Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103971

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Functional Foods

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jff

Traditionally fermented pickles: How the microbial diversity associated with T

their nutritional and health benefits?
⁎,1 ⁎
Sudhanshu S. Behera (PhD)a, Aly Farag El Sheikha (PhD)b,c,d,e,f, , Riadh Hammami (PhD)c, ,
⁎
Awanish Kumar (PhD)a,
a
Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Technology, Raipur 492010, Chhattisgarh, India
b
College of Bioscience and Bioengineering, Jiangxi Agricultural University, 1101 Zhimin Road, Nanchang 330045, China
c
School of Nutrition Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ottawa, 25 University Private Ottawa, Ontario K1N 6N5, Canada
d
Bioengineering and Technological Research Centre for Edible and Medicinal Fungi, Jiangxi Agricultural University, 1101 Zhimin Road, Nanchang 330045, China
e
Jiangxi Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Fungal Resources, Jiangxi Agricultural University, 1101 Zhimin Road, Nanchang 330045, China
f
Minufiya University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Food Science and Technology, 32511 Shibin El Kom, Minufiya Government, Egypt

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Historically, pickling is one of the oldest preservation methods of several foodstuffs such as vegetables, fruits,
Pickling fish, and meat. Pickling imparts unique and desirable changes in flavor, texture and color that take place over
Microbiota diversity time in fermented pickles. Microorganisms (mainly lactic acid bacteria, Micrococcaceae, Bacilli, yeasts, and
Nutritional impacts filamentous fungi) play a pivotal role in the pickling of foodstuffs while affecting the quality and safety of the
Therapeutic potentials
final product. This review focuses on the common traditional fermented pickles and their nutritional, ther-
Economic scope
Pickles bio-fortification
apeutic, and economic potentials. Furthermore, the technological progress in screening microbial communities
associated with the traditional pickles is summarized. Finally, this paper will tackle with the role of pickles in
filing the gap in food security, the safety aspect of traditional pickles and biofortication as an interesting
technique to improve the quality of traditional pickles.

1. Introduction
Pickling is an ancient gastronomic craft (predate to 2400 BCE) of
preserving food in brine and/or vinegar. Pickling has been an intrinsic
process in all communities and cultures over the globe (Chakraborty &
Roy, 2018). Pickling fruits, vegetables (together with roots and tubers),
fish, and meat has been a centennial tradition, but the age-old Meso-
potamians were also supposed to learn the art of preservation of fruits
and vegetables (Kawahara, Iida, Toyama, & Fukuda, 2010). Multiple
ancient civilizations, such as ancient Egyptians, Chinese, and Indians,
used pickling for food preservation (Chakraborty & Roy, 2018; El
Sheikha, 2018b).
Pickling involves preserving foodstuffs under high acid concentra-
tion, enabling their preservation for over two years without refrigera-
tion. There are different types of pickles that fall into two categories on
fermentation aspect basis (Fellows, 1997):
• Unfermented pickles: produced by two methods: (i) “salt-stock
pickle” that use a concentrated brine (up to 16% salt) where pre-
servation is due to salt and not to fermentation, and (ii) “vinegared

Abbreviations: AAFC, Agriculture Agri-Food Canada; APAC, Asia-Pacific; APEDA, Agricultural & Processed Food Products Export Development Authority; BC, Before
Christ; CAGR, Compound Annual Growth; CFU, Colony Forming Units; CTCRI, Central Tuber Crops Research Institute; CVDs, Cardiovascular Diseases; DGGE,
Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis; EFY, Elephant Foot Yam; EPS, Exopolysaccharides; FAO, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; GC-MS,
Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy; GIT, Gastrointestinal Tract; GRAS, Generally Regarded as Safe; HPLC, High Performance Liquid Chromatography; HS-
SPME, Headspace Solid-Phase Microextraction; IMS, Ion Mobility Spectrometry; IOC, International Olive Council; LA, Lactic Acid; LAB, Lactic Acid Bacteria; MALDI-
TOF, Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization-Time Of Flight; MRS, De Man Rogosa and Sharpe; MS, Mass Spectrometry; NGS, Next-generation Sequencing; NMR,
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance; NO, Nitric Oxide; OGT, Oro-Gastrointestinal Transit; Phe, Phenylalanine; PLA, Phenyllactic Acid; PME, Pectin Methylesterase; RAPD-
PCR, Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA-Polymerase Chain Reaction; RFLP, Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism; TA, Titratable Acidity; TTGE, Temporal
Temperature Gradient Electrophoresis; USDA, ARS United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service; VOCs, Volatile Organic Compounds;
WHO, World Health Organization
⁎
Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: elsheikha_aly@yahoo.com (A.F. El Sheikha), riadh.hammami@uottawa.ca (R. Hammami), awanik.bt@nitrr.ac.in (A. Kumar).
1
Principal and first corresponding author.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2020.103971
Received 29 December 2019; Received in revised form 4 April 2020; Accepted 13 April 2020
1756-4646/ © 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY-NC-ND/4.0/).
S.S. Behera, et al.
Fig. 1. Procedural flowchart to produce: (A) unfermented pickles; (B) fermented pickles (Source: http://www.fao.org/3/a-au116e.pdf). Reproduced with permis-
sion.
pickles” where raw materials are packed in vinegar (acetic acid), salt
and sometimes added sugar to help develop different flavor and
texture in pickles. Unfermented pickles are usually pasteurized by
heating. Fig. 1A illustrates the procedural flowchart to produce
unfermented pickles.
• Fermented pickles: there are two types of fermented pickles (sour or
sweet pickles): (i) sour fermented pickles made by submerging raw
materials in a dilute brine (2–5% salt). Naturally occurring bacteria
grow over 1–2 weeks to produce lactic acid, which then prevents the
growth of food poisoning bacteria and other spoilage microorgan-
isms. The amount of added salt controls the type and rate of the
fermentation, and (ii) in sweet fermented pickles, they are preserved
by a combination of lactic or acetic acid, sugar and spices (Fig. 1B).
Traditionally, there are a wide variety of fermented pickles that can
be produced through lactic fermentation (vegetables, fruits, milk, cas-
sava, meat), alcoholic fermentation (cassava, rice), high salt fermen-
tation (fish, soy sauce, tauco [fermented soybean slurry]), and mold
fermentation (peanut press cake, soybeans) (El Sheikha, 2018a;
Nuraida, 2015). Traditionally fermented pickles are usually homemade
products obtained through spontaneous fermentation, but nowadays
are evolving to address quality, safety and mass production issues. This
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Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103971
requires the control of raw materials, microbial ecosystems, and fer-
mentation processes (Lan et al., 2013). For instance, Lactobacillus
strains have been considered as convenient starter cultures for use in
fermented pickles. Some lactobacilli species are facultative hetero-fer-
mentative and able to transform hexoses (i.e. glucose and lactose) into
lactic acid and subsequently to acetic acid (Zaunmüller, Eichert,
Richter, & Unden, 2006) while producing other metabolites with de-
sirable properties. Indeed, pickles fermented by lactic acid bacteria
(LABs) have a distinctive flavor and positive health effects (El Sheikha,
2018a; Kandasamy, Kavitake, & Shetty, 2018). Multiple fermented
pickles were shown as valuable sources of proteins, carbohydrates,
minerals, vitamins, and fibers (Behera, Ray, & Zdolec, 2018b; El
Sheikha & Hu, 2020; Mukisa, Byaruhanga, Muyanja, Langsrud, &
Narvhus, 2017). LABs could produce heterogeneous aroma con-
stituents, bacteriocins, and exopolysaccharides (EPS) contributing to
some important characteristics, such as texture, taste, and longer shelf-
life to the fermented pickles (Harutoshi, 2013; Leroy & De Vuyst, 2004;
Suzuki, Kobayashi, & Kimoto-Nira, 2013). In addition, LABs in pickled
products have an important role in the detoxification of virulent/toxic
synthesis and degeneration of mycotoxins in certain instances, thus
reducing many health risks. LABs have GRAS status (Generally Re-
cognized As Safe) and are very useful to fight the continual
S.S. Behera, et al.
development of pathogens and spoilage microorganisms in pickled
products (El Sheikha & Hu, 2020; Irkin & Songun, 2012).
This review provides an overview on which types of microbial
communities utilized via pickles and their nutritional and health ben-
efits they could confer upon consumption. Additionally, the develop-
ments discussed in this review offer a taste of future trends in the
characterization of associated-microbiota, role in filling the gap in food
security, expected economic scenario of the pickling industry, and bio-
fortification strategies for improving the nutritional and therapeutic
properties of fermented pickles.
2. Overview of common traditionally fermented pickles
worldwide
Considerable varieties of fermented pickles produced from vege-
tables, fruits, fish, and meat, which are mostly preferred by consumers
due to their extended shelf-life, and acceptable taste and aroma char-
acteristics.
2.1. Vegetable-based fermented pickles
Production and consumption of traditional vegetable-based fer-
mented pickles have a long worldwide history including populations
from different cultures, i.e., Asians, Africans, Latin Americans, and re-
cently North Americans and Europeans due to their desirable sensory
attributes and high nutritional value, as well as extended shelf-life (El
Sheikha, 2018a, 2018b; El Sheikha & Montet, 2014a, 2014b; LeBlanc,
Vignolo, Todorov, & de Giori, 2013b; Li et al., 2015; Ray, El Sheikha, &
Kumar, 2014).
Kimchi is the name given to various traditional pickled vegetables,
which are emblematic of the Korean culture. It is mainly produced from
cabbages and radish, but other seasonings ingredients such as garlic,
green onion, ginger, red pepper, mustard, parsley, jeotgal (fermented
seafood), carrot and salt may be used (Jung et al., 2011; Lee, 2001).
Kimchi is a multifunctional food with a high nutritional value and
considered as one of the most widespread traditional pickled foods in
the world (Zhang & Park, 2009). The vegetables used in kimchi con-
tribute to its overall nutritional value as it is rich in vitamins, minerals
and also fresh vegetables can harbor a number of LABs, with Lactoba-
cillus kimchii being among the typical fermenting species (Kim & Chun,
2005; Leea et al., 2005). The beneficial effects of kimchi are attributed
either to functional components (vitamins, minerals, fibers, and phy-
tochemicals) and fermentation process by LABs such as Lactobacillus
plantarum and Leuconostoc citreum (Ji et al., 2013; Lee et al., 2011; Ray
et al., 2014). Other LAB species could also adapt to kimchi such as
Leuconostoc mesenteroides, which has been reported under certain en-
vironmental conditions (e.g., acidic, high salt concentration, etc.) (Ji
et al., 2013).
Gundruk is a pickled product of Nepal, which is obtained by fer-
menting leafy vegetables. The production process is similar to that of
sauerkraut, but no salt is added to the shredded leaves before fermen-
tation (Mir et al., 2018; Ray et al., 2014; Tamang & Tamang, 2010).
Gundruk fermentation is usually dominated by Pediococcus sp. and
Lactobacillus sp., with Lb. cellobiosus and Lb. plantarum being the in-
itiators of fermentation. During fermentation, the pH drops slowly to a
final value of 4 and total acidity (as lactic acid) increase to about 1%
(Karki, 1986). Gundruk may be served as a side dish (pickle) or an
appetizer.
Cucumber is the leading one among the vegetables used in pickles
production in the world. During the pickling process of cucumber, acid
fermentation starts shortly after brined cucumber and continues to
preserve for 2–6 weeks. The most appreciated starter cultures for cu-
cumber fermentation include the facultative homo-fermentative LAB
(Pediococcus sp.) and hetero-fermentative LABs (Lb. plantarum, and Lb.
pentosus), which are likely to prevail in cucumber fermentation pro-
ducing mostly lactic acid and CO2 (Zhai, Pérez-Díaz, & Diaz, 2018).
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Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103971
Khalpi is a pickled cucumber product of Nepal, which is usually eaten as
pickle after mixing with mustard oil, salt and powdered chilies. The
bacteria like Lb. plantarum, Lb. brevis and Ln. fallax are usually involved
in khalpi fermentation (Mir et al., 2018; Tamang & Tamang, 2010).
Mature and ripened cucumber is chopped into suitable pieces, sun-dried
(for 2 days), then put into a bamboo vessel, locally named dhungroo,
and made airtight. The fermentation is processed at room temperature
for 4–7 days. The cucumber could be pickled using a pure or mixed
culture of Lb. plantarum and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, while mixed
cultures improved nutritional and technological features (Behera,
Panda, Mohapatra, & Kumar, 2018a; Behera et al., 2018b; Rodrigo,
Alvarruiz, Villa, & Feria, 1985). The inoculation with a starter culture is
critical to the pickling process, which could be completed within
11–12 days at 17 °C for large-sized green cucumber pickled in a low salt
brine solution (4.7% NaCl, w/v) compared to 35 days for non-in-
oculated sample (Chavasit, Hudson, Torres, & Daeschel, 1991). The
authors have observed that non-inoculated samples, even with salt
brine (10.7% NaCl, w/v), had hardly begun fermentation on the 87th
day. An initial salt concentration (5–7.5% NaCl, w/v) for 4–5 days is
optimum for the fermentation of pickling cucumber in low count of
lactic acid-forming bacterial counts (Suresh & Rajashekhara, 1997). The
pickling process could be started by Ln. mesenteroides, at low con-
centration of salt and room temperature, while initiated, at high salt
concentration and temperature, by Enterococcus faecalis, Saccharomyces
cerevisiae, Lb. plantarum, and, to a lesser extent, Lb. brevis.
Capparis species (mainly Capparis spinosa L.) are common
Mediterranean shrubs that produce caperberries, a large grapefruit.
Fermented caperberries are mainly produced in the Mediterranean re-
gion, but consumed worldwide as a delicatessen product. Fermented
capers are usually used both as an appetizer (i.e. with meat, olives,
cheese, etc.) or as a complement to salads, pasta, and other food dishes.
The caper fruits are collected during the summer season and tradi-
tionally fermented in tap water for a week in a temperature range of
23–43 °C, followed by immersion in brine (Luna & Perez, 1985). This
traditional process provides fermented capers with highly appreciated
organoleptic features in addition to economic and social aspects in the
Mediterranean area (Pulido et al., 2005). Fermentation of caper fruits
occurs spontaneously by LABs present in the raw material and proces-
sing environment (Valdés, Talavera, & Fernández-Galiano, 1987), with
Lb. plantarum being the most predominant and fast acidifying microbe.
This rapid acidification phenomenon below pH 4.5 combined to the
high temperature of fermentation, which can reach 40 °C, prevents the
growth of Leuconostoc sp. during caper fermentation compared to other
vegetables (Di Cagno & Coda, 2014).
Tursu is a traditional fermented Turkish pickle made of vegetables
such as cabbage, cucumber, carrot, beet, pepper, turnip, eggplant, and
beans, with Lb. plantarum, Lb. brevis, Ln. mesenteroides and Pediococcus
pentosaceus being the most encountered microorganisms during its
fermentation process (Çetin, 2011; Irkin & Songun, 2012). For instance,
Lb. plantarum NCULI005 was recognized as a valuable starter culture for
the tursu with improved quality, taste, and aroma characteristics in
addition to other probiotic traits such as the production of conjugated
linoleic acid (Çetin, 2011).
Chinese pickle (paocai) is a kind of brine-salted (8%, w/w) and
lactic acid (Lb. plantarum CNQ7) pickled vegetable (i.e., cowpea, cab-
bage, mustard) product, which differ from Korean pickle (kimchi) by
use of salt to withdraw vegetable juice (dry salting) (Li et al., 2015).
Sunki is an unsalted, accustomed and LA-fermented pickle, pro-
duced using red turnip (Brassica rapa L.) leaves with the help of LAB
starter cultures [i.e., Lb. plantarum and Lb. delbrueckii (homo-fermen-
tative) and Lb. fermentum (hetero-fermentative)] (Endo, Mizuno, &
Okada, 2008). Sunki has been eaten up by the society in the inland/
provincial mountainous zone of Nagano Prefecture, Japan (Tomita,
Nakamura, & Okada, 2018).
Lacto-pickle is a sweet potato fermented by endogenous microbiota
or starter culture. Sweet potato lacto-pickles have a sour taste and are
S.S. Behera, et al.
famous associates in India and frequently consumed along with staple
foods (El Sheikha & Ray, 2017). The pickling of β-carotene and an-
thocyanin-rich sweet potato treated with brine (2–10%, NaCl) solution
and inoculated with Lb. plantarum (MTCC 1407) culture (for 28 days)
has been investigated at the Regional Centre of CTCRI (Central Tuber
Crops Research Institute), Bhubaneswar, India (Panda, Panda,
Sivakumar, & Ray, 2009; Panda, Parmanick, & Ray, 2007). Antho-
cyanin-rich sweet potato lacto-pickle had a LA (1.0–1.3 g.kg−1), ti-
tratable acidity (TA) (1.5–1.7 g.kg−1), pH (2.5–2.8), starch
(56–58 g.kg−1) and anthocyanin content (780 mg.kg−1) on fresh
weight basis. The sensory and consumer attributes (logistic regression
modeling) revealed that the sweet potato pickles are agreeable based on
taste, texture, aroma, flavor and aftertaste (Sivakumar, Panda, Ray,
Naskar, & Bharathi, 2010). The lactic acid (LA) fermentation of orange-
fleshed sweet potato pickles carried out for 12 days at 30 °C using a
mixed culture of Lb. plantarum and Ln. mesenteroides exhibited a su-
perior quality (total LA content, LABs, reducing sugar, and texture)
compared to spontaneously fermented pickle (Yuliana, Nurdjanah, &
Margareta, 2013). The microbial depolymerizing enzymes in sweet
potato fermentation are the major contributors to cell wall degradation
and disruption of the texture of sweet potato pickles (Oyinlola, Onilude,
& Garuba, 2016). Additional natural enzymes such as pectin esterase,
pectin methylesterase (PME), and α and β-amylases present in sweet
potato may cause the softening process during pickle preparation
(Oyinlola et al., 2016).
Likewise, the LA-fermentation of radish (Raphanus sativus L.) roots
was performed in a brine solution (5% NaCl w/v), ferment at 20–30 °C
(for 11–17 days) using spontaneous fermentation (Pardali,
Paramithiotis, Papadelli, Mataragas, & Drosinos, 2017). LABs were
shown to dominate in the spontaneous fermentation of radish roots,
with P. pentosaceus acting as a starter culture while Lb. brevis and Lb.
plantarum leading at the late stages of the fermentation process (Pardali
et al., 2017). Likewise, several beneficial LABs such as Lactobacillus sp.,
Pediococcus sp., and Leuconostoc sp. were reported in fermented radish
taproot (Damodharan, Palaniyandi, Yang, & Suh, 2015). Sinki is a fer-
mented pickle prepared from radish taproot mixed with oil, salt, and
chilies, and is conventionally developed by pit fermentation (Ray et al.,
2014; Tamang & Sarkar, 1993). Sinki is traditionally consumed in India,
Nepal, and Bhutan either as a pickle or as a base for soup (Tamang,
2009), and has been shown as an effective appetizer and relief for
diarrhea and stomach pain. Its fermentation is carried out by various
LAB species (e.g., Lb. fermentum, Lb. brevis and Lb. plantarum) that
acidify the pH from 6.7 to 3.3 (Mir et al., 2018).
Ramdas and Kulkarni (1987) reported that fermentation of carrot
(for 6 days) in brine (2%) and by different strains of LABs at a tem-
perature of 30 ± 2 °C yield an acceptable end product (brine 2%, acid
0.78%, pH 3.38, 6.7 × 109 CFU/mL). Noteworthy, carrot fermentation
in a sequential manner using Lactobacillus, Streptococcus, and Pedio-
coccus was shown to drop the pH faster with maximum acidity at 2.5%
salt and 26 °C (Joshi & Sharma, 2012). Recently, Behera et al. (2018a)
have reported that lacto-pickling of elephant foot yam (EFY) at 8% salt
(NaCl, w/v) with Lb. plantarum MTCC-1325 (10%, v/v) for 22 days
were suitable conditions for lacto-pickle.
Fig. 2 shows a generalized flowchart for the acid-fermentation of
vegetables (radish, carrot, and cucumber).
Bamboo is a grass (family Poaceae, subfamily Bambusoideae) that
grows in the tropical and subtropical climates of Asia. Ethnic commu-
nities living in sub-Himalayan regions, Nepal, and Bhutan, consume a
range of domesticated and wild bamboo shoots and their fermented
products. Indeed, fermentation was recognized as an efficient strategy
to extend the shelf-life (over a year) and enhance the safety of bamboo
shoots by endogenous food microbiota and their produced anti-
microbial metabolites (Lu, Wu, Shi, Dong, & Zhang, 2006). For in-
stance, mesu is a pickled bamboo shoot traditionally eaten up by the
people of living in the hills area of Nepal, Bhutan, Sikkim, and the
Lepchas of the Darjeeling (Ray et al., 2014). The mesu is prepared from
4
Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103971
fermented young bamboo shoots with oil, chilies, and salt, which can be
preserved for a long time (Choudhury, Sahu, & Sharma, 2012). Similar
fermented bamboo shoot pickles are soibum and soidon, which are an
unusual delicacy of the Meities of Manipur, consumed both as a curry
and pickle and served as an important food element of all Manipuries
festivals (Tamang & Tamang, 2010). The product is eaten raw with
fermented fish or in boiled and other cooked form with any fish, meat,
or vegetables.
Khorisa is another ethnic fermented bamboo shoot product of Assam
(India), and used in traditional meals including fish, meat, and sweets,
and dishes cooked with it are popular appetizers among the indigenous
population. Poka khorisha (Khorisha tenga) is also an indigenous fer-
mented bamboo shoot foodstuff of Assam (India). It is milk-white with a
faint aroma and sour taste. It is also mixed with edible oil, chilies, and
salt (pickled) and preserved in closed containers for up to two years.
Like khorisa, Lactobacilli are largely active in the poka khorisha fer-
mentation stage. The fermented tabah bamboo shoot pickle is one of the
means to enhance the shelf-life of bamboo shoots. Darmayanti,
Duwipayana, Putra, and Antara (2014) reported some characteristics of
tabah bamboo shoot pickle at the end of the fermentation process, in-
cluding dominance of Lb. plantarum (17/18 LABs as detected by PCR
technique), a high amount of lactic acid (0.0546 g/100 g), a HCN de-
creased amount of HCN (from 37.8 mg/kg to 20.52 mg/kg), and an
acidic pH of 3.09. Currently, in some small-scale industries, the bamboo
shoots are blanched, once sliced into small pieces, in hot water to re-
duce their enzymatic activity (with potassium metabisulphide 1%), and
are sundried, packed in an airtight container and sent for sale (Kumar,
Kumari, Devi, Choudhary, & Sangeetha, 2017).
2.2. Fruit-based fermented pickles
Pickled fruits, made in households or small factories, have been
popular in Egypt for centuries (Mheen et al., 1983). They are used as
appetizers and served with practically every meal.
The olive fruit, produced by the olive tree (Olea europaea L.), is
economically and socially an important drupe for Mediterranean Basin
countries, and more recently, to America, Australia and the Middle
East. An impressive increase of 211% in the global production of table
olives over a period of 30 crop years is the most striking figure in
market statistics released in 2019 by the International Olive Council
(IOC). This percentage translates to a growth in the volume of more
than three-fold from 950,000 tons in 1990/91 to an estimated
2,751,500 tons in the 2018/19 season (International Olive Council,
IOC, 2019). The most dramatic increases have been noted in Tunisia,
Egypt, Turkey, Spain, Algeria, Greece, Argentina, Iran, Syria, and
Morocco. For each olive-growing country, typical varieties of table ol-
ives are produced using local traditional processes, with fruits being
harvested at a pre-established stage of maturation (Ercolini, Villani,
Aponte, & Mauriello, 2006; Randazzo, Ribbera, Pitino, Romeo, &
Caggia, 2012; Rejano, Montana, Casado, Sanchez, & De Castro, 2010).
The fresh fruit has a bitter test (due to presence of oleuropein), and low
sugar content (2.6–6%), and consequently has to undergo a fermenta-
tion process to render it suitable for human consumption. A noteworthy
exception exists for few olive varieties (Thrubolea, a Greek cultivar)
that sweeten enough during direct ripening on the tree, a phenomenon
likely due to an initiated fermentation process (IOC, 2019). Table olives
used for pickling are allowed to grow to full size but are collected and
picked before the fruit start to lose green colour and soften (Crisosto,
Ferguson, & Nanos, 2011). Olive fermentations occur spontaneously in
many cases without need for any starter culture. The microbiota of
olives varies somewhat from cultivar to cultivar and the type of olive
processing, and include members of Enterobacteriaceae, Clostridium,
Pseudomonas, Staphylococcus, LABs, yeasts, and occasionally moulds
(Heperkan, 2013). Pickled olive is one of the famous and oldest North
African indigenous pickles, Fig. 3 illustrates the traditional olive pick-
ling procedure. Pickled olives may be seasoned before consumption by
S.S. Behera, et al.
Fig. 2. Generalized flowchart for vegetable-based pickles preparation.
the addition of different spices flavoring ingredients including ro-
semary, coriander leaves, grated garlic, oregano, chopped onion, hot
red pepper and/or lemon juice and lemon pieces (Benkerroum, 2013; El
Sheikha & Montet, 2014a). The main organisms causing fermentation
are Lb. plantarum, Lb. casei and Ln. mesenteroides. Multiple studies re-
ported the presence of other LAB members, including L. rhamnosus, L.
pentosus, L. casei (Abriouel, Benomar, Gálvez, & Pulido, 2014; Bonatsou,
Benítez, Rodríguez-Gómez, Panagou, & Arroyo-López, 2015; Botta &
Cocolin, 2002; Botta, Langerholc, Cencič, & Cocolin, 2014; De Bellis,
Valerio, Sisto, Lonigro, & Lavermicocca, 2010; Domínguez-Manzano
et al., 2012; Kaltsa, Papaliaga, Papaioannou, & Kotzekidou, 2015;
Rodríguez-Gómez et al., 2014). Therefore, table olives have been lar-
gely investigated as a source for commensal probiotic microbes
(Abriouel et al., 2014; Argyri, Panagou, Nychas, & Tassou, 2014;
Bautista-Gallego et al., 2013; Bevilacqua, Altieri, Corbo, Sinigaglia, &
Ouoba, 2010; Blana, Grounta, Tassou, Nychas, & Panagou, 2014; De
Bellis et al., 2010; Peres et al., 2014).
Tempoyak is the acid-fermented pulp of durian fruit (Durio zi-
bethinus) (a kind of tropical fruit) and is extensively consumed in Riau
Province, Indonesia and Malaysia as a side item and condiment (used
with certain fish or vegetable dishes). Tempoyak is an old days fer-
mented product and is considered as secure and safe for consumption. It
is prepared by combing the pulp (durian) with salt (brine) solution and
fermented for 4–7 days in an anaerobic condition (in a closed con-
tainer) at ambient temperature. Various LAB species are involved in the
fermentation of tempoyak (e.g., Lb. plantarum, Ln. mesenteroides and E.
faecalis). The acidity of tempoyak has been reported as approx. 2.8 to
3.6% (Yuliana & Dizon, 2011).
Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is an important tropical fruit, belongs to
the family Anacardiaceae. Mango, known as the king of tropical fruits
because of its high palatability, excellent taste and exemplary nutritive
value, in India mango occupies the top position with 18 million tones,
which is approximately 50% of the global mango supply (Pariona,
2018; Saroj & Singh, 2018). Mango classified as climacteric fruit, ripen
quite rapidly after harvest. Disease problems, sensitivity to low-tem-
perature storage and perishable nature of the fruit limit the transport of
fresh fruit from the harvest site to distance places. These losses can be
minimized by utilizing green fruits for making pickle or chutney or as a
5
Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103971
sundried acidifying condiment (AMCHUR), whereas ripe fruit is used
for preserve, jam, sauces etc. (Saroj & Singh, 2018). A mango pickle
known as achar is very popular throughout India, covering mango
producing areas of West Bengal (district Malda and Murshidabad), and
areas of northern India and Andra Pradesh. The fruits (under-ripe,
mature, and green) are washed and then sliced with a stainless-steel
knife, discarding the stone. The slices are added in brine (2–3%, w/v),
to prevent the blackening of the cut surface and cured for a week in the
sun for 4–5 days. The cured slices are mixed with spices/ingredients
(turmeric powder, red chili powder, ground nigella, ground fenugreek,
black pepper and fennel) and smeared with a little rapeseed oil to make
mango pickles. The pickles are then, packed into a glass jar and covered
with a thin layer of oil; the pickle is ready in about 2–3 weeks. Hima-
chal Pradesh is a northern Indian state located in the Western Hima-
layas. It is famous for its many traditional and unique pickles such as
pickled fruits (beedana, lasura, aaroo, nashpati, dheu, galgal) which are
made from indigenous fruits of Himachal Pradesh, i.e., pear, lasura,
peach, dheu and citrus fruits, respectively (Monika, Kumari, Angmo, &
Bhalla, 2016).
Yan-taozih is a popular pickled fruit made from peaches (Prunus
persica) in China and Taiwan. The pickling process involves a water
exudation step from fresh peaches using 5%–10% salt and gentle
shaking, followed by washing and mixing with 5–10% sugar and 1%-
2% pickled plums, and finally fermentation at low temperature
(6–10 °C) for one day. Pickled Yan-taozih is rich in LABs, with Ln.
mesenteroides, being the most abundant species (Chen et al., 2013).
Sweet cherry fruits have a very short life since they are subject to
rapid microbial spoilage. Therefore, fruit fermentation by LABs is an
efficient and straightforward technological option for maintaining and/
or improving the nutritional and organoleptic features besides the
safety and shelf-life of these fruits (Montet, Ray, & Zakhia-Rozis, 2014).
Di Cagno et al. (2011) isolated several LABs members such as Pedio-
coccus acidilactici, P. pentosaceus, Lb. plantarum and Ln. mesenteroides
subsp. mesenteroides from spontaneous fermentation of eight cultivars of
these fruits by partial 16S rRNA gene sequence and subjected to typing
by Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA-Polymerase Chain Reaction
(RAPD-PCR) analysis. Noteworthy, lactic fermentation has increased
the anti-oxidant activity, anthocyanin content, and organoleptic quality
S.S. Behera, et al.
Fig. 3. Flowchart for the traditional olive pickling procedure (Source: Adapted from Benkerroum, 2013). Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons.
of these fermented fruits (Montet et al., 2014).
Umeboshi are fermented plums made from young sour fruit (Prunus
mume, Rosaceae family) called ume. The fruit is locally known mume
“ume” or Japanese apricot in Japan, while named in China as mei or
green plum, and maesil in Korea (Tzonev & Yamaguchi, 1999). Fresh
fruits are usually fermented for a month and then dried in the sun for a
week. Due to the presence of cyanoglycoside, prunasin, and amygdalin,
most P. mume fruits are consumed after being processed (Bolarinwa,
Orfila, & Morgan, 2014). Umeboshi contains a very high content of
organic acids (i.e. benzoic acid) that provides valuable preservative and
organoleptic features. Traditionally, Umeboshi is used as a side dish and
served with rice in Japanese cuisine. Umeboshi pickles have a sweet
and sour flavor and are rich in catalytic enzymes and probiotics
(Gossard & Lipski, 2020).
The generalized traditional method of fruit pickles of Himachal
Pradesh is given as flowchart in Fig. 4.
2.3. Fish-based fermented pickles
Pickling is one of the safest means of natural preservation of fish.
The pickling conditions are believed to suppress the growth of all pa-
thogenic organisms (pH below 4.0) and have a considerable storage life
(Waghmare, George, & Sonavane, 2017). However, the use of bacterial
starters in the process of fish pickling has been reported to increase
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Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103971
processing rates, consistency of fish pickles. Moreover, the pickling
process of fish has improved the sensory attributes and microbiological
quality of fermented fish (Chen, Ye, Chen, Zhan, & Lou, 2017).
A variety of fish-pickles have been reported. Two types of fish
pickles were prepared from two freshwater fishes (Amblypharyngodon
mola and Puntius ticto) using LAB, which their organoleptic quality as-
sessed during six months of storage at ambient temperature. However,
pickle prepared from A. mola was found to be slightly better and more
acceptable by the consumers (Sharma & Sarma, 2012). A study was
undertaken for preparing a pickled commodity utilizing meat of the
carp, rohu (Labeo rohita). The meat pieces were subjected to different
preprocessing treatments (i.e., salting, drying, frying, baking, smoking
and pickling) in various combinations. However, the most satisfactory
combination was formed to be marinating of fish pieces (for 15 min)
followed by smoking (for 3 h at 60 °C) and frying (for 30 s at 180 °C) in
refined vegetable oil. The sensory scores for odor, texture, taste, and
overall quality of fish pickle (pH 4.5) was found more suitable and
became accepted by the consumers (Waghmare et al., 2017).
The vinasse fish pickle is formed from several fish species, com-
prising hairtail (Trichiurus sp.), skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis), and
sturgeon (Acipenser baerii). The pickling of vinasse fish is a popular
Chinese food processing procedure of using raw fishes with the addition
of ingredients (i.e., liquor, salt, vinasse, and sugar). The microflora,
such as yeast, and Bacillus sp., likely domineer in the microbiota of
S.S. Behera, et al.
Fig. 4. Procedural flowchart for the traditional preparation of fruit pickles of
Himachal Pradesh, India (Source: Monika, Savitri, Kumari, Angmo, & Bhalla,
2016). Licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.5 IN.
pickling of vinasse fish. Vinasse pickling can impact the characteristic
taste, flavor, and improved the nutritional value of raw fish (Chen et al.,
2017).
Sidra fish (Puntius sarana H.) pickle is a popular dish in Nepal,
Bhutan, and provinces of North East India (Sikkim and Darjeeling hills).
Fishes are gathered, cleaned, sun-dried (for 4–7 days), and stocked at
ambient temperature (for 3–4 months). The microbial diversity of sidra
pickle includes (Lb. plantarum, Lactococcus lactis, Ln. mesenteroides, E.
faecium, E. faecalis, P. pentosaceus, and Weissella confusa) and yeasts
(Candida chiropterorum, C. bombicola, and Saccharomycopsis sp.) (Thapa,
2016).
Fermented fish pickles are related to staple foods in the locality of
south-east Asia, commonly as a condiment for rice dishes (Majumdar
et al., 2015). Tungtap, a fermented fish pickle, prepared from species of
Puntius and/or Danio in North-east India. The LABs involved in the
fermentation of tungtap are Lb. plantarum, Lb. amylophilus, Lb. fructosus,
Lb. coryniformis subsp. torques, Lc. lactis subsp. cremoris, E. faecium,
Bacillus subtilis, B. pumilus, and species of Saccharomycopsis, Micro-
coccus, and Candida (Kakati & Goswami, 2013). Shidol is a salt-free
fermented fish with a paste surface, which is widely used by people of
North-eastern states of India. Shidol is produced by spontaneous or
controlled fermentation. It is formed particularly from soft fin swamp
barb (Puntius sophore); however, nowadays, shidol is made from addi-
tional fish species, like Gangetic hairfin anchovy (Setipinna phasa), and
Indian River shad (Gudusia chapra). Shidol is not at any time consumed
in its fermented form. A chutney or sauce-like recipe (shidol bhorta) is
prepared as a side dish for rice or bread (Kakati & Goswami, 2013).
However, pathogenic contamination like Staphylococcus aureus, Strep-
tococcus sp. and E. coli have been revealed in fermented fish pickles
(Kakati & Goswami, 2013).
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Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103971
Fermented fish products called “narezushi” have long been pro-
duced in Japan. Narezushi is a general term for fermented cured fish
and boiled rice. The fish and rice are usually fermented in barrels,
under the pressure of stones, for more than one year (Fujii, Watanabe,
Horikoshi, Takahashi, & Kimura, 2011). Many kinds of narezushi, e.g.,
Funazushi, sabanarezushi, and izushi are known in Japan, and Funa-
zushi (pickled crucian carpis) thought to have remained true to the
traditional style (Fujii, Nishi, & Okuzumi, 2008). The lactic fermented
salt-cured funa (crucian carp, Carassius buergeri grandoculis) and rice
(approximately 4% salinity) have a unique sour taste, which is con-
ferred by the LABs which are the main fermentative microorganisms in
funazushi. Isobe, Mizuhashi, and Narita (2002) and Fujii et al. (2008)
reported that the viable cell counts of LABs, aerobic bacteria, and yeast
in funazushi were approximately 7, 5, and 3 log CFU/g, respectively.
Pickled herring is one of the famous traditional foods as an excellent
source of omega-3 fatty acids. Although pickled herring, not a com-
pletely fermented product, it is a typical delicacy that many people are
familiar with. Pickled herring also is mild in flavor and texture com-
pared with some of the fully fermented fish products. Being low on the
food chain, small fish such as herring and anchovies are less con-
taminated with heavy metals such as mercury and cadmium, so maybe
a better choice than some of the larger cold-water fish (Birks, 2016).
2.4. Meat-based fermented pickles
Meat pickles such as chicken, quail, guinea fowl, gizzard, mutton,
pork, buffalo, and rabbit pickle are traditional shelf-stable ready to eat
products. Presently more emphasis is given on developing shelf-stable
meat products, which can be stored at ambient temperature. Shelf-
stable meat products like, canned and cured meat products, meat and
snack type meat products, meat pickles, intermediate moisture meat
products have been reported (Anjaneyulu, 2005). Meat constitutes an
excellent substrate for probiotic bacteria (LAB). Meat is the natural
environment for the LAB (i.e., catalase and Gram-positive cocci), molds
and yeasts, which start growing first. LAB (e.g., Lb. plantarum, Lb. casei,
Lb. curvatus, Lb. pentosus, Lb. sakei, P. acidilactici, and P. pentosaceus)
have been used as starter cultures to enhance the storage life of meats
for centuries, so far, the potential for these meats to act as a transfer of
probiotic strains remained rather unexploited until recent years. Such
functional strains allow achieving the product, which is tastier, safer
and healthier. However, Arihara et al. (1998) and El Sheikha and Bakar
(2014) reported that several LAB strains, such as Lb. acidophilus, Lb.
crispatus, Lb. amylovorus, Lb. gallinarum, Lb. gasseri and Lb. johnsonii are
found in the pickled meat, which increase the safety and shelf-life of
final products. Ryan, Ross, Fitzgerald, Caplice, and Stanton (2015) re-
ported that the LAB, most often Lactobacilli and Pediococci sp., are
currently used in this preservation process to enhance safety (over the
formation of lactic, acetic acid, and bacteriocin) by reducing indigenous
bacteria in the unprocessed meat. This technique also subsidized the
sensory attributes (e.g., color, texture and moisture content) to the meat
and their products. However, it is known that probiotic bacteria do not
grow eagerly in fermented products. In order to guarantee a proper
number of probiotic bacteria in meat pickle, the encapsulation is used.
Lb. reuteri and Bifidobacterium longum in alginate microencapsulated
meat pickle has been reported (Ryan et al., 2015).
3. Microbial profiling in fermented pickles
The microorganisms involved in traditionally fermented pickles are
restricted to a few categories of bacteria, yeasts and fungi. The con-
sumption of the traditional pickles as part of a food diet, confer a health
benefit on the host (FAO/WHO, 2002). Probiotic LAB, particularly
Lactobacillus are essential in the fermentation of several traditional
fermented pickles (Dallal, Zamaniahari, Davoodabadi, Hosseini, &
Rajabi, 2017).
S.S. Behera, et al.
3.1. Bacteria
Bacteria have the most influential roles in the making of a large
number of pickles. Amongst bacteria, LABs are widespread in pickles,
by cause of their ability to make high levels of lactic acid as well as
being skilled to survive under high acidic conditions (Irkin & Songun,
2012).
3.1.1. Lactic acid bacteria (LABs)
LABs are Gram-positive, catalase-negative, anaerobic, micro-
aerophilic and aero-tolerant, rods and cocci in nature and are strictly
fermentative, with lactic acid being the leading end-product of their
metabolism. LABs genera, such as Lactobacillus, Pediococcus,
Enterococcus, Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, Oenococcus, Streptococcus,
Tetragenococcus, Carnobacterium, Vagococcus, Weissella, and
Alkalibacterium are isolated from various traditional fermented pickles
(Nout, 1994). During traditional pickling, genera such Lactobacillus (Lb)
(Lb. plantarum, Lb. brevis), Leuconostoc (Ln) (Ln. mesenteroides), Pedio-
coccus (P. pentosaceus, P. acidilactici), and Enterococcus (E. faecium, E.
faecalis) are dominant due to their capacity to tolerate considerable
high concentrations of salt and sugar (Nout, 1994).
3.1.2. Bacilli
Bacillus is a genus of rod-shaped, Gram-positive, as well as catalase-
positive, and can be obligate aerobes or facultative anaerobes. Some
species of Bacillus (e.g., B. subtilis, B. natto, B. licheniformis, B. thur-
ingiensis, B. coagulans, and B. megataerium) have been found in fer-
menting traditional pickles and are rated as generally regarded as safe
(GRAS). They are used to facilitate fast re-establishment of the healthy
microbiota of the gastrointestinal (GI) tracts and prevent the invasion
and colonization of enteric pathogens and also lower cholesterol
(Ragul, Syiem, Sundar, & Shetty, 2017).
3.1.3. Micrococcaceae
The family of Micrococcaceae includes Gram-positive, aerobic,
cocci, non-spore forming, non-motile and positive reactions to catalase,
coagulase, deoxyribonuclease test and plays a relevant role in fermen-
tation. The species of Micrococcus and Staphylococcus (S. aureus) are
reported in fermenting traditional pickles (Bhowmik & Marth, 1990;
Sanborn, 1931).
3.2. Yeasts
Some species of yeasts have been described from traditional pickles,
which include Brettanomyces, Candida, Cryptococcus, Debaryomyces,
Dekkera, Galactomyces, Geotrichum, Hansenula, Hanseniaspora,
Hyphopichia, Issatchenkia, Kazachstania, Kluyveromyces, Metschnikowia,
Pichia, Rhodotorula, Saccharomyces, Saccharomycodes, Saccharomycopsis,
Schizosaccharomyces, Torulaspora, Torulopsis, Trichosporon, Yarrowia,
and Zygosaccharomyces (Bhalla & Savitri, 2016; Tamang, Thapa,
Tamang, Rai, & Chettri, 2015; Tamang, Watanabe, & Holzapfel, 2016).
3.3. Filamentous fungi
About 90% of the literature on acid (lactic and acetic acid) pro-
duction is focused on bacterial fermentation (John, Nampoothiri, &
Pandey, 2007). However, fungal strains, such as Mucor, Monilla, and
Rhizopus also responsible for pickling process. The best-known fungus,
Rhizopus oryzae, and can produce LA with fumaric acid and ethanol,
based on the cultivation conditions (Hesseltine, 1965). The major
benefit of the use of fungi as fermenting agents are their potential to
release exocellular amylase able to hydrolyze starchy materials, thus
not necessitate any previous step of hydrolysis (Martinez et al., 2013).
Traditionally, microorganisms have been used in fermentation from
ages, but now the modern large-scale production of foods is exploiting
the use of the specified strains to ensure consistency and quality in the
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Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103971
final product (Joshi & Sharma, 2012).
4. Tools for studying microbiota in fermented pickles
4.1. Conventional techniques
The conventional methods of screening of microbial strains depend
on phenotypic tests (i.e., morphological and biochemical analyses). The
morphological analyses include viable cell counts (on agar plates),
microbial turbidity measurements (at 620 or 600 nm), and gram
staining of microbial strains. The isolates representing the developed
colonies (viable cell counts) on MRS (De Man, Rogosa and Sharpe) agar
plate (until pure cultures were obtained) and are phenotypically re-
cognized based on cell morphology under phase-contrast microscope.
The biochemical analyses [i.e., H2S production, gas (CO2) from glucose,
content of inositol, citrate and mannitol, arginine hydrolysis and re-
duction ability of nitrate to nitrite] and/or enzymatic tests (e.g., cata-
lase, oxidase, urease, etc.), are the important conventional techniques
involved in screening/phenotyping of microbial populations in pickles
(Zokaeifar et al., 2012). Moreover, several molecular techniques like
PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction), RFLP (Restriction Fragment Length
Polymorphism), RAPD (Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA), 16S
rDNA sequencing, gradient gel electrophoresis, and cluster analysis of
TTGE (Temporal Temperature Gradient Electrophoresis) are involved
to sequester and characterize a different set of microbiota in a fer-
mented food ecosystem (Cocolin & Ercolini, 2008; El Sheikha, Levin, &
Xu, 2018). As far as we know, culture-dependent methodology is often
time-consuming and commonly understood yielding insufficient in-
formation about the microbial structure. For now, many powerful
molecular ecological methods, such as denaturing gradient gel elec-
trophoresis (DGGE), have extensively been used to explore the micro-
bial community in the field of food (Shanqimuge & H., Zhang, C., Shao,
C., Peng, X., Liang, L., Su, J., & Li, C. , 2015; Zhang et al., 2015; Wang,
Zhang, & Liu, 2016). In Liang et al. (2018) study, DGGE was employed
to identify the microflora during the fermentation of industrial paocai
[Chinese paocai is a traditional pickle could date back to 3,000 years
ago (Xiong, Guan, Song, Hao, & Xie, 2012)]. The DGGE technique has
been able to highlight populations that may have an important impact
on the final characteristics of the product, but which were not well
described by means of traditional methods (Liang et al., 2018). Plenty
of different genera were observed, but the same predominant genus was
obtained during the fermentation of industrial paocai. The abundance
of Lactobacillus increased at first and remained stable during the later
fermentation stage of industrial paocai. L. paralimentarius and L. ali-
mentarius were the predominant species during fermentation (Liang
et al., 2018).
4.2. Meta-‘OMICS’ techniques
In addition to conventional methods (i.e., plate counts, microscopy,
etc.), the advancement of the immense sequencing technologies, like
shotgun metagenomics (shotgun DNA-seq or RNA-seq) technique caters
a route to study uncultivable microorganisms that are alternatively
inaccessible or hard to do to analyses. Unlike PCR-based approaches,
next-generation sequencing (NGS) let on researchers to sequence
thousands of microbial strains in parallel (Ferrocino, Bellio, Giordano,
Macori, Romano, Rantsiou, Decastelli, & Cocolin, 2018). In the recent
past, next-generation ‘OMICS’-procedure focused on a non-targeted
and/or non-biased exploration/detection of genes (genomics), meta-
genome (metagenomics), mRNA (transcriptomics), protein (metapro-
teomics), metabolites (metabolomics), and diverse meta-analyses have
been used to deeply investigate microbial strains and food microbiota at
a systems biology level (Heinl & Grabherr, 2017).
Over the past decade, the study of microbial ecosystems has ad-
vanced rapidly thanks to technological breakthroughs in data produc-
tion, management, and analysis. The development of metagenomics
 Table 1
The lactic acid bacteria (LAB) content in various traditional pickles and its roles.
S.S. Behera, et al.

Fermented pickle Composition/ Pickling condition Identified LAB strain(s) LAB roles Reference

Vegetable-based pickles
Nozawana-Zuke pickle Turnip (Brassica campestris var. rapa) Lactobacillus curvatus Y108 Bacteriocinogenic nature Kawahara et al. (2010)
Mixed pickles (Tursu) Cabbage (25%), cucumber (25%), green tomato (20%), green Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Lb. brevis, Pediococcus pentocaceus and Improved taste and beneficial Çetin (2011)
pepper (15%), carrot (5%), and others (garlic, red pepper, parsley) Lb. plantarum. properties
(10%), NaCl (4%) and vinegar (2.5%), 20 ± 2 °C
Radish pickle Radish roots (700 g), 1.3 L brine solution, 20-30oC, 11–17 days P. pentosaceus, Lb. plantarum, Lb. brevis Probiotic potentials Pardali et al. (2017)
Fermented pickle Garlic, cabbage, carrot, vinegar (30%) and NaCl (1%) Bacillus subtilis Potential probiotic strains Zokaeifar et al. (2012)
Cucumber pickle Cucumbers blanched at 70–80 °C (for 5 min), CaCl2 (0.2% w/v) Lb. plantarum Firmest pickle Sistrunk and Kozup (1982)
Cucumber pickle Cucumbers, garlic, onions, brine solution (5%), 10 °C, 3 days Ln. mesenteroides and Ln. citreum Suitable as oligosaccharide- Eom, Seo, and Han (2007)
synthesizing starters
Cucumber pickle Cucumbers (3–6 mm thickness), 1.03 M NaCl or 0.1 M CaCl2, Lb. plantarum Firmest pickle Wilson, Johanningsmeier, and
23 ± 2 °C Osborne (2015)
Chinese pickle (Paocai) Fresh vegetable (i.e., cowpea, cabbage, mustard), 8% (w/w), 37 °C Lb. plantarum CNQ7, Lb. plantarum CNQ7 Long storage life Li et al. (2015)
for 24 h
Sunki Turnip leaves, unsalted conditions Lb. plantarum, Lb. delbrueckii, Lb. fermentum, Lb. agilis Improved overall quality Tomita et al. (2018)
Sinki
It is a sour pickled radish taproot, pH (3.3) L. fermentum, L. brevis, L. plantarum Helped cure diarrhea and relieves Mir, Jeelani Raja, and Masoodi
stomach pain (2018)
Sweet potato pickle The sensory and consumer attributes (logistic regression Lb. plantarum, Ln. mesenteroides Improved the sensory and consumer Sivakumar et al. (2010)
modeling) revealed that the sweet potato pickle most likely attributes
agreeable based on taste, texture, aroma, flavor and aftertaste
Cabbage and carrot Cabbage and carrot, 35 °C for 48 h anaerobic Lb. plantarum, Lb. brevis, Lb. pentosus, Lb. casei, Lb. mesenteroides, Produced functional food Dallal et al. (2017)
pickle Lb. paracasei

9
Kimchi Korean traditional fermented vegetable mainly Chinese cabbage Lb. kimchii, Lb. plantarum, Ln. citreum, Ln. mesenteroides Produced functional food Irkin and Songun (2012)
and radish
Jiangshui Chinese fermented vegetable food Lb. brevis, Lb. plantarum, Lb. parabuchneri, Weissella sp. Improved the safety and quality Zhang, Wang, Chen, and Zhao
(2007)
Torshi Iranian traditional lacto-fermented vegetable and spice B. safensis 437F, B. atrophaeus 1630F, B. amyloliquefaciens 1020G Probiotic potentials Talebi, Makhdoumi, Bahreini,
combinations Matin, and Moradi (2018)
Fruit-based pickles
Tempoyak Acid fermented pulp of durian fruit for 4–7 days Lb. plantarum, Ln. mesenteroides, Enterococcus faecalis Improved the safety and quality Yuliana and Dizon (2011)
Egyptian pickles Fruits and vegetables, NaCl up to 11%, pH (2.0–8.0) and Lb. plantarum LPS10, B. acidicola BPS4, B. amyloliquifaciens Probiotic and biocontrol agents in Enan, Abdel-Haliem, and Tartour
temperatures (15–44 °C) BPS20, B. mycoides BPS33 pickles (2014)
Fish-based pickles
Vinasse pickle Pike eels (1 kg), salt (4%), sucrose (12%), and MSG (2%) Bacillus sp. Enhanced nutritional characteristics Chen et al. (2017)
Tungtap Sun-dried fish (Danio sp.), salt, ferment for 4–7 days Lc. lactis subsp. cremoris, Lb. plantarum, E. faecium, Lb. fructosus, L. Ethnic fermented food Thapa (2016)
amylophilus, Lb. corynifomis subsp. Torquens, Lb. plantarum, Lb.
puhozihii, B. subtilis, B. pumilus, Micrococcus
Sidra Fish (Puntius sarana H.) Lb. amylophilus, Lb. coryniformis subsp. torques, Lb. plantarum, Lb. Enhanced probiotic property Kakati and Goswami (2013)
fructosus, L. lactis subsp cremoris, Lb. plantarum, E. faecium, B.
subtilis, B. pumilus, Micrococcus
Funazushi The lactic fermented salt-cured funa (crucian carp, Carassius Lactobacillus, Lb. paracasei NLB163 Exhibited a hypocholesterolemic Tanaka et al. (2009)
buergeri grandoculis) and rice (approximately 4% salinity) effect in human
Meat-based pickles
Meat paste/ fermented Beef shank (2.3%), porcine back fat (15%), NaCl (2%), NaNO3 Lb. plantarum JAB2001 Successfully suppressed the growth of Tsuda, Matsumoto, and Ishimi
sushi (0.05%), glucose (0.5%), white pepper (0.2%), raw onion (9.0%), E. coli and S. aureus (2012)
and starter culture (1%)
Ethnic pickles
Tabah Bamboo shoot, pH 3.09 Lb. plantarum Enhanced the shelf-life of bamboo Tamang and Tamang (2010)
shoots
Poka khorisha/Khorisha Bamboo shoot, edible oil, chilies, and salt Lactobacillus sp. Enhanced shelf-life of bamboo shoots Darmayanti et al. (2014)
tenga
Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103971
S.S. Behera, et al.
Fig. 5. Major nutritional and health benefits conferred by fermented pickles.
methods has freed this discipline from the need to culture micro-
organisms to study them (Kergourlay, Taminiau, Daube, & Vergès,
2015). Pyrosequencing is a method of DNA sequencing has emerged as
a powerful technique to characterize microbial community structures in
ecological samples (Huber et al., 2007; Humblot & Guyot, 2009; Zhang
et al., 2009). Nukadoko is a fermented rice bran mash used for pickling
vegetables in Japan, traditionally called ‘nukazuke’. The bacterial
community structures of 16 different nukadoko samples were analyzed
and the findings were assessed in detail to evaluate the merits of pyr-
osequencing-based 16S rRNA profiling (Sakamoto, Tanaka, Sonomoto,
& Nakayama, 2011). Furthermore, the dynamics of the bacterial com-
munity was monitored during the fermentation and ripening of the
laboratory models of nukadoko. Sakamoto et al. (2011) found that two
Lactobacillus species—Lb. acetotolerans and Lb. namurensis—harmonized
with the different growth rates in the aging cycle, and were efficiently
involved in the natural biopreservation of nukadoko.
Food metabolomics or “foodomics” has been applied to study dif-
ferent food products (Kim, Kim, Yun, & Kim, 2016). Specifically, in
fermented foods, it is practically used to estimate and monitor the
changes that occur during the fermentation process and to investigate
the composition of fermented foods (Behera et al., 2018b). The het-
erogeneous components in pickled food need to be separated before
detection. Several biochemical techniques are adopted for the identi-
fication/detection of compositional mixture found in pickled food
products. Biochemical techniques such as gas chromatography (GC)
alone or in combination with mass spectroscopy (MS) called ‘GC–MS’ is
one of the most-used technique in foodomics. High-performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC) is a substitute tactics/method to GC–MS
commonly used for the metabolic analysis of pickled food products;
however, in comparison to GC, HPLC has an inferior chromatographic
resolution (da Costa and Conte-Junior, 2015). Furthermore, HPLC is the
most convenient to measure a broader range of analytes with higher
sensitivity. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is another
advanced analytical technique that is used in the separation and re-
covery of spent analytes. Additionally, in the NMR technique, a diverse
group of components can be measured by its high simplicity and re-
producibility nature (Kim et al., 2016). Zhao, Tang, and Ding (2007)
reported that the outcomes on the identification of potherb mustard
pickles by volatile constituents using Tenax-GC–MS. The use of
10
Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103971
headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) sampling, followed
by GC–MS analysis, made it likely to analyze innumerable of the vo-
latile compounds present in crude potherb mustard pickles. Eighty-
seven of volatile components were isolated and identified by the tech-
nique. The volatile components contain, allyl, butenyl, isobutanyl and
phenylethyl group in the side chain as substituents, [the side-chain (R
groups) are CH2QCH–CH2– (sinigrin), CH2QCH–CH2–CH2– (gluco-
napin), CH3–CH2–(CH3) CH– (glucocochlearin) and –C2H4–C6H5
(gluconasturtin), etc.,], with ally and phenylethyl groups as the side
chain being predominant in potherb mustard (Zhao et al., 2007). Sev-
eral studies have determined the microbial species/diversity of pickled
vegetables and fruits. The diversity of native/indigenous LABs com-
munities in ca muoi (fermented eggplant), and dua muoi (fermented
mustard and beet) was investigated using recently validated techniques,
such as phenylalanyl-tRNA synthase (pheS) sequence and MALDI-TOF
MS analysis (La Anh, 2015).
5. How does the microbiota of fermented pickles reflect their
nutritional and health benefits?
Although people primarily used pickling to preserve foods, improve
flavor, and enhance shelf-life, increasing attention is increasingly made
to the beneficial health effects of these fermented pickles. During the
last decades, pickles became an important part of the diet as food
supplements (additives), in many cultures and over time, pickles have
been associated with many nutritional and health benefits. Of particular
interest, LABs microorganisms contributing to the pickling process have
been increasingly associated with many health benefits, with
Lactobacillus plantarum, Lb. pentosus, Lb. brevis, Lb. acidophilus, Lb. fer-
mentum, Ln. fallax, and Ln. mesenteroides being the most studied
(Şanlier, Gökcen, & Sezgin, 2019). LABs found in pickled foods have
been associated with various probiotic (health-related) properties, such
as enhance in natural resistance to infectious disease in the gastro-
intestinal tract, prevention of urogenital infections, suppression of
cancer, improved digestion, and a reduction in cholesterol level in the
serum (Liong & Shah, 2005). Table 1 illustrates the LABs content in
various traditional fermented pickles and their roles. Collectively, Fig. 5
shows the nutritional and health benefits of fermented pickles, which
we will discuss them individually as follows.
S.S. Behera, et al. Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103971

5.1. Warehouse of valuable nutrients and antioxidants Table 3

Minerals content of dill pickle* comparing with DRIs.**
Fermented pickle assists several substantial functions, including Mineral Mineral content DRIs (mg/ Value in 100 g dill
enhancement or creation of unique flavors, change in textural proper- (mg/100 g dill day) pickle/DRIs × 100
ties and digestibility of foods (FAO/WHO, 2002). Several researchers pickle)
have reported that the fermented pickles (from fruits, vegetables, fish or
Major minerals
meat) contain subsided amounts of fat and cholesterol, which are rather Sodium 809 1500 53.93
beneficial to human health. In addition, LABs (e.g., Lc. lactis and Potassium 117 4700 2.5
Streptococcus thermophilus) associated with pickled foodstuffs have been Phosphorus 16 700 2.3
reported to produce vitamins, such as riboflavin, folate, cobalamin, Magnesium 7 Men: 400 1.75
Women: 310 2.25
menaquinone, and thiamine in the course of fermentation (LeBlanc
Calcium 57 1000 5.7
et al., 2013a). However, fermented pickle (mainly, from tropical roots
Trace minerals
and tubers) is a fiber-rich product and has validated in improve the
Zinc 0.1 Men: 11 0.9
palatability and digestive quality of the consumers. Moreover, abun- Women: 8 1.25
dant quantities of nutritious and bioactive components (proteins and
amino acids) and antioxidants (flavonoids, phenols, and sterols) have * USDA, ARS: United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural
been analyzed and reported from the fermented pickles (Frias, Research Service (2019).
Martinez-Villaluenga, & Peñas, 2016; Rajesh, Imelda-Joseph, & Raj, ** DRIs: Dietary Recommended Intakes for Adults (2004).
2010).
Elmacı, İşleyen, & Özçelik, 2015).

5.1.1. The nutritional profile of dill pickle “for example” as enrich source of
nutrients
Dill pickle or pickled cucumber (commonly known as a pickle in the
United States and Canada, and a gherkin in Britain, Ireland, Australia,
South Africa and New Zealand) is a cucumber that has been pickled in a
brine, vinegar, or other solution and left to ferment for a period of time,
by either immersing the cucumbers in an acidic solution or through
souring by lacto-fermentation (APEDA, 2015).
Like pickled vegetables such as sauerkraut, sour pickled cucumbers
are low in calories (12 kcal). They also contain a moderate amount of
vitamin K, specifically in the form of K1. 100-gram sour pickled cu-
cumber offers 12–17 µg, or approximately 15–23%, of the
Recommended Daily Allowance of vitamin K. However, most sour
pickled cucumbers are also high in sodium; one pickled cucumber can
contain 350–500 mg, or 15–20% of the American recommended daily
limit of 2400 mg (USDA, ARS, 2019). Tables 2 and 3 show the nutrients
content of dill pickles.
Additionally, pickles are being researched for their ability to act as
vegetables with a high probiotic content. Probiotics are typically as-
sociated with dairy products, but lactobacilli species such as L. plan-
tarum and L. brevis have been shown to add to the nutritional value of
traditional dill pickles in Turkey “Çubuk pickles” (Tokatlı, Gülgör,
5.1.2. How the pickling process preserves and restores the antioxidant
capacity of raw materials?
Pickling process helps in effective preservation and restoration of
natural bioactive compounds and antioxidant capacities of fruits and
vegetables (Sayin & Alkan, 2015). High levels of proteins, vitamins, and
dietary fibers were found during physicochemical characterization of
commercial pickled garlic (Casado, Lopez, Rejano, Sanchez, &
Montano, 2004). Pickles prepared using colored fruits and vegetables
contains pigments such as anthocyanins, flavonoids, carotenoids etc.
that are effective in scavenging harmful free radicals in the body pro-
duced by different biological stresses and diseases (Swain, Anandharaj,
Ray, & Parveen Rani, 2014). It has been reported that high ascorbic acid
content of some Indian pickles may inhibit benzene formation and as-
sociated cellular damage (Kharat, Adiani, Variyar, Sharma, & Singhal,
2016). Intake of a considerable quantity of pickle may relieve the ex-
ercise related muscle cramp of athletes by alteration of electrolyte in
plasma (Miller, Mack, & Knight, 2009).
5.2. Enhance sensory qualities and shelf-life
Consumption of fermented pickles has considerably gained in recent

Table 2
Chemical composition of dill pickle.*
Content DRIs** (g/day) Value in 100 g dill pickle/DRIs × 100

Value g/100 g dill pickle (wet weight g/100 g dill pickle (dry weight
basis) basis)

Moisture % 94.34
Total solids (TS) % 5.66
Energy (kcal) 12 Men: 2215*** 0.54
Women: 2025 0.59
Water-soluble proteins % 0.5 8.83 Men (Total proteins)****: 56 0.89
Women (Total proteins): 46 1.08
Total lipids % 0.3 5.30 44–77***** 0.39–0.68
Total ash % 2.45
Total sugars % 1.07 18.90 130 0.82
Crude fibers % 1 Men: 38 2.63
Women: 25 4.00
Ascorbic acid (mg/100 g) 2.3 Men: 90 2.6
Women: 75 3.06

* USDA, ARS: United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service (2019).
** DRIs: Dietary Recommended Intakes for Adults (2004).
*** Based on 1.3 kcal/kg Body Weight/Hour for the reference body weight.
**** Based on 0.8 g/kg Body Weight/Day for the reference body weight.
***** Casselbury (2018).

11
S.S. Behera, et al.
years due to their useful characteristics that extend well beyond shelf-
life, preservation and sensory qualities. For instance, in vinasse pickling
(from hairtail, Trichiurus sp.) can impact the characteristic flavor, taste,
and nutritional composition of raw fish (Chen et al., 2017). Recently,
phenyllactic acid (PLA) in sourdough was identified as one of the pre-
dominant factors responsible for the prolonged shelf-life, which pro-
vided new perspectives for the possible exploitation of PLA in pickles
(Li et al., 2015). The use of microbes and their metabolites for food
preservation began in prehistory. LABs are generally recognized as safe
for this purpose. They hold the promise of ensuring the quality and
safety of ready-to-eat, extended-shelf-life, fresh-tasting, and minimally
processed foods without chemical preservatives (Li, Nie, Zhu, Xiong, &
Xie, 2016; Park, Kang, Jeong, Jeong, & Kim, 2016b; Zhang et al., 2019).
The number of bacteriocins and bacteriocin-producing LABs reported to
inhibit foodborne pathogens in several fermented foods (e.g., dairy
products including milk, yogurt, and cheeses) has grown steadily
(Hammami, Fliss, & Corsetti, 2019). A bacteriocin producing strain
Lactobacillus brevis UN isolated from “dulliachar, i.e. salted pickle” and
identified by biochemical and molecular methods. L. brevis UN was
found to produce bacteriocin with broad-spectrum activity against
spoilage causing/foodborne pathogens viz. L. monocytogenes, C. per-
fringens, S. aureus, L. mesenteroides, L. plantarum and B. cereus (Gautam,
Sharma, & Ahlawat, 2014). However, the breakdown of carbohydrates,
proteins and lipids in a fermented pickle can lead to the formation of
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that can drastically affect the or-
ganoleptic characteristics (good flavor and nutritional value, as well as
long shelf-life) of the final products (Ferrocino et al., 2018). In this
context, pickled ginger is a popular traditional Chinese pickled food.
Analysis of the volatile compounds in pickled ginger is critical for
guiding production, achieving a high level of sensory quality, and
maintaining a healthy diet (Li et al., 2019). Ion mobility spectrometry
(IMS) with gas chromatography (GC) offers a fast, sensitive, and effi-
cient tool for detecting volatile compounds. Herein, the headspace
GC‐IMS method was used to detect the volatile flavor compounds
produced during the pickling of ginger. During pickling, the heptanal
and heptanone contents decreased, while the contents of butanal, bu-
tanone, and methional increased, as determined from the GC‐IMS fin-
gerprint, resulting in changes in the flavor of the pickled ginger. The
GC‐IMS method was efficient, convenient, and useful for the detection
of volatile flavor compounds produced during the ginger pickling pro-
cess (Li et al., 2019).
Fermented pickle has a prolonged storage life as opposed to that of
conventional vegetables, mainly because of the antimicrobial metabo-
lites (i.e., lactic acid, acetic acid, bacteriocin) synthesized by different
species of LAB. These species are isolated from home-made vegetable
pickle exhibited antagonistic properties against common foodborne
pathogens (E. coli, S. aureus, Yersinia enterocolitica and B. cereus)
(Kazemipoor, Radzi, Begum, & Yaze, 2012). For instance, LAB in a
traditional pickle obtained from different places of (rural and urban
areas) Himachal Pradesh, (India) exhibited antimicrobial activity
against E. coli, S. aureus, B. cereus and Shigella dysenteriae (Monika,
Savitri, Kumari, Angmo, & Bhalla, 2016). Kumar et al. (2017) identified
the antibacterial LAB strain (Lb. curvatus Y108) isolated from noza-
wana-zuke pickles. The Y108 strain showed antibacterial activity
counter to a few putrefactive bacteria, such as Serratia marcescens
JCM20012, Listeria monocytogenes JCM7671, and S. aureus subsp. aureus
JCM20624. Damodharan and others (2015) evaluated several LAB
species (Lb. plantarum, Lb. pentosus, Lb. fermentum) from pickled radish.
All these strains survived the oro-gastrointestinal transit (OGT) condi-
tion, and revealed adherence to Coca-2 cells, significantly. In addition,
these strains exhibited broad-spectrum antimicrobial action, auto-ag-
gregation, and co-aggregation capacity with pathogens (Yersinia en-
terocolitica subsp. enterocolitica, Shigella boydii and Salmonella choler-
aesuis) and inhibited the adherence to Caco-2 cell line. The inhibitory
activity of LAB can be due to the accretion of manifold primary meta-
bolites (i.e., lactic and acetic acids, ethanol, and carbon dioxide) and
12
Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103971
antimicrobial compounds (i.e., hydrogen peroxide, diacetyl, acetoin,
and bacteriocins) form during fermentation (Damodharan et al., 2015;
Kazemipoor, Radzi, Begum, & Yaze, 2012).
5.2.1. Is phenyllactic acid (PLA) prolonged the shelf-life of pickle or not?
special focus
Phenyllactic acid (PLA), a phenolic acid phytochemical with the
antimicrobial activity, was rarely reported in food besides honey and
sourdough. Phenyllactic acid naturally occurred in Chinese pickles with
concentrations ranged from 0.02 to 0.30 mM in 23 pickle samples in-
cluding homemade and commercial ones (Li et al., 2015). Then, lactic
acid bacteria capable of metabolizing phenyllactic acid were screened
from each homemade pickle and a promising strain was characterized
as Lactobacillus plantarum. Hence, Li et al. (2015) demonstrated that
PLA production was related with LAB and the concentration of phe-
nylalanine (Phe) in Chinese pickles. Moreover, the investigation of the
metabolic mechanism of phenyllactic acid in pickles in the same study
suggested that the yield of phenyllactic acid was positively related to
the content of phenylalanine in food, and the addition of phenylalanine
as precursor substance could significantly promote the production of
phenyllactic acid. This investigation could provide some insights into
the accumulation of phenyllactic acid in pickle for long storage life (Li
et al., 2015). Furthermore, PLA has been recognized as the major factor
responsible for such antifungal activity and prolonged shelf-life
(Lavermicocca et al., 2000; Valerio, Lavermicocca, Pascale, & Visconti,
2004), but how? The inhibitory properties of PLA have been demon-
strated against several fungal species isolated from bakery products,
flour and cereals, including some mycotoxigenic species such as As-
pergillus ochraceus, Penicillium verrucosum and Penicillium citrinum, and
against some bacterial contaminants, namely Listeria spp., Staphylo-
coccus aureus and Enterococcus faecalis (Lavermicocca, Valerio, &
Visconti, 2003; Valerio et al., 2004).
5.3. Improve digestion and enhance gut microbiome
LABs are “Generally Regarded As Safe (GRAS)” and most studied
microorganisms for probiotic traits for the past few decades due to their
important role in the regulation of the diversity of gut microbiota and in
the defense of the human gastrointestinal tract (GIT) (El Sheikha & Hu,
2020; Fliss, Hammami, & Le Lay, 2011; Tannock, 1997). Several studies
have shown that the fermented pickle holds a probiotic culture of 106-
107 CFU/g, this content established as a therapeutic role (da Cruz,
Buriti, de Souza, Faria, & Saad, 2009; Ranadheera, Vidanarachchi,
Rocha, Cruz, & Ajlouni, 2017). Fermented pickles (from fruits, vege-
tables, fish or meat) have the precise potential to establish probiotic
strains in the gastrointestinal tracts of the consumers. LAB in a fer-
mented pickle is of interest not only for their actions in the fermenta-
tion but also for their role in promoting specific health impacts such as
fermented fish pickles, e.g., ngari, hentak, tungtap, sidra, Utonga-
kupsu, etc., which are the final products enriches the gut microbiota
with potential probiotics (Chakraborty & Roy, 2018). Generally, the
probiotic bacteria used in a fermented pickle are largely represented by
the genera Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium, which aid in digestion
(Nuraida, 2015). Moreover, the transmittal of these probiotic strains to
the gastrointestinal tract is supported by the matrix of fermented pickle,
which promotes the long-term survival of organisms (microflora)
during distribution and storage. Specifically, Utonga-kupsu is a fer-
mented fish product produced by the indigenous Manipuri people
(Meetei) living in the North-Eastern part of India. Singh, De Mandal,
Mathipi, Ghatak, and Kumar (2018) isolated, identified and char-
acterized the probiotic bacteria present in Utonga-kupsu using toler-
ance test; antimicrobial activity; and anticancer activity. Six potential
probiotic bacterial strains were identified belonging to Staphylococcus
piscifermentans, S. condimenti, S. carnosus and unknown Staphylococcus.
The isolates UK12 and UK3, identified as S. piscifermentans and Sta-
phylococcus spp. possessed highest tolerance to gastric juice, bile salts
S.S. Behera, et al.
and phenol whereas UK2, UK10, UK12, UK20, and UK25 possessed
good antimicrobial activity against the three bacterial pathogens tested.
The crude protein of the three isolates UK3, UK10 and UK12 showed
high cytotoxic activity against cancer cell lines (HeLa and HT-29) but
no activity against normal lung cell L-132 (Singh et al., 2018).
5.4. Antimutagenic activity
It has been shown that fermented pickles, having probiotic strains,
strive for a vigilant role against colorectal cancer cells. The probiotic
strains may restrict the effects of proliferative and mutagenic activity
and decrease in several enzymes implicated in the generation of mu-
tagens, carcinogens, and tumor-promoting agents (Kumar et al., 2010).
However, evidence/confirmation as anti-mutagenic actions of fer-
mented pickles are not conclusive/precise and much further research is
required to establish this belief.
5.5. Protector from diabetes
Fermented pickle contains dietary fiber and fiber consumption
connected to a lesser incidence of obesity and diabetes (Fujii et al.,
2013). The supplemented diet containing probiotic (i.e., Lb. casei and
Lb. acidophilus) and low fat (2–5%) pickle significantly delays the hy-
perglycemia, hyperinsulinemia, dyslipidemia, glucose intolerance, and
oxidative stress, showing a lower risk of diabetes and its complications
(Yadav, Jain, & Sinha, 2007). Likewise, Lb. plantarum has been ther-
apeutically applied in different chronic and CVDs (Arasu, Al-Dhabi,
Ilavenil, Choi, & Srigopalram, 2016). Of particular interest, kimchi is
recognized as healthy food that provides several health-promoting ef-
fects (i.e., antioxidative, anticancer, antidiabetic, and antiobesity ef-
fects) (Lee et al., 2016). Recently, Park et al. (2016a) have isolated Lb.
plantarum HAC01 from white kimchi and demonstrated its capacity to
induce a great decrease in body weight and total weight gain in a diet-
induced obese mice model for 8 weeks compared to the high-fat control
group.
When foods are pickled in vinegar, there may be some benefit for
diabetics, as several studies have indicated vinegar as being helpful in
controlling blood-glucose levels and increasing insulin sensitivity in
diabetics, but how?…
Chronically elevated blood sugar can lead to type 2 diabetes and a
wide array of other chronic diseases. Interestingly, the vinegar found in
commercially prepared pickle juice may help lower blood sugar levels.
Vinegar has been shown to improve the body’s response to insulin and
significantly reduce blood sugar after meals (Budak, Aykin, Seydim,
Greene, & Guzel-Seydim, 2014; Johnston, Steplewska, Long, Harris, &
Ryals, 2010; Leeman, Ostman, & Björck, 2005; Liljeberg & Björck, 1998;
White & Johnston, 2007). However, only one study to date has shown
that pickle juice can reduce blood sugar spikes after meals (Johnston &
Appel, 2009). Pickle juice may also lower blood sugar levels by slowing
digestion after a meal (Miller, Mack, & Knight, 2010). Like vinegar,
pickle juice may reduce how much your blood sugar levels increase
after meals.
5.6. Immunity booster and prevent cellular damage
Several natural co-factors (e.g., alkyl catechols) reported being
produced from the bio-transformation of traditional fermented foods
(pickles) by Lactobacilli (Lb. plantarum, Lb. brevis and Lb. collinoides).
These alkyl catechols (i.e., 4-methylcatechol, 4-vinylcatechol, and 4-
ethylcatechol) promote the cell (nuclear transcription factor, Nrf2 or
NFE2L2) defence pathways and resulted in safeguarding against/across
multiple chronic diseases accomplice with oxidative stress. The Nrf2
(NFE2L2) cell defence pathway protects across oxidative stress and
disorders, including neurodegeneration and cancers (Senger, Li,
Jaminet, & Cao, 2016). Some LAB (Lb. plantarum, Weissella cibaria) also
modulates systemic inflammation and stimulates natural killer (NK)
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Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103971
cell, which confers to exhibit anti-infectious and antitumor activity.
Moreover, activated macrophages are competent to recognize and lyse
tumor cells in the prevention of cancer. In addition, the activated
macrophages also induce the production of hydrogen peroxide, nitric
oxide (NO), and cytokines [e.g., interferon- γ, tumor necrosis factor
(TNF)-α, and interleukin (IL)-6] which regulated a vital function in a
variety of immune responses (Chang et al., 2015).
5.7. Serum cholesterol-lowering effects
Most pickles have been reported to lower cholesterol levels, other
than for pickles prepared in sugar syrup (AAFC, 2012). Gherkin is the
pickled cucumber (lacto-fermentation or immersion in acidic solution),
which contributes a sour in taste. Anandharaj et al. (2015) isolated LAB
[i.e., Lactobacillus strains (GI6, GI9, GI11 and GI16) and Weissella
strains (FKI13, FKI21 and FKI29)] from the traditional pickled cu-
cumber (gherkins). Among the several strains identified, G19 (Lb. cris-
patus) and FKI21 (W. koreensis) showed the highest survival percentage
(0.3%, w/v) in bile salts and exhibited a maximum cholesterol reduc-
tion potential.
5.8. Ability to have good stability of their “pickles” microbial content during
pickling process and storage
The stability of pickles during the fermentation process and storage
is due to their content of LAB and its viability and metabolic activity
(acidifying activity). The suitability and good selectivity of LAB starter
cultures for large-scale production are important criteria for keeping
the fermenting microflora stable for long-term (Yao et al., 2009). Cul-
tures must be able to withstand large-scale fermentation and long-term
storage. Proper packaging for long-term storage of fermenting cultures
is important. To achieve health benefits, probiotic bacteria should be
viable in the range of approximately 106-107 CFU/g of product during
consumption (Lamsal & Faubion, 2009). Important factors such as pH,
post-acidification, oxygen level, temperature, food matrix and interac-
tion with the starter organisms affect LAB viability during refrigerated
storage of fermented products (Dave & Shah, 1997; Soro-Yao, Brou,
Amani, Thonart, & Djè, 2014).
5.9. Potential health risks of some commercial pickles
The microbial decarboxylation of amino acids in pickles leads to the
synthesis of biogenic amine, mainly histamine, tyramine, tryptamine,
putrescine, cadaverine, spermidine and spermine. For instance, the
maximal amount of histamine has been reported, especially in pickled
fish products. Histamine is a common/regular substance in the phy-
siological system and has valuable functions. However, histamine in-
toxication may occur, provided that, weak regulating mechanism of
histamine and/or disorderliness of metabolism of histamine in con-
sumers (Ekici & Coskun, 2004). Several symptoms, such as flushing of
the neck and face followed by an intense, throbbing headache, burning
of the mouth and throat, dizziness, itching, faintness, and the inability
to swallow are caused due to histamine intoxication. Nevertheless,
several microorganisms can produce histamine (i.e., Proteus sp. and
Klebsiella sp.) in pickled fish products. However, using probiotic strains
(e.g., Lb. plantarum, Lb. casei, E. faecium and Pediococcus sp.) may re-
duce the biogenic amine formation in fermented pickles. Recently,
outbreaks of foodborne pathogens, such as E. coli O157:H7 and Sal-
monella sp. in acidified foods (pH < 4.5) were reported. E. coli
O157:H7 could be a pathogen of greatest concern in pickled products
because of its low infectious dose and high acid tolerance (Medina-
Pradas, Pérez-Díaz, Garrido-Fernández, & Arroyo-López, 2017).
5.9.1. Sodium nitrite content in the pickles and its safety
Nitrate and nitrite are two anions in the nitrogen cycle that are
widely distributed in nature (Ding et al., 2018). Dietary nitrite has been
S.S. Behera, et al. Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103971

Table 4
Sensory acceptability of some fermented pickles.
Type of fermented food Sensory evaluation References

Pickles from fresh and fermented
vegetables
Pickled olive
Rehydrated sweet mango pickle
Pickled guinea fowl meat
Rabbit pickle
From the mean score of overall acceptability, it is seen that the pickles from fermented Sultana, Iqbal, and Islam (2014)
vegetables samples are the best product securing score 7.00, 7.00 and 6.62, respectively and are
ranked as ‘like moderately’ and are significantly different from pickles from fresh vegetables
securing lowest score (6.31) out of 9 and ranked as ‘like slightly’. It is thus concluded that
fermented mixed pickles are better than mixed pickles using fresh vegetables
Mean scores of bitter, acid, hardness and crunchiness in olives fermented Argyri, Nisiotou, Mallouchos, Panagou,
and Tassou (2014)
Sensory evaluation of rehydrated sweet mango pickle was carried out using nine-point hedonic Bulla (2010)
scale by panel of ten trained judges in three replications. Among the three mango varieties, both
Dharwad local 1 and 2 varieties had attractive color, good taste and flavor but the Dharwad local
1 variety had a fibrous texture. The pickle prepared out of Dharwad local 3 variety had a dark
color, soft texture and insipid taste and flavor and hence, it was not acceptable. Out of the
varieties Dharwad local 1 and 2, the variety 2 had higher scores for overall acceptability
Sensory attributes showed good to very good acceptability scores Rana and Shukla (2003)
Significant reduction in organoleptic scores of rabbit pickle was observed. However, the scores Sen and Karim (2003), Gadekar et al.
always ranged from good to very good throughout the storage period and product was highly (2010)
acceptable up to 2 months. There was significant decline in flavor score of rabbit pickle during
storage

considered to be harmful to human health because of its association
with fatal cases of methemoglobinemia upon consumption of foods or
beverages with high concentrations of nitrite (> 0.3 percent by weight)
and possible links to some gastrointestinal cancers (Gorenjak & Cencic,
2013; Weitzberg & Lundberg, 2013).
Recently, attention has shifted toward the potential health benefits
of dietary nitrate, due to in vivo formation of nitric oxide (NO) through
a nitrite intermediate. In vivo nitrite has been found to be associated
with beneficial health effects, including reduced risk of cardiovascular
disease, myocardial infarction, stroke, gastriculcer, renal failure, and
metabolic syndrome (Archer, 2002; Gorenjak & Cencic, 2013;
Habermeyer et al., 2015; Hord, Tang, & Bryan, 2009; Jonvik et al.,
2016; Weitzberg & Lundberg, 2013).
The effect of specific cooking or preservation methods on nitrate
content showed that substantial decreases in nitrate content were ob-
served in boiled or canned vegetables, baking had little to no effect, and
nitrate content was increased in fried products (Bakr, El-Iraqui, &
Huissen, 1986; Prasad & Chetty, 2011; Schuster & Lee, 1987). However,
there is very little information available on the concentrations of nitrate
and nitrite in pickled vegetable products. During the fermentation of
Chinese cabbage, nitrate decreased and then reached a stationary level,
while the content of nitrite initially increased and then decreased when
the pH was lower than 4.5 (Ji, Ji, Li, & Lu, 2009; Yang et al., 2014). Du,
Wu, Sun, and Yue (2013) also found similar changes in nitrite in Chi-
nese sauerkraut during fermentation, with an increase in the early
stage, followed by decrease to a low level toward the end of fermen-
tation. Lactic acid bacteria may metabolize nitrite during the fermen-
tation of vegetables (Oh, Oh, & Kim, 2004; Yan et al., 2015; Yu &
Zhang, 2013). The ability to metabolize nitrite was found in certain
strains of Lactobacillus brevis, Lactobacillus plantarum, and Leuconostoc
mesenteroides obtained from kimchi (Oh et al., 2004; Yu & Zhang,
2013). Other ingredients in pickled fruits and vegetables, such as salt,
sugar, ginger, and garlic, may affect the nitrate and nitrite contents
directly or indirectly by affecting the fermentation process (Li et al.,
2011). Fermented turnip, cucumber, mustard, and cabbage in northern
China had nitrite levels of 0.40–0.60 mg/100 g (Hou, Jiang, & Long,
2013), while nitrite content of 0.017–0.198 mg/100 g was reported for
the naturally fermented sour cabbage in Daqing, China (Zhang, Wu, Li,
Yang, & Yue, 2013). In these fermented vegetables, nitrite levels were
below 2.0 mg/100 g (calculated as sodium nitrite), a level that is
considered safe under the Chinese National Food Standard regulation
(GB2762-2017) and is below the World Health Organization's Accep-
table Daily Intake for a healthy adult (0.06 mg/kg body weight per
day ~ 3.6 mg per day for a 60- kg person). US regulations (21 CFR, part
172) do not specifically mention fruit and vegetable products, but
specify that there can be no more than 20 mg/100 g nitrite or 50 mg/
100 g nitrate in finished meat products where nitrite and nitrate are
added as preservatives (Ding et al., 2018).
6. Why given such importance for pickles from the economic point
of view?
6.1. Consumers’ acceptability point of view
Traditional pickled foods enrich consumers' sensory perception by
providing a wide variety of flavors, colors and textures. Pickled pro-
ducts are common worldwide and are much relished by consumers
(Gadekar et al., 2010).
Even though, many studies detailed about the beneficial effects of
fermented pickles. The overall consumers’ satisfaction with fermented
pickles may vary on the type and composition of product, and fre-
quency of usage. For example, the results of the survey of consumers’
acceptability about consumption of ready to use dehydrated mango
pickle indicated that the ready to use dehydrated mango pickle was
accepted by 59% of the respondents and it was highly accepted by 41%
of the respondents (Bulla, 2010). Unacceptable remark was not made
by any of the respondents. Thus, the consumer acceptability trial in-
dicated that the developed ready to use dehydrated mango pickle was
accepted by most of the consumers (Bulla, 2010). Table 4 gives some
examples of sensory acceptance of fermented pickles. Sensory proper-
ties such as flavor, texture, and color evolve during fermentation and
need to be closely monitored. In some cases, the same microbial species
(i.e. LABs) involved in normal fermentation need to be destroyed to
avoid not only spoilage but also deterioration of the sensory attributes
of pickles. Whereas the sensory quality of pickles is the cornerstone to
determine the consumer acceptability, Table 5 shows the common
sensory pickling problems and how to solve them.
6.2. Global status and scenario of pickles sector
Pickled products in the United States were valued at over US$ 2.3
billion in 2011. This market is positively grown in value sales, which
was expected to reach US$ 2.4 billion by 2015. The Americans con-
sumption was estimated 1.2–1.3 kg of pickled products per capita each
year from 2008 to 2016 (AAFC, 2012).
Recently, the experts estimate the worldwide Pickles Sector to grow
at a Compound annual growth (CAGR) rate of 3.2% during the forecast
period, 2018 to 2023. North America held the highest market share of
47.43%, with the United States being the principal contributor to the
pickles and their products market growth. Continuously, North America

14
S.S. Behera, et al. Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103971

Table 5
Common sensory pickling problems and how to prevent/solve them.
Problem Causes Prevention/Solutions

Soft, slippery slimy pickles (discard
pickles, spoilage is occurring)
Shriveled, tough pickles
Dark, discolored pickles
There is white sediment on the
bottom of the jar
Pickles have a strong, bitter taste
Hard water, acid level too low, cooked too long or at too high a
temperature, water bath too short, bacteria not destroyed, jars not
airtight, jars in too warm a resting place
Pickles overcooked, syrup too heavy, too strong a brine or vinegar
solution, pickles not fresh enough at outset, fruit cooked too harshly
in vinegar/sugar mixture
Iron utensils used, copper, brass, iron, or zinc cookware used, hard
water, metal lid corrosion, too great a quantity of powdered and
dried spices used, iodized salt used
Harmless yeasts have grown on the surface and then settled to the
bottom, additives in table salt
Spices were old, they were cooked too long in the vinegar or the
quantity was excessive, vinegar used was too strong, salt substitutes
contain potassium chloride, which is naturally bitter
– Use salt and vinegar with 5% acidity. Follow a current, tested
recipe for proper ratios of salt to vinegar
– Pickles must be completely covered with brine during
fermentation and in the jar
– Follow the recommended processing time in a current, tested
recipe using a boiling water canner
– Airtight the pickling jars
– Gradually add salt, sugar or vinegar until the full amount has
been incorporated
– Follow a current, tested recipe, using the recommended amounts
of salt, sugar and vinegar at 5% acidity
– Follow recommended cooking and processing times in a current,
tested recipe
– Use soft water. Hard water contains minerals
– Use unchipped enamelware, glass, stainless steel or stoneware
utensils when making pickles. The minerals in materials react
with the acid in the pickling liquid
– Use whole spices
– Whole spices used to flavor pickling liquid, including those
contained in a spice bag, should be removed before preserving
– None. The presence of a small amount of white sediment is
normal
– When canning, use salt which does not contain additives
– Use fresh spices — whole spices should be used within 3 to
4 years of purchase. Follow current, tested recipes to ensure
quantities and times are correct
– Use vinegar with the proper strength for fresh preserving: 5%
acidity
– Do not use the salt substitutes

Sources: Barrett (2003), Kingry and Devine (2006).

leads the pickles product market, owing to its’ larger consumption be-
cause of its differentiating taste and taste improving properties. There
has been a growing demand for vegetable pickles, particularly in the
Asia-Pacific (APAC) region and consumed as an accomplishment with
food during meals; which in turn is anticipated to be a main driver for
the APAC region to witness highest growth rate during the forecast
period (Mordor Intelligence Report, 2018).
6.3. Socio-economic role of traditionally fermented pickles: Is expanding the
cottage industry the desired future?
scale will be limit and easy, so, any beginner (who does not have
sufficient experience in pickles production field) can start this pro-
ject and make money, which creates strong competition with his
peers from the beginners and professionals as well;
– The conditions for fermentation (temperature, pH, and salt content)
have to be closely monitored to ensure a product quality;
– The availability of preservative organic acids such as acetic may be a
problem in some regions;
– Surveys are essential tools to determine the potential market for the
designed product before starting production.

Pickling is an age-old traditional method for preservation of food. It
should be noted that the indigenous fermentation techniques underpin
cultural sustainability and also facilitating the development of nu-
tritious foods which can not only cope with the difficult environmental
conditions, e.g., Himalaya areas (El Sheikha & Hu, 2020; Roy, Prakash
Kala, Farooquee, & Majila, 2004).
6.3.1. Traditionally fermented pickles are suitable for cottage production
Traditionally fermented pickles are fairly safe products for small-
scale manufacturers (e.g., cottage manufacturers) to make. When pre-
served properly they carry a low risk of food poisoning and have a long
shelf-life. Pickles can be made using relatively simple equipment that is
readily available in most places. Pickles can be prepared from a variety
of foodstuffs depending on what is available (http://www.fao.org/3/a-
au116e.pdf).
6.3.2. Challenges facing the cottage manufacturers of traditionally
fermented pickles
There are many challenges facing the cottage processors of tradi-
tionally fermented pickles, for example:
– The small-scale processors generally choose to make pickles due to
their relatively easy production process, but there may be a high
level of competition, why? Because the pickles production at this
A successful business depends on a good market for the product. Too
often, small-scale processors decide to make pickles because there is an
abundant supply of raw material, without a prior evaluation of the
demand for the product. These types of ventures usually fail (http://
www.fao.org/3/a-au116e.pdf).
7. Infographic: Traditional pickles from food safety and security
perspectives
Advancement of the traditional pickle (combined probiotic health
traits) would be valuable in the extermination of starvation (appetite
for pickle) and hunger in the developing countries. Research on the
identification and use of probiotic strains with functional properties and
health benefits could be advanced for domestic pickle preparation.
Moreover, pickle plays an important role in providing food security,
enhancing livelihoods and improving the nutrition and social well-
being of millions of people (rural and tribal population) in developing
countries (see Scheme 1).
8. Remarks and future trends
Bio-fortification is the technique of increasing the concentration and
bioavailability of the nutritional content of the edible part of the plant
foods to the levels that typically surpasses the normal content observed.

15
S.S. Behera, et al.
Scheme 1. Could the traditional pickles be safe and secure foods?!!!
Food fortification and biofortification are well-established strategies to
prevent and address nutritional deficiencies in vulnerable populations
(Osendarp et al., 2018). Fermented food commodities, including
pickles, are of great significance as they contribute and preserve ample
nutritious foods to enrich the human diet. Several microbial strains
(especially LAB) are responsible for bio-fortification of pickles. For in-
stance, cell-bound exopolysaccharide (EPS) of the gratifying strain (i.e.,
Lb. brevis KB290) isolated from natural Japanese pickles has been re-
ported to prevent against the effects of bile (Suzuki, Honda, Suganuma,
Saito, & Yajima, 2014). Exopolysaccharides (EPS) is the chief compo-
nent of the bacterial biofilm, which improves the colonization of pro-
biotic bacteria by cell interaction in the gastrointestinal tract and the
protection of harmful bacteria against the lethal influences (Monika,
Kumar, Kumari, Angmo, & Bhalla, 2017). The production of industrially
important enzymes (i.e., α-amylases, β-galactosidases) has been
16
Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103971
reported by an amylolytic strain of LABs (Lc. lactis), isolated from
pickled yam (Monika et al., 2017).
9. Conclusions
A wide variety of microflora (starter culture probiotics) is involved
in traditional pickled foods. The formation of traditional pickles gen-
erally enhances the safety of pickles owing to a reduction in pH, pro-
duction of acids and detoxification, in some cases. Although the oc-
currence of the various LAB has been reported, knowledge and
understanding of their ecology, including aspects such as microbial
successions and competitiveness, and their genetic and physiological
properties remain to be acquired. In particular, Lactobacillus that con-
tributes to desirable product properties requires more precise char-
acterization, using genomics, proteomics and physiological approaches
S.S. Behera, et al.
for more efficient identification and exploitation while developing
consumer-friendly strategies to control fermentation and safeguard
hygiene. Moreover, research is necessary to monitor food safety and
prevent foodborne illness. The detection of pathogens and other mi-
crobial contaminants, which is critical to assess the safety of the tra-
ditional pickle. However, the recent advances in probiotic functions of
LAB have significantly increased the production of high quality, nu-
tritious and tasteful pickles that remain fresh for a long time and
completely safe and less reliant on artificial additives.
10. Authors contribution statement
S S B and A F E are considered as the first author. S S B provided the
first draft of the manuscript. The conceptualizing of the paper's idea,
analyzing the literature, designing and writing the manuscript were
done by A F E. R H cooperated in manuscript writing and designing. A F
E revise the final version of the manuscript. A K supervised the student
and review the first draft of the manuscript.
11. Ethics statement
This review compares data literature, and no experiments have been
performed for its preparation.
Declaration of Competing Interest
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Acknowledgments
The authors are incredibly grateful to the support provided by the
National Institute of Technology Raipur, India. This research was sup-
ported also by the Research Start-Up Fund from Jiangxi Agricultural
University, China, which granted to Prof. Aly El Sheikah (Fund N°
9232307245).
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