a heavy hitter — ’someone
who is powerful and has achieved a lot' iA m erican): a hole card — ‘a
secret advantage that is ready to use when you need i f iA m erican): be
h o m e a n d h o s e d — *to have c o m p le te d so m eth in g successfully'
(A ustralian):
5) other languages (classical and m odem ), e.g. second to none —
‘eq u al w ith any o th e r an d b e tte r th a n m ost (from L atin: n u lli
secundus): f o r sm b ' s f a i r eyes — 'because o f personal sympathy, not
be worth o n e ’s deserts, services, for nothing' (from French: p o u r fes
beaux yettx d e qn ): th e f a ir sex — ‘wom en’ (from French: le beau se x );
let th e ca t o u t o f th e bag — reveal a secret carelessly o r by mistake-
(from G erm an: d ie K atze a u s dem S a c k lassen): tilt a t w indm ills —
to waste time trying to deal with enemies or problems that do no exist'
(from Spanish: a co m eter nw linos de viento): e v e n dog is a lion at
h o m e — 'to feel significant in the familiar surrounding' (from Italian:
ogni ca n e e leone a casa s u a )
GUES TI ONS A HO T C S K S
I QUESTIONS
1. She was n a ive when she was sixteen but other girls in the typing
pool taught her the ways of the world. 2. The girls had got on well to
gether until the rivalry in the person of a handsome young apprentice
138
appeared in their midst. 3. I u n d ersta n d you now, I think. If you mean
by 'integrity' what I would call 'consistency' then we’ve been arguing
at cross-purposes. 4. We must unite with o u r friends in Europe. 5. She
dropped upon me unexpectedly and began asking questions which I had
to answer. 6. I thought there would have been protestations and tears
when I told her I wanted to move out ol the Hat, but no. she stayed calm.
7. When his son was in Paris, the hoy ill-b e h a v e d and caused many
difficulties. 8. He got very angry when 1 suggested that he might be
mistaken. 9. After listening a few minutes to their conversation. 1 was
bew ildered. Botany is not my subject. 10. There were at least s i\ m ur
ders in that violent story. 11. Joan belongs to th e aristocracy: you can
tell by the way she walks and talks. 12. Publishers are well aware that
rum ours ol possible prosecution o f a book are likely to send the scales
up rapidly 13. All the people involved in the Com monwealth Archi
tects' competition were told to w ait — because time would be needed
to organize an exhibition in which the entries could be put o n show.
14. You should not exaggerate her attraction for m en. 15. I d o n 't like to
hear people sneering at positions and titles they'd have accepted im m e
d ia tely if they'd got the offer
4.* С lassify the phraseological units given in task 3 according to the Junction
they perform in ihc sentence
M o d t S. as green as grass
0 I he phraseological unit as green as grow is an adjectival idiom It performs
the function of the predicative in the sentence
5.* What associations does the literal reading of the given phraseological
units evoke? Analyze the link between these associations and the figurative
meaning of the phraseological units
XI о (I e I: to get wind o f — ‘to receive early warning of imminent events,
often from a confidential source’: We got wind of his resignation a week before
it was announced in the newspapers.
0 Associations evoked by ihe literal reading of the phraseological unit to get
wind o fare connected with the idea of an animal whose acute sense of smell
allows it to scent danger in the wind
1. to rain cats a n d dogs — 'to pour w ith rain, to rain very hard": We
went to Ireland hut we can hardly say we saw it. It rained cats and dogs
every single day . 2. to cast a cloud over ‘to sadden, to fill w ith gloom,
to mar one's pleasure’: The news o f her father's illness cast a cloud ш
M ary ’s honeym oon 3. to sh o w o n e 4 teeth — ‘use o n e 's power or
a u th o rity in an aggressive o r intim idating way": M atro n looked a
comfortable, motherly soul but she soon showed her teeth if any o f the
inm ates gave signs o f having m inds o f their own 4. to m e n d o n e 's
m a nners — become more civil o r refined in speech and behaviour*: 1
will implement my promise to send you twenty-five ponds, but not until
139
you w rite to me in a proper and civil strain. So mend уощ цш ппегь and
send me something remotely publishable. 5. a sitting duck — ‘someone
who is vulnerable to attack from his o r her enemies? These tourists in the
shopping center are sitting ducks for the town s professional pickpockets.
6. to catch so m eo n e re d -h a n d e d — ‘to catch som eone in the act of
committing a crime, usually a theft': Caught you red-handed! I saw you
take the money out o f the box. 7. to run to seed — *to deteriorate in one s
habits and appearance, to become shabby ? When I called on him this
morning, he was unshaven and wearing an old. strained dressing-gown.
I am afraid he has run to seed. S. diam ond cut diam ond — a contest between
two equally sharp or cunning people?' The two experts argued fiercely with
each other the whole afternoon. It was diamond cut diam ond
6.* Identify t h e evaluational and emotive macrocomponents of meaning in
the given phraseological units. I h e contexts m w h i c h phraseological units a r e
used will be of help lo you
M u d e I: ha is oJJ la somebody — something that is said to express
admiration for someone? Hals off to her —it lakcs.i lot ot courage logo travelling
on vour own at that age
Fvaluation is positive, spoken with approval
I. a cuckoo in th e nest — ‘somebody w ho shares in or takes over
privileges, tasks that belong to others': You’ve gained a lot from this deal,
but that is not fair. You arc a cuckoo in the nest. 2. to give som ebody
c a n e b la n ch e — 'to allow or authorize smb. to do. or say as he likes,
make his own arrangements, use his own initiative? They employed an
intenor decorator and gave him ca n e blanche to d o up the place as it it
were his own. 3 to hit the r o o f — ‘to lose o n e ’s temper suddenly and
violently ? If I’m late again h e ’ll hit th e r o o f 4. to show one's m ettle -
'to prove to be good at doing som ething by succeeding in a difficult
situation? A relative newcomer to the game, he's certainly showed hi»
mettle in the last two games. 5. a f i n e k e ttle o f f i s h — ‘a difficult
situation? T hat's a fine kettle o f fish — the car w on’t sum and I have
to leave in five minutes. 6. to keep up w ith the Joneses — 'to try to
own all the same things as people you know in order to seem as good as
them ? Her only concern in life was keeping up with the Joneses. 7.
lead th e f ie ld to be more successful than anyone else in business or
in an activity ? There are some areas o f medical research where Russian
scientists still lead the field. 8. a fa ir-w e a th e r frie n d — someone who
is only your friend when you are happy and successful? I had a lot ol
money and I knew a lot o f people, but most o f them turned out to be
fair-weather friends.
7.* State the communicative register of ihe given phraseological units: formal,
neutral, irifomt.il
I. to get the m essage - 'to understand what someone is trying to
tel! you even if they are noi expressing themselves directly': Okay. 1 get
140
the message — you want to be alone 2. to m a k e a virtue o f necessity —
‘to change something you must do into a positive o r useful experience’:
It's a long way to drive so I thought I'd make a virtue o f necessity and
stop o i l at some interesting places along the way. 3. a tvet h ia n ket —
'som eone who does o r says som ething that stops o th er people Irom
enjoying themselves’: I d o n ’t want to be a wet blanket, but you really
must play m ore quietly or you'll disturb the people next door. 4. the
calm before the storm — ‘a peaceful and qutel period before a period
o f activity or trouble’: The family are arriving this afternoon so I'm just
silling down with a cup o f coffee, enjoying the calm before the storm.
5. let bygones b e bygones something that you say in order to tell
som eone to forget about unpleasant things that have happened in the
past’: Why ca n ’t you pul all that had feeling behind you and let bygones
be bygones. 6. to b e a ll sm iles — *to look happy and friendly, especially
when people are not expecting you to ’: She spent the whole o f yesterday
shouting at people and yet this m orning sh e ’s all smiles. 7. to give a
buzz — 'to telephone someone': Give me a buzz when you get home.
8. to rake um brage - ‘to become upset an d angry about something
som eone has said o r d o n e ’: The minister took umbrage when colleagues
queried her budget plans.
8.* Identify the gender macrocomponent of meaning of the given
phraseological units
M о d e 1: to thmu: dou n the gauntlet (glove), masculine
A lounge lizard, to lead a eat-and-dog life, to make eyes at someone,
a gentle giant, a big wig. to tell tales, to have a roving eye. to pour out
on e's heart.
9.* Analyze the meaning and the examples of the use of the given
phraseological units and state the form of expression of gender (implicit or
explicit). In ease of the implicitly expressed gender macrocomponent identify
factors determining its status as masculine, feminine or intergender.
M o d e l : to throw d o u n the gauntlet (ghne) — ‘to challenge someone to
a contest': He threw down the gauntlet, and I think I will participate in this deal
to prove him we arc equals.
0 The gender macrocomponent is expressed implicitly. The factor determining
the gender macrocomponent as masculine is a historic fact: in medieval
times, one knight would challenge another by throwing down his gauntlet
(glove).
I. a lounge lizard — ‘a m an w ho spends a lot o f time trying to meet
rich people, especially women, in bars and at social occasions': The bar
was empty except for the lounge lizard in the comer, who was obviously
waiting for someone 2 to le a d a c a t-a n d -d o g life — to lead a life ot
frequent or constant quarrelling’: You miss a woman when sh e’s been
living with you in the same house for six years, no m atter what sort of
141
cat-and-dog life you led together. 3. to m a k e eyes a t som eone — ‘to
look at som eone in a way that clearly indicates o n e ’s interest in them ?
This party was a great disappointm ent. Ann made eves at almost every
m an. except him. 4. a gentle g ia n t — *a man w ho is very tall and strong,
but has a very quiet, gentle character that does not match his appear
ance': .As placid and amiable as he was tall, he becam e known as the
gentle giant. 5. a big wig — an important o r influential person? He
became a_big wig in the world o f politics. 6. to tell tales — ‘make know n
o r gossip about another person's secret, wrongdoings, o r faults? Jenny,
it's unfair. All we got was what we pinched out (of) the larder (кладовая)
and then you used to go and tell talcs to mother. 7. to h a ve a roving
e y e — to be always looking for a pretty face? It’s a pity. A n n e ’s
husband h av a roving eve and alway s seem to be w ith a pretty girl. If his
w ife wasn’t around, he had a roving eve. X. to p o u r o u t o n e's h ea rt —
*to confide all one's sorrows, fears, anxieties, hopes and joys to another
person': When we were alone, she poured out her heart to me about her
broken marriage.
10.* State the type of transference on which the meaning of the given
phraseological units is based.
M i» de- k in the ] lower o f one's age — the period of a person's greatest
success, popularity, activity or vigour, usually in his youth’
0 Phraseological transference is based on metaphor, i.e. on the likening of
one of the periods of a person’s life to one of the periods of plants’ life in
which their flowers develop and open. Transference is also based on
synecdoche: the period in which a person is young and vigorous is regarded
as an integral part of his whole life.
hii The phraseological unit to spill the leans means 'to give awav information.
deliberately or unintentionally It is a phraseological fusion (group I ).
I. You can t keep a secret — you sec no reason why you shouldn't
spill th e beans. 2. 'I t's hard on Robert, o f course,' N ed went on: he
was trying to ignore th e red herring and get on with the story. 3. Well,
let's admit there were mistakes on both sides: we’ll b u ry th e p a st and
try to make a fresh start. 4. He produced a huge silver case containing
what looked a t fir s t sight like small cheap cigars. 5. But other than
dining out. which I like. I'm a hom e bird. I’m not one for a big social
whirl. 6. The boy is quite impossible. From now on I u a slt m y hands
o f him 7 ‘Can 1 go with you to this party.' ‘We sh a ll only be talking
business. You wouldn't be interested.’ 8. Billy's been such a good boy.
Mrs Smith — never once got out o f bed and look his medicine like a
lam b. 9. I ran to my father, waving the magazine and shouting. 'T his is
my home, look.* Dad fairly blew his top. He told me not to be silly:
that it was a building called a temple, in a country called Egy pt and that
I had never been there. 10. To say you lead a busy life is not an answer
to whether you lake enough exercise 11 In the face o f stiff competition
from rival firms we had to fig h t f i r e w ith f i r e an d slash o u r prices.
12. The grey colour is in fa s h io n in this season. 13. Гм» been w orking
m y fin g e rs to th e bone to get the dress ready in time for the w edding.
14. I d o n ’t believe he is a man to com m it m urder. 15. 17/ be hanging
up m y btxyts next year. I think I deserve a rest after running the business
for thirty years.
12.* Analyze the meaning of the given phraseological units. Group them
into: 11 native: 2) borrowed phraseological units. State the sources of their origin.
If in doubt consult dictionaries.
M о d e I: the be-all and end-all of — ‘the main purpose of. all that matters
in the life’
bl. Tile phraseological unit the be-all and end-all o f 'is of native English origin.
as it is from W.Shakespeare’s Macbeth
I) to h a n g up o n e's boot — ‘retire*; 2) to b u ry the h a tch et — ‘to
com e to friendly o r peaceful term s with som ebody else, usually in
arguments, disagreements': 3) a sacred cote — somebody /som ething
that is greatly respected and revered, csp. by a particular nation or group,
so that attack o r criticism is not tolerated': 4) a w hipping b o y — ‘a
person who is blamed or punished for the faults o r incom petence of
others*; 5) a n ugly d u cklin g — ‘a plain, unprepossessing child b o m less
attractive than his brothers and sisters who later surpasses them , grows
into a beautiful person'; 6) o f th e sa m e lea ven /b a tch — ‘about persons
who have very much in com m on, w ho are very similar in their way o f
life, behaviour, views, etc.*; 7) the law o f th e ju n g le — self-preservation.
143
the survival o f the strongest, or more unscrupulous'; 8) a n ap p le o j
discord - (somebody or something that is) a cause o f dispute, argument
or rivalry? 9) to h id e o n e's h e a d in the s a n d — ‘willfully to close o n e ’s
eyes to danger, to refuse to face reality? 10) a blue sto ckin g — ‘an
intellectual or literary w om an? 11) the h o t seat — The position o f a
person who carries full responsibility for something, including facing
criticism o r being answerable for decisions or actions? 12) a drop in
the b u cket/o cea n — ‘something o f inconsiderable value, importance,
esp. as compared w ith something larger in total o r in kind? 13) pig in
th e m id d le — ‘a person, or a group in a helpless position between, or
made use o f by. o th ers? 14) blue blood — a person o f noble birth?
15) a blue coat — a student at a charity school? 16) to d ie u ith one s
bttots on - To die while still at work? 17) to fid d le w hile Rom e b u m s —
'behave frivolously in a situation that calls for concern or corrective
action? 18) p e n n y w ise a n d p o u n d fo o lish — ‘careful and economical
in small m atters while being wasteful o r extravagant in large o n es?
19) th e iron curta in -- the notional barrier between people, nations,
countries, etc. leading to th e political, econom ical, etc. isolation?
20) th e R u ssia n so u l — ‘a vague, unfulfilled yearning for a better,
spiritual life which would bring consolation and relief to the suffering
masses? 21) to ru n th e g a u n tlet — To submit to a punishing ordeal *.
13.* Choose the correct phraseological unit from the box to fill in the gaps
in the sentences below.
dark horse, to work like a dog, sour grapes, to lord it over. Achilles
heel, to put o n e 's cards on the table, red tape, to see somebody in
the flesh, fat cats, around the clock
I. Workers are losing their jobs while the ... who run the company
are getting richer. 2. S tuart’s getting married? H e’s a ... - 1 never even
knew he had a girlfriend. 3. He was a gifted businessman, but greed was
his ... . 4. If! criticize her book, people will think it’s just .... 5. T here’s
so much ... involved in getting a visa. 6. Doctors and nurses worked ...
to help the people injured in the train crash. 7. She thought it was time
... and tell him that she had no intention of marrying him. 8. He likes
... the m ore ju nior staff in the office. 9. I knew his face so well from the
photographs that it felt a bit strange when 1 finally . ... 10. He ... all day
to finish the wallpapering.
VARIANTS AND DIALECTS
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
1. T H E M A I N V A R I A N T S O F T H E E N G L I S H L A N G U A G E
1 . 1 . V a r i a n t s o f E n g l i s h in t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m
M ap 2
146
The uniqueness o f Scottish English can be explained by its historical
development. For almost three centuries, Scottish English has shaded
into, and compromised with, both Scots o n one side and the usage o f
England and Ireland on the other. Most people range from kinds o f
urban and rural Scots through mixed usage to kinds o f Scottish Standard
English. In ad d itio n , three sources o f tension affected greatly the
development o f Scottish English: I ) the tension between Scotland and
England: 2) the tension between Highlands and Lowlands. Scotland and
Ireland: 3) the tension between Protestants and Catholics'.
The identity o f Scottish English reflects an institutionalized social
structure, as it is most noticeable in the realms o f law. local government,
religion, and education, and raises problems o f intelligibility that have
no parallel elsewhere in Britain.
A m ong lexical p e c u lia ritie s o f S co ttish English th e following
linguistic facts are o f importance: I >some semantic fields are structured
differently in Scottish English and in British English. For example, the
term m in o r in British English is used to denote a person below the age
o f 18 years, while Scottish law distinguishes between pupils (to age 12
for girls and 14 for boys) and m inors (older children up to 18); 2) some
words used in Scottish English have equivalents in British English, e.g.
(Sc E ) extortion — (BrE) b lackm ail. 3) a great deal o f the distinctiveness
o f Scottish English derives from the influence o f o th e r languages,
especially G aelic. N orw eigean. a n d F rench. For exam p le. G aelic
borrowings include: cairn — *a pile of stones that marks the top o f a
m ountain o r some o th er special place", sporran — ‘a small furry hag
that hangs in front o f a m an s kilt as part o f traditional Scottish dress';
4) there are also many words which have the same form, but different
meanings in Scottish English and British English. For example, the word
g a te in Scottish English m eans ‘ro a d ? 5) some Scottish words and
expressions are used and understood across virtually the whole country,
e.g. d in n a e ( 'd o n 't') , u v e (‘sm all'), k irk ('ch u rch '), lassie ( girl ).
Irish English is considered the variant o f the English language used
in Ireland. It is also widely referred to as H ib ern o -E n g lish or A nglo-
Irish. A n g lo -Irish is the oldest, long associated with people o f mainly
E n glish o rig in . As a resu lt th e te rm is socially a n d historically
ambiguous, an d Irish people arc often uncomfortable with it. It does
not therefore work well as a cover term for all usage in Ireland. The
term H ib ern o -E n g lish avoids this difficulty, but runs the oth er way:
it tends to exclude Ihe .Anglo-Irish an d the descendants o f Protestant
se ttle rs . A nd Ir is h E n g lish is tra n s p a re n t a n d is unlikely to be
misinterpreted.
Therefore Irish English subsumes all the Englishes of the island, and
o th er term s stand for subvarieties. The two main politico-linguistic
divisions are S o u th ern and N o rthern. within and across which farther
147
varieties are A n g lo -Irish . H iberno-E nglish. Ulster Scots, and the usage
o f the two capitals, D ublin and Belfast.
T he Irish English vocabulary is ch aracteriz ed by th e following
distinctive features: I ) the presence o f words with the same form as in
British English but different meanings in Irish English, e.g. backw ard —
'shy’: to d ou b t — ‘to believe strongly’; b o ld — ‘naughty’: 2) the use of
m ost regionally m arked w ords by o ld er, often ru ral p eo p le, c .g .
biddable — ‘obedient’; fe a s a n t — ‘affable’; 3) the presence o f nouns
taken from Irish which often relate either to food o r the supernatural,
e.g. banshee — ‘fairy wom an' from bean sid h e : 4) the Gaelic influence
on meanings o f some words, e.g. in to destroy and drenched. These
words have th e sem antic ranges o f their G aelic equivalents m ill to
injure, spoil’ and baite ‘drenched, drowned, very’ wet*; 5) the presence
o f words typical only o f Irish English (the so-called Irishisms), e.g.
begorrah —‘by G o d ': 6) the layer o f words shared with Scottish English,
e.g. ava — ‘at а 1 Г : # т 7 — ‘cry. weep’; brae — ‘hill, sleep slope'.
Besides distinctive features in lexis Irish English has grammatical,
phonetical and spelling peculiarities o f its ow n. e.g. the use o f ‘docs be/
do b e ’ construction in the following phrase: “ They do be ta lkin g on
th e ir m o b ile s a l o t ” . In Irish E nglish th e p lu ral fo rm o f .von is
distinguished from the singular, normally by using the otherwise archaic
English word y e to denote plurality, e.g.: “ Did y e all go to see if.’” .
Outside the British Isles there are distinguished the follow ing variants
o f th e E ng lish language: A m e ric a n E n g lish . C a n a d ia n E nglish.
A ustralian English, New Z ealan d English. South African English.
Indian English and some others. Each o f these has developed a literature
o f its own. and is characterized by peculiarities in phonetics, spelling,
gram m ar and vocabulary.
A m eric an English is the variety o f the English language spoken in
the USA ( Map 3).
T he first wave o f English-speaking immigrants was settled in North
America in the 17th century’. In century, there were also speakers in
N orth A m erica o f the D u tch . F ren ch. G e rm a n , native A m erican.
Spanish. Swedish and R n n ish languages.
The vocabulary' used by American speakers, has distinctive features
o f its ow n. There are whole groups o f words w hich belong to American
vocabulary exclusively an d constitute its specific features. These words
arc called Americanisms.
T h e first g ro u p o f such w o rd s may be d e sc rib e d as h isto rical
Americanisms, e.g .f a l l ‘au tu m n ’, to guess ‘to think’, sick ‘ill. unwell*.
In American usage these words still retain their old meanings whereas
in British English their meanings have changed o r fell out o f use.
148
ИПМЛЧА
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:-**Uov
FtVA»
M ap 3
151
M ap 5
There arc also a lot o f non-M aori words that are unique to New
Zealand English, or shared with Australian English, e.g. bach *a small
holiday h o m e , o ften w ith only o n e or tw o room s a n d o f sim ple
construction'. fo o tp a th ‘pavem ent? togs 'swimming costum e’.
It is in idioms, in different m etaphoric phrases that New Zealand
English has m ade most progress o r divergence. O ften they reflect
significant differences in culture For example, the expression up the
P uhoi w ithout a p a d d le means ‘to be in difficulties without an obvious
solution’ and the phrase sticky beak is used to describe someone unduly
curious about people s affairs. The latter idiom has the same meaning
in both New Zealand and Australia, but is used with a slightly different
emphasis. In Australia sticky beak is quite pejorative, to be called sticky
beak is definitely a criticism whereas in New Zealand it is used with
more affection and usually as a tease
South .African English is the variety o f the English language used
in S outh Africa an d su rro u n d in g coun tries, notably N am ibia and
Zimbabwe (Map 5).
South African English* is not unified in its pronunciation: this car
be attributed to the fact that English is the m other tongue for only 4<> fr
,OHGO^'
КАЯАО„4к
MUMBAI
Bombay)
CHENNAI
-Maera*!
SfelLANKA
» •Cqtomtoo
Map ь
The language that Indians are taught in schools is essentially British
English and in particular, spellings follow British conventions. However,
the British left India in 1947. and therefore many phrases that the British
may consider antique are still popular in India. Official letters continue
lo include phrases like please do th e n eedful, y o u w ill be in tim a ted
shortly, and y o u r o b edient s e n a /it. In addition. Indian English mixes
in various words from Indian languages, e.g. bandh or h a rta l for strikes.
challan for a monetary receipt or a traffic ticket. Such words have been
regularly entering the Oxford English Dictionary, indeed, some (jungle,
bungalow, p y ja m a ) became mainstream generations ago.
D espite th e fact that British English is an official language ol
Government in India (as a result spoken and written English in India
has not explicitly “ forked” away from the British variant o f the English
language), there are words and expressions that can be regarded as those
used only in Indian English, c.g. crorc ten millions', sch ed u led
tribe — 'a socially/economically backward Indian tribe, given special
privileges by the government', m ohalla — ’an area o f a town or village;
a community'.
2 . S O M E P E C U L IA R IT IE S O F B R IT IS H EN G LISH
AND A M E R IC A N EN G L ISH
G eo rge B ernard Shaw said that the l.n ite d S tates an d U nited
Kingdom are “ two countries divided by a com m on language” . A similar
com m ent is ascribed lo Winston Churchill.
The American variant of the English language differs from British
English in pronunciation, some m inor features o f gram m ar, spelling
standards and vocabulary .
The American spelling is in some respects simpler than its British
c o u n te rp a rt, in o th e r respects just different. S om e o f the spelling
differences are shown in Tabic 7
Speaking about lexical differences between the two variants o f the
English language, the follow ing cases are o f importance;
1. Cases w here there are no equivalent words in one o f the variants.
For example. British English has no equivalent lo the .American word
d r iie -in ( ’a cinema or restaurant that one can visit without leaving one's
car').
2. Cases where different words are used for the same denotatum ,
e.g. sweets ( BrE) — ca n d y (AmE); reception clerk (BrE) — desk clerk
(AmE).
3. Cases where some words are used in both variants but are much
com m oner in one o f them. For example, shop and store are used in both
variants, but the former is frequent in British English and the latter —
in American English.
154
T a b le 7
catalogue catalog
dialogue dialog
- k e /- iz c realise realize
harm onise harmonize
-yse/-yze analyse analyze
oounsc/for counsc/or
modc/Лng modeling
1 encyclopaedia encyclopedia
anaemia anemia
3 . LOCAL D IA L E C T S IN G R EA T BRITAIN
I >(>
S C O T S
NORTH
NORTHERN
C E N T R A L
SOUTHERN
SOUTH
Map 7
§#-
IЛI
К I
Map 8
158
Some words in Yorkshire dialect at first sight seem to be Standard
English but they have different meanings. For example, the word real
is used in the Yorkshire dialect to describe something good o r outstand
ing, it has nothing to d o with genuineness as com pared with the m ean
ing o f this word in Standard English. It is however not only purely words
which contribute to the distinctiveness o f the Yorkshire dialect but also
the variety o f idiomatic expressions, e.g. alius a t /* la st p u sh u p — ‘al
ways at the last m om ent'; nob but a m ention — ‘just a small amount*.
D ialects are now chiefly preserved in rural com m unities, in the
speech o f elderly people. They are said to undergo rapid changes under
the pressure o f Standard English taught at schools and the speech habits
cultivated by radio, television and other m eans o f the mass media.
159
dialects o f English, because most o th er dialects, both in the US and
abroad, place less stress o n consonants an d on syllables in the middle
o f words. Since Slavic languages stress consonants even m ore heavily
than does Standard Midwestern, a Russian who learns English extremely
well often sounds almost M idwestern1. This is especially noticeable in
the speech o f interpreters for im portant Russian officials.
Midland speech is divided into two discrete subdivisions, the North
Midland and South Midland speech. The North Midland dialect extends
from so u th e rn New Jersey an d Pennsylvania, west into O h io an d
beyond The N orth Midland speech continues to expand westward until
it becomes the closely related speech o f California. The South Midland
speech starts from northern Delaware along the Blue Ridge Mountains
o f V irginia, follows the Ohio River in a generally southwesterly direction,
moves across Arkansas and Oklahoma west o f the Mississippi, and peters
out in western Texas. This is the dialect associated with truck drivers
on the Citizens’ band and country music.
T h e S ou th ern d ivision c o m p rise s th e s o u th e rn tw o -th ird s o f
Delaware, the eastern parts o f M aryland. Virginia. N orth C arolina.
S o u th C aro lin a, G eo rg ia a n d th e G u lf States (F lo rid a . A labam a,
Mississipi, Louisiana, and the south-east parts o f Texas).
T h ere is also o n e e th n ic variety in the U nited States. A frican-
American Vernacular English (also called Ebonics), that has gained
national prom inence an d influenced usage from coast to coast This
dialect is used in many African-American com m unities in the USA,
especially in urban areas. .African-American Vernacular English has been
widely used in p o p u la r en te rta in m e n t an d has spread in inform al
settings, especially am ong the young and with emphasis on trendy slang,
verbal games, an d such music-related activities as jazz and rap. It has
its origin in the culture o f enslaved Americans and also has roots in
England. African-/American Vernacular English is largely based o n the
Southern American English variety. There is m uch controversy over the
linguistic status o f African-American Vernacular English in the U nited
States. Opinions range from it deserving official language status in the
US lo it being dismissed2.
160
The sounds ot American speech can he also identified with a number
o f public figures. For example. President John F Kennedy's speech is
associated with the Boston Irish dialect, while President Jimmy Carter spoke
w ith a Southern coastal dialect. The North Midlands speech is familiar to
those who have heard Neil Armstrong and John Glenn, while the South
Midland speech was the speech of President Lyndon Baines Johnson.
5 . 1 . Gender Issu e s
161
In vocabulary, attention has been tocused on the replacem ent of
m ale' words with a generic meaning by neutral items, for example.
ch a irm a n becomes ch a ir o r chairperson. salesm an — sales assistant
In certain cases, such as job descriptions, the use o f sexually neutral
language has become a legal requirement. The vocabulary o f marital
status has also been affected — notably in the introduction o f M s as a
neutral alternative to M iss or Mrs.
During the last decades gender issues have gained a serious scientific
ground and development not only in Britain and the USA but also in
other E uropean countries. O ne o f the m ost im portant present-day
problem s c o n n e c te d with th e in te ra c tio n o f language a n d g end er
(defined as a sociocultural category ) is concerned with answers to the
following questions: 'Why d o gender ideologies appear?*. ‘Why are
particular gender notions practiced through language?? ‘How arc gender
ideologies constituted/constructed in language?? and i n what way do
they shape discourse communities?*
T here exist many ap p ro ach es to the investigation o f g en d e r in
m odem linguistics. Among the most notable and authoritative ones there
can be mentioned Critical discourse analysis and C ultural practice th e
ory. Critical discourse analysis examines the interaction between lan
guage and social structures, how social structures are constituted by lin
guistic interaction. It aims to provide accounts of the production, in
ternal structure, and overall organization o f texts, to investigate the s o
ciopolitical and cultural presuppositions and implications o f discourse.
The second approach — Cultural practice theory — centers its atten
tion not only on the constitution o f cultural meanings, but also on the
significance o f individual experience as a force in this process. The giv
en approach examines members' everyday lived experiences as a whole
to demonstrate how they constitute gender ideologies. It reveals the c a t
egories m en' and ‘women* by examining what people do to shape these
cultural categories, how individuals form cultural meanings and use
them on the basis o f their own gender practices and everyday activities.
A growing interest in linguistic aspects o f gender issues let them toim
an independent branch in linguistic science known as Lmguagenderoiogy.
and has given rise to a number of scientifically well-grounded works in such
fields o f the English language as phonetics, grammar, lexis, phraseology .
In Russia am ong the most significant investigations based on the
material o f different languages, works carried out by the members o f the
Laboratory o f G ender Studies o f Moscow State Linguistic University
deserve close attention and consideration.:
Gender social or vx'KX'uhura! ч-v - can be defined a» the .i^rceate ol’behavioral
norms whn.li are usually associated with men or women ut a particular society
S e e . k u p u n t n u A. В I c n . i e p - I t i m h i s : н ч е с к н е а с п е к т ы — M . 1999;
З ы к о / / В С п о с о б ы к о н с т р у и р о в а н и я н о м е р а и а ж .н и с к о и ф р а к ч е н ч и н —
М . 2<XlJ: а т а к ж е с б о р н и к и н а у ч н ы х гр у л о в .1а*‘ч 'р а г о р и и ic J » .;e p iiu \ н ссл сл о -
н а и и и M l .IV
162
5 . 2 . О С СЛiр о t :О П<31 VilllCtlOS
T h e term o ccu p a tio n a l dial ect ’ has long b ee n used for the
distinctive language associated w ith a particular way o f earning a living.
However, such varieties are not like regional or class dialects. Features
o f language w hich identify a person's geographical or social origin, once
established, tend not to vary, unless affected by m ajor cu rren ts of
language change. Occupational varieties o f language are not like that
The linguistic features may be just as distinctive as regional o r class
features, but they are only in temporary use. They are ‘part o f the job' —
taken up as a person begins work, and put dow n as he ends it.
All occupations are linguistically distinctive lo some degree, even if
all that is involved is a few items of specialized vocabulary. The more
specialized the occupation, and the more senior or professional the post,
th e m ore technical the language is likely to be. Also, the m ore an
occupation is pari o f a long-established tradition, the more it is likely
to have accreted linguistic rituals which its members accept as a criterion
o f performance. Among various occupational varieties o f the English
language the highly distinctive o n es are Religious English. Legal
English. News Media English and Advertising English. They provide the
clearest cases o f differences and peculiarities in phonology, grammar,
vocabulary , and patterns o f discourse.
Religious English is a variety in which all aspects o f structure are
implicated. There is a unique phonological identity in such genres as
spoken prayers, sermons, chants, and litanies, including the unusual case
o f unison speech. Graphological identity is found in liturgical leaflets,
biblical texts, and many other religious publications. There is a strong
grammatical identity in invocations, prayers, blessings, and other ritual
forms, both public and private. An obvious lexical identity pervades
formal articles o f faith and scriptural texts, w ith the lexicon o f doctrine
inform ing the whole o f religious expression. And there is a highly
distinctive discourse identity in such dom ains as liturgical services,
preaching, and rites ot passage (e.g. weddings, funerals).
Legal English has a great deal in com m on with Religious English
as it shares with religion a respect for ritual and tradition. This variety
o f language is so specific that it can hardly be applicable to individual
circum stances. A great deal o f Legal English lexical an d stylistic
peculiarities, its distance from everyday usage, can be explained by its
origins. The use o f legal varieties o f Latin and French, after the Norm an
Conquest, introduced a major barrier between the professional lawyer
and the ordinary person. When English eventually became the official
language o f the law m Britain, in the V 'r century, a vast am o u n t of
earlier vocabulary had already become fixed in legal usage. The reliance
on Latin phrasing (e g. m en s rea — the intention o r knowledge of
wrongdoing that constitutes par o f a crime, as opposed to the action or
conduct ot the accused ) and French borrowings (c.g. hen - ‘a right
163
to keep possession o f property belonging to anoth er person until a debt
owed by that person is discharged ) was supplem ented by ceremonial
phrasing (signed, sea led , a n d d e liv e re d ), conventional terminology
(a lib i, n eg o tia b le in stru m e n t), and o th er features which have been
handed down to form present-day legal language.
Legal English has several subvarieties, reflecting its different roles.
Eor example, there is the language o f legal documents, such as contracts,
deeds, insurance policies, wills: there is the language o f works o f legal
reference, with their complex apparatus o f footnotes and indexing: there
is the language o f case law. made up of the spoken o r written decisions
which judges make about individual cases.
News M edia English is a variety that includes newspaper language,
radio language, and television language. When the notion o f a language
variety is applied to the media, it suggests the necessity to look within
each product (a newspaper, a radio or TV' channel) for uses o f language
which have been shaped by the nature o f the medium , o r whose purpose
is to make use o f the capabilities provided by the medium. And here,
the com m unication and presentation o f news is dom inant.
News reports are characterized by the use o f the so-called ‘preferred'
forms o f expressions, lack o f stylistic idiosyncrasy, an d their consistency
o f style over long periods o f time. Once a publication o r channel has
opted a certain style in reporting news, it tends to stay with it. and
imposes it vigorously on its material. This has particularly been the case
with the press. There are several distinctive linguistic features o f news
reporting c h a ra c te ristic o f journalese: I) th e h e a d lin e is critical,
summarizing and drawing attention to the story. Its telegraphic style is
probably the best-known feature o f news reporting: 2) the first ( lead )
paragraph both summarizes and begins to tell the story : it is also the
usual source o f the headline: 3) the original source o f the story is given,
either in byline ( R euters) or built into the text (A senior W hite House
o fficia l sa id ...). 4) the participants are categorized, their names usually
being preceded by a general term (c h a m p , p riso n er, o ffic ia l) an d
adjectives (h a n d so m e French singer Jean Bruni...): 5) explicit time and
place locators are given t In Paris yesterday. .) as well as facts and figures
(6 7 p eo p le tvere k ille d in a b o m b b la st...), and direct or indirect
quotations (P M 'bungles', says expert: Expert says P M bungled).
The most striking features o f Advertising English can be observ ed
in com m ercial advertising. It uses deviant graphology (B e a n z M ea n z
H ein z), and strong sound effects, such as rhythm , alliteration, and
rhym e. C o m m e rc ia l ad vertising provides fertile soil for adjective
inflections, e.g . The result: sm o o th er, fir m e r skin: The tastiest fis h :
The la test in gas cooking. Advertisements also rely a great deal on
imperative sentences ( L ea rn a la n g u a g e on lo ca tio n , s ta y u ith a
w e lc o m in g lo c a l f a m i l y , m a k e J r ie n d s w ith o th e r v isito rs fr o m
a ro u n d th e uw rld). Lexically, this variety o f English tends to use words
which are vivid (new . bright), concrete (soft, w ashable), positive (safe.
164
e x tr a ) , a n d u n re se rv e d ( b e s t , p e r f e c t ) . A d v e rtisin g E n g lish is
characterized by the use o f highly figurative expressions, e.g. ta ste the
su n sh in e in K -Y p e a c h e s. Com mercial advertising can make effective
use o f word-play and is also characterized by a wide use o f slogans1,
e.g. E lectrolux brings lu x u ry to life ; ff e i n e k e n refreshes th e parts
o th e r beers ca n n o t reach.
/. Q U E S T I O N S
165
17. What are the main lexical differences between British English and
American English?
18. W hat c a n y o u say a b o u t d e riv a tio n a l a n d m o rp h o lo g ic a l
peculiarities o f British and American English?
19. What groups o f local dialects in Great Britain can be singled out?
20. What are the main features o f Cockney?
21. What d o you know about Estuarv English?
22. What are the distinctive features o f the Yorkshire dialect?
23. W hat g rou ps o f local d ialects in th e U n ited S tates can be
identified?
24. What dialect do inhabitants o f New York City and southeastern
o f New York State speak?
25. What do you know about the New Jersey dialect?
26. What are the main peculiarities o f the S tandard Midwestern
dialect? What can you say about the linguistic status o f this dialect?
27. In what parts o f the United States do people speak the North
Midland and the South Midland dialects?
28. What d o you know about African- American Vernacular English?
29. What does social language variation deal with?
30. What is the most important linguistic change affecting English
since 1960s?
31. What d o two approaches in gender researches (Critical discourse
analysis and Cultural practice theory) investigate.’
32. What arc the main peculiarities o f such occupational varieties of
the English language as Religious English. Legal English. News Media
English and Advertising English?
f t. TASKS
1.* Match the italicized Scottish English words from the semences with the
corresponding Standard English words given in the box.
Xi ) Лe 1: She devoted her (anam) to helping others.
0 The corresponding Standard English word to the Scottish English word anam
is life: She devoted her life to helping others.
I. I’ve heard you visited several European countries last summer. Did
you like your (tu rn s)? 2. Why did you throw a <a r ta n ) at the dog? It
could bite you. 3. Ann faced the news o f the catastrophe with (o noir).
4. C an you tic a is n a im ) in the end o f my thread? 5. D o n 't open the
<u in n ea g ). You can catch a cold. 6. D o you take sugar in your iu ilm )?
7. A ( p a s g a n ) o f b ro c h u res arrived in th e p o st. 8. T h e te a c h e r's
com m ents are designed to help improve your (fios) and understanding.
166
9. Later in the evening, the (ca ig ) turned to politics. 10. Workers dug a
30-foot (toll) in the ground. II. She devoted her (a n a m ) to helping
others.
2. Read and analyze the extract taken from R Bunts’ poem The I is ion i I7K6)
using the glossary given below the extract. Speak on the uniqueness and bright
expressiveness of Scottish English Translate this extract.
The sun had clos'd the winter day.
The curless quat their roarin play.
And hunger'd maukin taen her way.
Го kail-yards green.
While faithless snaws ilk step betray
Whare she has been
The thresher's weary flingin-tree.
The lee-lang day had tired me:
And when the day had clos’d his е е.
Far i the west.
Ben i the spcnce. right pensivelie.
I gaed to rest.
There, lanelv by the ingle-cheek.
I sat and ey'd the spewing reek.
That fill'd wi' hoast-provoking smeek.
The auld clay biggin:
An' neard the restless rations squeak
About the riggin.
All in this mottie, misty clime,
1 backward mus'd on wasted time.
How I had spent my youthfu' prime.
Arid done пае thing.
But stringing blethers up in rhyme.
For fools to sing.
Had I to g u id advice but harkit.
I might, by this, hae led a market.
O r strutted in a bank and clarkit
My cash-account;
While here, half-mad. half-fed. half-sarkil.
Is a' th' am ount.
Glossary:
I) quat — Iquit) quitted, maukin — a hare, taen — taken, kail-yard
a kitchen garden, snaws —snow. ilk. ilka —each, every, uiiar. whare — where:
2 1 fling in -tree - a piece of timber hung by way of partition, lee-lang —
live-long, i" - in. ben - a parlor Сie; the inner apartment); into ihe parlor.
spenee — the parlor, gaed - went;
3) lane — lone, ingle-cheek — fireside (properly ihc iamb of the fireplace».
reek — smoke, wi' — with, hoast — cough, smeek *moke. auld — old.
167
biggin —building, an' —and. rattan, rath ton — a rat. riggin — ihe roof-tree: the
roof;
4) mattie dusty, blethers — nonsense;
5 1 guid good, harkit — hearkened, hue have, clarkit — wrote, a —all
3." Replace the italicized Irish words with Standard English words from the box.
M n d t I; Will you sit on the to/g. please, and wait for Peler coming
0 The Irish word tolgcan be replaced by the Standard English word sofa Will
you sit on the so/a. please, and wait for Peter coming.
Digging
Between my finger and my thum b
The squat pen rests; snug as a gun.
Under my window, a clean rasping sound
When the spade sinks into gravelly ground.
5 My father, digging. I look down
Till his straining rum p am ong the flowerbeds
Bends low. com es up twenty years away
Stooping in rhythm through potato drills
Where he was digging.
,„The coarse boot nestled on the lug. the shaft
Against the inside knee was levered firmly.
He rooted out tall tops, buried the bright edge deep
To scatter new potatoes that we picked.
Loving their cool hardness in o ur hands.
и By G o d . the old m an could handle a spade. Just like his old man.
168
My grandfather cut more tu rf in a day
Than any other man on l o n e r ’s bog.
Once I carried him milk in a bottle
Corked sloppily with paper. He straightened up
y, To drink it. then fell to right away
Nicking and slicing neatly, heaving sods
Over his shoulder, going dow n and down
For the good turf. Digging.
The cold smell o f potato mould, the squelch and slap
^ O f soggy peat, the curt cuts o f an edge
Through living roots awaken in my head.
But I’ve n o spade to follow m en like them.
Between my finger and my thum b
The squat pen rests.
4, I'll dig with it.
MARRIAGE LINES
In the culture o f India, religion, caste, colour, region, and economic
status traditionally play a major role in marriage arrangements. As a
consequence, newspaper matrimonial advertisements are very differ
ent in style compared with the equivalent ‘lonely hearts' items in the
Western press, and use very different vocabulary. More importantly ,
many items which seem familiar need to be reinterpreted, if their
correct sense in the Indian context is to be appreciated.
A cultural reading o f the vocabulary' brings to light several points
o f semantic difference.
• bride w ith a n u d e c h ild is a widow or divorcee with a son,
mentioned in view o f the priority given in Indian society* to a male
heir, whether natural or adopted.
170
• divorcee is a strongly negative term, compared with its modern
Western use
• fullparticulars would be an astrological reference —a request
for a horoscope.
• good-looking has to be seen in contrast with other phrases used
in this context, such as exceptionally beautiful: it suggests average'
rather than (as in the West) above-average .
• respectable. ueUplaced, and weWestabUshed carry implica
tions o f economic standing: a highly respectable fam ily is a rich
one.
• stable charactered and sincere suggest loyalty’ and devotion
to a marriage partner, despite a readiness to socialize with the
opposite sex,
• working girl and employed g irl have mixed connotations, as
some families w ill accept a bride w ho is working, whereas others
will not
(from the C am bridge Encyclopedia
o f th e English Language by David Crystal)
PROFESSOR
Professor
Associate Professor
Senior Lecturer - - г Г
Lecturer -— * Assistant Professor
(from th e C am bridge Encyclopedia
o f th e English la n g u a g e by David Crystal)
172
11.* D istribute th e given w ords into tw o groups: a ) w ords that arc used in
Am erican English. b> words that arc used in British English. Pay special attention
to their meanings.
AI о d $ 1 hill (for meal p a y m e n t» — *a 1ы ol things eaten showing the total
a m o u n t that m ust he p a id '
. j l The word bill is used in Bntish Fnghsh
SKELL
Wi satchel on her back, she gans
Away doon't lane te t gate.
Tis fosi day off It skcul. tha knaas.
I hooape she wean't bi late.
Tis lonely Ah’ll bi w hen she's gone.
Ah's nut afeard ti say.
An Ah'll bi watchin' lahm cum roond
Ti lower o'clock tcdav.
' talk posh — t o ta lk ш а л а ч t h a t t*. ty p i c a l o t p e o p l e fr o m л h ig h m k u iI c la s s
176
Нею w ill she git on w i her sums?
Ah wunncr if t' milks pure?
These th ow tscu m tummlin li mi m ahnd
Aye. ihese and many more.
18. R e a d i h e p o e m w r i t t e n by F J \ e w b o u l t ' i n t h e Y o r k s h i r e d i a l e c t S p e a k
o n th e idea ot th e p o e m a n d o n th e im a g e s th e a u t h o r reveals m d escrib in g
n a t u r e a n d s e a s o n s o f t h e y e a r D is c u s s t h e lexical p e c u lia ritie s o t th e Y orkshire
dialect
S P R I N G 11914)
Owd Winter gat notice to quit,
'Cause he'd made sich a pigsty о t' place.
An Sum m er leuked raand when he’d flit.
An' she suvs. It s a daanreyt disgrace'
Sich-like ways!
I niver did see sich a haase to come intul
i‘ all my born days!
But Spring says. “ Its my job. is this.
III sooin put things streyt. niver fear
Ye go off to t' Spaws a bit. Miss.
An' leave me to fettle up here'”
An* sitha!
Shoe's donned a owd appron. an tucked up her sleaves.
an set to. with a wit ha!
Tha can tell, when l' hail pelts tha like mad.
At them floors bides a bit of a scrub;
Tha knaws t' flegsnms nuin ha' been bad.
When she teems (1 ) aat all i' wotter i‘ Г tub.
M ind tin eyes!
When shoo gets hod o' t‘ long brush an sweeps aat them chamers.
I'll tel! tha. t'd u st flies'
Who! sh o o s threng (2 ) tha'll he best aat о t gate (3);
Shoo U care nowi for soft taw к an' kisses.
To tell her thy m ind, tha m un wait
Whol sh o o sg etten things ready fo rt' missis.
When sh o o s done.
Shoo II dofTher owd appron, an slip aat i* t' garden,
an call tha to come
Ave. Sum m er is t' roses' awn queen.
An shoo sits i' her state, grandly dressed;
But Spring’s twice as bonny agcan.
a n d dram atic power, a n d his dainty little t\ric " S p r i n t" i* .* ч П к .lent u u I k .h io h that
he had also tl‘, e d o w e r «>t ih e pact
When shoo's donned hersen up T her best
G aan o' green.
An' stands all Г a glow. — wi‘ a smile on her lips
a n ’ a loot i her een.
To f tips o f her fingers sh o o s w ick (4)
Tha can see fi pulses heat i‘ her braa.
Tha can feel her soft breath cornin' quick.
An’ it thrills tha-tha duzn't knaw haa.
When >e part.
Them datTydaandillies sh o o s kissed an' then gicn
tha Ihex'll bloom i' thy heart!
I Pours 2. B u s y . >. W a y . 4 A l i v e
1 9 . * S t u d v t h e d i a l e c t a l m a p o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ( M a p 9» S p e a k o n t h e
g eo g rap h ical b o rd e rs o t P S regional d ialects a n d dialect areas
Mode l : \ arthem
0 \o r th e r n : a n a ieu n o t Ю h e c o n fu s e d w ith th e political 'n o r th o! the
С m l W a r p e r i o d ( IK bl — 5» H i s t o r i c a l l y it is t h e a r e a o f N e w E n g l a n d ,
b u t it n o w e x t e n d s w e s t i n a n a r r o w n o r t h e r n s t r i p f r o m w e s t e r n V e r m o n t
t h r o u g h N e w Y o r k a n d a c r o s s j!1 t h e n o r t h e r n s t a t e s t o t h e P a c i f i c c o a s t
D i a l e c t s t u d i e s s h o w t h a t t h e r e is a n i m p o r t a n t b o u n d a r y I r o u g h lv a l o n g
t h e C o n n e c t i c u t River» s e p a r a ti n g w e s t e r n a n d e a s t e r n N e w E n g l a n d .
Map 9
Г S
20. R ead the inform ation about S o u th e rn e rs a n d th eir speech a n d th en read
t h e e x t r a c t f r o m t h e s t o r y The M an W ho S o u the F lood w r i t t e n b> R i c h a r d
W r i g h t . T h i s s t o r y is a s a m p l e o f t h e S o u t h e r n d i a l e c t o f t h e L S a s w e l l a s t h e
s p e e c h o f A fro- A m e ric a n s . S p e a k o n t h e lexical a n d g r a m m a t i c a l p e c u liaritie s
o f th e m a in characters' speech.
SOUTHERNERS
There are two main g rou ps o f Southerners: those descended from
w hite Lnglish. Irish an d Scottish colonists and immigrants, and those
descended from th e vast num bers of black Africans w h o w ere brought
in as slaves to work o n the plantations
Southern speech spread from Virginia and the Carol in as u> Georgia
and th e cotton lands o f th e Gulf States d u rin g the n in eteen th century,
and is now one o f the major regional variations in American English
th a t lin g u is ts have c o r r e l a t e d w ith g e o g r a p h ic a l lo c a tio n a n d
settlem ent history. S outhern speech is generally considered "softer
a n d lo w e r th a n N o r th e r n s p e e c h , a n d it c o n ta in s a n u m b e r ot
distinctive words as well as certain forms o f usage that are found only
in th e South
A m erican P atthu orkr 4 (nlh\tn> n
<f r o m
o f A m erican short SHtries by B c t t v K e e n e l a s k a t
21. Read the follow ing jokes. Speak on the gender stereotypes they are based
on.
182
Suddenly, t h e m an s ta rts re c itin g S h ak esp e are flawlessly, and
analyzing w hat he's recited w ith great insight.
The second man is so amazed he says to the mermaid. "Triple my I.Q.'
The m erm aid says. "Done
T he m a n s ta r ts to give s o lu tio n s to p r o b le m s th a t have b e e n
stu m p in g ail th e great scientists o f th e world: th e m athem aticians,
physics, chemists, and so on.
The last m an is so enthralled w ith th e changes in his friends that
h e says to th e m erm aid. "Q uintuple my I.Q.'
Hie m erm aid looks at him and says. "You know. I normally don't
try to change I'eoplc s m inds w h en they make a w ish, but I really think
you should reconsider."
The man says. “No. I want you to multiply my I.Q tim es five, and
if you don't d o it. I w on't set you free.'
“Please." the m erm aid says, ‘you d o n 't k now what you're asking'
It'll c h a n g e y o u r e n tir e view o n th e u n iv e rs e W on't you ask for
som ething else, a million dollars, anything?’ But no m ailer what the
m erm aid says, the m an insists on having his I.Q. increased to five times
its usual power.
Finally, th e m erm aid sighs and says. "Done.’
And he tu rn s into a woman
22. R e a d t h e f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e . S p e a k o n a g e n e r a l efTec i t h a t l a n g u a g e
p l a n n i n g policy d e c is io n s c a n have o n lan g u a g e aw aren ess.
24.* Compare the following two versions of reporting on one and the
same event. In the first column the text is a sports story transmitted by
Australian Association Press — Reuter from Sydney: in the right column
the text is the version edited bv the New Zealand Press Association. Material
is deleted, altered, and added Make up a list of grammatical and lexical
184
differences between the two texts Speak on the distinctive features of News
Media English.
25. Read t he follow ing commercial advertising texts devoted to three different
themes: WATCHES. P E R F l ML and CLOTHES. Make up a list of
a) grammatical peculiarities of Advertising English; b) lexical peculiarities of
Advertising English. Speak on the gender stereotvpes which these advertisements
are based on What traditional notions and associations concerning men and
women do these advertisements reveal?
WATCHES
, ..
Advertisements addressed to w om en A dvrnisem cnis addressed to men
CLOTHES
1 Advertisements addressed to women Advertisements addressed to men
i
j 1 H ere’s w here th e p ow er w om an lets 1. Be a gen tlem an — Be in sto n e s n o w ...
her style shine (Jim m y C h o o shoes). Be o ffen sive... B e le g e n d a r y .. Sean
John it’s not just a label. , It’s a lifestyle
2. Y ou r clo th es m ay b e th e first th in g
(Scan John clothes).
people adm ire about y o u . But not the
last (T albots). 2. It to o k eight vcars to land on the
m oon . In just tw elv e m ore years we
3. T ak e a sleek , sexy, tailored suit and
m ade these sh oes (K enneth C o le.
soften any sharp edges w ith a pretty,
M en's footw ear).
fem in ine shirt. Perfect t o g o :rom day
to n igh t... and w o w him on a dinner 3 Flair T im e. Q u ie tly fb m b o v a n t. this
date (M ango clothes). ensem ble proves y o u can bring a bit o f
sheen to the o flicc and still lo o k like
the boss (D o lce & Gabbana). 1
PART
ENGLISH LEXICOGRAPHY
VIII
1 . C L A S S IF IC A T IO N A ND T Y P E S O F D IC T IO N A R IE S
189
The arrangement o f the selected lexical units. There are two
m odes ot presentation o f entries, the alphabetical order and the cluster-
type. i.e. when the units entered are arranged in nests, based on this or
that principle. For example, in synonym-books words are arranged in
synonymic sets and its dom inant m em ber serves as the head-word of
the entry
Entries may be grouped in families o f words o f the same root as in
case of. for e x a m p le , so m e g en eral ex p lan a to ry an d tra n s la tio n
dictionaries. The basic units are given as main entries that appear in
alphabetical order while the derivatives and the phrases which the word
enters are given either as subentries or in the same entry as run-ons that
are also alphabetized The difference between subentries and run-ons
is that the former do include definitions and usage labels, whereas run-
on words are not defined as their meanings are clear from the main
entry.
The setting o f the entry. 1he most complicated type o f entry is that
found in general explanatory dictionaries o f the synchronic type. In such
dictionaries the entry usually presents the following data: accepted
spelling and pronunciation: grammatical characteristics including the
indication o f the part o f speech o f each entry word, whether nouns are
countable o r uncountable, the transitivity jntransitivity of verbs and
irregular grammatical forms: definitions o f meaning: m odem currency ,
illustrative examples: derivatives: phraseology: etymology : sometimes
synonyms and antonyms.
The compilers o f a dictionary o f the same ty pe may choose a different
setting o f a ty pical entry they may omit some o f the items or add some
others, choose a different order o f their arrangement or a different mode
ol presenting the same information Com pare the setting of the entries
in the M a c m illa n ln g li s h D ictio n a ry fo r A d v a n c e d I.e a rn e rs ( 1) and
the L o n g m a n D ictionary o f C o n tem p o ra ry E n g lish (2):
( I>
excel iksel, |lj to d o something extrcmelv well lie aim lo give
eiery student the opportunity to excel ♦ - excel in/at Hohhie had
always excelled at \[>ort
excel yourself I to do something much better than you usually d o
2 humorous used when someone has in fact done even worse than they
usually do
<2)
excel /ik.se]. i excelled, excelling I |l. not in progressive) to do
something very well, or much better than most people: | — at in| Rick
has always excelled orforeign languages 2 excel yourself BrE lo do
something better than von usuallv do: Graham has excelled himself udh
the new exhibition.
The selection and arrangement o f word-meanings. There are at
least three different ways in which the word meanings are arranged: a) m
m
ihe historical order, i.e. in ihe sequence ol their historical development;
b) in th e em pirical o r a c tu a l o rd e r, i.e. 111 c o n fo rm ity w ith their
frequency o f use. i.e. with the most com m on meaning first; с ) in the
logical order, i.e. according to their logical connection.
In different d ictio n aries the pro blem o f arra n g e m e n t is solved
differently. For example, the general principle on which meanings in the
Xeu O xford Dictionary' o f English are organized is that each w ord has
at least one core meaning, to which a num ber o f submeanings can be
attached. Core meanings, as the authors o f the dictionary point out.
represent typical, central uses o f th e word in qu estion in m od ern
Standard English. It is the meaning accepted by native speakers as the
one that is most established as literal and central.
In many dictionaries meanings are generally organized by frequency
o f use. but so m etim es the prim ary m ean in g co m es first if this is
considered essential to a correct understanding o f derived meanings
The definition o f m eanings. Meanings of words may be defined
in different ways: a) by m eans o f linguistic definitions that are only
concerned with words as speech material. They are used in the majority
ol entries: b) by means ol encyclopedic definitions that are concerned
with things for which the words are names; c) by means o f synonymous
words and expressions; d) by means o f cross-references.
Tile choice o f this or that type o f definition depends, as a rule, on
the nature ol the word. i.e. usually the p a n o f speech the word belongs
to. an d on the aim of th e dictionary an d its size. E n cyclo ped ic
definitions, for example, are typical o f nouns, especially proper nouns
and terms They play a very important role in unabridged dictionaries.
Synonyms are used most often to define verbs and adjectives. They are
used in shorter dictionaries usually for econom izing space. Cross-
references arc resorted to define some derivatives, abbreviations and
variant forms.
The illustrative material. I hc presentation of illustrative material
depends on the type of the dictionary and on the aim the compilers set
themselves I hey can illustrate the first and the last known occurrences
o f the entry word, the successive changes in its m eaning, a s well as
graphic and phonetic forms, the typical patterns and collocations: they
place words in a context to clarify their meanings and usage.
Illustrative exam ples can be draw n from different sources, e.g.
literature classical or contem porary, or can be co n stru c te d by the
compilers themselves, f o r example, in the L ongm an D ictionary of
Contemporary English 1 1992) illustrative examples are based on analysis
o f the authentic language in the Longman Citation Corpus, especially
the recent citations from American and British newspapers.
Some dictionaries indicate the author, the work, ihe page, verse, or
line, and the precise date of the publication, some indicate only the
author to give at least basic orientation about the tune when the word
occurs
3 . T Y P E S AND C O M M O N C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S
O F L E A R N E R S D IC T IO N A R IE S
4 .1 . C o r p u s -B a s e d Lexicography
197
There are distinguished two main types o f electronic dictionaries: o n
line dictionaries and C D -R O M dictionaries. To use on-line dictionaries
it is necessary to have access to the Internet. To install C D -R O M
dictionaries on a com puter it is necessary to ensure that a com puter
meets the m inim um system requirements that are usually enumerated
in the User Guide.
Among the on-line dictionaries there are the following: the Oxford
English Dictionary Online, the Merriarn- Webster O nline Dictionary .
the Cam bridge D ictionaries O nline (including Cam bridge A dvanced
L earner s Dictionary\ Cambridge International Dictionary o f Idioms.
C a m bridge D ictio n a ry o f A m e ric a n E n g lish . etc.). the A m erica n
Heritage D ictionary o f the English language and many others. Each
dictionary has its own benefits an d differs, sometimes greatly, in the
interface, material available, contents area, number o f options, organization
o f entries, search capabilities, etc. from other dictionaries of such kind.
The O xford English Dictionary' O nline, for instance, contains the
material o f the 20-volume O xford English D ictionary and 3-volume
A dditions Series. Besides more revised and new entries are added to
the online dictionary every quarter. The layout o f a typical entry window
is given below (Screenshot 1).
T he O x fo rd E nglish D ic tio n a ry O n lin e is characterized by the
following main features: 1) the display o f entries according to a user’s
Screenshot
198
need s, i.e . e n trie s c a n be d isp lay ed by tu r n in g p r o n u n c ia tio n s ,
etymologies, variant spellings, and quotations on and off; 2) the search
for pronunciations as well as accented and other special characters: 3) the
search for words which have come into English via a particular language;
4) the search for quotations from a specified year, o r from a particular
author a n d /o r work: 5) the search tor a term when a user knows only
meaning; 6) the use o f wildcards' if a user is unsure o f a spelling: 7» the
restrictions of a search to a previous results set; X) the search for first cited
date, authors, and works: 9) Lhe case-sensitive searches; and some others.
Among the C D - R O M d ic tio n a r ie s there are the following: the
L o n g m a n D ictionary o j C ontem porary English on C D -R O M . the
C am bridge In tern a tio n a l D ictionary oj English on C D -R O M . the
Collins C O B U IL D on C D -R O M . the Concise O xford Dictionary on
C D -R O M . and many others.
In most cases C D -R O M dictionaries are electronic versions o f the
prim ed reference books supplem ented by m ore visual inform ation,
pronunciation, interactive exercises and games and allowing the user to
carry out searches impossible with the book dictionaries.
The Longm an D ictio n a ry'of C ontem porary English on C D -R O M .
for example, differs from the paper dictionary in the following way:
1) everyr word is pronounced in British and American English. A user can
also record his/her own pronunciation and compare it with the accepted
form : 2) it gives 15.000 word origins o r etym ologies an d co ntain s
7000 encyclopedic entries for people, places, and things, taken from the
L ongm an D ictionary o f English Language a n d Culture: 3) there are
80.000 additional examples given in the Longman Examples Bank: 4) over
a million corpus sentences are included for very advanced learner» and
teachers o f English: 5) it contains 150,000 extra words (collocates) that
are used with the headword; 6) it hits the Activator section which is very
helpful in choosing the right word in this or that context and provides essay
writing technique: 7) there are a lot o f interactive activities in grammar,
vocabulary, culture, as well as exam practice exercises.
T he Longm an D ictionary o f C ontem porary English on C D -R O M
has its own distinctive features th at m ake it p ro m in en t a m o n g the
dictionaries o f this kind. There are three m ain functions in the C D -
ROM dictionary, each opening in the main window but with a slightly
different look. These three functions are the D ictionary. A ctivator, and
Exercises. EJsers can choose the full sized display, o r “ P op-U p M ode”
T he dictionary interface includes a search bar. an area for viewing
entries, and windows for the Phrase B a n k . E xam ples B a n k , and the
A ctivate Your L anguage tool. See the dictionary interface screenshot
(Screenshot 2).
199
Screenshot 2
In the entry display (left side o f the screen), the word is presented
along with links to pronunciation, usage note, word origin, verb form,
and word set. but not all links are active for ail entries. The Phrase B ank
includes phrases that use the search word, as well as words that are
com m only used with the search word. The E xam ples B ank presents
samples o f the w ord's usage from “ Extra dictionary exam ples” and
"Sentences from books, newspapers, etc." The A ctivate Your Language
section, which does not have entries for all words, allows a user to
continue the search in the Activator.
In lexicography the developments in electronic instrumentation and
com puter science have revolutionized the dictionary-m aking process,
shown new perspectives in this field, supported lexicographical studies
in different directions.
I. Q U E S T IO N S
1. What is lexicography?
2. What is the term ‘dictionary ’ used to denote?
200
3. What are the main principles o f classification o f dictionaries? What
types o f dictionaries can be singled out according to these principles?
4. What d o you know about encyclopedic and linguistic dictionaries?
5. What is the difference between general and restricted dictionaries0
6. What inform ation do explanatory an d specialized dictionaries
provide?
7. A c c o rd in g to w hat p rin c ip le arc d ic tio n a r ie s d iv id e d in to
monolingual and bilingual0
S. What dictionaries are called (a) diachronic and (b) sy nchronic0
9. What are the most important problems o f lexicography?
10. What questions are necessary to consider while choosing lexical
units for inclusion?
11. What are the two modes ol presentation o f entries?
12. What is the most complicated type o f entry ?
13. What are the three different ways in which the word meanings
can be arranged?
14. In what ways may meanings o f words be defined?
15. What can illustrative material clarify? What are the sources o f
illustrative examples?
16. W hat are th e tw o m ain p rin c ip le s o f classifying le a rn e r s
dictionaries?
17. In what way d o dictionaries com piled to meet th e needs o f
learners o f different levels o f the study o f English differ in the scope o f
th eir w ord-list? What words are usually excluded an d included in
learner s dictionaries? What criteria are used for the selection o f words
in learner's dictionaries?
18. What types o f learner's dictionaries can be singled out according
to the information afforded in them ? What are the peculiar features of
the structure and content o f the entry in learner's dictionaries?
19. What can you say about the order o f arrangement o f meanings
in learner’s dictionaries?
20. W hat does the su p p lem en tary m aterial include in le a rn e r’s
dictionaries?
21. What are m odern trends in lexicography connected with?
22. What is corpus (or corpus-based) linguistics?
23. What is computational linguistics?
24. What is the importance o f corpora aligned to? Why?
25. What has the recent development o f corpus linguistics given birth
to?
26. What do you know about the British National Corpus?
27. What opportunities does a compiler get due to corpora?
28. What does computational lexicography deal with?
29. What are the most significant differences between electronic and
conventional dictionaries?
30. What is the difference between the minimal skills acquired for
the use o f conventional and electronic dictionaries?
201
31. What types o f electronic dictionaries can be singled out?
32. W hat are th e d is tin c tiv e fe a tu re s o f th e O x fo r d E n g lish
D ictionary O nline?
33. In what way does the L ongm an D ictionary o f C ontem porary
English on C D -R O M differ from the printed-paper dictionary?
34 What are the distinctive features o f the L ongm an D ictionary oj
C ontem porary English on C D -R O M ?
II TASKS
1.* Classify the given dictionaries into two groups: a) encyclopedic
dictionaries; hi linguistic dictionaries.
M o d e l : Die Concise Oxford Dictionary
-*L 77w Concise Oxford Dictionary is a linguistic dictionary (group hi.
N T C ’s Dictionary o f American Spelling. The C ham bers Book o f
Facts. The Collins Dictionary o f Allusions. The Longman Dictionary of
the English Language. The Oxford Companion to English Literature. Ilie
Dictionary o f Literary Terms. The Concise O xford D ictionary. Brewer's
Dictionary o f 2U,h-century Phrase and Fable, The Collins C O B U IL D
Roget's International Thesaurus. I hc Merriam-Webster’s Geographical
D ic tio n a ry . T h e C a m b rid g e G u i d e to F ic tio n in E n g lish , T h e
Cambridge International Dictionary o f Idioms. The Penguin Dictionary
o f English G ram m ar. The Cassell C om panion to 20Ih-century Music.
Random House Webster’s Dictionary o f American Slang.
2.* State which type the given linguistic dictionaries refer to: general —restricted,
explanatory — specialized, monolingual — bilingual, diachronic - synchronic.
M o d e I: Die l.ongman Dictionary o f Phrasal Verbs
0 Die Longman Dictionary o f Phrasal ler/is is a restricted, explanatory.
monolingual, synchronic word-book
1) the C oncise Oxford D ictionary o f English Etymology; 2 1 the
Penguin Dictionary o f English Idioms; 3) the New Oxford Dictionary
o f English: 4) the M odem English-Russian Dictionary : 5) th e Longm an
D ictionary’ o f P h ra sa l Verbs'. 6) the Longman Language Activator;
7) the English-Russian Dictionary o f Linguistics and Semiotics; 8) the
English P ronouncing Dictionary1; 9) the Longm an Business English
Dictionary *. 10) the New Oxford Thesaurus o f English: 11) a Dictionary
o f Neologisms; 12) the BBI Combinatory Dictionary o f English.
3. Choose any three dictionaries and describe the principles of the selection
of lexical units for inclusion in these dictionaries.
M o d e l : The Longman Idioms Dictionary
Ш Die Longman Idioms Dictionary aims at reflecting the wide range of idiom*
that are being used in British and American English today. Using the
202
Longman Corpus Network, the Internet, the media, the editorial team has
gathered information about the newest idioms being used, as well as giving
complete coverage of idioms at the core of the language. In addition to many
new idioms the dictionary includes a range of the most frequently used idiom»
in the language. It covers idioms with metaphoric meanings that are fairly
easy to understand, such as put your heads together Уwork together in order
to solve a problem), to those that are less obvious, like face the music 4'to
accept responsibility for your actions and give people the chance to criticize
you’I. Many two-word phrases, like a dd card. are included, as are phrases
with pragmatic uses, such as ju st like that. The dictionary also includes
many frequently used similes, such as like run peas in a pod
4 . State the mode of presentation of entries in the following dictionaries
The Longman Language Activator (I99J) (Illustration 2); The New Oxford
Dictionary of English <1998) (Illustration 3): The Cambridge Advanced
Learner's Dictionary (2003) <Illustration 4). What information is given in the
subentries and run-ons of these dictionaries?
5. State in which way the setting of the entry for the word sm art differs
in the given dictionaries (Illustrations 5, 6). What data docs the entry present
in these dictionaries?
6. Analyze the entries of the word smart given in Task 5. Describe: a) the way in
which the meanings of the word smart are arranged; b) the wav in which the
meanings of the word smart are defined; c) the presentation of the illustrative
material.
7.* Analyze the nature of the information presented in the given entries.
Classify the learner's dictionaries from which these entries were taken into:
I) those giving equal attention to the word's semantic characteristics and
the way it is used in speech. 2) those presenting different aspects of the
vocabulary
M o d e l : freelance fb ih tn s S 'fn:la*ns adjectiie. adverb someone who
is freelance works for several different organizations: Г m a freelance writer ,
Г m thinking o f going freelance.
0 According to the nature of the information presented in this entry the
learner's dictionary from which it was taken can be referred to those giving
equal attention to the word’s semantic characteristics and the way it is used
in speech (group I ).
1)
d e s p a ir п. I. to overcome - 2. deep, sheer, total, utter ~ 3. the depths of -
4. in - (in utter -} 5. out of - (todosm th out of - >
2)
a r m a m e n ts / ' ma.mants/ US fa it-t plural noun weapons or military
cl
:u '
208
2 A realm or territory
-d o m also combines with titles or names to refer to the land that someone
controls, f or example, a ’kingdom’ is the land or country that a king rules over;
"Christendom’ is an old-fashioned word that refers to the countries and peoples
that are Christian and follow Christ’s teachings.
llw kingdom had shrunk, it had been reduced to a handful o f villages.
...a princedom by the sea.
Here is a list of words with this meaning:
Christendom kingdom
dukedom princedom
earldom
5)
d ic ta tio n dikteijbn/ n I (C| when you say words for someone to write
down: There were no secretaries aiaitable to take dictation I—wriie down
what someone is saying). 2 |C| a piece of writing that a teacher reads out to test
your ability to hear and write the words correctly: / hate doing French
dictations.
6)
d e e d /dud/ noun |C | * *
1 literary something that someone does 2 |usually plural| legal an official
document that gives details of a legal agreement, especially about who owns a
building or piece of land
sb’s good deed for the day humorous something good and helpful that
someone docs
8 .Analyze the structure and content of the given entries taken from the
dictionaries which were compiled to meet the needs of English learners of
different levels Choose the correct letter indicating a certain dictionary and
write it down in the space provided Speak on the difference in: a) the setting of
the given entries, b) the semantic structure of the words; c) the order of
arrangement of meanings; d u h c language in which the definitions are couched;
e) the illustrative material.
1. The Oxford Elementary Learner's Dictionary (a) - 77te Cambridge
A d telneed Learner's Dictionary (b)
handsom e а ттк а о ту^ >u»n н т оф 1 d e m b e 1 handsom e »феси»е good-looking a
a man » b c 15 physically anractrve in * traditional. Hamhome man ' at b am tiral
mawmlme way She i Jhetuning th e U be wtuxkrJ riff
her J t с oy a UtA d a r t hanJf о т / m o n g er 2 Orttnfces
а тхпвл w ho » a t l r a c m e b u t ia » s £ n * n j w a y a
hands lw b плам я in her fffims
h a n d s o m e ГлЁк.# ллаХ У Г > m s e m аф I before
l | Я 1 targe amount THn made a handsome profit an
th e s h ju tr к а ш Ь о в с К >.*л tem U He tm d if
hit 'crulis « (г *ic »'•».',/ rew ard ия
handium eh
2. The Macmillan English Dictionary fo r Advanced Learners (a)
The Longm an И'ordWise Dictionary. P re-interm ediate — In term e
diate (b)
210
9.* Analyze the peculiarities of the setting, arrangement and definitions
of meanings of the entry for the word advanced. State from which of the
following learner's dictionaries it was taken; th e Cam bridge Advanced
Learner's Dictionary (2003); Random House Roger's College Thesaurus
(20001; the Longman Language Activator (1993); the Merriam- Webster's
Elem entary Dictionary ( 2 0 0 0 ) ; the Collins C O B V tL D English L'sage
Intermediate (1998); the Chambers Dictionary o f Phrasal Verbs (1998);
the Oxford Learner's Wordfmder Dictionary: intermediate to Advanced
(1998). Speak on the practical value of this dictionary and the kind of the
intended user.
ADVANCED
words for describing machines, systems, countries etc that use the
most modem equipment, ideas, and methods
1 words for describing advanced machines, systems etc.
2 words for describing advanced countries
state-of-th e-a rt sicit di 'a t / using the most advanced and recently-
developed methods, materials, or knowledge \adj\
211
The movie uas made with slate-of-the-an camera equipment. \ Increasingly,
adiertising relies on inventive graphic design and state-of -the -art technology .
Ihe sta te o f the a rt (л phrase] Opus 111 represents the state o f the art (=the
most advanced type) in word processing packages.
be ahead o f its time /bi: э hed its taim/ if something is ahead of its time, it
is so new and different that people do not understand or like it at first, but later
realize how good it is j v p/irase|
The Vortex graphic system was ahead o f its time. Few were sold hut strongly
influenced later designs. \ Her educational theories were way ahead o f their
lime and uere widely misunderstood
at the leading edge of/cu ttin g edge o f t d a h:din ed> d\ . kstm е ф m / in
a more advanced position than other organizations, companies etc. in developing
and using new methods, systems, equipment etc \prep\
The company is trying to regain its position at the leading edge o f electronics
research. \ These developm ents really are at the cutting edge o f the
technological revolution.
lead ing-edge/cut ting-edge | adj only before noun] an exciting new project,
using cutting-edge technology
11. Do the follow ing tasks: a) Study the interface screenshots of the Cambridge
Advanced Learner s Dictionary on CD -RO M (CALD) and the Macmillan
Lnglish Dictionary on CD-ROM (MED) (Screenshots 5 and 6).
Screenshot 3
S creenshot 4
i* w d i m\«* out
Screenshot 5
Screenshot b
b) Fill in the table describing the distinctive features of these electronic
dictionaries in accordance with the singled out parameters.
M o d e l : the parameter 'Display modes'
’x l The Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary on CD-ROM (CALDi has
two display modes: Full Display mode and Q U lC K find mode. The
Macmillan Lnglish Dictionary on CD-ROM (MED) has also two display
modes: fu ll Display mode and Quick Search mode. The Q LICKfind mode
and the QuickSeanch mode use a smaller window and provide quick access
to the dictionaries and selected features. These modes are very useful while
browsing the Internet or writing reading texts on the screen
I
1 F u n c tio n s o f the
dictionary o p e n in g in the
m en u b a r o r in the m ain
window
4 T h e p ro ce d u re o f ...
looking up a w ord a n d the
presentation o f entries
v T h e inform ation
afforded for each entry
24. The noun lo o k-see meaning 'a brief look or inspection’ is a ... .
a) com pound proper
b) reduplicative com pound
e) derivational com pound
2*\ The origin and source o f borrowing o f the word carat a unit of
weight for precious stones and pearls; a measure o f the purity o f gold
(< French < Italian carato < Arabic k ira t < Greek keration) are ... .
a) French and Greek
b) Greek and French
c) Arabic and Greek
.11 According to its lexical valency, i.e. the aptness to com bine with
the words to give, to leave. to send, to d e l h e r . to take, to pass on.
220
urgent. clear. coded, garbled-, support. congratulation, sym p a th y, the
noun message has the meaning ... .
a) information about something that has happened recently'
b) *a piece o f w ritten o r spoken in fo rm a tio n th a t you sen d to
someone, especially when you cannot speak to them directly’
c ) ‘the most important idea in a book, film or play*
3 2 . T he syntactic pattern o f the w ord-com bination surp rised a t th e
new s is ... .
a) A + preposition + N
b) V + preposition a t + N
c ) surprised + preposition + N
33. The word-combination jea lo u s o f sm b 's success is ... .
a) endocentric. adjectival
b) exoccntric
c) endocentric. nominal
3 4 . T h e w o rd -co m b in atio n a b itte r p ili m eaning ‘so m ething very
unpleasant that one must accept' is ... .
a) completely motivated
b) completely non-motivated
c) partially motivated
4u The Irish English verb to cog used in the sentence / w o u ld n 't let
ju s t a n yb o d y cog m y exercise' denotes ... .
a ) to do
b) to translate
c) to cheat, especially b> copying
43. The Lancashire dialectal wordju d y used in the sentence *There are
12 boys a n d IS ju d ie s in m y so n 's class' means ... .
a) woman
b) girl
c) pupil
1 с 9 d Г с 25 b 33 a 41 a
3. с II. b 19. a 27 b 35 b 43 b
4. a 12 с 20 b 28, с 36. a 44 с
7. a 15. a 23. a 31 b 39 b 47 e
PA RT S E M A S IO L O G Y
C h a p te r '
*>
W o rd - 1 M ean in g S ense
*>*»
E n d o f the Table
,
1 Wonts Meaning Sense
227
E n d o f th e Table
Components of the con-
Denotation;]) A cormoutnmai not.itional aspect of lexical
Words
aspects meaning which specify the
difference between the wonts
2 hardened very h ard a n d strong mentally em otive charge +
as a result o f regularly dealing -+■evaluation t negative) - ,
with difficult situations 1- intensity + du ratio n
1. adventure a n experience w here interesting, em otive charge
exciting, a n d som etim es d a n g e ♦ evaluation (usually
rous things h a p p en to so m eo ne positive)
2. ordeal a tim e in which so m eon e em otive charge -
experiences great suffering, - evaluation (negative) •
anxiety, an d often danger ♦ duratio n
1. perfect having n o faults or weaknesses evaluation (positive)
22b
ь.
I. The meaning o f the verb с r u n ! is based o n the image o f Som eone
moving along on o n e 's hands and knees with o n e 's body close to the
ground". C raw l to m eans 'to behave very humbly towards (someone,
usu. in power) in order lo w in favour, etc.*. 2. The meaning o f the verb
f i r e is based on the image o f someone shooting bullets or bom bs’. Fire
(questions) a t means to ask someone a lot o f questions quickly, often
in order to criticize them ? 3. The meaning o f the verb f r o u n is based
on the image o f ’som eone making an angry, unhappy, o r confused
expression, moving o n e ’s eyebrows to geth er’. Frown on so m eth in g
m eans ‘to disapprove o f someone or something, especially som eone's
behaviour* 4. T he meaning o f the vcib ta ke is based on the image of
‘s o m e o n e m ov in g so m e th in g from o n e place to a n o t h e r '. T a ke
(som ething one sa id ) ba ck means ’to admit that you were w rong to say
som ething’. 5. The meaning o f the verb f l y is based on the image of
something moving through the air using wings'. Fly a b o u t means to
spread actively’. 6. The meaning o f the verb seize is based on the image
o f someone taking hold o f something suddenly and violently’. S eize on
m eans ’to be eager to take and use'. 7. The meaning o f the verb d ice is
based on the image o f ‘som eone jum ping into deep water with o n e ’s
head and arms going in first’. D u e into som e p la ce means to enter a
place suddenly and often secretively'. 8. T he meaning o f the verb catch
is based on the image o f ’someone taking hold o f something, especially
som ething that is moving through the air’. C atch in means ‘to find
someone by chance at home, in the office, etc.’. 9. The meaning o f the
verb lay is based on the image o f som eone putting something down
carefully into a flat position'. L a v dow n (one's office) means to stop
working, esp. after having had power’. 10. The meaning o f the verb p in
is based on the image o f someone fastening something somewhere using
a pin’. Pin on means ‘to blame someone for something, often unfairly'.
--------- ----------------
229
E nd o f the Table
------------------------r
Roles which
Register of
Participants tenors of
Words a m im u n i •
of ihe communicative situation discourse are
cat ton
based on
photograph form al people working in th e m useum social roles
visitor» o f the m useum
. ,
skirt informal m en w ho are close friends social roles
Chapter 2
cu n n in g — deterioration o f meaning;
kn ig h t — amelioration of meaning:
fo n d — amelioration o f meaning:
gang — deterioration o f meaning;
m a rsh a l — amelioration o f meaning:
coarse — deterioration o f meaning;
m in ister — amelioration o f meaning:
en thusiasm — amelioration o f meaning:
violent — deterioration o f meaning;
gossip — deterioration o f meaning.
s.
sim ple: 1) easy to understand, solve, o r do; 2) plain an d without
d e c o ra tio n : 3) not involving an y th in g else o r not co m p licated by
anything else: 4) with only one or very few parts: 5) honest and ordinary;
6) easily tricked; foolish; 7) weak-minded.
w.
1) In m odem English the central meaning is ‘probable*. Thus, in the
present-day language the primary meaning o f the word lik e ly remains
central.
2) In m odem English the central meaning is ‘a forcible overthrow
o f a government o r social order, in favour o f a new system'. Thus, in
the present-day language the primary meaning o f the word revolution
is no longer central, it has become a marginal meaning.
3) In modern English the central meaning is ‘suffer death, typically
in a violent, sudden, or untimely way*. Thus, in the present-day language
the primary meaning o f the word to perish remains central.
4) In m odem English the central meaning is *a call to som eone tc
participate in a competitive situation, game, or tight to decide w ho is
su p erio r in term s o f ability o r strength*. T hus, in th e present-day
231
language the p rim ary m eaning o f the word c h a lle n g e is n o longer
central, it has become a marginal meaning.
5) In m odern English the central meaning is ‘only one: not one of
several’. Thus, in the present-day language the primary meaning o f the
word single is no longer central, it has become a marginal meaning.
b) In m odem English the central meaning is to be disloyal'. Thus,
in the present-day language the primary meaning o f the word to betray
remains central.
1) Homonyms proper:
seal (n,l seal i n )
a large sea a n im a l th at eats fish a n d th e official m ark o f a governm ent,
lives m ainly in cold parts o f the com pany, etc.. often m a d e by
world pressing a pattern into red wax.
w hich i s fixed to certain form al and
official writings
2) H om ophones:
sum (n ) |s \ m | some ( p r o n ) [ s \m | ,
a particular a m o u n t o f m oney a n unspecified a m o u n t or n u m b e r o f j
232
hm re ( n) |htN>| h a i r (n ) |hcal
a fast-ru n n in g , lo n g -ea red m am m al any o f th e fine thread-like stran d s
that resem bles a large rabbit, having growing from th e skin o f h u m an s
very long h ind legs a n d typically
found in grassland o r open woodland
3) Homographs:
11.
1. sight 2. horse 3. pours 4. sweet 5. hare 6. fair 7. die 8. horse
Chapter 3
I.
1) w a g e /sa la ry /p a y /fe e /in c o m e
com m on feature: ‘a sum o f money paid for something'.
differentiating features: 'th e type o f work for w hich it is p a id ',
‘regularity/irregularity o f payment*, 'th e pen o d o f time for which it is
paid', ‘the qualification level and specialization o f the person doing the
work', ‘o th er sources o f receiving money (besides work)'.
2) rep u ta tio n /im a g e /n a m e/p restig e/sta tu re
com m on feature: the idea or opinion about somebody/something',
differentiating features: ‘the reasons for forming an opinion o r idea',
‘ways o f forming an idea o r opinion', ‘deliberateness/undelibcrateness
o f a person (group o f people/organization) lo form a certain opinion
(idea)*, the relation to the person (group o f people/organization) caused
by (o r resulted from) the opinion/idea formed (e.g. respect, admiration,
dislike, antipathy, malice, etc.)'.
I) vehicle
2) animal
m am m al reptile
—- " ' 0 ! x * «. * 0 S »
squirrel feline seal fox wolf bear turtle lizard iguana snake
ж ! %
tiger leopard panther
s.
C ar — autom obile (fm l); refreshm ent — bite (infm l); soldier —
warrior (fml); to begin — to com m ence (fml); face — puss (infml): to
leave — to abandon (fml): hearty — cordial (fml). hand — fin (infml):
cry — weep (fml).
f>.
Stylistic synonyms:
1) to m eet — to en co u n ter (tml): ’to see som eone without planning
to';
2) m u m (infml) — m other, ‘a female parent*:
3) to fo r e te ll (fml) — to p re d ic t: *to say what will happen in the
future’;
4) h e a iv n (fml) — sky: ‘the region o f the atmosphere and outer space
seen from the ea rth ’:
5) a ffa ir - business (infml): ‘a person's concern o r responsibility*.
Ideographic synonyms:
1) in fo rm a tio n ( ‘facts o r details th at tell you som ething about a
situation, a person, an event, etc.’) — d a ta ( ‘facts an d details that have
been collected and stored, especially on a com puter’);
2) in fectio u s ( ‘(of a disease) liable to be tran sm itted to people,
organism s, etc. through th e env iro n m en t, esp. ab o u t the agent or
organism which carries th e disease') — co n ta g io u s ( ‘(o f a disease)
spread from o n e person o r organism to another by direct o r indirect
contact, esp. about the person o r animal affected by the disease*);
3) fa c u lty ( ‘a natural o r acquired ability for a particular kind o f
action*) - ta le n t ( “an exceptional natural ability o r ap titu d e in a
particular field');
235
4) blem ish (“a surface defect that mars the appearance ) — fla w ( ‘a
structural defect o r weakness that mars the quality o r effectiveness’).
Ideographic-stylistic synonyms:
1) a s s o c ia te ( ‘a person w h o is often in one s com pany, usually
because o f some work or pursuit ( *анятне) in co m m o n ’) — p a l (infml.
‘a close friend with whom som eone usually spends his leisure tim e'):
2) to a sk С to request information from s o m e o n e ) — to interrogate
(fml. ‘to question formally for a special purpose, csp. for a long time
and perhaps with the use o f threats or violence’);
3) to recko n (infml. ‘establish by counting o r calculation ) — to
estim a te (‘roughly calculate o r judge the value, number, quantity, or
extent o f ) :
4) to w a lk (‘to move along on foot in a natural wav’) — to prom enade
(fml. ‘to move slowly up and down along a place, street, etc
5) intelligent (‘having or showing powers o f learning, reasoning, or
understanding, esp. to a high degree’) — sm a rt (infml. ‘good o r quick
in thinking, clever*).
Lexico-semantic groups:
1) ‘education’: (a) book, classmate, college, dav-student. exercise,
reader, k n o w led g e , tu itio n , c o u rs e ; (b) in tellig e n t, p ed a g o g ic al,
disciplined, methodological; (c) to teach, to coach, to repeat a year, to
write, to supervise, to develop habits, to sm atter o f (in);
2) feeling’: (a) indifference, affection, hatred, passion, satisfaction,
jealousy, unrest, shock: (b) displeased, frustrated, in a tem per, calm
(adj). wrathful, happy, angry ; (c) to bear malice, to adore, to infuriate,
to hurt.
Semantic fields:
1) ‘e d u c a tio n ’: b o o k , to teach, intelligent, classm ate, to coach,
pedagogical, college, day-student. to repeat a year, exercise, reader.
236
to w rite, knowledge, tuition, course, to supervise, disciplined, to develop
habits, methodological, to smaller o f (in);
2) feeling’: to b e a r m alice, displeased, indifference, to adore,
affection, frustrated, hatred, in a tem per, passion, calm (adj). satis
faction. wrathful, jealousy, to infuriate, happy, unrest, shock, to hurt,
angry.
10.
a) antonyms o f the same root:
happy — unhappy, careful — careless, obedience disobedience,
regular - irregular, polite - impolite, artistic - inartistic, appear
disappear, prewar - postwar, logical — illogical, known - unknown;
b) antonyms o f different roots:
dwarf — gigantic, criticism — praise, above — below, asleep - awake,
back forth, trium ph — disaster, hope — despair, far — near, love —
hate.
1 I.
Conn.id iclone» C o n t r a r i e s I n c o m p a t i b l e *
l.
Beggarly: beg{g)~ (root, free) + -o r- (affixational. b o u n d ) + -ly
(affixational. bound);
postm an: post- (root, free) 4- -m a n (affixational. semi-bound):
shorten: short- (root, free) + -en (affixational. bound);
destabilize: d e - (affixational. bound) + -sta b il- (root, free) - -ize
(affixational. bound);
sympathy: sy m - (affixational, bound) -p a th y (combining form,
bound root):
fruitfulness: fr u it- (root, free) + -fu l- (affixational. bound) + -ness
(affixational, bound);
maltreatm ent: т а /- (combining form, bound root) -treat- (root,
free) 4- -m e n t (affixational, bound):
disaffected: d is- (affixational, bound) + -affect- (root, free) + -e d
(affixational. bound);
overrule: over- (affixational. sem i-bound) + -rule (root, free);
p h o to g rap h ic: p h o to - (com bining form , b o u n d root) + -g r a p h -
(combining form, bound root) + -ic (affixational, bound);
half-eaten: h a lf- (affixational. sem i-bound) + -eat- (root, free) -
-en (affixational. bound):
theory': theor- (pseudo-root, bound) + -v (affixational. bound):
rent-free: rent- (root, free) - -free (root. free).
\_
Eyelet: eye- (‘body part for seeing’) - -let (‘a small kind o f ) = глазик,
dehouse: de- ( the removal o f ) — house f a building for hum an
habituation’) = в ы ж а т ь и з л о м а : л и ш и ть жилья;
neurosis: ncuro- {“o f nerves’) * -osis (‘illness or disease ) = невроз:
hostess: host- Ca person who receives o r entertains other people as
guests’) + -ess f a female ) - хозяйка;
betrayal: betray- ( be disloyal to ) - -al (‘the action ) = предатель
ство. измена;
a n tip a th y : an ti- ( 'a g a i n s t ') + -p a th y ( ‘fe elin g ’) = а н т и п а т и я
(отвраш ен и е);
briefly: brief- ( ‘o f short d u r a t i o n ) + -ly f i n the stated w a y ) -
коротко:
horsem anship: horse- f a large animal that people ride ) * -m an-
( 'occupation o r interests’) + -ship ( ‘the a n o r skill o f ) - и скусеi во
верховой езды;
p rew a r: pre- ( 'b e f o r e ') - -w ar f a state o f arm ed c o n f lic t') -
предвоенный, довоенный;
238
fa m o u s: fam(e)- ( ‘the condition o f being known o r talked ab o u t') +
-ous ( possessing sm th.') = зн а м е н и ш й . известный.
-*1.
b.
in d ep en d e n ce:
1) in- (in a b ility . in ju stice) <I C / L C ) + -dependence ( IC),
2) depend- ( I C /L C ) + -ence (insistence, existence) ( I C / L C )
The word consists o f three 1X 4
b ea u tifu ln ess:
1) beautiful- (IC) + -ness (sadness, u gliness» (IC /L C ):
2) beauty- (IC /L C ) + -ful (joyful. graceful) (IC /IJC ).
The word consists o f three LCs.
unforgettable:
1) un- (unclear, u n im portant) ( I C / L C ) + -forgettable (IC):
2) forget- ( I C / L C ) + -able (irritable, d esira b le> ( IC, UC).
The word consists o f three L Cs.
u /trp -crxa liie
1) ultra- <u ltr a -r ic h . u ltra m o d e rn ) ( I C /L C ) + -creaiive (IC):
2) creat(e)- ( I C /L C ) - -ive (effective. d ec isive) (IC /L C ).
l*he word consists o f three L Cs.
spotlessness:
1) spotless- (IC ) + -ness (darkness, rudeness) (IC /l/C );
2) spot- ( I C / L C ) ■+■ -less (tactless, airless) (IC /L C ).
The word consists o f three LCs.
disresp e c tfu l
1> disrespect- (IC) + -ful (pow erful, deceitful) (IC /L C ):
2) dis- (disjavour. disbelief) ( I C '/ L O + -respect (IC L C).
The word consists o f three l. Cs.
u n la d ylike:
1) un- (u n fa ir. u n tid y) ( I C /L C ) + - ladylike (IC):
2) lady- ( I C /L C ) + -like (b ird like, c b u d lik e ) ( I C 'L C ) .
The word consists o f three LCs.
Chapter 2
i.
SufTixal derivatives: discourage-ment, impassion-ed. befriend-ed.
discover-y. irr.press-ion, disguise-m ent. accoun t-able, outrage-ou s,
renew-able. endangcr-m ent.
Prefixal derivatives: in-scnsible. un-w om anly. a-system ic. u n
imaginable. ir-responsible, dis-hearten, in-defensible, un-friendly. im
personal, under-developed.
2
a) bases that coincide with morphological stem s o f different
d eg rees o f com p lexity: illitcra ten ess. frie n d lin ess, im p o ssib le,
landlordism, brainless, broaden, livelihood, acceptability, unimportance,
familiarity, weekender;
b) bases that coincide with word-forms: u n p ro tec te d , pain s
taking. u n d erstan d in g ^ , w eather-beaten, heart-breaking, seemingly,
uninspiring, laughingly, unnam ed, snow-covered, long-running;
c ) bases that coincide with word-groups: waterskicr. brainstruster.
three-cornered, allrightnik. green-eyed, absent-m inded, long-legged,
freesiyter. back-bench er, d o-goodixm . d o -it-yo urselfer, o n e-sid ed ,
allatonccness. whitcfeathery, idletalker.
3.
a) ‘no tV ’witho u t’ or ‘opposite o f :
nameless, anti-war. disapprove, depopulated, nonsmoker, apolitical,
lifeless, mistrust, unhappiness, childless, disorder, am oral, inattention,
anticlimax, duty-free;
PART IV. W O R D - F O R M A T I O N
Chapter 1
1.
I) Initial shortenings (aphcsis): p lane — aeroplane, bus — omnibus.
sport — disport, ch u te — parachute, te n d — attend, gator — alligator;
2) medial shortenings (syncope): hols — holidays. Frisco — (San)
Francisco, m iss — mistress, circs — circumstances. A line — Adeline.
m a n — market, p rep -sch o o l — preparatory-school;
3) final shortenings (apocope): va c — vacuum cleaner, curio —
curiosity, fa n — fanatic, c e n — certainty, coke — coca-cola, cuss —
customer;
4) both initial a n d final shortenings: tec — detective, q u iz —
inquisitive, soccer — Association Football, L iz - Elizabeth.
244
1) additive type: b ru n c h — breakfast an d lunch; a b so tiv e ly —
absolutely and positively; flu s h — flash and blush: tu'iri — twist and
w hirl; m ingy — mean and stingy: transceiver — transmitter and receiver:
crocogator — crocodile and aligator: w in d o o r — window and door:
glu m p y — gloomy and grumpy: s/naze — smog an d ha/e: O xbridge
Oxford and Cambridge;
2) restrictive type: positron — positive electron: m ote! - motorists'
hotel; spam — spiced ham; slanguage slang language: bit — binary
digit: paratroops — parachute troops: oilitics — oil politics: dipu4ird —
diphtheria ward: neu topia — new utopia; cablegram -- cable telegram:
flextim e — flexible time.
“V
s
Netiquette. Internet + etiquette ( t h e polite way o f expressing yourself
with people on the Internet ):
em oticon: em otion icon Га symbol such as or that you
type in an e-mail o r text message to show how you are feeling’):
netiz.cn: Internet - citi/en ( “someone w ho spends a lot o f time using
the Internet’):
technophobe: technology - -phobe (“som eone who does not like to
use new technology, especially computers').
4.
1) acronyms read as ordinary English words;
NATO ( neitaul — N orth Atlantic Treaty Organization;
I N O |'ju:nao| United Nations Organization;
BUPA 1Ъи.рл 1 - British United Provident Association:
UCAS |'ju:kics| — Universities and Colleges Admissions Service:
NASA [ mesa| — National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
SALT [s.Ylt) - Strategic Amis I imitation Talks:
I E LA [ ill j;fa| — Union o f European Football Associations;
NAAFI j'mefi] Navv. Armv. and Air Force Institutes;
TEFL 1'tefll — teaching o f Lnglish as a foreign language;
U N R R A Jan roil - U nited N atio n s R elief a n d R ehabilitation
Administration:
FIFA [Tufa) - Federal International Football Association;
2) acronyms with the alphabetic reading:
WHO J'dvbalju; eitf'aul — The World Health Organization:
A GM j'ei cfci: 'emj — annual general meeting;
W | j'dvbalju; a 1 1 — Women s Institute;
IRA |Til a: er[ Irish Republican Army:
C I O [ si 'at di:] — Criminal Investigation Department;
IQ fat kju:| — intelligence quotient:
M RBM fern a: bi. ‘e m | — medium-range ballistic missile;
FBI | “e f *bi: aij — Federal Bureau o f Investigation;
U FO 1'ju: e f a u j — unideniified Hying object;
VIP |Vi: ai 'plj - very important person;
G l I'dji; ai| — government (or general) issue.
6.
П иск cheep; тук-тук. н ам оеш ь тяжелый удар — thump-thump;
баю-бай, убаюкивать — hushaby /hush: лепет — babble; ш ипение —
fizz; ворчать — grumble: хихикать — to giggle: кудахтать — to cackle:
куко
« вать — to cuckoo; жуж * жать — to buzz, м ы чать — to m oo:
квакать — to croak: ш амкать — to mumble; свист — whiz; бах. баи;
с и л ь н ы й удар — bang; м я у к а т ь — to mew; ш и к а т ь — to boo:
кряканье - quacking; ржание - neigh; хлоп, хлопнуть — pop.
S.
I) ’com pound (n. adj) - co m p o u n d (v>; 2) 'perfect (adj) — perfect
(v): 3) perm it in ) - p e rm it (v); 4) progress (n) — p ro g ress (v);
5) 'frequent (adj) fre q u en t <v): 6) affix (n) — affix (v): 7) c o n
tact (n) - c o n ta c t (v); 8) insult (n) — insult (v>; 9) absract (adj) —
a b s tra c t (v); 10) 'decrease (n ) — d e c re a se (v): 11) 'protest <n) —
protest (v); 12) 'produce (n) - produce (v); 13) ‘survey (n) — surVey (v);
14) conflict (n) — conflict (v): 15) subject (n. adj) — subject (v).
246
Derivational base SuUiv ' Deris ed nouns
king- -d om kingdom
m dependenm - -<en)ce in d ep e n d en c e i
1. X 3Y 5. V ?. Y 9 X
2 Y 4. X 6. X S. X 10. X
16.
W o rd s with pro d u ctiv e affixes: unpeople: pubbers. clubbers: ex
provincial: alphabetism: snoopings; tabooish: singlely; cupboardfuls,
unwearable: revisit, refeel: wrongish.
248
W o rd s with n o n -p ro d u c tiv e affix es tirstships; iconists; peepfu!;
hataholic: Celebritocracy.
17.
I ) the suffix -(e )te ria m eans a place where there is an element
o f self-service': 2) the suffix -d o m denotes “d o m ain , status’ o r “a class
o f people or the attributes associated with th e m ’; 3) the prefix un-
denotes “the absence o f a quality or state' o r ‘the reverse o f : 4» the
suffix -fu l m eans ‘full o f : 5) the suffix -a b le m eans “possible'; 6) the
suffix - e r denotes 'a g e n t' (e h a n n e le r — “m edium , som ebody who
c o m m u n ic a te s with sp irits ’; b a g g er — ‘o n e w ho p uts c u sto m ers'
purchases into paper bags at the c h e ck o u t’ i: 7) ihe suffix -th m eans
‘state o r quality’: 8) the suffix -iz e m eans ‘to m ak e’ (o r to cau se’ );
9) (he prefix e x - denotes form er’; 101 the suffix -a c h o lic denotes
'to be addicted to ': II) the prefix re- m eans ‘ag ain ’; 12) the suffix
-ism m eans ‘d iscrim in atio n ag ainst': g e n d e rism — discrim ination
a g a in st p eo p le o f e ith e r sex; a b le is m — d is c rim in a tio n against
disabled: h eig h ryism — d isc rim in a tio n on the g ro u n d s o f height,
specifically unfair treatment of tali women and short men; a/phaberism —
discrim ination on the grounds o f the alphabetical place o f the first
letter o f one s surname.
18.
I ) -n ik — Russian and Yiddish: 2) p m — Greek: 3) - able — Latin;
4) - m e n t - F rench: 5) fo r e - — Old English. 6) -a g e - French;
0 n o n - — L a tin ; S> -is m G re e k ; 9) o v e r O ld E ng lish ;
10) -a n ce — French: II) -a n t — Latin: 12) p a ra Greek.
19.
1) the adjective-forming affixes added to the nominal bases: -ful
(sh am e ful), -o u s (hum or o u s), - a r v (com plim ent a r y ). -a t
(accidental», -v <prick!(e) -y>. -ish (fool(ish):
2) the adjective-form ing affixes added to the verbal bases: -ive
( p r o t e c t - i v e ) . - ib le ( c o l l a p s ( e ) - i b l e ) . - e d ( r e t i r ( e ) - e d ) . -ib le
(perm i(t)ss-ible), -ive (altem at(e )-iv e).
3) the adjective-forming affixes added to the adjectival bases, -al
(ironic-al. coim c-afi.-A /i (sm all-ish). -ly (dead ly)
2ft.
I) The verbal bases combined with Ihe noun-forming suffixes: -m ent
( e n c o u ra g e m e n t) , - e r (a m a n a g e r). - io n (th e in v e n tio n ), -e n c e
iinsistence), -a l (dismissal), -ее (appointees)
2» The verbal bases com bined with the adjective-forming suffixes
-fu l (useful), -ire (attractive), -able (avoidable >. -som e (tiresome), -ing
(annoying). -ar\ (imaginary).
244
C h a p te r 2
1.
I. adverb > verb 2. adjective > nou n 3. noun > verb 4. verb > noun
5. adjective > noun 6. noun > verb 7. adjective > verb 8. adverbs >
nouns 9. no un > verb 1ft. verb > noun 11. adjective > no un 12. noun
> verb 13. adjective > noun 14. conjunctions > nouns 15. adjective >
verb
У
1) deprivation o f the object; 2) in stru m en tal use o f the object;
3) action characteristic o f the object: 4) location: 5) acquisition or
addition o f the object; 6) action characteristic o f the object; 7) instru
mental use o f the object & deprivation o f the object; 8) addition o f the
object: 9) deprivation o f the object: 1ft) action characteristic o f the
object: 11) location: 12) instrumental use o f the object: 13) acquisition
or addition o f the object: 14) deprivation o f the object.
3.
1) agent o f the action: 2) instance o f the action: 3) result o f the
action: 4) object o f the action: 5) agent o f the action; 6) place o f the
action: 7) instance o f the action: 8) object o f the action: 9) result o f the
action: 10) instance o f the action; II) place o f the action: 12) agent of
the action; 13) object o f the action; 14) result o f the action
4.
Homonymous pairs:
sm o ke (n) — sm o ke (v) (OE smoca n. — smocian v );
июгк in ) - tcork |v) <OE weorc n. — wyrcan v.);
note (n) — n ote (v> (O F note n.. noter v. > note n.. v. >;
d rin k (v) — drink (n) (O F drincan v. — drinc n.|:
rest (v) — rest (n) (OE restan neslan v rest/nest n,);
change (v) — change (n) (O F change n., changer v. > change v.. n ) ;
answ er (n) — a n s u e r ( \ ) (OE andswaru n. — andswarian v ):
hate (v) - h ale (n) (OE hatian v. — hete n.);
p a in t (n) — p o in t (v ) (O F point, pointe n.. pointer v. > point n.. v.»;
sorrow (n) — sorrow (v) (OE sorh/sorg n. sorgian v.).
Conversion pairs:
sm ite (v) — sm ite (n) (Scan, smirk v.);
dream (n) — dream (v) (OF. dream n.l;
m ove (v) — m o te (n) (O F movier v );
nose (n) — nose (v) (OE nosu n .);
laugh (v) — laugh (n) (OE hkehhan. hliehhan v );
place (n) - p la ce <v ) (L platea n ).
h a n d (n) — h a n d (v ) (OE hand/hon d n ):
p ity (n) — p ity (v) (O F pile п.);
praise (v) — praise (n) (OE preisier to prize, to praise ):
cha n ce <n) — ch a n ce <v \ (O F cheanee n ).
25ft
*,
Nouns derived from verbs:
call ( n .v ) — calling, called, caller;
break (n. v) — breakable, breaker, breaking, breakage;
recover (n. v) — recoverable, recovery, recoverer. recovering;
mix (n. v) — mixer, mixed, mixable. mixture;
wash (n. v) - washer, washed, washable, washing.
Verbs derived from nouns:
lime (n. v) — timeless, timely. timeous;
age (n. v) — ageism, ageist. ageless:
effect (n. v) — effective, effectual. etTcctless;
harm (n. v ) harmful, harmless;
sleep (n. v) — sleepless, sleepy.
6.
1) boathouse (‘a shed at the edge o f a river or lake used for housing
boats') — houseboat Г а boat which is o r can be m oored for use as a
dwelling*):
2 )p la y -b o y Га man who is rich and spends his time enjoying himself
instead o f w orking) — bo y-play ( t h e activity o f playing that is done
by boys');
3) p o t-flo w er (‘a (lower that grows in a p o t') - Jlow er-pot Г а small
c o n ta in e r, typically w ith sloping sides a n d m ade from plastic, o r
earthenware, used for growing flowers in');
4) life-boat ( ’specially constructed boat launched from land to rescue
people in distress at sea’) — bo a t-life (‘life on board the ship ):
5) board-school r a n elementary school under the management o f
a S ch o o l Board ) — s c h o o l- b o a r d Г а local b o a rd o r a u th o rity
responsible for the provision and m aintenance of schools');
6) dog-house г a house (kennel) where dogs live) — h o use-dog (’a
dog kept to guard a house );
7 >pot-pie Га savoury pie baked in a deep dish, typically w ith a top crust
only*) — pie-pot (“a small container in which a pie is cooked or kept);
S) b o y-to y Га toy for b o y s') — to y-b o y ( ‘an object for a child to play
with, designed as a miniature replica o f a real boy ).
9) p la n t-h o u se f a house for plants / where plans are grow n’) —
h o u se-p la n t Га plant which is grown indoors )
Iff.
Compound nouns: sleeping-car. sunbeam , tim e-server, h o u s e
keeping. maidservant, broadway.
Compound adjectives: nation-w ide, sweet-smelling, sick-making.
reddish-brown, dog-tired, knee-deep.
Compound pronouns: everyone, anybody, som ething, nobody,
everything.
Compound adverbs: elsewhere, upright, outside, downhill, indoors.
Compound verbs: a) to honeym oon, to finger-print, to nickname,
to whitewash, to week-end, to hunger-strike: b) to vacuumciean (from
v a c u u m -c le a n e r ). to care-take (from c a r e -ta k e r ). to sightsee (from
sightseeing), to typc-write (from typew riter), to fortune-hunt (from
fo r tu n e -h u n te r), to merry-make (from merry m a k in g ).
11.
1) compounds composed without connecting elements:
heart-beat. pale-blue, day-time, wind-driven, oil-rich, play-acting,
blacklist, water-mark, sunflower, door-handle;
2) compounds composed with the help o f vowels or consonants
as linking elements:
saleswoman, electromotive, tragicomic, handiwork, craftsmanship,
sp o k e sm a n . A n g lo -S a x o n , b rid e sm a id , p o litic o -m ilita ry . A nglo-
Catholic;
3) com pounds com posed with the help o f p rep osition s or
conjunctions as linking elements;
m ake-and-break. up-to-date, d o w n -a n d -o u t, m atter-of-fact, up-
and-com ing, m other-in-law . sit-at-hom e, good-for-nothing, o n e-to -
one. step-by-step, out-of-town.
12.
Compounds proper: low -born, a peace maker, thoroughgoing,
a businesswoman, a side-track, awestruck, a baby-sitter, bluish-black,
a looking-glass, a type-writer, a mill-owner. hom e-m ade, a sportsm an,
stone-deaf, a videodisc.
253
Derivational compounds:
a) heavy -hearted', (a + n) + -ed: a pea-souper, (n + n) + -er: an old-
timer. (a + n) + -cr. Ш-m annered: (a + n) + -ed: a go-getter, (v + v) -
-e n one-eved: (num •+ n) * -ed: a teenager, (n ■+• n) + -er;
b> a b u yo u t: (v + adv) ♦ conversion; a sca tterb ra in : (v + n) *
conversion: to blackball: (a - n) + conversion; a low -Ь т ик (a + n) -
conversion: to keyboard: (n + n ) + conversion; a getaw ay. <v + adv)
conversion: to blue-pencil: (a + n) + conversion: a castauoy: (v + adv) -
conversion.
1.1
su m m er-flo w erin g :
1) n + \ tng
2) ‘flowering in sum m er’
3) V,„ + prp + N
4) temporal relations
notew orthy:
1) n + a
2) ‘worthy o f note’
3) A + р ф + N
4) objective relations
black -haired:
1) (a + n) + -ed
2) ‘with/having black hair’
3) with/having + A - N
4) possessive relations
blood-red:
1) n + a
2) ‘as red as blood*
3) as + A * as + N
4) relations o f resemblance
aw estruck:
1) n + vfn
2) ‘struck by awe*
3) 4 n t- рф +■N
4) instrumental relations
kin d -h ea rted :
1) (a + n) + -ed
2) ‘with/having kind heart’
3) with/having + A + N
4) relations o f possession
seven -yea r (plan):
1) num + n
254
2) seven years'
3) N um т N
4) quantitative relations
saferi-tested:
1) n + v,„
2) ‘tested for safety'
3) У ^ + р ф + N
4) relations o f purpose
p itch -b la ck:
1) n - a
2) ‘a* black as pitch*
3) as - A + as * N
4) relations o f resemblance
three-coloured:
1) ( n u m n ) + -ed
2) ‘with/having three colours'
3) with/having + N um + N
4) possessive and quantitative relations
sea-going:
1) n + v1Il?
2) ‘going to the sea*
- > Vr* ♦ РФ + N
4) locative relations
m a n -m a d e:
1) n + v „
2) ‘made by man*
31 \'cn - р ф + N
4) agentivc relations
m a ke-u p :
1) a verbal-adverbial com pound
2) {v + adv) ж conversion
3) to make up
4) V + Adv
5) semantic relations o f result
do o r-handle:
1) a nominal com pound
2) n? + n.
3) ‘the handle o f the d o o r’
4) N, р ф - N :
5) partitive relations
255
bottle-opener.
1) a verbal-nominal com pound
2) n + (v + -er)
3) 4 o open a boll Ic'
4) V + N
5) agentivc relations
g eta w a y:
1) a verbal-adverbial com pound
2) (v + adv) + conversion
3) ‘to gel awav*
4) V + Adv
5) semantic relations o f result
pencil-case:
1) a nominal com pound
2) n : + n
3) *a case for pencils'
4) N, + р ф - N :
5) semantic relations ol puф ose
shop-ow ner.
1) a verbal-nominal com pound
2) n + (v + -er)
3) ‘to own a shop'
4) V + N
5) agemive relations
tea ch -in :
1) a verbal-adverbial com pound
2) (v + adv) - conversion
3) ‘to teach in'
4) V - Adv
5) semantic relations o f result
country-club:
1) a nominal com pound
2) n2 + n,
3) ‘a club in the country'
4) N. + р ф + N :
5) semantic relations o f place
256
setback:
1) a verbal-adverbial com pound
2) (v adv ) + conversion
3) 'to set back'
4) V + Adv
5) semantic relations o f result
m a tch -b rea ker.
1) a verbal-nominal com pound
2) n - (v + -er)
‘to break a m atch'
4) V - N
5) agentivc relations
fo o tb a ll-p la yin g :
1) a verbal-nominal com pound
2) n - t\ + -mg)
3) to plav football’
4) V N
5) agentive relations
w in d m ill:
1) a nominal com pound
2) n: - n
3) *a mill worked by the w ind’
4) N - worked by + V
5) instrumental relations
go-betw een.
1) a verbal-adverbial com pound
2) (\ + adv) + conversion
3) ‘to go between’
4) Y ^ A d v
5) semantic relations o f result
w o m a n -d o cto r.
1) a nominal com pound
2) n : +■ n
3) ‘the doctor is a w om an’
4) N; + is - V
5) appositional relations
--------------------------------------------------------
Completely ParoalK truss imitated borrowings
assim ilated assim ilated
of b arb arism s
bo rrow ings b orrow ings
12.
C hanges in the sem antic structure o f the completely assimilated
borrowings:
1) wall ‘an upright side o f a room inside a building’ < Latin vallum
ram part':
2) gate ‘a door in a fence o r wall that you go through to enter or
leave a place’ < Dutch g a t ‘gat. hole, breach’;
3) w a n t to feel that you would like to have. keep, or do som ething’
< Old Norse vanta ‘be lacking’;
4) matter something that you are discussing, considering, or dealing
with’ < via Old French from Latin m ateria ‘timber, substance':
5) kettle ‘a container that is used for boiling water < Old Norse kerill
< Latin caiidus. diminutive o f catinus ‘deep food-vessel’:
6) finish ‘to do the last part o f som ething so that it is complete* <
Old French fe n is s < Latin fin ir e ‘end*:
7) money ‘what you earn. save, invest and use to pay for things*<
Old French m o n ei < Latin m o neta ‘mint, m oney’ (originally a title o f
the goddess Juno, in whose temple in Rome money was minted):
8) ill ‘not healthy, because o f a medical condition o r an injury’ <
Old Norse illr ‘evil, difficult’;
9) odd ‘different to what is usual o r expected; strange’ < from Old
Norse o d d a - in o d d a -m a th r ‘third m an. odd m an ’, from o d d i ‘angle’;
261
10) s tr e e t ‘a road in a town or city with houses o r other buildings
along it’ < from Latin strata (via) ‘paved (way), feminine past participle
a is te m e r e lay down*.
I1 J1.
1) torchere (tajc:): 2) chalet | j«elci|: 3) parquet [ picket); 4) chauffeur
I'Jaufo); 5) corps \'kx] (a m ain subdivision o f an arm y in the field,
consisting o f two or more divisions); 6) souvenir |,яи.лзтз); 7) spaghetti
IspagetiJ; 8) m em oir {’mem wo:); 9) incognito l.inkDg’nitao. in’kognitoul:
10) sabotage (ЧаЬа.игз]; I!) boulevard I'buila.vadJ: 12) m acaro ni
fmieko’ra u n if
14.
Datum — data: parenthesis — parentheses;
nucleus — nuclei; thesis — theses:
formula — formulae; stimulus - stimuli:
bacillus — bacilli; criterion - criteria;
stratum — strata; hypothesis — hypotheses.
15.
M a h a ra n i — ‘an Indian prince’s wife or widow’ (Hindi):
perestroika — ‘(in the former Soviet Union) the policy or practice
o f re stru ctu rin g o r reform ing th e e c o n o m ic an d political sy stem ’
(Russian):
sh eikh — ‘an Arab leader, in particular the chief or head o f an Arab
trib e , fam ily, o r v illa g e ’; a le a d e r in a M uslim c o m m u n ity or
organization’ (Arabic);
bagel — ‘a dense bread roll in the shape o f a ring, characteristic ol
Jewish baking’ (Yiddish):
sh a m a n — ‘a person regarded as having access to. and influence in.
the world o f good and evil spirits, especially am ong some peoples of
northern Asia and North America* (G erm an/R ussian);
a lca za r — a Spanish palace or fortress o f Moorish origin’ (Spanish):
sp a h i — *a m em ber o f the Turkish irregular cavalry’ (Turkish):
h ib a ku sh a — ‘(in Japan) a survivor of cither o f the atomic explosions
at Hiroshima o r Nagasaki in 1945* (Japanese);
tza tzik i — *a Greek side dish o f yogurt with cucumber, garlic, and
often mint* (Greek):
Soyuz *a scries o f m anned Soviet orbiting spacecraft, used to
investigate the operation o f orbiting space stations* (Russian);
torero — ‘a bullfighter, especially one on foot* (Spanish);
y in — ‘(in Chinese philosophy) the passive female principle o f the
universe, characterized as female an d sustaining and associated with
earth, dark, and cold* (Chinese);
tzigane — ‘a Hungarian gypsy* (Hungarian);
bagh — ‘a large garden o r orchard* (Hindi);
262
sh ia tsu — a form o f therapy o f Japanese origin in w hich pressure is
applied to certain points on the body using the hands* (Japanese);
sh a p k a — a brimless Russian hat o f fur o r sheepskin' (Russian).
16.
1) a la m ode — in fashion, up to d u e ; from French:
2) ter-a-tet — a private talk: from French;
3) a d hoc — formed, arranged, or done for a particular purpose only;
from Latin;
4) parla n d o — speaking: from Italian:
5) a la carte — according to the menu: from French:
6) p a r i-m u .u e l — mutual stake; from French;
7) com m edia d e lf arte — an improvised kind o f popular comedy in
Italian theaters in the 16" 18" centuries, based on stock characters;
from Italian;
S) pas d e d e u x — a dance for two people, typically a m an and a
woman: from French;
9) n ota ben e — take special notice; from Latin:
10) m enage a trios household o f three: from French;
11) p a d ro n a — a female boss or proprietress: from Italian:
12) coup d e m aitre — a master stroke: from French;
13) a d libitum — at pleasure: from Latin;
14) a la m ed a — a public walkway o r prom enade, shaded with trees;
from Spanish:
15) deja vu — a feeling o f having already experienced the present
situation; from French:
16) V berm ensch — the ideal superior man o f the future w ho could
rise above conventional Christian morality to create and impose his own
values, originally described by Nietzche in Thus S p a k e Z a ra th u stra
(1883-5); from G erm an (literally superman );
17) sensu lata — in the broad sense: from Latin;
18) p o u sa d a — an inn o r hotel, especially one o f a chain o f hotels
administered by the state (literally ‘resting place ): from Portuguese.
17.
1) screech — shriek < Old Norse sk r x k ja :
2) h o te l — hospital < Old French hostel < medieval Latin hospitdle:
3) ch a rt — ca rd < Old French c h a rie /c a rte < Old Latin c h a r ta /
carta < Greek kh a rtes ‘papyrus le a f ;
4) abridge — ahhrei iate < late Latin ahbreviare ‘cut short* < Latin
brevis ‘sho rt’;
5) travail — tr a ie l < via Old French from medieval Latin rrepalium
‘instrum ent o f torture’:
6) ca tch — ch a se < Old French c h a rie r (verb), ch a c e (no un) <
Latin capture 'try to take*, from capere ‘take’;
7) ch ieftain — captain < Old French ch evetaigne/capitain < late
Latin capiraneus 'c h ie f < Latin ca p u t. cap it head’.
263
IS .
L a tin O l d F re n c h . T re n c h O ld N u r s e , S c a n d . S p a n is h o r Italian
ju n io r p a rtn e r lo a n s firm
to in v estig a te jo u rn ey tak e n
in tim a te d sto u t tru sted
d efin ite ly m anner th eir
c o n se rv a tiv e p e o p le seem ed
s o lid safe
1 in stin c tiv e ch arg e
concerned c h a rita b le
ty p ic a l concerned
episcopal m ain te n a n c e
Sunday fo rm s
school fa sh io n a b le
se p a ra te d episcopal
change
coat
®9.
endanger, en- (Latin), -danger (Old French);
citizenship, citizen- (Anglo-N orm an French), -ship (Old English:
o f G erm anic origin):
com putaholic: com put- (French/L atin), -aholic (French):
p a n -A m e ric a n : pan- (G reek). -American (Latin);
leatherette: leather- (Old English: o f G erm anic origin), -cite (Old
French):
vice-ch a ir, vice- (Latin), -chair (French):
slavery, slave- (Old French), -ery (French);
superm an, super- (Latin), -m an (Old English: o f G erm anic origin):
disobey: dis- (Latin), -obey (Old French);
payable: pay- (Old French), -able (French/Latin);
foreleg-, fore- (Old English: o f G erm anic origin), -leg (Old Norse):
politeness: polite- (Latin), -ness (Old English: o f G erm anic origin):
befrien d : be- (Old English), -friend (O ld English: o f G erm an ic
origin):
outclass: out- (Old English: o f Germ anic origin), -class (Latin);
childish: child- (Old English: o f Germ anic origin), -ish (Old English:
o f G erm anic origin).
20.
I. guts — courage (French) 2. ask — question (French) — interrogate
(Latin) 3. fire — flame (French) - conflagration (Latin) 4. house —
m a n s io n ( F r e n c h ) 5. kingly — royal ( F r e n c h ) — regal (L a tin )
6. weariness — lassitude (Latin) 1. rise — m ount (French) — ascend
(Latin) 8. happiness — felicity (Latin) 9. holy — sacred (French) —
consecrated (Latin) 10. clothes — attire (French)
264
21.
Tooth — dental, sun — solar, cat — feline, youth —juvenile, death —
mortal, son — Filial, eye — optical, uncle — avuncular, dog — canine,
star — astral, sea — marine, nose — nasal, town — urban, sight — visual.
L — e. 5. — h. 9. -- b. 13. - f.
2 - £ 6. - 1. 10. - k. 14. - a.
3. c. 7 .- j . II. — i. 16. —m
4. — n. 8. — o. 12. - P- 17. - q.
C h a p te r 1
i.
a)
1. m ended 2. to repair 3. repairing 4. mending 5. repaired 6. mended
7. to repair 8. m end 9. repaired 10. to m end
265
Го m e n d — До repair something that is broken o r damaged, especially
something that has a hole (or tear) in it’
ro rep a ir — *to d o work o n something that is broken, damaged, or
not working properly, in order to make it work again o r look the way it
looked before’
h)
1. mistake 2. error 3. error 4. mistake 5. error 6. mistakes 7. error
8 error 9. mistake 10. mistake II. error
m ista ke - something that is wrong or incorrect, which you do by
accident’
error — a mistake, especially one that you do not realize that you
are making, that can cause usually serious problems for someone'
у
Meanings:
f u l l — I) filled completely; 2) complete, whole; 3) the highest or
greatest possible;
d r y — 1) having n o w ater o r liqu id in side o r on the surface;
2) without rain o r wetness; 3) not sweet; not fruity in taste; 4) dull and
uninteresting; 5) subtle, expressed in a matter-of-fact wav;
b ro a d — I ) large o r larger than usual; w ide; 2) stretching out far and
wide, large in area; 3) not limited; 4) general; w ithout detail; 5) clear,
open; not subtle; 6) rather rude, not acceptable in polite society;
ugly - 1) extremely unattractive: 2) threatening and frightening or
violent; 3) very unpleasant:
w id e — I ) measuring a large am ount from side to side o r edge to
edge; 2) covering o r including a large range o f things.
3.
to run
I. Эта лош адь участвует в скачках. 2. Продолжительность фтезь-
ч а два часа. 3. Вода течет. 4. Этот кран течет. 5. У него насморк.
6. Мотор работает. 7. Вино растеклось по полу. 8. Этот вопрос я в
ляется центральным в споре. 9. Она налила воду в ванну. 10. Он ус
пеш но управлял сытим бизнесом. II. Мороженое начинас! таять.
to charge
I. Он ваял с мужчины десять центов аа карандаш . 2. Он заря-
лил батарейку. 3. Он требовал от них вы полнения своих о б я за н
ностей. 4. Он записал эти покупки на счет мужчины. 5. Войска
атаковали неприятеля. 6. Я не хочу забивать свою голову пустя
ками. 7. Судья обвинил его в соверш ении этого преступления.
4 .1 .
1. С о б ак а задохнулась от дыма. Я выбил о к н а , чтобы мы не
задохнулись от паров бен зи н а. О на задыхалась от рыданий Он
задыхался от злости.
266
Russian: задыхаться о т чего-л. — English: lo suffocate by smth.;
to choke w ith smth.
2. Моя м азенькая дочка умеет ездить на велосипеде. Он пре
восходно С1 ДИ1 верхом на лошади. Я не хочу ехать на поезде. Если
мы поедем на автобусе, мы будем там вовремя.
Russian: езлить/ехать на чем-л. — English: to ride smth.; to go by
smth.
3. Это лекарство вылечит тебя от каш ля. Ничто, кажется, не
вылечит его иг нервозности. В этой больнице Анну лечат от го
ловной боли соверш енно новым препаратом. Матьч и ков доволь
но долго лечили от порезов и синяков.
R ussian: в ы л еч и в ат ь /л еч и ть от чего-л. — E nglish: to cure of
smth.; to treat for smth.
4. Следователь обвинил водителя в аварии. Он обвинил сестру
в смерти своего ребенка. Я не хочу обви нять его в том. чго он го
ворит неправду. О на сказала, что работодатели обвиняю т ее в кра
же (воровстве).
Russian: о б в и н я т ь в чем-л. — English: to Ыапте for sm th.: to
accuse o f smth.
5. П озволь мне взглянуть на это письмо. С ью не разреш ала
детям есть сладости. М ы не разреш аем никому курить в гтании.
Me позволяй проблемам управляй, iboch жизнью.
Russian: разреш ать/п о зволш ь кому-л. делать что-л. — English:
to let smb. d o smth.; to allow smb. to do smth.
4 .2 .
1. suffocate (in the passive) + preposition ‘by* + noun
ch o ke tin the passive) preposition with' + noun
2. ride + noun
go - preposition ‘by* + noun
3. cure + nou n/p ro n o u n + preposition ‘o f - noun
treat (in the passive) + preposition ‘for* - noun
4. b lam e * no un/p ro n o u n preposition ‘for' + gerund; to b la m e -
noun /pron oun -*• preposition ‘for* + noun
accuse + noun /p ro n o u n + preposition o f • gerund; to accuse +
n oun /p ro n o u n preposition ‘o f + noun
5. let + pronoun./noun + infinitive without the particle ‘to*
allow + noun/pronoun + infinitive with the panicle ‘to ’
5.
1. Russian: быть невиновным в чем-л. - English: to be innocent
o f smth.
2. Russian: объяснять что-л. кому-л. — English: to explain smth.
lo smb.
3. Russian: говорить н а како м -л . язы ке — English: to speak a
language.
4. Russian: влиять на что-л. — English: to affect smth.
5. Russian: возражать п р о ти в чего-л. — English: to object to smth.
6. Russian: встретиться с кем*л. - English: to encounter smb.
7. Russian: бы ть ви н овны м в ч см -л. — English: to be guilty o f
smth.
8. Russian: не одобрять что-л. — English: to disapprove o f smth.
9. Russian: беспокоить/тревож ить кого-л. чем-л. — English: to
bother smb. with smth.
10. Russian: ждать кого-л. — English: to wait for smb.
6.
Predicative: she was silent, you are studying, you read, you can
make, a w ord/a sentence gives, a suspicion flashes, she gained, it was
like a landscape, she shuddered, she saw.
N on-predicative, coordinative: to study an d read, a word o r a
sentence, dark and om inous, seen and hidden.
Endocentric word-groups:
verbal: to study a language, to read a page, to make nothing of. to
give a clue, to flash across sm th., to gain an inkling, to gain vaguely, to
shudder at smth.:
n o m in a l, a foreign language, a suspicion o f the sense, troubled w its,
an inkling into the working, the working o f sm b’s m ind, a dark/om inous
landscape, a flash o f lightning.
Exocentric word-groups: on a sudden, in a m om ent, at first.
s.
I) beautiful bird, black bird (дрозд), gay bird (весельчак): 2) cold
wind, cold hands, cold war. cold feet (трусость); 3) light burden, light
artillery, light supper, light hand (ловкость: деликатность); 4) blue skirt,
blue t'ox. blue funk (паника), blue stocking: 5) delicious cheese. Swiss
cheese, white cheese (творог), big cheese (важная персона): 6) coated
tongue, smoked tongue (копченый язык (кул.)). wicked tongue: 7) big
house, big boy (взрослый), big money, big talk (хвастовство): 8) high
tone, angry tone, mental tone (душевное равновесие).
Chapter 2
1.
I. a word-com bination 2. a phraseological unit 3. a w ord-com bi
nation 4. a phraseological unit 5. a word-combination 6. a phraseological
u n it 7. a w o rd - c o m b in a tio n 8. a p h ra se o lo g ic a l u n it 9. a w ord-
c o m b in a tio n 10. a p h ra s e o lo g ic a l u n it II. a w o r d - c o m b in a tio n
12. a phraseological unit
2
(a) 3 , 6 . 7 ,9 . II, 12
(b) 1. 2. 4. 5. 8. 10
268
3.
I. She was ад green as grass when she was sixteen but o th er girls
in the typing pool taught her the ways o f their world. 2. T he girls had
got on well together until th e a p p le o f d isc o rd in the person o f a
handsom e young apprentice appeared in their midst. 3. 1 get y o u r drift
now. I think. If you m ean by integrity' what I would call ‘consistency’
then we've been arguing at cross-purposes. 4. We must jo in h a n d s with
o u r friends in Europe. 5. She dropped upon me o u t o f a blue sk y and
began asking questions which I had to answer. 6. 1 thought there would
have been protestations and tears when I told her I wanted to move out
o f the flat, hut no. she stayed as coo! as a cucum ber. 7. When his son
was in Paris, the boy,got o u t o f h a n d and caused many difficulties. S. He
got very h o t u n d e r th e c o lla r w hen I suggested that he might he
mistaken. 9. After listening a tew minutes to their conversation. 1 was
a ll a t sea. Botany is not my subject. 10. There were at least six murders
in that blood a n d th u n d e r story. II. Joan belongs to th e upper crust:
you can tell by the way she walks and talks. 12. Publishers are well aware
that rum ours o f possible prosecution o f a book are likely to send the
scales up by lea p s a n d b o u n d s. 13. All the people involved in the
C o m m o n w e a lth A rc h ite c ts’ c o m p e titio n were told to h o ld th e ir
horses — because time would be needed to organize an exhibition in
which the entries could be put on show 14 You should not exaggerate
her attractio n for th e stro n g er sex. 15. I d o n ’t like to hear people
sneering at positions and titles they’d have accepted in tu o ticks if they’d
got the offer.
4.
1 ) substantive phraseological units: the stronger sex. the apple of
discord, the upper crust;
2) verbal phraseological units: to get smb's drift, to get out o f hand,
to join hands, to hold o n e ’s horses;
3) adjectival phraseological units: as cool as a cucumber, blood
and thunder, as green as grass, all at sea. hot under the collar;
4) a d v e rb ia l p h r a s e o l o g ic a l u n its : in two ticks, by leaps and
bounds, out o f a blue skv.
5.
1. Associations evoked by the literal reading of the phraseological unit
to rain cats a n d dogs are connected with the idea o f the raindrops as
cats and dogs fighting fiercely one another.
2 Associations evoked by the literal reading of ihe phraseological unit
to cast a clo u d o ver are connected with the idea o f some changes of
n a tu re m anifesting th e w orsening o f w ea th er a c c o m p a n ie d by an
im pending darkness and gloom that can be regarded as symbols of
misgivings and apprehension, o f som ething unpleasant that spoils, e.g.
m ood, inner state o f a person, sm b's activity, situation, etc.
269
3. Associations evoked by the literal reading o f the phraseological unit
to shtMi' o n e's teeth are connected w ith the idea o f a certain anim al's
behaviour. Showing its teeth an anim al tries to frighten its victim, tl
shows its strength (as teeth are one o f an anim al's strongest ‘w eap o n s').
as well as its readiness to attack its victim.
4. Associations evoked by the literal reading o f the phraseological unit
to m e n d one's m anners are connected with the idea o f repairing a tear or
hole in a piece o f clothing. The correction o f the defect improves the thing.
5. Associations evoked by the literal reading o f the phraseological unit
a sitting d u ck are connected with the idea that it is easy to shoot a duck
which is sitting still.
6. Associations evoked by the literal reading o f the phraseological unit
to catch som eone re d -h a n d e d are connected w ith the idea o f the blood
still on the hands o f the criminal .after stabbing his victim to death.
7. Associations evoked by the literal reading o f the phraseological unit
to ru n to seed are connected with the idea of a plant which, instead of
developing new shoots ( nooei м. ростки >. only produces seeds and loses
its beauty.
S. Associations evoked by the literal reading o f the phraseological unit
d ia m o n d c u t d ia m o n d are connected with the idea o f the diam ond as
o n e o f the hardest substance in the world, so it can only be cut by
another diam ond.
6.
1. Evaluation is negative, spoken with disapproval. 2. Evaluation
is positive, spoken with approval. 3 . Evaluation is negative, spoken
w ith disapproval. 4. Evaluation is positive, spoken with approval.
5. Evaluation is negative, spoken with disapproval. 6. Evaluation is
neutral/negative, spoken with disapproval. 7. Evaluation is positive,
s p o k e n w ith a p p ro v a l. N E v a lu a tio n is n e g a tiv e , s p o k e n w ith
disapproval.
12.
1. Native phraseological units:
I > to h a n g u p o n e 's boot: (from professional sports lexics) the
football player hangs up his boots after the match;
2) to b u ry th e hatcher, (custom) in the past to bury a hatchet was a
gesture to signify the end ot hostility between two tribes, groups, people:
4) a w hipping boy: (tradition) formerly a hoy educated with a young
prince o r another royal person and punished — whipped instead o f him
for his misbehaviour:
7) the law o f the jungle: (literature) from R. Kipling's <British novelist
and short-story writer) tale The Jungle B<ntk (1894):
10) a b lu e sto ckin g : form erly th e term d en o ted a p erso n who
attended the literary assemblies held in 1750 by three London society
ladies, w here some o f the men favoured less formal dress:
13) pig in th e m iddle: from a children s game where the pig tries
to catch a ball tossed from one to another o f a pair or ring o f people: if
succeeds, the thrower becomes ‘pig’:
15) a blue coar. in Britain students at charity schools wear a blue
uniform;
16) to d ie w ith o n e's boots on: from a military term meaning to die
in battle’:
18) p e n n y w ise a n d p o u n d fo o lish : penny is a British bron/e coin
and monetary unit equal to one hundredth o f a pound, pound is the
basic monetary unit o f the l/K . equal to 100 pence;
19) the iron curtain the phraseological unit has been widely used
in the m eaning ‘the W esternmost boundary o f the group o f Eastern
European states politically and economically dom inated by the Soviet
I n io n \ The phrase was popularized by Sir Winston Churchill in his
Fulton Speech in 1946: “ From Stettin on the Baltic to Trieste on the
Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across E urope’’;
21) to run the gaunrler. from the custom in the army and public
schools o f making an offender run between two lines o f soldiers or
schoolboys who would beat him with straps, sticks, etc.. in order to
dem onstrate their disapproval ol his misconduct.
2. Borrowed phraseological units;
3) a sa cred cow: from the H indu belie! that th e cow is a sacred
animal that must not be killed for food:
272
5) a n ug/у duckling, from Hans .Andersen's (D anish author) fairy
talc T he Ugly D uckling in which an ugly duckling, after m uch ridicule,
grows into a beautiful swan:
6) o f th e sa m e lea ven /h a tch : (from the Bible) "Your glorying is not
good. Know ye not that a little leaven leaveneth the whole lump? Purge
out therefore the old leaven, that ye may be a new lum p, as ye are
unleavened. For even Christ o u r passovcr is sacrificed for us: therefore
let us keep the feast, not with old leaven, neither with the leaven of
malice and w ickedness; but w ith the unleavened bread o f sincerity and
tru th ” (The Holy Bible: King Jam es Version. 2000);
H) an apple o f discord: from the Greek myth o f a golden apple which
was to be given to the most beautiful o f three goddesses:
9) to h id e o n e's h ea d in th e sand: (a belief that cam e from Australia
or Africa) according to this belief ostriches hide their heads in the sand
in order to escape the danger:
i 1) the h o t sear. (Am erican) the electric chair as a means o f executing
criminals;
12) a dro p in th e b u c k e t/o c e a n : (from the Bible) "B eho ld, the
nations are as a drop o f a bucket, and are counted as the small dust o f
the balance” (Isaiah XL: 15):
14) blue blood: from Spanish sangre azul:
17) to fid d le w h ile R o m e bum s: the Roman emperor. Nero, played
a v iolin while his capital was being devastated by fire;
20) th e R u ssia n soul: (from R ussian literature) described an d
dramatized in the works o f Dostoyevsky and other Russian novelists o f
the 19th century.
1.1,
I. fat cats 2. dark horse 3. Achilles heel 4. sour grapes 5. red tape
6. around the d o c k 7. to put her cards on the table 8. to lord it over 9. to
see somebody in the flesh 10. to work like a dog
1.
1. turns — journey 2. a rtan — a stone 3. o n o ir — dignity 4. sn a im —
a knot 5. u in n ea g — window 6. u ilm —- coffee 7. p a sg a n — packet
8. f to s — knowledge 9. caig — conversation 10. toll — hole II. a n a m —
life
3.
1. a dea/g — th o m 2. thс g a l — steam 3. cru a ta n — distress, hardship
4. a im p — noise 5. a ta m a ll — while 6. the fa lla — wall 7. balcais —
rag 8. a scib — basket 9. a c a m — friend 10. the togha — choice 11, the
to/g — sofa
273
7».
a) h isto ric a l A m erican ism s: fall, guess, sick:
b) proper Am ericanism s: elevator, telep h o n e b o o th , faucets,
subway:
c) sp e c ific a lly A m erican borrow ings: p iro g u e , h a m m o c k ,
tomahawk.
6.
American English British English Australian English
11) candy sweets lollies
2 ) grade form year
3) subway /m e t r o un derg roun d railway station
4) th e m ovies the c in e m a th e pictures
5) m ailbox postbox letterbox
6 i sneakers trainers runners
I ~ > sidewalk pavem ent toot path
274
E n d o f th e Table
.... .. — 1
A m e r i c a n E n g l i s h B r i t i s h f n g i i s h A m e r i c a n E n g l i s h B r i t i s h E n g l i s h
9 . b a b y c a r r i a g e p r a m 1 2 . t r a s h c a n d u s t - b i n
1 0 . d r u g g i s t c h e m i s t 1 3 . f r e e w a y m o t o r w a y
1 1 . s t r e e t c a r . t r a m 1 4 . s h o p p i n g c a r t t r o l l e v
t r o l l e y c a r 1 5 . p a r k i n g l o t c a r p a r k
13
B r i t i s h A m e r i c a n
W o r d s a n J w o r d - c o m b i n a t i o n s
F n g ! i \ b F n g h s h
1 п е р в ы й э т а ж g r o u n d f l o o r f i r s t f l o o r
2 . ж е л е ш л я a o p o i a r a i l w a y r a i l r o a d
3 . л и ф т l i f t e l e v a t o r
4 п е р с е и l e v e l c r o s s i n g g r a d e c r o s s i n g
5 . а в т о м о б и л ь m o t o r - c a r a u t o m o b i l e
| (> . б о й ( с р а ж е н и е ) f i g h t ( a c t i o n ) c o m b a t
( а я ч н ы и к и о с к е р n e w s a g e n t n e w s d e a l e r
S . о ч е р е д ь q u e u e l i n e
9 . п р о д а в е и s h o p a s s i s t a n t s a l e s c l e r k
1 0 . г о с у д а р с т в е н н а я ш к о л а s t a t e s c h o o l p u b l i c s c h o o l
14.
1) c a ra v a n the lexico-semantic variant 'a vehicle that people can
live and travel in on holiday' (1 ) is specific to British English. Its
analogous opposition in American English is trailer.
2) interval: the lexico-semantic variant ‘a short break between the
parts o f something such as a play o r concert’ (2) is specific to British
English. Its analogous opposition in .American English and in Standard
English is interm ission:
3) c u p b o a rd : the lexico-semantic variant ‘a very *mall room with no
windows used for storing things* (2) is specific to British English. Its
analogous opposition in American English is closer.
4) tin: the lexico-semantic variants *a closed metal container for a
food or drink product that you open with a tin opener’ (2) an d ‘a metal
container used for cooking food in an oven* (2b) are specific to British
English. Their analogous oppositions in American English are can and
p a n correspondingly:
5) flat: the lexico-semantic variant ‘a set o f room s for living in.
usually on one floor o f a large building* (1) is specific to British English.
Its analogous opposition in American English is apartm ent.
6) c o a c h : the lexico-semantic variants ‘a long comfortable vehicle
for carry ing a large num ber o f passengers, especially on long journeys*
( I) an d o n e o f th e sections o f a train* ( l a ) are specific to British
275
English. T heir analogous oppositions in American English are bus and
c a r correspondingly. The lexica-semantic variant ‘a less expensive type
o f seat o n a plane o r tra in ’ (3 ) is specific to A m erican English. Its
analogous opposition in British English is eco n o m y/to u rist class;
7) g u ard : the lexico-semantic variant 'som eone on a train whose job
is to check tickets, announce the stations, and look after the passengers’
( 4 ) is specific to British English. Its analogous opposition in American
English is conductor.
15 .
1. believe — Adam and Eve
2. cousin — baker’s dozen
3. phone — dog and bone
4. thief — tea leaf
5. sick — Tom and Dick
6. sister — skin and blister
7. trousers — round the houses
8. talk — rabbit and pork
9. feet — plates o f meal
10. nose — 1 suppose
11. drunk — elephant’s trunk
12. m outh — north and south
13. shoes — ones and twos
14. jewelry — Tomfoolery
15. state — (wo-and-eight
If.
Southern', the coastal and piedm ont areas o f Delaware, Maryland,
Virginia, the Carolinas. Georgia, the G u lf Slates (the states bordering
on the G u lf o f Mexico: Florida. Alabama. Mississippi. Louisiana), and
extending into the eastern p a n o f Texas.
M id la n d : a very large area extending across alm ost the whole
country, from southern New Jersey an d Pennsylvania an d northern
D elaw are, d o w n th ro u g h th e m o u n ta in o u s areas o f V irginia, the
C a ro lin a s, a n d G e o rg ia , w estw ard across T ennessee a n d w estern
Arkansas, then spreading into the whole o f the western United States.
Northern and Southern dialect subregions can be identified. It is the vast
size o f the M idland area that accounts for the impression o f general
uniformity in American English speech.
24.
• Time adverbials yesterd a y and still are deleted.
• M ain verb p reva iled is deleted.
• Relative clause that... yesterday made a main clause.
• Relative pronoun th a t and associated th e are deleted.
• Cleft structure 'it... r e s ta r te d replaced by a subjecl-predieaie
clause, th e m atch resum ed...
• Time adverbial n o t u n til m id -a ftern o o n is deleted.
276
• resum e replaces restart.
• but replaces a nd.
• Part o f the next sentence added: less ... rem aining.
• Change o f finiteness: rem a in ed becomes rem aining.
• New time adverbial is introduced: f o r th e f i n a l day.
P A R T VIII. E N G L I S H L E X IC O G R A P H Y
i.
a) Encyclopedic dictionaries:
The Chambers Book o f Facts
The Collins Dictionary o f Allusions
Ihe Oxford Com panion to English Literature
Brewer s Dictionary of 2b'h-century Phrase and Fable
The Merriam-Webster’s Geographical Dictionary
The Cambridge Guide to Fiction in English
The Cassell C om panion to 20lh-century Music
Ы Linguistic dictionaries:
N T C ’s Dictionary o f American Spelling
The Longman Dictionary o f the English Language
The Dictionary o f Literary Terms
The Concise Oxford Dictionary
The Collins C O B IT L D R ogefs International Thesaurus
ГЬе Cambrtdge International Dictionary o f Idioms
The Penguin Dictionary o f English G ram m ar
Random House Webster's Dictionary of American Slang
2
1) th e Concise O xford D ictionary o f English Etym ology: general,
specialized, monolingual, diachronic:
2) th e P e n g u in D ic tio n a r y oj E n g lis h id io m s : re stric te d ,
explanatory, monolingual, synchronic:
3) th e X etc O xfo rd D ictionary o f English: general, explanatory,
monolingual, synchronic diachronic:
4) the M o d e m E nglish-R ussian D ictionary: general, explanatory,
bilingual, synchronic:
5) th e L o n g m a n D ic tio n a r y o f P h r a s a l Verbs re s tr ic te d ,
explanatory, monolingual, synchronic:
b) th e L o n g m a n L a n g u a g e A c tiv a to r restricted, explanatory,
monolingual, synchronic:
л the E nglish-R ussian Dictionary o f Linguistics a n d S em io tics:
restricted, explanatory, bilingual, synchronic:
•M th e E n g lish P ro n o u n cin g D ictio n a ry , general, specialized,
monolingual, synchronic:
9) th e L o n g m a n B u s i n e s s E n g l i s h D i c t i o n a r y re s tr ic te d ,
explanatory, monolingual, synchronic;
HJ> th e N e w O xfo rd Thesaurus o f English: general, specialized,
monolingual, synchronic;
11) a D ictionary o f N eologism s: restricted, explanatory, m o n o
lingual. synchronic;
12) th e B B l C o m b in a to r y D ic tio n a r y o f E n g lish : g e n e ra l,
specialized, monolingual, synchronic.
In tern et
2 — о б р а з е н в ы п о л н е н и я п р а к т и ч е с к о г о задания
* н а л и ч и е к лю чей к п р а к т и ч е с к и м .заданиям
ОГЛАВЛЕНИЕ
П р е д и с л о в и е ....................................................................................................................... 3
P a r t I. I n t r o d u c t i on .................................................................................. 6
1 The O bject o f Lexicology Links o f Lexicology w ith O th e r Branches
o f L in g uistics................................................................................................................ 6
2 Tw o A pproaches to Language S tu d y ...................................................................... 8
3 T h e C o u rse o f M o d e m E nglish Lexicology ........................................................ 9
Q u e s t i o n s ............................................................................................. 9
P a r t I I S e m a s i o l o g y ................................................................... 11
C h a p te r 1 .............................................................................................................................. 11
1 M eaning as a Linguistic N o tio n .............................................................................. 11
LI. Referential o r Analytical D efinitio ns ol M e a n i n g .....................................12
1.2. F u n c tio n a l o r C o ntextu al D efinitio ns o f M e a n i n g ................................ 14
1.3. O perational o r In fo rm a tio n -O rie n te d D efinitions o f M eaning 14
2 I wo A pproaches to th e C o n te n t Facet o f Linguistic U nits N a m in g ............15
5 Types o f M eaning ...........................................................................................................17
4 Aspects o f Lexical M e a n i n g ........................................................................................18
Q uestions an d T a s k s ........................................................................................... 21
C h a p te r 2 ............. 25
1 W o rd -M e a n in g an d M o tiv a tio n ........................................................................ 25
2. C auses. N a tu re an d Results o f S em antic Сhange ............................. 27
3. P o l y s e m y ............................................................................................................. 29
3.1. D iachro nic a n d S ynchronic A pproaches to Polysemy............ ................ 30
3.2. H istorical Changeability of S em antic S t r u c tu r e ....................................... 31
3.3. Polysemy a n d C ontext. Types o f C o n t e x t ................................................ 32
4 H om onym y. Classification o f H o m o n y m s 33
Q uestions a n d T a s k s ........................................................................................... 34
C h a p t e r 3............................................................................................. 39
1. Intralinguistic Relations o f W o r d s ........................................................................ 39
2. T ypes o f S em an tic R e la ti o n s ................................................................................ 40
2.1. Proximity .................................................................................. 41
2.2 Eq uiva l e n c e ................... 41
2. 3 Inclusion H ypo nym ic S t r u c tu r e s ................................................................. 41
2.4 O p po sition ............................................................................................................42
3 S em antic Classification o f W o r d s ...................................................... 43
3.1. Synonymy. Classification o f S y n o n y m s ................................ 43
3. 2. Lexical a n d Terminological Sets. Lexic o -S e m a n tic G ro u p s and
Sem antic F ie ld s, 44
3. 3 Antonymy. Classification o f A n to n y m s ....................................................... 45
Q uestions a n d T a s k s ........................................................................................... 46
P a r t III W o r d - S t r u c t u r e 52
C hap ter 1 ................. 52
1 M orphem es. Classification o f M o r p h e m e s ......................................................... 52
2 Types o f M ean in g in M o r p h e m e s ........................................................................... 53
282
3. M o rp h e m ic Types o f W o r d s ..................................................................................... 55
4. T y p e o f W ord-Segm entability .................................................................................. 55
5 P ro ced ure o f M o rp h e m ic Analysis ......................................................................... 56
Q uestions a n d T a s k s ............................................................
C h a p te r 2 ............................................................................................................................... 61
1. Derivational S tru c tu re .................................................................................................61
2. Derivational Bases ....................................................................................................... 62
3. Derivational A ffix es...................................................................................................... 63
4. Derivational P a t t e r n s ................................................................................................... 64
5. H istorical Changeability o f W o rd -S tru c tu re ....................................................... 65
Q uestions a n d T a s k s .....................................................
P a r t I V W o r d - F o r m a t i o n ....................................................
Сh a p te r 1 .................................................................................................................................70
1. Various Types a n d Ways o f F orm ing W o r d s ........................................................ 70
2. A ffix atio n ................................................................................................................... 71
2. 1 S u ffixa tion. Classification o f S u ffix es......................................................... 7 2
2. 2 Prefixation Classification o f P r e f ix e s .......................................................... 73
3 Productive a n d N o n -P ro d u c tiv e A f f ix e s ............................................................. 74
4 Etym olo gy o f Derivational Affixes...........................................................................75
5. Valency o f Affixes a n d B a s e s .................................................................................. 77
Q uestions and T a s k s .......................................................................................... 78
C h a p te r 2 ..........................................................................
1 C o nversion Typical S em antic Relations in C o nversion ..................................87
2 D ia ch ro n ic Approach to C o n v e rs io n ...................................................................... 89
3. Basic C riteria o f S em an tic Derivation in C o n v e r s i o n .......................................89
4. W o rd -C o m p o sitio n . Types o f M eaning o f C o m p o u n d W ords. 91
5. Classification o f C om p o u n d Words ........................................................ 92
6 . C orrelational Types o f C o m p o u n d s .........................................................................93
Q uestions a n d T a s k s ............................................................................................. 96
P a r t V E ty m o lo g y o f t h e E n g lis h W o r d - S t o c k ........................................... 103
1. O rigin of English W o r d s ........................................................................................... 103
11. Words o f N a m e O r i g i n ................................................................. 103
1 2 Borrowed W ords ..................................... 105
2. Assimilation o f B o rro w in g s.................................................................................... 106
3. Influence o f Borrowing.............................................................................................. 108
Q uestions an d T a s k s ....................................................................................... 109
P a r t VI W o r d - G r o u p s and P h r a s e o l o g i c a l U n i t s ......................................121
C h a p te r I .............................................................................................................................. 121
1 Lexical a n d G ra m m a tic a l V alen cy.......................................................................... 121
2. S tru c tu re a n d Classification o f W o r d - G r o u p s ................................................ 122
3 Types o f M ean in g o f W o rd -G ro u p s ...................................................................... 123
4 . M otivation in W o rd -G ro u p s ................................................................................. 124
Questions a n d T a s k s .............................................................................. 124
C h a p te r 2 ..............................................................................................................................128
1. F ree W o rd -G ro u p s versus Phraseological U nits versus W o rd s .................. 128
1.1. Structural C r ite r io n ................................................................................ 129
1 .2 Sem antic C riterion .................................................................
1 .3 Syntactic С riterion ......................................................................................... 130
283
2. Sem antic S tru c tu re o f Phraseological U n i t s ........................................................ 131
3- T ypes o f Transference of Phraseological U n i t s .................................................. 133
4. Classification o f Phraseological U n i t s .................................................................. 134
Q uestions a n d T a s k s ........................................................................................ 136
P a r t V I I Variants and D ialects o f the English L a n g u a g e ................... 145
1. T h e M am Variants o f th e English Language .......... 145
1.1. Variants o f English in the U nited K i n g d o m ..............................................145
1.2. Variants o f English ou tside th e British I s l e s ............................................ 145
2. Som e Peculiarities o f British English a n d A m erican E n g lis h ....................... 154
3. Local D ialects in G re at B r ita in ............................................ 156
4 Local D ialects in th e U S A ........................................................................................159
5 Social Variation o f th e English L a n g u a g e .................... ................ .................... 161
5 I G e n d e r Issues ....................................................................................................161
5 2 O c cu p a tio n a l V arieties ....................................................................... 163
Q uestions a n d T a s k s ....................................................................................... 165
P a r t V I I I . English Lexicography........................................................... 177
1 Classification and Types o f D ic tio n arie s..................................................... 177
2. Som e o f the M am Problems in Lexicography.................................................179
3. T ypes a n d C o m m o n C haracteristics o f L earner's D ic tio n a rie s....................192
4. M o d e rn T rends in English Lexicography ............. 193
4.1 C o rp u s-B a se d le x ico g ra p h y ..................................................................... 194
4.2 C o m p u ta tio n a l Lexicography Electronic D ictionaries ................... 196
Q uestions a n d T a s k s ....................................................................................... 200
T e s t ........................................................................................................................................217
Answer Key to th e Test an d R e s u l ts .............................. 224
Answer Key to th e T a s k s ............................................................................................. 225
Part II. S e m asio lo g y ........................................................................................ 2 2 5
C hap ter 1 ................................................................................................................... 225
C hap ter 2 .............................................................................................................. 230
C h a p te r 3 ...................................................................................................................2 3 5
Part I I I . W o rd -S tru ctu re .............................................................. 238
C h a p te r 1 ................................................................................................................ 238
C h a p te r 2 .......................... 241
Part IV W o rd -F o rm atio n ........................................................................... 244
C hap ter 1 .................. 244
C h a p te r 2 ............................................................................................................... 250
P a n V. Etym ology o f the English W o r d - S t o c k ..........................................255
Pan VI. W o rd -G ro u p s a n d Phraseological U nits ..................... 265
C h a p te r 1 ................. 2 65
Сhapte r 2 ............................................................................................................... 265
Part VII. Variants and Dialects o f the English L a n g u a g e .................... 273
Part V I I I English Lexicography......................................................... 279
Bibliography....................................................................... .................................279
D ic tio n a rie s..................................... 280
Internet ............................................................... 250
Знаки и с и м в о л ы , используем ы е в п о с о б ии ....................................................28 1
Уч ебное и зд а ни е