PHY646 - Quantum Field Theory and the Standard Model

Even Term 2020

Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

LECTURE 48

Wednesday, April 15, 2020

(Note: This is an online lecture due to COVID-19 interruption.)

Topic: The Glashow-Weinberg-Salam Theory.

The Glashow-Weinberg-Salam Theory

The Glashow-Weinberg-Salam (GWS) theory gives the experimentally correct description of the
weak interactions. This theory is also knows as the electroweak theory since it gives a unified
description of weak and electromagnetic interactions.
The existence of the electroweak interactions was experimentally established in two stages, the
first being the discovery of neutral currents (exchange process involving Z boson) in neutrino scat-
tering in 1973, and the second, in 1983, the discovery of the W and Z gauge bosons in proton-
antiproton collisions. In 1979 Glashow, Salam, and Weinberg were awarded the Nobel Prize in
Physics for their contributions to the unification of the weak and electromagnetic interaction be-
tween elementary particles. In 1999, ’t Hooft and Veltman were awarded the Physics Nobel prize
for showing that the electroweak theory is renormalizable.
The framework of electroweak model required a fundamental scalar field, which is not generated
by any gauge symmetry; it is the Higgs field. In 2012, the ATLAS and CMS collaborations at the
Large Hadron Collider (LHC) experimentally detected the Higgs boson, and in 2013 the Physics
Nobel prize was awarded to Englert and Brout, and Higgs for predicting the existence of the Higgs
boson.
Let us begin with the Higgs field; is appears as a doublet in GWS theory
!
φ1
Φ= , (1)
φ2

where φ1 and φ2 are complex scalar fields. We then simply insert the field Φ into the fundamental
Lagrangian of the Universe

(l) (q)
L = ∂µ Φ† ∂ µ Φ − V (Φ) + Ψ (iγ µ ∂µ ) Ψ(l) + Ψ (iγ µ ∂µ ) Ψ(q) + · · · + LΦ,Ψ . (2)
PHY646 - Quantum Field Theory and the Standard Model Even Term 2020

The leptons and quarks need to be put in by hand - the ellipsis is a reminder that we have six
fermionic doublets, two families, and three generations. We accept them simply as facts of Nature.
1
We simply assert that the weak hypercharge of the Higgs doublet is YH = 2 and the doublet
transforms under SU (2)L × U (1)Y as
  
1 0 0
Φ → exp −i gα exp [−ig αa T a ] Φ. (3)
2

The scalar Lagrangian was designed to produce a gauge freedom. We assume the potential, also
invariant under SU (2)L × U (1)Y , takes the following parametrized form

V (Φ) = V0 − µ2 Φ† Φ + λ(Φ† Φ)2 . (4)

This is about the simplest potential possible which both obeys the required symmetry and
contains a false vacuum. As a gauge choice, we are free to select a vacuum state for Φ at
 
0
Φg =  . (5)
√v
2

We have chosen this particular ground state and the corresponding hypercharge with an eye
toward its interaction with the vector fields. Working from Q = T3 + Y and noting that the doublet
has a weak hypercharge of YH = 12 , and the downstairs component of the scalar field has a weak
isospin, T3 = − 12 , we find that the ground state is electrically neutral, Q = 0.
In 2012, the ATLAS and CMS collaborations at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) experimentally
detected the Higgs boson with a mass of

MH = 125.6 ± 0.3 GeV, (6)

giving a value of
µ ' 177.6 GeV, (7)

and a subsequent vacuum expectation value: v ≈ 144 GeV.

The Gauge Boson Masses

Before the SSB of the electroweak gauge group, we have the following form of the Lagrangian
involving the gauge bosons and the Higgs field

1 1 2
a 2
L = − (Wµν ) − Bµν + (Dµ Φ)† (Dµ Φ) + µ2 Φ† Φ − λ(Φ† Φ)2 , (8)
4 4

where Bµ is the hypercharge gauge boson, with Bµν = ∂µ Bν − ∂ν Bµ , and Wµa are the SU (2) gauge
a their field strengths. The normalization of the λ(Φ† Φ)2 term is conventional. The
bosons, with Wµν

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covariant derivative acting on the Higgs doublet is

1
Dµ Φ = ∂µ Φ − igWµa T a Φ − ig 0 Bµ Φ. (9)
2

Here, g and g 0 are the SU (2) and U (1)Y couplings, respectively. The factor of 1
2 in the Bµ Φ coupling
1
comes from the Higgs multiplet having hypercharge YH = 2.
The Higgs potential V (Φ) = −µ2 |Φ|2 + λ|Φ|4 induces a vev for Φ, which we can take to be real
and in the lower component without loss of generality.
Thus we can expand !
πaT a 0
 
Φ = exp 2i , (10)
v √v + √h
2 2

with the vev

µ
v=√ , (11)
λ
1 a √1
and T a = 2σ the canonically normalized SU (2) generators. The factors of 2
in this equation
convert between the canonical normalization of a complex scalar (Φ) and a real scalar (h).
It is simplest to study this theory in unitary gauge, so we set the Goldstone bosons π a = 0,
a = 1, 2, 3.
Plugging in the vev we get the mass terms

∆L = |Dµ Φ|2
   !
1 1 1 0
= (0 v) gWµa T a + g 0 Bµ gW bµ T b + g 0 B µ
2 2 2 v
g 0 ! 0
g
! !
2 B + W 3 W 1 − iW 2 B + W 3 W 1 − iW 2
v µ µ µ µ µ µ µ µ 0
= g 2 (0 1) g 1 2 g 0
3
g
1 2 g 0
3
8 Wµ + iWµ g Bµ − Wµ Wµ + iWµ g Bµ − Wµ 1
" #
2
v2 g0
 

2
2
= g2 Wµ1 + Wµ2 + Bµ − Wµ3 . (12)
8 g

We define four vector fields, Wµ± , Zµ0 and Aµ , as the following linear combinations of Wµ1 , Wµ2 , Wµ3
and Bµ
1 1
Wµ± = √ Wµ1 ∓ iWµ2 , with mass MW = g v;


(13)
2 2

g0
 
g 1
q
Zµ = p Bµ − Wµ3 , with mass MZ = g 2 + g 0 2 v. (14)
g + g02
2 g 2

The fourth vector field, orthogonal to Zµ0 , remains massless

g0
 
g 3
Aµ = p Bµ + Wµ , with mass MA = 0. (15)
g2 + g02 g

We will identify this field with the electromagnetic vector potential, associated with the gauge

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group U (1)EM , which in fact, came from the SSB of SU (2)L × U (1)Y → U (1)EM .
Let us express the relationship between the hypercharge Y and the electric charge Q. A repre-
sentation of SU (2)L × U (1)Y has some matrix T 3 associated with Wµ3 and a number Y associated
with Bµ .
In the fundamental representation of SU (2) we have,
!
1 1 1 0
T 3 = σ3 = (16)
2 2 0 −1

For a fermion field belonging to a general SU (2) representation, with U (1) charge Y , the co-
variant derivative takes the form

Dµ = ∂µ − ig Wµa τ a − ig 0 Y Bµ . (17)

Expanding this out in terms of the mass eigenstate fields, this becomes

Dµ = ∂µ − ig(Wµ1 T 1 + Wµ2 T 2 ) − igWµ3 T 3 − ig 0 Bµ Y 1

g0
 
+ + − − 3 3


= ∂µ − ig Wµ T + Wµ T − ig Wµ T + Bµ Y 1 , (18)
g

where T ± = (T 1 ± iT 2 ). The normalization is chosen so that

1
T ± = (σ 1 ± iσ 2 ) = σ ± . (19)
2

To simplify expression Eq. (18) further, we define a parameter called the weak mixing angle
or the Weinberg angle, θW , to be the angle that appears in the change of basis from (Wµ3 , Bµ ) to
(Zµ , Aµ ) ! ! !
Zµ cos θW − sin θW Wµ3
= , (20)
Aµ sin θW cos θW Bµ
with
g0
tan θW = . (21)
g
Then the covariant derivative takes the form

Dµ = ∂µ − ig Wµ+ T + + Wµ− T − − ieAµ (T 3 + Y 1) − ieZµ (cot θW T 3 − tan θW Y 1).

(22)

We have identified the coefficient of the electromagnetic interaction as the electron charge e,

gg 0
e= p , (23)
g2 + g02

and
Q = T 3 + Y 1. (24)

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measures the electric charge.

For example,
! ! ! ! !
1 1
0 0 − 0 0 0
= T 3 + YL 12×2 2 2


Q = =− (25)
eL eL 0 − 12 − 1
2 eL eL

shows that the left-handed electron has electric charge −1.

With these definitions, the kinetic terms in the Lagrangian for Zµ and the photon Aµ are

1 2 1 2 1
Lkin = − Fµν − Zµν + m2Z Z µ Zµ , (26)
4 4 2

with
1
MZ = gv, (27)
2 cos θW
and
Zµν = ∂µ Zν − ∂ν Zµ , Fµν = ∂µ Aν − ∂ν Aµ . (28)

We see that the couplings of all of the weak bosons are described by two parameters: the well-
measured electron charge e, and a new parameter θW . The couplings induced by W and Z exchange
will also involve the masses of these particles. However, these masses are not independent, since it
follows from Eqs. (13) and (14) that

MW = MZ cos θW . (29)

Already there is an unambiguous prediction from the theory: the W ± bosons should be lighter
than the Z boson.
All the effects of W and Z exchange process, at least at tree level, can be written in terms of
the three basic parameters e, θW , and MW .
Upon using the experimentally measured masses of W and and Z bosons we get the value for
the Weinberg angle
θW ≈ 28.17◦ . (30)

Let us note that the specific value of the Weinberg angle is not a prediction of the Standard
Model; it is an open and unfixed parameter. This parameter is constrained and predicted through
other measurements of Standard Model quantities, for instance, θW = cos−1 (MW /MZ ). Currently
we do not know why the measured value of θW is what it is - we simply accept it as a given fact of
our Universe.

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The Lagrangian for Gauge Bosons

A straightforward calculation gives the following Lagrangian for the gauge bosons

1 2 1 2 1 1
Lgauge = − Fµν − Zµν + m2Z Z µ Zµ − (∂µ Wν+ − ∂ν Wµ+ )(∂µ Wν− − ∂ν Wµ− )
4 4 2 h 2
+m2W Wµ+ Wµ− − ie cot θW ∂µ Zν (Wµ+ Wµ− − Wν+ Wν− )
i
+Zν (−Wµ+ ∂ν Wµ− + Wµ− ∂ν Wµ+ + Wµ+ ∂µ Wν+ − Wµ− ∂µ Wν+ )
h
−ie ∂µ Aν (Wµ+ Wν− − Wν+ Wµ− )
i
+Aν (−Wµ+ ∂ν Wµ− + Wµ− ∂ν Wµ+ + Wµ+ ∂µ Wν− − Wµ− ∂µ Wν+ )
1 e2 − − 1 e2
− W µ
+
W µ W +
ν W ν + W +W −W +W −
2 sin2 θW 2 sin2 θW µ ν µ ν
−e2 cot2 θW (Zµ Wµ+ Zν Wν− − Zµ Zµ Wν+ Wν− ) + e2 (Aµ Wµ+ Aν Wν− − Aµ Aµ Wν+ Wν− )
h i
+e2 cot θW Aµ Wµ+ Wν− Zν + Aµ Wµ− Zν Wν+ − Wµ+ Wµ− Aν Zν . (31)

The Feynman rules can be read off from this Lagrangian. For example, the vertex W µ+ (p1 )W ν− (p2 )Z λ (p3 )
with all momenta incoming is given in Fig. 1 and it has the contribution −ie cot θW [g µν (p1 − p2 )λ +
g νλ (p2 − p3 )µ + g λµ (p3 − p1 )ν ].

Figure 1: The vertex W µ+ (p1 )W ν− (p2 )Z λ (p3 ) with all momenta incoming. It has the contribution
−ie cot θW [g µν (p1 − p2 )λ + g νλ (p2 − p3 )µ + g λµ (p3 − p1 )ν ].

The Z α Z β W µ+ W ν− u vertex is given in Fig. 2 and it has the contribution ie2 cot2 θW [g αµ g βν +
g αν g βµ − 2g αβ g µν ].

The Higgs Lagrangian

Now let us return to the field h. Even in unitary gauge (π a = 0, a = 1, 2, 3), this field, known as
the Higgs boson, is still present. Note that while Φ, the Higgs doublet, has charges under the weak-
and hypercharge-gauge groups, the Higgs boson h does not. Expanding out the Lagrangian, we find

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Figure 2: The Z α Z β W µ+ W ν− u vertex. It has the contribution ie2 cot2 θW [g αµ g βν + g αν g βµ −

2g αβ g µν ].

that the terms involving the Higgs boson are

1 m2 g 2 m2h 4
LHiggs = − h( + m2h )h − g h h3 − h
2 4mW 32 m2W
   2  
h 2 + µ− 1 2 µ h 2 + µ− 1 2 µ
+2 mW Wµ W + mZ Zµ Z + mW Wµ W + mZ Zµ Z , (32)
v 2 v 2

where
√
mh = 2µ. (33)

Using
2mW sin θW
v= , (34)
e
the Feynman rule for a Higgs boson interacting with two W bosons (see Fig. 3) is i sineθW mW g µν .
m2Z
For a Higgs boson and two Z bosons is (see Fig. 4) i sineθW mW g µν = i sin θW ecos2 θW mW g µν .

Figure 3: The Feynman rule for a Higgs boson interacting with two W bosons.

The Higgs mass is m2h = 2λv 2 = 2µ2 is unrelated to other three parameters e, sin2 θW and mW .
Note that we started with four parameters µ, λ, g, g 0 and ended up with four: e, θW , mh and mW .

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Figure 4: The vertex corresponding to a Higgs boson and two Z bosons.

References
[1] M. E. Peskin and D. Schroeder, Introduction to Quantum Field Theory, Westview Press (1995).

[2] M. D. Schwartz, Quantum Field Theory and the Standard Model, Cambridge University Press
(2013).

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