Polymer types Cons: Conductive material only, safety issues Plug weld & slot weld: fill the
terial only, safety issues Plug weld & slot weld: fill the plug/slot with molten material
-Thermoset: compression molding, cannot be reheated and used
over again
-Thermoplastic: high temp resistance, chemical resistance, can be
reheated and used again; extrusion & injection molding, blow
molding
-Elastomer: (rubber), can be stretched a lot, easily molded, low
density, corrosion resistant, cheap, 2 types, compression molding
Natural – derived from certain biological plants
Synthetic – produced by polymerization process similar to
thermosets and thermoplastics;
Viscosity: ability to flow (ex. Of low viscosity: water, high viscosity:
ketchup)
Extrusion: compression process where material is forced to flow
through a die to provide a long continuous product; widely used for
thermoplastics and elastomers to mass produce items such as
tubing, pipes, hoses, structural shapes, sheet, film, continuous
filaments, and coated wire and cable. Continuous process then cut
to desired length w/same cross sections. 2 main parts of extruder:
barrel and screw
Avoid bambooing effect by: reduce friction by making the die
smoother or adding lubricant (extrusion defect)
Injection molding: Most popular process, process in which a
polymer is heated into a highly plastic state and forced to flow
under high pressure into a mold, cooled, then removed from the
mold. For small parts, a mold can contain many cavities also
making complex and intricate shapes, high volume. Ex: toys and
DVD cases
Defects: short shot, flashing, sink mark, weld line, air trap. Injection
machine consists of 2 main parts: plastic injection unit & mold
clamping unit
Shrinkage: polymers shrink upon solidification; compensate with
larger mold or compacting plastics during molding crystallites ->
control plastic shrinkage. When plastic is warm, it is amorphous. It
becomes crystalline when you cool
Shrinkage factor: Dc=Dp(1+s+s^2); (Dc is dimension of cavity &
Dp is dimension of part)
Compression: old and widely used for thermosetting.
Ex: tires, resistance products – pots, pans, light switches. Process:
1.) loading precise amount of molding compound(charge) 2.)
bringing the mold halves together to compress the charge, forcing it
to flow and conform to the shape of the cavity, 3.) heating the
charge by the means of the hot mold to polymerize and cure the
material into a solidified part 4.) opening the mold halves and
removing the part from the cavity. Molds are usually simpler.
Disadvantages: longer cycling time and therefore lower production
rates than injection molding.
Blow Molding – 2 types: Extrusion & Injection
Used to make hollow seamless parts out of thermoplastic polymers.
Mass production of small disposable containers. Process in which air
is used to inflate soft plastic into a mold cavity. 2 steps: (1.)
fabrication of a starting tube of molten plastic(parison) (2.) inflation
of the tube to desired final shape. Forming the parison is
accomplished by either extrusion or injection molding.
Extrusion blow molding: process is organized as a very high
production operation for making plastic bottles. Sequence is
automated and usually integrated downstream operations such as
bottle filling and labeling. Process: (1) extrusion of parison
(2)parison is pinched at the top and sealed at the bottom around a
metal blow pin as the 2 halves of the mold come together (3)the
tube is inflated so that it takes the shape of the mold cavity (4)mold
is opened to remove the solidified part
Extrusion – blow molding equations:
Use P = 70% Pmax; Busts when stress is maximized. It bursts by
highest stress.
D = avg. diameter
tm=thickness of product
Dm=diameter of product
Geometry analysis for Blow molding
Swell ratio:rs = Dp/Dd tp/td = (Dp=diam. of
parison; Dd=diam of die; tp=thickness of parison; td=thickness of
die)
Volume is conserved: πDptp-πDmtm=0
Stress analysis
Axial stress: σa=σh2
Hoop stress: σh=PD2t (p = pressure; D =
diameter)
Max P= σh+2tmDm
Injection Blow molding: starting parison is injected rather than
extruded.
Rotational Molding: uses gravity inside a rotating mold to achieve a
hollow form. Ex: kayak
*Conventional Milling, Ultrasonic machining, water jet cutting are
processes that use mechanical energy as the principal energy
source
*Applications of electron beam machining are limited to metallic
work materials due to need for the work to be electrically
conductive
*Chemical milling is used in making intricate patterns in sheet
metal, and removing material to make shallow pockets in metal
*Etch factor is also Anistrophy and D/U
*Plasma cutting has one of the highest removal rates
Nontraditional machining: 4 types – mechanical, E-chemical,
thermal, & chemical.
Mechanical
-Water Jet Cutting – uses a fine high pressure, high velocity
stream of water directed at the work surface to cause cutting of the
work. Powered by a hydraulic pump. Used to cut narrow slits in flat
stock such as plastic, textiles, composites, floor tile, carpet, leather,
cardboard. Popular in aircraft making.
Pros: “Green” and sustainable, ease of automation
Cons: Noisy, line of sight, cut plastics, leather, not metal or ceramic
Abrasive water jet cutting: used on metallic workparts; abrasive
particles must usually be added to the jet stream to facilitate
cutting. Process variables – abrasive type, grit size, and flow rate.
Abrasives: aluminum oxide, silicon dioxide, and garnate. Nozzle
diameters are larger than WJC for higher flow rates and more
energy contained.
Abrasive Jet Machining: material removal process that results
from the action of a high-velocity stream of gas containing small
abrasive particles, gas is dry. Usually preformed manually and as a
finishing process. Applications include: deburring, trimming, and
deflashing, cleaning, and polishing. Typical abrasives: aluminum
oxide(aluminum and brass), silicon carbide(stainless steel &
ceramics), and glass beads(polishing), Abrasives are not reused
because grains become fractured, worn, and contaminated.
Abrasive+sand=sandblasting.
Pros: Ease of automation, cover materials for water jet and metals
Cons: Noisy, line of sight, can dilute product, environmental concern
Electrochemical Machining Processes
Electrochemical Machining: (it is reversible)
Pros: Non contact process, no burr, independent of
hardness/strength
Steps: (you are producing a metallic layer on a conductive part) Spot weld: brass is copper alloy and more conductive w/low
Cu→Cu2++2e
resistance; brass low R, steel high R. Between 2 slabs of steel is
1. Ionize anode (+): highest R. * weld at a point (aka tack welding)*
Seam weld: weld along a line
2. Cu2+ moves to cathode (-) *High carbon in steel -> more martensite -> easy to crack*
Welding Processes:
3. Cathode: Cu2++2e→ Cu -Arc Welding
~Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) or stick welding
V = C*I*T = C*E*A*T/(g*r)
*Spark, ion, e- bombardment, melt weldment
n = IT/zF
Pro: Min. oxidation, simple, economical
z: valence electron of anode
Con: Slag removal, change of electrode
n: number of moles removed by ECM
~Metal Insert Gas Welding (MIG)
F: Faraday’s constant (9.64853e4 Coulombs/mole of electrons)
Pro: no slag, automation
V: volume removed by ECM
Con: High heat loss due to gas flow, more $, complex torch
C: mat’l constant
~Tungsten Inert Gas Welding
I: current
*Uses a nonconsumable electrode and inert gas for shielding
t: time
Pro: “No” electrode wear, no slag, high quality weld
E: voltage
Con: needs filler, high heat loss due to gas flow
A: area of electrode
Applications: welding aluminum and stainless steel
g: electrode gap
-Resistance spot welding
r: resistance of electrolyte
Principle: pieces are laid on top of each other, 3mm or less thick;
Thermal Energy Processes
predominant process in this group
-Electrical Discharge Machining
Pro: No shielding gas, no filler material, mass production
Tiny holes, hair size, produce tiny crates over and over. One of the
Con: Conductive sheets, no corner welding, possible leak
most widely used nontraditional processes. Process must take place
Applications: – used for mass production in automobiles,
in the presence of a dielectric fluid, which creates a path for each
appliances, metal furniture
discharge as the fluid becomes ionized in the gap. Discharge
-Flash Welding
generated by a pulsating direct current power supply connected to
Principle: normally used for butt joints, electric current is applied
the work and tool. Region in which discharge occurs is heated to
to heat the surfaces to the melting point, and they are welded.
extremely high temp so that a small portion of the work surface is
Pro: No oxidation, fast, no slag
suddenly melted, then removed. Individual charges remove small
Con: Conductive material only, butt join only, flash removal
amount of metal, but it occurs hundreds of thousands of times per
Applications: butt welding of steel strips in rolling-mill
second so gradual erosion occurs in the area of the gap. 2
operations, joining ends of wire, welding tubular parts
important parameters: discharge current & frequency of discharge.
-Energy Beam welding
As either increases, the removal rate increases. Overcut is the
*Principle: Electron – heat for welding is produced by stream of
distance at which the machined cavity in the workpart exceeds the
electrons impinging against work surface; Laser – heat is produced
size of the tool on each side of the tool.
by energy of highly concentrated light beam focused on joint to
Pros: Non contact, independent of hardness/strength
weld
Cons: conductive material, surface damage, slow
Laser Pros: High power density, fast, in air operation
Applications: gears, round metal parts(thin)
Laser Cons: Reflective, thermal defects
MRR = volumetime = K*ITm1.23 Electron Pro: High power density, fast, deep penetration
Electron Con: Vacuum, conductive material
f = 1/T (f is frequency) App: automotive industry, join small parts
Effect of Discharge energy: E = VIT = R I2t -Solid state welding: Friction welding
Pros: automation, conductive/nonconductive, no slag, no
V: voltage; I: current; t: time; R: resistance; shielding gas; Cons: flash removal, symmetric parts
High E -> large spark -> more mat’l removed Apps:
-Electron & Ion Beam machining: Uses a high powered stream of Weld quality & inspection
electrons focused on workpiece surface to remove mat’l my melting Distortion: due to uneven heating/cooling
and vaporization. 75% speed of light-focused through lens. At Material: crack, void/porosity, inclusion, incomplete fusion
surface, kinetic energy of electron is converted to thermal energy of Process: spatter, arc strike, non uniformity, contamination
high density that melts & vaporizes material Weld Inspection:
Pros: Nanotech, precise, deep penetration for e-, faster MRR for i+ Destructive: tensile, bend, impact to break a weld
(ionic-beam) Non-destructive: visual, x-ray, dye penetration
Cons: Vacuum, bulky equipment, slow, conductive sample, very Brazing & Soldering:
expensive Principle:
-Laser Beam machining: 1) Remove oxide using flux, or clean surface chemically
Uses light energy from a laser to remove mat’l by vaporization and 2) Melt brazing/soldering filler material
ablation. Types of lasers – carbon dioxide gas lasers and solid-state. 3) Joint base material with filler material
Beam creates a combination of evaporation and melting. Welding:
Pros: Noncontact, fast, independent of electrical conductivity -melting & fusion of weldment
Cons: Thermal damage (CO2, YAG), taper cut -optional filler, gap not critical
Applications: ** Brazing & soldering
Types: -mandatory filler
-CO2: 10(micrometers), thermal, heat & weld -filler melts, flows, fills optimal gap of parts
-YAG: 1 micrometer, thermal, machine
-fusion of filler to unmelted parent material
-Excimer: .1 micrometer, ablative & vibration, medical surgery Pros: Low joining temp, join different materials
Chemical Maching – Steps for CHM Cons: low join strength, customized filler, gap sensitive, low
4 types: Chem. Milling, chem. Blanking, chem. Engraving,
Photochemical machining
service
temp
Cleaning- to ensure that mat’l will be removed uniformly from Apps: Braze – joining tubes & pipes, wires & cables, jewelry
surfaces to be etched
Masked – protective coating (maskant) is applied to certain portions
making
Solder – mainly electronics assembly which doesn’t
of the part surface that will not be etched. Maskant is made of mat’l require high strength or stress tolerance
s chemically resistant to the etchant.
Etching- Mat’l removal step; part is immersed in an etchant that
chemically attacks those portions of the part surface that are not
masked. Usual method of attach is to convert the work material into
a salt that dissolves in the etchant and is thereby removed from the
surface. When the desired amount of material has been removed,
the part is withdrawn from the etchant and washed to stop the
process
Demasking- maskant is removed from part and part is cleaned off
Maskant materials: neoprene, polyvinylchloride, polyethylene, and
other polymers.
Masking – 3 different methods
1) Cut and peel: maskant is applied over entire part, then the areas
to be etched are cut away; Large products, low quantities, high
tolerance
2) Photographic: used to apply masking material; used normally for
small parts in high quantities and low tolerance
3)Screen resist: applied by silk screening through a silk or stainless
steel mesh. Used in applications between the other 2 methods in
terms of accuracy, size, & quantities
Pros: non contact, mass production
Cons: safety, slow etching rate
Applications:
Milling – remove metal from aircraft components for weight reduce;
cut and peel method is used
Blanking – chemical erosion cuts very thin sheetmetal parts and
makes them burr free, used to make thin intricate metal parts
Engraving – making name plates and other flat panels that have
lettering or artwork. Similar to other CHM process except that a
filling stage follows etching
Photochemical machining – photoresist method of masking is used;
used in applications of close tolerances and intricate patterns,
electronics industry.
Etchant: depends on the work material, desired depth, and rate of
material removed, and surface finish requirements
Undercut: where etching occurs sideways under the maskant
Isotropic etching: etching the same amount in all directions
Fe= du = etching
Etch factor:
depthunder cut
WELD CLASSIFICATION:
-Fusion (heat -> melt)
Arc Welding
Resistance Welding
Oxy Gas welding
Energy Beam welding
-Solid state (heat+pressure -> melt)
Diffusion welding
Friction Welding
Ultrasonic welding
-Others
Brazing (heat below melting temp)
Soldering (heat below melting temp)
Mechanical (screw+bolt -> melt)
Weld types: