DepEd EASE Modules General Science Combined PDF

(Effective and Alternative Secondary Education)
INTEGRATED SCIENCE I
MODULE 1
BUREAU OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
Department of Education
DepED Complex, Meralco Avenue
Pasig City
1
Module 1
Everyday Science
What this module is about
What is science? What is technology? You know that science and technology are
fields of study which are full of wonders and amazing discoveries. Today’s world is an
environment equipped with sophisticated machineries, which are brought about by the
impact of science and technology.
Before you can understand the works of scientists, you must have a full grasp of what
science is. An understanding of science and its processes must be an integral part of our
daily life activities.
This module has four lessons:
Lesson 1 - Doing Some Science Games

Lesson 2 - Impact of Science and Technology in Daily Life
Lesson 3 - Superstitious Beliefs and Practices
Lesson 4 - The Wonderful Traits of Scientists
What you are expected to learn
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. give the operational definitions of science, technology, matter and its examples;
2. discuss the impact of science and technology in daily life;
3. analyze local superstitious beliefs, practices and their influences on how problems
are solved in daily life; and
4. appreciate the contributions and desirable traits of outstanding scientists, both foreign
and local.
2
How to learn from this module
To achieve the objectives of this module, do the following:
1. Take your time reading the lessons carefully.

2. Follow the directions and/or instructions in the activities diligently.
3. Follow the time limit per lesson or activity as closely as possible.
4. Answer all the given tests and exercises.
5. Familiarize yourself with the following terms:
Term Definition
Biology - is the study of living things.

Biotechnology - refers to all developed technologies related to living
things.
Concoction - refers to the boiled water with accompanying herbal
leaves to cure some diseases.
Curiosity - is the strong desire to understand
events/phenomena.
Creativity - is the ability to find answer to a problem using
unusual or uncommon method.
Intellectual honesty - refers to not claiming the works of others as one’s
own.
Open-mindedness - not jumping to conclusions.
Rationality - is a belief in cause and effect.
Technology - is an application of science principles to practical use.
What to do before (Pretest)
A. In the box below are 5 categories. Identify the category to which each given
superstitious belief belongs: (5 pts.)
Food and Nutrition Health and Medicine
Livelihood (Fishing or Agriculture)
Love and Marriage Financial or Wealth
3
1) Mang Pedro is a fisherman.
He goes out to the sea every
night except during full moon. He
says he’ll never get a good catch
during full moon because the
fairies are around. To which
category does this belong?
____________________
2) While cleaning the mirror, Gina

accidentally broke it. Her mother
scolded her because this incident
would mean they would experience
bad luck for 7 years. To which
category does this belief belong?
_____________________
3) The youngest daughter of

Aling Lita does not take a bath in
the evening because she believes
that bathing in the evening would
mean losing a cup of blood from
her body. To which category does
this belief belong?
____________________
4) Girlie and Tom were soon to wed.

They agreed that Girlie would fit her
wedding gown before the wedding
day to check if the fit was perfect.
Their parents cautioned them against
it saying that the wedding would not
push through if they did so. To which
category does this belief belong?
____________________
5) During long summer months

or dry season, farmers pray for
rain to come by doing the “Rain
Dance” ritual. To which category
does this belief belong?
____________________
4
B. Technology is either a way or manner of doing things called process or it may be
the finished material called product or tools/gadgets. Classify the following
technologies by writing it to its appropriate category. (12 pts.)
Mining Cars and Buses Computers Television
Shampoo Pliers Distillation Hammer
Ax Soap-Making Pair of Scissors Toothbrush
Candle-Making Ballpens Projector Fermentation
Product Process Tool/Gadget
Example: Cars and Buses Example: Mining Example: Hammer
C. Write the correct answer on the space provided before the number.
__________ 1. It is a systematized body of knowledge, which are based on series of

experimentations.
__________ 2. It refers to a scientific guess.
__________ 3. It is anything that occupies space and it has mass.
__________ 4. These are practices with no scientific bases.
__________ 5. The application of scientific principles, laws and theories.
__________ 6. He is known for his pioneering researches in the field of chemistry and
technology.
__________ 7. He found out that the planets follow an elliptical orbit.
__________ 8. He is known for his three laws of motion.
Key to answers on page 18
5
Lesson 1 Doing Some Science Activities
Do you know that science is fun? Try to work on these activities and experience the
enjoyment that science could bring you.
What you will do

Activity 1.1 Crossword Puzzle
Fill the boxes with the missing letters of the word being described across or
downward.
1 2 3
Across Down
1) anything that occupies space and 2) the application of science

has mass principles to practical use
4) the study of living things 3) amount of push and pull, which can
5) a systematic body of organized change speed and direction of
knowledge moving objects
6) basic unit of structure among living 4) practices that have no scientific
things basis
6
7) the capacity or the ability to do work
8) the basic unit of matter
9) an educated guess
What you will do

Self-Test 1.1 Answer the questions briefly.
1) Give one technology and its importance to you.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
2) List down three examples of matter found at home. State whether it is in the form of
solid, liquid or gas. Give their uses.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3) Based on your examples of matter, how do you define matter? What do you call the
smallest particle of matter?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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4) Suppose you want to find out the factors that could affect the growth of plants, what
you usually do is to hypothesize. What is your idea about hypothesis?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
What you will do

Activity 1. 2 Word Grid
Enclose the group of letters, which describes the attitudes of scientists and
their way of doing things. The words can be read vertically, horizontally, diagonally
and/or backwards.
H U M B L E X O P E N Y M I N D E D R Z
O V G N F Z W T I O K N L B C S F L Q U
N B K L O G I C A L W A I O Y Z B P O W
E R I U M V R R H Y N N M S J K O N P N
S J O F B B K E J O E P T U X I A C E J
T U M E Y Z X A I K T E H P A T I E N T
S D W R J C S T L U M P L R F Y W Q N R
O G F A W O A I E A F H H O N S N R C K
P M O C D R I V T V C P S C U R I O U S
T E G W F P S I M X B K R E C H E I A D
N N L O I A C T P A V E A S Z W T R C E
X T P N T R X Y O U R R E S P E C T M B
8
What you will do
Self-Test 1.2
Based from the scientific attitudes formed in the word grid, answer the following
questions:
A. What scientific attitude is being referred to by the following?
1) Give truthful opinion ____________________
2) Shows awareness of one’s shortcomings ____________________
3) Improvises laboratory equipment _____________________
4) Correct reasoning and sound sense _____________________
5) Considers suggestions and accepts criticisms ___________________
Relate each scientific attitude identified in the word grid to the study of science.
1. __________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________
4. __________________________________________________________
5. ___________________________________________________________
Lesson 2 Impact of Science and Technology in Daily Life
For sure the words “science” and “technology” have an impact in your life. You know
very well that science refers to a highly organized and systematic body of knowledge from
which all other concepts or ideas come from.
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Yet, knowledge alone, if not applied, is practically useless. For example, we learn to
appreciate the usefulness of wheels when these are attached to cabinets, TV racks and
refrigerators, and moving these appliances becomes easy.
What you will do

Activity 2.1 My Daily Routine
We usually follow a procedure in performing each activity listed in the table below.
For each activity, write the procedure followed and the material used in the
appropriate column.
Table 2.1 List of Daily Activities
Activities Procedures Materials Used
Example: Sleeping 1. Wear pajama Pajama, pillow, bed, prayer book,

2. Fix the bed blanket
3. Pray
Swimming
Taking a bath
Eating breakfast
Going to school
Attending a birthday party
Playing the guitar
Studying
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Gardening
Cleaning the house
Relaxing at home
Watching basketball game
Writing a letter
Reading daily newspaper
Life in the last century is very different from life as we know it these days. For
example in earlier times, radio and telephone were the most commonly used media to
communicate and inform the people about events in our country and abroad.
Today, how do people communicate and get informed about the happenings here
and abroad? We rely on cellular phones, TV with cables, Internet, e-mail and many more
technologies. To know more about these technologies that make life easier try to perform
Activity 2.2.
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What you will do
Activity 2.2 The Gadgets that Make Life Easier
Fill out the table below by listing at least 10 technologies in the first column
and the use/s of each technology in the second column.
Table 2.2 Technology and its Use/s
Technology Use/s
Example: Ballpen It is used for writing.
However there are some technologies that can bring more harm than good to people
and environment. Living things and the environment suffer from the consequences of such
technologies. Can you name at least 3 of these technologies?
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What you will do
Self-Test 2.1
Name at least one recent discovery in each of the following fields and briefly describe them.
1. Medicine
2. Astronomy
3. Telecommunication
Lesson 3 Superstitious Beliefs and Practices
Superstitious beliefs and practices are part of our culture. You learn about them from
your relatives and friends from different places.
Here are some of the superstitious beliefs and practices that Filipinos hold:
1. When there is thunderstorm, you should cover mirrors with cloth so that this
will not be struck by lightning.
2. Bad spirits are roaming around when the dog howls. Some believe that when a
dog howls, something may happen like death of a family member or a
neighbor.
3. When you move to a new house, the first thing to be brought is a sack of rice
because this would mean good luck or prosperity.
4. The sisters or brothers in a family should not get married in the same year
because only one of them will experience good fortune while the other will
experience hardship during their married lives.
All superstitious beliefs have no scientific basis yet they greatly influence your way of
thinking and doing things.
Our ancestors did not clearly understand the causes of many things in their
environment. The occurrence of events was thought to be bringing either good luck or bad
luck. However, with the advent of science and technology, we have learned to investigate
and interpret events scientifically.
The succeeding activity will give you more information about these beliefs and
practices.
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What you will do
Activity 3.1 Superstitious Beliefs
A. List down about 5 superstitious beliefs, which are still practiced in your
community.
Superstitious Beliefs
Example: A black cat, which suddenly crosses our path, signifies bad luck.
Start here:
B. Consider the situation below.
You are the eldest child in the family. You were made to decide what color
of dress should be worn during a funeral of an immediate member of the family.
Will it be white or will it be black? Why?
I will decide to…
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
1)
2)
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What you will do
Self-Test 3.1
Answer briefly each of the following questions.
1) The wearing of “Agimat” or “Anting-Anting” to avoid getting hurt by bladed weapons

is still popular among members of certain group. Do you believe that wearing this
“Agimat” can protect you from harm? If yes why? If no why not?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
2) Getting married on a full moon spells a happy and fruitful marriage, especially when it
falls on the 8th day of the month. Do you believe on this? Explain.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Lesson 4 The Wonderful Traits of Scientists
Our comfortable and easy lifestyles are the results of the hardwork of some
scientists. These people possess certain admirable traits that are worth imitating. You can
identify some of these desirable traits through this activity.
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What you will do
Activity 4.1 Scientists and their Scientific Attitudes
A. Find out the traits scientists demonstrate from the given information about
them. Write it under the second column.
Scientist Trait
1) Galileo Galilei was curious about 1)

the heavenly bodies when he saw
them the first time using a
telescope. He was the first person
to study the moon, the sun, the
planets and the stars. What
scientific trait did he possess? 2)
2) Johannes Kepler discovered that
the planets follow an elliptical orbit
and that their motion could be used
to predict the planets’ motion in the
future. His discovery did not agree
with the previous description of the
planetary motion. He rejected the
old idea because evidences
supported his new findings. What
scientific trait did he possess?
3) Isaac Newton formulated the three 3)
laws of motion. He built his laws on
the previous work of Galileo and
others. But then he did not claim
Galileo’s work as his own. What
scientific trait did he possess?
4) Dr. Luz Oliveros-Belardo is a
national scientist whose systematic 4)
studies of various local plants have
led to the production of various new
substances called essential oils
which our now used in perfumes,
medicine, and food. What scientific
trait did she possess?
5) Dr. Ricardo M. Lantican is a highly
respected scientist. He is an expert 5)
in plant breeding. He is successful
in his research on cytoplasmic
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inheritance of hypersensitivity to a
disease in maize. He is a man who
accepts statement as a fact only if it
is supported by convincing proofs.
What scientific trait did he possess?
6) Dr. William Padolina is best known 6)

for his role in the development of
biotechnology. He was cited for his
pioneering researches in the field of
chemistry and biotechnology. He
considers the evidences carefully
before formulating a conclusion.
What scientific attitude did he
posses?
Let’s summarize
1. Science is a systematized body of knowledge based on facts known by actual

experiences and observations.
2. The impact of Science and Technology is seen in the different aspects of modern life,
which are both beneficial and destructive.
3. Science is viewed as a product and process.
4. Superstition is any belief or practice that is inconsistent with the laws of science.
However, it is considered in a particular society as true and rational.
5. A scientist is an expert in science who does his work systematically and possesses
scientific traits such as curiosity, resourcefulness, rationality, careful judgment, open-
mindedness and honesty.
6. There are Filipino scientists who are known for their inventions.
Dr. Luz Oliveros-Belardo is a national scientist whose researches on local

plants have paved the way to the production of essential oils.
Dr. Ricardo Lantican is an expert in plant breeding and is successful in his
research on cytoplasmic inheritance of hypersensitivity to a disease in
maize.
Dr. William Padolina is famous in the field of biotechnology.
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Posttest
A. Superstitious beliefs could be categorized into five (5) groups such as food and
nutrition, health and medicine, livelihood, love and marriage, and financial or
wealth. To which category does each of these superstitious beliefs belong?
1) During birthday celebration pancit or spaghetti is always served for long life.
2) Single ladies should not sing while cooking because they will marry an old
bachelor.
3) You should not sleep if your hair is still wet because you will get blind.
4) Do not sweep the floor during nighttime because it will give you bad luck.
5) During New Year’s Eve serve 12 different kinds of round fruits to bring in good
luck for the entire year.
B. Identify whether the following technologies is a product, a process or a

tool/gadget.
1) airplane 7) pencil
2) baking 8) clothes
3) paper 9) boiling
4) computer 10) coffee
5) dyeing 11) brushing
6) evaporation 12) toothpaste
13) broom
C. Read the situation below then write your views or opinion about it in 5
sentences. (3 pts.)
A nuclear power plant is an example of a very sophisticated technology. Studies

showed that using nuclear energy to generate electricity is more economical than
using other sources of electricity. If you are the president of a certain country, and
knowing the advantages and disadvantages of nuclear energy, will you put up a
nuclear power plant? If yes, why? If no, why not?
D. Write the correct answer on the space provided before the number.
__________ 1. He is known for his famous experiment in the Tower of Pisa.

__________ 2. It is an applied science.
_________ 3. It is a scientific trait, which describes a person for not jumping to conclusions.
__________ 4. These are practices, which have no scientific basis.
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Key to Answers
Pretest
A.
1) Livelihood
2) Financial or Wealth
3) Health and Medicine
4) Love and Marriage
5) Food and Nutrition
B.
Product Process Tool/Gadget
Cars and buses Mining Pliers

Computers Soap-making Pair of Scissors
Television Distillation Hammer
Shampoo Candle-making Ax
Toothbrush Fermentation
Ballpens
Projector
Note: The teacher will give corresponding points.
C.
1) Science
2) Hypothesis
3) Matter
4) Superstitious Beliefs
5) Technology
6) William Padolina
7) Johannes Kepler
8) Sir Isaac Newton
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Activity 1.1
1 2 3
M A T T E R F
4
E B I O L O G Y
5
S C I E N C E R
6
H L C E L L S
N I E
7
O E N E R G Y
L F
8
A T O M S S
G
9
H Y P O T H E S I S
Self-Test 1.1
1. Example: Ballpen is one technology. We use it for writing.

2. Example: Water is liquid in form. It is used for drinking.
3. Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. Atom is the smallest
particle of matter.
4. Hypothesis is an educated guess.
Activity 1.2
H U M B L E X O P E N Y M I N D E D R Z
O V G N F Z W T I O K N L B C S F L Q U
N B K L O G I C A L W A I O Y Z B P O W
E R I U M V R R H Y N N M S J K O N P N
S J O F B B K E J O E P T U X I A C E J
T U M E Y Z X A I K T E H P A T I E N T
S D W R J C S T L U M P L R F Y W Q N R
O G F A W O A I E A F H H O N S N R C K
P M O C D R I V T V C P S C U R I O U S
T E G W F P S I M X B K R E C H E I A D
N N L O I A C T P A V E A S Z W T R C E
X T P N T R X Y O U R R E S P E C T M B
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Self-Test 1.2
A.
1. honest
2. humble
3. creative
4. logical
5. open-minded
B. (Note: The teacher is given the option to check student’s responses. Their
answers may vary)
Example: Scientist should be honest in reporting the data of his experiment.

He should state whether it has a positive or negative effect to the community.
Rubric Scoring
2- Give at least two correct descriptions of the given scientific attitude as applied
to the study of science.
1- Give one correct description of the given scientific attitude but with some
grammatical errors.
0- Give incorrect description of the specified scientific attitude.
Activity 2.1
(Note: The teacher is given the option to check student’s responses. Their answers
may vary.)
Activity 2.2
may vary.)
Self-Test 2.1
may vary.)
Example: In Medicine - A Laser Probe was discovered, which could detect 90% of
pre-cancerous cells. LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation.
Rubric Scoring
2- Give two or more correct descriptions of the discovery in a specified field like
medicine. Use correct grammar.
1- Give one correct description of the discovery with no grammatical error.
21
0- Give incorrect description of the discovery in a certain field.
Activity 3.1
A. (Note: The teacher is given the option to check student’s responses. Their answers
may vary.)
B. (Note: The teacher is given the option to check student’s responses. Their answers
may vary.)
Rubric Scoring
2- No right answer. It could be white or black. Give correct justification and with
no grammatical errors.
1- Give correct justification with some grammatical errors.
0- No justification for the answer.
Self-Test 3.1
1. I don’t believe in “agimat” or “anting-anting” because there is no scientific basis that

can support this observation.
2. I don’t believe because a happy and fruitful marriage depends upon the good
relationships between the couple.
Activity 4.1
1) He is curious.
2) He is open-minded.
3) He is intellectually honest.
4) She is resourceful.
5) He exhibits rationality.
6) He has careful judgment.
Post-test
A.
1) Food and Nutrition
2) Love and Marriage
3) Health and Medicine
4) Livelihood
5) Livelihood
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B.
1) Product
2) Process
3) Product
4) Product
5) Process
6) Process
7) Product
8) Product
9) Process
10) Product
11) Process
12) Product
13) Tool
C. (Note: The teacher is given the option to check student’s responses. Their answers
may vary.)
Rubric Scoring
3- Give two advantages and one disadvantage of putting up nuclear power plant.
Give correct justification with no grammatical errors.
2- Give one advantage and one disadvantage with no grammatical errors.
1- Give one advantage and one disadvantage with grammatical errors.
0- No correct answer.
D.
1) Galileo Galilie
2) Technology
3) Open-mindedness
4) Superstitious Beliefs
-End of Module-
23
References
Gebelein, C.G. (2001). Chemistry and our world. USA: WCB Wm. C. Brown Publishers
Payawal, P., et. al. (1992). Discoverer Science. Quezon City: Academe Publishing House
Salmorin, L. M. and Florido, B. (2003). Science and Technology IV. Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House Inc.
Tan, M. et. al. (2000). TIMSS-LIKE Test Items in Science and Mathematics. Manila:DOST-SEI, UPNISMED
Pundasyon para sa mga Guro ng Agham at Matematika, Ink.
Tillery, B. W. (1999). Physical Science. Singapore: WCB McGraw Hill
Villamil, A. and Sinugbuhan R. (2003). Integrated Science I. Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House, Inc.
24
MODULE 2

Pasig City
1
Module 2
Basic Science Processes
There are things around us that we take for granted. For example, if you will be asked
to describe your favorite school bag, most likely you can only describe its general physical
appearance but not the exact size and the type of materials used. In other words, you
cannot readily give the exact description of the object.
This module will guide you on how to be more observant of the things around you.
Keen observation is one way of understanding science processes like measuring,
computing, inferring, generalizing and drawing conclusions. These science processes can
help you acquire and develop higher order thinking skills.
This module contains some activities that can help you enhance your basic science
processes. Remember that through these science processes, you can improve your
problem solving capability.
This module has five lessons:
Lesson 1 - Observations and Inferences

Lesson 2 - Describing Observations
Lesson 3 - Conversion of Units
Lesson 4 - Metric System of Measurement
Lesson 5 - Interpretation of Data
1. differentiate observation from inference;

2. describe observations qualitatively and quantitatively;
3. compute the area and the volume of a regularly shaped material;
4. convert measurements from a given unit to a desired unit using the appropriate
conversion factor; and
2
5. organize, compare, interpret data and present conclusions in the form of charts,
tables or graphs.
To achieve the objectives of this module, do the following:
Take your time reading the lessons carefully.

Follow the directions and/or instructions in the activities and exercises diligently.
Answer all the given tests and exercises.
Familiarize yourself with the following terms:
Term Definition
Convert - to change
Conversion Factor - a ratio or factor used to convert units
Inference - interpretations based on observations
Observations - actual perceptions of the senses
π - read as “pi” having a value of 3.1416
Qualitative Observation - an observation based on quality only
Quantitative Observation - an observation based on quantity only
X-axis - the horizontal line in a graph representing
independent variable
Y-axis - the vertical line in a graph representing
dependent variable
Water Displacement - way of determining the volume of an irregular
Method solid through the volume of its displaced liquid
Least Count - is the smallest value that a measuring device
could measure
3
Multiple Choice. Encircle the letter of the best answer.
For question numbers 1-3, refer to the following situation:
A piece of candle was observed by a first year class before, during and after it was
lighted. The observations were tabulated as follows:
Before Lighting While Lighting After Lighting

1. The candle is 1. The candle burns 1. The flame of the
white and without a sound. candle was put off
cylindrical. after 30 minutes.
2. It is 15 cm long. 2. The length is 2. Smoke was
steadily produced when
decreasing. the flame was put
off.
3. Its wick is white. 3. The wick of the 3. The wick of the
candle turns candle became 1
black. cm long.
4. The wick is made 4. There are 3 colors 4. The final length of
up of 3 pieces of in the flame of the the candle is 3 cm
thread. candle. long.
1. Which of the statements in the first column are qualitative observations?
a. 1 and 3 only
b. 2 and 4 only
c. 1 and 4 only
d. 2 and 3 only
2. Which of the statements in the last column are quantitative observations?
a. 1 and 2 only
b. 3 and 4 only
c. 1 and 3 only
d. 2 and 4 only
4
3. Which of the statements in the second column are ”not” qualitative observations?
a. 1 and 2 only
b. 3 and 4 only
c. 1 and 3 only
d. 2 and 4 only
4. How many small lines are there from 0 to 1 cm? Refer to the illustration below
0 1 2 3
cm
a. 4 lines c. 8 lines
b. 6 lines d. 10 lines
5. If 1/4 means 1 out of 4 equal parts, 1/10 means 1 out of how many equal parts?
a. 4 parts
b. 6 parts
c. 8 parts
d. 10 parts
6. Which of the following values represents 1/10?
a. 0.001
b. 0.01
c. 0.1
d. 1.0
7. If 10 millimeters is equal to 1 centimeter, then how many millimeters are there in 35

centimeters?
a. 0.35 mm
b. 3.50 mm
c. 35.0 mm
d. 350.0 mm
5
For questions 8-9, refer to these data on the mass and dimension of the aluminum
block.
length, L = 90 cm width, W = 50 cm
mass, m = 24 g thickness, T = 20 cm
8. What is the volume of the aluminum block?

a. 1000 cc c. 4500 cc
b. 1800 cc d. 90000 cc
9. The density of the aluminum block is___

a. 0.00026 g/cc c. 0.026 g/cc
b. 0.0026 g/cc d. 0.26 g/cc
10. Rita poured 20 cc of water in a graduated cylinder. She dropped a piece of stone into
it. The level of water in the graduated cylinder rose to 28 cc. How much is the volume
of the stone?
a. 10 cc c. 6 cc
b. 8 cc d. 4 cc
11. Sally is assigned to make 9 pieces of bouquet for her sister’s wedding. If one bouquet
needs 0.3 m of ribbon, how many centimeters of ribbon is she going to buy?
a. 240 cm
b. 250 cm
c. 270 cm
d. 280 cm
For question numbers 12-18, refer to the situation and the table below:
The students are performing an experiment on displacement method to find out the
relationship between the mass of washers against its volume. The data gathered are the
following: mass of washer = 8 g; volume of 1 washer = 2 cc; initial volume of water in the
graduated cylinder is 20 cc.
No. of Mass(g) Volume of

washers Water (cc)
1 8 22
2 16 24
3 24 26
4 32 28
5 40 30
6
12. If they add one more washer to make 6 washers, what will be the new mass and
volume?
a. 48 g and 32 cc
b. 48 g and 30 cc
c. 56 g and 28 cc
d. 56 g and 26 cc
13. Which variables do they need to use if they are going to plot the data on a graph?
a. Number of washers and mass

b. Mass of washers and volume of water
c. Volume and number of washers
d. None of the above
14. Which variable is to be placed on the x axis?

a. number of washers c. volume of water
b. mass of washer d. volume of washer
15. Which variable is to be placed on the y axis?
a. mass of washer
b. volume of washer
c. volume of water
d. number of washers
16. Plot the values of the mass of washers against the volume of water. Describe the
graph.
y (mass)
x (volume)
17. What happens to the volume of water as the mass of washer decreases?
a. Increases
b. Decreases
c. Remains the same
d. Undetermined
7
18. Which of the following interpretations best describes the graph line?
a. As the mass increases, the volume decreases

b. As the mass increases, the volume increases
c. As the mass increases, the volume remains the same
d. As the volume increases, the mass remains the same
For numbers 19-20, answer the following questions briefly.
19. Why is the SI system more acceptable than the English system?
20. What is the difference between observation and inference?
Lesson 1 Observations and Inferences
There are many things around us that need a closer look. It is when we take a long,
hard look that we are actually observing. Observation involves all of your basic sense
organs: the eyes, nose, ears, tongue, and hands. In an observation, you do not only look,
you have to stare; you don’t only hear, you listen, you don’t only taste and smell, you
savor; and you don’t only touch, you feel.
Most of the time however, you think you are observing when in fact you are inferring.
While observation is actually seeing, smelling, hearing, tasting and touching, inferring is
making interpretations based on your past observations or experiences. You call this an
inference. To help you differentiate between observation and inference, let us do an
activity.
8
What you will do
Activity 1.1 When do you observe and when do you infer
Read the situation in the box, and then write your observations and inferences
on the table below.
You noticed a group of 3 boys and 3 girls talking, laughing and eating on a
table. One boy wears a coat and tie while the other 2 boys dress casually. One of
the girls wears a gown, while the other girls wear ordinary dresses. As they talk,
the boy with the coat and tie places his right arm over the shoulder of the girl
wearing the gown. The two other boys shake hands with the two other girls.
Suddenly, one of the girl cries, while the boys dressed ordinarily argue in high
tones. The pair who wore formal attire talks to the boys. Then they all walk away
from each other in pairs.
Observations Inferences
Ex. A group of 3 boys and 3 girls are Ex. These 3 boys and 3 girls are best
talking, laughing and eating on the friends.
table.
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.
5. 5.
9
What you will do
Self-Test 1.1
Tell whether the given statement is an observation or an inference.
1. The cloud is clear. _______________

2. There are fruits in the basket. _______________
3. They are rich because they wear plenty of jewelry. _______________
4. Jenny’s eyes are red because she has sore eyes. _______________
5. The boy is sad because his father went away. _______________
Lesson 2 Describing Observations
When making observations, it is preferable to express these in quantifiable manner.

“There are 3 boys and 3 girls” is a much better observation than “There is a group of boys
and girls”. Qualitative observations merely describe quality while quantitative
observations express the exact quantity referred to. To have a better understanding of
what qualitative and quantitative observations are, try activity 2.1.
10
What you will do
Self-Test 2.1 Differentiating Quantitative Observations from Qualitative
Observations
On the right side column of the table below, write the quantitative observation
relevant to the qualitative observation given.
Qualitative Observation Quantitative Observation

1. There is a small amount of Example: The amount of water in the
water in the beaker. beaker is 30 ml.
2. She uses a large amount of
baking powder.
3. There are many people joining
the protest rally.
4. Enough amount of salt is
added.
5. He boils a small amount of the
substance.
What you will do

Self-Test 2.1
Determine whether the given statement is a qualitative observation or a quantitative

observation.
1. There are six girls eating in the canteen.

2. They are smart because they are honor students.
3. The boys are attending their Science 1 class.
4. Ten of the basketball players are studying at Ateneo de Manila.
5. Jose is the tallest among his classmates.
When you quantify your observations, you need to use some mathematical concepts like
measurement and formulas for determining the area and volume of objects.
11
Measurement
The development of science processes starts from the very simple process of
observing to the most complex process of experimenting. Some processes like measuring,
computing, predicting and interpreting data will help you develop your mathematical skills.
Try to perform the succeeding activities that will enhance your mathematical skills.
What you will do

Activity 2.2 Accuracy of a Ruler
1. Get a ruler and compare its calibration with the illustration given below.
0 1 2 3
cm
Observation:
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
2. How many smaller lines are there in one centimeter? One line is equal to one
millimeter. How many millimeters are there in one centimeter?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
3. Look at your ruler again. What is the smallest length that your ruler could measure?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
12
Length is actually the distance between two points. Width, height and thickness are
also the measured distance between 2 points.
The area and the volume of regularly shaped solids are measured using any of the
devices for length. Let’s say, if the solid is rectangular in shape, its area is found by getting
the product of its length and width (A = Length x Width) and its volume is determined by
getting the product of its length, width, and thickness (V = Length x Width x Thickness). The
final answer for the measured area and volume is based on the minimum number of
significant digits required. Therefore, rounding off of numbers to a certain place value
applies.
For example: Compute the area of a metal block 4.7 mm long and 3.1 mm wide.
Area = length x width

= 4.7 mm x 3.1 mm
= 14.57 or 14.6 mm2
Formulas for the Area of Objects with the Following Shapes
Area of a Rectangle
The area of the rectangle is equal to the product of the length (L) and width (W) or
A = LW. Example: Solve for the area of the rectangle with the given dimensions.
L = 3.6 cm
W = 1.8 cm
A=LxW
A = 3.6 cm X 1.8 cm
A = 6.48 cm2
A = 6.5 cm2
13
Area of a Square
The area of the square is equal to the square of the side or A = s2 as shown below.
S = 2 cm
A = S2
A = 2 cm x 2 cm
A = 4 cm2
Area of a Circle
The area of a circle is equal to pi times the square of the radius or A = πr2. The value
of pi (π) is equal to 3.14 while a radius is one-half of a diameter.
For example: Solve for the area of the circle with the diameter of 100 mm. Obviously,
the radius is 50 mm.
A = πr2
= 3.14 x (50 mm)2
Diameter =
2
= 3.14 (2500 mm ) 100 mm
= 7850 mm2
Areas are always expressed in square units.
Formulas for the volume of objects with the following shapes:
Volume (V) of a rectangle L

W
V = length (L) x width (W) x height (H) or H
=LxWxH
14
Example:
Find the volume of a rectangular metal block 4.7 mm long, 3.1 mm wide and 0.9 mm
thick.
Volume = L x W x H
V = 4.7 mm x 3.1 mm x 0.9 mm
V = 13.113 mm3
V = 13.1 mm3
Volume of a Cube
V = side x side x side

= s3 s
Volume of a Cylinder
r
2 2
V = 3.14 x radius x height or V = πr h.
The units for volume are always expressed in cubic units.

h
3
Ex. cubic mm (mm ).
The mass of an object is measured using beam, platform, or triple beam balances.
The accuracy of the mass of an object is based on the least count that the device could
give.
For example, the platform balance has a least count of a tenth of a gram, thus, the
final answer for the measured mass is up to one decimal place of a gram.
For example: What is the total mass of the object if the readings of the riders in a
platform balance show 15.0 g and 4.3 g respectively?
Solution:
+ 15.0 g
4.3 g
19.3 g
15
What you will do
Self-Test 2.2
Solve the following.
1-2. A rectangular box has the following measurements: length 25 cm, width 10 cm and
height 5 cm. Find its area and its volume.
3. The diameter of a circle is 10 cm. Compute for its area.
4. What is the side of the square if its area is 16 cm2?
5. The mass of the three books is 2.5 kg. What is the total mass in g?
Lesson 3 Conversion of Units

Before computations are done, make sure that the values given are of the same
units. If the quantities have different units, we should convert any of the two or more values
involved using a conversion factor so that all quantities will have the same unit. The
conversion factor is the equivalent of one unit in another unit. It is expressed in fraction form.
For example, if 10 mm = 1 cm you may write the conversion factor using any one of
the following forms:
a. Form 1 factor 1 cm/10 mm

b. Form 2 factor 10 mm
1 cm
Consider these examples:
1. Convert 125 mm to cm
125 mm x 1 cm = 125 or 12.5 cm

10 mm 10
In this case, form 1 factor is used because the desired unit is centimeter.
2. Convert 35 cm to mm
35 cm x 10 mm = 350 or 350 mm
1 cm 1
In this case form 2 factor is used because the desired unit is millimeter.
16
What you will do
Activity 3.1:
In this activity, you will be given equivalences. Write the corresponding

conversion factors on the proper column. Use the two forms which are discussed
earlier.
Example: 7 days = 1 week

Form 1: 7 days
1 week
Form 2: 1week
7 days
Conversion Form 1 Form 2
Factor
1 cm = 10 mm
1 cg = 10 mg
1 inch = 2.54 cm
30 days = 1 month
1 week = 7 days
1 kilogram = 1000 g
100 cm = 1 m
17
1000 m = 1 km
What you will do

Activity 3.2
Convert the following units using the conversion factors in the preceding
discussion:
Examples:
1. Change 125 kilograms to grams
125 kg x 1000 g = 125000 g

1kg
2. Change 275 grams to kilograms
275 g x 1 kg = 0.275 kg
1000 g
1. Convert 250 millimeters to meters

2. Convert 8000 minutes to seconds
3. Convert 5000 grams to centigrams
4. Convert 120 years to minutes
5. Convert 500 milligrams to kilograms
18
What you will do
Self-Test 3.1
Convert the following values to the desired values using the conversion factors
discussed earlier:
1. 90 days = _____ months

2. 20 mg = _____cg
3. 12 km = _____ m
4. 5 min = _____ s
5. 60 m = _____ mm
Lesson 4 Metric System of Measurement

Measurement is the process of comparing the unknown quantity with a known
quantity. There are 2 systems of measurement: The English System, and the Metric
System or International System of units (SI).
The scientific world has recognized the metric or the SI as the more acceptable
system than the English System because of its convenience in changing the given unit to
the desired unit. The metric system uses prefixes as shown in the table below.
Table 4.1 – Prefixes
Prefixes Equivalent
Mega 106 or 1000000
Kilo 103 or 1000
Hecto 102 or 100
Deka 101 or 10
Deci 10-1 or 0.1
Centi 10-2 or 0.01
Milli 10-3 or 0.001
Micro 10-6 or 0.000001
These prefixes are used in expressing the metric units of the different physical
quantities. Below are examples of physical quantities that could be expressed using these
prefixes.
19
a. Unit of Length
10 millimeters = 1 centimeter
10 centimeters = 1 decimeter
10 decimeters = 1 meter
b. Unit of Mass
1000 milligrams = 1 gram

1000 grams = 1 kilogram
Sample Conversions:
Conversion factors:
1000 g/ 1 kg
1000 mm/1 m
Change:
a. 35 g to kg = 35 g x 1 kg = 35 = 0.035 kg
1000 g 1000
b. 6.9 m to mm = 6.9 m x 1000 mm = 6900 mm

1m
What you will do

Self-Test 4.1
Change each given unit to the desired unit.
1. 0.75 m to cm =
2. 84 g to kg =
3. 500 cm to mm =
4. 20 days to hours =
5. 5 hours to seconds =
20
Scientific Notation
The SI system of measurement is expressed in scientific notation or power of ten

notation.
In science, scientists are concerned with small and big numbers, say for instance this
number 9,450,000,000,000 can be written using power- of- ten notation such as 9.45 x 1012
while this very small number 0.00000000000036 can be written as 3.6 x 10-13.
The use of power-often notation in the writing of numbers is also called exponential
notation. Such number follows the standard form:
N = a x 10b
where N is the given number, a is the number having a single nonzero digit to the left
of the decimal point and b is the positive or the negative exponent.
What you will do

Self-Test 4.2
Express the following numbers using scientific notation.
1. 0.00055
2. 350000000
3. 0.00000000078
4. 5075
5. 4000000000000
21
Lesson 5 Interpretation of Data
All data in any experiments should be well organized for easy and objective analysis.
The data can be tabulated, plotted on a graph or shown in diagrams and charts.
Below is an example of tabulated data.
Table 5.1 – Circumference vs. Diameter of the Can
Circumference Diameter
(cm) (cm)
1 5
2 10
3 15
4 20
When the above data on circumference vs. diameter are plotted, a line graph could
be illustrated as shown below.
30
y (circumference, cm)
25
20
15
10
5
0
1 2 3 4 5
x (diameter, cm)
Figure 5.1 Circumference Against the Diameter of Cylindrical Can
Study Figure 1 and interpret the data presented. How is the circumference of the can
related to its diameter? What happens to the circumference of the can as the diameter of the
can decreases?
As the diameter of the can increases, the circumference increases and as the
diameter decreases, the circumference decreases also.
22
Figure 5.1 can also be plotted using a bar graph as shown below.
30
y (circumference, cm)
25
20
15
10
5
0
1 2 3 4 5
x (diameter, cm)
There are topics in Science like Water Cycle, Food Web and Rock Cycle that can be
understood better if presented in diagrams and charts.
Below is an example of a flowchart about the food web.
eagle
Heron snake hawk
Snail rat chicken
Rice plant
What you will do

Self-Test 5.1
Gather information in your Barangay Health Center on the number of patients treated
for several ailments during the last twelve months. Plot the data using a line graph and a bar
graph. Label y-axis as the number of patients treated and x-axis as the number of months.
23
Let’s summarize
1. Observation involves the use of five senses in describing things or events while
inference is making interpretations on the observations or experiences made.
2. Qualitative observations merely describe quality while quantitative observations

express the exact quantity of the things/ events observed.
3. Some of the common measuring devices for length are ruler, meter stick, and
yardstick while for mass of objects, the devices include the platform balance, and
triple beam balance.
4. Any measuring device could measure things accurately up to the smallest value or
the least count that this device could give. A ruler for example can measure the
length of an object accurately up to the tenth of a centimeter.
5. The area of an object is determined by getting the product of its two dimensions. For
example, the area of an object, which is rectangular in shape, is length times width (L
x W). The area is always expressed in square units.
6. The Volume of an object is determined by getting the product of its three dimensions.
For example, the volume of any rectangular object is equal to the product of its
length, width and thickness (L x W x T). It is always expressed in cubic units.
7. The conversion factor is the equivalent of one unit in another unit. It is expressed in
fraction form.
8. The Metric System or the SI is the more acceptable system than the English System
because of the convenience it gives in the conversion of one unit to a desired unit.
9. In writing very small or very big numbers using power- of- ten notations, the standard
form used is N = a x 10b.
10. Scientific data could be presented in the form of a graph, a diagram or a chart for
better analysis and interpretation.
24
Posttest
Multiple Choice: Encircle the letter of the best answer.
For Questions 1-2, refer to the following statements:
A. The house of Pablo is painted green.

B. It has ten windows.
C. It has a very beautiful landscape.
D. The house has two guestrooms.
1. Which of the statement(s) is/are qualitative observations?

a. A and C c. A and B
b. B and D d. C and D
2. Which of the statement(s) is/are quantitative observations?

a. A and C c. A and B
b. B and D d. C and D
3. All of the following are quantitative observations except:

a. It is 6 cm thick c. There is only one student in the classroom
b. There are 10 students in the canteen d. The sky is blue
4. If 1/5 would mean there are 5 equal parts in one, how many equal parts are there in
1/8?
a. 5 parts c. 8 parts
b. 6 parts d. 10 parts
5. Which of the following values represent 1/100?

a. 0.001 c. 0.1
b. 0.01 d. 1.0
6. Which of the following values represents 1/100?

a. 0.1 c. 0.001
b. 0.01 d. 0.0001
7. If 100 centimeters is equal to 1 meter, then how many centimeters are there in 5
meters?
a. 500 cm c. 350 cm
b. 400 cm d. 300 cm
8. The length of the table is 5 m, its width is 3 m and its thickness is 0.1 m. Find its area.
a. 150 m3 c. 1.5 m3
3
b. 15 m d. 0.15 m3
25
9. What is the density of a certain metal whose mass is 30 g and has a volume of 5 cc?
a. 150 g / cc c. 6 g x cc
b. 150 g x cc d. 6 g / cc
10. Rita poured 20 cm3 of water in a graduated cylinder. She dropped a piece of stone
into it. The water level rose to 30 cm3. What is the volume of the stone?
a. 5 cm3 c. 20 cm3
3
b. 10 cm d. 30 cm3
11. Sally is assigned to make 10 pieces of bouquet for her sister’s wedding. If one
bouquet needs 0.2 m of ribbon, how many centimeters of ribbon is she going to buy?
a. 200 cm c. 50 cm
b. 150 cm d. 10 cm
For Questions 12-18, Refer to the situation below:
The class of Ms. Fajardo is performing an experiment on the relationship between the
mass and the volume of washers when placed in the graduated cylinder with water. They
used displacement method to determine the volume of the washers. The following data were
obtained:
Mass of 1 washer = 5 g
Volume of 1 washer = 2 cc
Initial volume of graduated cylinder with water = 25 cc
Other related data on the experiment are shown in the table below.
No. of washers Mass (g) Volume of Water (cc)
1 5 27
2 10 29
3 15 31
4 20 33
5 25 35
12. If the class adds one more washer in the graduated cylinder making it six, what would
be the total mass of the washers and the volume of water?
a. 30 g 35 cc c. 35 g 37 cc
b. 30 g 37 cc d. 35 g 39 cc
13. What are the variables that are needed to plot the data on a graph?
a. Number of washers and Mass
b. Mass of washers and volume of water
c. Volume and number of washers
26
14. What is the variable plotted in the X-axis?
a. Number of washers c. Volume of water
b. Mass of washers d. Volume of washers
15. Which variable is to be plotted in the Y-axis?

a. Mass of washers c. Volume of water
b. Volume of washers d. Number of washers
16. Plot the mass of washer against the volume of water. Describe the Graph line.
y
17. What happens to the volume of water as the mass of water increases?
a. increases c. remains the same
b. decreases d. undetermined
18. Which of the following interpretations best describes the graph line?
a. As the mass increases, the volume decreases
b. As the mass decreases, the volume decreases
c. As the mass increases, the volume remains the same
d. As the volume decreases, the mass remains constant.
For numbers 19-20, answer the following questions briefly.
19. Give the reason why the Metric System is more acceptable that the English System.
20. Differentiate observation from difference.
27
Key to Answers
1. a 9. a
2. b 10. b
3. d 11. c
4. d 12. a
5. d 13. b
6. c 14. b
7. d 15. c
8. d
16. A straight graph line

17. b
18. b
19. Metric or the SI system has been recognized as the acceptable system of
measurement because of its convenience in changing one unit to another.
20. We observe things that are actually perceived by the senses. We infer
when observations made are interpreted.
Activity 1.1
Observations Inferences
1. A boy wears a coat and tie 1. This boy is the partner of the girl
who wears a gown
2. Two boys dress casually 2. The two boys will not attend the
party
3. On of the girls cries 3. One of the boys quarrels with
this girl
4. One of the boys argues in higher 4. This boy gets mad with his
tones partner
5. The pair who wore formal attire 5. The pair was able to settle the
talks to the boys argument with the pair who
dressed casually
Note for the teacher: Inferences to the observation may vary from one student
to author.
28
Self-Test 1.1
1. Observation
2. Observation
3. Inference
4. Inference
5. Inference
Activity 2.1
Qualitative Observation Quantitative Observation

6. There is a small amount of water
in the beaker.
7. She uses a large amount of
baking powder.
8. There are many people joining
the protest rally.
9. Enough amount of salt is added.
10. He boils much amount of the
substance.
Activity 2.2
1. Observation: The calibration is the same.
2. There are ten smaller lines in one centimeter. One centimeter is

equivalent to ten millimeters. The ruler could measure up to one-tenth of
a centimeter.
Self-Test 2.1
1. A = 250 cm2
2. V = 1250 cm3
3. A = 78.50 cm2
4. s = 4 cm
5. 2500 g
29
Activity 3.1
Conversion
Form 1 Form 2
Factor
1 cm = 10 mm 1 cm/10 mm 10 mm/1 cm
1 cg = 10 mg 1 cg/10 mg 10 mg/1 cg
1 inch = 2.54 cm 2.54 cm/1 in 1 in/2.54 cm
30 days = 1 month 30 days/1 mo 1 mo/30 days
1 week = 7 days 7 days/1 week 1 week/30 days
1 kg = 1000 g 1 kg/1000 g 1000 g/1 kg
100 cm = 1 m 100 cm/1 m 1 m/100 cm
1000 m = 1 km 1000 m/1 km 1 km/1000 m
Self-Test 3.1 Self-Test 3.2

1. 90 days= 3 months 1. 0.25 meters
2. 20 mg = 2 cg 2. 480 000 seconds
3. 12 km = 12 000 m 3. 500 000 centigrams
4. 5 min = 300 s 4. 63 072 000 minutes
5. 60 m = 60000 mm 5. 0.0005 kg
30
Self-Test 4.1
1. 0.75 m x 100 cm = 75 cm
1m
2. 84 m x 1 km = 84 = 0.084 km
1000 m 1000
3. 50 dm x 10 cm = 500 cm
1 dm
4. 20 da x 24 h = 480 h
1 da
5. 5 h x 3600 s = 18000
1h
Self-Test 4.2
1. 5.5 x 10-4
2. 3.5 x 108
3. 7.8 x 10-10
4. 5.075 x 103
5. 4 x 1012
Self-Test 5.1
Note: The teacher is given the option to check students’ responses. Their
answers may vary.
Key to Corrections (Posttest)
1. a 14. b
2. b 15. c
3. d 16. a straight graph line
4. c 17. a
5. b 18. b
6. b 19. The Metric System is more
7. a acceptable than the English System
8. c because of its convenience in
9. d changing one unit to another.
10. b 20. Observation involves all the basic
11. a sense organs while inference is
12. b making interpretations based on your
13. b past observations or experiences.
31
References
Salmorin, L. M. and Florido, A. (2003), Science and Technology IV. Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House Inc.
See Tho Weng Fong. (1995). Science for secondary schools. Singapore: Longman Singapore Publishers
Tan, M. et al. (2001). TIMSS-LIKE test items in science and mathematics. DOST-SEI, UPNISMED, Pundasyon
Para Sa Mga Guro ng Agham at Matematika, Ink.
Villamil, A. and Sinugbuhan, R. L. (2003). Integrated Science I. Quezon City: ABIVA Publishing House Inc.
32
MODULE 3
Pasig City
1
Module 3
Developing Science Skills and Processes
While the second module focused on exercises to help you sharpen your
mathematical and analytical skills, this module focuses on your manner of solving a
particular problem.
Learning to become a scientist is interesting and exciting. Many scientific skills are
being developed in the process of acquiring science concepts in the classroom, in
performing experiments in the laboratory, and in doing household chores.
Scientists are detectives: they investigate various parts of our universe and gather
many pieces of information. Their goal is to piece all these data together to form theories –
big ideas that can explain whole sets of facts.
This module will bring you to the world of scientists. How do scientists work? How do
they solve problems? In most cases, scientists solve problems by making thorough
investigations. They follow a logical method of solving problems called the scientific method.
This method minimizes the chances of making mistakes. You will study the following
lessons in this module:
Lesson 1 - Identifying a Problem and Formulating Hypothesis

Lesson 2 - Experimentation, Observation and Gathering Data
Lesson 3 - Making Conclusions and Generalizations
After going through the module, you are expected to be able to:
1. identify a problem
2. formulate a hypothesis
3. design a procedure to test the hypothesis
4. collect data and present them in appropriate format
2
5. observe trends and patterns
6. make generalizations and conclusions
7. identify limitations and make recommendations
Here’s a simple guide for you in going about this module:
1. Take your time in reading the instructions.

2. Follow the instructions very carefully.
3. Before working on the activities, answer the 7-item test in order to determine
how much you know about the lessons in this module.
4. Check your answers with the given answer key at the end of this module.
5. Be very honest in answering the test items so you may gauge the previous
knowledge you have.
6. Read each lesson and do activities about the science processes that are
provided for you.
7. Perform all the activities diligently to help and guide you in understanding the
topic.
8. Take the self-tests after each lesson to determine how much you understood
the topic.
9. Answer the post-test to measure how much you have gained from the lessons.
Good Luck and have fun!
For Questions 1 – 7, refer to the situation below. Write the letter of the best answer
on the space provided before each item. Each question is worth 1 point.
Using a medicine dropper and water, a student determines the number of water
drops that different sizes of coins can hold. He gathers the data and records them in the
table below
3
.
Number of Water Drops
No. of 10-peso 5 - peso 1-peso 25-centavo

Trials
1 45 53 34 15
2 47 52 30 17
3 48 54 32 17
Average 47 53 32 16
1. What is the problem of the student in this experiment?

a. size of the coins
b. total amount of coins
c. type of medicine dropper
d. amount of water drops that different sizes of coin can hold
2. By looking at the data, which coin holds the greatest number of water drops?
a. a 10-peso coin
b. a 5-peso coin
c. a 1-peso coin
d. a 25 centavo coin
3. Which factor do you think has something to do with the differences in the number of
water drops a coin can hold?
a. distance of medicine dropper from the coin
b. sizes of the coins
c. diameter of the dropper
d. all of the above
4. If you want to verify whether the size of the coins affects the number of water drops
that a coin can hold, which of the following hypothesis will you test?
a. The farther the distance of the dropper, the more water drops the coin can
hold.
b. The bigger the diameter of the dropper, the more water drops the coin can
hold
c. The bigger the size of the coin, the more water drops it can hold.
d. The bigger the water drops, the more each coin can hold.
5. Proving the hypothesis “the bigger the size of the coin, the more water drops it can
hold”, which of the following variables will remain unchanged?
a. amount of pressure on the rubber of the medicine dropper
b. distance of the dropper from the coin
c. size of the medicine dropper used
d. size of the coins
4
6. Which of the following can you identify as the responding variable?
a. number of water drops
b. size of the coin
d. kind of medicine dropper
7. Where should you base your conclusion or generalization?

a. gathered data
b. results of the series of experiment performed
c. direct observations
d. all of the above
Lesson 1 Identifying a Problem and Formulating a Hypothesis
When you were a child, what was the thing that you looked for in a playground?
Probably your answer is a set of movable bars or a see-saw. Have you ever wondered how
a see-saw works? Many questions in our minds have now been answered by Science and
Technology. Through Science and Technology, we have been able to produce all comforts
and convenience in life and managed our environment to acquire our needs. We have
improved our ways of communication, transportation, household facilities, recreation and
upgraded our medical equipment.
Scientists follow step-by-step procedures before arriving at a conclusion. In this

module, you will do what scientists do in identifying and solving problems. You will solve
problems, think critically, make decisions, find answers and satisfy your curiosity.
Solutions to problems start with the formulation of a hypothesis. A hypothesis is an

educated guess based on one’s observation. It is a tentative explanation for a behavior,
event or phenomenon that will occur. A hypothesis maybe rejected or accepted.
Formulating a hypothesis is the same as predicting. It is made about future events on

the basis of ordered data. From the hypothesis, solutions to the problem can be sought.
In the following article taken from Science and Technology I SEDP Series, DECS pp.
3 – 4, you can answer your questions on how these inventions and discoveries have been
made usable.
5
What you will do
Activity 1.1 The story of Thomas Alva Edison
Read the article and answer the self-test given after reading the article.
The Story of Thomas Alva Edison
“Thomas Alva Edison once noticed that when electricity flowed through a piece of
iron wire, the iron wire became red hot. The wire glowed brightly, but not bright enough to
light a room. When he used a thinner piece of iron wire and allowed electricity to pass
through, the wire glowed. But he wanted greater brightness. He tried other metals. Finally
he discovered that a thin piece of tungsten wire could actually glow so bright that it could
light up a room.
But he also saw the glow did not last long. After a few minutes, the wire had burned
to ashes. He wondered why. He knew that oxygen is needed in burning. Using a machine
he pumped out all the air inside the bulb. He enclosed the tungsten wire in what he thought
was already an oxygen-free bulb. He tested the bulb. The bulb glowed longer than before.
What he wanted was a bulb to glow longer and give light steadily, so he continued with his
experiment.
He pumped out all the air or gases inside the tube and test the bulb. He repeated this
steps over and over again getting several bulbs busted in the process. He did not lose hope.
He continued with the experiment until finally the tungsten wire glowed steadily and brighter.
He knew that he succeeded. He invented the incandescent light bulb.
Source: Science and Technology I, SEDP Series, DECS pp. 3-4.

What you will do
Self-Test 1.1
Answer the following questions. Write the letter that corresponds to the right answer before
the number. Check your Answers on page 19.
_____ 1. What was the problem of Thomas Alva Edison in his experiment?
a. Where does electricity come from?
b. What makes an iron glow?
c. How to make a wire glow brighter?
d. How to make a light enough to lit a room using a wire?
6
_____ 2. What was his hypothesis in making the wire glow brighter?
a. The thinner the wire, the brighter will be the bulb.
b. Tungsten wire can produce more brightness than ordinary wire.
c. Tungsten wire can light longer in oxygen-free bulbs.
d. The more oxygen in the bulb, the less glow is produced.
_____ 3. What was the basis of the hypothesis?

a. What is produced when electricity is allowed to pass through a piece of iron
wire?
b. What reaction tungsten wire has compared to the piece of iron wire?
c. What would it be like when there is no electricity?
d. Which type of metal glow brighter?
_____ 4. Which of the following methods of solving a problem is applied to Edison’s case?
a. popular method
b. trial and error method
c. serendipity
d. scientific method
_____ 5. What personal trait helped Thomas Edison invent the incandescent bulb?
a. persistence c. patience
b. resourcefulness d. All of these
What you will do

Activity 1.2
Read the following situations and answer the questions given to test whether you fully
understood the processes of identifying a problem and formulating hypothesis:
1. Your house is located in a congested residential area in Manila. The place is so

congested. You have a neighbor who owns a piggery. Knowing the characteristics of this
business, and being one of the members of the community, what should you do? Will
you complain against the owner? Why or why not?
a. State the problem.

b. Give ways on how to solve the problem without resorting to quarrel.
Write your answer here:
7
2. Mario graduated valedictorian in one of the prestigious public high schools in Manila.
Naturally when he got to college, he was expected to do well and graduate with
honors. But Mario got hooked on network games and surfing the internet. Soon
enough, his grades suffered and he did not do well as expected. What do you think
caused his poor performance in school?
a. Formulate your hypothesis as many as possible.

Write your Answer in the box below.
Lesson 2 Experimentation, Observation and Data-gathering
Experimentation is a cause-and-effect test between two variables. All processes

may be involved. This can begin with setting a problem to be solved, identifying variables to
be controlled, making operational definitions, devising the test to be carried out and
following the prescribed procedure or steps.
Controlling variables involves the process of deciding which variables or factors will
influence the outcome of an experiment, situation or event and deliberately controlling all
recognized variables in a systematic manner.
Certain methods are used over and over to develop and test scientific ideas. One of
these methods is so basic to all sciences that there can be no science without it. This
method is called observation. This involves obtaining information about objects, situations,
or events using as many senses as possible. Observation may be qualitative or quantitative
in nature. Observing provides both basis for new inferences or hypotheses. Inferring means
8
suggesting more about a set of conditions that is observed. These are based on observed
data and past experience.
Data-gathering or collecting data is the most essential step in scientific method. It

involves the processes of measurement, classifying, comparing, estimating and other steps
of doing an experiment. Measurement is a process of quantified observation using
measuring devices. It is a process of comparing an unknown quantity with a known quantity
or standard. Classifying involves the grouping of objects, concepts or events on the basis
of observable properties to show similarities, differences and inter-relationships.
These three processes are very important in the work of a scientist and therefore
cannot be omitted in doing an analysis to solve a problem.
What you will do

Activity 1.2
Perform the following activities:
A. Go out and look for a place where you can find different kinds of leaves
Draw the shape of the leaves in column 1

Use your senses – sight, touch (texture or color), smell to observe
Record your observations in the table provided below.
Fill up the table properly
Observations of Unknowns
Shape of Appearance/Color Texture Smell

the Leaf
9
Guide Questions:
Use the data you gathered during this investigation to help you answer the following
questions:
1. Which of your senses gave the most information about the samples?
_______________________________________________________
2. Which of your senses helped you the most in distinguishing the samples?
_______________________________________________________
3. All your senses have limitations. Name several scientific instruments that help you
overcome the limitations of each of your senses
Sight: ______________________________________________
Touch ______________________________________________
Smell _______________________________________________
Taste _______________________________________________
4. Suppose you waited until you have finished on all five substances before you
recorded the data. What might have happened to the record of your observations?
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
_
5. Is it important that a scientist record his data immediately? Why or why not?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
B. Do the following using a thermometer
Record the outdoor temperature on five consecutive mornings. Graph the data
with the temperature on the Y-axis and the date on the x-axis.
10
Date
Can you use the graph to know what will be the temperature in the next 5
days? Why or why not?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
C. Do the following using 5 textbooks and a ruler:
Measure the thickness of each of these five textbooks in millimeters. Do not

include the covers.
Count the number of pages in each of the 5 textbooks.
Record your data in the table provided for:
Textbook Thickness Pages
Plot the data on a graph with the thickness on the Y-axis and the number of
pages on the X-axis
11
Number of pages
What are the different science processes demonstrated in the activities

performed?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
12
What you will do
Self-Test 2.1
Can you tell which of the following statements are true? Read each statement. If it is
true, write a T and if it is false, write an F in the blank before the statement. Write in the
blank following the statement how would you change the underlined word or phrase to make
the statement True.
_____ 1. Observation is the act of gathering information using the five senses.
____________
_____ 2. A scientific data explains why things happen. ____________
_____ 3. Of all the ways to solve a problem using scientific method, prediction on the basis
of a trend is the most effective and accurate. _________
_____ 4. Inferring means looking for what objects have in common or looking for their
differences. ______________
_____5. The statement “Mercury is denser than water” is a generalization.

________________
_____ 6. During experiment, one tries to form a theory as quickly as possible. This process
is called hypothesizing. __________________
_____ 7. Repeating and performing similar experiments can verify a solution to a problem.
_________________
_____ 8. A scientist would most likely find a solution to problem by survey technique.
_____________________
_____ 9. A qualitative data is numerical in nature. _______________
_____10. Little by little you uncover several patterns during an experiment. This process is
called data gathering. ______________
13
Lesson 3 Making Conclusions and Generalizations
The processes of formulating conclusions or generalizations include the

interpretation of data gathered. In this process, a scientist uses his sense of observations in
forms of inferences, generalizations or explanations. It is usually a direct response to the
problem under investigation and therefore includes judgments about the interpretation to fit
the proposed hypothesis and the formulation of the new knowledge. Also, formulation of
conclusion is the process of organizing and processing data gathered. It involves organizing
“rough” data into a more compact and meaningful way to solve a particular problem. It is the
formation of direct evidences as performed in the series of experiment.
One of the most important steps in scientific method is choosing a solution to the
original problem. Unless you consider all available data, you will end up choosing a wrong
one.
What you will do

Activity 3.1
Perform the following activity:
1. Given the following materials:
empty aluminum can (soft drinks can)

soft plastic bag
rubber band
alcohol lamp
2. Assemble the materials:
Place the soft plastic on the lid of the aluminum can.

Wrap it around the lid with a rubber tightly.
3. You are going to heat the aluminum can with an alcohol lamp, but before doing
so, formulate your hypothesis. Write as many as you can. (Be careful in heating
the can. See to it that the flame will not touch the plastic.)
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
14
4. Now heat the can for about 2 minutes. Observe what happens. Record your
observations.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
5. Are all your hypotheses correct? ______________________________________
6. What conclusion can you make out of the experiment you have performed?
Formulate your conclusion.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
As you perform this investigation, you will:
become familiar with the steps of the scientific method

use the scientific method of thinking to solve a problem.
Answer the following questions and write your answers on the space provided
after each number.
1. The first step of a scientific method is to identify the problem you wish to
solve. What is the problem in this activity?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. After you identify the problem, it is time to make observations. What do you
see?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Next the data from your observations must be organized. What factors do
you think play a part in your observations?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. What’s your answer?

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
5. Verify your answer or solution by repeating the experiment if you wish to.
15
What you will do
Activity 3.2
Try the activity given in the pre-test to verify the answers:
Perform the experiment using the same materials, 5 coins of different sizes – 10-
peso, 5-peso; 1-peso and a 25-centavo coin.
Do the following procedure:
Lay the coins one by one on a table.

Get a medicine dropper
Fill the medicine with water.
Drop the water in each coin one at a time.
Count the number of water drops needed to fill the coins. Stop dropping
when the water spills over the coin.
Do the same procedure with the other coins.
Record the data on the Table provided for.
Number of Water Drops
No. of Trials 10-peso 5 - peso 1-peso 25-centavo

1
2
3
Average
Answer the following questions.
1. What is the problem in this activity?

_________________________________________
________________________________________
2. Formulate your hypothesis. (List down as many as possible)

________________________________________
________________________________________
________________________________________
________________________________________
3. Analyze your results. Which coin holds the greatest number of water
drops?
a. a 10-peso coin
b. a 5-peso coin
c. a 1-peso coin
d. a 25 centavo coin
16
4. What factor do you think has something to do with the differences in the
number of water drops a coin can hold?
a. distance of medicine dropper from the coin
b. sizes of the coins
d. all of the above
5. Which of the following can you identify as the responding variable?

a. number of water drops
b. size of the coin
d. kind of medicine dropper
6. Where should you base your conclusion or generalization?

a. gathered data
b. results of the series of experiment performed
c. direct observations
d. what others say about it.
What you will do

Self-Test 3.1
Use the terms from this module (Lessons 1 – 3) to complete the crossword puzzle:
Across
1. to tell future consequences of an event based on observations or patterns of

changes
5 . a chart that organizes numerical data
7. an answer to the problem
9. to test repeatedly
10. characteristics of information in critical thinking
11. ____g an act of carefully controlling arrangement for testing a hypothesis
13. in science, the ________ should always prevail
15. a verified data; it has been tested several times
18. gathering of data and information to test the hypothesis
20. the answer to the problem being tested
21. to compare an unknown quantity with a standard
22. the step-by-step method used by scientists in solving a problem
17
Down
1. a basis for accepting a fact or principle

3. to gather data and information using the five senses
4. a set of information
6 a place where scientists usually perform experiments
8. a scientific or educated guess
11. scientist performs experiment to solve this
12. a mental leaning or inclination; an act of giving correct and intelligent guess from
a set of observations
14 ______ data - a set of gathered information leading to the conclusion
16. solving a problem scientifically is ___________ in nature
17. to gather data
19. C_________ - to group materials of the sama properties or characteristics
1 2
3 4
5 6
9 10
11 12 13
14 15
16
17
18 19
20
21
22
18
Let’s summarize
• Scientific Method involves the following processes and skills:
1. Identifying a problem
2. Formulating a hypothesis
3. Designing a procedure to test the hypothesis
4. Collecting data and presenting them in appropriate format
5. Observing trends and patterns
6. Interpreting data gathered
7. Making generalizations and conclusions
8. Identifying limitations and making recommendations
9. Scientific Method is a continuous process used to collect observations,

form and test hypothesis, make predictions, and identify patterns in the
physical world.
19
Posttest
A. Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write your answers on a
separate sheet.
1. How is a hypothesis tested?

a. by using the hypothesis to make predictions about a system.
b. by comparing observations in nature with predictions
c. by doing a series of experiment and looking for results
d. All of the above
2. Which of the following statements would be true of the scientific method?

a. People structure their lives on the principle of scientific method.
b. The scientific method is a continuous process by which people learn about his
world.
c. Scientists report the experimental results, but not the experimental designs.
d. When the results of the experiment do not fit the hypothesis, a scientist may
discard the results and stop the experiment.
3. Suppose your mother sent you to the market to buy fruits and vegetables.
How would you choose good quality fruits and vegetables?
a. Ask the vendor to choose it for you.
b. Examine the fruit if it is free from insect bites and the smell of insecticide
c. Just get any kind and pay right away.
d. Tell your mother that you do not know how to buy good quality fruits and
vegetables.
4. When scientists wish to communicate the results of their research, they are most
likely to do which of the following?
a. immediately repeat the research
b. call a press conference
c. write a concise report with complete results and proofs to the experiments
performed and formulate conclusions
d. sell their findings to other researchers
5. During an experiment about a coin and feather that were dropped at the same time, it
was found that the coin reached the ground first. One student said: “Maybe, the coin
is heavier than the feather.” What do you call this kind of statement?
a. a problem
b. a hypothesis
c. an interpretation
d. a conclusion
20
B. Identification. For Numbers 6 – 10, identify what science processes are revealed in
the following statements: Write your answer on the space provided after the number.
6. The girl is standing in an open field. There was no shadow formed because it is
12 noon. ____________________
7. The blue litmus paper turned red when it was dipped into an unknown liquid.
____________________
8. The liquid in number 7 is an acid. ____________________
9. The radio is not functioning anymore. Maybe the battery got discharged.
___________________.
10. The metal turned rusty. What made it that way? ________________
21
Key to Answers
Pretest
1. d 2. b 3. d 4. c 5. c 6. a 7. d
Self-test 1.1
1. d 2. a 3. a 4. b 5. d
Self-Test 2.1
_ T__ 1. Observation is the act of gathering information using the five senses.
_ T__ 2. A scientific data explains why things happen.
__F_ 3. Of all the ways to solve a problem using scientific method, prediction on the
basis of a trend is the most effective and accurate. EXPERIMENTATION
__F__ 4. Looking for what objects have in common, looking for their differences is
called inferring. COMPARING
__F__ 5. The statement “ Mercury is denser than water” is a generalization.

HYPOTHESIS
__T__ 6. During experiment, one tries to form his theory as quickly as possible. This
process is called hypothesizing. __________________
__T__ 7. Repeating and performing similar experiments can verify a solution to a

problem.
__F__ 8. A scientist would most likely find a solution to problem by survey technique.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
__F__ 9. A qualitative data is numerical in nature. QUANTITATIVE
__T__10. Little by little you uncovered several patterns during an experiment. This
process is called data gathering.
22
Self-Test 3.1 Crossword Puzzle
P1 R E D I2 C T
O3 D4 R N
B A O T5 A B L6 E
S7 O L U T I O N E A
E A F R B
R H8 P O
V9 E R I F Y O 10 R D E R E D
E P E A
P 11 R O V I 12 N T 13 R U T H
R T N O
M 14 O H F T 15 H E O R Y
O B E E Y M 16
D L S R C 17 E
E 18 X P E R I M E N T O L 19 T
L M S N L A H
S C 20 O N C L U S I O N
M 21 E A S U R E E S D
C I I
S 22 C I E N T I F I C
Y A
L
Posttest
A. 1. d 2. b 3. b 4. c 5. b
B. 6. interpretation 7. observation 8. generalization
9. formulating hypothesis 10. identifying a problem
Congratulations if you got 7 perfect points!

Try again if your score is 3 and below
-End of Module-
23
References
Gebelein, C.G. (2001). Chemistry and our world. USA: WCB Wm. C. Brown Publishers
Nolan A. and Tucker C. (1996), Physical Science USA:, Heath
Salmorin, L. M. and Florido, A. (2003). Science and Technology IV. Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House Inc.
Villamil, A. and Sinugbuhan, R. L. (2003). Integrated Science I. Quezon City: ABIVA Publishing House Inc.
24
MODULE 4

Pasig City
1
Module 4
Safety in the Laboratory
The third module provided activities aimed at honing your skills as a budding
scientist. This time, your manner of solving a particular problem will be enhanced because
you will now become a chemist working in a laboratory with different apparatus on hand.
Just read and follow the instructions in this module. Good luck and have fun!
The activities in this module will teach you how to use different apparatus in the
laboratory. This will also enhance your skills in making accurate measurements using
common laboratory equipment and using the equipment properly.
This module contains the following lessons:
Lesson 1 - Common Laboratory Apparatus and their Uses

Lesson 2 - Laboratory Safety Precautions
Lesson 3 - Laboratory Safety Symbols
What your are expected to learn
You will now work as a scientist / chemist as you go along this module.
1. identify and classify different laboratory apparatus based on their uses;

2. use each laboratory apparatus accurately and properly;
3. discuss different precautionary measures in the laboratory; and
4. recognize different signs and symbols in the laboratory and know their
significance.
2
Here’s a simple guide for you in going about the module:
1. Take your time in reading the instructions.
2. Know the meaning of the different words used in this module:
a. ACID – a substance which can burn the skin and other materials
b. BREAKABLE – characteristic of materials that easily break like glass when
dropped or subjected to pressure
c. CERAMICS – a kind of material that is made of porcelain
d. EVAPORATION – process of changing liquid to gas
e. FLAMMABLE – the ability of a material to burn
f. GLASSWARES – materials that are made of glass like test tubes and
beakers
g. REAGENT – a kind of chemical used in the laboratory
h. VOLATILE – the ability to evaporate easily
i. VOLUME – amount of space occupied by matter
j. TOXIC – poisonous substance
k. RADIOACTIVE – a substance that is not stable and decays spontaneously
l. FUME – a gaseous substance that is emitted by chemicals
m. CORROSIVE – acids and bases that can react with and destroy tissue and
other materials
4. Before working on the activities, answer the 10-item test honestly in order to
determine how much you know the topics in this module.
5. Check your answers against the given answer key.
6. Perform all the activities diligently as these will help you understand the lessons.
7. Take the self-tests after each lesson.
8. At the end of the module, take the post-test to measure how much you
understood the lesson.
Good Luck!
3
Direction: Encircle the letter of the best answer.
1. Suppose you saw your mother accidentally cut her finger with a broken glass at
home? What will you do?
a. Call a doctor right away
b. Call your neighbors for help.
c. Ignore her and proceed with your playing.
d. Get a medicated plaster and put it around her finger as first aid.
2. While doing an experiment, you happen to come across a bottle with the sign
“SKULL” pasted on it. What does the sign tell you about the content of the
bottle?
a. Its content is edible.
b. Its content is volatile.
c. It contains a dead insect.
d. The chemical inside is poisonous.
3. Given three laboratory apparatuses: beaker, graduated cylinder and test tube.
Which will you use to get the volume of water?
a. beaker
b. test tube
c. graduated cylinder
d. any of the three
4. Your teacher asks you to get the mass of a piece of stone. What apparatus will
you use?
a. graduated cylinder
b. triple beam balance
c. Florence flask
d. Erlenmeyer flask
5. What does this mean?

a. It is poisonous
b. It is radioactive
c. It is a metal
d. It is a non-metal
6. You are asked to boil about 10 mL of water using a test tube. What is the proper
way of holding the test tube when you’re working with somebody in a laboratory?
a. Let the test tube face your partner while it is being heated.
b. Keep the test tube away from anybody else inside the laboratory.
4
c. Hold the test tube directly above the flame.
d. All of the above
7. Which of the following is NOT in the group of apparatus that are used in storing
liquids?
a. Reagent bottle c. Florence flask
b. Beaker d. graduated cylinder
8. Which of these apparatus will you use if you want to measure the density of a
certain liquid?
a. beaker and test tube
b. graduated cylinder and triple beam balance
c. test tube and platform balance
d. beaker and graduated cylinder
9. What will you use to fill a small-mouthed bottle with liquid without spilling?
a. a test tube
b. a funnel
c. a petri dish
d. a graduated cylinder
10. When doing an experiment that uses fire, what should you be ready with?
a. an apron
b. a damp cloth
c. a pail of water
d. a wet tissue paper
Lesson 1 Common Laboratory Apparatus and their Uses
When you think of scientist at work, you probably imagine them in a modern
laboratory with test tubes, other delicate instruments, apparatus, and bottles of strange
substances.
You’re right. In the laboratory, you can find several laboratory apparatus. Perhaps
you are already familiar with some of them through your readings, or from watching
television or the movies or perhaps you have actually used them in your elementary
science.
Let us familiarize ourselves with the different laboratory apparatus and their uses.
5
. What you will do
Activity 1.1 Some Common Laboratory apparatus and their uses
Study the different apparatus grouped in each box.
Erlenmeyer flask
Florence Test Tubes Test tube
flask rack
Dropping bottle Glass plate Reagent bottle

Specimen bottles
Figure 1: Some apparatus used for storing liquids
pipette
Graduated cylinder
Erlenmeyer
Medicine dropper flask
burette
Volumetric flask
6
7
8
What you will do
Self-Test 1.1
Matching Type: Shown in Column A are the drawings of some common laboratory
apparatus listed. In Column B are the uses of these apparatus. Draw a
line that connects each apparatus with its use.
COLUMN A COLUMN B
APPARATUS USES
A. used to transfer small amount of

liquid from the reagent bottle to a
test tube
1. beaker
9
B. used to clean test tubes or
glassware with narrow opening
2. spring balance
C. used to measure the volume of

3 . alcohol lamp liquid
D. used in evaporating the liquid

substances when heating
4. graduated cylinder
E. used to measure the mass of an

5. evaporating dish object
F. used to hold liquid / solution to be

6. tested
crucible tong
G. used to hold hot materials
7. test tube
H. used to pulverize solid materials to

make it in powder form
8. test tube brush
I. used to contain liquids or solution in

large amount
9. mortar & pestle
10
J. used for heating substances
10. medicine dropper
Lesson 2 Laboratory Safety Precautions
Science is a hands-on laboratory class. You will be doing many laboratory activities
that require the use of different apparatus and hazardous chemicals. Safety in the science
classroom is the number one priority for students and teachers. To ensure a safe science
classroom, a list of rules has been developed and provided for you in this module. These
rules must be followed at all times. The science laboratory is a safe place to work in if you
are careful.
What you will do

Activity 1.2
Following are some safety precautions and procedural rules to help you protect
yourself from injury in the laboratory while doing the experiment. Read and understand them
to insure your safety before, during and after doing an experiment.
A. Inside the Laboratory:
1. Do not eat food, drink beverages, or chew gum in the laboratory. Do not use laboratory
glassware as containers for food or beverages.
2. Safety goggles and aprons must be worn whenever you work in the lab. Gloves should
be worn whenever you use chemicals that cause skin irritations or when you need to
handle hot equipment.
3. Observe good housekeeping practices. Work areas should be kept clean and tidy at all
times.
11
4. Know the locations and operating procedures of all safety equipment including the first
aid kit, eyewash station, safety shower, spill kit, fire extinguisher, and fire blanket. Know
where the fire alarm and the exits are located.
5. Be alert and proceed with caution at all times in the laboratory. Notify the instructor
immediately of any unsafe conditions you observe.
6. Dispose all chemical waste properly. Never mix chemicals in sink drains. Sinks are to be
used only for water and those solutions designated by the instructor. Solid chemicals,
metals, matches, filter paper, and all other insoluble materials are to be disposed of in
the proper waste containers, not in the sink. Check the label of all waste containers twice
before adding your chemical waste to the container. Cracked or broken glass should be
placed in the special container for “Broken Glass.”
7. Labels and equipment instructions must be read carefully before use.
8. Know what to do if there is a fire drill during a laboratory period; containers must be
closed, gas valves turned off, fume hoods turned off, and any electrical equipment turned
off.
9. Keep hands away from your face, eyes, mouth, and body while using chemicals. Wash
your hands with soap and water after performing all experiments. Clean (with detergent
powder), rinse, and dry all work surfaces and equipment at the end of the experiment.
10. If you spill acid or any other corrosive chemical on you skin or clothes immediately wash
the area with large amounts of water (remember that small amounts of water may be
worse that no water at all). After this get the teacher’s attention. The spill kit will be used
for spills on floor or counter-top.
11. At the end of the laboratory session see that: a) the main gas outlet valve is shut off b)
the water is turned off c) the desk top, floor area, and sink are clean d) all equipment
are cool, clean, and arranged properly.
B. Clothing
1. Any time chemicals, heat, or glassware are used, students will wear laboratory goggles.
2. Dress properly during a laboratory activity. Long hair, dangling jewelry, and loose or
baggy clothing are a hazard in the laboratory. Long hair must be tied back and dangling
jewelry and loose or baggy clothing must be secured. Shoes must completely cover the
foot. No sandals are allowed.
C. Accidents and Injuries
1. Report any accident (spill, breakage, etc.) or injury (cut, burn, etc.) to your teacher.
12
2. If a chemical should splash in your eye(s), immediately flush with running water from the
eyewash station for at least 20 minutes. Notify your teacher immediately.
D. Handling Chemicals
1. All chemicals in the laboratory are to be considered dangerous. Do not touch, taste, or
smell any chemical unless specifically instructed to do so. The proper technique for
smelling chemical fumes is to gently fan the air above the chemical toward your face.
Breathe normally.
2. Check the label on chemical bottles twice before removing any of the contents. Take only
as much chemical as you need. Smaller amounts often work better than larger
amounts. Label all containers and massing papers holding dry chemicals.
3. Never return unused chemicals to their original containers.
4. Acids must be handled with extreme care. ALWAYS ADD ACID SLOWLY TO WATER,
with slow stirring and swirling, being careful of the heat produced, particularly with
sulfuric acid.
5. Handle flammable hazardous liquids over a pan to contain spills. Never dispense
flammable liquids anywhere near an open flame or source of heat.
6. Take great care when transferring acids and other chemicals from one part of the
laboratory to another. Hold them securely and in the method demonstrated by the
teacher as you walk.
E. Handling Glassware and Equipment
1. Inserting and removing glass tubing from rubber stoppers can be dangerous. Always
lubricate glassware (tubing, thistle tubes, thermometers, etc.) before attempting to insert
it in a stopper. Always protect your hands with towels or cotton gloves when inserting
glass tubing into, or removing it from, a rubber stopper. If a piece of glassware becomes
"frozen" in a stopper, take it to your instructor for removal.
2. When removing an electrical plug from its socket, grasp the plug, not the electrical cord.
Hands must be completely dry before touching an electrical switch, plug, or outlet.
3. Examine glassware before each use. Never use chipped or cracked glassware. Never
use dirty glassware. Do not immerse hot glassware in cold water; it may shatter.
4. Report damaged electrical equipment immediately. Look for things such as frayed cords,
exposed wires, and loose connections. Do not use damaged electrical equipment.
13
F. Heating Substances
1. SHOULD THE BUNSEN BURNER GO OUT, IMMEDIATELY TURN OFF THE GAS AT
THE GAS OUTLET VALVE. If you wish to turn off the burner, do so by turning off the
gas at the gas outlet valve first, then close the needle valve and barrel. Never reach over
an exposed flame. Light gas burners only as instructed by the teacher.
2. Never leave a lit burner unattended. Never leave anything that is being heated or is
visibly reacting unattended. Always turn the burner or hot plate off when not in use.
3. You will be instructed in the proper method of heating and boiling liquids in test tubes. Do
not point the open end of a test tube being heated at yourself or anyone else.
4. Heated metals, glass, and ceramics remain very hot for a long time. They should be set
aside to cool on a trivet and then picked up with caution. Use tongs or heat-protective
gloves if necessary. Determine if an object is hot by bringing the back of your hand close
to it prior to grasping it.
What you will do

Activity 2.1
Look at the scene below. Study and list all the likely causes of accidents.
14
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Activity 2.2
Daria is heating some cupric sulfate solution. List the possible dangers in this
scene.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
15
Activity 2.3
Look at the picture. Write down 3 safety rules that this student should follow.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
16
What you will do
Self-Test 2.1
Write YES if the statement is a good safety rule in the laboratory and NO, if it is not.
1. Use protective equipment such as gloves, goggles and aprons. ____________
2. Use plastic containers for hot materials even if these are not heat resistant.
____________
3. When heating liquid substances in a test tube, hold it in a slanting position, away
from your body and everyone in the laboratory room. ______________
5. Taste substances in the laboratory room even if you are NOT told to do so.
____________
5. Be extra careful when working with open flames. ___________
6. Report any untoward incident to the teacher, no matter how small._____
7. When removing an electrical plug from its socket, grasp the electrical cord. _____
8. In diluting an acid ALWAYS ADD ACID SLOWLY TO WATER. ________
9. Always bring your food and drinks in the laboratory. _______
10. When inside the laboratory, NEVER start an experiment unless you are told to do
so. _________
17
Lesson 3 Laboratory Safety Symbols
Before beginning your work in the laboratory, you must become familiar with the
safety symbols used. The idea of using symbols is to transmit information regarding your
safety inside the laboratory clearly and easily. The safety symbols that will be presented in
this module are the most familiar ones. These symbols are accompanied by explanations.
SYMBOLS HAZARD EXAMPLES PRECAUTION

SAFETY
Chemicals,
broken glass,
Special living Dispose of
DISPOSAL disposal organisms wastes as
considerations such as directed by your
required bacterial teacher
cultures,
protests, etc.
Avoid skin
Organisms or Bacteria, contact with
organic fungus, blood, organisms or
BIOLOGICAL materials that raw organs, material. Wear
can harm plant material dust mask or
humans gloves, Wash
hands thoroughly
Use proper
protection when
Boiling liquids, handling.
EXTREME Objects that hot plates, Remove
TEMPERATURE can burn skin liquid flammables from
by being too nitrogen, dry the area around
cold or too hot ice, all open flames or
burners spark sources
Use of tools or Razor blade, Practice common
glassware that scalpel, awl, sense behavior
SHARP OBJECT can easily nails, push and follow
puncture or pins, etc. guidelines for
slice skin use of the tool
18
Potential danger Ammonia, Make sure
to olfactory tract heating sulfur, there is good
from fumes moth balls, nail ventilation and
FUME polish remover, never smell
acetone, any fumes directly
volatile
substances
Double-check
Possible danger Improper setup with
ELECTRICAL from electrical grounding, liquid instructor.
shock or burn spills, short Check
circuits condition of
wires and
apparatus
Substances Acid such as
(acids and vinegar,
bases) that can hydrochloric
react with and acid, hydrogen Wear goggles
CORROSIVE destroy tissue peroxide, and an apron
and other sodium
materials hydroxide, soap
Poisonous Mercury, many Follow your

substances that metal teacher
can be acquired compounds, instructions.
TOXIC through skin iodine, Always wash
absorption, poinsettia hands
inhalation, or leaves thoroughly after
ingestion use
Radioactive Uranium, Be careful in
substances such thorium, handling. Notify
RADIOACTIVE as uranium and plutonium and your teacher of
plutonium other elements spills or excess
that emit substances
radiation
Combustible Alcohol, Avoid heat and
materials that powders, flame sources.
FLAMMABLE may ignite if kerosene, Be aware of
exposed to an potassium locations of fire
open flame or permanganate safety
spark equipment
19
Always wash
your hands
HYGIENE after
completing an
experiment.
What you will do

Self-Test 3.1
On the space provided, write the meaning of the symbols.
1. ______________ 2. _____________
3. ______________ 4. _______________
5. ___________________6. _________________
7. _______________ 8. __________________
20
9. __________________ 10. ___________________
Let’s summarize
A. Laboratory Precautions
Inside the Laboratory:
1. Do not eat food, drink beverages, or chew gum in the laboratory. Do not
use laboratory glassware as containers for food or beverages.
2. Wear safety goggles and aprons
3. Always keep the working area clean and orderly.
4. Know the locations and operating procedures of all safety equipment.
5. Be alert and proceed with caution at all times in the laboratory. Notify the
instructor immediately of any unsafe conditions you observe.
Handling Chemicals
1. All chemicals in the laboratory are to be considered dangerous. Do not

touch, taste, or smell any chemical unless specifically instructed to do
so.
2. Check the label on chemical bottles twice before removing any of the
contents.
3. Never return unused chemicals to their original containers.
4. Acids must be handled with extreme care. ALWAYS ADD ACID
SLOWLY TO WATER.
5. Handle flammable hazardous liquids over a pan to contain spills. Never
dispense flammable liquids anywhere near an open flame or source of
heat.
21
Handling Glassware and Equipment
1. Always lubricate glassware (tubing, thistle tubes, thermometers, etc.)

before attempting to insert it in a stopper.
2. When removing an electrical plug from its socket, grasp the plug, not
the electrical cord. Keep your hands dry when working with electricity.
3. Do not immerse hot glassware in cold water; it may shatter.
4. Report damaged electrical equipment immediately.
Heating Substances
1. TURN OFF THE GAS AT THE GAS OUTLET VALVE after using.
2. Never leave a lit burner unattended. Never leave anything that is being
heated or is visibly reacting unattended.
3. Use tongs or heat-protective gloves when holding or touching heated
apparatus.
B. Warning Signs
FUME
DISPOSAL
HYGIENE
BIOLOGICAL ELECTRICAL
EXTREME CORROSIVE
TEMPERATURE
SHARP OBJECT TOXIC
FLAMMABLE RADIOACTIVE
22
Posttest
1. When doing an experiment like heating or anything that uses fire, what should you
be ready with?
a. an apron
b. a damp cloth
c. a pail of water
d. a wet tissue paper
2. Acids must be handled with extreme care. In diluting an acid, what should you do?
a. Do it in anyway you want.
b. Always add acid slowly to water
c. Always add the water to the acid.
d. Mix the acid to the water by stirring
3. Given four laboratory apparatus: spring balance, graduated cylinder, microscope

and test tube. Which will you use to get the mass of water?
a. the spring balance
b. the graduated cylinder
c. the test tube
d. the microscope
4. You are asked by your teacher to clean the test tube. What should you use?
a. graduated cylinder
b. triple beam balance
c. test tube brush
d. crucible tong
5. You have come across this icon pasted on a bottle. What does this mean?
a. It is poisonous
b. It is radioactive
c. It is a metal
d. It is a non-metal
6. While inside the hospital’s laboratory area, you saw this icon in one of the rooms.
What does this mean?
a. The room is strictly for nurses.
b. The room is only for technician.
c. The room is used for X-ray purposes.
d. The room is used for storage of hazardous chemicals.
7. You are asked to measure the density of liquid. Density is defined as mass over
volume. Which of the following apparatus will you use?
I. beaker II. graduated cylinder
III triple beam balance IV. test tube
23
a. I and II only b. II and III only
c. III and IV only d. I, II, III, and IV
8. Which of the following laboratory precautions is INCORRECT?

a. All chemicals in the laboratory are to be considered dangerous. Touch,
taste, or smell any chemical unless specifically instructed to do so.
b. Never leave a lit burner unattended. Never leave anything that is being
heated or is visibly reacting unattended.
c. Wear safety goggles and aprons at all times in the laboratory.
d. Report damaged equipment / apparatus immediately.
9. What will you use to transfer liquid to another bottle without spilling?
a. a funnel
b. a test tube
c. a petri dish
d. a graduated cylinder
10. Which of the following apparatus does NOT belong to the group?
a. volumetric flask
b. reagent bottles
c. test tube
d. beaker
24
Key to Answers
Pretest
1. b 2. d 3. b 4. b 5. b
6. b 7. d 8. b 9. b 10. b
Self-Test 1.1
1. I 2. E 3. J 4. C 5. D
6. G 7. F 8. B 9. H 10. A
Self-Test 2.1
1. YES 2. NO 3. YES 4. NO 5. YES

6. YES 7. NO 8. YES 9. NO 10. YES
Possible Answers for Activity 2.1
1. Pieces of paper are scattered on the floor.

2. The tripod with the beaker on it is not set properly.
3. Several apparatus not needed in the experiment are on top of the table.
4. Laboratory area is untidy and disorderly.
5. The test tube is not placed properly on the rack.
6. There is no fire extinguisher installed.
7. Chemicals are not properly labeled.
8. Chemicals are placed anywhere.
9. Laboratory area is topsy-turvy.
10. There are hanging curtains.
11. Foods and drinks are placed on a rack with the citric acid.
12. Cabinet for poisonous chemicals is open.
13. Students doing the laboratory work are not wearing gloves.
14. The girl is wearing a pair of sandals.
1. The position of the test tube while heating is towards the students.
2. The student doing the experiment is not wearing gloves.
3. The hair of the student doing the experiment is not tied properly.
4. Observers are too close to the test tube.
5. Copper sulfate should not be heated directly. Wire gauze is necessary.
25
1. Long hair, dangling jewelry, and loose or baggy clothing are a hazard in the
laboratory. Long hair must be tied back and dangling jewelry and loose or baggy
clothing must be secured.
2. Safety goggles and aprons must be worn whenever you work in the lab. Gloves
should be worn whenever you use chemicals that cause skin irritations or when you
need to handle hot equipment.
3. Keep hands away from your face, eyes, mouth, and body while using chemicals.
Wash your hands with soap and water after performing all experiments. Clean (with
detergent powder), rinse, and dry all work surfaces and equipment at the end of the
experiment.
4. Handle flammable hazardous liquids over a pan to contain spills. Never dispense
flammable liquids anywhere near an open flame or source of heat.
Self-Test 3.1
1. TOXIC
2. FLAMMABLE
3. RADIOACTIVE
4. HARMFUL OR IRRIRANT
5. OXIDIZING AGENT
6. CORROSIVE
7. PROPER DISPOSAL
8. HYGIENE
9. ELECTRICAL
10. GLOVES
Posttest
1. b 2. b 3. a 4. c 5. a
6. c 7. b 8. a 9. a 10. c
-End of Module-
References:
Gebelein, Charles G. (2001). Chemistry and our World. USA: WCB Wm. C. Brown Publishers
Lemay, E , Robblee, K, and Beall, H, Chenistry: Connections to our changing world : Prentice Hall
Nolan A. and C. Tucker (1996), Physical Science. Heath
Tillery, Bill W. (1999), Physical Science. Singapore: WCB McGraw Hill
26
MODULE 5

Pasig City
1
Module 5
Matter Around Me
Have you been to the sari-sari store lately? Did you notice the different items that you
can buy from the store? Can you name some of them? Yes, there are candies, canned
goods, softdrinks, wine, eggs, tissue paper, toothbrush, diapers, toothpaste, shampoo and
many more. In science, we call all these items as MATTER.
Do you know that there are a lot of things that you can learn about matter? In fact,
this module is designed to help you in defining matter and in classifying different kinds of
matter. It also aims to guide you in determining the changes that matter undergoes and in
identifying its characteristics. So, don’t miss this rare opportunity – read and have fun in
learning the following lessons:
Lesson 1 - What is Matter

Lesson 2 - Classifying Matter According to its Phases
Lesson 3 - Substances and Mixtures
Lesson 4 - Changes Around Us
After going through this module, you should be able to:
1. define matter;
2. cite examples of matter;
3. classify matter as solid, liquid or gas based on its observable characteristics;
4. differentiate substance from mixture and give examples of each;
5. classify substances as element or compound;
6. differentiate between metal and non-metal based on their observable
properties;
7. describe physical and chemical changes;
8. identify evidences of chemical change;
9. give examples of physical and chemical changes in daily life; and
10. infer that energy is involved in physical and chemical changes.
2
I know that you are already excited to get started, however, there are some tips that
you have to remember
Take the pre-test before proceeding to the lessons. The test could give you an
idea of how much time should you allot to each lesson.
Read the instructions carefully and follow the precautionary measures.
Before doing the activity, make sure that all the materials needed are already
prepared.
Perform the simple activities before reading the discussions.
Don’t forget to answer the Self-Tests. Compare your answers with the keys to
correction.
If you are not sure of the meaning of some words used in this module, feel free
to consult the dictionary.
Answer the post-test so that you will know how much you have learned from
the lessons.
Happy Reading!
Choose the best answer and write the letter of your choice on the space provided
before each number.
_____1. Which of the following is an example of matter?

A. fire C. heat
B. sound D. energy
_____2. Of the phases of matter, which has the strongest attractive forces?
A. solid
B. liquid
C. gas
D. all of the above
3
_____3. Galvanized iron, which is commonly used for roofing, is made up mostly of
iron metal. Which of the characteristics of metal makes it an appropriate
roofing material?
A. It is shiny.
B. It has high density.
C. It can be hammered into sheets.
D. It can be drawn into fine wire.
_____4. Seawater is a mixture. Which of the following best describes the

components of seawater?
A. They are chemically combined.
B. They have no definite proportion.
C. They combine in a fixed ratio by mass.
D. They cannot be separated by physical means.
_____5. Gold is to element while _____ is to compound.

A. ethanol C. aluminum
B. rubbing alcohol D. muriatic acid
_____6. Which does not belong to the group?

A. table salt
B. mayonnaise
C. salt solution
D. halu-halo
_____7. Using the table below, which materials do you expect to sink in water?
Material Density (g/mL)

Aluminum 2.7
Concrete 2.3
Cork 0.24
Gasoline 0.68
Ice 0.92
Iron 7.8
Mercury 13.6
A. concrete, cork, ice

B. iron, ice, aluminum
C. gasoline, cork, ice
D. concrete, mercury, aluminum
_____8. Which is a chemical change?

A. boiling water
B. souring of milk
C. chopping of wood
D. melting of ice cream
4
_____9. Rusting of iron is a chemical change. All phase changes are physical
changes.
A. Both statements are true.
B. Both statements are false.
C. The first statement is true while the second is false.
D. The second statement is true while the first is false.
_____10. Jeff placed some mothballs inside the cabinet. After some days, the
mothballs disappeared. What happened to the mothballs?
A. It sublimed.
A. It evaporated.
B. It reacted with air inside the cabinet.
C. It was dissolved by water present in air.
If your score is
9-10 Very Good! You may still read the module but you are already knowledgeable
with the topics that we are to discuss.
7-8 Good! Go over the items that you find difficult and then you may proceed to
the lessons in this module that you don’t understand.
0-5 Don’t worry about your score. This module is designed for you to understand
all about matter. So, what are you waiting for? Start your journey. Turn to the
next page.
5
Lesson 1 What is Matter?
Look around you. What are the things that you see? Below are some items that could
be in your surroundings at the moment. I want you to go over the list and encircle the items
that are around you.
THINGS AROUND ME
Flower notebook shoes glass
Paper pencil/ballpen plate
Spoon/fork table chair
Window door dog
. What do you think are common to all the items in the

list? To help you answer this question, think about
these….
Is the paper heavy or

light? What about the
plate, is it heavy or
light? Is the table
heavy or light?….
You are right! The table is the heaviest of the three objects while the paper seemed
to be the lightest. On the other hand, the plate may not be as heavy as the table but it is not
as light as the paper. What does these indicate? It means that objects or things around us
may be light or heavy which could simply mean that these things have mass.
6
Now, using your paper and pencil, trace the paper. Trace also the notebook and
the plate. Take a closer look at the drawings.
What have you noticed? Does each one occupy space? You are
right! Objects occupy space. In science, space occupied is referred to as
volume.
Can you trace the table? Perhaps not. It would be difficult to trace the table because
it is too big. How are we going to show then that the table also occupies space?
Why don’t you do this?
Go to where the table is. Can you stand on the space where the
table is located?
Of course not. Why? You simply cannot take the position of the table because the
table occupies space and so are you. It would be just like sitting on a chair where another
person is seated.
Materials that occupy space and have mass are regarded as MATTER. The flower,
plate, notebook and all the other objects/things in the “THINGS AROUND ME” are examples
of matter. Can you cite other examples of matter?
Did you know that?
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass
7
What you will do
Self-Test 1.1
Since you are now familiar with what matter is, list at least 15 other examples of
matter.
Examples of Matter
1. 11.
2. 12.
3. 13.
4. 14.
5. 15.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Lesson 2 Classifying Matter According to Its Phases
As what we have learned in Lesson 1, matter is anything that has mass and occupies
space. From this description, we could say that all the stuff in the universe are considered
as examples of matter. As such, dealing with matter would mean dealing with enormous
materials.
Due to the wide variety of examples of matter, scientists recognized the need to
classify them. How is matter classified? To give you an idea on how samples of matter are
grouped together, why don’t you do Activity 2.1?
8
What you will do
Activity 2.1
If you were working in a supermarket, which of the following items would you place in
the same shelf?
Pictures of soap, shampoo, conditioner, soy sauce,

vinegar, bread, milk, eggs, oranges, grapes, apples…
How did you group the materials? Check if your groupings are the same as mine.
Shelf 1 Shelf 2 Shelf 3 Shelf 4

(Fruits) (Food) (Seasoning) (Personal Hygiene)
Oranges, apples Bread, milk and Vinegar and soy shampoo, conditioner
and grapes eggs sauce and soap
What is your basis in grouping the given materials? Materials with the same
characteristics should be grouped together. In the same way, the numerous samples of
matter are classified based on properties similar to them.
Solid, Liquid and Gas
Matter can be classified according to its phases namely: solid, liquid and gas. A chair
and a plate are solids while water and soy sauce are liquids. On the other hand, air inside
the balloon is an example of gas.
9
Let us analyze the properties of each phase of matter.
You are right! They have definite shape.
Now, observe carefully the water and soy

sauce. Get two containers. Then, pour
water in one container and soy sauce in the
other.
What did you notice? Water and soy sauce take the shapes of their containers. Thus,
we can say that the shape of the liquid is dependent on the shape of the container.
Did you ever ask yourself why balloons have different

. shapes? Some are elongated; others are spherical or
even heart-shaped.
This is so because gases also assume the shape of the container.
Thus, we could say that solids have definite shape while liquids and gases have no
definite shape since they just take the shape of their containers. The table below further
differentiates the three phases of matter in terms of their other characteristics.
SOLID LIQUID GAS

Volume Definite Definite Indefinite
Arrangement of Closely-packed Far apart Widely separated
Particles
Motion of particles Slow Moderate Fast
Attractive forces Very strong Strong Weak
Compressibility Very Difficult Difficult Easily
Density High High Low
To further help you imagine how the particles of the different phases are arranged, let
us do Activity 2.2.
10
What you will do
Activity 2.2
Materials Needed: corn kernels, match box
What to do:
1. Fill the match box with corn kernels. Shake the box.
Describe the movement of the kernels in the box.

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Of the phases of matter, which arrangement of particles does it resemble?

_____________________________________________________________
2. Empty the box. Then put 20 corn kernels in it. Shake the box.

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________
3. This time, just place 3 corn kernels in the box and then shake.

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________
What conclusion can you make from the results of Activity 2.2. Right! The
characteristics of the phases of matter can be explained by the arrangement of their
particles.
11
What you will do
Self-Test 2.2
1. Classify the following as solid, liquid or gas.

a. stone
b. oxygen
c. tree
d. mayonnaise
e. mango juice
2. How will you explain the differences in the motion of particles of the phases of
matter?
3. Can you describe why solids and liquids have high densities while gases have low
densities?
Lesson 3 Substances and Mixtures

In Lesson 2, we have classified matter according to its phases: solid, liquid and gas.
But then there are other ways of grouping matter together. The diagram below shows how
matter is classified according to its composition.
Matter
can be
classified into
Substances Mixtures
Elements Compound Homogeneous Heterogeneous
12
Based on the diagram, matter can be classified into substances and mixtures. Water,
salt, sugar and iron nail are some examples of substances. Whereas, sugar solution, salt
solution, halu-halo and mayonnaise are examples of mixtures. Using these examples, how
can we differentiate substances from mixtures? To help you answer this question, let us
proceed to Activity 3.1.
What you will do

Activity 3.1
Reminder: Please read the procedure carefully before starting with the activity.
Don’t forget to answer the guide questions.
Materials Needed: water, table salt, two glasses, spoon and casserole
What to do:
1. Pour water into the glasses.
2. Label the glasses as glass A and glass B.
3. Put a pinch of salt in glass A and then stir.
4. Put one tablespoon of salt in glass B.
Compare the appearance of glass A and glass B. Are their appearance the same?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
5. Pour the contents of glass A into the casserole and then heat. Continue
heating until the mixture dries up. Observe.
Can you describe the substance that is left on the casserole?

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
If you are going to heat the contents of glass B, will you be able to recover the same
substance that you have recovered from glass A? Can you name the substance?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
13
6. Clean the casserole, then put a little amount of water in it. Heat the water.
Observe.
Guide Question: What do you think is happening to water while you are heating it?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Caution: Be careful when heating substances. Do not heat substances not

included in the procedure. Do not leave the casserole while it is being
heated.
Let us discuss what you have discovered in Activity 3.1. Upon mixing salt and water
through stirring, can you still see the particles of salt? If not anymore, why not? The salt
dissolves in water. Therefore, the water that is originally in the glass is no longer pure water
but is already a physical combination of salt and water, which is called salt solution.
Characteristics of Mixtures
Is the mixture in glass B also a salt solution? Yes, it is a salt solution as well. Notice
that even if glass B contains more salt than glass A, the appearance of both mixtures is the
same. What does this mean? It means that the components (in this case, salt and water) of
mixture can be present in any amount or in any proportion.
Let us now move on to the other parts of the activity. What happens to the salt
solution as it is being heated? After sometime, the mixture starts to dry up. Eventually, the
liquid component of the mixture disappears and what is left in the casserole is a powdery
white substance.
Can you name the white substance that is left in the casserole? Your guess is as
good as mine. Yes, it is the table salt. So, what did you manage to do with the salt solution
when you exposed it to heat? You have actually separated the components of salt solution.
The liquid component, which is water, undergoes the process of evaporation. What is
evaporation? It is a change in the phase of matter from liquid to gas. Such change in phase
can only happen if energy (just like heat!) is involved.
14
From the discussion, what are the important characteristics of mixture that you have
learned?
First, mixture is a physical Second, the

combination of two or more components of
pure substances (Recall that mixture can
salt and water are examples combine in any
of pure substances). amount or
proportion.
Third, since a
mixture is just a physical
Fourth, the properties of the combination of two or
components of mixture are more substances then it
retained in the mixture. To follows that it can as well
explain this further, why is the be separated by ordinary
color of salt solution colorless? physical processes e.g.
It is because the water is evaporation.
colorless. Why is it that the salt
solution is salty? It is because
of the salt. Thus, this would
mean that the characteristics of
the components of the mixture
are retained in the mixture.
Read More About…..
Do you know that a more suitable physical process is being used in separating the
components of salt solution? To find out more about the physical processes being used in
separating components of mixtures, check out your school library. Read, learn and have
fun!
15
Substances: Element or Compound?
How are substances different from mixtures? Unlike

mixtures, substances cannot be separated by ordinary
physical means. For instance, the components of water
cannot be separated by just heating it. Recall, what happened
to water when you heated it. The water evaporated. When
water evaporates, its phase changes but the composition is
still the same.
How can we separate the components of salt and

water? Since the components of salt and water are combined
chemically, these can be separated by electrolysis, which is a
chemical process. Salt is composed of sodium and chlorine
while water is made up of hydrogen and oxygen. Sodium,
chlorine, hydrogen and oxygen are elements.
Fig. 3.1 Electrolysis Set-up

What are elements? Elements are pure substances.
Go back to Figure 1 showing how matter is classified according to composition. Notice that
pure substances can be grouped further into elements and compounds. Salt and water are
compounds. On the other hand, the components of compounds are elements. Compound,
unlike mixture, is a chemical combination of two or more elements thus they cannot be
separated by ordinary physical processes.
What about elements? Can elements be broken down into simpler substances? I am
so sorry to disappoint you but elements cannot be separated by physical or even by
chemical processes. Why? Because element is the simplest form of matter!
Below is the periodic table of elements. As you can see the elements are arranged
according to increasing atomic number. To date, there are already 116 elements. Seventy-
five percent of the elements are metals while the rest are nonmetals and metalloids.
Take a closer look at the

periodic table. Can you see the
lines that look like a ladder? Good!
Now, remember that elements to
the right of the ladder are
nonmetals while those to the left of
the ladder are metals. Those
elements that are in the ladder are
identified as metalloids. Metalloids
have the characteristics of both
Fig. 3.2 Periodic Table of Elements
16
metals and nonmetals.
What are the characteristics of metals that can be used to differentiate them from
nonmetals? Iron nail is a metal while activated carbon (charcoal) is a nonmetal. Obviously of
the two, iron will be a better conductor of electricity than charcoal. Whereas, charcoal is
brittle which is in contrast to the hardness of metals.
Fig. 3.3 Charcoal and Iron Nail
Now, examine your incandescent lamp. What can you see at the center of the bulb?
There is what we call a filament. Do you know that the filament is a metal? Notice that the
filament is a very thin wire. Why is this so? Because metals are ductile. Ductility is the
ability of metals to be drawn into wire. Aside from that, metals are malleable. Malleability is
the ability to be hammered into sheets without breaking.
Fig. 3.4 An incandescent bulb
Generally, metals are in the solid phase (with the exception of Mercury, which is the
only metal in the liquid phase) thus we could expect metals to have high densities. It should
be remembered though that different substances have different densities. And that density
can be used as one of the bases in determining a certain substance since this property is
inherent in the substance. Below are the densities of some common metals.
Element Density (g/mL)

Aluminum 2.7
Iron 7.8
Mercury 13.6
Notice that the densities of the metals are higher than 1.00 g/mL, which is the density
of water at standard conditions. Will you expect the metals to float or sink in water? You are
right! The metals (those listed above) will sink in water!
17
What you will do
Self-Test 3.1
1. Classify the following as a pure substance or a mixture.

a. ice
b. pineapple juice
c. vinegar
d. soft drinks
e. wine
2. Classify the element as a metal, nonmetal or a metalloid.

a. Calcium (Ca)
b. Argon (Ar)
c. Silicon (Si)
d. Lithium (Li)
e. Sulfur (S)
Note: Letters in the parentheses are symbols of the elements.
3. Differentiate between substance and mixture.
4. Cite the characteristics of metals and nonmetals.
Lesson 4 Changes Around Us
Many changes are happening around us. These changes may either be physical
or chemical. Physical changes are changes in matter that are characterized by changes in
size, shape, physical appearance or phase. To know more about this type of change, let us
perform Activity 4.1. The activity takes a closer look at some common physical changes in
our environment
18
What you will do
Activity 4.1
Materials Needed: ice, two glasses, sugar, old newspaper, clay
A. Crumple the old newspaper and then cut it into small pieces.
Is the crumpled paper still the old newspaper? ______________________
Did you change the composition of the newspaper when you cut it into pieces?
____________________________________________________
B. Get some clay. Mold it into different shapes.

Did you change the composition of the clay when you molded it into different shapes?
_____________________________________________
C. Put some ice in a clean glass. Examine it every 3 minutes for half an hour.
Describe what happens to the ice. __________________________________
D. Place a pinch of salt in a glass of water.

What happens to the salt? ________________________________________
Let us discuss your observations in Activity 4.1. As what you have noticed, the
following changes have happened in the different parts of the activity: (A) There was a
change in the size and shape of the old newspaper. (B) There was a change in the size and
shape of the clay. (C) There was a change in the phase of matter. From solid, it turned into
liquid. (D) There was change in the phase of salt. From solid, it turned to liquid. Thus, the
observations suggest that changes in matter described in Activity 4.1 are all physical
changes.
Remember also that all phase changes are just physical changes. It therefore
follows that the processes of evaporation, condensation, melting, sublimation, freezing and
deposition are just physical changes.
On the other hand, chemical change involves a change/alteration in the

composition of matter thus it is further characterized by the formation of a new substance.
Let us perform Activity 4.2, to enable us to further understand chemical changes.
19
What you will do
Activity 4.1
Materials Needed: vinegar, baking soda, match, piece of paper (a small one!), glass, spoon
A. Half fill the glass with vinegar. Then, place one tablespoon of baking soda. Observe
what happens.
Describe what happens when vinegar was mixed with baking soda.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
B. Note: Please do this outside your house and in an open space. Kindly burn the small
piece of paper.
Describe what happens to the paper.

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Let us discuss the results of the activity. In Part A, vinegar did not dissolve the
baking soda. There was actually a chemical change that happened between the two that
resulted to the formation of some new substances. One of the substances is carbon dioxide
gas. Notice that the composition of carbon dioxide is not the same as vinegar and baking
soda. This indicates that the change resulted to a change in the composition and as such, it
could be identified as a chemical change.
How do we know that carbon dioxide is produced? Did you observe the formation
of bubbles? The bubbles indicate that a gas is being evolved. Evolution of gas is one of the
signs or evidences of a chemical change.
Part B involves burning of paper. Notice that after burning, you no longer have the
paper. What you have are ashes! Is the composition of ashes the same as paper? No, they
are not the same! Thus, burning of paper is a chemical change.
Other evidences of chemical change include production of heat and light and
these are observed in the burning of paper.
20
What you will do
Self-Test 4.1
Direction: Write A if the physical change involves a change in phase and

B if the physical change involves a change in physical appearance.
_____1. Melting of ice cream

_____2. Drying of clothes
_____3. Chopping of wood
_____4. Dissolving coffee granules in hot water
_____5. Slicing of bibingka
Self-Test 4.2
1. Cite at least five examples of chemical changes that are happening around us.
2. Name five examples of physical change that are part of our daily life.
The changes in matter that we have discussed will not actually happen if energy
in not involved. For instance, evaporation of water will not occur unless heat is involved!
Self-Test 4.3
Can you think of any change in matter that does not involve energy?
21
Let’s summarize
I hope you had a great time reading this module. More importantly, I also hope
that you have learned key concepts regarding matter. And to help you remember the
concepts that we have discussed, I have summarized them for you.
1. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.
2. Because of the numerous samples of matter, scientists recognized the need to

classify them.
3. Matter can be classified according to phases namely: solid, liquid and gas.
4. The table below differentiates the phases of matter in terms of some general
characteristics.
SOLID LQUID GAS

Shape Definite Indefinite Indefinite
Volume Definite Definite Indefinite
Arrangement Closely-packed Far apart Widely
of Particles separated
Motion of slow Moderate Fast
particles
Attractive Very strong Strong Weak
forces
Compressibility Very Difficult Difficult Easily
Density High High Low
5. The diagram below shows the classification of matter according to composition.
Matter
can be classified
Substances Mixtures
Element Compound Homogeneous Hetergenous
22
6. Mixture is a physical combination of two or more substances while compound is a
chemical combination or two or more elements.
7. Substances are further classified into elements and compounds.
Characteristics of Metals Characteristics of Non-

metals
They are malleable. They are soft and brittle.
They are ductile. They are not malleable.
They possess luster. They are not ductile.
They are good conductors of They are good insulators.
electricity.
8. Element is the simplest form of matter since it cannot be separated into simpler
substances.
9. Physical changes are changes in matter that are characterized by changes in

size, shape, physical appearance or phase.
10. Drying of clothes, melting of ice cream, boiling of water and sublimation of
mothballs are some of the many examples of physical changes that are
happening around us.
11. Chemical change involves a change/alteration in the composition of matter thus it

is further characterized by the formation of a new substance.
12. Formation of bubbles, formation of precipitate and production of heat and light are
some of the evidences of chemical change.
13. Rusting of iron, tarnishing of silver utensils, souring of milk and spoilage of food
are some of the many examples of chemical changes that are happening around
us.
14. Changes in matter will not actually happen if energy is not involved. For instance,
evaporation of water will not occur unless heat is involved!
23
Posttest
Direction: Choose the letter that best answers the question or completes the
statement.
_____1. Which is not an example of matter?

A. Radio C. Sound
B. Television set D. Fire
_____2. Of the phases of matter, which has the weakest attractive forces?
A. Solid C. Gas
B. Liquid D, None of the above
_____3.Gold is considered to be the best metal for jewelry because it ____________.

A. is soft C. is not brittle
B. is expensive D. does not corrode
_____4. Rubbing alcohol is a mixture. Which of the following best describes the components
of rubbing alcohol?
A. They are chemically combined.
B. They are present in definite proportion.
C. They combine in a fixed ratio by mass.
D. They can be separated by physical means.
_____5. Which does not belong to the group?

A. Tin C. Alcohol
B. Water D. Acetone
_____6. Which of the following is a substance?

A. Wine C. Orange juice
B. Steam D. Bronze
_____7. Using the table below, which materials do you expect to float in water?
Material Density (g/mL)

Aluminum 2.7
Concrete 2.3
Cork 0.24
Gasoline 0.68
Ice 0.92
Iron 7.8
Mercury 13.6
24
A. concrete, cork, ice
B. iron, ice, aluminum
B. gasoline, cork, ice
D. concrete, mercury, aluminum
_____8. Which is an example of chemical change?

A. mixing coffee granules and hot water
B. dissolving salt in water
C. melting of ice cream
D. souring of milk
_____9. Burning wood is a chemical change. Change in phase characterizes physical

change.
A. Both statements are true.
B. Both statements are false.
C. The first statement is true while the second is false.
D. The second statement is true while the first is false.
_____10. Evaporation is a phase change from

A. solid Æ gas C. liquid Æsolid
B. liquidÆgas D. gasÆliquid
25
Key to Answers
Pretest
1. A
2. A
3. C
4. B
5. A
6. A
7. D
8. B
9. A
10. A
Self-Test 1.1
• Toys, cabinets, curtains, bed, bed sheets and many others

• As long as the object/thing listed has mass and occupies space, it is an example of
matter.
Activity 2.2
(1) Motion of corn kernels is very slow or vibratory.

It resembles the solid phase.
(2) Motion of corn kernels is slow.

It resembles the liquid phase.
(3) Motion of corn kernels is fast.

It resembles the gaseous phase.
Self-Test 2.2
1.
(a) solid
(b) gas
(c) solid
(d) liquid
(e) liquid
26
2. The difference in the motion of particles of the phases of matter could be best explained
by the arrangement of their particles.
3. Density can be calculated by dividing mass over volume. If the particles of solid, liquid
and gas are to occupy the same space, it could be expected that the number of particles
in the solid phase are greater as compared to the number of particles in the liquid and
gaseous phase. Given such situation, it could be inferred that the mass of solid is greater
than that of the two other phases. And since the volume is the same for the three
phases, then it could be expected that the quotient of the mass over volume is greatest
in solid and least in gases. Therefore, the densities of solids are higher than liquids and
gases.
Self-Test 3.1
1.
a. pure substance
b. mixture
c. mixture
d. mixture
e. mixture
2.
a. metal
b. non-metal
c. metalloid
d. metal
e. non-metal
3. Compound, which is a pure substance, is a chemical combination of two or more

elements while mixture is a physical combination of two or more substances. Unlike
substances, the components of mixtures can be present in any proportion.
4.
Characteristics of Metals Characteristics of Non-
metals
They are malleable. They are soft and brittle.
They are ductile. They are not malleable.
They possess luster. They are not ductile.
They are good conductors of They are good insulators.
electricity.
27
Self-Test 4.1
i.A
ii.A
iii.B
iv.A
v.B
Self-Test 4.2
1. Answers may vary. Probable answers are: ripening of mango, rusting of iron,
souring of milk, tarnishing of silver utensils, cooking of meat.
2. Answers may vary. Probable answers are: mixing of the ingredients in baking a
cake, dissolving sugar in water, melting of ice, evaporation of water, sublimation of
mothballs
Self-Test 4.3
Changes in matter, whether physical or chemical, are always accompanied by energy.
Post-test
1. C
2. C
3. D
4. D
5. A
6. B
7. C
8. D
9. A
10. B
-End of Module-
References
Apostol, J.A. et.al. (2000). Worktext in Physical Science. Quezon City: Milson’s Publishing.
Chang, R. (2005). Chemistry. New York :McGraw Hill.
Gebelein, C. G. (2001) Chemistry and our world. USA: WCB Wm. C. Brown Publishers
28
MODULE 6

Pasig City
1
Module 6
Behavior of Matter
You have learned how to classify matter in terms of the properties common to them.
These properties are those that can be observed by our senses. Have you ever wondered
how these properties came about and what matter is made of?
This module presents activities that lead to your understanding of the structure of
matter and the behavior of the particles of matter describing the chemical reactions of
substances in our environment.
As you study the structure of matter, the simplest question you must ask is “What is
matter?” You have already learned that matter occupies space and has mass. In this
module, you will investigate more deeply into matter, take it apart and find out what it is
made of.
You will study the following lessons in this module:
Lesson 1 - Structure of Matter

Lesson 2 - Molecular Theory of Matter and its Evidences
Lesson 3 - Symbols and Chemical Formulas
Lesson 4 - Chemical Reactions
After going through the module, you are expected to:
1. use models to describe atoms and molecules;

2. state molecular theory to explain some properties of matter;
3. identify the formula of common atoms and molecules; and
4. explain chemical reactions of substances.
2
Here’s a simple guide for you in going about the module
Read the instructions carefully.

Follow the instructions very carefully.
Answer the pre-test in order to determine how much you already know about
the lessons in this module.
Check your answers against the given answer key at the end of this module.
Read each lesson and do activities that are provided for you.
Perform all the activities diligently to help and guide you in understanding the
topic.
Take the self-test after each lesson to determine how much you understood
the topic.
Answer the post-test to measure how much you have gained from the lessons.
Direction: Fill in the blank/s to complete the statements. Choose your answer on the
list of words below.
Key Terms:
Atoms, elements, compounds, radioactive, nucleus, electrons, protons, neutron,

atomic number, atomic mass, isotopes, shells, nuclear force, metals, non-metals,
mixtures, solution, molecule, symbol, chemical formula, ionic bond, covalent bond,
ion, physical property, chemical property, reactants, products, Law of conservation of
mass, catalysts, acids, basis, salts, activation energy, chemical equation,
composition, decomposition, single replacement, double replacement
1. Scientists call a group of symbols and numbers that stands for a compound a/an
______________.
2. The central part of an atom is called the ______________.
3
3. Matter that is made up of only one kind of atom is a/an ______________.
4. The number of protons represents the number of _____________.
5. A substance formed when atoms of different elements combine is a/an

_______________.
6. A tiny particle that travels around the nucleus is called the __________.
7. The number of protons and neutrons is equal to ______________.
8. _________ are elements that have luster and are good conductors of electricity.
9. A charged atom is a/an __________.
10. A bond in which electrons are shared between two atoms is a/an ___________ bond.
11. A mixture that is the same throughout is called a/an _____________.
12. A property of matter that retains its identity after a reaction is called ___________.
13. ___________ are formed when two or more atoms join together.
14. A __________ is a substance that speeds up the chemical reactions.
15. The energy needed to start a chemical reaction is called __________________.
16. What type of reaction is shown by this equation: H2O H2 + O2?
17. A/an ______________ produces H+ ions in a liquid solution.
18. A/an ______________ produces OH– ion in a liquid solution.
19. _______________________ states that no atoms disappear and no atoms are

formed in a chemical reaction.
20. _______________ are the electrons on its farthest or outermost electron shell.
4
Lesson 1 Structure of Matter
Atomic Structure
This lesson tackles the structure of matter. Matter is composed of tiny particles
called atom. An atom is the smallest particle of an element. Atoms of different elements
may also combine into systems called molecules, which are the smallest units of chemical
compounds. These are also considered as the ultimate building blocks of matter.
But what are atoms made of? What makes one type of atom different from another?
A careful study of the atom shows that it has a small but dense core called the nucleus.
The nucleus is composed of protons the positively charged particle and the neutrons, the
particle with no charge. Around the nucleus is the electron, the negatively charged particle.
These subatomic particles were discovered by scientists who were performing

experiments about atom: the electron by J.J. Thomson; the nucleus by Ernest Rutherford;
the proton by Eugene Goldstein; and the neutron by James Chadwick.
Study this diagram of the atom.
proton electron
nucleus
neutron
shells
THE ATOMIC MODEL
Scientists agree on the idea of an atom having these particles – the protons and the
neutrons in the nucleus and the electrons around the nucleus. However, they represent the
atomic models differently as shown by the diagrams:
5
BOHR MODEL RUTHERFORD MODEL THOMSON MODEL
SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL CARBON ATOM MODEL SODIUM ATOM MODEL
The studies by Rutherford and other scientists showed both the neutron and the
proton have a mass that is 1,800 times larger than the electrons. This explains why most of
the mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
The total number of protons in a given atom determines the atomic number of an
element. The atomic number is the number of protons (positively charged elementary
particles) in the nucleus of one of its atoms. If the atom is electrically neutral, the same
number of electrons is present, since the number of protons is equal to the number of
electrons. The atomic mass or mass number is the sum of an atom's protons and neutrons
that are always expressed in whole numbers. Atomic number is the subscript to the left and
the atomic mass is the superscript to the right of a chemical symbol of an element found in
the Periodic Table of Elements. For example, 6C12 indicates a carbon atom of atomic mass
12 and atomic number 6, the difference being equal to the number of neutrons in the
nucleus. This means for 6C12, there are 6 protons and 6 neutrons, and it follows that it has 6
electrons, too. (In other presentations of The Modern Periodic Table, the superscript is the
atomic number and the subscript is the atomic mass. The atomic number is always less than
the atomic mass)
A
ZE
Mass
number
Atomic
number ELEMENT
In most nuclei, the number of neutrons is equal to or slightly greater than the number
of protons. As the elements get more massive, they tend to have an excess number of
neutrons. For example, the nucleus of uranium, the heaviest natural element, has 146
neutrons and 92 protons (92U238).
6
Molecules and Chemical Bonds
Sometimes the atoms of an element are found alone. At other times they are found
joined together. When two or more atoms combine, whether these are the same or different,
they form a molecule. If these two or more molecules are fitted to combine, a chemical
bond is formed.
There are three types of chemical bonds: ionic bond, covalent bond and metallic
bond.
An ionic bond is formed when one atom shifts or transfers an electron to another
atom. This happens commonly when atoms with one valence electron, the alkali metals,
elements in Group IA are combined with seven valence electrons, the halogens or elements
belonging to Group VIIA. A good example is table salt. When sodium (Na+) reacts with
chlorine (Cl-), they form the molecule sodium chloride (table salt), which is written as NaCl.
Elements in Group IIA may combine with elements in Group VIA. In general, atoms will
form chemical bonds if the bonding will cause all atoms involved to have a stable outer
electron shell or eight electrons. This rule is called the OCTET RULE. It states that atoms
are in stable condition when the outermost electron shell has eight electrons.
Sometimes atoms form bonds in which they share electrons. This is called covalent
bond. Water (H2O) is an example of covalent bond. Two electrons, one from each atom of
hydrogen, is shared with one atom of oxygen, since oxygen needs two more electrons for it
to become stable. Another example is carbon dioxide,(CO2). Carbon from Group IVA has
four valence electrons. It can complete its outer shell by sharing two pairs of electrons with
one oxygen atom and two pairs with another one.
The last type is the metallic bond. While in ionic and covalent bonds, a metal
combines with a non-metal, in metallic bond, a metal shares electrons with another metal.
7
What you will do
Activity 1.1
Complete the table below:
ELEMENT ATOMIC ATOMIC NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER

NUMBER MASS OF OF OF
PROTONS NEUTRONS ELECTRONS
Lithium 3 7
Magnesium 12 24
Aluminum 13 27
Calcium 20 40
Silicon 14 28
Lead 82 207
Copper 29 64
Silver 47 108
Gold 79 197
Nitrogen 7 14
How did you determine the number of protons, number of electrons and the number
of neutrons?
What you will do

Activity 1.2
Given: Table of compounds with their molecular formula
MOLECULE / COMPOUND MOLECULAR FORMULA

Table salt NaCl
Vinegar CH3COOH
Table sugar C12H22O11
Muriatic acid HCl
Salitre KNO3
Agua oxigenada H 2O 2
Rust Fe2O3
Sand SiO
Naphthalene ball C10H5
White wash Ca(OH)2
Washing soda CaCO3
8
Complete the table below. Refer to Table of Compounds and their Molecular formula
for your answer: The first two (2) numbers were done for you.
Molecule/ Chemical Elements No. of Atoms in Total No. of

Compound Formula Present each element Atoms Present
Table salt NaCl Na & Cl 1 Na & 1 Cl 2
Vinegar CH3COOH C, O & H 2 C; 4 H & 2 O 8
Table sugar C12H22O11
Muriatic acid HCl
Salitre KNO3
Agua H2O2
oxigenada
Rust Fe2O3
Sand SiO
Naphthalene C10H5
ball
White wash Ca(OH)2
Washing soda CaCO3
What you will do

Self-Test 1.1
Direction: Match the term in column A to the phrase that describes it in Column B. Write
the letter of your answer on the space provided before each term.
COLUMN A COLUMN B
___________ 1. compound a. number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus
___________ 2. nucleus b. positively charged particles in the nucleus
___________ 3. neutron c. small but dense core of the atom
___________ 4. proton d. negatively charged particle outside the
nucleus of an atom
___________ 5. shells e. energy states in which the electrons of an
atom can exist
___________ 6. molecules f. combination of two or more elements
___________ 7. ionic bond g. used to represent a compound
___________ 8. metallic bond h. particle in the nucleus with no charge
___________ 9. covalent bond i. number of protons in the nucleus
___________ 10. chemical j. element having the same atomic number but
formula different atomic mass
9
___________ 11. atomic number k. this is formed when atoms combine
___________ 12. isotopes l. states that eight electrons are needed to attain
stability
___________ 13. electron m. involves a shift or transfer of electron from
one atom to another atom
___________ 14. atomic mass n. involves a sharing of electrons in metals to
another metal
___________ 15. octet rule o. involves a sharing of electron in different
kinds of atoms
Lesson 2 Molecular Theory of Matter
This lesson discusses the molecular theory of matter. The assumption that
molecules are constantly moving is called the kinetic molecular theory of matter. That
matter exerts force on another matter is an evidence of molecular force.
The following are some of the evidences that support the molecular theory:
1. diffusion – the intermingling of the molecules of a substance with the molecules of

the air
2. capillarity – the rise of liquid on a fine or hair-like tube
3. surface tension – the formation of a temporary membrane on the surface of a liquid
4. osmosis – the passage of liquid from a semi-permeable membrane or from a liquid
of greater concentration to a liquid of lesser concentration
5. Cohesion – the attraction between like or the same kind of molecules
6. Adhesion – the attraction between unlike or different kinds of molecules
What you will do

Activity 2.1
Perform the following activities and answer the question after each procedure.
1. Open a bottle of rubbing alcohol. Do you smell something?

___________________________________________________________
This evidence is called diffusion. The molecules of alcohol mix with the molecules
of the air, and since the air is constantly moving, the smell spread throughout.
10
Cite other examples:
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. Pour a few drops of water in a saucer. Cut a piece of tissue paper into strips. Put
one end of the strip of tissue paper into the water. Observe.
___________________________________________________________
This shows the ability of matter to rise on a fine or hair-like tube. This is called
Capillarity. Since the tissue paper has these hair-like structures on its surface, the
water clings to it and rises. Also, the tissue is absorbent. Adhesion is also evident.
The molecules of water adhere to the molecules of the tissue. Adhesion is the
attraction between unlike molecules.

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Using a medicine dropper, put about two drops of water on top of a glossy or shiny
table. Observe. Describe the shape of the water drops.
___________________________________________________________
This shows that molecules of matter are cohesive. Cohesion is the force of
attraction between molecules that are alike.

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. Add a drop of liquid soap on a basin with water. Observe. Touch it using your finger.
What did you observe?
___________________________________________________________
This is what we call surface tension. It is the ability of matter to form a temporary
membrane. In this case, cohesive force is less than adhesive force.

___________________________________________________________
11
What you will do
Self-Test 2.1
Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer:
1. What idea about matter explains molecular theory?

a. Matter exists in three phases.
b. Matter is made up of small particles.
c. Molecules of matter are always moving.
d. Matter cannot occupy space filled up by another object.
2. Diffusion causes molecules to spread throughout the medium. In which of the

following is there a faster rate of diffusion?
a. ink in water
b. acetone in air
c. salt in water
d. food color in gelatin
3. Why is the surface of a lake level?

a. Cohesive force exists.
b. Adhesive force exists.
c. Adhesive force is greater than cohesive force.
d. Cohesive force is greater than adhesive force.
4. Soap bubbles easily break. This is an example of

a. brittleness
b. adhesion
c. cohesion
d. surface tension
5. What evidence of molecular theory is portrayed in the advertisement of “Mr. Clean”?

(when a lady keeps on following the man carrying a plank of wood)
a. adhesion
b. cohesion
c. diffusion
d. surface tension
12
Lesson 3 Symbols and Chemical Formulas
This next lesson will teach you how to read symbols of elements from the Periodic
Table and how to write chemical formula given the names of the compounds.
For many years, scientists particularly chemists have developed a unique system of
symbols and notation designed to simplify the writing of chemical symbols, formula, and
reactions. This system also shows the mathematical relations of atoms and reacting
chemicals, the way atoms are put together to form complex molecules, and the type of
chemical bond between atoms.
Element and its Symbol
The early alchemists used various symbols to represent the 92 natural elements they
used, a custom that was continued into the 19th century. Johann Jacob Berzelius of
Sweden was the first to use letters to represent the elements. In most cases he was able to
use the first letter of the name of the element as its symbol; O stood for oxygen, C for
carbon, H for hydrogen, and so on. Two letters are used to distinguish between elements
that have the same initial letter N for nitrogen, Ne for neon, and Ni for nickel. Sometimes
the symbol is derived from the Latin name of the element; gold (aurum) is Au, iron
(ferrum) is Fe, and lead (plumbum) is Pb. Whenever two letters are used for an element,
the first letter is capitalized but the second is not. Thus the element cobalt, Co, is
distinguished from the compound carbon monoxide, CO.
Due to the continued search for synthetic elements, aside from the 92 naturally -
occurring elements, scientists found man-made elements and they devised another way of
representing these elements in symbols. Some man-made elements are written in the table
below:
Element Familiar Name or Place Symbol of Element

Californium California Cf
Einsteinium Albert Einstein Es
Nobelium Alfred Nobel (Nobel Prize) No
Neptunium Neptune Ne
Plutonium Pluto Pu
Americium America Am
Berkelium Berkeley, California Bk
Curium Marie and Pierre Curie Cu
Francium France Fr
Scandium Scandinavia Sc
Polonium Poland Po
Tungsten Wolfrom (Peter Woulf) W
13
These elements are organized in a table of elements called the periodic table. It is a
classification and tabulation of the chemical elements in the order of their atomic numbers
that shows elements' chemical and physical properties.
In this periodic table, the numbers on the left superscript is the atomic
number of the element
What you will do

Activity 3.1
Write the symbol of the following elements:
Element Symbol Element Symbol

Sodium Neon
Mercury Sulfur
Boron Radon
Carbon Barium
Nickel Thorium
14
Compound and Its Chemical Formula
Two or more elements may combine by means of a chemical bond to form a

compound. By combining the symbols of the participating atoms, a chemical formula is
formed. A chemical formula is a group of symbols used to represent a compound. This is
also called a molecular formula. More than one atom is indicated by a numerical subscript.
For instance, H2O means that the water molecule consists of two atoms of hydrogen and
one of oxygen.
Certain combinations of atoms form stable groups called radicals or polyatomic ion,
which form chemical bonds as an intact unit. The valence number of these radicals is taken
as one. If a molecule contains more than one of a given radical, its written formula
emphasizes this by using parentheses. Calcium phosphate, a major constituent of bones
and teeth, is written Ca3(PO4)2.
Some Polyatomic Ions
MONOVALENT 1- BIVALENT 2- TRIVALENT 3-

Ammonium NH4 (1+) Carbonate CO3 Phosphate PO4
Acetate C2H3O2 Chromate CrO4 Borate BO3
Chlorate ClO3 Oxalate C2O4
Chlorite ClO2 Sulfate SO4
Bicarbonate HCO3 Sulfite SO3
Bisulfate HSO4 Peroxide O2
Hydroxide OH
Nitrate NO3
Nitrite NO2
In writing a chemical formula, follow these rules:
1. Write the correct symbols of the elements and the polyatomic ions.
2. Determine the charge or valence number of the elements and the ions.
3. Indicate the charge by writing it on the right superscript
4. Exchange their valence numbers using the CRISS-CROSS METHOD.
Example: Write the chemical formula of the following compounds:
a. Lithium oxide
1+ 2-
Li O = Li2O
15
b. Magnesium chloride
2+ 1-
Mg Cl = MgCl2
c. Calcium oxide:
2+ 2-
Ca O = CaO
(if the valence numbers are the same, no need to write them as subscript)
d. Calcium phosphate
2+ 3-
Ca (PO4) = Ca3(PO4)2
e. Hydrogen sulfate
1+ 2-
H (SO4) = H2SO4
(if the valence number is 1, no need to write them as subscript)
What you will do

Activity 3.2
Write the chemical formula of the following compounds.
COMPOND FORMULA COMPOUND FORMULA

Zinc oxide Calcium carbonate
Potassium chloride Zinc nitrate
Lithium hydride Aluminum nitrite
Magnesium chloride Magnesium sulfate
Hydrogen fluoride Sodium hydroxide
16
What you will do
Self-test 3.1
Direction: Write the formula of the following compound:
1. Sodium bromide _______________

2. Barium chloride _______________
3. Aluminum hydroxide _______________
4. Sodium oxalate _______________
5. Potassium oxide _______________
6. Nitrogen phosphate _______________
7. Hydrogen sulfide _______________
8. Zinc chloride _______________
9. Silicon oxide _______________
10. Ammonium sulfate _______________
Lesson 4 Chemical Reactions

It is said that nothing is permanent in this world except change. Change is a good
thing. Some changes take place very rapidly. Think of the burning of gasoline in a car
engine or the explosion of gunpowder. Other changes like the baking of bread takes
minutes or hours to occur. Still other changes such as the decay of wood or the yellowing of
paper takes many days or even years.
This lesson will help you understand the different types of chemical reactions and
transform these reactions into equations. In a chemical reaction, the substances that
combine are called reactants, while the substance/s produced is/are called product/s. An
arrow is used to represent a yield. Activation energy is needed to start up a chemical
reaction. In order to speed up this reaction a catalyst is used.
REACTANTS YIELD PRODUCTS
17
A chemical equation is used to represent a chemical reaction.
A+B AB
The law of conservation of mass is applied in writing a chemical equation. This law
states that a new atom cannot be created in a chemical reaction and that the mass of the
reactants is equal to the mass of the products.
REACTANTS PRODUCTS
What you will do

Activity 4.1
There are four (4) general types of chemical reaction. Study the presentation:
1. Composition or Synthesis Reaction – two or more elements combine to form one

compound. A + B AB
Ex. Na + Cl NaCl
2. Decomposition or Analysis – one compound breaks into two or more other

substances. AB A + B
Ex. ZnCl2 Zn + Cl2
18
3. Single displacement – one element in the reactants replaces one of the elements
in the given compound. The products are still one element and a compound.
AB + C A + BC or AB + C B + AC
Ex. BeF2 + Mg MgF2 + Be
4. Double displacement – two compounds react to produce two new compounds.
AB + CD AC + BD or AB + CD AD + BC
Ex. AgNO3 + NaCl AgCl + NaNO3
19
What you will do
Self-Test 4.1
Based on the diagrams of chemical reactions above, identify the type of

reaction shown by the following chemical equations:
1. S + O2 SO2 ______________________
2. HgO Hg + O2 ______________________
3. 2Al + 6HCl 2AlCl3 + H2 ______________________
4. 2KI + Cl2 2KCl + I2 ______________________
5. Al2(SO4)3 + Ca(OH)2 2Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4 _____________
6. H2 + Fe3O4 3Fe + 4H2O ______________________
7. H2O + SO3 H2SO4 ______________________
8. KClO3 KCl + O2 ______________________
9. 2Zn + O2 2ZnO ______________________
10. NaOH + FeCl3 NaCl + Fe(OH)3 ___________________
Let’s summarize
1. An atom is the smallest particle of an element. Atoms of different elements may also
combine into systems called molecules.
2. An atom has a small but dense core called the nucleus. The nucleus is composed of
protons, the positively charged particle and the neutrons, the particle with no
charge. Around the nucleus is the electron, the negatively charged particle.
3. The following are some evidences that support the molecular theory:
20
diffusion – the intermingling of the molecules of substance with the
molecules of the air
capillarity – the rise of liquid on a fine or hair-like tube
surface tension – the formation of a temporary membrane on the surface
of a liquid.
osmosis – the passage of liquid from a semi-permeable membrane or
from a liquid of greater concentration to a liquid of lesser concentration
Cohesion – the attraction between like or the same kind of molecules.
Adhesion – the attraction between unlike or different kinds of molecules
4. The total number of protons in a given atom determines the atomic number of an
element. The atomic number is also equal to the number of electrons.
5. The atomic mass or mass number is the sum of an atom's protons and neutrons
that are always expressed in whole numbers.
6. Symbols are used to represent an element, chemical formula for compound and
chemical equation for chemical reaction.
7. In a chemical reaction, the substances that combine are called reactants, while the
substance/s produced is/are called product/s. An arrow is used to represent a
forward or backward reaction.
8. The law of conservation of mass states that a new atom cannot be created in a
chemical reaction and that the mass of the reactants is equal to the mass of the
products.
9. There are four (4) general types of chemical reaction:
Composition or Synthesis Reaction – two or more elements combine to

form one compound.
Decomposition or Analysis – one compound breaks into two or more
other substances.
Single displacement – one element in the reactants replaces one of the
elements in the given compound.
Double displacement – two compounds react to produce two new
compounds
21
Posttest
Word search Puzzle
Search and shade the word or words in the puzzle that complete the sentence/s below:
1. A/an ____________ represents a forward and backward reaction.
2. _____________ are used to represent an element.
3. Energy state in which the electrons of an atom can exist is the___________.
4. ___________ is the intermingling of molecules of the air with the molecules of another
substance.
5. The elements and compound that start up a reaction are the ____________.
6. After a chemical reaction ___________ are produced.
7. The force of attraction that exists between molecules of different kinds is called
______________.
8. ___________ is a small dense core of an atom.
9. Atoms combine to form _______________.
10. The simplest form of matter is/are _______________.
11. The negatively charged particles that move around the nucleus are the _____.
12. ________ is considered the building blocks of elements.
13. Anything that has mass and volume is called ________.
14. Elements are made up of the same kind of _______.
15. A group of letters used to represent a compound is called _________.
16. A chemical ___________ is used to represent a chemical reaction.
17. The mass of the reactants is equal to mass of the products. This is the law of
___________________.
22
18. The passage of liquid from a substance of greater concentration to a less concentration is
known as __________.
19. When two elements or compounds combine in a chemical reaction, this is called
_____________.
20. ____________ is the force of attraction between two like molecules.
A B A R R O W S Y M B O L S S Y N T H
S C D D I F F U S I O N E F G P R O T
H H I J K L P R O D U C T S M N E O A
S U E L C U N F O M P M E T A L A V D
W X Y L Z A B A C D O E E E F G C H H
I A J K L L M C A P I L L A R I T Y E
N T O P Q S O E R S T E E U V W A X S
Y O Z A B M A T O M C M C C D E N E I
G M H I P A J E K L M E T N U O T S O
Q I R O S T T N U V W N R X Y L S I N
A C U R B T C S D E F T O G H I E S K
J N K B L E M I N O P S N C O H E O I
D U Q I R R F O R M U L A S T U V M X
Y M Z T A B C N E Q U A T I O N S S E
F B C O N S E R V A T I O N O G H O J
R E B M U N S S A M K L M N F M A S S
O R S Y N T H E S I S C O H E S I O N
23
Key to Answers
Pretest
1. symbols
2. nucleus
3. element
4. atomic number
5. compound
6. electrons
7. mass number or atomic mass
8. metal
9. ion
10. covalent
11. solution
12. physical
13. molecules
14. catalysts
15. activation energy
16. decomposition or analysis
17. acids
18. bases
19. law of conservation of mass
20. valence electrons
Activity 1.1
ELEMENT ATOMIC ATOMIC NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER

NUMBER MASS OF OF OF
PROTONS NEUTRONS ELECTRONS
Lithium 3 7 3 4 3
Magnesium 12 24 12 12 12
Aluminum 13 27 13 14 13
Calcium 20 40 20 20 20
Silicon 14 28 14 14 14
Lead 82 207 82 125 82
Copper 29 64 29 35 29
Silver 47 108 47 61 47
Gold 79 197 79 118 79
Nitrogen 7 14 7 7 7
Subtract the atomic number from the atomic mass to get the number of neutrons; the
number of protons is equal to the number of electrons.
24
Activity 1.2
MOLECULE / FORMUL ELEMENTS No. of Atoms in Total No. of

COMPOUND A PRESENT each element Atoms Present
Table salt NaCl Na & Cl 1 Na & 1 Cl 2
Vinegar CH3COOH C, O & H 2 C; 4 H & 2 O 8
Table sugar C12H22O11 C, H, O 12 C; 22 H; 11 O 45
Muriatic acid HCl H, Cl 1 H; 1 Cl 2
Salitre KNO3 K, N, O 1 K, 1 N, 3 O 4
Agua oxigenada H2O2 H, O 2 H, 2 O 4
Rust Fe2O3 Fe, O 2 Fe, 3 O 5
Sand SiO Si, O 1 Si, 1 O 2
Naphthalene ball C10H5 C, H 10 C, 5 H 15
White wash Ca(OH)2 Ca, O, H 1 Ca, 2 O, 2 H 5
Washing soda CaCO3 Ca, C, O 1 Ca, 1 C, 3 O 5
Self-test 1.1
COLUMN A COLUMN B
1. compound f. combination of two or more elements
2. nucleus c. small but dense core of the atom
3. neutron h. particle in the nucleus with no charge
4. proton b. positively charged particles in the nucleus
5. shells e. energy states in which the electrons of an atom can exist
6. molecules h. this is formed when atoms combine
7. ionic bond m. involves a shift or transfer of electron from one atom to another
atom
8. metallic bond n. involves a sharing of electrons in metals to another metal
9. covalent bond o. involves a sharing of electron in different kinds of atoms
10. chemical g. used to represent a compound
formula
11. atomic number i. number of protons in the nucleus
12. isotopes l. element having the same atomic number but different atomic
mass
13. electron d. negatively charged particle outside the nucleus of an atom
14. atomic mass a. number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
15. octet rule l. states that eight electrons are needed to attain stability
Possible answers to Activity 2.1

1. Yes; Cool and comfort
Other examples:
smell of the sauted garlic spread all over the house, body odor,
air pollution
2. The water was absorbed the tissue paper.
Other examples:
25
Plants can receive nutrients through the roots; towels are used to dry up our
body after taking a bath; mops to use dry wet floors, the use of wick alcohol
lamp
3. The water drops formed a sphere-like structure.
Other examples:
Globular formation of mercury; convex shape of ice in an ice tray; the surface
of the water in a container is convex.
4. The molecules of the liquid soap formed a temporary enamel membrane on the
surface of water. When it was touched, the membrane broke up.
Other examples:
Insects can run on a surface of water; detergents are used to wash clothes
(Deter means to remove or put off)
Self-Test 2.1
1. c 2. b 3. c 4. d 5. c
Activity 3.1:
ELEMENT SYMBOL ELEMENT SYMBOL

Sodium Na Neon Ne
Mercury Hg Sulfur S
Boron B Radon Rn
Carbon C Barium Ba
Nickel Ni Thorium Th
Activity 3.2.
COMPOND FORMULA COMPOUND FORMULA

Zinc oxide ZnO Calcium carbonate CaCO3
Potassium chloride KCl Zinc nitrate Zn(NO3)2
Lithium hydride LiH Aluminum nitrite Al(NO)3
Magnesium chloride MgCl2 Magnesium sulfate MgSO4
Hydrogen fluoride HF Sodium hydroxide NaOH
Self-Test 3.1
1. Sodium bromide NaBr

2. Barium chloride BaCl2
3. Aluminum hydroxide Al(OH)3
4. Sodium oxalate Na2C2O4
5. Potassium oxide K2O
6. Nitrogen phosphate NPO4
7. Hydrogen sulfide H2S
8. Zinc chloride ZnCl2
9. Silicon oxide Si2O4
10. Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4
26
Self-Test 4.1
1. S + O2 SO2 Composition or Synthesis

2. HgO Hg + O2 Decomposition or Analysis
3. 2Al + 6HCl 2AlCl3 + H2 Single replacement
4. 2KI + Cl2 2KCl + I2 Single replacement
5. Al2(SO4)3 + Ca(OH)2 2Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4
Double replacement
6. H2 + Fe3O4 3Fe + 4H2O Single replacement
7. H2O + SO3 H2SO4 Composition or Synthesis
8. KClO3 KCl + O2 Decomposition or Analysis
9. 2Zn + O2 2ZnO Composition or Synthesis
10. NaOH + FeCl3 NaCl + Fe(OH)3 Double replacement
Posttest
1 2
A B A R R O W S Y M B O L S S Y N T H
3 4 5
S C D D I F F U S I O N E F G P R O T
6 7
H H I J K L P R O D U C T S M N E O A
8 9
S U E L C U N F O M P Q R S T U A V D
10 11
W X Y L Z A B A C D O E E E F G C H H
12 13
I A J K L L M C A P I L L A R I T Y E
N T O P Q S O E R S T E E U V W A X S
14 15
Y O Z A B M A T O M C M C C D E N E I
G M H I P A J E K L M E T N U O T S O
Q I R O S T T N U V W N R X Y L S I N
A C U R B T C S D E F T O G H I E S K
J N K B L E M I N O P S N C O H E O I
16
D U Q I R R F O R M U L A S T U V M X
17
Y M Z T A B C N E Q U A T I O N S S E
18 19
F B C O N S E R V A T I O N O G H O J
R E B M U N S S A M K L M N F M A S S
20
O R S Y N T H E S I S 21C O H E S I O N
-End of Module-
27
References
Chang, R. and Cuickshank, B. Chemistry 8th Ed.. USA: Mc-Graw Hill.
Gebelein, C. G. 2001. Chemistry and our world. USA: WCB Wm. C. Brown Publishers.
Lemay, E , Robblee, K, and Beall, H, Chemistry: Connections to our changing World : Prentice Hall.
Oxtoby, Nachtrieb & Freeman, Chemistry, Science of Change, 2nd Ed.:USA: Saunders College Publishing.
28
MODULE 7
Pasig City
1
Module 7
The Nature of Forces
Motion occurs all around us. We see it in our everyday activities, in children playing in
the neighborhood, in animals roaming in the field, in trees swaying in the wind, and even in
the stars at night. There is also motion that we cannot directly see, like the vibration of
atoms responsible for heat and sound and the flow of electrons that constitutes electricity.
Truly, motion is everywhere.
But what is responsible for all these type of motion? What causes motion? Based on our
experiences, whenever an object at rest moves, we presume that something acting on it
made it move and whenever a moving object slows down and eventually stops, something
acting on it made it stop. In science, this thing that affects motion is called force.
What is a force? What changes are brought about by forces acting on bodies? How do
forces affect motion? What are the different types of forces? How does force and surface
area affect pressure? This module presents some simple activities that will help you
understand the basic concepts about forces.
This module discusses the following lessons:
Lesson 1 - The Effects of Forces

Lesson 2 - Classification of Forces
Lesson 3 - Pressure
1. describe the effects of forces on objects

2. identify contact and non-contact forces
3. define different types of forces
4. show how pressure is related to force and area
2
This module has been designed to help you understand the basic concepts about
forces. The simple activities that you will perform will help you comprehend the concepts
about forces as they apply to real life situations. By engaging in these learning activities, you
become an active participant in the learning process.
As you go through the module, you are in complete control of the learning process.
1. Read and follow all instructions carefully.

2. Answer the pretest before going over the lessons.
3. Check your answers with the given answer key at the end of this module. This
will help you assess your understanding of the concepts you are about to
learn.
4. Read the learning objectives for this module.
5. Translate these learning objectives into questions that you desire to answer
after learning from the module. This will give direction to the learning process
you will be engaging in.
6. Relate your experiences and previous knowledge to the concepts you have to
learn.
7. Read the procedure for the learning activities carefully. Reflect on how these
activities could help you answer your questions.
8. Gather all the materials needed before engaging in the learning activities.
9. Answer the guide questions based on the results of the activities you have just
performed.
10. Relate the answers to the guide questions to your learning objectives.
11. Assess your understanding of the basic concepts derived from activities by
answering the self-test.
12. After finishing the entire module, assess your understanding by answering the
posttest. If you still find the lessons difficult to comprehend, try again. This
time, try to address the needs that you were not able to meet.
3
Instructions: Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write the letter on your answer
sheet.
1. Which of the following is not a consequence of a force?

a. change in the mass of a body
b. change in the shape of a body
c. change in the speed of a body
d. change in the direction of motion of a body
2. What force is responsible for keeping the planets in their orbits as they revolve
around the sun?
a. nuclear
b. magnetic
c. electrical
d. gravitational
3. Which of the following devices can be used to measure forces?

a. spring balance
b. balance beam
c. triple beam balance
d. all of the above
4. Which of the following is an example of a non–contact force?

a. friction
b. tension
c. normal force
d. gravitational
5. A sack of rice is hanging from a rope. What term refers to the force exerted by the
rope pulling the sack of rice up?
a. friction
b. tension
c. normal force
d. elastic force
6. What term refers to the force by which all bodies are attracted to the earth?
a. weight
b. tension
c. friction
d. normal force
4
7. What term refers to the quantity force per unit area?
a. mass
b. weight
c. density
d. pressure
8. What type of force is responsible for the slowing down of moving objects on a
surface?
a. friction
b. weight
c. tension
d. normal force
9. How does a negatively charged body interact electrically with a positively charged
body?
a. attract
b. repel
c. either attract or repel
d. it depends on their masses
10. When an atomic bomb explodes, tremendous amount of energy is released. With
what force is this energy associated?
a. weak
b. electric
c. nuclear
d. magnetic
11. For the same force applied, what happens to the pressure if the surface area
where the force is acting is decreased?
a. increases
b. decreases
c. does not change
d. not enough information is given
12. A balloon is squeezed by pushing on its opposite sides. How would this affect the
air pressure inside the balloon?
a. the air pressure increases
b. the air pressure decreases
c. the air pressure does not change
d. not enough information is provided
5
Lesson 1 The Effects of Forces
Forces have always been a part of our everyday experiences. Whether we are doing
our household chores, working in the field, or even playing at school, we can see the effects
of forces in action. For example, in fetching water from a well, you need to exert a force by
pulling the rope up. In moving a car stuck in the mud, you need to exert a force by pushing
it. And in a tug–of–war game, you need to exert a force by pulling the rope as hard as
possible in order to win. These are just some of the many instances that show forces in
action. From these instances, can you see the changes brought about by forces acting on
certain bodies? What are these changes? The following activities will help you find out the
answers to these questions.
What you will do

Activity 1.1 Changes brought about by forces
Materials: inflated balloon, two books with different sizes, small ball
Procedure:
1. Describe the size and shape of an inflated balloon.
(a) Squeeze the balloon by pushing on opposite sides. Describe what

happens to the balloon.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
(b) Pull on the opposite sides of the balloon. Describe what happens to the
balloon.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
2. Place two different books on top of a table.

(a) How do you make the books move?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
(b) Which is harder to move, the big book or the small book?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
6
3. Make a small ball roll along the surface of a table.
(a) How do you make it move faster?

_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
(b) How do you make it move slower?

_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
4. Make the small ball roll along the flat surface of a table.
(a) Describe the path taken by the ball.

_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
(b) How do you deflect the ball from its path while it is moving?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
The activities you have just performed illustrate the changes brought about by forces
acting on certain bodies. You may have noticed the following changes:
Part 1: the size and shape of the balloon changed

Part 2: the state of motion of the ball changed
(a ball at rest eventually moved)
Part 3: the speed of the moving ball changed
Part 4: the direction of motion of the moving ball changed
What is responsible for such changes? It is a force. A force is a push or a pull. In part 1,
the size and shape of the balloon can be changed either by pushing or pulling on the
opposite sides of the balloon. In part 2, what made the books move was either a push or a
pull. However, the big book required more effort for it to move than the small book. In part
3, the speed of the rolling ball can be changed by pushing the ball. If the push given to the
ball is in the same direction as its motion, it will move faster. However, if the push given to
the rolling ball is in the opposite direction, it will move slower and will eventually stop. In the
last part, the direction of motion of the rolling ball can be changed by pushing it sideways
either to the right or to the left of its straight-line path.
7
The activities you have just performed demonstrated what a force could do to an object. To
summarize:
A force can change the size and shape of an object.

A force can change the state of motion of objects.
(makes objects at rest move and objects moving stop)
A force can change the speed of moving objects.
(makes it move faster or slower)
A force can change the direction of motion.
What is a force? A force is a push or pull that may cause a change in the object’s
motion, size and shape, or both. How is force measured? A device used in measuring force
in the laboratory is called spring balance. It consists of a coil spring, enclosed in a case for
protection, with a pointer attached to one end. When forces are applied to the ends of a
spring balance, the pointer indicates the amount of elongation that is proportional to the
force applied. The SI unit of force is Newton (N). The weighing scale you see in the market
and the bathroom scale used in weighing a baby are all used to measure force which is the
weight. However, these weighing scales are not calibrated in newtons but in kilograms.
What you will do

Self-Test 1.1
Instruction: Answer the following questions completely.
1. What is a force? Give examples of forces acting on objects.

2. What can a force do to an object?
3. What is the standard unit of force?
4. What instrument is used to measure force? How does it measure force?
5. Identify the effect of force in the following situations
(change in size/ shape, change in speed, change in direction of motion)
a. making a clay pot from mud
b. pushing a cart
c. kicking a rolling ball sideways
d. bending a bamboo stick
e. a strong typhoon blowing over the field
8
Lesson 2 Classification of Forces
In lesson 1, you learned that a force could either be a push or a pull capable of
changing the size or shape, the speed, and the direction of motion of objects. By pulling on
the rope, you can direct a carabao and its cart in the right direction. By pushing a cart, you
can make it move. Based on these instances, it seems that forces are always exerted
through contact. But there are other forces exerted even without physical contact between
the interacting bodies. So how are forces exerted on interacting bodies? The following
activity will help you classify forces based on the way they act on bodies.
What you will do

Activity 2.1 Making an object move
Materials: small ball
Procedure:
1. (a) How do you make a ball at rest on top of a table move?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
(b) Was there contact between your hand and the ball as you try to make it
move?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. (a) Hold the same ball at shoulder level and then let go. What happened to the
ball?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
(b) Was there contact between the floor and the ball while it was falling after
being released from your hand?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
The activity you have just performed illustrates that there are two different ways by
which forces act on objects. In part (1), in order for the ball at rest to move, you need to
exert a force on the ball. This force that you exerted on the ball could either be a push or a
pull. As you push or pull the ball, there is physical contact between your hand and the ball.
9
However in part (b), when you let go of the ball at shoulder level, it falls to the floor. As the
ball falls, there must be a force exerted on it that makes it fall. But what could have exerted
this force? It is the floor. The floor exerts an attractive force on the ball even if there is no
physical contact between them. These observations point out that forces could either be
contact forces or non – contact forces.
Contact forces are types of forces in which the two interacting bodies are in
contact as they exert forces on one another.
Non–contact forces or action at a distance forces are types of forces in which

the two interacting bodies are not in contact as they exert forces on one another.
What you will do

Activity 2.2 Different Types of Forces
Materials: book, marble, stone, string, spring, plastic comb, small bits of acetate, two
bar magnets
Procedure:
1. Place a book on top of a table. What keeps the book from falling? How is this
possible?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. Roll a marble on top of a level surface. Make it stop. Slide a light book on top of
the same level surface by giving it an initial push. Did the book continue to slide?
What is responsible for making the sliding book slow down and eventually stop?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. Tie a small stone at the end of the string. Allow the stone to hang. What keeps
the stone from falling? How is this possible?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
10
4. Drop a small stone and a piece of paper from the same height at the same time.
Observe closely the motion of the stone and the paper as they fall. Which of
them reached the ground first? Why didn’t the other one reach the ground at the
same time as the first? (Try orienting your palm against the direction of the wind.
What do you feel?)
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
5. Attach one end of a spring firmly on a wall. Compress the spring by pushing a
small stone against the free end of the spring. Release the spring. What
happens to the stone? How is this possible?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
6. Rub a plastic comb against your hair. After several strokes, let it approach small
bits of acetate. (Make sure that the comb only approaches the bits of acetate,
not actually touching them). What happens to the small pieces of acetate? How
is this possible?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
7. Let the north pole of a bar magnet approach the north pole of another bar
magnet. Bring them closer together. What do you notice? How do these
magnets interact?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
This time, let the north pole of the magnet approach the south pole of
another bar magnet. What do you observe? How do these magnets interact?
How do you take them apart?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
Activities 1-7 show the different

kinds of forces whose effects we can
observe. How about in an atom which
we cannot see? Are there forces in an
atom?
11
Read this:
An atom consists of three sub-atomic particles. The protons and neutrons are found
in the nucleus while the electron is orbiting around the nucleus. Why do the protons and
neutrons orbit instead of the electron? What keeps the nuclear particles together? The
protons repel each other because they carry like charges. Evidently, electric forces do not
hold the neutrons together. The gravitational force between the nucleus is too small to be
of importance. There is a third force that holds the nuclear particles together. It is called
nuclear force. The strong nuclear force is a force that holds protons and neutrons
together to form atomic nucleus. The weak nuclear force acts between the elementary
particles and is responsible for radioactive decay called beta decay. This force is involved
in nuclear reactions that occur in stars like the sun.
The activities you have just performed illustrate the different kinds of forces acting on
bodies.
A book on top of a table
In this activity, a book is at rest on top of a table. Without the table, the book will fall.
Therefore, it is the table that supports the book. How does the table support the book? It
is by applying an upward force on the book. This upward force exerted on the book by
the surface of a table is the normal force. It is always perpendicular to the surface.
A sliding book on top of a table
A marble is rolling on a flat surface. How could the marble be stopped? It could be
stopped by applying a force opposite to the direction of motion. A marble moving to the
right can be stopped by pushing it to the left.
A book initially at rest on a flat surface can be set into motion by giving it a slight
push. As the book moves, it slows down and then stops. Just like the marble, the book
slowed down and eventually stopped. This means that there must be a force exerted on
the book opposite to the direction of motion. But what object could have exerted this
force? It is the flat surface. As the book slides, the surfaces of the book and the floor in
contact offer opposition to motion. This opposition is the force exerted on the book
opposite to the direction of motion. This force that opposes motion is called friction.
A stone at the end of a string
A small stone tied at the end of a string hangs at rest. What keeps the stone from
falling? It is the string. How could the string prevent the stone from falling? It is by pulling
the stone upward. This force exerted by a string on opposite sides is known as tension.
The tensions on opposite sides of a string are equal.
12
A stone and a piece of paper dropped from the same height
When a stone and a piece of paper are dropped from the same height, which
reaches the ground first? The stone reaches the ground first. Why? Is it because the
stone is heavier than the paper? No.
Both the stone and the paper are attracted to the ground. The force of attraction
exerted by the earth on objects in its surface is the gravitational force. However, as the
paper falls, there is another force that acts on it. This force exerted by the air on the
paper is opposite to the direction of motion just like friction. This force causes the paper
to be left behind by the stone. This force exerted by the air opposite in direction to the
motion of an object is known as air resistance.
The paper can be made to reach the ground at the same time as the stone by
crumpling it. Doing so reduces the air resistance on the paper.
A stone attached to a spring
When the compressed spring is released, a stone attached at its free end is thrown
forward. What made it possible for the stone to move forward? It is the force exerted on it
by the spring. The force exerted by a compressed or stretched spring is known as the
elastic force.
A plastic comb attracting bits of acetate
When a plastic comb is rubbed against your hair, it gains the ability to pick up bits of
acetate. This happens because of the transfer of charges between the plastic comb and
the hair. We say that the plastic comb is charged. The plastic comb interacts with small
pieces of acetate by attracting them. The force exerted between electrically charged
bodies is known as the electric force. Charges could either be positive or negative.
Charges with like sign repel each other; charges with unlike sign attract each other.
Two bar magnets
When the north pole of one magnet is brought close to the north pole of another
magnet, they repel each other. It will be harder to move them closer together as they
approach one another. However, when the north pole of a magnet is brought close to the
south pole of another magnet, they attract each other. This force exerted by the poles of
a magnet is known as magnetic force.
The activities you have just performed illustrate that forces could be classified into
contact and non–contact forces. The table below shows how these forces are classified.
13
Contact Forces Non–Contact Force
Applied forces (push or pull) Gravitational

Air resistance Electrical
Elastic Force Magnetic
Normal Force Nuclear
Tension Weak
Friction
Different types of forces:
Tension – the force exerted by a string or a rope when it is stretched

Friction – force that opposes motion. It is always opposite to the direction of
motion.
Air resistance – air friction that opposes the motion of an object in air.
Elastic force – force exerted on a spring when it is stretched or compressed.
Normal force – support force provided by surface.
Applied force – a push or a pull exerted on an object by something else.
Electric force – force exerted among charged particles.
Magnetic force – force exerted when magnets interact.
Nuclear force – force responsible for keeping the particles in the nucleus of an
atom intact.
Gravitational – force of attraction of two bodies because of their masses.
Weak force – force associated with the decay of the nucleus of an atom.
What you will do

Self-Test 2.1
Instruction: Answer each question by identifying the force being described.

Identify whether that force is a contact force or a non – contact force.
1. What force is responsible for the downward motion of a falling fruit?

2. What force makes it possible for metallic clips to be attracted to an
electromagnet?
3. What force is exerted on opposite sides of a rope being stretched in a tug – of –
war game?
4. What is the support force for a vase on top of a table?
5. What force is responsible for the slowing down of a figure skater as he slides
across the skating rink?
14
Lesson 3 Pressure
Whenever you listen to a weather forecast over the radio, you will usually hear the term
low-pressure associated with a coming typhoon. When inflating a bicycle tire, you make sure
that you inflate it with the right pressure because too much pressure on the tire might cause
it to burst. In some subdivisions where water supply is insufficient, the flow of water out of
the faucet is weak because of low water pressure. These instances show that we often
make use of the word ‘pressure’ in everyday conversations. But what exactly is pressure?
This lesson discusses the basic concepts about pressure as it is used in science. It will
describe how pressure is related to force and the surface area over which the force acts.
What you will do

Activity 3.1 Pressure – Its Relation to Force and Area
Materials: a wide pan filled with flour, about 5 cm deep, two identical rectangular
wooden blocks, a heavy stone
Procedure:
1. (a) Lay the two rectangular wooden blocks horizontally on the flour. What do you
notice about the depression on the flour made by the two blocks?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
(b) What happens to these depressions on the flour when you put a heavy stone on
top of one of the blocks?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. (a) Lay the first rectangular wooden block horizontally on the flour and the other
vertically. What do you notice about the depression made by these blocks on
the flour?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
15
(b) How do you keep the depression made by the blocks constant without changing
the orientation of the blocks?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
In the activity that you have just performed, the pressure exerted by the wooden blocks
is indicated by the depression made on the flour. The greater the pressure, the deeper is the
depression.
In activity 1, when the two wooden blocks were laid horizontally on the flour, they created
the same extent of depression. Why? It is because the two wooden blocks have exerted the
same force on the flour over the same surface area. The same force exerted on the flour
because the wooden blocks are identical, having equal weights. The surface area of the
application of the force is the same because the faces of the wooden blocks that are in
contact with the floor are the same. However, when a heavy stone is placed on top of one of
the blocks, the depression on the flour made by that block changes. What could be the
reason for this? Clearly, it is not the area of the application of the force because identical
faces of the blocks are still in contact with the flour. Therefore, it is the difference in the force
applied to the flour that caused the difference in the extent of the depression. With the
addition of the stone, the force applied by that block on the flour has increased. In turn, the
depression on the flour has also increased. This means that pressure exerted by the block
increases.
In activity 2, the two blocks differed in terms of extent of depression made on the flour.
The block oriented vertically made the greater depression on the flour than the one oriented
horizontally. This could not be attributed to the forces they exert on the flour because they
have equal weights. Instead, this could be attributed to the difference in the area of the
block in contact with the flour. The one oriented vertically has a smaller area of contact with
the flour than the one oriented horizontally. This allows the block oriented vertically to exert
a greater force per unit area on the flour.
The results of the activity you have just performed are summarized in the table below.
Force Area Pressure
Big Equal Big

Activity 1
Small Equal Small
Equal Small Big
Activity 2
Equal Big Small
16
Based on the results of the activity, we can come up with two basic concepts about the
relation of pressure, force and area.
For the same surfaces where force is applied, pressure is directly

proportional to the force. The greater the force, the greater the pressure; the
smaller the force, the smaller the pressure.
For the same force applied, pressure is inversely proportional to the surface
area where the force is applied. The greater the surface area, the smaller the
pressure; the smaller the surface area, the greater the pressure.
Therefore, in science, pressure is defined as the force exerted per unit area. In an
equation:
Pressure = Force / Area 1 Pa = 1 N/ m2
If force is expressed in newtons and the area in square meters, pressure is expressed in
pascals.
What you will do

Self-Test 3.1
Instruction: Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write the letter only.
1. If you blow more air into a balloon, what happens to the pressure?
a. increases
b. decreases
c. stays the same
2. For the same force applied, what happens to the pressure if the surface area where
the force acting is decreased?
a. increases
b. decreases
c. stays the same
3. What happens to the pressure if the force applied on the same surface area is
decreased?
a. increases
b. decreases
c. stays the same
17
4. In which case is the pressure exerted greater: object A with weight 10 N with surface
area in contact with table equal to 5 cm2 or object B with weight 20 N with surface
area in contact with the table equal to 10 cm2?
a. object A
b. object B
c. the same pressure is exerted
5. A balloon is squeezed by pushing on its opposite sides. How would this affect the air
pressure inside the balloon?
a. the air pressure increases
b. the air pressure decreases
c. the air pressure does not change
d. not enough information is provided
Let’s summarize
After going through all the activities in this module, let us summarize the basic concepts
about forces and how they affect objects.
1. A force is capable of changing the size and shape of an object, its speed, and its
direction of motion. The SI unit of the force is the Newton.
2. Forces are classified into contact and non–contact forces. Contact forces are
exerted on interacting bodies that are in physical contact with one another. Non –
contact forces or action at a distance forces are exerted when the interacting
bodies are not in physical contact with one another.
3. Normal force is the upward force exerted on an object by a surface. Friction is a

force that opposes motion
4. Tension is the force exerted on opposite ends of a string or rope
5. The gravitational force is the force of attraction between any two objects in the
universe.
6. Air resistance is the force exerted by the air opposite to the direction of the motion
of a falling object.
7. Elastic force is the force exerted by a compressed or stretched spring.
18
8. Electric force is the force exerted by electrically charged objects
9. Magnetic force is the force exerted by the poles of a magnet.
10. Nuclear force is a force that holds the nuclear particles together.
11. Pressure is defined as force exerted over a certain surface area. Its SI unit is the
Pascal. For the same force exerted, the greater the surface area, the smaller the
pressure. For the same surface area, the greater the force, the greater is the
pressure.
Posttest
Instructions: Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write the letter only on your
answer sheet.
1. Which of the following is the effect of forces exerted on a balloon when it is

squeezed?
a. Increase in the mass of the balloon
b. Decrease in the mass of the balloon
c. Increase in the mass of the balloon
d. Decrease in the mass of the balloon
2. Which of the following is NOT an example of a contact force?

a. Friction
b. Tension
c. Normal force
d. Elastic force
3. A girl hangs at rest at the end of a rope tied to the ceiling. What provides the
support force for the girl?
a. tension
b. weight
c. friction
d. normal force
4. What will happen to a body made to slide across a frictionless level surface?
a. Its speed will increase.
b. Its speed will decrease
c. Its speed will remain the same.
d. It will stop.
19
5. In which of the following cases is there net force acting on a body?
a. a body moving at constant speed along a circular path
b. a body at rest on top of a table
c. a body moving along a frictionless surface
d. none of the above
6. A rock is hanging from a rope. What term refers to the force exerted by the rope
on the rock?
a. Elastic force
b. Friction
c. Normal force
d. Tension
7. A nail is attracted to a magnet. What force is responsible for this attraction?

a. Electrical force
b. Gravitational force
c. Magnetic force
d. Nuclear force
8. When you rubbed a comb against your hair and put it near small bits of paper, the
paper clings to the comb. What force explains this observation?
a. weak force
b. electrical force
c. magnetic force
d. nuclear Force
9. What force is responsible for keeping an electron in its orbit as it goes around the
nucleus of an atom?
a. weak force
b. electrical force
c. magnetic force
d. nuclear Force
10. A ball is thrown upward. When it reaches its maximum height, it stops. What force
acts on the ball?
a. friction
b. weight
c. normal force
d. air resistance
11. Two identical cars A and B have the same mass. What can you say about the
pressure of the air in the tires if in car A the tires have a greater area of contact
with the ground compared to that of car B?
a. the air pressure of the tires in car A is greater than that in car B
b. the air pressure of the tires in car A is less than that in car B
c. the air pressure of the tires in car A is equal to that in car B
d. cannot be determined from the information given
20
12. Two identical glasses are filled with different substances. Glass A is filled with
water while glass B is filled with sand. Which of the two exerts a greater pressure
on the table?
a. Glass A
b. Glass B
c. Both A and B
21
Key to Answers
Pretest
1. a 6. a 11. a
2. d 7. d 12. a
3. a 8. a
4. d 9. a
5. b 10. c
Self–Test 1.1
1. A force could either be a push or a pull.

Examples of forces acting on bodies:
a. the moon being pulled by the earth’s gravity
b. a boy pulling a rope tied to a dog
c. a group of men pushing a stranded truck
2. A force is capable of doing any of the following:

a. change the size and shape of a body
b. change the speed of a moving body
c. change the direction of motion of a moving body
3. The standard unit of force is the Newton. 1 N = 1 kgm/s2
4. A spring balance can be used to measure forces. The amount of force being
measured is proportional to the elongation of the spring. This elongation is calibrated
in Newtons.
5. a. change in shape
b. change in speed
c. change in direction
d. change in shape
e. all the changes listed are possible
Self–Test 2.1
1. gravitational force (non – contact force)

2. magnetic force (non – contact force)
3. tension (contact force)
4. normal force (contact force)
5. friction (contact force)
22
Self–Test 3.1
1. a
2. a
3. b
4. c
5. a
Posttest
1. d 6. d 11. b
2. d 7. c 12. b
3. a 8. a
4. d 9. b
5. a 10. b
-End of Module-
Reference
Hewitt, P.G. (2000) Conceptual Physics: The high school physics program. New Jersey: Prentice – Hall Inc. New
Jersey
23
References:
24
MODULE 8
Pasig City
1
Module 8
The Energy Story
This module takes you on a quick tour of the world of energy- from its sources, uses,
forms, transformations from one form to another and transfer from one object to another. It
discusses the impacts of energy on our everyday lives including its practical uses, its
hazards and ways to address such problems. It also gives a brief review of the concept of
work and its applications in simple machines. This module also imbues you with awareness
of and concern for the emerging global and local energy problems. Consequently, it gives
you insights on the wise use of energy.
This modules discusses the following lessons:
Lesson 1 - Work
Lesson 2 - Simple Machines
Lesson 3 - Energy
Lesson 4 - Sources of Energy
Lesson 5 - Using Energy Wisely
1. define work and relate it to energy

2. calculate the work done by several forces
3. enumerate the different kinds of simple machines;
4. discuss the different forms of energy;
5. identify energy sources;
6. trace the transfer and transformation of energy in different systems;
7. identify, discuss, and propose solutions to some of the current energy problems; and
8. practice the wise use of energy.
2
For this module to be of great help and use to you, it is important that as a reader,
you devote ample time in reading and understanding its content and in performing the
activities as directed. The topics are arranged according to complexity, so it is necessary not
to skip any part. Take time answering the pre-test because aside from measuring your initial
knowledge on the subject, it also provides you with a review of the concepts that you may
have learned in elementary school.
From time to time, you will be encountering activities, self-tests or thought-

experiments. Do not be discouraged if at first you find it hard to comprehend and answer the
activities. There is always a second try! Why don’t you go back to the section you are
confused with, read and understand it again until such time that you are confident in
answering the given tests? However, it pays to be honest all the time. Although answer keys
are included in the module, try to answer the tests on your own for you to find out if you are
really learning or not. If you answer at least 80% of the post-test items correctly, then you
are ready for the next module!
I. Reshuffle the letters in the boxes to form and identify the term referred in each
number. A mystery box (the one without a letter in it) should be supplied with a
correct letter to complete the word. Good luck!
E E N Y R 1. It is the ability to do work.
R M O E H A 2. It is a type of energy from the heat from beneath

the surface of the earth.
E T L
I K C E I T 3. It is the energy possessed by moving objects.
E L R E 4. It is a simple machine consists of a bar or a plank

moving about a fixed axis called the fulcrum.
3
5. It is a method of heat transfer that does not need a
R A A O
medium but electromagnetic waves. The energy
T I I N from the sun is transferred to objects on earth by
this method.
B A S S I 6. This energy comes from the decays and wastes of

animal and plant materials.
R E W E E 7. It is a collective term for sources of energy that are

continuously replaced and reused.
B A N
T C E O N O 8. It is a heat transfer characterized by movement of

fluids due to temperature difference.
I C N
U L E L Y 9. It is a simple machine consisting of a rotating wheel

over which a belt of rope passes. This is the
machine that we use to raise our flag in the pole.
R K O 10. This is done whenever a force acting on an object

causes it to be displaced.
II. Select the letter of the choice that correctly answers the following questions.
11. The zigzag road that leads us from the foot to the top of a mountain is an example of
what kind of simple machine?
a. inclined plane c. screw
b. lever d. wheel and axle
12. Which of the following energy transformation occurs when a battery is used in a
flashlight?
a. light-chemical-thermal c. chemical-thermal-light
b. chemical-electrical-thermal d. chemical-electrical-light
13. What source of energy supplies the energy needed by photovoltaic cells?
a. Getothermal c. Solar
b. Biomas d. Hydroelectric
14. To save energy at home, which of the following should you do?
a. Use fluorescent lamps instead of incandescent bulbs
b. Open windows to allow natural ventilation
c. Iron clothes in bulk, not individually
d. All of the above
4
15. When the pendulum bob swings back and forth, energy is converted from kinetic to
potential and vice versa. At what point in its motion does the bob posses greatest
potential energy?
B D
C
How did you find the pretest? Were you challenged? If you did not score high, do not
worry. You will be learning about these concepts as you go on with this module. Are you
ready to learn?
Lesson 1 Work
The word work has several meanings to different people. Your parent or guardian
probably leaves for work everyday. A homework is a task that a teacher asks you to do at
home on your own time. In science, work has a different meaning.
Let us consider the following statements. Your parents tell you, “We’ve got some
work to do!” An athlete says “I am going to the gym to work out.” Your friend suggests, “Let
us work out this science problem”
In all of the three statements, you notice that the term work refers to an action or
activity to be done. However, in science there is a more precise definition of work,
somehow related to the given statements, but defined specifically in terms of energy, force
and motion.
How are energy, force and motion related to work? To find this out, perform this
simple activity and answer the question that follow.
5
What you will do
Activity 1.1 Doing Work
Directions: Perform each of these activities. Then answer the questions that
follow.
Find a concrete wall and push against it lightly, then hardly.

Did you exert a force? ________________
Were you able to move the wall? ________________
Lift a ballpen above your head

Did you exert a force? ________________
Were you able to move the ballpen? ________________
In what direction did the ballpen move? ________________
Climb up the stairs

Did you exert a force in climbing the stairs? ________________
How many steps did you reach? ________________
What did you feel after climbing the stairs? ________________
Consider the three activities you did in answering the following

questions
In which activities did you exert a force?
In which activities did motion occur?
In which activities was the motion in the same direction as the force?
In science, work is done when a force acts upon an object to cause a displacement.
There are three key words in this definition - force, displacement, and cause. Remember
that displacement refers to the change in position of an object with respect to a reference
point. In order for a force to qualify as having done work on an object, there must be a
displacement and the force must cause the displacement in the same direction as the force
applied.
No motion Motion
Force Force Motion
Force
No work done Work is done No work done
6
What you will do
Activity 1.2 Doing Work
Consider again Activity 1.1 and find out in which activities did you do work. Fill in the
table below. Put a check mark (√) for yes and a cross mark (x) for no in the columns. If you
are done, then check your answer on page 24.
Activity Did you Did the Are the directions of Is there work
exert a object the force applied and done in the
force on move? object’s motion the objects?
the object? same?
Pushing a
concrete wall
Lifting a ball
pen
Climbing up a
stair
There are other several good examples of work which can be observed in everyday
life - a horse pulling a plow through the fields, a father pushing a grocery cart down the aisle
of a grocery store, a freshman lifting a backpack full of books upon her shoulder, a
weightlifter lifting a barbell above her head or an Olympian launching the shot-put. In each
case described, there is a force exerted upon an object to cause that object to be displaced.
7
What you will do
Self-test 1.1 When is work done?
Read the following five statements and determine whether or not they represent
examples of work.
Statement Answer with Explanation
A carpenter applies a force to a

wall and becomes exhausted.
A book is tipped off a table and

falls freely to the ground.
A waiter carries a tray on the level
of his shoulder by one arm
straight across the room at
constant speed
An airplane accelerates through

space.
The amount of work done on an object can be calculated by multiplying the force
exerted on it by the displacement the object moved. If we represent work as W, force as F
and displacement as d, then the equation for work is
W = Fxd
With this, we are assuming that the directions of the force and object’s displacement
are the same. Hence, when you exerted a force of 3 Newton in moving a crate 2 meters, the
work that you do on the object is 6 N.m or 6 Joules because 1 N.m is equal to 1 Joule of
work.
Force Displacement
2m Work = F x d
3N =3Nx2m
= 6 Nm
=6J
8
Now, it is your turn. Try solving the given problem on the next page.
What you will do

Activity 1.3 Problem solving on work
Calculate the work done in pushing a box 2 meters across the floor with a
force of 12 N. What happens to the work that you do when you double the force that
you exert?
Lesson 2 Simple Machines
Throughout the centuries, humans have been challenged to make life easier.
Consequently, we continually invent tools to make jobs less difficult. Today, we know these
tools as machines.
We use machines at home. We use washing machines to wash our clothes, electric
fans to provide ventilation and hairdryer to dry our hair after a bath. Can you identify useful
machines that you find in school?
9
Who discovered the first simple machine?
Thousands of years ago, a caveman named "Ug Lee," needed a better way to cut up
the Woolly Mammoth that he stoned to death. He took his favorite rock, and tried his best to
remove some choice morsels. However he realized that his trusty rock just wasn't
completing the job. His wife "Hoam" told Ug that he should try her favorite stick. Ug realized
that if he attached his favorite rock to Hoam's favorite stick, his job might be a little simpler.
Thus, Ug and Hoam Lee invented the first simple machine.
The tools most people think about when they hear the word "machine" are actually a
combination of two or more simple machines. A simple machine is any device that helps us
perform our work more easily when a force is applied on it. A screw, wheelbarrow and a
bottle opener are all simple machines. To make these simple machines do work for us, we
need to apply a force on them.
Simple machines can help us in many ways. These machines allow us to use a
smaller force to overcome a larger force. They help us change the direction of the force and
work at a faster rate.
Basically, there are six types of simple machines: the inclined plane, wedge, screw,
levers, pulley, and the wheel and axle. These are shown in figure 1.
Figure 2.1 Simple types of machines
10
Let us discuss each simple machine one by one…
Inclined Plane
The inclined plane is the simplest of all machines. It is a sloping surface that connects
two points together. We call it a ramp like the ones people use to load or unload heavy
objects from a truck. The longer the ramp, the easier it is to roll an object on it but the
longer it takes for work to be done.
Wedge
A wedge is a simple machine shaped like an inclined plane. A wedge is actually like a
moving inclined plane that is viewed as if standing on its narrow end. A small force applied
to the wide end of a wedge whose narrow end is being pushed into something will send a
strong force pushing out at the sides. We can use the wedge action to cut and shape ice
and wood sculptures, clay or whatever. When an axe, a kind of wedge, bangs into a log, the
log splits open.
A wedge may seem like a simple tool but its importance cannot be underestimated.
A shovel acts as a wedge while you shovel the sand or soil. It's a lot easier to move an
object using a wedge than with bare hands.
Screw
A screw is also another type of inclined plane that connects two ends together and
winds around a core. The screw available at hardware shops is a typical example of this
machine. The road winding up the mountain can also be considered a big screw. We can
go up the mountain with this type of inclined plane. However, again a lot of effort will be
needed if the slope is very steep.
Lever
The lever is a simple machine made with a bar free to move about a fixed point called
a fulcrum. The lever consists of three parts: fulcrum, load and a rod or plank. Levers are
classified into three classes: first, second and third classes, depending on the positions of its
parts on a simple machine
Let's see how each lever is grouped under their individual properties.
The first class lever is the one with the fulcrum in the center. In class, the fulcrum is
the edge of the tin of biscuits. The load is much nearer to the fulcrum than the effort.
Therefore we can use a small force to pull out the nail compared to pulling it out directly
without using the lever. Also notice that the lever changes the direction of the force. As the
handle of the spoon goes down, the lid goes up.
For the second class lever the load is in the center. Whenever the load is nearer to
the fulcrum, the effort needed to lift the load will be less.
11
The third class lever however, is the disadvantageous one. It has the effort in the
center. No matter how close or how far the load is from the fulcrum, the effort used to lift the
load, has to be greater than the load!
Wheel and Axle
The wheel and axle looks like a kind of lever. A wheel and axle is made up of a small
rod which is the axle, stuck rigidly to a large wheel so that when the wheel turns, the rod
stuck to it also turns. A good example of this machine are the screw drivers and electric fans
we use at home.
Can you identify which is the wheel and axle in the two given examples?
Pulley
A pulley is a wheel over which a rope, chain or belt passes. The pulley is usually
used to lift a heavy object (load). A pulley changes the direction of the force, making it easier
to lift things to high-rise areas.
There are three types of pulleys: fixed, movable and combined.
A B C
Figure 2.2 Types of Pulleys: (A) Fixed, (B) Movable and (C) Combined
A fixed pulley is the only pulley that when used individually, uses more effort than the
load to lift the load from the ground. The fixed pulley when attached to an unmovable object
e.g. a ceiling or wall, acts as a first class lever with the fulcrum being located at the axis but
with a minor change, the bar becomes a rope. The advantage of the fixed pulley is that you
do not have to pull or push the pulley up and down. The disadvantage is that you have to
apply more effort than the load.
12
A movable pulley is a pulley that moves with the load. The movable pulley allows the
effort to be less than the weight of the load. The movable pulley also acts as a second-class
lever. The load is between the fulcrum and the effort. The main disadvantage of a movable
pulley is that you have to pull or push the pulley up or down. Its main advantage is you use
less effort to pull the load.
A combined pulley makes life easier as the effort needed to lift the load is less than
half the weight of the load. The main advantage of this pulley is the amount of effort needed
is less than half of the load. Its main disadvantage is it travels a very long distance.
What you will do

Activity 2.1 Simple Machines
Materials:
Large books, ruler, one cup of rice inside a small plastic sandwich bag (closed with a
twist tie), rubber band strip tied to the top of the bag
Procedure:
Stack the books in one pile. Lean one book against the other to create an inclined
plane. Place the bag of rice on the table. While holding the end of the rubber band,
lift the bag of rice straight up to the top of your book stack. Use the ruler to measure
the length of the rubber band. Now put the bag of rice at the bottom of the inclined
plane and drag it to the top of the stack of books by pulling on the rubber band.
When it is almost to the top, measure the length of the rubber band.
Things to think about during this experiment:
1. What simple machine reduces the length of the rubber band in this
experiment?
2. Why was the rubber band more stretched when the bag was lifted straight up
into the air?
3. What other inclined planes could be used in an experiment like this?
13
To recall the things you have just learned, why don’t you answer this crossword puzzle?
What you will do

Activity 2.2 Simple Machine Crossword
Direction: identify what is being referred to in each

number to answer the crossword puzzle.
Across
3. The point about which 5 down pivots

4. A ramp
6. This simple machine lets cars and bicycles roll
Down
1. A wheel over which a rope or belt is passed

2. A spiral version of 4 across
5. There are three basic types of this simple
machine
6. A modified version of 4 across, it can be found in Key to answers on page 26
the blade of a knife or an axe
Lesson 3 Energy
Energy is one of the most important concepts in science, but it is hard to define in just
a few words because it could not be seen although its effects can be observed.
What is energy? We have heard the word energy all our life. We say that small
children have a lot of energy. They are always running instead of walking, jumping instead
of stepping. We also say that we need to eat to gain energy after a day’s work. We can also
say that the blocks in the walls of our home have energy. Energy is everywhere in nature-
sunlight, wind, water, plants, and animals. We use energy everyday.
Energy is the ability to do work. We say that an object has energy if it can produce a
change in itself or in its surroundings. In other words, an object with energy can do work or
can use up the energy. The amount of energy you expend in moving something is equal to
14
the work done on it. This is why both work and energy have the same unit of measurement
– Joules in the SI system.
Forms of Energy
Although energy occurs in many forms, the two most fundamental of which are
potential and kinetic energies. Potential energy is the energy of a body due to its position or
location. If a book is lifted from a lower to a higher height, the amount of work done on it is
equal to the potential energy it gains.
The rocks, battery

and spring
have potential
energies
Potential energy maybe gravitational, elastic, chemical or magnetic. A huge rock that
is about to fall from a high cliff has gravitational potential energy. The food that we eat, the
fuel that we use and the batteries of our flashlights have stored chemical energy. A spring or
rubber band compressed and stretched have elastic potential energy. The attraction and
repulsion of magnets have magnetic potential energy.
Potential energy in any form is stored for future use. When put to use, this energy is
transformed into kinetic energy, the energy in motion. All moving objects possess kinetic
energy, which like potential energy, also exists in many forms. The electricity flowing
through wires has electrical energy, the candle’s burning flame has thermal energy and a
vibrating guitar string has sound energy.
A good example of kinetic and potential energy is a frog leaping. A frog sitting on a
lily pad possesses potential energy. The frog leaping is an example of kinetic energy.
Can you think of other forms of potential and kinetic energies?
Calculating Potential and Kinetic Energy
To compute an object’s kinetic energy, we just need to get one half of the product of
the mass and the square of velocity of an object. In equation form
K.E. = ½ mv2
15
If mass is in kilograms and velocity in meters per second, then the unit of kinetic
energy is Joules. How do you compare the units of work and kinetic energy?
For example, a 40-kg person running at 3 m/s has a kinetic energy of
K.E. = ½ mv2
K. E. = ½ (40-kg) (3 m/s)2
KE = ½ (40 kg) (9 ms/s)2
KE = 180 kgm2/s2 = 180 J
Potential energy depends on three quantities: object’s mass and position (height) and
acceleration due to gravity. Its value can be calculated by simply getting the product of the
three quantities. In equation form
PE = mass x height x acceleration due to gravity

PE = mhg
Like kinetic energy, the unit of potential energy is Joules (J).
When a 1.5 kg book is resting on top of a 2-m high table, then its potential energy is
PE = mhg
PE = (1.5 kg) (2 m) (9.8 m/s2)
What you will do

Self-Test 3.1 Problem Solving
Directions: Solve the following problem on a piece of paper
1. What is the kinetic energy of a 1.2 kg ball that is thrown at a velocity of 6 m/s?
2. What is its potential energy upon hitting the net that is located 3 meters from the
ground?
16
Forms of Energy
Energy constantly changes from one form to another as it changes everything around
it. There are numerous forms of energy, but we will describe the ones important to us.
Light is energy that moves in the form of waves from the sun and other stars. The
waves are ordered according to their wavelength to form electromagnetic spectrum of
radiation (light energy). Gamma rays have the highest frequency (shortest wavelength) of
the spectrum and therefore carry the most energy. Radio waves have the lowest frequency
(longest wavelength) and therefore carry the least energy. Visible light is in the middle but
takes up only a small portion of the spectrum.
Thermal energy is the total energy of the particles in a material. This includes both
the potential and the kinetic energy of the particles.
Chemical energy is the energy released in a chemical reaction. An example of

chemical energy is the burning of wood or oil. The type of energy released in these
examples is transformed into heat energy when chemical reaction takes place.
Electrical energy is the movement of electrons from one atom to another. An

example of electricity is lightning. When the sky collects many electrons, they travel through
the air molecules to meet the more positive earth to get rid of the sky’s extra electrons. The
electrons will continue to travel from the negative point to the positive until the charges
equalize.
Nuclear energy comes from nuclear fission and fusion. Nuclear fission occurs when
a free proton is shot at an atom of uranium or plutonium (because of their large nucleus) and
it explodes into two smaller nuclei, also releasing several more protons, which explode other
nuclei, causing a chain reaction. It then heats up to millions of degrees. Nuclear fusion
occurs when atoms of tritium and deuterium are heated up to the point where the atoms
bang into each other so hard that they fuse together, forming an unstable form of helium,
then the free neutron explodes. This explosion causes the fuel to heat up more than you
originally heated it. This occurs on the sun and other stars, which is why they release so
much energy.
An object may have one or as many other forms of energy. Within the object, such
energies may change from one form to another but the object’s total energy never changes.
This is the law of conservation of energy.
17
Transformation of Energy
What do you feel when you rub your palms together for a few seconds? Do you feel
your palms turn warm? What if you rub your palms together more briskly? Do they get even
warmer? How did this happen? What happens when you place your warm hands on your
cheek?
By rubbing your palms together, you exert a force to overcome friction between your
palms. This force comes from the stored chemical energy in the food that you eat. Work is
done when you apply this force in moving you palms against each other. By this doing, two
other forms of energy -heat and sound- are generated. When you do more work by rubbing
your hands more briskly, more heat is produced.
Your cheeks likewise feel warm when you touch them with your hands because the
thermal energy in your palms is transferred to your cheeks.
We can trace this transformation of energy with the following diagram
Food that we eat Rubbing of palms Warming of hands
Chemical Energy Kinetic Energy Thermal Energy
Sound Energy
Sound produced
by palms
Can you trace the energy transformation when a monkey leaps from tree to tree?
Using the illustrations as clues, write in the boxes the conversion of the monkey’s energy.
Turn to the next page and have a try!
18
What you will do
Activity 3.2 Transformation of Energy
1.
3.
2.
4.
6.
5. Photo credit:
http://www.flyingturtle.org/energy/energy-1.htm
Lesson 4 Sources of Energy

You have learned from the previous lessons that we need energy to do work. For
human beings and animals, the primary source of energy is the food that we eat. However,
the work that we can do with the energy that we have may be limited. For more work to be
done, more sources of energy need to be explored.
Energy resources can be described as renewable and non-renewable. Renewable

energy sources are those that are continually being replaced such as energy from the sun
(solar) and wind. If an energy resource is being used faster than it can be replaced (for
example, coal takes millions of years to form) then it will eventually run out. This is called a
non-renewable energy source.
19
Solar Energy
Solar energy is light and heat energy from the sun. Solar
cells convert sunlight into electrical energy while thermal
collectors convert sunlight into heat energy. Solar technologies
are used in watches, calculators, water pumps, space satellites,
for heating water, and supplying clean electricity to the power
grid. There is enough solar radiation striking the surface of the
earth to provide all of our energy needs.
Fig. 4.1 Solar cells
There are two main ways of using solar energy to produce electricity. These are
through the use of solar cells and solar thermal technology. Using solar technologies to
generate electricity is, at present, more expensive than using coal-fired power stations, but it
produces much less pollution.
Solar cells are photovoltaic cells that turn light into electricity. Solar cells are used in
three main ways. They are used in small electrical items, like calculators, and for remote
area power supplies, like telephones and space satellites. Today, solar cells are also used
to a limited extent in the development of solar-powered vehicles
Wind Energy
Moving air turns the blades of large windmills or

generators to make electricity, or to pump water out of the
ground. A high wind speed is needed to power wind
generators effectively. While wind generators don't produce
any greenhouse gas emissions they may cause vibrations,
noise and visual pollution.
Fig. 4.2 Windmills
Tidal/Wave Energy
If a dam or barrage is built across a river mouth or inlet, electricity can be obtained by
the flow of water through turbines in the dam as the tide rises and falls. The movement of
waves can also drive air turbines to make electricity.
Biomass Energy
Biomass is plant and animal material that can be used for energy. This includes using
wood from trees, waste from other plants (for example, bagasse from sugar cane) and
manure from livestock. Biomass can be used to generate electricity, light, heat, motion and
fuel. Converting biomass energy into useable energy has many environmental benefits. It
uses waste materials that are usually dumped, and uses up methane (a greenhouse gas).
Fuels such as ethanol can be made from biomass and used as an alternative to petrol to
power motorcars.
20
All plant and animal matter is called biomass. It is the mass of biological matter on
earth. We can get energy directly from plants by burning wood for cooking and heating and
from animal wastes, for example biogas (mainly methane gas) from sewage and manure.
An increasing number of renewable energy projects using biomass have been

developed. Most of these use waste products from agriculture, so they solve a waste
disposal problem and, at the same time, create energy for use in homes, farms and
factories.
Hydroelectric Energy
Fast-flowing water released from dams in mountainous areas can turn water turbines
to produce electricity. While it doesn't cause pollution, there are many other environmental
impacts to consider. Ecosystems may be destroyed, cultural sites may be flooded and
sometimes people need to be resettled. There are also impacts on fish breeding, loss of
wildlife habitat and changes in water flow of rivers.
Places with high rainfall and steep mountains are ideal for hydroelectricity. Can you
identify some places in the Philippines that may be good location for a hydroelectric power
plant?
Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy uses heat energy from beneath the surface of the earth. Some of
this heat finds its way to the surface in the form of hot springs or geysers. Other schemes
tap the heat energy by pumping water through hot dry rocks several kilometers beneath the
earth's surface.
Coal
Coal is a fossil fuel formed over millions of years from decomposing plants. Coal is
mainly burned in power stations to make electricity. When coal is burned it produces large
amounts of carbon dioxide, one of the gases responsible for the enhanced greenhouse
effect (the increase in the world's temperature due to the increased insulating effect of the
earth's atmosphere).
Petroleum
Petroleum, or crude oil, is formed in a similar way as coal. But instead of becoming a
rock, it becomes a liquid trapped between layers of rocks. It can be made into gas, petrol,
kerosene, diesel fuel, oils and bitumen. These products are used in houses for heating and
cooking and in factories as a source of heat energy. They are also used in power stations
and can provide fuel for transport. However their use, especially petrol and diesel, produces
large amounts of carbon dioxide emissions. It also produces other poisonous gases that
may harm the environment and people's health.
21
Gas
Gas is made in the same way as petroleum and is also trapped between layers of
rock. Natural gas is tapped, compressed and piped into homes to be used in stoves and hot
water systems. LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) is made from crude oil. It is used for cooking
and heating in homes, industrial heating in boilers, kilns and furnaces, and for camping and
caravanning appliances. LPG can also be used as an alternative to petrol as an engine and
transport fuel.
Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy is the energy released when atoms are either split or joined together.
A mineral called uranium is usually used in this process. Heat energy and steam produced
can drive an electricity generator in a power station, or provide direct mechanical power in a
ship or submarine. At each stage of the process various types of radioactive waste are
produced. This waste is poisonous and can cause harm to people and the environment
coming into contact with it.
To recap the most common energy sources, try answering this crossword puzzle.
What you will do

Activity 4.1 Energy Sources
Across
1. This process is used in nuclear power plants.

3. This process is how the sun produces energy.
4. This type of power plant produces energy by
harnessing moving water.
5. Term for resources that do not run out
Down
1. Examples are coal, oil and natural gas
2. A device that can convert sunlight directly to
electricity.
6. It is harnessed by windmills to produce energy
22
Lesson 5 Using Energy Wisely
We use energy to do work everyday. Most of the time, it is easier to make use of
those that come from non-renewable sources because of their availability in the market, for
example, the gasoline that serves as fuel for our cars, motors and equipment and the LPG
gas that we use to cook our food. Our growing energy consumption and depleting energy
sources pose a great problem because we are using more energy than we produce.
To solve this problem, we can only do two things: tap more renewable sources, which
surely will cost us more, or use the available energy wisely. We cannot do anything with the
non-renewable energy sources because they involve natural processes. For instance, say it
takes million of years before fossil fuels are formed. But we can always save and economize
on our available energy.
Can you think of ways on how you can save more energy at home and in school? Do
the next activity.
What you will do

Activity 5.1 Using energy wisely
Identify the available energy forms in your school and home and list down ways to
use them wisely. You may use additional sheets of paper.
Energy Available How to use the energy wisely
Home Example: Electrical energy Example: Turn off the lights

when not in use.
School
23
Let’s summarize
In this module, you have learned that:
1. Work is done by a force on an object when the force causes the object to be
displaced.
2. Simple machines are devices that help us do work more easily. They can either
multiply or change the direction of the force.
3. Energy is the ability to do work. Energy has different forms and sources.
4. Potential energy is the energy due to an object’s position. Potential energy can be
computed by finding the product of the object’s mass, position (height) and
acceleration due to gravity.
5. Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by moving objects. Kinetic energy is one half
the product of mass and the square of the velocity of an object.
6. Work is related to energy. In doing work, energy is used.
7. Energy cannot be created or destroyed but can only be transformed from one form to
another.
8. Thermal energy can be transferred through conduction, convection and radiation.
9. Energy sources can either be renewable or non-renewable. Renewable sources are

those that are continually being replaced and reused. Non-renewable sources are
those that may run out.
10. Shortage and high production cost of energy sources pose a problem to the
community with growing population. It is important that we make use of our energy
resources wisely to ensure that there is enough supply for future use.
24
Posttest
Select the letter of the choice that correctly answers the questions or completes the
statements.
1. Work is done in all of the following instances EXCEPT when
a. pushing a locked door
b. raising a window
c. climbing stairs
d. scrubbing a floor
2. The ramp used to load heavy objects on a truck is an example of ____________

a. lever
b. pulley
c. inclined plane
d. wheel and axle
3. As a rock falls off a cliff, its _____________________

a. potential energy changes to kinetic
b. kinetic energy changes to potential
c. potential energy remains the same
d. kinetic energy remains the same
4. A 400- kg truck is traveling at 8 m/s. What is the car’s kinetic energy when it stops?
a. 0 J
b. 8 J
c. 3200 J
d. 6400 J
5. Which of the following energy sources is non-renewable?

a. Coal
b. Solar
c. Geothermal
d. Hydrothermal
6. Which of the following gives the correct order of energy transformation in a burning
candle?
a. Thermal – Radiant – Chemical
b. Chemical – Thermal – Radiant
c. Chemical – Radiant – Thermal
d. Thermal – Chemical – Radiant
25
7. When you put your palms close to a fire, your hands will eventually feel warm even
without touching the fire. What method of heat transfer is involved in this situation?
a. Conduction
b. Convection
c. Radiation
d. Transformation
8. A physics book and a chemistry book of equal mass are piled up so that the physics
book rests over the chemistry book. Which of the following statements is correct?
a. The physics book has more KE than the chemistry book.
b. The physics book has more PE than the chemistry book.
c. The two books have the same PE and KE.
d. The chemistry book is doing work on the chemistry book.
9. The acceleration due to gravity on the moon’s surface is 1/6 that of the acceleration
due to gravity on earth’s surface. If you walk at 1 m/s on a flat moon’s surface, just as
you walk here on the earth, which of these statements is correct?
a. Your KE on earth is less than your KE on moon
b. Your KE on earth is more than your KE on moon
c. Your PE on earth is less than your PE on moon
d. Your PE on earth is more than your PE on moon
10. How much energy do you use when you exert a 5-N force to move a box to a
distance of 3 m?
a. 0 J
b. 15 J
c. 45 J
d. 75 J
26
Key to Answers
Pretest
1. Energy 2. Geothermal 3. Kinetic 4. Lever 5. Radiation
6. Biomass 7. renewable 8.Convection 9. Pulley 10. Work
Activity 1.2
Activity Did you Did the Are the Is

exert a object directions of there
force on move? the force work
the applied and done
object? object’s in the
motion the object
same? s?
Pushing √ X √ x
a
concrete
wall
Lifting a √ √ √ √
ball pen
Climbing √ √ √ √
up a
stair
Activity 1.3 Work = Force x Displacement

Work = (12 N) x (2 m) = 24 N.m = 24 J
Activity 2.1
1. Inclined plane
2. It took more work to move the bag of rice straight up into the air. This is why the
rubber band was stretched farther. It takes less force to move the bag of rice up
the inclined plane
Activity 2.2
Across: 3. Fulcrum 4. Inclined Plane 6. Wheel and Axle
Down: 1. Pulley 2. Screw 5. Lever 6. Wedge
Activity 3.1 1. 43.3 J 2. 35.28
27
Activity 3.2
Every cell in the monkey's body is constantly converting the stored solar
energy in glucose into work and heat. The work is used to carry on cell processes
like growing, reproducing, moving molecules around, and getting rid of waste. The
heat is a byproduct of the fuel "burning" process. Heat is always given off when fuel
is burned, whether it is in a diesel engine or an animal cell. In an animal the heat can
be used to help keep its body at a certain warm temperature. Sometimes our bodies
make too much heat (especially if we are dancing to loud music) and we have to do
things like sweat or pant (if we are dogs) or fan our big heat exchanger ears (if we are
elephants) to try to cool down.
All of the heat flows eventually into the surrounding air. The quantity of total
energy has not and will not change. It has just moved to different forms and different
places.
Source: http://www.flyingturtle.org/energy/energy-1.htm
Activity 4.1
Across 1. Fission 3. Fusion 4. Hydroelectric 5. Renewable
Down 1. Nonrenewable 2. Solar cell 6. Wind
28
Activity 5.1. Note: These are just suggested answers. You may see your
teacher for checking of other answers.
Energy Available How to use the energy wisely
Light Energy Open the windows instead of

turning on the lights
Home/
School Electrical Energy Use bulbs with lower power
ratings to minimize energy
consumption.
Posttest 1. a 2. c 3. a 4. a 5. a
6. b 7. b 8. b 9. d 10. b
-End of Module-
References
Young, H. D. and Freedman, R. A. (1996). University Physics, 9th Ed. USA: Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company.
Resnick, R. et al. (2002). Physics, Fifth Edition. USA:John Wiley and Sons, Inc
Transformation of Energy in a Monkey. http://www.flyingturtle.org/energy/energy-1.htm. Accessed on

September 25, 2004
29
MODULE 9

Pasig City
1
Module 9
Organism and its Home
This module is all about the organism and its home. It will discuss an organism’s
environment and its basic components and functional structures. As human beings, we are
a significant component of this home, thus, learning about the environment is a must. As
you read the module, it will bring you to the wonderful environment that we live in and the
wonders of how it works.
To make the discussion easy for you, the module is divided into two lessons:
Lesson 1 - The Environment

Lesson 2 - The Ecosystem
1. identify what is an environment.

2. differentiate between an environment and an ecosystem;
3. identify the biotic and abiotic factors of the environment;
4. describe the functional structures that exist in an ecosystem; and,
5. compare the different kinds of ecosystems
Here are some pointers to remember as you go over this module.
1. Read and follow the instructions carefully.

2. Answer the pre-test first before reading the content of the module.
3. Observe the time limit given to finish the module.
4. Take down notes and record points for clarification.
5. Always aim to get at least 70% of the total number of items given.
6. Be sure to answer the posttest at the end of module.
2
What to do before (Pre-test)
Take the pretest before proceeding in the lessons. Check your answers against the
answer key at the end of the module.
I. Multiple Choice. Direction: Encircle the letter of the best answer.
1. All of the following are abiotic factors of the environment except:

a. Air c. bacteria
b. Sunlight d. soil
2. The corals, plants, bacteria and fungi, comprise a:

a. Niche c. community
b. Habitat d. ecosystem
3. What do you call a group or collection of similar organisms living in a given area?
a. ecotypes c. population
b. organism d. community
4. What is the primary source of energy on earth?

a. Water c. sun
b. Wind d. soil
5. It refers to the place where an organism lives
a. ecosystem c. ecology
b. niche d. habitat
6. What is the branch of science that deals with the study of the interactions between the
living and the non-living components of the environment?
a. Entomology c. Ecology
b. Economics d. Environmental Science
7. The role played by an organism in an ecosystem is called as:
a. habitat c. decomposer
b. niche d. producer
8. The rivers, lakes, deserts, and forests are examples of:

a. community c. ecosystem
b. Populations d. organism
3
9. The biggest Biosphere II experiment in history was conducted in:
a. US c. Canada
b. Japan d. Australia
10. The part of the biosphere that is composed of the body of water:
a. Atmosphere c. lithosphere
b. Hemisphere d. hydrosphere
II. True or False.

Direction. Write the word true if the statement is correct and false if it is incorrect on the
space provided.
_________1. All ecosystems need energy.
_________2. The biggest ecosystem is the biosphere.
_________3. Only useful organisms are necessary in an ecosystem.
_________4. Energy flows because of the interaction of the living and the non-living
components.
_________5. The environment can also modify the organisms.
4
Lesson 1 The Environment
Fig. 1 Forest Ecosystem
Do you know where you live in the biosphere? You see some of us live in places that
experience four seasons in a year while others experience only two seasons. Usually, it is
the geographical location of the country that determines the type of climate of the place. If
you have a globe, you can locate where your country lies. Most countries along the equator
do not experience four seasons in one year. Only those close to the north pole and the
south pole do.
Have you ever gone for a walk in the morning or late in the afternoon and noticed the
things that surround you? You must have been amazed with the beauty of nature! You have
probably observed the birds, the plants, the rocks, and the soil as you passed by. Do you
live in an area that has thick forests, mountains and hills or a place similar to the picture
above? You must be very lucky since most of our trees are already gone. We barely have
20% of the original forests that we used to enjoy.
Would you like to know more about your surroundings? If yes, turn the page and do
Activity 1.1.
5
What you will do
Activity 1.1 Exploring your environment
Materials:
1 x 1 m quadrat
hand lens
4 pegs
mirror
a basin half filled with water
a sheet of white paper
record book
Procedure:
1. Locate an ideal place for study in your front or backyard. It could be a

grassy area where plants and animals may be found. Now randomly
set your quadrat in the area and jot down all the animals and plants
that could be found inside. You can do the sampling three times. Try
to separate the plant group from the animal group as you list them in
your record book. For small organisms, you can use the hand lens.
2. When you are through with the living components, you can start
working on the soil of your study area. Note the following:
a. color
b. size of particles
c. type of soil according to texture
d. condition of the soil (wet, dry, flooded)
3. To observe the properties of light, take a basin of water and place it

on a sunny spot. Take a mirror and partly submerge it in the water,
right on the spot where sunlight hits the water, observe the light that
bounces back from the mirror on a sheet of white paper. Do the same
experiment on four occasions: in the morning, noon, sunset, and
during a partly overcast sky. During these occasions, observe the
following:
a.) number of colors present in the spectrum per trial

b.)vividness of each color in the spectrum per trial
c.) comparison of hue brightness per trial
6
You have just explored your surroundings. Now, notice that it is composed of living
and non-living things. The non-living factors of the environment may affect the community
of living things in the area and vice versa. It is not only the living organisms that can modify
the environment but the environment can also modify the living organisms. Say for example,
if man will pollute the seawater, he could change the chemistry of the seawater, and this
change in the chemistry of the seawater can generate some changes in the surroundings
which may even lead to the overgrowth of some microscopic organisms like the
dinoflagellates, which could ultimately result to the occurrence of red tide. Are you familiar
with red tide? It refers to the unusual discoloration (reddish-brown) of the seawater caused
by the uncontrolled growth of dinoflagellates. You always hear this during rainy season, after
a long, dry spell.
The study of the interactions of organisms with one another and with their physical
surroundings is called Ecology. The word ecology comes from the Greek word oikos which
means house and logos means study. So it means the study of the organism in a house.
The house referred to her is the environment in which organisms live, the interactions of
organisms with one another, and the interactions of organisms with the non-living
environment. Scientists who study ecology are called Ecologists.
Living things such as bacteria, fungi, protists, plants, and animals in the environment
are called biotic factors, while non-living things such as soil, water, temperature, air, light,
wind, moisture, and minerals are abiotic, these don’t have life. However, these factors may
determine the types of organisms that could thrive in a specific area. Most organisms live in
a place that is, for them the best place to live. Each species has adapted to a set of biotic
and abiotic factors of the environment. What may be limiting to one organism may not be
limiting to the others. Say for example, some bacteria can thrive at boiling–point
temperatures, while others will not survive.
Did you know?
. . that some organisms, mostly bacteria, can live in an environment at boiling point
temperature? They can be found in hot springs, mud springs, volcanic vents and fissures.
This is shocking, but true! They are called heat-loving bacteria or thermopiles.
In Ecology, the place where an organism lives is also called its habitat. Say for
example, if you want to look for a frog, you do not go to a desert but to wet and moist places
since frogs cannot survive in places that are hot and dry. Your surrounding is composed of
different types of habitat.
Ecological niche refers to the profession or role of an organism in the ecosystem.
Say for example if an organism is a bacterium one of its possible role or niche could be a
decomposer of organic matter in the ecosystem. A decomposer converts macromolecules to
simple molecules.
7
The deep portion of the ocean and all the other parts of the earth where life is found
make up the biosphere. The biosphere extends from the deepest part of the oceans to the
upper atmosphere and includes all the air, land and water where life exists. The biosphere
can be divided into three layers, the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), and the
lithosphere (land). All living things can be found within these three layers. Within this
biosphere, all living things depend upon and interact with each other and with the non-living
things of the environment.
Did you know?
. . that in the United States (Arizona) they have tried a very expensive experiment of
putting up Biosphere II patterned from planet earth? However, the experiment failed,
which suggests that making another biosphere on this planet is close to impossible.
There are also levels of organization in the ecology of the earth. An organism is an
individual living thing. For example, a single rabbit is an organism. A group of similar
organisms living in the same area forms a population. For instance, a population of rabbits
is composed of several rabbits and not only one. A group of different populations that live in
the same area and interact with each other form a community. A community maybe
composed of populations of rabbits, men, horses, mango trees, narra trees, etc.
Communities that interact with each other and with their physical environment form an
ecosystem. Finally, all the ecosystems of the earth form the total environment of the earth,
the biosphere. Are you now familiar with the increasing levels of organization in the study of
the environment?
What you will do

Self-test 1.1
Now that you are through with the first lesson, try to answer the following and see for
yourself how much you learned.
Fill in the blanks with the correct answer
__________1. The part of the earth where life is found.
__________2. A group of different populations living in the same place and interacting with
each other.
8
__________3. The field of Science deals with the study of the interactions between the
living and the non-living components.
__________4. It refers to a group of similar organisms found in a specific area. .
__________5. Part of the biosphere that is composed of the land mass.
Did you encounter any problem? Compare your answers with the answer key and
see for yourself the items you missed. Good luck!
9
Lesson 2 . The Ecosystem
Fig. 2 Marine Ecosystem
Familiarity with the components of the environment is necessary to understand this

lesson.
Let us begin by focusing on the smallest functional unit in Ecology known as the
ecosystem. An ecosystem consists of all the biotic and abiotic factors that surround
organisms and affect their way of life. Biotic factors are all the living organisms. Abiotic
factors include soil type, elevation, rainfall, temperature, humidity, light and location on
planet earth. It may be as large as the whole earth (the biosphere) a small part of it, such as
a river, a creek, or even a large boulder. Do you know that even a single decaying leaf can
be an ecosystem? A decaying log that you encounter as you walk through a forest can also
be considered an ecosystem.
An ecosystem can be classified into two major types. It is terrestrial if it is found on

land, and aquatic if it is in water. Examples of terrestrial ecosystems are forests, deserts,
savanna, taiga and tundra. Aquatic ecosystems include marine, freshwater, and estuarine
ecosystems. Fig. 2 represents a typical marine ecosystem. Have you seen this
underwater? The ocean is considered as the largest aquatic ecosystem.
For a deeper understanding of ecosystems, do the activity found below.
10
What you will do
Activity 2.1
Studying an Ecosystem
Materials:
Bond paper Field guides

Notebook Hand lens
Pencil
Procedure:
1. Choose a natural community near your home as your ecosystem to

study. You may choose a pond, a forest park, a rotten log, or any area.
2. Decide on the boundaries. (You don’t want to cover a very wide area,
do you?)
3. Make a drawing of the ecosystem on a bond paper.
4. Observe the organisms that live in the ecosystem. Use a hand lens to
study small creatures, or use binoculars, if available.
5. Record your observations in a table like the one shown below. Make
diagrams of the plants, animals, and other organisms that you see.
6. Visit the ecosystem as many times as you want and at different times
of the day for up to two weeks. Make observations and record them.
Pay close attention to the relationships among organisms.
Data and Observations:
Date Organisms Observed Comments
Analyze:
1. What ecosystem did you choose? Is it aquatic or terrestrial?

2. Describe the non-living environment of the ecosystem.
3. What organisms live in the ecosystem that you have chosen?
4. How many populations are there?
11
Did you enjoy the activity? You can do this in other ecosystems near your school or
home.
Take note that the living and the non-living components of an ecosystem are
inseparable from each other. They interact in order to form functional structures such as
nutrient cycling, energy flow, feeding relationship, biodiversity, stability, control, growth and
development. What is nutrient cycling? This term refers to the movement of nutrients
through the biosphere in a series of physical and biological processes. They are called
cycles because nutrients, unlike energy can be recycled over and over again by the living
systems.
In ecosystems, nutrients may become limited. The rate at which producers can
capture energy and use it to produce living tissue is controlled by several factors, one of
which is the amount of available nutrients. When nutrients are in short supply, it could limit
the growth of organisms - and so, it becomes a limiting factor. The presence of limiting
factors could interrupt the equilibrium in an ecosystem.
What is energy flow? Energy flow refers to the movement of energy through an
ecosystem from the sun to the producers and then to the consumers. For example, the
energy from the sun is used by the plants to perform photosynthesis, after which, this food
energy is used by the animals that will eat the plants. Energy flows through an ecosystem in
one direction, beginning with solar energy that photosynthetic organisms convert to
chemical energy.
Always remember that plants and animals in the biosphere are tied together in a
complicated network of feeding relationships. This maybe simple like the food chain, or a
bit complicated just like the food web. Food chain refers to a series of organisms through
which food energy is passed is an ecosystem. Say for example, palay (rice) is eaten by a
rat, and rat is eaten by the cat and the cat can be eaten by the snake. A food web is more
complicated it consists of several interlocking patterns of food chains. You can refer to the
next module for a more detailed discussion of these topics.
Biodiversity refers to the “variety and variability among living organisms including
the ecological complexes in which they occur”. You should always remember that
ecosystems are characterized by the presence of different organisms interacting with one
another. The more diverse the ecosystem, the more stable it is. It could easily adapt to the
different changes in the environmental conditions without drastic changes in the system.
Do not forget also that ecosystems grow and develop. It could start from a very
simple one and becomes more complicated and more diverse as it develops.
To make things easier for you, let us continue the discussion by using a pond as a
typical example of an ecosystem. Are there ponds in your place? I’m sure there are. Well,
this is one of the most common ecosystems especially in the province. So now get ready for
the journey!
12
The Pond Ecosystem
Try to look at Fig. 3 and examine carefully the components of a pond ecosystem.
Fig. 3 A Pond Ecosystem
Why is a pond considered an ecosystem? Can you enumerate the living and non-
living things in the picture? We have just discussed this in the last lesson. A pond
ecosystem is made up of the pond itself and all the plants, animals, protists, and bacteria
that live within it. The living components in a pond include plants, macroscopic and
microscopic plants (phytoplanktons), small animals like the larvae of many arthropods such
as insects and crustaceans (zooplanktons), snails, small and big fish, and many more. The
plants are of several types; some are rooted while others are floating. What may be
unknown to you is the presence of the microscopic groups of organisms such as bacteria,
molds and protists that make up a very important group of organisms in the pond. Have you
seen these organisms under the microscope? They are found in millions!
The abiotic components include the following: sunlight, water, gases, micronutrients,
macronutrients that are present in the pond. Temperature, salinity, and pH level are also
important.
All living things in the pond are affected by the matter and energy in the environment.
The primary source of energy in a pond is the sun. The energy flows from one organism to
another. The original energy from the sun may be stored by the plants after photosynthesis
in the form of chemical energy or food, or maybe used as energy for work. But, eventually,
all energy becomes heat and is lost into space. Thus, this ecosystem requires a constant
incoming supply of energy.
13
Unlike energy, materials in the pond can be recycled, thus, nutrients like phosphorus,
sulfur, nitrogen, and others undergo recycling.
Remember that ecosystems are open systems, which means that they exchange
matter and energy with their surroundings.
Before you move on to the next module, do answer the self-test and the posttest that
follow. Good luck!
What you will do

Self-Test 2.1
Again, try to check how much you have learned from the lesson by answering the
following questions.
True or False. Write the word True if the statement is correct and False if it is
incorrect on the space provided before each number.
____________1. Nutrients found in the environment can be limiting.
____________2. All living things in a pond are microscopic.
____________3. Matter cannot be recycled.
____________4. A more diverse ecosystem is more stable.

____________5. The ocean is the largest aquatic ecosystem.
14
Let’s summarize
1. Environment refers to the immediate surrounding of an organism.
2. Ecology is the study of the relationships between organisms and their environment.
3. Biotic factors refer to the living component of the ecosystem.
4. Abiotic factors refer to the non-living components of the environment.
5. Biosphere refers to all the parts of the earth where life exists.
6. Habitat refers to the place where an organism lives.
7. Ecological niche refers to the role of an organism in an ecosystem.
8. A population is a group of similar organisms living in the same area.
9. A community is a group of populations living in the same area and interacting with
each other.
10. An ecosystem is a community interacting with the abiotic parts of its environment.
11. An ecosystem need not be very big. It can be a single leaf, a rotting log, a creek or
any other smaller structures.
12. Energy flow refers to the transfer of energy from one organism to another.
13. Energy cannot be recycled. It only flows through the biosphere and is lost afterwards.
14. Nutrient cycling refers to the process of using and reusing of materials or nutrients.
15. Biodiversity refers to the “variety and variability among living organisms including
the ecological complexes in which they occur”.
16. The ocean is considered as the biggest aquatic ecosystem.
17. Functional structures such as energy flow, nutrient cycling, growth and development,
biodiversity, and control exist in an ecosystem.
18. A pond ecosystem is made up of the pond itself and all the plants, animals, protists,
and bacteria that live within it.
15
19. The living components in a pond include the macroscopic plants and microscopic
phytoplanktons, small animals like the larvae of many arthropods such as insects and
crustaceans (zooplanktons), snails, small and big fish, and many more.
20. Quadrat is a 1 m x 1 m study area used in the activity.
Post-test
I. Multiple Choice. Select the letter of the choice that answers the questions or completes
the statements
1. What do you call the study of the totality of the interactions of all the living and the
non-living components of the environment?
a. Environment
b. Ecology
c. Ecosystem
d. Earth
2. What refers to the plants, the birds, fungi and all those with life?
a. biotic
b. abiotic
c. biosphere
d. biology
3. Plants are the primary users of solar energy. This energy can be passed on from one
organism to the next in the process called
a. energy flow
b. photosynthesis
c. nutrient cycling
d. decomposition
4. The snakes, shrubs, termites, trees, and the birds comprise the:
a. niche
b. habitat
c. community
d. ecosystem
5. The process of eating and being eaten is called as:
a. energy flow
16
b. food chain
c. food web
d. nutrient cycling
6. The part of the biosphere composed of a blanket of air.

a. hemisphere
b. lithosphere
c. atmosphere
d. hydrosphere
7. A school of fish comprise a/an:

a. community
b. population
c. ecosystem
d. biosphere
8. What is the biggest level of organization in Ecology?

a. ecosystem
b. population
c. community
d. biosphere
9. All of the following are functional structures that exist in an ecosystem. Which one
refers the variability among living organisms?
a. nutrient cycling
b. energy flow
c. decomposition
d. biodiversity
10. The ponds, lakes, deserts, and forests are examples of:
a. community
b. populations
c. ecosystem
d. organism
II. True or False. Write the word True if the statement is correct, and False if it is incorrect.
________1. Energy can be recycled.

________2. The zooplanktons in the pond are the primary producers.
________3. Nutrients are recycled in the pond.
________4. Consumers depend on the producers in a food chain.
________5. Plants are producers in an ecosystem. This is an example of an
ecological role.
17
Key to Answers
Pretest
Test I. Multiple Choice.
1. c
2. c
3. c
4. c
5. d
6. c
7. b
8. c
9. a
10.d
Test II. True or False.
1. True
2. True
3. False
4. True
5. True
Self-Test Lesson 1.1
1. Biosphere
2. Community
3. Ecology
4. Population
5. Lithosphere
Self-Test Lesson 2.1
1. True
2. False
3. False
4. True
5. True
18
Post-test
Test I. Multiple Choice.
1. b
2. a
3. a
4. c
5. b
6. c
7. b
8. d
9. d
10. c
Test II. True or false
11. False
12. False
13. True
14. True
15. True
-End of Module-
References
Lewis, R. (1998). Life 3rd Edition. USA: WCB Mc-Graw-Hill Co. Inc.
Mader, S. (1998). Biology 6th Edition. USA: WCB McGraw-Hill Co. Inc.USA.
Merril. (1994). Life Science. USA: Glencoe Division, Macmillan/McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Oh., USA.
Wong, H. K., et.al.(1990). Biology: The key ideas. Englewoods, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc.
19
MODULE 10
Pasig City
1
Module 10
Can We Live Alone?
What this module is about?
You have just finished the module regarding the environment and the ecosystem. Did
you enjoy it? If so, that’s good! In This module you will learn more about the ecosystem. If
you recall, the ecosystem has functional structures that were not discussed in detail in the
last module. Now is your chance to be more familiar with these topics.
This module contains the following lessons:
Lesson I - Biotic Relationships

Lesson 2 - Energy Flow
Lesson 3 - The Cycles of Matter
What are you expected to learn?
1. explain how energy is transferred through a community;

2. illustrate the one-way flow of energy in an ecosystem;
3. identify the different biotic relationships that exist among living organisms in an
ecosystem;
4. explain how organisms depend on other living organisms for survival; and
5. describe how materials in the ecosystem are reused in a continuous cycle.
2
How to learn from this module?
In order to achieve the objectives of this module successfully, you have to remember
the following:
1. Read and follow the instructions carefully.

2. Answer the pre-test first to see how much you know about the lessons in this
module.
3. Take down notes and record points for clarification.
4. Take the posttest and check your answers against the key to correction at the end
of the module.
5. Remember to get at least 70% of the total number of items given.
I. Multiple Choice. Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. A feeding relationship that proceeds from algae to fish, to a fisherman, and finally to a
shark is best described as:
a. bad luck for the fisherman

b. food chain
c. food web
d. a and c above
2. Trophic levels can be described as:
a. hierarchy of energy transfers

b. structured feeding relationships
c. who eats who
d. any one of the above descriptions is appropriate
3. Disturbances to land ecosystems have the predictable effect of:
a. equalizing nutrient loss

b. increasing nutrient loss
c. lessening nutrient loss
d. stabilizing nutrient loss
3
4. Which of the following is a primary producer?
a. dilis
b. seaweed
c. shark
d. whale
5. The herbivores that feed on phytoplanktons are called:
a. autotrophs
b. primary consumers
c. secondary consumers
d. tertiary consumers
6. Which of the following gasses is more or less 79% of the atmospheric gas?
a. argon
b. nitrogen
c. oxygen
d. sulfur
7. A network of crossing and interlinked food chains is called a
a. food chain
b. food web
c. photosynthesis
d. trophic level
8. When clouds start to condense, the process is called
a. accumulation
b. condensation
c. evaporation
d. precipitation
9. Which is a type of pyramid that represents the total number of organisms involved?
a. food pyramid
b. pyramid of biomass
c. pyramid of energy
d. pyramid of number
10. Organisms that feed both on plants and animals are called:
a. carnivores
b. detritivores
4
c. herbivores
d. omnivores
II. Classify the Following. Classify the following animals as producer, herbivore, carnivore
or omnivore by placing them in the right column.
grass seaweeds lion deer goat frog
shark rabbit sunflower whale hawk man
Producer Omnivore Carnivore Herbivore
III. Consider this food web of organisms in the ocean given below:
Anchovy (dilis) trout fish
Seaweeds larvae swordfish
stingray
A. How many food chains can you identify from the food web?
B. Write them as separate food chains.
C. What will happen if a larvae is removed from the food web?
IV. Given the following organisms, construct a food pyramid.
seaweeds dilis
lapu-lapu shark
V. Give the type of relationship that exists between the following organisms.
1. orchid and tree

2. plants and animals
3. shark and salmon
4. carabao and heron
5. ticks and dogs Key to answers on page 25
5
Lesson 1 Biotic Relationships
Have you ever imagined life without your neighbors? Life could be very incomplete
and boring. It is the interactions that you do with your neighbors that give life to your
everyday activities. Organisms interact with one another in many ways. The relationships
may benefit one and harm the other, benefit both or harm both. When organisms live in
close association with one another, they are said to have a symbiotic relationship.
Examine the diagram below. Have you ever seen this underwater? Well, if you live
close to the sea, you must be familiar with this. Do you know of any relationship that exists
between the organisms in this picture?
This picture shows the presence of corals and algae. Are you familiar with algae?
They are commonly called as seaweeds. They belong to kingdom Protista, and are
photosynthetic. In this type of relationship, the corals provide shelter for the algae that lives
on the body of the polyps. The algae in return, give nourishment to the corals. This type of
symbiotic relationship is called mutualism. Individuals in this relationship all benefit from the
association established. There is a close association with each other.
The picture next page shows a diagram of a leech sucking blood on the arm of man.
Have you seen one like this before? Were you afraid? In the province it is common to see
leeches attached to the skin of carabaos, cows and other animals.
Do you know the type of relationship that exists between the leech and the man in the
picture? Which one is the parasite? Which one is the host? A parasite is an organism that
depends on the host for food. In this case, which one is the parasite? Why do you say so? If
your answer is leech you are right! Leeches are ectoparasites that depend on the host’s
blood for food. They produce an anticoagulant called hirudin that prevents clotting while
blood is being sucked. In this case, man is the host and is harmed. The harm to the host
maybe extreme or only slight.
6
Parasitism
Examine the next diagram. What do you see? Have you been to a place with this
type of trees/plants? If you have experienced taking a walk in a forest, you must be familiar
with this. The plant in the diagram is locally known as the bird’s nest. It usually grows
among the trunks of trees in thick forests. You will observe that many big trees are hosts to
smaller plants like ferns, mosses and the like.
This figure illustrates commensalism, a symbiotic relationship where one individual

benefits from another without causing harm to the other.
The type of relationship that exists between the ferns (or other plants) and the tree is
called commensalism. The tree provides the support to the ferns, but it does not gain or lose
anything. In this type of relationship, one individual benefits from the other without causing
any harm to it.
Can you suggest other examples of this type of relationships? Have you seen a blue
crab with a sea anemone on its back? This is also another example of commensalism. Here,
the crab is the host and the guest is the sea anemone. In this case, the sea anemone gets a
free ride from the crab and free food! Sea anemones are attached to a substrate and they
are not mobile. This time, they get a free ride from the crab which moves from one place to
another. Some scraps of food from the crab may also reach the sea anemone at the back.
7
The crab is neither harmed nor benefited in this case. This relationship is shown in the
picture below.
A crab with sea anemone concealed at the back
Now, let us consider other biotic relationships that exist in nature.
Predation
Take a look at the picture below. Can you predict what will happen next?
A predator is usually a big animal

What type of relationship is this? Can you guess? The picture shows a shark going
after the small fishes to eat them. The small fishes are helpless! In this type of relationship,
the shark is the predator, much bigger and powerful, while the small fishes are the prey.
They are directly attacked by the predator. This relationship is called predation. Do you
know of other examples of this type of relationships?
8
I’m sure the diagram below is familiar to you. This is common even in your front and
backyards. You see many plants live together. Can you imagine how they compete for food?
Competition for Resources
When organisms compete for the same resources, the association is called
competition. For example, grasses may compete with other garden plants such as
eggplant, palay, and onions, for the nutrients in the soil. This competition results to the
depletion of the resources.
The barracuda and the shark may also compete for the same food such as the small
fishes, and this is another example of competition. Competition is an example of a biotic
relationship that is common among many biotic members of the ecosystem. Can you cite
other examples of competition?
Amensalism
Do you know that there are organisms that may live together only for sometime
because one species secrete a toxic or lethal substance that could kill the other species?
Are you familiar with some of them? A certain species of Artemisia (damong maria) secrete
a substance that can kill the grasses that may grow around them. This is an example of
amensalism.
It has been found in laboratories that bacteria cannot be grown mixed with other
species of fungi or mold which in this case emit substances that are lethal to the bacteria.
Look at the diagram below. This is an example of a bacterial culture with fungi. The
two may live together for sometime. However, if the fungi will secrete toxic substances,
eventually, no bacteria will survive and only the fungi will remain. This is called allelopathy.
It involves the production and release of chemical substances by one species that inhibit the
growth of another. Allelopathic substances range from acids to bases to simple organic
compounds.
9
An example of Allelopathy
Neutralism
This is the last biotic relationship that will be discussed. It is the most common type
of interspecific interaction. This is an interaction involving two different species. Neither
population directly affects the other. The interactions that occur are slight and indirect. The
simple presence of the two species should not directly affect the population level of either
species. An example of neutralism would be the interaction between yourself and the cats.
What you will do

Self-Test 1.1
10
A. From this drawing, enumerate as many relationships as you can derive and give the
particular organisms involved in each relationship.
Association Organism A Organism B

1.
2.
3.
4.
B. Based on the picture below, answer the following questions:
Questions:
1. What type of relationship is shown in the drawing?

2. Why do you say so?
3. Can you remember any Filipino saying that can be inferred from the same
picture?
C. Gather pictures of the different biotic relationships and make a collage out of them. A
collage is any artistic composition / representation of any subject matter.
11
Lesson 2 Energy Flow in the Ecosystem
Food Chains
Are you familiar with a food chain? Why do you think is it called a chain? Chain would
simply mean connection or connectivity of one to the other. Are you a member of the food
chain? Well, all of us are members of the food chain. We all belong to the same trophic
level. As members of the food chain, you should know more about it. Get ready and start to
explore what it is.
Green plants are the only organisms that make their own food. Animals that eat
green plants make the next link to the chain. Other animals often eat them. This sequence
of eating and being eaten is called a food chain. Each organism is a link in the food chain.
When plants and animals die, they become food for scavengers and decomposers such as
the bacteria and fungi that in turn are responsible for the organisms’ decay and cause the
minerals to return to the soil.
Examine these two diagrams: The first diagram (1) shows the interaction between the
grass and the worm. The arrow points from the producer (grass) to the consumers (worm).
The worm eats the grass or the worm feeds on the grass.
1. Grass Worm
2. Grass Worm Chicken
The second diagram (2) shows the additional box for the chicken. This shows that the
chicken feeds on the worm. This is another example of a food chain. Below is another
example of a food chain with a diagram
Birds are not the only consumers that feed on plant seeds. Mice and other rodents
also feed on them. Snakes like the python feed on mice. Plant seeds, mouse, and snake
form another food chain.
12
Is everything clear? I hope so. Now get ready for a new topic, a topic that is related to
food chain - the food web. Get set go!
Food Web
Examine the diagram below. How many food chains can be derived from the
illustration? There are several of them.
Write on a piece of paper the food chains that you can see in the diagram. How do
food chains differ from food web? The diagram appears to be more complicated than a food
chain. A food web is a series of interrelated food chains which provides a more accurate
picture of the feeding relationships in an ecosystem, as more than one organism will usually
eat a particular species or food. Therefore, food chains can overlap, cross or interlock
forming a network. Do not be confused with the arrows. Just follow where the arrow
originates and it will tell you which one eats what. For example, many organisms such as
mice, worm, frog and the birds. From these primary consumers will feed different secondary
consumers, and from these different secondary consumers will feed different tertiary
consumers forming an interlocking pattern.
Now, on your own, construct a food web using the diagram below.
13
What you will do
Activity 2.1
Below are some pictures of organisms that can be connected into a food web. See if you
can decide how to connect the pictures to show the energy flow correctly! Good luck!
Did you find the activity enjoyable? I’m sure you did! Congratulations and more power!
14
1 k cal.
10 k cal.
100 k cal.
An Energy Pyramid
Notice that there are more producers than herbivores, and many more herbivores
than carnivores. Why do you think this is so? It appears that less energy is available at each
level of the pyramid as you move towards the top. Only about 10% of the energy in the
grass seed is available to the rabbits and only 10% of energy stored in the rabbits are
available to the lion, and so. This means that the animals at the top of the pyramid depend
on very large populations of producers and herbivores to stay alive. Don’t forget that less
energy is available at each level of the pyramid as you move toward the top.
In the three topics - food chain, food web, and energy pyramid are related to each
other since energy is involved. These relationships are based on the flow of energy that is
transferred from one organism to the next.
15
What you will do
Self-Test 2.1
Analyze the pyramid above and answer the following questions.
1. Which of these organisms will receive the highest amount of energy?

a. bird c. caterpillar
b. praying mantis d. plants
2. How many trophic levels are shown in the diagram?

a. 1 c. 3
b. 2 d. 4
3. What do you call the plants in this pyramid?

a. producers c. decomposers
b. consumers d. herbivores
4. How many consumer levels are there?

a. 1 c. 3
b. 2 d. 4
5. Which among these organisms will receive the least amount of energy?
a. bird c. caterpillar
b. plants d. grasshoppers
16
Lesson 3 Cycles of Matter
You already learned the importance of the biotic components and their interactions
and interrelationships in an ecosystem. Energy is needed for the organisms to survive.
Organisms need food in order to live. Aside from food, other substances must be present in
the ecosystem for organisms to function properly. There are four elements required:
hydrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. These elements should continuously be
recycled within an ecosystem to sustain life.
Let us see what happens, and how it happens in a cycle.
Carbon Dioxide – Oxygen Cycle
Looking at the picture, plants use carbon dioxide in the air together with water and
other elements from the soil plus solar energy to manufacture their own food. The process is
called photosynthesis. As a result of the process, plants produce glucose (starch) as
stored food, and oxygen as a by-product. In respiration, consumers eat some of this stored
food, and inhale oxygen. They transform and use this food to obtain energy and release
carbon dioxide as a by-product. Carbon dioxide may also come from fossil fuels like those
seen in the diagram. The release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere during respiration
completes the carbon dioxide – oxygen cycle.
17
The Water Cycle
Water moves from the atmosphere to the surface and back to the atmosphere in a
process called the water cycle. When heavy clouds form, starts to change from a gaseous
state to liquid form through a process called condensation. Water falls from the
atmosphere to the earth through precipitation in the form of rain, drizzle, hail or snow. It
goes back to the atmosphere through evaporation, when some of the water on the surface
becomes gas. Some of the water that falls to the earth reaches the ground and as run off
water, it travels to become part of a lake, river or ocean. Some water may also come out
from the body of plants and animals in the process called transpiration. Some of the water
goes deep underground and becomes ground water. Underground water also finds its way
to lakes and rivers and eventually joins the oceans where evaporation takes place,
completing the water cycle.
Water Cycle
The Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen is the most abundant element in the atmosphere, making up 79% of it. But
free nitrogen must first be converted into nitrates before plants can use them. The process
by which nitrogen passes from the atmosphere to the organisms and back is called the
nitrogen cycle. During a thunderstorm, nitrogen is converted into nitrates by lightning. The
process of converting atmospheric nitrogen into compounds such as ammonia, nitrites or
nitrates by natural processes is called nitrogen fixation. These nitrates are brought to the
ground during precipitation and are then absorbed and used by plants.
Nitrogen can also be converted into nitrates directly from the air.
18
Nitrogen Cycle
This is done by nitrogen-fixing bacteria, which are found in the leguminous plants.
Examples of these legumes are mongo, beans, peanuts, and peas.
Dead and decaying matter contain nitrogen, which is converted into ammonia by
bacteria. This process is called ammonification. Other bacteria oxidize the ammonia to
form nitrites. Eventually, other bacteria change the nitrates to ammonia to form nitrites. This
process of converting ammonia and nitrites into nitrates is called nitrification.
Some organisms, called denitrifying bacteria, convert nitrates, and ammonia in the
soil and decaying matter back into free nitrogen. This process is called denitrification. The
free nitrogen is then released into the atmosphere and the cycle continues.
Phosphorus Cycle
Another cycle that you have to be familiar with is the phosphorus cycle. Where do
phosphates come from? Initially, phosphate weathers from rocks. The small losses in a
terrestrial system caused by leaching through the action of rain are balanced in the gains
from weathering rocks. In soil, phosphate is absorbed on clay surfaces and organic matter
particles and becomes incorporated (immobilized). Plants dissolve ionized forms of
phosphate. Herbivores obtain phosphorus by eating plants, and carnivores by eating
herbivores. Herbivores and carnivores excrete phosphorus as a waste product in urine and
feces. Phosphorus is released back to the soil when plants or animal matter decomposes
and the cycle repeats.
Another pathway of phosphorus cycle occurs when phosphorus moves from land to
sediments in the seas and then back to land again. The main storage for phosphorus is in
the earth’s crust. On land, phosphorus is usually found in the form of phosphates. By the
19
process of weathering and erosion phosphates enter rivers and streams that transport them
to the ocean. Once in the ocean the phosphorus accumulates on continental shelves in the
form of insoluble deposits. After millions of years, the crustal plates rise from the sea floor
and expose the phosphates on land. After more time, weathering will release them from rock
and the cycle's geochemical phase begins again.
What you will do

Self-Test 3.1
Multiple Choice. Encircle the best answer.
1. Which of the following would you consider as the main reservoir of water?
a. rivers c. atmosphere
b. ocean d. soil
2. All of the following gives off carbon dioxide except:

a. carabao c. birds
b. sunflower d. crocodile
3. The usable form of nitrogen is

a. urea c. uric acid
b. nitrate d. nitrous oxide
20
4. Nitrogen is ______% of the atmospheric gas.
a. 79% c. 69%
b. 99% d. 89%
5. Fossil fuel is one of the primary sources of

a. oxygen c. carbon dioxide
b. nitrogen d. phosphorus
6. The primary source of phosphorus is:
a. Plants c. rocks
b. Animals d. sun
7. The process whereby water is converted from a gaseous state to a liquid state is
called
a. pecipitation c. condensation
b. evaporation d. sublimation
8. What is the process of releasing free nitrogen in the air?
a. nitrification
b. evaporation
c. denitrification
d. ammonification
9. Which of the following could be a good source of organic phosphate?
a. water
b. stones
c. animals
d. sun
10. In photosynthesis, plants give off:
a. Carbon dioxide c. hydrogen

b. oxygen d. carbon
21
Let’s summarize
1. Organisms may form close associations with one another. Such associations
may occur between individuals of the same species (intraspecific) or between
individuals of different species (interspecific).
2. Parasitism is an association between two organisms in which one, the parasite,
lives temporarily or permanently in or on the other, the host, deriving benefit from
it and causing harm to it.
3. Commensalism is an association between two organisms, where a commensal
gains while the host neither loses nor gains.
4. Mutualism is an association that is mutually beneficial to both participants. This is
one of the common associations between organisms.
5. Energy cannot be recycled. Only matter can be recycled.
6. Energy moves in one direction. A food chain is the pathway that matter and
energy take as they are transferred from one feeding level to the next.
7. The pattern of food chains that interlock and form a network is called a food web.
8. There are advantages of living in a complex food web where there are several
sources of food.
9. An energy pyramid is a diagram that explains the energy flow from one feeding
level to another.
10. Living things are related to each other by their food relationships. These
relationships are based on the flow of energy that is transferred from one
organism to the next.
11. The biosphere is a closed system.
12. Recycling is the using and reusing of materials. The water, minerals, oxygen,
nitrogen, carbon and other chemicals necessary for life in the biosphere must be
recycled again and again for life to continue.
13. The processes of photosynthesis and respiration recycle carbon and oxygen
14. Bacteria aid in the recycling of nitrogen.
15. The three most important cycles needed for life are water cycle, carbon-oxygen
cycle, and nitrogen cycle.
16. Water cycle is the movement of water from the atmosphere to the lithosphere
and hydrosphere and then back to the atmosphere.
22
Posttest
I. Multiple Choice. Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. Which of the following gasses is more or less 79% of the atmospheric gas?
a. argon
b. nitrogen
c. oxygen
d. sulfur
2. A network of crossing and interlinked food chains is called

a. food chain
b. food web
c. photosynthesis
d. trophic level
3. When water is converted to water vapor, the process is called as:

a. accumulation
b. condensation
c. evaporation
d. precipitation
4. What do you call a type of pyramid that represents the total number of organisms
involved?
a. food pyramid
b. pyramid of biomass
c. pyramid of energy
d. pyramid of number
5. Organisms that feed both on plants and animals are called:

a. carnivores
b. detritivores
c. herbivores
d. omnivores
6. A feeding relationship that proceeds from algae to fish, then to a fisherman and finally
to a shark is best described as:
a. food chain
b. food web
c. predation
d. a and c above
23
7. Trophic levels can be described as:
a. hierarchy of energy transfers
b. structured feeding relationships
c. who eats who
d. any one of the above descriptions is appropriate
8. The primary source of phosphorus is:

a. air
b. plants
c. rocks
d. water
9. Which of the following is a primary producer?

a. dilis
b. seaweeds
c. shark
d. whales
10. The herbivores that feed on phytoplanktons are called as:

a. autotrophs
b. primary consumers
c. secondary consumers
d. tertiary consumers
e.
II. Classify the following. Given the following animals below, classify them as
producer, herbivore, carnivore or omnivore by placing them in the right column.
grass seaweeds lion deer goat frog
shark rabbit sunflower whale hawk man
24
III. Consider the following organisms in the ocean.
a. How many food chains can you identify from the food web?
b. Write them as separate food chains.
c. What will happen if the small fish is removed from the food web?
IV. Given the following organisms, construct a food pyramid.
seaweeds dilis
lapu-lapu shark
V. Give the type of relationship that exists between the following organisms.
1. orchid and tree

2. plants and animals
3. shark and salmon
4. carabao and heron
5. ticks and dogs
25
Key to answers
Pretest
I.
1. b
2. d
3. b
4. c
5. b
6. c
7. b
8. d
9. b
10. d
II.

Grass man lion deer
seaweed frog shark goat
sunflower hawk whale rabbit
III.
A. 3
B.
1. seaweeds anchovy trout fish
2. seaweeds larvae swordfish
3. seaweeds larvae stingray
C.
1. Two of the food chains will be disturbed since the food supply for the swordfish
and stingray will decrease.
26
IV. Food Pyramid
V.
a. commensalism
b. mutualism
c. predation
d. mutualism
e. parasitism
Answer Key for the Activity
Self-Test 1.1
A.
Association Organism A Organism B
1. predation lion zebra
2. predation bird worm
3. mutualism ants tree
4. mutualism man plants
5. commensalism tree orchid
27
B.
1. Predation
2. Because the bird (predator) attacked the worm directly. They are bigger and more
powerful than the worms.
3. “The early bird catches the early worm”
Activity 2.1
Self-Test 2.1
1. d
2. d
3. a
4. c
5. a
28
Self-Test 3.1
1. b
2. b
3. b
4. a
5. c
6. c
7. a
8. c
9. c
10. b
Answer Key for the Post-test
Posttest
I.
1. c
2. a
3. a
4. b
5. b
6. a
7. d
8. c
9. d
10. d
II.

Grass man lion deer
seaweed frog shark goat
sunflower hawk whale rabbit
III.
A. 3
B.
1. aquatic plants larvae crab
2. aquatic plants small fish trout fish
3. aquatic plants small fish blue marlin
29
C.
1. Two of the food chains will be disturbed since the food supply for the big fishes
will decrease.
IV.
V.
a. commensalism
b. mutualism
c. predation
d. mutualism
e. parasitism
References
Roberts, M. V. B. (1985). Biology: A functional approach. Turin. Italy: G. Canale and C. S. P. A.
Wong, H.K. & Dolmatz, M.S. (1983). Biology: The key ideas. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall,
Inc.,
Daniel, L. (1994). Life science. Westerville, Ohio: Macmillan/McGraw-Hill.
Lewis, R. (1998). Life. USA: WCB/McGraw-Hill.
Starr, C. & Laggart, R. (1992). Biology: The unity and diversity of life. Belmont, California: Wadsworth
Publishing Company.
30
De Vera, M.P. Science fundamentals for high school I, Integrated Science. Manila: Trinitas Publishing, Inc.
Bureau of Secondary Education (1989). Science and technology I, First Year H.S. Manila.
Cruz, J. (2000). Science and technology II for the modern world. Diwa Manila: Publishing P
31
32
MODULE 11

Pasig City
1
Module 11
Earth’s Resources
Humans need food as source of energy. We need water to maintain body

temperature, eliminate waste matter, dissolve other substances and prevent dehydration.
We need air because there is oxygen in air. Oxygen is used to burn the food we eat to
release the energy stored in the food. We need firewood for cooking and as a source of
light.
Where do we get food, water, air and other necessities? We get it from the many
natural resources deposited/present in our abode. In this module we shall learn the
following lessons:
Lesson 1 - The Earth’s Resources

Lesson 2 - The Earth’s Freshwater
Lesson 3 - The Earth’s Ocean
Lesson 4 - The Earth’s Soil
Lesson 5 - The Earth’s Mineral
Lesson 6 - The Earth’s Biodiversity

1. identify the resources of Planet Earth;

2. show how humans maintain and restore the integrity and balance of an
ecosystem;
3. illustrate how the natural resource can be used wisely; and
4. discuss specific technologies /activities to conserve/protect nature.
2
1. Read the instructions carefully.
2. Take the pretest before reading the rest of the module.
3. Do all the activities and exercises.
4. Use the concept discussed in each lesson to explain the results of activities or
exercises.
5. Take the posttest after you have finished the lessons and performed all
activities or exercises.
Direction: Select the letter of the word/group of words that best answers the question.
1. A natural resource is any material or element from the environment that humans
a. have not created
b. observe scientifically
c. make for themselves
d. use to meet their needs
2. A resource that people can use again and again without destroying it is called
a. renewable
b. unlimited
c. non-renewable
d. potentially renewable
3. The resource base varies in different parts of the world because resources are not
a. sufficient to meet the needs of developed countries
b. needed in the same amounts by all people
c. taken from both land and water in all countries
d. evenly distributed on the earth
4. The mineral particles in soil come from bits of rocks called

a. plant food
b. parent material
c. topsoil
d. subsoil
3
5. When heavy rains drain off nutrients from the soil, the soil is said to have become
a. barren
b. fertile
c. sandy
d. leached
6. Is the earth’s freshwater uniformly distributed?

a. Yes, because all places have the same amount of freshwater.
b. No, because all places have the same number of surface water.
c. No, because some places have more water supply than other places.
d. It cannot be determined.
7. Which of the following is the source of biotic resources?

a. manufacturing
b. croplands
c. wildlands
d. living things
8. Which of the following is potentially renewable?

a. wood
b. fish
c. corn
d. all of them
9. Which of the following metal/minerals is used to make electrical wires, hardware, and
pipes?
a. bauxite
b. copper
c. gold
d. tin
10. What stage of wastewater treatment makes use of microorganisms?

a. primary treatment
b. secondary treatment
c. tertiary treatment
d. all of the above
11. Why do we add chlorine to water during water purification?

a. It bleaches the water.
b. It kills the microorganisms.
c. It removes odors.
d. Both a and b
4
12. Which of the following practices makes soil infertile?
a. use of fertilizer
b. green manufacturing
c. extensive agriculture
d. use of compost matter
13. Conservation of resources means

a. not using it at all
b. using resources wisely
c. using it in a way that does not damage the environment
d. Both b and c
Before you start with the lessons in this module, familiarize yourself with the terms
listed in Table 1:
Table 1 Terms we need to know in this module
Balance in nature Refers to the state or condition in which

the ecological process in a community
go on smoothly
Biodiversity Different life forms
Bioremediation Recovering water and soil quality
through the use of microorganisms
Conservation To use resources wisely
Desalination Process of removing salts from
seawater
Natural resource Refers to the planet’s air, water, soil,
and other resources
Renewable resource Resource that can be renewed,
replenished or regenerated in human
time scale
Non-renewable resource Resource that exists in a fixed quantity
and can de depleted much faster than
they are formed
Potentially renewable Can be replenished fairly rapidly
resource through natural process
5
Phtyoremediation Removing pollutants from soil and
water with the use of plants
Wastewater treatment Technology to remove wastes from
wastewater of industries and dirty
bodies of freshwater
Water purification Process of making potable water from
surface water /groundwater for human
consumption
Lesson 1 The Earth’s Resources
You often hear it said that the Philippines is rich in terms of resources. What is a
resource? We can look at it in two ways.
2. Economic resource
1. Ecological resource - is anything obtained from
- is anything required by the environment to meet your
organisms like you for needs and wants. Examples
normal maintenance, are food, water, shelter,
growth and reproduction. manufactured goods,
Examples are water, transportation,
shelter, food, and communication and
habitat. recreation.
What is a natural resource?
Natural resource or natural capital is the planet’s air, water, soil,

wildlife, mineral and natural purification , recycling, and pest control
processes. Solar capital is the energy from the sun.
6
You can see these resources in Fig. 1.1
Solar capital
( 99 % of the
earth’s capital)
Climate
Air control Recycling vital
resources chemicals such
as carbon,
oxygen,
Water
resources Renewable
resources
Natural capital
Soil (life support
formation and economic
services Non-
and renewal renewable
resources
Wastes
removal and Potentially
detoxification renewable
resources such
as wood,
Natural pest widlife
and control
biodiversity
Fig. 1.1 Solar and natural capital taken from

T. Miller (Environmental Science)
7
Based on the short human time scale, natural resources are classified into three
categories. Table 1.1 lists the three categories of natural resources.
Table 1.1 Kinds of Resources
Categories Description Examples

1. renewable resources Can be renewed, Solar energy
(perpetual resource) replenished or Geothermal energy
regenerated Water power
2. potentially renewable Can be replenished fairly Forest trees, grassland
rapidly (hours to grasses, wild animals, fresh
decades) through natural lake and stream water,
processes groundwater, fresh air and
fertile soil
3. nonrenewable Exists in a fixed quantity Energy resources such as
resources and can de depleted coal, oil, natural gas and
(exhaustible resource) much faster than they are uranium
formed
Metallic mineral resources
New stores of these such as iron, copper and
resources may not be aluminum which can be
available again for recycled
several thousands or
even millions of years Nonmetallic mineral
resources such as clay, sand
salt
We have a lot of resources to meet our needs. Some of these resources are finite.
Other resources are renewable but it takes time to replace or replenish them. Unfortunately,
the rapid consumption of these raw materials by our expanding population has led to the
exploitation of the natural resources. Exploitative attitudes of humans rapidly reduce the
availability of natural resources.
What you will do

Activity 1.1
1. Make a poster about the state of the different resources in your place that are
needed for survival.
a. Does the poster you make mirror available resources to you and your
family?
b. Which resources are not available? Why?
c. As a person with needs and wants, how can you stop the depletion of the
resources in your place?
8
Your answer in 1.c brings us to the question,” Are we going to use these depleting
resources or not? As mentioned in lesson 1, we depend a lot on the natural resources to
meet our needs and wants. We can not afford to lose any of the earth’s resources as our
survival depends on them. There is then a need to safeguard them. We can safeguard
these resources through conservation.
Conservation means not to use any of the natural resources but to utilize, manage
and preserve our natural resources properly. It requires wise use of natural resources.
When using these resources, we need to make sure that the environment is not damaged in
the process. The aims of conservation include the following:
1. To ensure the continued availability of resources for future generations

2. To protect and maintain the quality of ecosystems that provide these resources
Conservation measures for safeguarding different kinds of resources are interrelated

since an effect on any kind of resource often influences another. For example, conserving
forests by planting trees on bare land and mountainside improves the physical environment.
Why? Trees prevent soil erosion. They provide dwelling places for tree-inhabiting animals.
The leaves of trees use carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, as raw material for
photosynthesis. Thus, forest conservation prevents global warming and conserves fertile
topsoil and wildlife diversity.
What you will do

Self-Test 1.1
Direction: Select the letter of the choice that correctly answers the question.
1. Which of the following is a renewable resource?

a. uranium as source of energy c. natural gas
b. solar energy d. wood
2. A resource that is destroyed when used, but can be replaced is said to be:
a recyclable c renewable
b nonrenewable d. potentially renewable
3. Which of the following does not belong to the natural capital/natural resource?
a. air b. land c. water d. energy from the sun
4. Which of the following can not be depleted by human activities?

a. trees b. solar energy c. natural gas d. coal
9
Lesson 2 The Earth’s Freshwater Source
Water is important to all of us. Each of us drinks about 1.5 liters of water everyday.
We depend on its good quality and quantity for drinking, cooking, cleaning , recreation, use
in industry and growing crops. It is also vital to sustaining the natural systems on and under
the earth's surface. Below are sources of the earth’s freshwater.
Polar Water vapor

Surface
caps
water
Groundwater Marine water
Polar caps are frozen water formed in cold areas such as in high mountains and in
the polar regions. These polar caps contain 2 % of the available freshwater on earth. This is
the earth’s water reserve. Scientists are trying to develop ways of sourcing freshwater from
polar caps.
What you will do

Activity 2.1
1. Do you have a water pump in your place?

2. Do you and your family get water from a water pump?
3. List the uses of the water you get from the water pump.
The water you get through a water pump is called groundwater. Groundwater is the
water that fills the tiny spaces between alluvial material (sand, gravel, silt, clay) or the
crevices or fractures in rocks. It is a hidden resource. It accounts for more than 95 % of all
available freshwater for use. Nearly 95% of rural residents rely on groundwater for drinking
supply and for washing soiled clothes. Irrigated croplands use groundwater. Groundwater is
also used for industries.
There are problems associated with groundwater.

Contaminants such as pesticides and fertilizers
sometimes find their way into groundwater supplies. If
groundwater is extracted beside sewerage system or an
underground chemical storage tank, it is possible for
untreated waste from septic tanks and toxic chemicals
from underground storage tanks to contaminate
10
groundwater over time. Road salt, toxic substances from mining sites, and used motor oil
also contaminate groundwater. Drinking contaminated groundwater can have serious health
effects. Diseases such as hepatitis and dysentery may be caused by contamination from
septic tank waste. Poisoning may be caused by toxins that have leaked into well water
supplies. Wildlife can also be harmed by contaminated groundwater. Other long term effects
such as certain types of cancer may also result from exposure to polluted water.
Over extraction of groundwater can lead to lowered water table. Thus, the water table
often dries up during summer. Ground subsidence may also occur.
Another source of freshwater is surface water. Surface water includes
Rivers Streams and creeks Lakes and ponds
Reservoirs such as dams and Cascade and

watershed waterfall
What you will do

Activity 2.2
1. Have you been to rivers, lakes, ponds or creeks in your place?

2. If so, what did you do?
3. List the uses of the water from a river, lake or creek.
Sources of surface water such as a river are more accessible than ground water. The
Philippines has many rivers, lakes, ponds, streams and creeks. Watersheds provide much
of our freshwater supply.
Watersheds are sloping regions of the land wherein run-of-the-river reservoir is

established. The vegetation surrounding the watershed must be maintained. This ensures
sustainable supply of freshwater.
A place may also adopt a storage reservoir by building dams. Most dams are built to
prevent flooding. A good example of a dam that counteracts water shortage is the
Pantabangan Dam in Bulacan.
11
The distribution of surface water source is not uniform. Some places have more of it
while others have less. Thus, surface water is transferred from one basin to another through
pipelines, reservoirs, canals or aqueduct. However the transfer of water from one place to
another presents problems to water supplies. Below are some problems due to excessive
water transfer.
Examples of the problems experienced

Reduction of the size of in a the village:
the river or lake which 1. reduced rainfall
affects the life of the 2. reduced fish caught
village 3. increased average temperature
4. increased wind velocity
5. reduced supply of potable water
Freshwater from surface water is not used immediately as potable or drinking water.
It has to undergo purification in filter plants for it to be fit for drinking. A good example of
filter plant is the Balara Filter Plant in Balara, Diliman, Quezon City. The water is carried by
huge pipes from La Mesa Dam. The water is screened to remove suspended particles.
Aluminum sulfate and calcium oxide are mixed with water. The mixture is added as soon as
water enters the plant. A gelatinous substance, aluminum hydroxide, is formed. The tiny
particles in water aggregate with the gelatinous aluminum hydroxide to form big particles. In
the sedimentation ponds, the aggregates settle to the bottom. The water is passed through
a filter bed with grains of sands and activated carbon. To remove microorganisms, chlorine
gas is added to water to produce hydrochloric acid and hypochlorous acid. Hydrochloric acid
kills the microorganisms while hypochlorous acid bleaches the water. The disinfected water
may be aerated by spraying it into air prior to distribution to different households and
establishments. The entire technology is shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2.1 Water

purification plant
Many bodies of freshwater in the country are polluted. Why? When we farm lands
beside these bodies of water, fertilizers and other farm inputs seep into them when it rains.
Also, Filipinos grow pigs and ducks near freshwater sources so wastes are emptied into
12
these water sources. We use bodies of freshwater as dumping grounds of domestic,
agricultural and industrial wastes.
There is a need to rehabilitate major rivers and lakes by removing debris and other
waste materials. An example of a rehabilitation program the government has created is the
Laguna Lake Development Authority (LLDA) for Laguna de Bay alone. There is also a
rehabilitation program for the Pasig River.
Bioremediation may be an answer to saving contaminated groundwater as well as

polluted rivers, lakes and other bodies of freshwater in the country. How? Contaminated
groundwater is pumped to the surface, where it is treated with microorganisms to feed on
contaminants and then returned to the aquifer. The same can be done to polluted surface
water. Another biological way is phytoremediation. It uses plants such as kangkong to
remove heavy metals present in water. The current practice is to use genetically engineered
plants. A good plant for phytoremediation is the fast-growing poplar trees which act as
straws that suck contaminants in soil and groundwater. The contaminants are stored in their
tissues or metabolize into safe compounds which are released into the atmosphere.
Many industries generate waste water. Some companies such as the subsidiaries of
the San Miguel Corporation put up wastewater treatment plants. Each has its own
wastewater treatment facility. We shall talk about the different steps in cleaning wastewater.
Preliminary Treatment (Karen Mancl)
Solid debris such as wood, rocks, dead animals and other solids pass through a
series of screens of different mesh. These debris are grated or separated. Treatment
equipment such as bar screens, comminutors (a large version of a garbage disposal), and
grit chambers are used as the wastewater first enters a treatment plant. Once reduced to
pieces, it is sent to a landfill.
Primary Treatment
Primary treatment is the second step. It removes suspended solids and grease from
wastewater. This is done by keeping wastewater in a quiet tank for several hours to allow
suspended particles to settle to the bottom and the greases to float to the top. The solids
drawn off the bottom and skimmed off the top receive further treatment as sludge. The
clarified wastewater flows on to the next stage of wastewater treatment. Clarifiers and septic
tanks are some of the equipment at this stage.
Secondary Treatment
Secondary treatment is a biological treatment process to remove dissolved organic

matter from wastewater. Sewage microorganisms are cultivated and added to the
wastewater. The microorganisms absorb organic matter from sewage as their food supply.
There are three secondary wastewater treatment approaches.
13
1. Fixed Film Systems
In this system, microorganisms are grown in rocks, sand or plastic. The wastewater is
spread over the rocks, sands and plastics with microorganisms. As organic matter and
nutrients are absorbed from the wastewater, the film of microorganisms grows and thickens.
Trickling filters, rotating biological contactors, and sand filters are examples of fixed film
systems.
2. Suspended Film Systems
Microorganisms are suspended and stirred in wastewater. As the microorganisms

absorb organic matter and nutrients from the wastewater, they grow in size and number.
After several hours in wastewater, the microorganisms are settled out as a sludge. Some of
the sludge is pumped back into the incoming wastewater to provide "seed" microorganisms.
The remainder is removed and sent on to a sludge treatment process. Activated sludge,
extended aeration, oxidation ditch, and sequential batch reactor systems are all examples of
suspended film systems.
3. Lagoon Systems
Lagoon systems are shallow basins which hold the wastewater for several months to
allow for the natural degradation of sewage. These systems take advantage of natural
aeration and microorganisms in the wastewater to remove sewage.
Final Treatment
Disease-causing organisms are removed from wastewater during the final treatment.
This is done by adding chlorine or by using ultraviolet light. Too much chlorine harms
aquatic life in receiving streams. Thus, chlorine-neutralizing chemical is added to the
treated wastewater before stream discharge.
The entire process of cleaning wastewater from factories, dirty bodies of water like
Pasig River and Septic Tank for domestic use is summarized in Fig. 3.1
Fig. 3.1 Wastewater Treatment
14
What you will do
Self-Test 2.1
Direction: Select the letter of the choice that correctly answers the questions or
completes the statements.
1. Which of the following is the water reserve of the earth?

a. Surface water c. frozen water
b. Ground water d. non of the above
c.
2. The water that fills up every spaces between soil particles is called
a. surface water c. meltwater
b. groundwater d. watershed
c.
3. The land area in which water runoff drains into a river or river system is called
a. groundwater c. surface water
b. meltwater d. watershed
c.
4. A substance added to water to kill microorganisms is
a. chlorine gas
b. detergent
c. fertilizer
d. oxygen
e.
5. What is the effect of bringing river water into another river basin?
a. ground subsidence c. reduced size of the body of water
b. collapse of river bed d. water pollution
c.
6. Which of the following can be used to remove pollutants from water?
a. phytoaccumulation c. burning
b. biomagnification d. incineration
15
Lesson 3 Marine Water
We live in a country with 7100 islands. Thus, we have enough marine resources.
These resources include the coastal areas where mangroves, seagrass communities, beach
forest and coral reefs are found. They provide habitats for many marine organisms such as
algae, mollusks, fishes and crustaceans. These organisms are used by man for food.
Beaches are also popular recreational areas.
Marine water is very salty. Let us do Activity 3.1 to find out how much salt is present
in marine water.
What you will do

Activity 3.1 How much salt in marine water
What you need:
beaker or aluminum pot, Stove/source of heat, seawater, weighing scale
What to do:
1. Get a glass of seawater.

2. Place it into an aluminum pot
3. Heat to dryness. When water is all gone, what do you see?
4. Weigh the residue left in the pot.
What you have obtained when you heated seawater to dryness was a white residue.
It is the salt that we use with our food. The salt in marine water is about thirty five percent
(35%). Thus, we can not drink seawater without removing the salt. If this salt is removed,
the water becomes a potable water. How can we remove the salt?
This is done through desalination. Desalination is a process of removing salt from

water. This is shown in Fig. 3.1
16
Fig. 3.1 A desalinating plant ( Photo credited to http://nett21.unep.or.jp/)
There are different ways to desalinate salt water. One is through rapid spray
evaporation (RSE). RSE ejects the salt water through a nozzle into a stream of heated air,
forming a mist of droplets which vaporize almost instantly. Solid flakes of salt fall to the
bottom of the container during the process and can be collected.
The coastlines of the Philippines measure 34600 km. More than half of the Filipinos
live near coastal areas. They depend on fishing for their livelihood. However, over-fishing,
compounded with dynamite, cyanide and moro ami fishing, has caused marine resources
to decrease rapidly. Marine life has also been adversely affected by oil spills from
motorboats or tankers and debris made of plastics from beach resorts.
Marine waters are contaminated with all kinds of pollutants. Garbage dumped into
the ground and rivers all end up in the sea. You can even find plastic in Sargasso Sea, a
sea very far from human dwelling places.
What you will do

Self-Test 3.1
1. How do we utilize marine water as a source of drinking water?
a. By distillation c. By filtration
b. By evaporation d. By desalination
c.
17
2. Which of the following degrades the quality of water?
a. moro ami fishing
b. cyanide fishing
c. dynamite fishing
d. all of the above.
e.
3. We use marine water as
a. food source
b. means of transportation
c. means of recreation
d. all of the above
Lesson 4 Land and Soil
Land is teeming with life of myriad forms. A hectare of soil may contain at least 300
million invertebrates – mites, millipedes, insects, worms, and other tiny creatures. About 30
grams of soil may contain one million bacteria, 100,000 yeast cells and 50,000 fungus
mycelium. Without these microorganisms, soil could not convert nitrogen, phosphorus, and
sulfur to forms useful to plants.
Soil can support multitude of life forms which in turn enable it to support plants.
Through constant self-reinforcing forces, the soil becomes enriched with dead organic
matter that helps make soil fertile. Soil also contains water. We shall do Activity 4.1 to
approximate the absorption rate of your soil .
Activity 4.1 Soil Absorption Rate Experiment
What you need:

Can, can opener, hammer, water, watch
What to do:
1. Cut the top and bottom from a can.
2. Hammer the can halfway into the ground you want to test.
3. Pour a specified amount of water into the can that is in the ground. The amount of water
should not overflow the top of the can and you should be able to pour all of it into the can
at one time.
4. With a stopwatch determine the number of seconds that elapse until the water is
absorbed into the soil.
5. Divide the number of seconds by the number of ounces to get a rate in ounces per
second.
Some soil have difficulty absorbing water. Such soil is not good for living things on
land. Some soils cannot water long enough. The soil is also not good for planting crops. But
18
there are soils such garden soil can hold enough water for plants and other land creatures. It
is this soil useful to farmers.
This natural resource is renewable but difficult to replace. Why? As learned in module
12, it takes time to form soil. One third of the earth’s surface is covered by land, amounting
to about 32 billion acres. Not all land is useful to man. Most are mountainous and rocky.
Deserts do not have enough water to support crops. Snow-covered land cannot be used for
farming.
What are the uses of land and soil? We build towns and cities to house the ballooning
human population. We need land for industry and agriculture. Through agriculture, we are
able to feed the growing number of humankind.
Huge tracks of land are also used in growing animals that are sources of food for
man. These animals include chicken, pigs, cows, goat, sheep, and carabao. These animals
have to be fed. So, we need lands to plant vegetation to feed them.
Despite the importance of land and soil to man, we degrade the quality of soil is lost
or degraded through:
erosion by erosion by removal of soil

running water wind vegetation contaminants
Soil erosion can be avoided or reduced in many ways. These practices include the
following:
Contour farming plows and Plant “row crops” such as Terracing

plants crops in rows corn or tobacco on a slope in reduces soil
across the sloped contour strips alternating with grass or erosion on
of the land. This holds soil similar plants (strip cropping) steep slope
and slow water runoff.
Alley farming or
agroforestry is a form of Windbreaks or Gullies created by
intercropping in which shelterbreaks are long water runoff can be
several crops are planted rows of trees are reclaim by planting
together in strips or alleys planted to partially quick-growing
between trees and shrubs block the wind. shrubs, vines and
that can provide fruit or trees.
fuelwood.
19
Fertile soil is also lost through conversion of prime agricultural lands into urban and
suburban development such as subdivisions. Filipinos should consider high rise dwelling
places instead of single detached housing to reduce conversion of arable lands to
subdivisions.
We throw cans, bottles, paper, plastics, and other objects into the ground. Some of
these particles/objects are not biodegradable. Would you like to know how much garbage
each of us produce everyday which we may dump into the ground? Let us do Activity 4.1
What you will do

Activity 4.1 Waste you generate everyday
1. It is Monday and you are leaving home. Bring a bag with you.
2. Into this bag, put all the solid wastes you produce the whole day
3. Once home, weigh the bag full of garbage. How much garbage did you
accumulate the whole day?
4. If there are ten of you in the family, how many kilos of garbage does your family
produce in a week?
If we dumped this much garbage everyday, we produce mountains of garbage after

some time. These mountains of garbage destroy soil. Can we reduce the bulk of garbage
we produce everyday? Yes, there are many ways of doing it.
1. sort the garbage 3. reuse bottles and cans

2. recycle used paper 4. bring metal scraps, metal cans to recycling plants
Many farmers use agrochemical farm inputs. Examples of agrochemical farm inputs
are synthetic chemical fertilizers and pesticides. These farm inputs also destroy soil. Why?
synthetic chemical Pesticides such as insecticide,

fertilizers which may herbicide and fungicide which kill
harden soil or make even the earthworms, the farmer’s
soil acidic or basic chemist
20
Since pest can not be avoided, farmers should consider Integrated Pest Management
(IPM). You can start this technique by knowing the pest and their natural enemies. By doing
so, effective and environment-friendly insect management control program can be designed.
To maximize the potential of land and soil for agriculture, new crops were developed,
better farming techniques were designed, unfertile soil was made fertile and many more.
One way to increase productivity of soil is through irrigation, which waters dry land. Thus,
barren deserts are now productive. Crop rotation could help improve soil fertility. Farmers
may use composted agricultural wastes and unprocessed crushed rocks containing
potassium and phosphate ions. Green manure (fresh or growing green vegetables) is
plowed into the soil to increase organic matter.
Finally, denuded forest should be reforested. If you live beside an empty lot, plant a
tree – fruit-bearing tree like mango and avocado, gmelina, neem tree, madre de cacao, ipil-
ipil, and other trees that do not require much care. When these trees are fully grown, their
roots can hold water and soil. It can also remove carbon dioxide and other gaseous
pollutants. It also provides homes to tree-dwelling animals.
What you will do

Self-Test 4.1
1. Which of the following is most useful land?

a. mountainous land c. snow-covered land
b. rocky land d. plain
2. Which of the following practices is the best way to improve soil fertility?
a. Apply synthetic chemical fertilizer.
b. Use composted agricultural wastes.
c. Use burnt agricultural wastes.
d. all of the above
3. What is the consequence of using synthetic chemical fertilizers?

a. soil becomes hard
b. soil becomes acidic
c. soil becomes basic
d. all of the above
4. Which of the following causes soil infertility?

a. application of composted farm wastes
b. extensive agriculture
c. over-grazing
21
d. b and c
5. Which of the following improves land productivity?

a. better farming technique
b. improved crop variety
c. irrigation
d. all of the above
Lesson 5 Mineral Resources

Our country needs dollars as well as raw materials for industries. Mineral deposits
can supply these needs.
Activity 5.1 The minerals at home…
What to do:
1. Look at the ears, neck, fingers, wrists head of all members of the family? What do
they have in these body parts?
2. Get the purse of the family members. What do you find in the purse?
3. Go the kitchen. You will find utensils and pots.
From steps 1 to 3, you will find metals used as jewelries, coins, utensils and cooking
pots. Where do these metals come from? The come from metallic mineral ores.
Metallic mineral ores contain iron, aluminum and copper, which are important to
construction industry. The same is true with non-metallic minerals such as quartz. Table 5.1
shows these important minerals to industries.
Table 5.1. Metallic/non-minerals and its uses
Metallic/nonmetallic Important Product Use

minerals substance
Iron ore Iron With chromium, Construction
iron is made into
steel
Copper ore Copper Electric wires Electrical wiring
Aluminum ore aluminum can Food packaging
Native elements Gold and silver Jewelry accessories
22
Minerals are removed from rocks through mining. Mining companies use the
following methods to identify promising mineral deposits:
Information about Aerial photos and Instruments on aircrafts and

plate tectonics satellite images can satellites can detect mineral
and mineral reveal rock deposits by their effects on earth’s
formation formation associated magnetic or gravitational fields
with certain minerals
Once mineral deposits are identified, there are several ways to obtain them. These
are:
Subsurface mining removes deep

Surface mining is used to remove deposits.
shallow deposits.
1. Open-pit mining creates We can also get mineral by
holes to get sand, gravel, mining the oceans. These minerals
limestone, sandstone, slate, are found in seawater (magnesium,
granite and marble. bromine and sodium chloride),
2. Dredging uses chain buckets sediments and deposits in shallow
and draglines to scrape continental shelf (sand, gravel,
underwater mineral deposits phosphates, sulfur, tin, copper, iron,
3. Strip mining uses bulldozers, tungsten, silver, titanium platinum,
power shovels or stripping and diamonds), and sediments and
wheels to remove coal and nodules on the deep-ocean floor
phosphate rock (manganese, nickel, copper and
cobalt).
Mining is one of humankind’s oldest activities but the techniques used to extract
minerals have not changed substantially for centuries. Ores are dug from the earth,
crushed, then minerals such as copper and gold are extracted by extreme heat or toxic
chemicals. Extraction can be done physically, chemically or both. The purified minerals are
sent to manufacturing plants to be made into final products such as galvanized iron. Each
step has an effect on the environment and our health. The following boxes show the effects
of mining, extraction, and utilization of substances from ores.
Mining pollutes This affects biological

Mining disrupts land land, water, and air diversity of the area
23
The environmental and health effects of traditional mining technologies have been
harmful. The following alternatives had been identified.
Biomining
Now, the mining industries have turned to microorganisms to separate minerals from
ores. This method of extraction, termed biomining, is more efficient and environment
friendly. Using a bacterium such as Thiobacillus ferooxidans, to separate copper from rocks
or mine tailings have improved recovery rates and reduced operating costs. Moreover, it
allows extraction from low grade ores, an important consideration in the midst of depletion of
high grade ores.
How does the bacterium extract the minerals from rocks? Poor quality metal ore such
as copper sulfide and iron sulfide is dumped outside a mine and treated with sulfuric acid to
encourage growth of Thiobacillus ferooxidans which can be obtained from sulfur-containing
materials. The bacterium gets energy by oxidizing inorganic materials. The process
releases copper or iron and the metal is collected from the solution. The sulfuric acid is
recycled.
Recycling of metal scraps
About ½ of the iron requirement of steel industry comes from scrap. About 1/3 of
aluminum needs of some industries comes from recycled cans. Recycling iron and
aluminum brings energy savings. The energy required to produce one ton of secondary
aluminum from scrap is only 5 % of the energy required to extract and purify primary
aluminum from ore. Scrap is now a vital source of supply for metals.
Many products are packed in cans. Almost everybody patronize these products at
home, restaurants and canteens. Instead of throwing away aluminum cans of soft drinks, tin
cans and iron-containing cans, we can recycle them. Let us have can drive campus wide so
as rusty metals lying some corners at home
What you will do

Self-Test 5.1
1. How do we get mineral ore from great depths?

a. placer mining c. open-pit mining
b. gold panning d. subsurface mining
24
2. Where do we the find bacteria that are useful for biomining?
a. cold spring c. pond
b. hot spring d. soil
3. Which of the following substances is important to the growth of bacteria for

biomining?
a. sodium hydroxide c. sulfuric acid
b. sodium chloride d. none of the three
4. Which of the following packaging material can be replaced by plastic?

a. Aluminum c. tin
b. Glass d. none of the three
5. Where does steel industry get its metal supply?

a. newly mined raw materials
b. metal scrap
c. metal store
Key to Correction on page 30
Lesson 6 Biodiversity
Visit a pond, forest, or park near your home and do the activity found in the box
below.
What you will do

Activity 6.1
1. Select an area in forest, park or pond
2. Identify the different plants located in that area.
3. Count the number of individuals per species
25
You have just seen the different life forms in soil, water and mining sites that best
survive the variety of conditions found on Earth. They exemplify biodiversity. Biodiversity
is potentially renewable resource. There are three levels of biodiversity- genetic ( variety in
the genetic makeup among individuals in the species), species diversity ( variety among
the species or distinct types of organisms found in the different habitats of the planet), and
ecological ( variety of forests, deserts, grasslands, streams, lakes, oceans, wetlands, and
other biological communities).
Biodiversity is not evenly distributed throughout the biosphere. It is highest in the
tropics and declines toward each pole in land, freshwater and oceans. There are more
species in coral reefs in Indonesian archipelago and declines westward across the Pacific
Ocean. Some regions of the world contain unusually large concentrations of species and
are called biodiversity hotspots. The Island of Madagascar, the Cape region of South
Africa, the Great Barrier reef of Australia are biodiversity hotspots.
Biodiversity has direct and indirect value to man.
Direct Value Indirect value

1. medicinal value such as
penicillin from fungus, 1. biogeochemical cycles
tetracycline and 2. waste disposal
streptomycin from certain 3. provision of freshwater
species of bacteria from 4. prevention of soil erosion
2. agricultural such as wheat, 5. regulation of climate
corn and rice 6. ecotourism
3. consumptive use value like
fish and shellfish
This rich variety of genes, species, and biological communities gives us food, wood,
fibers, energy, raw materials, industrial chemicals, and medicines. It also provides us with
free recycling, purification, and natural pest control services.
Despite the enormous number of life forms on earth, many organisms have
disappeared from the environment. Others are on the verge of being wiped out from the
earth. There are many causes that lead to the decrease or disappearance (extinction) of
biodiversity. Some of the causes are
habitat loss or introduction of pollution that leads to acid

damaged dwelling foreign organisms rain, depletion of the ozone
places of organism into an ecosystem layer and global warming
overexploitation or removal of the organisms from a place that significantly

reduces its number
26
The country has lots of endangered organisms. Examples are monkey-eating eagle
in Mindanao, tamaraw in Mindoro and the smallest fish at Lake Buhi, Bicol. However, hope
is not lost. We can do something to our biodiversity resource. We can reverse the trend
and save biodiversity by
deciding which organism to restoring damaged

conserve e.g tropical rain preserving habitat of habitats such replacing
forest where we can find ¾ endangered narra trees or
of the world’s flora and organism such as recovering former
fauna forest industrial sites
producing new habitats e.g. digging a garden pond or planting a forest
Conservation plan for biodiversity involves sampling to assess the number of

organisms, devising a management plan to increase the population of organisms based on
knowledge of its breeding requirement, carrying out the plan and re-sampling to assess the
number of conserved organisms and to determine if the conservation plan is working. A
good example of conservation plan is the breeding in captivity of the monkey-eating eagle in
Calinan, Davao City. Another example is the restoration plan of the smallest fish in the
world, Pandaca pygmeia , in Lake Buhi, Bicol.
Another activity of conservation biology is creation of national parks and wildlife. One
of the best national parks is Mt. Guiting-guitingin Sibuyan Island, Romblon.
What you will do

Self-Test 6.1
1. Which of the following is the concern of conservation biology?

a. manage national parks
b. write books and/or popular books on the value of biodiversity
c. establish protected forests
d. all of the above
2. Which of this is a true statement?

a. Habitat loss is the most common cause of loss of biodiversity
b. Introduction of alien organisms into an environment
c. Global warming can cause decrease of life forms
d. all of the above is true
27
3. Biodiversity is uniformly distributed throughout the world.
a. true b. false
4. How do we call the large concentration of one organisms in a specific region?

a. extinction c. biodiversity hotspot
b. b. genetic biodiversity d. habitat
5. Which of the following is potentially renewable resource?

a. fish b. narra c. corn d. all of the three
Let’s summarize
1. Earth’s resources are either solar capital or natural capital.

2. These resources may be renewable, non-renewable or potentially renewable.
3. Conservation of resources is important.
4. Earth’s freshwater resources are frozen water, water vapor, groundwater, and
surface water.
5. Water for domestic consumption undergoes purification before distribution.
6. Marine water can be made potable through desalination.
7. Earth’s water sources can be polluted.
8. Water pollutants can be removed through wastewater treatment technology.
9. Mineral is another Earth’s resource.
10. Soil is a resource important to growing food crops and domesticated animals.
11. Soil is degraded/lost in many ways.
12. Soil can be saved through technologies such as contour farming, terracing,
crop rotation.
13. Biodiversity is the diverse forms of life in the biosphere.
14. The three levels of biodiversity are genetic, species and ecological.
15. Habitat loss, pollution and introduction of alien species in the area lead to
extinction of some life forms.
16. Breeding in captivity is one strategy to save important life forms.
28
Posttest
Direction: Encircle the letter which answers the question
1. Which one does not belong to the group?
a. solar capital b. water resources c. biodiversity d. soil
2. Because fish and animals produce young, they are considered
a. limited
b. recyclable
c. exhaustible
d. renewable
3. A resource that is destroyed when used, but can be replaced is said to be
a. a mineral
b. recyclable
c. renewable
d. nonrenewable
4. The thin layer of soil on which crops grow is called
a. subsoil
b. topsoil
c. parent material
d. weathered bedrock
5. Plowing across the slopes of hills to prevent topsoil erosion in known as
a. fertilizing
b. strip mining
c. crop rotation
d. contour farming
6. Which of the following sources of water that can easily be contaminated?
a. groundwater
b. surface water
c. marine water
d. polar caps
7. Which of the following is NOT a biotic resource?
a. wood
b. cotton
c. leather
d. petroleum
8. All of these resources are nonrenewable EXCEPT
a. gold
b. water
c. iron ore
d. petroleum
9. Which of the following minerals is used as soil conditioner?
a. copper
b. lead oxide
c. calcium oxide
d. magnesium oxide
29
10. Which of the following is NOT a method of soil conservation?
a. building terraces to prevent erosion
b. using contour faming to retain topsoil
c. cutting forests to provide more cropland
d. rotating crops to keep nutrients in the soil
11. In which step of wastewater treatment that microorganisms are utilized?
a. primary water treatment
b. secondary water treatment
c. tertiary water treatment
d. all steps employ microorganisms
12. The process of enriching the soil by planting different varieties of plants is known as
a. fertilizing
b. terracing
c. crop rotation
d. contour plowing
13. When people practice conservation, they
a. increase deposits of mineral resources
b. stop their use of energy resources
c. worsen the problem of scarcity
d. use the resources wisely
14. Building flat, step-like fields with rock barriers to hold back soil on mountains is
a. alley farming
b. cause of runoff
c. crop rotation
d. terracing
15. The material in soil formed from decayed plant material is called
a. subsoil
b. humus
c. leachate
d. nutrients
16. The process of removing topsoil to reach minerals near the surface is known as
a. placer mining
b. cross mining
c. shaft mining
d. strip mining
17. Which of the following minerals cannot be recycled?
a. iron
b. coal
c. gold
d. aluminum
Key to Correction on page 30
30
Key to Answers
Pretest Self-Test 1.1.
1. A 7. D
2. A 8. D 1. D 4. B
3. D 9. B 2. D
4. B 10. B 3. D
5. D 11. D
6. C 12. C
13. D
Self-test 2.1 Self-test 3.1
1. D 3. D
2. D
1.C 4. C
2. B 5. C
3. D 6. A
1. D 4. D 1. D 4. B
2. B 5. D 2. B 5. B
3. D 3. C
Self-Test 6.1
1. D 4. C
2. D 5. D
3. B
Posttest
1. A 10. C
2. D 11. B
3. C 12. C
4. B 13. D
5. D 14. D
6. B 15. B
7. D 16. D
8. B 17. B
9. C
31
-End of Module-
References:
Mader, S. (2000). Biology. Boston, USA: Prentice Hall, Inc.
Miller, T. (2000). Environmental Science. New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall, Inc.
http://www.groundwater.org/gi/contaminationconcerns.html
http://ohioline.osu.edu/aex-fact/0768.html
http://www.asla.org/awards/2004/04winners/entry557.html
32
MODULE 12

Pasig City
1
Module 12
Inside the Solid Earth
You have observed changes on the surface of the Earth. Some changes occur slowly
while others occur fast. Why is the surface of the Earth never flat? What are the forces
responsible for these changes? This module provides you information and activities that will
help you understand the solid part of the Earth. The lessons contained in this module are:
Lesson 1 - The Structure of the Earth

Lesson 2 - Minerals and Rocks
Lesson 3 - Different Landforms
Lesson 4 - The Formation of the Continents.
Lesson 5 - Igneous Activity
Lesson 6 - Earthquake
Lesson 7 - Soil Formation

1. describe the structure of the Earth;

2. discuss formation of rocks ;
3. distinguish the different kinds of rocks;
4. discuss the different movements of rocks that lead to the formation of different
landforms;
5. explain the formation of the continents using evidences that support the
continental drift theory, sea-floor spreading hypothesis, and plate tectonic
theory
6. analyze the cause of the different natural phenomena such as volcanic eruption
and earthquake
7. discuss how soil is formed and transferred to other places and how it affects
the environment; and
8. suggest precautionary measures in cases of earthquake, volcanic activity and
other hazardous natural phenomena.
2
Read the instruction carefully.

Take the pretest before reading the rest of the module.
Do all the activities and exercises.
Use the concept discussed in each lesson to explain the results of activities or
exercises.
Take the posttest after you have finished the lessons and performed all
activities or exercises.
I. Multiple Choice
Direction: Encircle the letter of the word or group of words that best answers the
question.
1. Which of the following describes the interior of the Earth?

a. Is hot
b. Is solid
c. is layered
d. all of the above
2. Which of the following pairs of minerals dominate the continental crust?

a. calcite and dolomite
b. halide and gypsum
c. hematite and limonite
d. quartz and feldspar
3. Where does oceanic crust form?

a. faults
b. ridges
c. trenches
d. beaches
4. Which of the following best describe the characteristic of a mineral?

a. solid b. inorganic c. definite composition d. all of these
3
5. Which type of rock is abundant in volcanic regions?
a. igneous
b. sedimentary
c. metamorphic
d. both sedimentary and metamorphic
6. In which type of rocks are fossils formed and found?

a. intrusive igneous
b. extrusive igneous
c. metamorphic
c. sedimentary
7. When rocks are compressed, what is formed?

a. downward folds
b. upward folds
c. rivers
d. both a and b
8. Rocks formed by cooling magma are called

a. igneous
b. sedimentary
c. metamorphic
d. none of these
9. Which of the following best describes the plate tectonic theory?

a. fossils are formed everywhere
b. Continents move over the ocean floor
c. Earth’s surface is broken to many pieces
d. A new crust is formed over the ocean floor
10. The magma in the magma chamber of a volcano has a very high amount of silica. If
the volcano would erupt, which of the following might happen?
a. there is a build up of pressure below the crater of the volcano
b. the volcano would erupt violently
c. the lava flow is very slow
d. all of the above
11. There are different kinds of seismic waves that occur during an earthquake. Which of
the following is most damaging to the structures on the surface of the Earth?
a. secondary waves
b. primary waves
c. body waves
d. all of the above
4
12. The occurrence of tsunami is one of the dangers of an earthquake. When is a
tsunami produced?
a. every time an earthquake occurs
b. when the epicenter of the earthquake is on land
c. when the epicenter of the earthquake is under water
d. every time an earthquake accompanies volcanic eruption
13. In which of the following soil does water run through readily?
a. clay
b .loam
c .sand
e. soil with many pebbles
14.Which of the found is agent of erosion
a. animals
b. plant
c. wind
d. weathering
II. Answer the following questions briefly
1. Give two ways to prevent soil erosion.
a. __________________________ b. ________________________
2. Give two precautionary measures before, during and after an earthquake
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Before you start the lessons, familiarize yourself with the following terms :
Terms Definition
Crust - the outer portion of the earth
Continental Crust - the thick parts of the Earth's crust, not located
under the ocean
Oceanic Crust - the thin parts of the Earth's crust located under the
oceans.
5
Mantle
Lower Mantle - the deepest parts of the mantle, just above the core
(semi-rigid)
Upper Mantle (rigid) - the uppermost part of the mantle, part of the
Lithosphere
Upper Mantle (flowing) - the lower part of the upper mantle that exhibits
Asthenosphere plastic (flowing) properties. It is located below the
lithosphere (the crust and upper mantle)
Mohorovicic discontinuity - separates the crust and the upper mantle
Lithosphere - the crust plus the rigid, upper mantle
Plate - A section of the earth crust that floats on the
surface of the mantle
Glacier - a field of ice which moves slowly downward over
slope
Ridge - a raised mass of land with long width and height
Continent - big body of land on the globe
Drift - that which is carried onward by a current
Fossils - a remain or trace of organism in the past
Fissure - a narrow opening; a slitting or break
Erosion - a process by which sediments/soil are transported
to places of lower level
Agents - one which acts, any substance having the power
to change
Enrich - to fertilize, to adorn, to stock with
Bulk - large mass
Trough - a long, narrow container for water
Lesson 1 The Structure of the Earth
Have you ever wondered what is under the ground? You leave your footprints in sand
and soil. You touch the soil and play with it. You get some soil samples and identify the
substances present in the soil. But nobody has seen beyond the area humans have
conducted mining activities.
However, man has invented instruments to get information from the depths of the
Earth. One such information is on vibration. These vibrations have been recorded and
analyzed. Do you know that the Earth’s interior is a layered structure composed of core,
mantle and crust? Table 1 summarizes the nature of the different layers inside Planet Earth.
6
Table 1.1 Layers of the Earth’s Interior and their Characteristics
Layer Characteristics Chemical composition

Core Very hot
Inner Solid Iron and nickel
Outer liquid
Mantle Upper layer is partially Fe, Mg, Si, O
molten ( asthenosphere
Crust Solid
Oceanic Basalt Mostly O and Si , less
amount of P, Al, Mn, Mg,
Ca, K, Na
Continental Crystalline rocks like
granite Dominated by quartz
(SiO2) and feldspars
(metal-poor silicates)
Located between the crust and the mantle is the Mohorovicic discontinuity. It
separates the crust and the upper mantle. The outermost layer of the Earth is divided into
lithosphere and asthenosphere. Lithosphere is rigid, composed of the crust and upper part
of the mantle. Asthenosphere is part of the mantle that flows like plastic.
The lithosphere is divided into continental

lithosphere and oceanic lithosphere. The former is
composed mostly of granite rocks rich in silica and
aluminum. The latter comprises basalt rocks rich in
magnesium and aluminum. Fig. 1 shows the cross-
section of what is inside the solid Earth.
Fig. 1.1 The inside of the Earth
Activity 1.1 Model of the Earth Structure
What you need: water

Old newspaper
Cooked starch
Basin
What to do:
1. Cut the old newspaper into tiny pieces.
2. Soak pieces of paper in the basin with water
3. Using the figure in Fig. 1 as basis, make a model of the earth’s interior with the
use of water-soaked pieces of paper and cooked starch
7
Lesson 2 Minerals and Rocks
The crust is the only layer we can access directly. Why? We plant food crops on it.
The elements listed in Table 1 do not exist as elements in the crust. Instead , each element
is tightly linked or tied to other elements to form naturally occurring chemical compounds
called minerals.
Minerals
are
are solid inorganic have definite
chemical
composition
are naturally
formed
have
characteristics
There are different kinds of minerals. They are classified according to their properties,
chemical composition or uses. Table 2.1 lists the common groups of minerals with
corresponding examples and uses.
Table 2.1 Common Groups of Minerals
Group Example Chemical uses

composition
carbonates Calcite CaCO3 chalk
Oxides Quartz S1O2
Magnetite Fe3O4 Source of iron
Rutile TiO2 paints
sulfides Pyrite FeS2 Source of iron
Galena PbS Source of lead
sulfates Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O Plaster of paris
Native elements Gold Au Jewelries and
coins
Silver Ag
phosphates Apatite Ca5(PO4)3(OH) fertilizer
8
. What you will do
Activity 2.1
1. What minerals can you find in your place?

2. How do you use the minerals found in your place?
Minerals are building blocks of rocks. What are rocks? Rocks are the most common
materials we can see in our surrounding.
Rocks are ….
composed of one
naturally or more minerals
occurring solids non-living
One rock type can change into another types of rocks. For instance, an igneous rock
can change into sedimentary and later into metamorphic rock. How do we call this chain of
changes? It is called a rock cycle. Fig. 2 shows the rock cycle.
Igneous rock can change into

sedimentary rock or into
metamorphic rock. Sedimentary
rock can change into metamorphic
rock or into igneous rock.
Metamorphic rock can change into
igneous or sedimentary rock.
When magma pours out on Earth's
surface, magma is called lava.
Lave is the same liquid rock matter
that you see coming out of
volcanoes.
Fig. 2.1 Rock Cycle
9
Wind and water can break rocks into pieces. They can also carry rock pieces to
another place. Usually, the rock pieces, called sediments, drop from the wind or water to
make a layer. The layer can be buried under other layers of sediments. After a long time the
sediments become a sedimentary rock.
As you can see in the discussion of rock cycle, there are three kinds of rocks. Each
has a different texture and origin. Let’s find out more about these rocks.
Igneous rocks
An igneous rock is formed by the hardening and crystallization of molten

material that originates from deep within the earth. The rock material is called magma.
An igneous rock is divided into 2 groups,- extrusive and intrusive. Extrusive
rocks form when magma flows onto the surface of the earth or floor of the ocean
through deep cracks or fissures and at volcanic vents. The magma then cools and
hardens. An intrusive rock results when magma solidifies beneath the earth's surface.
Extrusive rocks have finer grained texture than intrusive rocks. Intrusive rocks vary
from thin sheets to huge, irregular masses.
Examples of igneous rocks are obsidian, pumice and peridotite
Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks develop from sediments. Sediments are tiny grains of dirt,
sand, mud and clay weathered or worn off rocks. These are then washed into
streams, rivers, lakes and oceans and they settle in the bottom of these bodies of
water. Minerals in the water and very tiny sea animals become mixed with the dirt
and sand to form layers of sediment. Every day more sediments are added. After
thousands and millions of years deep accumulations of sediment are produced. The
weight and pressure from the upper layers turn the sediment in the bottom into
sedimentary rocks.
Examples of sedimenetary rocks are limestone, conglomerate, shale and
sandstone. The Island of Cebu is famous for its limestone and dolomite deposits.
10
Metamorphic rocks
These rocks can come from igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks or even from
other metamorphic rocks. How are these rocks formed? When a rock is subjected to
high temperature, high pressure and chemically active fluids, it becomes unstable and
begins to re-crystallize into different stable minerals. This causes change in the
composition of the rock as well as the rock type. Some examples of metamorphic
rocks are listed in Table 2. The Island of Romblon
is famous for its marble
Table 2 Examples of metamorphic rock rocks. Mindoro Island
has marble rocks ,too.
Metamorphic rock Origin
marble limestone
slate shale
quartzite Quartz sandstone
Schist slate
. What you will do

Activity 2.2 Where do I use rocks?
1. Visit a area in your place where you can find rocks such as river, park,
construction store, etc. Note the rocks that interest you.
2. Request your father or relatives to accompany you to the place where you
found the rocks.
3. Ask your companion the local name of the rocks and how people used the
rocks. You may also ask the reason/s for its use
11
. What you will do
Self-Test 2.1
I. Write the letter corresponding to the right answer.
1. There are many elements present in the crust. Which is the most dominant element
found in the crust?
a. carbon c. oxygen
b. nitrogen d. phosphorus
2. The lithosphere is composed of the
a. crust only c. crust and mantle
b. mantle only d. upper layer of mantle
3. Which of the following rocks are formed from sediments accumulated at the bottom of
the oceans thousands of years ago?
a. extrusive igneous rocks
b. intrusive igneous rocks
c. metamorphic rocks
d. sedimentary rocks
II. Match the rocks in column A with its mineral or uses in Column B
A B
1. limestone a. jewelry
2. marble b. CaCO3
3. gypsum c. plaster of Paris
4. gold
12
Lesson 3 Different Landforms
Look at Figure. 3. Notice the

high and low points of the surface of
Planet Earth. These elevations and
depressions are called landforms.
Landforms are natural features of
the landscape or natural physical
features of the earth's surface. Can
you name some of them? What
makes these landforms? To
answer these questions, let’s do
Activity 3. 1.
Figure 3.1 Different landforms
What you will do

Activity 3.1 Formation of Landforms
What you need: old newspapers, modeling clay, and scotch tape
What to do:
1. Place two or more sheets of old newspaper one on top of the other.
2. Put your finge tips at each end of the pile of newspapers. Push the
newspaper towards each other. Observe and record what you see.
3. Pull the sheets of newspaper away from each other. Observe and record
what you observe.
4. Make another pile of newspapers. Place the second pile beside the first
pile. Secure the piles with adhesive tape so the newspaper sheets in each
pile will not separate from each other. Slide the piles side to side.
5. What does the newspaper represent?
6. What is represented by the push, pull and slide?
13
In Activity 3.1, the newspaper pile represents the crustal rocks. The pile of
newspapers ( rocks) were subjected to stress such as push (compression) , pull (tension)
and slide (shearing). Compression, tension and shearing change the rocks’ volume, shape
or both. It causes rocks to fold or crack. As rocks are compressed, they produce wrinkles.
The upward fold in the rock is the anticline which forms hills and mountains. The downward
fold is the syncline which forms valleys.
As you pull rocks apart, the middle of the rock becomes thinner. When rocks slide past
each other, a break or fault is formed. If there are many faults in an area, what are formed?
You have a series of uplifted areas (mountains) and valleys between mountains.
Other land forms are plateaus and domes. What are they and how are they formed?
Plateaus are raised rock layers that remain flat. If a river separate one large plateau into
smaller ones, you have canyons. The most beautiful canyon is the Grand Canyon in the
Colorado Plateau. Baguio City is a plateau.
How about a dome? A dome is an uplifted area created by rising magma. It is shaped
like the top half of a sphere.
You can see other landforms due to forces operating below the surface of the earth
as shown in Table 3.1
Table 3.1 Other landforms
Other landforms Description

1. volcanic pipes - are short conduits that connect a
magma chamber to the surface
2. volcanic necks -are resistant vents left standing after
erosion has removed the volcanic cone
such as Ship Rock, New Mexico
3. Calderas - Steep-walled depressions at the
summit of a volcano formed by the
collapse of the roof of magma chamber
after cooling and shrinking of magma
- Size generally exceeds 1 km in
diameter
4. lava plateaus - regional expanse of thick lava flow
- formed when thick stacks of laterally
extensive lava flows and hardened
through time.
- Columbia River Plateau, U.S.A. and
Deccan Traps, India are famous
examples
.
14
What you will do
Self-Test 3.1
Name places in the Philippines where there are beautiful mountains, valleys, plateaus
and domes.
Lesson 4 The Formation of the Continents
Get a map or a globe and try to locate the seven continents – Africa, Antarctica, Asia,
Australia, Europe, North America and South America, The seven continents are separated
by the seven famous world’s oceans. You may be wondering where and how the continents
were formed. Let us do activity 4.1.
. What you will do

Activity 4.1 The Continental Puzzle
What you need : globe or map pair of scissors

bond paper pencil
paste
What to do
1. Draw the seven continents

2. Cut out your drawing of the seven continents
3. Place the continents of similar edges side by side to form a close fit.
Question:
Which continents do you think were neighbors before?
15
You could have
produced a figure similar
to Fig. 4.1. This was what
Alfred Wegener figured
out in 1912.
Fig. 4.1 Seven continents
Wegener proposed that there was a gigantic

supercontinent that existed 200 million years
ago, which he named Pangaea ( "All-earth").
Pangaea broke up first into two smaller
continents - Gondwanaland and Laurasia.
The two smaller continents as shown in Fig.
4.2 were separated by Tethys Sea.
Fig. 4.2 Two smaller continents
The two continents further broke up. In 1915, he proposed the Theory of Continental
Drift which states that parts of the Earth’s crust slowly move away from each other on top of
a liquid core. What are the evidences? The evidences that supported the continental drift
theory are the following:
A. Fit of the margin of

the continents like B. The presence of similar
1. Africa and South fossils found in places he
America thought were once
2. Europe and North connected. For instance,
America fossils of Mesosaurus (one
of the first marine reptiles,
even older than the
dinosaurs) and the fossil
plant Glossopteris were
C. Rocks deposits found in both South America
left by glaciers
D. Deposits of
salts , coal and
limestone
16
Wegener’s idea left queries in the science community unanswered. An example of
these questions is, “How can continents plow through hard, solid ocean floor”? These
questions pushed scientists to make more studies which led to the discovery of mid-oceanic
ridge. A mid- oceanic ridge is an underwater mountain. One of this is the famous Mid-
Atlantic Ridge, a vast undersea mountain chain in the Atlantic Ocean. It has a gigantic cleft
about 32-48 km long and 1.6 km deep. The ridge is offset by fracture zones or rift valleys.
In this cleft, the liquid rock called basaltic magma from the mantle rises up to the
floor of the ocean. The hot magma cools down and hardens to form new oceanic crust. The
new crust pushed the older rocks away from the ridge. This is called seafloor-spreading
theory by Harry Hess (1962) and R. Deitz (1961). What findings support the seafloor
spreading theory?
Findings that support seafloor spreading theory
1. Rocks are younger at the mid-ocean ridge

2. Rocks far from the mid-ocean ridge are older
3. Sediments are thinner at the ridge
4. Rocks at the ocean floor are younger than at the continents
How did they explain the observations listed above? New crusts were added at the
ridges of the ocean floor, pushing the old rocks away from the ridges. Also, old crusts were
reabsorbed in the ocean trench. A trench is the deepest part of the ocean floor.
Just like continental drift theory, the seafloor spreading theory left some gaps. From
these two theories, a new theory evolved. This is called Plate Tectonic Theory. This theory
states that the lithosphere is broken into a number of rigid moving slabs called plates. The
plates are either oceanic plates ( under the ocean) and continental plates ( in the continents)
as shown in Fig. 4.3.
Fig 4.3 . The arrangement of lithosphere and asthenosphere.
17
The plates move relative to each other above a hotter, deeper, more mobile zone, the
asthenosphere. The asthenosphere is kept plastic-like by heat produced from unstable light
elements. How do we explain the movement of the lithospheric plates? The very hot
substance in the asthenosphere is light and it rises towards the crust where it cools. Cold
material is denser and sinks downward. The repeated rising and sinking of materials creates
convection currents similar to the event shown in Fig. 4.4.
Fig. 4.4 Convection Current
The convection currents provide

horizontal forces on the plates that cause
them to move. The moving tectonic
plates produce deformations at plate
boundaries. Plate boundaries are
sections where plates meet and interact.
The deformations formed by these
tectonic motion result to various
landforms on the surface of the Earth.
The theory helps explain the

formation of the earth’s crust and its
movements, collisions, and destruction.
It also explains the origin of volcanoes, earthquakes and mountains.
18
There are three types of plate movements – separation of two plates (divergent) ,
collision of two plates ( convergent) and sliding past each other ( transform). What is formed
at plate boundaries as the plates move relative to each other ? Study at Fig. 4.5.
Fig. 4.5 can help you understand plate tectonics. At Point A, continental plate
collides with another continental plate. A fold is formed as what you observed when you
pushed two sheets of newspapers. The fold is the mountain. Mt. Everest and the Himalayan
mountain range were formed in this manner as the Indian plate collided with the southern
part of Asia. We call this the convergent plate boundary movement.
At Point B, two plates move away from each other. This is a divergent plate
boundary. This results to the formation of new crust to widen the sea floor, new ocean basin
or a rift valley such as the great African Rift Valley.
At Point C, an oceanic plate collides with a continental plate. The heavier oceanic
plate sinks while the lighter continental plate moves up. These movements form a trench
and a volcanic arc. This is a convergent plate boundary.
Not shown in Fig. 4.5 are the collision of an oceanic plate with another oceanic plate
as well as the side-to-side movement of plates (lateral slipping or transform). The collision of
two oceanic plates forms a trench and an island arc. This is how the Philippines and Japan
were formed.
When two plates move sideways against each other, great friction is developed. The
movement is jerky. The plates slip, then stick together as friction and pressure increase .
This pressure is suddenly released resulting to an earthquake.
Earthquakes, volcanoes, oceanic trenches, mountain range formation, and many

other geologic phenomenon are deformations at plate boundaries.
. What you will do

Self-Test 4.1
1. Match Column A with Column B
Column A Column B
1. the name of Wegener’s large continent a. sea floor spreading

2. large underwater mountain chain around the earth b. Pangaea
3. the earth’s surface is broken into many pieces c. plate tectonics
4. supercontinent broke up and drifted away d. mid-ocean ridge
5. continent moves over the ocean floor e. continental drift
19
2. Match A with B
A B
1. large underwater mountain chain around the earth a. convergent
2. plate boundary movement that forms new crust b. divergent
3. plate boundary movement that destroys crust c. lateral slipping
4. plate boundary movement that produces friction d. mid-ocean ridge
3. What is formed when crustal rocks are compressed?
a. valleys b. ocean c. wrinkles d. fault
4. What is formed when plates are pulled away from each other?
a. Island arc
b. Rift valley
c. Volcanic arc
d. Mountain range
5. Explain why the Philippines has many volcanoes, experiences lots of earthquakes, and
is composed of many islands.
6. How is Saudi Arabia formed?
Lesson 5. Igneous Activity
Have you heard of igneous activity? Igneous activity is the process of bringing
material from the deep interior of a planet and spilling it on the surface. This may lead to the
formation of new crust. How is the new crust formed? It starts from the hot material from
below. This hot material called magma comes from two sources. It may be produced when
given two lithospheric plates, one slab of crust is forced back down into the deeper regions
of the Earth as shown in Figure 5.1. This process is called subduction. The slab that is
forced back into the Earth usually undergoes melting when the edges get to a depth which
is hot enough.
20
The magma may also come from the
deeper part of the interior of the earth. The
hot magma rises and gathers at a
reservoir found in a weak portion of the
overlying rock called the magma chamber.
The magma comes to the surface to form
a volcano or island.
A volcano is a place on the Earth's
surface where molten rock, gases and
pyroclastic debris erupt through the earth's
crust.
Fig. 5.1 Subduction
Crater
slope
base
What are the parts of a volcano? A
volcano has a summit, slope and base. At
the summit, you have an opening called
vent. A vent may be a crater or caldera. A
crater is a funnel-shaped depression at the
top of a volcano formed as a result of
explosive eruptions. A volcano may have
one crater like the Mayon Volcano or more
than one crater like the Taal Volcano, which
has 47 craters.
Fig. 5.2 Parts of a volcano
Volcanoes erupt in two ways. Some volcanoes erupt through a circular vent above
a tube-shaped chimney. Other volcanoes erupt out of a long crack, called fissure, and
produce a curtain of lava as shown in Fig. 5.3
21
Fig. 5.3 Circular vent & crack-like
Activity 5.1 My volcano

What you need : old newspapers water cooked starch
Basin cardboard small milk can
1. cut newspapers into small pieces.
2. soak pieces of paper in water
3. Based on the discussion about parts of a volcano, build a model
of a volcano with the use of water-soaked newspaper pieces and
cooked starch.
What determines the nature of eruption? It depends on the viscosity of the magma.
Viscosity is a measure of a material’s resistance to flow . Higher viscosity materials flow with
great difficulty . Viscosity is controlled by
temperature of chemical composition presence of dissolved

the magma of the magma gases in the magma
The higher the temperature , the less viscous the magma is. An important substance
in the magma is silica (SiO2). The higher the silica present in the magma, the higher its
viscosity. Dissolved gases also affect the mobility of the magma. Gases expand within a
magma as they get near the Earth’s surface due to decreasing pressure. The violence of an
eruption is related to how easily gases escape from magma. Fluid basaltic lavas generally
produce quiet eruptions. Highly viscous lavas (rhyolite or andesite) produce more explosive
eruptions. The magma of Philippine volcanoes has high silica content. Thus, our volcanoes
erupt violently.
Many Filipinos have witnessed the damage done to Central Luzon when Mt.
Pinatubo erupted in 1992. What did the volcano release? One material released was the
22
lava. Lava may be thrown into air or may flow out of the opening of the volcano. Lava flows
depend on the viscosity of the magma. The collage below shows the different lava flows.
Basaltic flow is very fluid-like and

can travel a great distance
forming a thin sheet
Andesitic flow is too viscous to

travel far, and tends to break up
as it flows
Rhyolitic spire – in some cases,

rhyolitic lava is too viscous to flow at all,
and rises out of the vent as a columnar
plug
Rhyolitic dome - rhyolitic lava

is so viscous that it piles up at a
vent as a dome
Volcanic eruptions release Volcanic eruptions also release

pyroclastics such as gases such as carbon dioxide,
steam, ammonia, and sulfur
dioxide.
• ash and dust - fine, glassy
fragments
Mt. Pinatubo contributed to the
• pumice - porous rock from
depletion of the ozone layer. How?
“frothy” lava
It released sulfur dioxide into the
• lapilli - walnut-sized material
air
• cinders - pea-sized material
• particles larger than lapilli It was raining when Mt. Pinatubo
–Blocks - hardened or cooled erupted, hence mass of mud and
lava lava formed mudflows or lahar .
–bombs - ejected as hot lava Lahar or mudflows destroyed
23
everything on their path.
Let’s look at the different kinds of volcanoes.
Cinder cone Shield volcano Composite cone
–Built from ejected lava –has broad, slightly –Most are located adjacent
(mainly cinder-sized) domed-shaped to the Pacific Ocean
fragments –is composed - Large, classic-shaped
–has steep slope angle primarily of basaltic volcano (thousands of
–is rather small in size lava ft. high & several
–Frequently occurs in –generally covers miles wide at base)
groups large areas –Composed of interbedded
- Famous example is –is produced by mild lava flows and layers of
Paricutin in Mexico and eruptions of large pyroclastic debris
Sunset Crater in volumes of lava - Examples are Mt.
Arizona –examples are Fujiyama, Mt. St. Helens, Mt.
Mauna Loa and Pinatubo, Mt. Mayon.
Kilauea in Hawaii
Cracks form in the rocks surrounding the magma chambers. Magma from the magma
chamber creeps up very slowly into these cracks. These areas are colder than the magma
chamber. What will happen to the invading magma? The magma cools down slowly without
reaching the surface. The result of this slow process is igneous rock structures called
plutons. Plutons are classified according to shape -–tabular (sheetlike)”and or “ massive.
What are the different types of plutons or intrusive igneous features?
The different types of plutons or intrusive igneous features are:
Sill – a tabular, Laccolith

•Dike – a tabular, concordant
discordant pluton –Similar to a sill
pluton –Lens or mushroom-
shaped mass
–Arches overlying strata
upward
These igneous features through time are lifted up by various mountain-building

processes. The overlaying rocks into which they have invaded are weathered, eroded and
stripped away.
24
. What you will do
Self-Test 5.1
1. How many volcanoes do we have in the Philippines? Name 10 of these volcanoes.
2. If lava is very thick, the volcano would erupt
a. silently b. violently c. cannot be determined
Our country has 220 volcanoes and 21 volcanoes are active. Examples are Taal
Volcano and Mayon Volcano. There are dangers during volcanic eruptions. Volcanic
eruption may occur when there is intense storm. We learned earlier that volcanic ash fall
and release of other pyroclastics are dangers of volcanic eruptions. Landslides may also
occur. The boxes below may help you what to do in midst of these dangers.
What to Do Before Intense Storms
1. Be familiar with the land around you to better assess your risk of danger.
2. Watch the patterns of storm-water drainage on slopes near your home.
3. Watch the hillsides around your home for any signs of land movement, such
as small landslides or debris flows, or progressively tilting trees.
What to Do During Intense Storms
1. Stay alert and awake.Listen to a National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA) Weather Radio or portable, battery-powered radio or
television for warnings of intense rainfall.
2. If you are in areas susceptible to landslides and debris flows, consider
leaving if it is safe to do so.
3. Listen for any unusual sounds that might indicate moving debris, such as
trees cracking or boulders knocking together. A trickle of flowing or falling
mud or debris may precede larger landslides.
4. Be alert for any sudden increase or decrease in water flow and for a change
from clear to muddy water near streams or river channel.
25
What to do in case of an ashfall
General Principles
• In ashy areas, use dust masks and eye protection. If you don't have a dust
mask, use a wet handkerchief.
• Keep ash out of buildings, machinery, air and water supplies, downspouts,
stormdrains, etc.
• Stay indoors to minimize exposure -- especially if you have respiratory ailments.
• Minimize travel
• Don't tie up phone line with non-emergency calls.
• Use your radio for information on the ashfall.
• Keep the following at home:
Extra dust masks.

Enough non-perishable food for at least three days.
Enough drinking water for at least three days (one gallon per person per day).
First aid kit and regular medications.
flashlights with extra batteries.
Extra blankets and warm clothing.
Cleaning supplies
What to do during and after an ashfall
• Close doors, windows and dampers. Place damp towels at door thresholds and
other draft sources; tape drafty windows.
• Dampen ash in yard and streets to reduce resuspension.
• Put stoppers in the tops of your drainpipes (at the gutters).
• Protect dust sensitive electronics.
• Since most roofs cannot support more than four inches of wet ash, keep roofs
free of thick accumulation. Once ashfall stops, sweep or shovel ash from roofs
and gutters. Wear your dust mask and use precaution on ladders and roofs.
• Remove outdoor clothing before entering a building. Brush, shake and pre-soak
ashy clothing before washing.
What to do during the clean up period
• Minimize activities that resuspend ash.

• Remove as much ash as you can from frequently used areas. Clean from the
top down. Wear a dust mask.
• Dampen ash to ease removal. Be careful to not wash ash into drainpipes,
sewers, storm drains, etc.
• Use water sparingly. Widespread use of water for clean-up may deplete public
water supply.
• Wet ash can be slippery. Use caution when climbing on ladders and roofs.
26
What to do before landslides
1. Inform affected neighbors. Your neighbors may not be aware of potential

hazards. Advising them of a potential threat may help save lives. Help
neighbors who may need assistance to evacuate.
2. Evacuate. Getting out of the path of a landslide or debris flow is your best
protection
What to Do During a Landslide
1. Quickly move out of the path of the landslide or debris flow.

2. If escape is not possible, curl into a tight ball and protect your head. This
position will provide the best protection for your body.
What to Do After a Landslide
1. Stay away from the slide area. There may be danger of additional slides.
2. Check for injured and trapped persons near the slide, without entering the
direct slide area. Direct rescuers to their locations.
3. Help neighbors who may require special assistance--infants, seniors and
people with disabilities.
4. Listen to local radio or television stations for the latest emergency information.
5. Watch for flooding, which may occur after a landslide or debris flow. Floods
sometimes follow landslides because they may be started by the same event.
6. Look for and report broken utility lines to appropriate authorities. Reporting
potential hazards will get the utilities turned off as quickly as possible,
preventing further hazard and injury.
7. Check the building foundation, chimney and surrounding land for damage.
Such damage may help you assess the safety of the area.
8. Replant damaged ground as soon as possible since erosion caused by loss of
ground cover can lead to flash flooding.
9. Seek the advice of a geotechnical expert for evaluating landslide hazards or
designing corrective techniques to reduce landslide risk.
27
Lesson 6 Earthquake
Look at Fig. 6.1. Determine the extent of damage done to this place. What caused
this damage? Probably, this is due to an earthquake.
Fig. 6.1 Damaged building
Have you experienced earthquake? If not, ask your elders to describe the shaking of
the earth during an earthquake. Do Activity 6.1.
. What you will do

Self-Test 6.1 Individual Account of Earthquake Experience
What to do:
1. Interview a friend, an elder or school officials who have
unforgettable experience of an earthquake. You may interview
several individuals.
2. Get the following information:
a. Date of Earthquake (Month and
Year)_________________________
b. Time it occurred ___________________
c. Where were you? _____________________
d. If you were inside, describe building and specific room. If
outside, describe location (e.g.; sidewalk in front of
department store).
e. What were you doing when the earthquake occurred?
f. f. What happened? What did you see, hear, feel? What did
you and those around you do?
g. How did you feel?
28
The people you have interviewed may gave you the following: - ground rumbles,
hanging lamps swing back and forth, bookshelves rattles, water spills from a shaking glass,
floor and walls sway, and so on.
Plate Tectonic Theory can be used to explain the occurrence of an earthquake. The
crust has lots of large and small cracks called faults. But you can not see the faults even if
they are very long. The cracks are buried deep underground and the pieces of crust are
compressed together very tightly. The powerful forces that compress these crustal pieces
also cause them to move very slowly. When two pieces that are next to each other get
pushed in different directions, they will stick together for many years. However, these forces
pushing on them will break apart cracks and separated cracks move. This sudden shift in
the rock shakes all of the rock around it. These vibrations, called seismic waves, travel
outward in all directions. We call the shaking of the earth as an earthquake. The
underground location where the rock first broke apart or shifted is called the focus of the
earthquake. The area above the focus is called epicenter.
What are the different ways the crust at the cracks shake? The pieces may move
side by side as shown in the figure below or up and down. The movement creates different
kinds of waves.
29
1. Primary or P waves cause rocks to 2. Secondary or S waves cause
push or pull forward. It is the fastest rock to move side to side like a
wave and travels down into the earth snake. It is the second fastest wave
and travels deep into the earth.
3. Surface (L) waves cause rock to

move up-and-down (rolling) or side-
to-side motion of the earth surface. It
is the slowest earthquake waves. It
travels along the surface of the earth.
L waves usually cause the most
damage.
The shaking would last for a few seconds to a couple of minutes. After shock may
follow. There are thousands of earthquakes annually but many are not felt. What are the
dangers of an earthquake?
landslide
Fire due to
damage on gas
and electrical
wiring
Soil turns fluid
(Liquifaction) which
happened in La ground
Union and Dagupan subsidence
during the
Cabanatuan and
Baguio Eathquakes
Extent of damage depends on
intensity and duration of
vibrations, nature of materials
Tsunami, a giant where structures are located
wave, is produced and design of the structure
when the epicenter 30
is under water.
Earthquake may also be caused by volcanic eruptions. People in the vicinity of Mt
Pinatubo felt many quakes prior to the actual eruption.
How do we locate the origin of earthquake? We can use an instrument called a

seismograph.
How do we convey information about an earthquake? How do we know how

vigorous the shaking of the crust was? Scientists in universities and government agencies
like the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PhiVocs) determine the intensity
or magnitude of the earthquake. Intensity is the measure of the human reaction to the
ground movement and the damage done to the ground surface such as cracks and
landslides. Table 3 shows the Rossi-Forel Scale of Earthquake Intensity, used widely in the
Philippines.
Table 3 Rossi-Forel Scales 1873 (Short Version)
Scale Description Indicator/Results

I Microseismic shock Recorded by a single seismograph or by
seismographs of the same model, but not by
several seismographs of different kinds: the
shock felt by an experienced observer.
II Extremely feeble Recorded by several seismographs of different
shock kinds; felt by a small number of persons at rest
III Very feeble shock Felt by several persons at rest; strong enough
for the direction or duration to be appreciable.
IV Feeble shock Felt by persons in motion, disturbance of
movable objects, doors, windows, cracking of
ceilings
V Shock of moderate Felt generally by everyone; disturbance of
intensity furniture, beds, etc., ringing of some bells
VI Fairly strong shock General awakening of those asleep; general
ringing of bells; oscillation of chandeliers;
stopping of clocks; visible agitation of trees and
shrubs; some startled persons leaving their
dwellings.
VII Strong shock Overthrow of movable objects, fall of plaster;
ringing of church bells. general panic , without
damage to buildings.
VIII. Very strong shock Fall of chimneys; cracks in the walls of buildings.
IX. Extremely strong Partial or total destruction of some buildings,
shock
X. Shock of extreme . Great disaster; ruins; disturbance of the strata,
intensity fissures in the ground, rock falls from mountains.
From: Earthquakes and Volcanic Eruptions. A Handbook on Risk Assessment
by Herbert Tiedemann. Swiss Reinsurance Company, Zurich, 1992.
31
Globally, scientists measure magnitude. Magnitude is a measure of the amount of
energy released during an earthquake expressed in Richter scale or other magnitude
scales. The magnitude is calculated by measuring the amplitude of waves recorded on a
seismogram, correcting for the distance between the recording instrument and the
earthquake epicenter. The magnitude scale is logarithmic. Thus, an earthquake of
magnitude 6 produces vibrations with amplitudes 10 times greater than those from a
magnitude 5 earthquake and 100 times greater than those from a magnitude 4 earthquake.
In terms of energy, an earthquake of magnitude 6 releases about 30 times more

energy than an earthquake of magnitude 5 and about 1000 times more energy than of an
earthquake of magnitude 4.
The country is located in volcanic and earthquake belt. We should adopt

precautionary measure for the occurrence of earthquakes. The best protection against
earthquakes is to avoid construction in high-risk areas and to use earthquake- resistant
construction techniques. Firms, whose business is to build houses and high rise buildings,
should have knowledge of the geology of the place. It must make provisions for calamities
such as an earthquake. As an individual, what should you do before, during and after the
earthquake?
Before an Earthquake
1. Secure anything that can be toppled by an earthquake
2. Know how to turn off electricity in your house.
3. Note the nearest accessible exit whenever you enter a building for the first
time.
4. Hold fire and earthquake drill at home, in school and offices so everyone will
know what to do and where to go.
During an Earthquake
1. Keep calm, do not panic.
2. If you are outdoors, move out into an open area away from buildings, which
might collapse, and from electric power lines which can snap and electrocute.
3. If caught indoors or in a high-rise building, take cover under tables, desk or
bed. You can stay under door frames. Do not use elevator.
4. In school or office, do what you practiced during the earthquake and fire drills.
5. Turn off electricity.
32
After an Earthquake
1. Check electrical devices for any damage before using them again.
2. Inspect house for cracks in its support.
3. Do not go inside collapse structures to get belongings. After shocks may occur
anytime.
4. Do not go sightseeing. It is dangerous and you may hamper rescue operations
and relief works.
. 5. Tune in to emergency channels or radio stations for latest information from
local authorities on what to do and where to get medical assistance, food and
water supplies, temporary shelter and other vital information. .
What you will do

Self-Test 6.1
1. Look at the picture below. Make an essay about the picture to explain your concern
as criterion to avoid such thing to happen.
2. With this picture, identify the following

a. What caused the earthquake?
b. Where do earthquakes mostly happen?
c. What should have been done by the structural engineer to avoid the collapse
of the bridge in the picture?
33
Lesson 7. Soil Formations
Have you ever asked anyone where soil came from? There are five important factors
that lead to soil formation.
1. It all started with a parent material such as bedrock, organic material, an old soil
surface, a deposit from water, wind, glaciers, volcanoes or material moving down the
side of a mountain being exposed to agents.
2. The agent such as heat, rain, ice, snow, wind, sunshine and other environmental
factors break down the parent material
3. Plant roots and animals help break the rock into pieces. Microorganisms also release
substances such as acid which can make rock brittle.
4. Then Dead plants and animals become organic matter that makes the soil rich.
5. Topography influences how climate affect soil formation. More water is present at the
bottom of the hill than at the slope. The side of the landscape facing the sun is drier
than away from the sun
Soil is the important product of break up of rocks, usually termed as weathering.

Weathering is physical, chemical, biological or combination of the three processes. It takes
millions of years to form a small amount of soil. Soil varies from place to place, which
explains why different places in the country grow different crops. The way the soil looks if we
cut a section of the soil out of the ground is called soil profile. A sample soil profile is
shown in Fig. 7.1. Every soil profile is made up of layers called soil horizons as thin as a
few millimeters or thicker than a meter. The top layer is called A horizon or top soil, where
most of the biological activities occur. Humus is the most prominent organic matter in the A
Horizon. The next layer is B Horizon or subsoil. It is the lighter, more compact layer. Below
the sub soil is C Horizon or parent material where the soil comes from.
34
A Horizon
.
B Horizon
C Horizon
Fig. 7.1 Soil profile
What will happen to soil once formed? Do Activity 7.1
. What you will do

Activity 7.1 What happen to soil?
What you need
2 wooden troughs, garden soil, water, Sprinklers or can, grass, 2 basins
What to do
1. Fill both troughs with garden soil. Plant one trough with grass
2. Place a wood under one end of the troughs to tilt it slightly.
3. Place a basin in front of the untilted end of the troughs.
4. Pour the same amount of water at one end of the trough and observe the flow
of water.
5. Collect the water that flows into the basin.
6. Compare the presence of soil particles in the collected water in both troughs.
7. How do plants prevent erosion?
8. How do we prevent soil erosion?
Give the effects of erosion to the environment.
35
From the activity, you found out that soil could be transported from one place to
another. This process is called erosion. There are different agents of erosion. In the activity
that we have done, the agent of erosion is water. Other agents are wind, gravity and even
man. The transported materials are deposited in low-lying areas, rivers, lakes and oceans.
Once they reach the ocean, they are re-deposited as marine sediments.
Because of more soil formation and erosion, soil profiles change as you move across
a landscape and as you move downward deeper into the soil at one location.
. What you will do

Self-Test 7.1
Direction: Answer the following questions.
1. What are the soil-forming factors?

2. What are the agents of soil erosion?
3. What are the layers of soil?
4. How do we prevent soil erosion?
Let’s summarize
We have learned the following:
1. There are three layers of the Earth’s interior – core, mantle and crust. Each has
unique characteristics
2. Crust is the only layer directly accessible to humans. It contains different kinds of
minerals. Minerals aggregate to form rocks
3. There three kinds of rocks-igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic
rocks.
4. Different kinds of rocks are formed in different ways. Igneous rocks are formed
through slow or fast cooling of magma that escape the magma chamber.
Metamorphic rock is under intense pressure and temperature. Sedimentary rock is
formed through deposition, compaction and cementation of sediments.
5. The surface of the earth is always changing. Thus, there are many landforms such as
mountains, valleys, volcanoes, plateaus, domes, etc.
6. There are two opposing forces that shape the surface of the earth – subsurface
activity and surface activity. An example of subsurface activity is igneous activity.
Weathering is a surface activity.
7. Continental drift theory, sea-floor spreading theory and plate tectonic theory are used
to explain the changes on the surface of the earth due to subsurface activities that
produce mountains , volcanoes and islands
36
8. Surface activity like weathering causes wear and tear of the crust leading to formation
of soil.
9. Sediments are products of weathering and are transported and deposited in other
areas.
10. Water and wind are agents of erosion
11. There are five factors that form soil.
Posttest
Direction: Encircle the letter of the word or group of words that best answers the
questions.
1. Which of the following layers of the earth’s interior is in liquid form?

a. outer core
b. inner core
c. mantle
d. crust
2. The core of the earth is made up of
a. oxygen and silicon c. iron and silicon
b. iron and nickel d. copper and iron
3. Which of the following is a mineral?
a. oil c. calcite
b. coal d. limestone
4. Two convergent plate boundaries lie adjacent to each other. If plate is oceanic and
the other is continental, what is formed when these two plate boundaries move?
a. volcanic arc
b. mountains
c. island arc
d. rift valley
5. Which type of rock Mindoro and Romblon Island are famous for?
a. Igneous rock
b. sedimentary rock
c. metamorphic rock
d. both sedimentary and metamorphic rock
6. Which type of rocks that may include plant and animal parts?
a. a. Igneous rock
b. sedimentary rock
c. metamorphic rock
d. both sedimentary and metamorphic rock
37
7. Which of the following stresses results to cracks in the crust?
a. tension b. shearing c. compression d. none of these
8. Folds are formed when the earth’s crust bends. Which of the following is formed
during formation of folds?
a. the syncline becomes a plateau while anticline forms the plain
b. the syncline becomes the lain while the anticline forms the ocean bed.
c. the syncline becomes the mountains while the anticline forms the valley.
d. the syncline form into valley while the anticline becomes the mountains
9. Rocks change continuously. How do we call this continuous change?
a. biogeochemical cycle c. erosional cycle
b. intrusion cycle d. rock cycle
10. A landform that is not faulted or folded but raised and its top is flat is called
a. volcano b. plateau c. dome d. basin
11 . If the temperature of the magma of a volcano is high and it contains low silica. The
lava flows ________ and the volcano would erupt _________.
a. slowly , violently c. slowly, silently

b. very fast, violently d. fast, silently
12. Which of the following seismic waves travels fastest?
a. primary waves c. body waves

b. secondary waves d. they all travel at the same speed
13. Tsunami is one of the many dangers of earthquake. When does it occur?
a. epicenter is above water c. epicenter is on land

b. epicenter is under water d. a volcano erupts
14. In which part of the soil where microorganisms are most active?
a. A Horizon
b. B Horizon
c. C Horizon
d. Bed rock
38
15. A soil has specific profile. Which layer would have the most biological activities?
a. parent material c. top soil
b. sub soil d. all of these
III. Answer the following questions briefly.
1. Give 2-3 practices in your locality which prevent soil erosion
39
Key to answers
Pretest Self Test 2.1
Test I
1. A 6. D 11. C 1. C
2. D 7. D 12. C 2. C
3. C 8. A 13. C 3. D
4. D 9. C 14. C Test II
5. A 10. B 1. B 3. C
2. B 4. A
Self-Test 3.1
Mt. Apo in Davao City Mt. Makiling in Laguna
BanawI in Mountain Province Baguio City
Marikina Valley Sto. Tomas Mountain in Cordillera
Sierra Madre Mt. Maculot in Batangas
Bukidnon - Plateau Montalban, Rizal

1. Volcanoes
1. 1. B 3. C 5. A
Mt. Mayon, Mt. Makiling,
2. D 4. E
Bicol Region Laguna
2. 1. D
Taal Volcano, Mt. Apo,
2. A & B
Batangas Davao
3. A & B
Hibok-Hibok Mt. Isarog,
4. C
Volacano, Bicol
3. C
Camiguin
4. B
Mt. Pinatubo, Dadicas
5. The Philippines is
Zambales Volcano,
located where there is
Babuyan
active plate boundary
Island
movement
Mt. Canlaon, Mt. Balatocan ,
6. Saudi Arabia is
Negros Misamis
formed by the
Oriental
boundary movement
of divergent plates.
2. B
40
1.
2. a. plate tectonics 1. exposed parent rocks,
b. most earthquakes agents of soil
happen along the formation , plants and
boundaries of tectonic animals, topography,
plates time
c. structural engineers 2. wind, water, rain, sun
should implement strict 3. top soil, subsoil,
building codes when parent rock
constructing houses, 4. plant trees, terracing
buildings and bridges
Post Test
1. B 6. B 11. D
2. B 7. C 12. A
3. C 8. D 13. A
4. A 9. D 14. A
5. C 10. B 15. C
References
Coble, C.R., et. Al. (1991). Earth Science. New Jersey, U.S.A.: Prentice Hall
Tarbuck, E.J. and F.K. Lutgens. (1995). Earth Science. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, U.S.A.: Prentice
Hall
Villegas, A.N. (1998). Integrated Science.
Science and Technology for the Modern World.
http://kids.earth.nasa.gov/archive/pangaea/evidence.html (Accessed on October 4, 2004)
http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/dinosaurs/glossary/Contdrift.shtml. (Accessed on October 4,

2004)
http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0001765.html. (Accessed on October 4, 2004)
http://www.citytel.net/PRSS/depts/geog12/litho/pangea.htm. (Accessed on October 4, 2004)
http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0844184.html. (Accessed on October 4, 2004)
http://cse.ssl.berkeley.edu/lessons/indiv/davis/hs/QuakesEng3.html. (Accessed on October 4, 2004)
41
Multi-HazardLast Updated: Monday, 01-Nov-2004 12:12:04 EST
http://www.fema.gov/kids/teacher.htm downloaded on March 31, 2005.
http://www.learner.org/exhibits/volcanoes/. (Accessed on October 4, 2004)
http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/volc/eruptions.html. (Accessed on October 4, 2004)
http://www.edu.pe.ca/southernkings/landforms.htm. (Accessed on October 4, 2004)
http://www.harcourtschool.com/activity/dirt/formation.html. (Accessed on October 4, 2004)
http://soils.usda.gov/education/facts/formation.html. (Accessed on October 4, 2004)
42
43
MODULE 13

Pasig City
1
Module 13
All About Water
Water is all around us. If you look at any globe or map of the world, you can see that
it is mostly blue. These blue areas represent the oceans, seas, and lakes on earth.
Water is a very important resource on earth. Almost every activity on earth needs
water. Can you imagine what your life would be like without water?
In this module you will learn more about water. The module consists of these lessons:
Lesson 1 - Distribution of World’s Water

Lesson 2 - Earth’s Fresh Water
Lesson 3 - Ocean Water
Lesson 4 - Human Impact on Earth’s Water
After going through this module you should be able to:
1. discuss the distribution of the world’s water;

2. describe the water cycle as a never – ending transfer of water between the
atmosphere and the surface of the earth,
3. explain how porosity and permeability affect the amount and velocity of groundwater,
4. identify the regions of groundwater,
5. explain how wells and springs form from groundwater,
6. discuss how rivers and streams develop,
7. determine the composition of ocean water,
8. discuss the importance of ocean water, and
9. show that growth in population may affect consumption of freshwater on earth.
2
In order to achieve successfully the objectives of this module you have to be guided by
the following:
1. Read and follow instructions carefully.

2. Answer the pretest before going through each lesson.
3. Take note and record points for clarification as you go on reading the module
4. Do the activities to fully understand each lesson.
5. Answer the post-test after you have gone over all the lessons and you feel you
have learned the lessons well
Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer and write this on your answer sheet.
1. Which of the following contains the greatest amount of water by volume on earth?
a) oceans
b) glaciers and ice sheets
c) groundwater
d) atmosphere
2. What term best describes the never-ending transfer of water between the atmosphere
and the surface of the earth?
a) oxygen cycle c) hydrologic cycle
b) nitrogen cycle d) phosphorus cycle
3. It is the condensed water vapor that falls back to the surface of the earth.
a) cloud c) precipitation
b) table water d) groundwater
4. Of the following processes, which is responsible for getting water into the atmosphere?
a) evaporation c) condensation
b) sublimation d) precipitation
5. When spaces between rock particles fill with groundwater, the rock is
a. eroded
b. weathered
c. evaporated
d. saturated
3
6.The following affect the porosity of the soil or rock EXCEPT
a) shape of the particles
b) sorting of particles
c) packing of particles
d) slope
7. One of these is the correct sequence of the underground zones. Which is this?
a) water table, zone of aeration, zone of saturation
b) zone of aeration, zone of saturation, water table
c) zone of aeration, water table, zone of saturation
d) zone of saturation, water table, zone of aeration
8. It is the upper boundary of the zone of saturation.

a. aquifer
b. water table
c. zone of aeration
d. impermeable bedrock
9. Seawater is composed of different minerals. The mineral with the greatest

percentage in seawater is ____.
a) sodium chloride c) calcium sulfate
b) magnesium sulfate d) magnesium chloride
10. Groundwater has many uses. It can be used as drinking water or as a source
of water for the producers. On which region is groundwater mostly stored?
a) zone of saturation
b) zone of aeration
c) discharge zone
d) recharge zone
4
Familiarity with the following terms will help you get the most from this module:
Terms Definition
1. Hydrosphere - The dynamic mass of liquid that is continually on the
move
2. Evaporation - The process whereby fast moving molecules escape

from the free surface of the liquid
3. Condensation - The process whereby vapor changes from vapor to liquid
4. Hydrologic cycle - The unending exchange of water among the continents,

surface water, and atmosphere
5. Porosity - The amount of pores or open spaces in rocks or

sediments
6. Permeability -The measure of how fast water passes through the open
spaces in rocks and sediments
7. Recharge zones - Locations where surface water infiltrates the groundwater

system
8. Discharge zones - Locations where groundwater flows or seeps out at the

surface
9. Zone of saturation -Rock layer where all the pore spaces are filled with water
10. Groundwater - Water in the zone of saturation
11. Water table - Upper boundary of the zone of saturation
12. Zone of aeration - Area above the zone of saturation where the pore spaces
are not yet fully filled with water
13. River - Body of inland water that flows in natural channels
9. Spring -Natural flow of groundwater when the water table

intersects the ground surface
10. Wells - Openings that may be bored into the zone of saturation
where groundwater naturally flows
11. Salinity - The percentage of salt in a given volume or mass of

seawater
5
Lesson 1 Distribution of the World’s Water
Water is one of the most abundant substances on earth. It can be found

anywhere on earth. There is water on the earth’s surface, in the subsurface, and
around the earth. In this lesson you will learn how water is distributed over the
earth’s surface.
To find out the distribution of the earth’s water, look at Table 1.1 below.
Complete the third column by computing the corresponding volume of the water
at different locations
Table 1.1 Distribution of Water by Percentage and Volume in Different

Locations
Location Amount of Water Volume

(%) (km3)
Ocean 97.2
Lakes, streams, 0.65

subsurface water and
atmosphere
Ice sheets and glaciers 2.15
Total 100% 1.36 Billion
6
What you will do
Activity 1.1
Using Table 1.1, answer the following questions:
1. Where is most of the water on earth found?

2. What percentage of the water on earth is found in the ocean?
3. What percentage of the water on earth is found in lakes, streams, or
subsurface?
4. What is the total volume of water on earth in cubic kilometers?
5. What is the volume of water found in the ocean in cubic kilometers?
6. What is the volume of water found in lakes, streams, subsurface and
atmosphere in cubic kilometers?
7. Explain why there is a need to conserve fresh water.
The earth’s waters may be found in the atmosphere, on the surface, and
underground. The total amount of water on earth is estimated to be 1.36 billion
cubic kilometers. Of this total, 97.2% or 1.28 billion cubic kilometers is part of the
world’s oceans, 2.15% or .03 billion cubic kilometers exists as ice sheets and
glaciers, and 0.65% or .009 billion cubic kilometers is divided among lakes,
streams, subsurface water, and the atmosphere. Compared to the volume of
water in the ocean, the volume of subsurface water or groundwater, which is the
source of fresh water, is very small. A greater part of this freshwater is in the form
of ice and is not available for consumption. With the growing population, demand
for freshwater is increasing. There is really a need to conserve fresh water.
If you look at the globe or world map, you will find that the land and water
are not evenly distributed between the two hemispheres. There are more land
areas than water areas in the Northern Hemisphere while in the Southern
Hemisphere there are more water areas than land areas. For this reason, the
Northern Hemisphere is called the land hemisphere while the Southern
Hemisphere is called the water hemisphere.
The hydrosphere is the dynamic mass of liquid that is continually on the

move. How is water transferred in the different parts of the earth? To find out do
the activity that follows.
7
What you will do
Activity 1.2 The Water Cycle
Materials Needed:
Wide-mouthed glass jar (heat resistant) with transparent cover

Hot water
Ice cubes, crushed
Procedure:
1. Pour hot water to a height of 3-cm to the wide-mouthed glass jar.

2. Cover the jar and place crushed ice cubes on the cover.
3. Observe what happens inside the jar.
4. Record your observations.
Did you notice that when the crushed ice was placed on the cover of a
wide-mouthed bottle with hot water, smoke-like material was observed inside the
bottle and after sometime moisture was formed in the sides of the bottle and the
inside part of the cover? Did you also notice that water droplets fall back to the
water from the top cover?
Water evaporates from the surface of hot water. Evaporation is the

process whereby fast moving molecules in a liquid escape from the free surface
of the liquid. The ice on the top cover cooled the upper air inside the bottle. When
rising water vapor reached the top it also cooled because it gives off heat to the
cold air on top and changed phase from gas to liquid. This process whereby
water changes from gas to liquid is called condensation. Water vapor
condensed as it is cooled to condensation temperature.
The same processes happen in the environment. Fast moving molecules

of water escape from the free surface of the bodies of water. The water vapor
mixes with air and is carried with air upward. As water vapor cools condensation
occurs. Condensed water vapor falls to the ground when it becomes heavy.
Condensed water vapor that falls to the ground is called precipitation.
Precipitation may be in the form of rain, hail, snow, and sleet and may fall either
on land or on bodies of water.
The unending exchange of water among the continents, surface water,

and the atmosphere is called the hydrologic cycle or the water cycle. This cycle
of water maintains the quantity of water on earth.
8
What you will do
Self-Test 1.1
To find out if you learned from the previous discussion answer the
following questions
1. Why is there continuous supply of water all over the world?

2. What are the two processes involved in the water cycle? Explain these
processes.
Lesson 2 Earth’s Fresh water
What is fresh water? Where does fresh water come from? This lesson will
help you learn more about the earth’s fresh water and ways on how to use it best.
Groundwater
In the water cycle, condensed water vapor falls back to the surface of the
earth as precipitation in different forms. Precipitation reaching the land areas may
either flow as runoff and become part of the streams and rivers eventually
reaching the oceans or may seep right into the soil. The seepage of precipitation
into the earth is called infiltration. Infiltration of water is possible because there
are spaces between soil or rock particles. Pores are usually filled with air that is
forced out as water enters these pores. The water that fills the pores between
rock particles is called infiltrates. Locations where surface water infiltrates the
groundwater system are known as recharge zones, while places where
groundwater flows or seeps out at the surface are discharge zones.
9
Figure 2.3: A cross-section of groundwater zones
Groundwater usually refers to the water that infiltrates. This is the water
underground. Groundwater is a bountiful source of freshwater on earth. About
90% of the earth’s freshwater is stored as groundwater.
Groundwater Movement
The movement of groundwater into the pores of rocks and sediments is

affected by the porosity and permeability of rocks.
What you will do

Activity 2.1
Study Figure 2.1, then, answer the following questions:
1. Which is more porous, rock with loosely packed particles or rock
with closely packed particles?
2. Which is more porous, rock with rounded-shaped particles or rock
with angular-shaped particles?
3. How does sorting of rock particles affect porosity of rocks?
4. How does porosity affect the amount of water that could stay
between rock particles?
Porosity refers to the amount of pores or open spaces in rocks or

sediments. Sorting, shape, and packing of particles affect porosity (Figure 2.1).
Sorting is the similarity in size of particles in rocks or sediments. Well-sorted
sediments make the rock more porous. However, poorly sorted sediments make
the rock less porous. Sediments with rounded particles are more porous than
sediments with angular-shaped particles. Further, loosely packed sediments
allow many open spaces for water to pass through, making the rock more porous.
Tightly packed sediments, on the other hand, allow very few spaces for water
10
seepage. Generally, porous rocks allow more water to stay between particles in
rocks.
Figure 2.1. How Sorting, Shape, and Packing of Particles Affect Porosity
The permeability of a rock or sediment determines how fast water passes

through the open spaces. To understand how permeability affects the amount of
water that seeps to the ground, do the following activity, then, answer the
questions that follow.
What you will do

Activity 2.2 Permeability
Materials needed:
Pencil, sharpened stopwatch

Sand, clay, gravel ruler
Graduated cylinder rubber band
3 large plastic cups cheesecloth
300-mL water
1 empty mineral water plastic container (halved horizontally)
11
Procedure:
1. Make 7-10 holes at the bottom of each plastic cup using the pencil nail.
2. Cover the holes with cheesecloth and tie the cloth with a rubber band.
3. Measure 3-cm from top of each cup. Mark it with a pencil line.
4. Fill cup #1 with sand up to the pencil line. To cups #2 and #3, do the
same but place clay and gravel instead.
5. Position the halved plastic container as shown. They will be used to
support the plastic cup and contents.
6. Pour 100-mL water into the plastic cup.
7. Record the time it takes for water to drip through the holes of the cup.
8. Transfer the water collected in the receiving container to the graduated
cylinder. Get its volume in mL.
9. Repeat steps # 6, 7 and 8 to cups 2 and 3.
10. Calculate the rate of drainage of each cup using this equation:
Volume of water collected

Rate of drainage =
Time it takes for water to drain
10. Calculate the amount of water (in %) retained in the soils in cups 1, 2 and
3.
% of water retained = 100 mL – volume of water collected (ml) x 100

100-mL
Questions:
1. In which cup is water free to pass through the greatest? Why?

2. In which cup is water retained the greatest? Why?
3. Which soil sample is the most permeable? Least permeable? Why?
What you will do

Activity 2.3
Study Figure 2.2, then, answer the questions that follow:

1. Which is more permeable, rock with large pores or rocks with small pores?
2. Which is more permeable, rock with interconnected pores or that with
isolated pores?
3. In what type of rock does groundwater freely flow?
Permeability is affected by the size of the pores or spaces between

particles in a rock or sediment (Figure 2.2). If the pores or spaces between
particles are wide, the rock tends to be more permeable. Gravel is said to be
more permeable. Clay, on the other hand, is less permeable because spaces in
12
between particles are small. Permeability also depends on how interconnected
the pores are. If pores are interconnected, water can pass through easily.
Figure 2.2 A: Rock with interconnected pores.

B: Rock with isolated pores.
Gravity and the permeability of rocks in the zone of saturation pull water
downward. How fast groundwater flows is affected by the permeability of
aquifers and the hydraulic gradient (steepness) of its water table.
The velocity of groundwater increases with increasing permeability of
rocks and steepness of slope of water table.
Regions of the Groundwater
What you will do

Activity 2.4
Look at Figure 2.3, then, answer the following questions:

1. What are the regions of groundwater from the top to the bottom?
2. In what region or zone is groundwater mostly stored?
3. Where is the water table found?
4. What type of rock should be below the zone of saturation to keep
groundwater from flowing down further?
13
As rainwater seeps into the ground, some water clings to soil and roots of
plants near the surface. Some of this water provides plants with water they need.
The remaining water continues to seep into the ground if the rock is porous and
permeable. Aquifers are rocks that allow water to flow and wherein water can be
stored because they are highly porous and highly permeable. Water that
infiltrates may force out all the air in a rock and fills all the pores. This zone is
called the zone of saturation. But for aquifers to be saturated with groundwater,
the rock below it should be impermeable that will prevent the down flow of water
from an aquifer. This rock is an aquiclude. The upper boundary of the zone of
saturation is called the water table. Above the water table, the pore spaces in
rocks are not yet completely filled with water. Some pore spaces are still filled
with air. This zone is called the zone of aeration.
What you will do

Self test 2.1
Go over the previous discussions about groundwater and answer the following
questions:
1. What is groundwater?
2. What is the source of groundwater?
3. Enumerate the factors that affect the movement of groundwater?
4. Explain how each factor enumerated in question 3 affects the movement
of groundwater?
Springs
Recall that in the hydrologic cycle, condensed water vapor that falls to the
ground seeps to the subsurface of the earth forming the groundwater. Where
does groundwater go?
Whenever the water table intersects the ground surface, there is a

natural flow of groundwater. This is called a spring. A spring is formed when the
ground water naturally finds its way to the surface. It may be formed in a fracture
so there is a continuous flow of water. It may also occur on a hillside but the flow
of water is not continuous because the water table is low during summer. Spring
water is generally fairly clean since it has been filtered through the permeable
rocks in the aquifer. It contains dissolved minerals Can you identify some places
in the country were springs are found?
14
Some springs contain so much dissolved minerals that they cannot be
used for ordinary drinking or washing purposes. These are called mineral springs.
Where do you think these minerals come from?
The high mineral content may come from very soluble rocks like salt
beds. In some, many minerals are dissolved from rocks because the spring water
contains large quantities of gases that form acids when mixed with water such as
carbon dioxide or hydrogen sulfide. Or, if the spring water is very hot, it is likely to
have a high mineral content since minerals dissolve better in hot water.
Wells
People have also devised ways to access groundwater. Openings may be
bored into the zone of saturation forming wells. A well may dry up during dry
season when the water table falls below the normal level.
Running Water
You might have read from world history books that the first civilizations
emerged along fertile river valleys. The rivers’ fertile floodplains have fostered
human progress since the dawn of civilization. The Nile River, for example has
been harnessed not only to supply hydroelectricity, but for constant irrigation. It is
navigable the year round from its mouth to as far as Uganda. You are familiar
with the Pasig River. Think of the many uses of that river.
Fig. 2.4 The Pasig River as a means of transportation.
Rivers are bodies of inland water that flow in natural channels. Aside from
being an important component of the hydrologic cycle, rivers and other running
water have many uses. Silt deposited by the river’s annual overflow has brought
15
agricultural prosperity throughout the world. We depend upon rivers for irrigation,
transportation, energy, and for food. Do you know where rivers and other running
water come from?
Spring water and water from wells flow on the earth’s surface. This runoff
initially flows over wide areas and enter small streams. As streams flow down
mountain slopes they join with other streams. A stream that joins other streams is
called a tributary. Water in small streams enters larger streams or rivers.
Streams vary in size and shape. Larger streams formed by the meeting of small
streams are sometimes called rivers, the two terms, are however,
interchangeable. Water in streams eventually makes its way to the sea.
Stages in River Development
A river’s drainage pattern and channel shape both change over time as
does the landscape through which the river flows. A channel is the path of any
stream.
First Stage: Young Stream
Young stream flow rapidly down the steep slopes of mountains or hills.
They are characterized by steep slopes and rapid flow. A relatively small volume
of water flows in young streams. As a stream flows downhill, particles of soil are
carried along the ground. Because of the rapid flow, erosion happens fast
resulting to narrow V – shaped valley. Waterfalls and rapids are associated with
youthful rivers.
Second Stage: Mature Streams
Once a stream has cut its channel closer to base level, downward erosion
becomes less dominant. Mature streams curve down graded slopes, eroding
their sides on the way. The result is the widening of the valley producing
floodplain. The stream flowing in the flood plain bends. This is called a meander.
As the stream moves to the sides, the outer bank is eroded causing the meander
to continually change position. Deposition of sediments like sand takes place
since the stream current at the inside of the meander is slow.
Third Stage: Old Stream
Streams enter old age after it has cut its floodplain several times wider
than the width of the meander. The stream at this stage is far from the valley wall.
As the floodplain is no longer increasing, shifting of streams occur more rapidly.
Old rivers are very muddy, a consequence of large amount of sediments carried
by a river with low velocity.
16
Lakes
These bodies of water have many uses to humans. Aside from providing
people with a source of livelihood, lakes can generate electricity and can serve
as a means of transportation. Lakes also add beauty and scenery to the place.
Some famous lakes in the country are Taal Lake, Lake Lanao, and Laguna de
Bay. What other lakes do you know?
The origin of the lakes can be traced to the following cases:
By volcanic action. During volcanic eruptions, a lava flow can build a dam
across a valley. When a volcano runs out of magma, it collapses and leaves a
depression that eventually becomes filled with water.
By diastrophism. During earthquakes, the earth’s crust may move creating

a depression which becomes a lake basin.
By river action. Fallen trees and other debris clog rivers creating a dam
that will cause a river to back up thus forming a lake.
The previous discussion is concerned with natural formation of lakes.

Lakes can also be formed by artificial means. Artificial lakes are those produced
by humans. Deep excavations that are filled with water can give rise to a lake.
How do lakes die or disappear? The complete destruction of the lake

basin causing loss of water can result in the disappearance of lakes. When a
lake is filled with sediment or decayed vegetation, it may die. It will give rise
either to a lake plain or a swamp.
What you will do

Self-Test 2.2
Classify the following bodies of water as fresh water or saltwater. When

you are through answering the questions, check your answer against the answer
key on page 31.
1. lakes ________________
2. springs ________________
3. wells ________________
4. rivers ________________
5. oceans ________________
6. streams ________________
7. coastal waters ________________
17
Lesson 3 Ocean Waters
Do you know why the earth is called a blue planet? Look at the globe or
world map. Do you notice that the earth consists mostly of water? The oceans
cover 70% of the earth’s surface, so it is called a blue planet. In this lesson, you
will be able to:
determine the composition of ocean water;

identify the resources we get from sea water; and
discuss the importance of ocean water.
What you will do

Activity 3.1
1. In a globe or the map, identify the (a) biggest ocean in the world and (b)
the smallest ocean.
2. Name the seas in your province.
Oceans and seas are interconnected bodies of seawater. The five

biggest bodies of water are the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Arctic Ocean,
Indian Ocean, and the Antarctic Ocean. Of the five bodies of water, Pacific
Ocean is by far the largest in terms of volume. It is also the deepest.
Composition of Seawater
When you swim in the sea, you sometimes accidentally drink water. What
does it taste like? This section will help you learn about the composition of the
ocean water.
Do the following activity to find out the composition of ocean water.
18
What you will do
Activity 3.2 What is in ocean water?
1. If your place is near the sea, get a spoonful of seawater. If far from the sea,
get a spoonful of salt and dissolve in ¼ cup of water. This will represent your
seawater. Get a spoonful from this solution.
2. Place the seawater or the salt solution in a beaker or any heat resistant
container.
3. Heat the seawater or the salt solution until the water boils. Lower the flame.
Continue heating until all the water has evaporated. Immediately remove the
container from the flame once all the water has evaporated.
4. Observe what is left at the bottom and sides of the container.
Did you notice that whitish grains are left at the bottom and sides of the
container? These grains are salt crystals. These make the seawater salty. These
are the same particles you observe on your skin when you get out of the sea and
water in your skin has dried up. The percentage of salt in a given volume of
seawater is called salinity.
What you will do

Activity 3.3
1. Look at Figure 3.1 to learn more about the composition of ocean water or
seawater.
Fig. 3.1
2. Answer the following questions using figure 3.1:
19
Questions
1. What are the major constituents of seawater?

2. What element contributes the greatest percentage to the ocean’s salinity?
3. What element contributes the least percentage to the ocean’s salinity?
4. In 1000 grams of seawater with a salinity of 35%, how many grams is water?
How many grams is salt?
The major constituents of seawater are chlorine, sodium, sulfate,

magnesium, calcium and potassium. Chlorine contributes the greatest
percentage to the ocean’s salinity, while the minor constituents, composed of
strontium, bromine, and carbon, contribute the least percentage to the ocean’s
salinity.
Resources from ocean water
Ocean water is a source of dissolved minerals. We get the salt we use

everyday from seawater. Have you gone to Las Piñas and the coastal road going
to Cavite? You might have seen mounds of salt along the road. How is salt
produced?
Salt is produced by first confining seawater in evaporating ponds. Then,

water is allowed to evaporate. After all the water has evaporated, salt crystals are
left on the ground. These are then harvested and sold in the market. Other
minerals such as magnesium and bromine are also obtained from the ocean.
Ocean water is also a source of food. Fish is the main catch. Modern
fishing vessels are now equipped with radar, echo sounds and even refrigerators
and other technologies to improve the fishing industry.
Importance of ocean water
Do you also know that the oceans play an important role in our global
climate? How? The basic idea is a phenomenon called thermohaline
circulation. Due to density differences, a mass of low density (warmer or less
saline) water rises from below. This is replaced by a mass of water of greater
density (colder or more saline). This deep ocean circulation is a global happening.
It does not involve only a small mass of water. How are density and salinity
changed? Water at the surface of the oceans is made colder by heat loss to the
atmosphere. Through evaporation, some molecules of water at the surface
escape from the free surface of the water. When water evaporates, the salinity of
the remaining water becomes greater making the density greater. Water chilled
in the polar region becomes denser. It sinks and displaces warmer water.
20
Water also has a high heat capacity. It can store more energy than an
equal mass of other substances. This can also modulate climate.
Oceans are also home to small floating algae and other green plants,
making oceans a major storehouse of carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is one of
the greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gases absorb heat radiated from the earth’s
surface. Greenhouse effect keeps our atmosphere warm.
What you will do

Self-Test 3.1
Directions: Get a pad paper and answer the following questions briefly
1. What makes the ocean water salty?

2. What are the major constituents of ocean water?
3. What resources can we get from ocean water?
4. How do you differentiate ocean water from freshwater?
Lesson 4 Human Impacts on the Earth’s Waters
Water is one of the basic needs of humans. Without water, it will be

impossible for us to exist. But, nowadays, clean water is becoming scarce. Some
causes of water scarcity are natural, others are human -made. However, the
impact of natural processes can be aggravated by human activities. People can
modify physical environment in a way that affects the earth’s waters. There are
many issues and problems related to the waters of the earth.
What you will do

Activity 4.1
1. Close your eyes, then, think about what will happen to you when you do
not have water for one month. You may draw what you think you will
become after one month.
2. Think of one problem the country is facing that you observe
21
Growth in population
The world’s population is growing rapidly. The number of people and the
number of households using water are also increasing. The demand for water is,
therefore, increasing. A person needs water for drinking, for taking a bath, for
cooking and cleaning. Nowadays water is scarce not only in the Philippines, but
worldwide.
What you will do

Activity 4.1
Think of how much water you consume in one day in doing the different activities
at home. Use Table 4.1 below in recording your data. Then, compute your water
consumption in one month.
Table 4.1 Estimated Daily consumption of water at home
Activities Volume (Liters)

Cooking
Washing dishes
Taking a bath
Cleaning the house
Drinking
Flushing toilet
Total (daily)
Total (Monthly)
Too much use of water for daily consumption

One of the problems being faced by most countries nowadays is the too
much use of water for daily consumption. If you estimate the daily water
consumption in your homes and project from this estimate the country’s daily and
monthly consumption, you will be able to have a projection for the whole world.
Growing demand for food
With growing population, demand for food is increasing. This is believed to

be the most important cause of pressure on water resources. Irrigated farming
expands, and poultry and piggery grow in number. Demand for processed food
also increases. All these require enormous amount of water.
22
Climate Change
During dry season, Filipinos are usually warned to conserve water. In

Metro Manila, the level of water in our reservoirs like La Mesa Dam is usually low
during summer causing problems in the water supply. During rainy days, on the
other hand, the level of water in our reservoirs is high. We usually do not have
problems in our water supply. But, our main concern are problems caused by
human activities that affect the waters of the earth.
The continued rise in the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is believed
to have caused an increase in the global temperature. This phenomenon is
termed global warming. Too much warming in polar latitudes has been
observed to melt enough glacier to cause the rising of sea level. Warming of
ocean water has also been observed to cause the expansion of seawater adding
to the increase in the level of seawater. However, there are many other factors
responsible to changes in climate other than global warming.
Many scientists believe that the building of cities worldwide has caused
changes in the amount of precipitation. In cities, cementing of roads decreases
the land areas covered with vegetation. Greater amount of precipitation become
runoffs instead of being absorbed in soils and rocks. Aside from flash floods,
another consequence of this increase in runoff is too much precipitation because
the amount of water that evaporates increases. The water cycle is shortened,
that is, water is exchanged between surface water and the atmosphere. You
might have observed that we now have more frequent storms.
Contamination of existing water supply
Pollution of normal water destroys part of water resources. Nowadays,

there are many sources of water pollution: industrial wastes, chemicals used in
agriculture, disposal of human excreta, release of untreated sewage from
municipal work, oil spills from giant ships, mine tailings, and household wastes.
Water pollution is a serious problem in many countries in this era of

industrialization. Although industrialization is a means to achieve better socio-
economic condition, it is accompanied by problems that endanger the health of
people and the lives of plants and animals. In our country, fishpond operators
have complained that toxic wastes from factories have poisoned their fishponds
and killed fish.
Meanwhile, based on reports of the Pasig River Rehabilitation Program

Committee, domestic liquid waste is the number one source of pollution in rivers.
23
This is about two-thirds of the Pasig River’s system’s total biological oxygen
demand (BOD) load. These wastes are responsible for the destruction of the
river’s aquatic life.
Where do these wastes come from? These wastes are discharged by

households when they wash clothes, flush toilet, bathe or clean the dishes.
Eutrophication
Eutrophication is a phenomenon in which water in rivers and lake

becomes rich in nutrients that cause excessive growth of algae. Eventually, a
great number of algae may die at the end of the growing season and sink to the
bottom. This causes massive growth of bacteria the following year which also
eventually die. Decomposition of decayed bacteria uses up oxygen, thereby,
depleting the water with oxygen needed by valuable fishes. Nutrients in water
may come from phosphates in detergents used in households and nitrates from
fertilizers used in farms.
Excessive withdrawal of groundwater
Do you recall the news regarding the subsidence in a subdivision in

Muntinlupa? Floors of some houses fell below the original level. Walls cracked as
a result of land subsidence. One cause cited was the excessive withdrawal of
groundwater. Sinking of the ground due to excessive pumping of groundwater
has been reported worldwide.
24
What you will do
Self-Test 4.1
Get a pad paper and try answering the questions as best as you
can. If you have difficulty answering the questions, go over the lesson
again.
1. What are the different issues related to the earth’s water?

2. One of the problems our country is experiencing now is over use of fresh
water. How can you help reduce water consumption at home?
3. How does the building of cities cause changes on the amount of
precipitation?
4. Enumerate the sources of water pollution in the Philippines.
5. Give one way by which water pollutants can affect the fishing industry.
6. What is the effect of excessive withdrawal of groundwater?
Let’s summarize
1. Nearly 70% of the earth’s surface is covered with water.

2. The unending exchange of water among the continents, surface water,
and the atmosphere is called the hydrologic cycle or the water cycle. This
cycle of water maintains the quantity of water on earth.
3. Precipitation is water that falls from the atmosphere to the ground in
different forms.
4. Groundwater is precipitation that seeps into the ground stored in spaces
between particles of rock in the zone of saturation.
5. Zone of saturation is the part of sediment and rock where all spaces in
between particles are filled with water.
6. Water table is the upper boundary of the zone of saturation.
7. Zone of aeration is the area above the water table where the spaces
between rock particles are not yet filled with water.
8. Groundwater flow from the ground to the surface through springs and
wells.
9. Freshwater from springs and wells run off forming streams and rivers
which eventually reaches the oceans.
10. Ocean water is made salty when mineral salts from rocks are dissolved as
running water makes its way to the ocean.
25
11. Oceans are the biggest bodies of water where water in steams and rivers
go.
12. Human activities affect the earth’s waters. These changes on the earth’s
waters, in turn, affect people on earth.
Posttest
I. Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer and write this on your
answer sheet.
1. Which of the following is true of ocean water?

a) Warm ocean water has low density.
b) Ocean water with high salinity has low density.
c) Cold ocean water has low density.
d) Ocean water with low salinity has high density.
2. Which is not true about surface water in the North Pole?

a) It is cooler than the water in the equator.
b) It is denser than the water in the equator.
c) It is heated more by the sun.
d) Its molecules move generally slower.
3. Which of the following contains the greatest amount of water by volume on

earth?
a) oceans c) groundwater
b) glaciers and ice sheets d) atmosphere
4. Which of these water pollutants cause algal bloom?

a) acids c) toxic metals
b) mercury d) phosphates
5. Excessive withdrawal of groundwater may result to which of the following?

a) eutrophication
b) land subsidence
c) poisoning of fishes
d) water pollution
26
II. Completion Type: Complete each of the following sentences with a word
or phrase .
1. ___________ is second only to air in importance as a basic need for the

existence of life on earth.
2. ___________ is a dynamic mass of water on earth that is continually on the

move.
3. Dumping untreated sewage into a river causes the water to become

___________.
4. ___________ is the unending exchange of water among the ocean,
atmosphere, and the continents.
5-6. Two physical changes, ____________ and ____________ are part of the
water cycle.
7. ___________ is the water beneath the earth’s surface.
8. Water that soaks into the ground reaches a zone called ______________
where all the open spaces in rocks are completely filled with water.
9. The upper boundary of the zone of saturation is the _____________.
10.The permeable layer of rock saturated with ground water is called

____________.
27
Key to Answers
Pretest
1. c
2. c
3. a
4. d
5. a
6. a
7. d
8. c
9. a
10. a
Self-Test 1.1
1. The total volume of the world’s waters has always remained the same from the
time the earth was formed. This is due to a process called the hydrologic
cycle.
2. The two processes involved in the water cycle are evaporation and
condensation. Evaporation from surface waters brings water to the air.
Condensation of water vapor in the air brings back the water to the surface.
Self-Test 2.1
1. Groundwater is water that infiltrates the ground. It is water found
underground.
2. The source of groundwater is precipitation.
3. The factors that affect the movement of groundwater are porosity and
permeability of rocks or sediments, and the steepness of the water
table. Gravity helps pull the water downward.
4. The greater the porosity, the greater is the amount of groundwater that
may stay in spaces between rock particles. Rocks are more porous if
particles are well sorted, rounded, and loosely packed. The more
permeable the rock is, the faster the movement of groundwater.
Permeable rocks are those that have wide pores or the space between
particles is large, and whose pores are interconnected.
Self -Test 2.2

1. fresh water
2. fresh water
3. fresh water
4. fresh water
28
5. seawater
6. fresh water
7. seawater
Self-Test 3.1
1. Ocean is made salty by the presence of mineral salts carried to the oceans
from weathered rocks in the continents.
2. The major constituents of ocean water are chlorine, sodium, sulfate,
magnesium, calcium, and potassium.
3. The resources we can get from ocean water are dissolved minerals like salt,
magnesium, and bromine. It is also a source of food like fish.
4. Ocean water contains dissolved minerals like salt, magnesium and bromine.
Freshwater comes from groundwater that finds its way out of the ground in the
form of springs and wells. Freshwater unlike ocean water is a source of water for
human consumption.
Self-Test 4.1
1. The different issues related to the earth’s water are growth in population,
growing demand for food, climate change, contamination of existing water
supply, and excessive withdrawal of groundwater.
2. The following are some of the ways to conserve water at home:

Check if there are leaking faucets. Have them repaired at once.
Do not let water flow continuously while brushing your teeth. Use glass
instead when you brush your teeth.
Water the plants in the afternoon or at night to prevent too much water
from evaporating.
3. Building of cities reduces the land areas covered with plants. Cemented
roads cannot absorb too much water increasing the amount of runoff that
eventually go into bodies of water. This increases the amount of water that
evaporates which, in turn, increases the amount
4. The sources of water pollutants in the Philippines are the industry,

agricultural activities, domestic or household activities, oil leaks in ships,
and mines.
5. Chemicals especially toxic wastes from industrial establishments may kill

fish.
6. Excessive withdrawal of groundwater may cause ground subsidence that

may endanger the life of people.
29
Posttest
I. 1. a
2. c
3. a
4. d
5. b
Completion
1. water
2. hydrosphere
3. polluted
4. water cycle
5. evaporation
6. condensation
7. groundwater
8. zone of saturation
9. water table
10. aquifer
-End of Module-
References
Tarbuck, E.J. and Lutgens F K. (2000). Earth Science (9th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice Hall
Dutch, S.I. and Monroe J. S. (1998) Earth Science. Singapore: Wadsworth Publishing Company,
A Division of Thomson Learning
Pasig River Rehabilitation Program Manual Report 1998
30
MODULE 14

Pasig City
1
Module 14
The Earth’s Atmosphere
You have learned facts about the earth’s lithosphere and hydrosphere in your last
module. This module presents knowledge about the earth’s gaseous envelope - the
atmosphere. It includes the following lessons:
Lesson 1 - The Earth’s Grid System

Lesson 2 - The Earth’s Atmosphere
Lesson 3 - The Layers of the Earth’ s Atmosphere
Lesson 4 - The Changes in the Earth’s Atmosphere

1. explain the importance of the coordinate system in locating places on earth;

2. describe the composition of the earth’s atmosphere;
3. identify the different layers of the earth’s atmosphere; and
4. enumerate and describe the changes in the earth’s atmosphere.
1. Read the instructions carefully.

3. Answer the pre-test in order to determine how much you know about the
lessons in this module.
4. Check your answers with the given answer key at the end of this module.
5. Read each lesson and do activities that are provided for you.
2
6. Perform all the activities diligently to help and guide you in understanding the
topic.
7. Take the self-tests after each lesson to determine how much you understood
the topic.
8. Answer the posttest to measure how much you have gained from the lessons.
A. Direction: Encircle the correct answer.

1. An imaginary line that divides the places on the earth in an EAST-WEST direction is
the:
a. equator
b. latitude
c. longitude
d. prime meridian
2. The Great Circle is also known as the

a. equator
b. latitude
c. longitude
d. prime meridian
3. The 180° meridian is also called

a. equator
b. latitude
c. longitude
d. prime meridian
4. An imaginary line that divides the places on the earth in an NORTH-SOUTH direction
is the:
a. equator
b. latitude
c. longitude
d. prime meridian
5. Which of the following statements describes the temperature in the troposphere and
stratosphere?
a. The troposphere is hotter than the stratosphere
b. The stratosphere is hotter than the troposphere
c. Low temperature exists in the troposphere and stratosphere.
d. The temperature in the troposphere is equal to the temperature of the
stratosphere.
3
6. Arrange the following layers of the atmosphere from the earth’s reference.
A - ozone layer a. A – B – C - D
B – stratosphere b. B – C – D - A
C – troposphere c. C – D – A - B
D - mesosphere d. C – A - B – D
7. What part of the atmosphere has no weather disturbance?

a. ozone layer b. stratosphere c. troposphere d. mesosphere
8. Which part of the atmosphere protects us from harmful ultraviolet rays?

a. ozone layer b. stratosphere c. troposphere d. mesosphere
9. There are _____ seasons on earth.

a. one (1) b. two (2) c. three (3) d. four (4)
10. The earth’s axis is inclined at_____

a. 25.5° b. 24.5° c. 23.5° d. 22.5°
B. Match Column A with Column B
COLUMN A COLUMN B
1. atmosphere a. layer of the atmosphere that is characterized by
an increase in temperature due to the
concentration of ozone
2. troposphere b. lowermost layer of the atmosphere that is
characterized by a decrease in temperature
with height
3. stratosphere c. layer of the atmosphere that is immediately
above the stratosphere
4. ozone layer d. it is called the “blanket of air
5. mesosphere e. it is the state of the atmosphere at a particular
place during a short period of time
6. air pollution f. it is caused by the earth-sun relationship
7. weather g. it is the condition of the atmosphere at a
particular location over a long period of time
8. climate h. formed through the process of precipitation
9. season i. it is the warming of the earth's surface
10. global warming j. it involves the release into the atmosphere of
gases, finely divided solids, or finely dispersed
liquid aerosols
4
Lesson 1 The Earth’s Grid System
Earth’s grid or coordinate system can be described and determined by means of
the position or location of any place on the Earth's surface.
LATITUDE
PRIME
MERIDIAN
EQUATOR
LONGITUDE
The two reference points in locating the places on earth are the equator and the
prime meridian.
The equator is also called the great circle around the Earth that is equidistant from
the geographic poles and lies in a plane perpendicular to the Earth's axis. It divides the
Earth into the Northern and Southern hemispheres and forms the imaginary reference line
on the Earth's surface from which latitude is considered. It is the line with 0° latitude
The prime meridian is the imaginary line used to indicate 0° longitude that passes
through Greenwich and terminates at the North and South poles. It is measured in degrees,
minutes, and seconds. It is used as the reference for all other meridians of longitude, which
are numbered east or west of it. This also serves as the basis for the world's standard time
zone system.
Latitude is a measurement on a globe or map of location north or south of the

equator. It is measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds. The greatest possible latitudes
are 90° N and 90° S. Different latitudinal positions on maps or globes, equidistant circles are
plotted and drawn parallel to the equator and each other. These are known as the parallels,
or parallels of latitude.
Longitude is a measurement of location east or west of the prime meridian at

Greenwich. It is the amount of arc created by drawing first a line from the center of the Earth
to the intersection of the equator and the prime meridian and then another line from the
5
center of the earth to any point elsewhere on the Equator. Longitude is measured 180° both
east and west of the prime meridian. To locate longitudinal positions on a globe or map,
meridians are plotted and drawn from pole to pole where they meet. The distance per
degree of longitude at the Equator is about 111.32 km (69.18 miles) and at the poles, 0.The
combination of meridians of longitude and parallels of latitude establishes a framework or
grid by means of which exact positions can be determined in reference to the prime
meridian and the Equator.
What you will do

Activity 1.1
Based on the discussion, identify the points (latitude and longitude) plotted on the
coordinate system. The first two points are identified for you. Write your answers on the
table provided for:
Points on the Globe Parallel Latitudes Parallel Longitudes

A 30°N 60°E
B 30°S 30°W
C
D
E
6
What you will do
Self-Test 1.1
Study the diagram below. Identify the parts that are shown in the diagram. Fill up the
table below.
POINTS ON THE PARALLEL OF PARALLEL OF

GLOBE LATITUDES LONGITUDES
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
7
Lesson 2 The Earth’s Atmosphere
This lesson will guide you in understanding the earth’s atmosphere - the place on
earth that is vital to our existence. It will help you examine the ocean of air in which we all
must live.
The atmosphere, solar energy and our planet’s magnetic fields support life on Earth.
The atmosphere absorbs the energy from the Sun, recycles water and other chemicals, and
works with the electrical and magnetic forces to provide a moderate climate. The
atmosphere also protects us from high-energy radiation and the frigid vacuum of space.
The Earth’s Atmosphere
The earth is a terrestrial body whose solid surface, abundant waters, and oxygen-rich
atmosphere have combined to create conditions suitable for life.
The earth is surrounded by a blanket of air that we call atmosphere. The atmosphere
is considered in terms of layers, or regions, arranged like spherical shells above the surface
of the Earth. It reaches over 560 kilometers (348 miles) from the surface of the Earth, so we
are only able to see what occurs fairly close to the ground. Early attempts at studying the
nature of the atmosphere used clues from the weather, the beautiful multi-colored sunsets
and sunrises, and the twinkling of stars. With the use of sensitive instruments from space,
we are able to get a better view of our atmosphere.
Composition of the Atmosphere
Gas Percent by Volume

Nitrogen,N2 78.084
Oxygen, O2 20.946
Argon, Ar 0.934
Carbon dioxide,CO2 0.033
Ne 0.001818
H2 .000524
CH4 0.002
Kr 0.000114
H2 0.00005
N2O 0.00005
Xe 0.0000087
8
The atmosphere is primarily composed of nitrogen (N2, 78%), oxygen (O2, 21%), and
argon (Ar, 1%). A myriad of other very influential components are also present which include
the "greenhouse" gases or ozone (0 - 0.01%), carbon dioxide (CO2, 0.033%). (Refer to
Table)
The atmosphere extends from the surface of the Earth to heights of thousands of
kilometers, where it gradually merges with the solar wind. The composition of the
atmosphere as measured by its mean density (the average mass per unit volume) is more
or less constant with height to altitudes of about 100 kilometers. This state of approximate
uniformity arises as a result of motion and as a consequence of the high frequency with
which molecules of a particular species are involved in collisions with their neighbors. A
representative oxygen molecule, O2, for example, encounters a nitrogen molecule, N2, on
average once every 10-9 second at the surface. Even at heights of 100 kilometers, where
the density of air molecules is much lower, the encounter time is still comparatively brief,
about 10-3 second. A force imparted to one molecule is rapidly transferred to all. The
atmosphere tends to behave as though it were composed of a single molecular species with
an effective molecular mass set by its mean composition. The bulk of the lower atmosphere
is composed of N2 and O2, with relative abundances of, respectively, 0.78 and 0.21. The
region above 100 kilometers is referred to as the heterosphere, a name intended to
emphasize the importance of the change in composition as a function of altitude. In the
same vein, the region lower than 100 kilometers was given the name homosphere.
What you will do

Activity 2.1
Choose any set of jumbled letters. Arrange the letters to form word/s that is/are
described by the following sentences.
gonar parethomse genortin therosphere smehporeoh
1. The place on earth that is vital to life

2. The gas which consists 78% of this place on earth. (see No. 1)
3. The part of the atmosphere where the bulk of the lower atmosphere composed of N2
and O2 is _________.
4. The region in the atmosphere where it is below 100 km.
5. What gas composed 1% of the atmosphere?
9
What you will do
Self-Test 2.1
Label each division in the circle based on the percentage of gasses present in the
earth’s atmosphere.
Lesson 3 The Layers of Earth’s Atmosphere

This lesson will focus on the different layers of the earth’s atmosphere. To help you
understand and visualize these layers, study the diagram below:
10
The envelope of gas surrounding the Earth changes from the ground up. Four distinct
layers have been identified using temperature changes, chemical composition, movement,
and density. However, there are no distinct lines or boundaries where one layer ends and
the other begins.
The mesosphere is the "Middle sphere" and is the coldest layer of the atmosphere.
There are very few gases available in this layer to absorb the heat from the sun. The
mesopause is the upper boundary for this layer.
The stratosphere extends from the top of the tropopause to about 50 km (31 miles).
The temperature begins to increase in this layer because it contains the highest
concentration of ozone. Ozone absorbs the sun's heat and also protects us from the harmful
ultraviolet rays of the sun. The stratosphere is ideal for jets to travel in because they are
above the weather and the air is so "thin" that it offers little resistance to the aircraft. There is
no weather in this layer because there is no water vapor. The stratopause is the upper
boundary for this layer.
Although the greenhouse effect and the ozone layer both protect life on earth, they
are very different. While the greenhouse effect lets sunshine in and prevents the heat from
escaping, the ozone layer prevents harmful ultraviolet radiation from entering the
atmosphere. Ultraviolet radiation from the sun is what causes sunburns and skin cancer.
The layer of gaseous ozone in the upper atmosphere that blocks radiation is what we call
the ozone layer.
In the stratosphere, ozone is distributed all over the globe. It exists at concentrations
that would be deadly in the troposphere, which extends from the Earth’s surface to about 7
miles up. The ozone layer is not a thin band of concentrated gas. The ozone layer in the
stratosphere extends from about 7 miles up to about 30 miles.
The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere where all weather occurs. It is
the only layer that has both the moisture and instability necessary to produce clouds. The
troposphere extends upward about 6 km (3.7miles) at the poles, and as much as 16 km (10
miles} at the equator. The temperature decreases as one goes higher up. The tropopause, a
transition zone between the troposphere and the stratosphere, is where the jet streams are
found.
11
What you will do
Self-Test 3.1
Identify the following: Write your answer on the space provided before the number:
_______________ 1. The “blanket of air” on earth’s layer
_______________ 2. The lowermost layer of the atmosphere that is characterized by a

decrease in temperature with height
_______________ 3. The layer of the atmosphere that is characterized by an increase in

temperature due to the concentration of ozone
_______________ 4. The layer of the atmosphere that is immediately above the

stratosphere
_______________ 5. The two factors that are considered in determining the layers of the
atmosphere
Lesson 4 The Changes in the Earth’s Atmosphere
Imagine that you are living 100 years ago. The air today is not as clean as it was 100
years ago. Years have passed and the age of industrialism and rise of technology gave rise
to this changing earth. Each year a huge amount of wastes is generated.
This lesson will help you understand how these changes affect the environment
particularly the air. This will help you answer the following basic questions:
1. What causes the seasons?

2. How is air heated?
3. What factors control the different temperature of the earth?
12
The following paragraph discusses what causes seasons
Season is caused by the earth-sun relationship. It is any of four divisions of the year
according to consistent annual changes in the weather. The seasons—winter, spring,
summer, and autumn—are commonly regarded in the Northern Hemisphere as beginning
on the winter solstice, December 22 or 23; the vernal equinox, March 20 or 21; the summer
solstice, June 21 or 22; and the autumnal equinox, September 22 or 23. At the equinoxes,
the days and nights are equal in length; at the winter solstice the day is the year's shortest,
and at the summer solstice, the day is the year's longest. (See Figure 4.1)
Figure 4.1: The Earth-Sun relationships
Each year the earth experiences changes in its radiation budget, in the distribution of
heat input into the atmosphere and in the course of the seasonal migration of the Sun
between 23°N and 23°S. This is a result of seasonal change.
Why is there variation in season? The gradual change in daylight that occurs
throughout the year accounts for this difference. (See Figure 4.2)
13
Figure 4.2:
Rays striking at a low angle
travel through more of the
atmosphere than rays striking at
a higher angle and therefore are
subjected to greater depletion
due to reflection of sunlight.
The seasonal variation in the altitude of the sun affects the amount of energy
received at the earth’s surface in two ways. First, when the sun is directly overhead (90°
angle), the solar rays are most concentrated. The lower the angle, the more spread out and
less intense is the solar radiation that reaches the surface. (See Fig. 4.3). Second, the rays
of the sun determine the amount of atmosphere the rays must travel. (See Fig. 4.2). This
accounts for the fact that the midday sun can be blinding, while the setting sun can be a
sight to behold.
Figure 4.3 Changes in the sun angle cause variations in the amount of solar
energy reaching the earth’s surface. The higher the angle, the more intense
the solar radiation.
14
Weather and Climate
Weather
Does it amaze you how the weather influences your life? Most conversations begin
or end with comments about the weather. Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a
particular place during a short period of time. It involves such atmospheric phenomena as
temperature, humidity, precipitation (type and amount), air pressure, wind, and cloud cover.
Weather differs from climate in that the latter is the synthesis of weather conditions that
have prevailed over a given area during a long time period—generally 30 years. Weather
occurs in the troposphere. Although weather is largely confined to the troposphere,
phenomena of the higher regions of the atmosphere such as jet streams and upper-air
waves significantly affect sea-level atmospheric-pressure patterns—the so-called highs and
lows—and thereby the weather conditions at the terrestrial surface. Manifestations of such
weather-affecting interactions between the ocean and the atmosphere are what scientists
call the El Niño and La Niña.
Climate
Climate is the condition of the atmosphere at a particular location over a long period
of time; it is the long-term summation of the atmospheric elements (and their variations) that,
over short time periods, constitute weather. These elements are solar radiation,
temperature, humidity, precipitation (type, frequency, and amount), atmospheric pressure,
and wind (speed and direction). To the general public the word retains the meaning of
expected or habitual weather, which is heavily dependent on place and time of year. Climate
is now perceived as part of a larger system that includes the atmosphere but also the
hydrosphere (all liquid and frozen surface waters), the lithosphere (all solid land surfaces,
including the ocean floors), the biosphere (all living things), and such extraterrestrial factors
as the Sun.
Methodology of weather forecasting.
Weather forecasting includes predictions of changes on the earth's surface caused

by atmospheric conditions. When people wait under a shelter for a downpour to end, they
are making a very short-range weather forecast. They are assuming, based on past
experiences that such hard rain usually does not last very long. In short-term predictions the
challenge for the forecaster is to improve on what the layperson can do. For years,
developed a method called nowcasting. In this method, radar and satellite observations of
local atmospheric conditions are processed and displayed rapidly by computers to project
weather several hours in advance. The PHILIPPINE ATMOSPHERIC GEOPHYSICAL AND
ASTRONOMICAL SERVICES AUTHORITY (PAGASA) is an agency that measure and
predict atmospheric conditions for large areas by computer. Using models that apply their
accumulated expert knowledge quickly, accurately, and in a statistically valid form,
meteorologists are now capable of making forecasts objectively. As a consequence, the
same results are produced time after time from the same data inputs, with all analysis
accomplished mathematically.
15
Forecasters in weather forecasting use the following weather tools.
Uses of Weather Tools Picture of Tools/ Instruments
Rain Gauge - a tool used to

measure the amount of
precipitation that falls.
The precipitation is collected in
a container with a ruler to show
the amount.
Thermometer - an instrument
used to measure temperatures.
Mercury inside the thermometer
rises or falls as it expands or
contracts from changes in
temperature.
Wind Vane - A tool used to

measure the direction the wind
is blowing.
Barometer - A tool used to

measure the atmospheric (air)
pressure which is then used to
forecast the weather. Low
pressure is associated with bad
weather (Low = Lousy) and high
pressure is associated with
good weather (High = Heavenly)
Hygrometer - A tool used to

measure the amount of humidity
or moisture in the air. The
higher the humidity, the more
moisture is in the air
16
Anemometer - A tool used to
measure wind speed.
Small cups spin - record the

speed of the wind. The faster
the cups spin, the
harder the wind blows.
What you will do

Activity 4.1
Forecast the weather up to 48 hours using an improvised anemometer (small cups

spin)
A. Make your own anemometer:

1. Gather the materials: 5 small plastic cups, barbeque sticks and thin rod.
2. Assemble the materials as shown in the diagram:
plastic cups
barbeque stick
stable and thin rod
B. Try your improvised anemometer. Place it outside the house where there is enough
wind. Install it in a way that it can’t be thrown by the strong wind.
C. Observe the movement of the instrument.
D. From your observation, tell what the weather is.
17
E. Forecast the weather for two days.
F. Verify your answers by watching TV for weather reports.
Changes brought about by weather and climate:
Are you familiar with this poem?
Clouds are made of small droplets of water or bits of ice that are spread out from
each other. Rain falls when the drops get too big and heavy to stay in the cloud. There are
three main kinds of clouds. What are these?
What you will do

Activity 4.2
Directions
Look outside and see if there are any clouds in the sky today.
Draw pictures of the clouds
Tell what the weather is like.
Using the pictures, find the cloud that most closely matches those you have seen
and drawn.
Compare your drawing with the pictures of the clouds below.
Write down the name of the cloud.
Draw the clouds here: Describe the weather today:
18
Different Kinds of Clouds
Cirrus Clouds
Can you see the "halo" in this picture?

The person taking the picture blocked
out the sun with his fist so that he could
get the picture. The halo is caused by
cirrus clouds. The bright spot on the left
is a "sun dog."
Cirrus(meaning "curl") clouds are very

high, wispy clouds made of ice. Even in
the summer, cirrus clouds are made of
ice because it is cold high above Earth.
19
Cumulus Clouds
Cumulus (meaning "heap") clouds are

the large clouds that sometimes look like
huge puffs of cotton. Sometimes these
clouds look like animals or familiar
things. It is fun to use your imagination to
make up stories about the clouds.
Sometimes cumulus clouds get dark

gray and rain or hail falls from them.
They are then called cumulonimbus
clouds. These clouds often produce
lightning and thunder. Nimbus always
tells us that a cloud brings rain.
Stratus Clouds
Stratus (meaning "stretched out")

clouds are made up of low layers of
clouds that usually cover the whole sky
and blot out the sun. These clouds bring
gray days. When rain falls from them,
they are called nimbostratus clouds.
The Greenhouse Effect
20
Greenhouse effect is the warming of the earth's surface and lower atmosphere that
tends to intensify with an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide. The atmosphere allows a
large percentage of the rays of visible light from the sun to reach the earth's surface and
heat it. A part of this energy is reradiated by the earth's surface in the form of long-wave
infrared radiation, much of which is absorbed by molecules of carbon dioxide and water
vapor in the atmosphere and which is reflected back to the surface as heat. This is roughly
analogous to the effect produced by the glass panes of a greenhouse, which transmit
sunlight in the visible range but hold in heat. The trapping of this infrared radiation causes
the earth's surface and lower atmospheric layers to warm to a higher temperature than
would otherwise be the case. Without this greenhouse heating, the earth's average
temperature would be only about -73° C (-100° F); even the oceans would be frozen under
such conditions. Owing to the rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide caused by modern
industrial societies' widespread combustion of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas), the
greenhouse effect on earth may be intensified and long-term climatic changes may result.
An increase in atmospheric concentrations of other trace gases such as chlorofluorocarbons
(Freons), nitrous oxide, and methane, due again largely to human activity, may also
aggravate greenhouse conditions. A growing number of scientists have predicted that
significant alterations in climate patterns will be seen by the turn of the century. They
estimate that global average temperatures could increase by as much as 5° C (9° F) by the
middle of the 21st century. Such global warming would cause the polar ice caps and
mountain glaciers to melt rapidly and result in appreciably higher coastal waters. The rise in
global temperature would also produce new patterns and extremes of drought and rainfall,
seriously disrupting food production in certain regions.
Global warming is a potential increase in average global atmospheric temperatures

resulting from the greenhouse effect.
21
The Ozone Hole
The ozone layer is not of the same thickness all around the Earth. The ozone hole
refers to areas of the ozone layer that are so thin that cannot block as much radiation as
thicker parts. When the ozone layer thins to 50 percent of its normal thickness, that area is
called an ozone hole.
The ozone hole is caused by the breakdown of certain chlorine and/or bromine
compounds (called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) or halons). These compounds are
commonly used as a coolant in refrigerators and air conditioners, in foam manufacturing and
as fire extinguishing agents.
Ground-level ozone, often called smog, is a harmful air pollutant that irritates the
lungs and damages the leaves of plants. The difference between the ozone in the ozone
layer and harmful ground-level ozone is the location of the ozone in relation to people,
plants and animals. Ozone in the ozone layer is so high above ground that it cannot reach
people, plants and animals and cannot harm them. However, ozone at ground level is close
enough to breathe.
Air Pollution
Air pollution involves the release into the atmosphere of gases, finely divided solids,
or finely dispersed liquid aerosols at rates that exceed the capacity of the atmosphere to
dissipate them or to dispose of them through incorporation into solid or liquid layers of the
biosphere. Air pollution results from a variety of causes, not all of which are within human
control. .Air pollution may affect humans directly, causing a smarting of the eyes or
coughing. Pollution continued to increase as a result of the increased number of motor
vehicles. Exhaust fumes from the engines of automobiles contain a number of polluting
22
substances, including carbon monoxide and a variety of complex hydrocarbons, nitrogen
oxides, and other compounds. When acted upon by sunlight, these substances undergo a
change in composition producing the brown, photochemical smog. Efforts to reduce
pollution from automobile engines and to develop pollution-free engines may eventually
eliminate the more serious air pollution problems. Air pollution has a serious effect and has
caused respiratory distress, particularly in children, elderly people, and those suffering from
respiratory diseases.
Sources of air pollutants
The two main sources of pollutants in urban areas are transportation (predominantly
automobiles) and fuel combustion in stationary sources, including residential, commercial,
and industrial heating and cooling and coal-burning power plants. Motor vehicles produce
high levels of carbon monoxides (CO) and a major source of hydrocarbons (HC) and
nitrogen oxides (NOx). Whereas, fuel combustion in stationary sources is the dominant
source of sulfur dioxide (SO2).
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the major pollutants in the atmosphere. Major
sources of CO2 are fossil fuels burning and deforestation. CO2 is a good transmitter of
sunlight, but partially restricts infrared radiation going back from the earth into space. This
produces the so-called greenhouse effect that prevents a drastic cooling of the Earth during
the night. Increasing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere reinforces this effect and is
expected to result in a warming of the Earth's surface. Currently carbon dioxide is
responsible for 57% of the global warming trend. Nitrogen oxides contribute most of the
atmospheric contaminants.
N0X - nitric oxide (N0) and nitrogen dioxide (N02)
Natural component of the Earth's atmosphere

Important in the formation of both acid precipitation and photochemical smog (ozone),
and causes nitrogen loading.
Comes from the burning of biomass and fossil fuels
30 to 50 million tons per year from human activities, and natural 10 to 20 million tons per
year
Average residence time in the atmosphere is days
Has a role in reducing stratospheric ozone
N20 - nitrous oxide
Natural component of the Earth's atmosphere

Important in the greenhouse effect and causes nitrogen loading
Human inputs 6 million tons per year, and 19 million tons per year by nature
Residence time in the atmosphere about 170 years
1700 (285 parts per billion), 1990 (310 parts per billion), 2030 (340 parts per billion)
Comes from nitrogen based fertilizers, deforestation, and biomass burning
23
Sulfur and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Sulfur dioxide is produced by combustion of sulfur-containing fuels, such as coal and

fuel oils. Also, in the process of producing sulfuric acid and in metallurgical process involving
ores that contain sulfur. Sulfur oxides can injure man, plants and materials. At sufficiently
high concentrations, sulfur dioxide irritates the upper respiratory tract of human beings
because the potential effect of sulfur dioxide is to make breathing more difficult by causing
the finer air tubes of the lung to constrict. Almost 60% of the SO2 emissions are released by
tall smoke stakes, enabling the emissions to travel long distances. As emissions of sulfur
dioxide and nitric oxide from stationary sources are transported long distances by winds,
they form secondary pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide, nitric acid vapor, and droplets
containing solutions of sulfuric acid, sulfate, and nitrate salts. These chemicals descend to
the earth's surface in wet form as rain or snow and in dry form as gases fog, dew, or solid
particles. This is known as acid deposition or acid rain.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
CFCs are lowering the average concentration of ozone in the stratosphere.

Chlorofluorocarbons move up to the stratosphere gradually over several decades. Under
high energy ultra violet (UV) radiation, they break down and release chlorine atoms, which
speed up the breakdown of ozone (O3) into oxygen gas (O2).
Chlorofluorocarbons, also known as Freons, are greenhouse gases that contribute to

global warming. Photochemical air pollution is commonly referred to as "smog". Smog, a
contraction of the words smoke and fog, has been caused throughout recorded history by
water condensing on smoke particles, usually from burning coal. With the introduction of
petroleum to replace coal economies in countries, photochemical smog has become
predominant in many cities, which are located in sunny, warm, and dry climates with many
motor vehicles. The worst episodes of photochemical smog tend to occur in summer.
Smog
Photochemical smog is created by burning coal and heavy oil that contain sulfur
impurities in power plants, industrial plants, etc. The smog consists mostly of a mixture of
sulfur dioxide and fog. Suspended droplets of sulfuric acid are formed from some of the
sulfur dioxide, and a variety of suspended solid particles. Smog's unpleasant properties
result from the irradiation by sunlight of hydrocarbons caused primarily by unburned
gasoline emitted by automobiles and other combustion sources. The products of
photochemical reactions includes organic particles, ozone, aldehydes, ketones,
peroxyacetyl nitrate, organic acids, and other oxidants. Ozone is a gas created by nitrogen
dioxide or nitric oxide when exposed to sunlight. Ozone causes eye irritation, impaired lung
function, and damage to trees and crops. Another form of smog is called industrial smog.
What you will do
24
Self-Test 4.1
Direction: Draw a line that connects the statement on the left with the statement on
the right:
1. It is the layer of the a. atmosphere

atmosphere that is
characterized by an
increase in temperature due
to the concentration of
ozone
2. It is the lowermost layer of b. troposphere
the atmosphere that is c. stratosphere
characterized by a decrease
in temperature with height
3. It is the layer of the d. ionosphere
atmosphere that is
immediately above the
stratosphere
4. It is called the “blanket of air e. ozone layer
5. It is the state of the f. mesosphere
atmosphere at a particular g. thermosphere
place during a short period
of time
6. It is caused by the earth-sun h. air pollution
relationship
7. It is the condition of the i. weather
atmosphere at a particular
location over a long period of
time
8. It is formed through the J. climate
process of precipitation
9. It is the warming of the K. season
earth's surface
10. It involves the release into l. global warming
the atmosphere of gases,
finely divided solids, or finely
dispersed liquid aerosols
11. It is a tool used to measure m. small cups spin
the amount of precipitation
that falls.
12.It is a/an instrument used to n. rain gauge
measure temperatures.
Mercury inside the o. hygrometer
thermometer rises or falls
as it expands or contracts
25
from changes in
temperature.
13. It is a tool used to measure p. barometer
the direction the wind
14. It is a tool used to measure q. anemometer
the atmospheric (air)
pressure which is then used r. thermometer
to forecast the weather.
15. It is a tool used to measure s. stratus clouds
the amount of humidity or
moisture in the air. The t. nimbus clouds
higher the humidity, the
more moisture is in the air
16. It is a tool used to tell wind
speed.
17. These are very high, u. cumulus clouds
wispy clouds made of ice.
Even in the summer, cirrus v. cirrus clouds
clouds are made of ice
because it is cold high above w. rain
Earth.
x. wind vane
18. These are large clouds;
look like huge puffs of cotton.
Sometimes these clouds look
like animals or familiar things.
19. These clouds tell us that
it will rain
20. These clouds are made
up of low layers of clouds that
usually cover the whole sky
and blot out the sun.
26
Let’s summarize
1. Earth’s grid or coordinate system

o Latitude is a measurement on a globe or map of location north or south of the
equator. It is measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds
o Longitude is a measurement of location east or west of the prime meridian at
Greenwich. It is the amount of arc created by drawing first a line from the
center of the Earth to the intersection of the equator and the prime meridian
and then another line from the center of the earth to any point elsewhere on
the Equator.
2. Composition of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere is primarily composed of:
Nitrogen (N2, 78%),
Oxygen (O2, 21%),
Argon (Ar, 1%).
A myriad of other very influential components are also present which include the
water (H2O, 0 - 7%), "greenhouse" gases or Ozone (0 - 0.01%), Carbon Dioxide
(CO2, 0.01-0.1%),
3. Layers of the Earth’s Atmosphere
o The mesosphere is the "Middle sphere" and is the coldest layer of the
atmosphere.
o The stratosphere extends from the top of the tropopause to about 50 km (31
miles). The temperature begins to increase in this layer because it contains the
highest concentration of ozone.
o The ozone layer both protect life on earth. The layer of gaseous ozone in the
upper atmosphere that blocks radiation.
o The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere where all weather
occurs.
4. Changes in the Atmosphere:
Season is caused by the earth-sun relationship. It is any of four divisions of the
year according to consistent annual changes in the weather.
Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a particular place during a short period
of time.
Climate is the condition of the atmosphere at a particular location over a long
period of time. Climatic change is due to the following factors:
o Greenhouse effect is the warming of the earth's surface and lower
atmosphere that tends to intensify with an increase in atmospheric carbon
dioxide. The atmosphere allows a large percentage of the rays of visible
light from the sun to reach the earth's surface and heat it.
o Global warming is a potential increase in average global atmospheric
temperatures resulting from the greenhouse effect.
o Air pollution involves the release into the atmosphere of gases, finely
divided solids, or finely dispersed liquid aerosols at rates that exceed the
capacity of the atmosphere to dissipate them or to dispose of them.
27
Posttest
Follow the instructions given in each number:
1 – 4. Label the diagram as to the different parts of the earth:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5. The earth is tilted by ___________.
6. The is covered by a blanket of air called the ____________.
7 – 9. Enumerate the layers of the earth’s atmosphere according to decreasing

temperature.
10. The warming of the earth’s atmosphere due to the presence of too much carbon
dioxide is called __________.
11 – 12. What are some changes in the earth’s atmosphere?
13 – 16. Give at least three (3) air pollutants.
17. An imaginary line that divides the places the earth in an EAST-WEST direction is the:
a. Equator b. latitude c. longitude d. prime meridian
18. The Great Circle is also known as the

19. The 180° meridian is also called

20. An imaginary line that divides the places the earth in a NORTH-SOUTH direction is the:
28
21. Which of the following statement describes the temperature in the troposphere and
stratosphere?
a. The troposphere is hotter than the stratosphere
b. The stratosphere is hotter than the troposphere
c. Low temperature exists in the troposphere and stratosphere.
d. The temperature in the troposphere is equal to the temperature of the
stratosphere.
22. Arrange the following layers of the atmosphere from the earth’s reference.
A - ozone layer a. A – B – C - D
B – stratosphere b. B – C – D - A
C – troposhere c. C – D – A - B
D - mesophere d. C – A - B – D
23. What part of the atmosphere has no weather disturbance?

a. ozone layer b. stratosphere c. troposhere d. mesosphere
24. Which part of the atmosphere protects us from harmful ultraviolet rays?
a. ozone layer b. stratosphere c. troposhere d. mesosphere
25. There are _____ seasons on earth.

a. one (1) b. two (2) c. three (3) d. four (4)
29
Key to Answers
Pre-test: A. 1. c B. 1. d
2. a 2. b
3. d 3. c
4. b 4. a
5. a 5. c
6. d 6. j
7. b 7. e
8. a 8. g
9. d 9. f
10. c 10. i.
Activity 1.1:

A 30°N 60°E
B 30°S 30°W
C 0° 90°W
D 45°N 75°W
E 10°N 25°W
Self-Test 1.1

1 60°N 15°W
2 45°N 15°E
3 30°N 45°E
4 75°N 15°W
5 15°N 15°W
6 7.5°N 7.5°E
7 30°S 45°W
8 60°S 45°W
9 45°S 30°W
10 22.5°S 60°E
30
Activity 2.1
gonar parethomse genortin therosphere smehporeoh

5. argon 2. nitrogen 4. mesophere
1. atmosphere 3. troposhoere
Self- Test 2.1
OXYGEN
NITROGEN ARGON
Self-Test 3.1
1. atmosphere
2. troposphere
3. ozone layer
4. mesosphere
5. altitude and temperature
Self – Test 4.1

1. e 11. n
2. b 12. r
3. f 13. x
4. a 14. p
5. I 15. o
6. k 16. q
7. d 17. c
8. w 18. u
9. l 19. t
10. h 20. s
Posttest:
1. longitude 8. stratosphere 19. a
2. prime meridian 9. ozone layer 20. b
3. equator 10. mesosphere 21. a
4. latitude 11. greenhouse effect 22. d
5. 23.5° 12 – 14. season, weather, climate 23. b
6. atmosphere 15 – 17. CFCs, CO, CO2, NOx, SO2 24. a
31
7. troposphere 18. c 25. d
References
Coble, C.R., et. Al. (1991). Earth Science. New Jersey, U.S.A.: Prentice Hall
Tarbuck, E.J. and F.K. Lutgens. (1995). Earth Science. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, U.S.A.: Prentice Hall
http://kids.earth.nasa.gov/archive/pangaea/evidence.html. (Accessed October 4, 2004)
http://www.edu.pe.ca/southernkings/landforms.htm, (Accessed October 4, 2004)
http://www.harcourtschool.com/activity/dirt/formation.html. (Accessed October 4, 2004)
http://soils.usda.gov/education/facts/formation.html. (Accessed October 4, 2004)
32
MODULE 15

Pasig City
1
Module 15
Planets in the Solar System
Have you ever wondered what lies beyond earth? Try to look at the sky at night.
What are the things that you see? You probably have seen the moon and the stars. Some
bright objects in the sky are the other planets. Sometimes we see meteors and comets.
Would you like to learn more about them? Come, let us explore the Solar system.
This module will help you find out many things about our solar system. There will be
activities prepared for you to help you understand our lesson much better. Self-tests are
also provided for you for a good look at your progress. Have fun and enjoy learning the
following lessons:
Lesson 1 - The Origin of the Solar System

Lesson 2 - Sun: The Center of the Solar System
Lesson 3 - Our Neighbors: A Close Look
1. Describe how the solar system evolved.

2. Describe how the sun emits its energy.
3. Identify the members of the solar system.
4. Compare the physical properties of the planets.
5. Identify the newest member of the solar system.
Here’s a simple guide for you in going about the module.
1. Read and follow the instructions very carefully.

2. A simple 10-item multiple-choice test is provided at the start of this module to
determine how much you know about the module.
2
3. Check your answers against the correct answers provided at the last page of the
module.
4. Be very honest in taking the test so you know how much knowledge you already
have about the topic.
5. After taking the pre-test, different lessons about the solar system are provided for
you.
6. Perform all the activities, as these will help you have a better understanding of the
topic.
7. Self-tests are also available at the end of each lesson for you to determine how
much you remember about the lesson.
8. Before the end of this module a simple 10-item multiple-choice test is prepared for
you.
Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate
sheet of paper.
1. All the solar system planets could easily fit on the inside of ...
a. Jupiter
b. Saturn
c. Uranus
2. The Sun can be classified as a ______________

a. Yellow star
b. Yellow dwarf star
c. Protostar
d. White star
3. Olympus Mons, the largest active volcano in the solar system, is found on Mercury.
a. True
b. False
4. Pick the true statement:

a. The Earth is at the center of a heliocentric system.
b. The Moon is at the center of a heliocentric system.
c. The Sun is at the center of a heliocentric system.
5. Of all the planets in the solar system, which is the closest to the Earth in terms of size
and mass.
a. Mars
3
b. Mercury
c. Venus
d. Pluto
6. Which of the following statements is correct?

a. Pluto is the smallest planet – it is smaller than the Earth’s moon.
b. Mars is the smallest planet – it is smaller than the Earth’s moon.
c. Venus is the smallest planet – it is smaller than the Earth’s moon.
7. When is energy in the Sun produced?

a. During the conversion of hydrogen atoms into helium atoms.
b. During the conversion of helium atoms into hydrogen atoms.
8. Which of the following statements is correct?

a. Saturn's moon, Titan, is the largest moon in the solar system.
b. Jupiter's moon, Ganymede, is the largest moon in the solar system.
c. Neptune's moon, Triton, is the largest moon in the solar system.
9. Which statement is true?

a. Mercury is the hottest planet and Pluto is the coldest planet.
b. Venus is the hottest planet and Pluto is the coldest planet.
c. Mercury is the hottest planet and Neptune is the coldest planet.
10. Pick the true statement:

a. The Sun consists mostly of hydrogen.
b. The Sun consists mostly of helium.
c. Sunspots appear all over the Sun, not just in one small area.
4
Lesson 1 The Origin of the Solar System
. What you will do

Activity 1.1 Theories about the Solar System
Try this! Match the scientist to the theory and view attributed to him. Draw a
line, which will connect one to the other.
Earth – Centered Heliocentric

Solar system Theory
Copernicus
Sun – Centered Geocentric

Solar system Theory
Ptolemy
Origin of the Solar System
There were two different views about our solar system. Ptolemy, a famous
astronomer, once said that earth is the center of the solar system and everything moves
around it. This idea is known as the geocentric view of the solar system. Geo means earth
and centric means center. His idea was anchored on the fact that man is known to be
created like God thus he must be very close to God.
Coppernicus, on the other hand, is one great man who opposed Ptolemy’s theory. He
said that the sun is the center of the solar system and revolving around it are the planets.
This is known as the heliocentric theory (helio –fire and centric – center). Now who do you
think has a better idea?
What you will do

Activity 1.2 The Origin of the Solar System
Read this!
Did you know how the solar system was formed?
5
The orderly nature of our solar system is believed by astronomers to have formed 5
billion years ago. The planets, the sun and all other members of the solar system are
believed to have formed at the same time from a vast cloud of dust and gases called nebula.
This concept is called the nebular theory of the solar system
According to the nebular theory, about 5 billion years

ago the huge cloud of dust and gases (nebula) began to
contract (move toward each other) under its own gravitational
force. A rotating ice skater who pulls her hand towards her
body rotates faster than with extended arm. Just like the
nebula while it contracts, it rotates faster and faster. This
constant rotation caused the nebular cloud to assume a disk-
shape producing the sun. However, due to this rotation, some
dust and gases remained orbiting the sun, eventually forming
the planets just like earth.
Answer this!
1. How old is the solar system? _______________________________________

2. To what particular matter did the solar system originate? _________________
3. How did the solar system form? ____________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Movement of the Solar System
How do planets in the solar system move? For thousands of years, people have
watched the stars at night. The stars appear to rise and set slowly as the night goes on.
These stars are like our sun, which can make their own light.
From night to night, some points of light seem to move along with the stars. These
points of light are the planets. Like our
planet – the Earth, the moons and other
planets do not make their own light. They
only reflect the light from the sun.
Take a look at the picture of the

solar system. Can you find the earth?
Trace its path. What path does it take
around the sun? Like all other planets,
Earth orbits the sun in an elliptical path,
which lies along the same plane except
for Pluto. Now try this one. Get Figure 1.2. The Solar System
6
a chair and move around it. While moving around the chair, turn around. Your motion
around the chair is like the motion of all the planets around the sun. This is called revolution.
One complete revolution of a planet means one complete year of the planet. On the other
hand, when you turn around in one place, the motion is basically called rotation. All planets
in the solar system rotate about their own axis (axis - an imaginary line running across the
planet on which the planet turns about). One complete rotation is equivalent to one whole
day in the planet.
What you will do

Activity 1.3 Orbits
Here’s a good glimpse of the motion of each planet.
Time for 1 revolution Time for 1 rotation

Name
(in Earth time) (in Earth time)
Mercury 88 days 179 days
Venus 225 days 244 days
Earth 1 year 23h 56m 04s
Mars 1.9 years 24h 37m 23s
Jupiter 12 years 9h 50m
Saturn 29.5 years 10h 14m
Uranus 84 years 17h 14m
Neptune 165 years 16h 03m
Pluto 248 years 6.4 days
Identify the planet located on the orbits based on the time for 1 revolution
1 2.
3
4
5
Oops! Before you go on, try this one!
7
What you will do
Self-Test 1.1
sheet of paper.
1. Which term means Earth –centered?

a. Heliocentric
b. Geocentric
2. Which of the following statement is TRUE?

a. The Sun is at the center of a heliocentric system.
c. The Earth is at the center of a heliocentric system.
3. Which of the two statement is TRUE?

a. Geocentric means Sun-centered, heliocentric means Earth-centered.
b. Geocentric means Earth-centered, heliocentric means Sun-centered.
4. Scientists hypothesize that the Sun formed ____.

a. less than a billion years ago
b. from a cloud of gas and dust
c. less than a million years ago
d. from a chunk of Jupiter
5. People once believed that all planets and stars orbited around ____.
a. Mercury
b. Venus
c. Earth
d. Mars
If you score 3 or more out of 5 – Congratulations!
You may now proceed to the next lesson. If you score below 3 you need to go back
and read the lesson again!
8
Lesson 2 Sun: The Center of the Solar System
Did you know that the sun is not really located at the center of the planets’ orbit?
Take a look at the orbit of Earth. Earth follows an elliptical path and the sun is located at one
of the foci.
Do you know how big the sun is? The sun is 140
000 km in diameter. Compared to other stars, the sun is
a medium-sized star. The Earth’s diameter is about
13000 km. More than 100 Earths could fit in a line along
the sun’s diameter and it would take over a million earths
to fill the entire space taken up by the sun.
Now take a look at the picture of the sun. What

color do you see? Is this the real color of the sun? What
about the energy or light it emits? Is it also yellow? The
sun is really a yellow star. This is because the sun as a
star is a middle-aged star. The color of the star tells us its
temperature. Yellow stars have surface temperatures of
about 6000 oC. But the inside of the sun is much hotter
Figure 2.2. The Sun – A
than the surface.
Gaseous Ball
Astronomers believe that the inside

temperature of the sun is over 13 million degrees
Celsius (13000000 oC). This very high temperature
on the inside makes it possible for the sun to
undergo a process called nuclear reaction. In a
nuclear reaction, the atomic nuclei are changed. He
Atomic nuclei combine in the sun’s interior. This
kind of nuclear reaction is called thermonuclear
fusion. Since the sun is about 80% hydrogen, 18%
helium, and 2% other elements deep inside the sun,
the hydrogen nuclei fuse or combine to form a
nucleus of helium. 4H He + Energy
In this reaction, 4 hydrogen nuclei combine
to form 1 helium nucleus. The mass of the helium Figure 2.3. Thermonuclear Fusion
nucleus is usually much less than the combined
mass of the 4 hydrogen nuclei. This missing mass is a matter that is changed into an
amount of energy. A part of which is visible light or white light.
Do you know how earth and the organisms like us make use of sun’s energy to
maintain life? Plants need sunlight for photosynthesis to exist. Photosynthesis is the
process of making food by plants. For evaporation to occur, sunlight, which provides enough
amount of energy, is needed. Evaporation is a change of phase from liquid like water to gas
9
like water vapor. Other organisms need sunlight for them to be able to maintain constant
body temperature. Temperature is the hotness or coldness of a body. People like us need
sunlight for our skin to produce vitamin D, which is essential to living. Other countries make
use of sunlight as their main source of energy. They make use of solar cells or solar panels
to collect sunlight and convert this energy to electrical energy that can light their houses,
cook their food, and iron their clothes, and wash their clothes. What about you, how can you
make use of sunlight?
Here’s a simple activity that can give you an idea how you can make use of solar
energy for practical purposes
What you will do

Activity 2.1 Investigating Solar Power
Goal: You will investigate solar power.
Materials
large bowl
aluminum foil
plastic knives or spreaders
paper plates and napkins
Peanut butter (refrigerated)
cheese
crackers
stop watch
Procedure
1. Make a solar oven by lining the inside of a large bowl with aluminum foil. Place a glob of
cold peanut butter on the bottom of the bowl, and position the bowl in direct sunlight so
that the sun's rays are shining on the inside of the bowl. You may need to use blocks to
prop the bowl at an angle to catch the rays.
2. Let the bowl sit for about an hour and regularly check the melting progress. Then spread
the melted peanut butter on crackers and serve for a simple picnic treat.
3. Put a slice of cheese on one cracker and some stiff peanut butter on another. Predict
which will melt first. Then find other items to melt, such as an ice cube, crayon, and
candle. Record on a chart the time it takes each item to melt, and compare your
predictions.
10
Data and Results
Material Predicted Melting Time Actual Melting Time

Cheese
Crayons
Ice cube
Birthday candle
Guide Questions:
1. What can you tell me about the sun?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
2. How do people use it?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
3. How is an oven like the sun?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

What you will do

Self-Test 2.1
sheet of paper.
1. Compared to other stars, the sun is _______________.

a. small
b. medium-sized
c. large
11
2. The surface temperature of a yellow star is about _____________.
a. 600oC
b. 6000 oC
c. 60000oC
3. In the sun, hydrogen nuclei combine to form _____________.

a. Helium
b. Salts
c. Water
4. The mass lost in thermonuclear fusion is changed into ____________.

a. Helium
b. Nuclei
c. Energy
5. Which of the following is the color of the sun?

a. Red
b. Yellow
c. White Key to answers on page 26
Check your answers against the answer key provided on page 25. If you score 3 or
more out of 5 – Congratulations! You may now proceed to the next lesson. If you
score below 3 you need to go back and read the lesson again!
Viewing the Sun
The sun’s light is too bright for direct viewing.

Never ever look at the sun with your naked eyes.
Special instruments are needed to study the sun.
One such solar telescope is located at Kitt Peak,
Arizona. It is about 800 meters long and built into
the ground. The telescope is made so that the Figure 2.4. Solar Telescope at Kitt
total amount of the sun’s light and heat entering Peak, Arizona
the telescope can be carefully controlled. In this
way we can study the sun thoroughly.
Unlike the earth, no part of the sun is a liquid

or solid. It is too hot to have any liquid or solid in it.
Thus, the sun is simply a large ball of hot gases.
Beyond the sun itself is an atmosphere. It too is
made up of gases. But did you know that the sun
also has an atmosphere? The atmosphere has three
layers. The layer closest to the sun is the
Figure 2.5. The Layers of the Sun
12
photosphere, which is about 550 kilometers thick. It is the layer that emits the sun’s light.
The chromosphere is the layer of the sun’s atmosphere next to the photosphere. It is
believed to be responsible in emitting the color of the sun. The corona is the last layer of the
sun’s atmosphere. It is also known as the crown of light that surrounds the sun. (Corona
comes from the Latin word meaning crown). The corona is the layer of the sun’s atmosphere
farthest from the sun. The temperature in the corona is more than 1 million degree Celsius.
What you will do

Self-Test 2.2
Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a
separate sheet of paper.
1. The layer of the sun’s atmosphere next to the photosphere is the ____________.
a. corona
b. chromosphere
c. solar sphere
2. The chromosphere can best be seen _______________.

a. on a dark, moonless night
b. during a solar eclipse
c. at noontime on a sunny day
3. Which among the following is the layer of the sun’s atmosphere that is responsible for
emitting white light?
a. Photosphere
b. Chromosphere
c. Corona
4. Which layer of the sun’s atmosphere is farthest away from the sun?
a. Photosphere
b. Chromosphere
c. Corona
5. When does the corona become visible?

a. During solar eclipse
b. During solar flare
c. During prominence
13
If you score 3 or more out of 5 – Congratulations! You may now proceed to the
next lesson. If you score below 3 you need to go back and read the lesson again!
Lesson 3 Our Neighbors: A Close Look!
There are basically nine members of the solar systems. Our nine planets are grouped
into two: the terrestrial planets (innermost planets), which include Mercury, Venus, Earth
and Mars and the Jovian planets (outermost planets), which include Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus
and Neptune. Pluto is the ninth planet in the solar system. It was neither classified as a
terrestrial nor a Jovian planet because of its characteristics. The tenth planet in the solar
system is named after Dr. Josette Biyo, a Filipino teacher who won the Intel Excellence in
Teaching award in USA.
What you will do

Activity 3.1 Planet Arrangement
Label the planets starting from the one closest to the sun.
14
Remember this!
Here’s an easier way of remembering the planets starting from the one closest
to the sun!
My Very Eager Mother Just Served Us Nine Putos: The

Planets of the Solar System (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto)
Now let’s take a close look at the different planets of the solar system. The four
planets closest to the sun are known as the inner planets. Often times they are also called
terrestrial planets since all of them appear solid and they look like our very own planet – The
Earth!
Mercury Venus Mars Earth
Figure 3.1. The Terrestrial Planets
Mercury: The Innermost Planet

Mercury is the closest planet to the sun, thus, it is
considered as the innermost planet. Like our moon, it absorbs
most of the sunlight that strikes it and reflects only about 6% into
space. This happens because Mercury has no atmosphere like
our moon.
No moon accompanies Mercury. It revolves quickly (88

days) but rotates slowly (179 days), thus, a night on Mercury
lasts for about 3 months followed by 3 months of daylight.
Mercury is also known as a very cold planet at nighttime Figure 3.2. Mercury
with a temperature of about – 173oC. However it becomes very
15
hot at daytime with a temperature of about 427oC, hot enough to melt tin and lead! You
could probably have 3rd degree burns or worse if you go there without life support.
Consequently, no life has ever been discovered in Mercury.
Venus: The Goddess of Love and Beauty!
Venus is the brightest planet in the night sky next to our

moon. It is usually called the twin planet of Earth because it
shares a lot of similarities with Earth in terms of size, density,
mass and location in the solar system. It orbits the sun in 225
days. The Venusian surface reaches temperature of about
475oC. This is because its thick atmosphere prevents excess
sunlight to escape the planet. Its very thick atmosphere is
composed mostly of carbon dioxide (97%). This environment
makes it impossible for life to exist on Venus.
Figure 3.3. Venus
Mars: The Red Planet
Mars is believed to be the home of John Jones of Justice

League and Marvin the Martian of Looney Toons. Oopps! Just
kidding!
Through a telescope, Mars appears as a reddish ball with

some dark regions. We can also see polar ice caps which look
like those we have on Earth. The Martian atmosphere has only
1% the density of earth’s atmosphere. It is primarily composed of
carbon dioxide with tiny amounts of water vapor. Data from
discoveries confirm that polar ice caps on Mars are made of
water ice, covered by thin layer of frozen carbon dioxide. When
the dust that covers Mars during sandstorm clears, images of the
Figure 3.4 Mars
northern hemisphere show numerous large volcanoes. The
biggest of which is the Mons Olympus.
Did you also know that Mars has moons or natural satellites? They are named as
Phobos and Deimos. It is believed that these moons are asteroids captured by Mars!
16
What you will do
Activity 3.2 The Jovian Planets
Label the Jovian Planets.
The Outermost Planets

Can you name the next set of
planets? These planets are known as the
outermost planets. They were called
outermost planets because they are
located farther from the sun than the rest
of the planets except Pluto. Other times
we call these planets as Jovian planets
because all the four planets have similar
characteristics. They are large gaseous
planets like Jupiter. All of them have rings
but only the rings of Saturn are the most
visible to the eyes.
All planets have a number of satellites.
Jupiter: The Giant!

Jupiter is known to be the largest planet in the solar
system. In fact, it has a mass of about 2 ½ times greater than
the remaining planets, satellites, and asteroids. Jupiter also
rotates much faster than any other planets, completing one
rotation in slightly less than 10-hours which is the reason why
its poles are flattened.
Jupiter’s atmosphere is mainly made-up of hydrogen-

helium with little amounts of methane, ammonia, water and
sulfur compounds. It has about 16 moons. The four most
visible moons were first discovered by Galileo. Thus, they are
known as the Galilean moons. Ganymede and Callisto are
Figure 3.5 Jupiter known to be the largest moons of the solar system, while Io
and Europa are about the size of Earth’s moon. Io is also
known as the most active moon because it is mostly covered with active volcanoes.
17
Saturn: The Ringed Planet
Saturn is known to be the most elegant planet in the
solar system because of its rings which are very visible to the
eyes. It circles the sun in about 29.46 Earth years. Thus, one
complete year in Saturn is about 29.46 years on earth.
Saturn’s rings were first seen by Galileo in 1610. Recent
discoveries confirm that these rings are made up of ice rocks.
At present, Saturn has about 21 natural satellites, the most
prominent of which is known as Titan.
Figure 3.6 Saturn

The Twins: Uranus and Neptune
Uranus is known as the sideways planet

because the planet rotates “on its side”. Its axis
of rotation is parallel to its orbit. Uranus is the
seventh planet from the Sun and is the third
largest in the solar system. It was discovered
by William Herschel in 1781. It has an
equatorial diameter of 51800 kilometers (32190
miles) and orbits the Sun once every 84.01
Earth years. It has a mean distance from the
Uranus Neptune Sun of 2.87 billion kilometers (1.78 billion
miles). The length of a day on Uranus is 17
hours 14 minutes. Uranus has at least 22 moons. The two largest moons, Titania and
Oberon, were discovered by William Herschel in 1787.
Neptune is the outermost planet of the gas giants. It has an equatorial diameter of
49500 kilometers (30760 miles). If Neptune were hollow, it could contain nearly 60 Earths.
Neptune orbits the Sun every 165 years. It has eight moons, six of which were found by
Voyager. A day on Neptune is 16 hours and 6.7 minutes. Neptune was discovered on
September 23, 1846 by Johann Gottfried Galle, of the Berlin Observatory, and Louis
d'Arrest, an astronomy student, through mathematical predictions made by Urbain Jean
Joseph Le Verrier.
The first two thirds of Neptune is composed of a mixture of molten rock, water, liquid
ammonia and methane. The outer third is a mixture of heated gases comprised of hydrogen,
helium, water and methane. Methane gives Neptune its blue cloud color. Neptune has a set
of four rings, which are narrow and very faint. The rings are made up of dust particles
thought to have been made by tiny meteorites smashing into Neptune's moons.
18
Pluto: The God of the Underworld!
Pluto was discovered in 1930. The uniqueness of
Pluto's orbit, rotational relationship with its satellite, spin
axis, and light variations all give the planet a certain appeal.
Pluto is usually the farthest planet from the sun; however,
due to the eccentricity of its orbit, it is closer than Neptune
for 20 years out of its 249-year orbit. Pluto crossed
Neptune's orbit on January 21, 1979, made its closest
approach on September 5, 1989, and will remain within the
orbit of Neptune until February 11, 1999. This will not occur
again until September 2226. Pluto's rotation period is 6.387
days, the same as its satellite Charon. Pluto rotates with its
poles almost in its orbital plane. Pluto's rotational axis is
tipped 122 degrees.
What you will do

Activity 3.3 The Planets
Arrange the planets in increasing order by placing 1 on the planet, which
corresponds to the least and to on the planet, which corresponds to the most, based
on the given properties. Column no. 1 is given as an example.
Properties
Planets Distance
Size Orbit/Period No. of Moons Temperature
form the sun
Mercury 2
Venus 4
Earth 5
Mars 3
Jupiter 9
Saturn 8
Uranus 6
Neptune 7
Pluto 1
19
What you will do
Activity 3.4 New Planet
The Newest Member of the Solar System
Read this!
Dr. Josette Biyo is a public school teacher from Iloilo who won the Intel Excellence in
Teaching award in the US, besting 4000 candidates from all around the world. The
Massachusetts Institute of Technology Lincoln Laboratory in Boston named a minor planet
(Planet 13241) in her honor.
Answer this!
1. What do you think is the name of the newest member of the solar system? _______
2. Where is it located? __________________________________________________

What you will do
Activity 3.5 My Neighbors!
Find all the words listed below. You can do this by crossing out the word horizontally,
vertically or diagonally.
Biyo LPLUTOKCNHVAZXL
Charon PAXKTXUJFELEMLP
Earth LNIUFFWONYPANHV
Ganymede ALARJUPITERTSUN
Jovian NNFITSUNARUAUBS
Jupiter EOADVSSRAMTQMNS
Mars TREEZOEVBUWYBOE
Mercury
SAADEKJRRWRIBVT
Phobos
Planet
IHRERGFNRUCOYIZ
Pluto PCTMKOWZCEHKTQP
Saturn XQHYHXYRNPTARTZ
Terrestrial EIDNSHEIDQNAHRU
Titan LNPACMULBEUSBJJ
Uranus TYWGLCGZGGMPTGC
ZBXTSCLGZLHKTMG
20
What you will do
Self-Test 3.1
A. Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write your answer on a separate
sheet of paper.
1. Which of the following statements is true?

a. Mars, Jupiter and Saturn are called the outer planets.
b. Earth, Jupiter and Saturn are called the outer planets.
c. Mars, Jupiter up to the planet Pluto are called the outer planets.
d. None of these statements are correct.
2. Which among the following are known as the outermost planet in the solar system?
a. Jupiter, Venus, Saturn, Pluto
b. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
c. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Pluto
d. Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, Pluto
3. Which of the following was known as Planet X before it was completely discovered?
a. Uranus
b. Neptune
c. Mercury
d. Pluto
4. How many moons does the planet Mercury have?

a. one
b. two
c. none
5. What does the atmosphere of Venus consist of?

a. over 90% Nitrogen
b. over 90% Hydrogen
c. over 90% Carbon dioxide
6. Which is the 7th planet from the sun?

a. Uranus
b. Neptune
c. Saturn
d. Pluto
7. What is Saturn's largest satellite called?

a. Titan
b. Rhea
c. Minas
d. Io
21
a. Helium gives Neptune its blue cloud color
b. Water gives Neptune its blue cloud color.
c. Methane gives Neptune its blue cloud color.
9. What is Pluto's satellite (moon) called?

a. Caron
b. Charon
c. Charone
10. Which planet is farthest from the sun next to Pluto?

a. Jupiter
b. Saturn
c. Neptune
B. Direction: Draw a ☺ if the statement is true and if the statement is false.
1. Saturn's density is so low that the entire planet could float in water.
2. Earth's axis of rotation is almost parallel to the plane of its orbit.
3. Venus experiences an intense greenhouse effect.
4. Io, the largest moon to Saturn, is volcanically active.
5. Galileo discovered that the orbits in which planets move around the Sun are elliptical.
6. Ganymede is a volcano on the planet Jupiter
7. The surface of Mars has long channels that may have been caused by flowing water.
8. The innermost planet in the solar system is called Pluto.
9. The outer planets are small, rocky planets with iron cores.
10. Charon is a satellite of Venus.
If you score 15 or more out of 20 – Congratulations! You may now proceed. If you
score below 7 you need to go back and read the lesson again!
22
Let’s summarize
1. There were two (2) different views about the solar system:
The Geocentric view coined by Ptolemy, claims that earth is the center of the
solar system.
The other view established by Nicolaus Coppernicus, is known as heliocentric

theory claims that the sun is the center of the solar system.
2. The nebular theory was proposed as the basis of origin of the solar system, it states
that the solar system came from clouds of dust and gasses called nebula which
rotates faster and faster as the particles move toward each other to the center
forming what is now known as the sun.
3. The sun is a gaseous ball mainly composed of hydrogen and helium.
4. It can produce its own light and energy by the process known as thermonuclear
fusion in which 4 hydrogen nuclei combine to form a helium nucleus with an excess
matter, which is converted to an amount of energy given off by the sun.
5. It has several layers such as the photosphere, the chromosphere, and the corona.
The sun’s energy is utilized in different ways and processes such as in
photosynthesis, and the production of vitamin D by organisms.
6. Nowadays, solar energy is one of our alternative sources of energy.
7. There are basically nine members of the solar systems.
8. The nine planets are grouped into two: the terrestrial planets (innermost planets),
which include Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars and the Jovian planets (outermost
planets), which include Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
9. Pluto is the ninth planet in the solar system. It was neither classified as a terrestrial
nor a Jovian planet because of its characteristics.
10. The tenth planet in the solar system is named after Dr. Josette Biyo, a Filipino
teacher who won the Intel Excellence in Teaching award in USA in 2001
23
Posttest
sheet of paper.
1. Of all the planets in the solar system, which is the closest to the Earth in terms of size
and mass.
a. Mars
b. Mercury
c. Pluto
d. Venus
2. The Sun, a yellow star emits its own light through a process known as thermonuclear
fusion. What does thermonuclear fusion mean?
a. Splitting of an object.
b. Splitting of a nucleus.
c. Combining of an object.
d. Combining of nuclei.
3. Which theory explains the origin of the solar system?

a. Big Bang theory
b. Binary Star Theory
c. Nebular Theory
d. None of the above.
4. Where is the newest member of the solar system located?

a. Between Earth and Venus
b. Between Mars and Jupiter
c. Between Uranus and Neptune
d. Beyond Pluto
5. Which among the planets has the highest surface temperature?

a. Earth
b. Mars
c. Mercury
d. Venus
6. What does heliocentric theory mean?

a. Earth-centered
b. Sun-centered

a. The Sun is at the center of a heliocentric system.
24
c. The Earth is at the center of a heliocentric system.
d. None of the above.
8. Which among the following are known as the outermost or the Jovian planets?
a. Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, Pluto
b. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Pluto
c. Jupiter, Saturn, Mars, Uranus
d. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
9. What does the atmosphere of Venus consist of?

a. Over 90% Nitrogen
b. Over 90% Hydrogen
c. Over 90% Carbon dioxide
10.Which is the 7th planet from the sun?

a. Uranus
b. Neptune
c. Pluto
d. Saturn
If you score 7 or more out of 10 – Congratulations! You may now proceed. If

you score below 7 you need to go back and read the module again!
25
Key to Answers
Pre-Test
1. a
2. b
3. a
4. a
5. b
6. b
7. b
8. a
9. a
10. c
Lesson 1
Activity 1.1. Theories about the Solar System
Earth –
Heliocentric
Centered Solar
Theory
system
Copernicus
Sun – Centered Geocentric
Solar system Theory
Ptolemy
Activity 1.2
1. The solar system is about 5 billion years old.
2. It is believed that the solar system formed form a nebula: cloud of dust and
gases.
3. The nebula rotated at a constant speed that caused it to form a disk-shaped
material, which is the sun. Then the gases that remained formed the planets.
Activity 1.3
1. Mercury
2. Venus
3. Earth
4. Mars
5. Pluto
26
Self-Test 1.1
1. b 4. b
2. a 5. c
3. b
Self-Test 2.1
1. b 4. c
2. b 5. b
3. a
6.
Self-Test 2.2
1. b 4. c
2. b 5. a
3. a
Activity 3.1. Planet Arrangement
e. Mercury
f. Venus
g. Earth
h. Mars
i. Jupiter
j. Saturn
k. Uranus
l. Neptune
m. Pluto
Activity 3.2. The Jovian Planets
Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune
27
Activity 3.3. The Planets
Properties
Planets No. of Distance form
Size Orbit/Period Temperature
Moons the sun
Mercury 2 1 1 1 8
Venus 4 2 2 2 9
Earth 5 3 3 3 7
Mars 3 4 5 4 6
Jupiter 9 5 8 5 5
Saturn 8 6 9 6 4
Uranus 6 7 6 7 3
Neptune 7 8 7 8 2
Pluto 1 9 4 9 1
Activity 3.4. New Planet

1. Planet Biyo
2. Between Mars and Jupiter
Activity 3.3. My Neighbors!
Self-Test 3.1. A
1. d 6. c
2. b 7. a
3. b 8. c
4. c 9. b
5. c 10. c
28
Self-Test 3.1. B
1. ☺
2.
3. ☺
4.
5.
6.
7. ☺
8.
9.
10.
Post Test
1. b
2. c
3. d
4. b
5. d
6. b
7. a
8. d
9. c
10. a
________________________________________________________________
References
Tarbuck, E.J. and Lutgens, F.K. (1994). Earth Science 7th Edition. Englewood, CA:
Prentice Hall
Solar System Exploration, NASA Space explorers. sse.jpl.nasa.gov/index.html . (Accessed on October 4,

2004)
Our Solar System, James H. Camillton http://www.uwm.edu/People/doram/OUR SOALR SYSTEM.. (Accessed

on October 4, 2004)
The Nine Planets, Bill Arnett. http://www.deepspace.ucsb.edu/ia/nineplanets/nineplanets.html. . (Accessed on

October 4, 2004)
29
Module 16
Sun, Earth and Moon
Did you know that the solar

system is just a small dust in the
universe? In it are the sun, the
moon, and the planets, which
include the earth. Do you still
remember Nicolas Copernicus?
Nicolas Copernicus once said that
the sun is the center of the solar
system and that the planets are
just wanderers. In this module you
will learn many things about our
planet and our nearest neighbors in
space like the sun and the moon. This module includes many lessons about the earth, moon
and sun.
 Lesson 1 - How the earth moves

 Lesson 2 - Seasons of the Earth
 Lesson 3 - Moon, its motion and its phases
 Lesson 4 - Eclipses
Read, enjoy, and discover the secrets of the universe!

1. describe how the Earth moves;

2. identify the reason why Earth maintains its orbit around the sun;.
3. describe how seasons occur;
4. describe the moon and its motion;
5. identify and describe the different phases of the moon; and
6. describe how solar and lunar eclipse occurs.
1
Here’s a simple guide for you in going about the module.
1. Read and follow the instructions very carefully.

2. Take the pretest. It is a simple multiple-choice test provided at the start to
determine how much you know about the content in this module.
3. Check your answers against the correct answers provided at the last page of the
module.
4. Be very honest in taking the test so you know how much knowledge you already
have about the topic.
5. Read the different lessons about the earth, sun and moon..
6. Perform all the activities, as these will help you have a better understanding of the
topic.
7. Take the Self-tests at the end of each lesson for you to determine how much you
remember about the lesson.
8. Finally, take the post-test at the end of this module.
Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write your answer on a separate
sheet of paper.
1. In what particular orbit do the planets like earth travel around the sun?
a. circular orbit
b. elliptical orbit
c. rectangular orbit
2
2. The earth is closest to the sun at ________________.
a. Perihelion
b. Aphelion
c. Apogee
d. Perigee
3. Which of the following is the reason why planets like Earth maintain their orbit around
the sun?
a. Tidal force between the sun and the planets.
b. Magnetic force between the sun and the planets.
c. Gravitational force between the sun and the planets.
d. Electrostatic force between the sun and the planets.
4. During Summer, the days are ___________________.

a. shorter than the nights
b. longer than the nights
c. the same length as the night
5. In what direction does the sun rise?

a. North
b. South
c. East
d. West
6. Which among the following causes the changes in the length of day or changes in
season?
a. Sun’s rays
b. Earth’s tilt
c. Phases of the moon
7. The time it takes for the moon to rotate along its axis once is ______________.
a. 27 1/3 days
b. 24 hours
c. 30 days
d. 365 days
8. Compared to the earth’s gravity, the moon’s gravity is _______________.

a. ½ as much
b. ¼ as much
c. 1 as much
6
3
9. Which of the following is the best description of the moon?
a. The moon is a constellation. Mars and Jupiter.
b. The moon is an asteroid that is located between.
c. The moon is a star because it is bright at nighttime.
d. The moon is a satellite that revolves around a planet.
10. The phases of the moon depend on the position of the _______________.
a. earth only
b. moon only
c. earth and moon only
d. earth, moon and sun
11. How long does it take the moon to go through all of its phases?
a. 24 hours
b. 27 1/3 days
c. 29 ½ days
d. 1 year
12. What phase of the moon does an observer on earth see when the moon is located
between the planes of the sun and the earth?
a. New moon
b. Full moon
c. First quarter moon
d. Last quarter moon
13. When does a lunar eclipse occur?

a. When the moon moves into the sun’s umbra
b. When the moon moves into its own umbra
c. When the moon moves into the earth’s umbra
14. Solar eclipse is most likely to occur on a _______________.

a. Full moon
b. New moon
c. Gibbous moon
d. Crescent moon
15. Which describes the umbra?

a. darker than the penumbra
b. lighter than the penumbra
c. the same as the penumbra
4
Lesson 1 How the Earth Moves
Take a look at the picture. Do you know all the

mysteries hidden in this picture? Do you know how this planet
moves? Now brace yourself as we explore our very own
planet – The Earth.
Do you often watch the sunrise and sunset? What do

you think causes the night and the day? Our ancestors
watched the sun rise, move across the sky, and then set. They
thought that the earth was steady and that it was the sun that
moved around the earth. Ptolemy, an astronomer (a scientist
who studies the stars and the planets) confirmed this idea.
Copernicus, however, stated that the sun is the center of the Figure 1.1. The Earth
universe and that the planets move around the sun.
What you will do

Activity 1.1 Making Models
Objectives:
1. To make a model of the earth.
2. To observe how earth moves about its own axis.
Materials:
plastic-foam ball, flashlight and barbecue stick
Procedure:
1. Get a plastic-foam ball and a barbecue stick. Push the stick to the center of the ball.
Hold one end of the barbecue stick and turn the ball from right to left. Observe the
motion of the ball about the stick.
2. Switch on the flashlight and focus the light to the model earth as you rotate your
model earth in a counterclockwise direction. Write down your observations.
5
Observations:
Guide Questions:
1. Which represents the axis of rotation of the earth?
2. How does the earth move?
3. When do nighttime and daytime occur?

You now have a model of the earth. The barbecue

stick represents the axis of rotation of the earth. The axis
of rotation of the earth is an imaginary line running from the
North Pole to the South Pole on which the earth spins.
When the earth moves about its axis, the earth is said to
be rotating. Like the model earth, earth also rotates in a
counterclockwise direction. The earth rotates from west to
east. The rotation of the earth causes all the places on
earth to move in circles around the earth’s axis. Places on
the equator move fastest. Places near the poles move
slowly.
Figure 1.2. The Model Earth
6
What you will do
Activity 1.2 Light on Earth
In the picture below, which part of the earth has daytime? Which part has nighttime?
Label the part of the earth that experiences daytime with “DAY”. Label the part of the earth
that experiences nighttime with “NIGHT”.
The part of the earth that experiences daytime is the one that faces the sun. The
sun’s energy serves as the free source of light for this part of the earth. The part of the
earth, which does not receive sunlight, experiences nighttime. At night, the sky appears dark
since the place where you live is turned away from the sun. One daytime and one nighttime
together make one complete day. The length of time for one complete rotation is one full
day. On earth, one full day is divided into 24 hours. Because of the rotation of the earth, you
often see the sun rising in the east and the sun setting in the west.
Your life is very much affected by the rotation of the earth. As the earth rotates, your
body follows a cycle of sleeping and waking. As soon as you wake up tomorrow morning,
rotate your head 10 times. Then rotate you hips 10 times. These make a good exercise.
7
What you will do
Objective:
To observe how earth moves about the sun.
Materials:
plastic-foam ball, flashlight and barbecue stick
Procedure:
Switch on the flashlight and focus the light to the model earth as you move your model earth
around the flashlight. What do you observe?
Observations:
Guide Questions:
1. Which represents the axis of revolution?
2. How does the earth move around the sun?
3. What is responsible in keeping the earth on its orbit around the sun?
8
As the earth rotates on its axis, it also moves around the sun. This movement of the
earth around an external axis (the sun) is called revolution. The path, which the earth
takes as it revolves around the sun, is called orbit. Just like all the planets, except Mercury,
the earth follows an elliptical (egg-shaped) path. Johannes Kepler is one of our
astronomers who said that the planets follow an elliptical path around the sun. One full orbit
of the earth around the sun is called one complete revolution. To make one complete
revolution the earth travels about 365¼ days around the sun. The earth rotates slowly and
at the same time it revolves very slowly that we do not feel the movement.
What keeps the earth in its orbit? What keeps it from flying off in a straight line into
space? The earth continues to revolve around the sun maintaining its orbit because of
gravity. The gravitational attraction between the earth and the sun forces the earth to
change its direction. The gravitational force keeps the earth from moving in a straight line
into the space. This keeps the earth moving in an elliptical orbit from west to east.
Gravitational attraction between 2 objects was discovered by one of the greatest scientist in
the 17th century, Sir Isaac Newton. The fall of an apple on his head was the root of this
discovery.
What you will do

Self-Test 1.1
1. If you were in Copernicus’ place and you contradicted the idea of Ptolemy that the
earth was the center of the universe, what evidences would you present to convince
people that the sun was the center of the Solar system?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
9
2. Write the appropriate connecting word or words in the concept map below.
Earth Sun
Elliptical Orbit
Day and Night
causes (example)
Rotation
If you answer the concept map correctly– Congratulations! You may now
proceed to the next lesson. If not, you need to go back and read the lesson again!
10
Lesson 2. Seasons of the Earth
Are days and nights of the same length? Do you notice some changes in the length
of day during summer and during Christmas season? Usually, during summer the sun rises
very early and sets very late. While during Christmas season, the sun rises late and it sets
early. This means that daytime is longer during summer months and shorter during
Christmas season. Do you know why these changes in season happen?
What you will do

Activity 2.1 Changes in Daytime – changes in season.
Objective:
1. To observe how changes in daytime happen.
Materials:
Model earth and flashlight, protractor
Procedure:
1. Get your model earth tilt it by about 23.5o from the vertical axis.
2. Switch on the flashlight and focus the light to the model earth as you revolve your
model earth around the flashlight (sun).
Guide Questions:
1. Do all the places of the earth, which faces the sun, receive the same amount of light?
2. What do these differences in the amount of sunlight received by the different places
on earth faces the sun mean?
3. If the Earth’s Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the sun, what is the season in the
Northern Hemisphere? In the Southern Hemisphere?
4. If the earth is neither tilted towards or away from the sun what season will probably
occur?
11
The earth turns on its own axis (axis of rotation) but it does point straight upward. The
axis of the earth is tilted at an angle of 23 ½ o from the vertical axis. One end of the axis is
called the North Pole while the other end is called the South Pole. The North Pole of the
earth points directly towards the North Star called the Polaris.
Figure 2.1. Earth’s tilt
If the earth’s axis were not tilted, daytime and nighttime would always be equal.
Figure 2.1 shows what that would be like. All the lines will receive the same amount of light
thus experiences equal daytime and nighttime. But since the earth’s axis is tilted, day and
night are not always of the same length. Figure 2.1 shows the earth’s tilt and the amount of
light different places on earth that face the sun receive. Only the equatorial region receive
uniform amount of sunlight and,
thus have equal daytime and
nighttime. The upper portion from
the equatorial region receives more
light than the lower portion. These
areas experience longer daytime
than nighttime. Conversely, the
areas below the equatorial region
experience longer nighttime than
daytime. North Pole is all in
daylight, while the South Pole is a
24-hour total darkness. Days and
Figure 2.2. Seasons on Earth nights have different lengths
because of the earth’s tilt.
Historically, 4 days each year have been given special significance based on the
position of earth’s sunlight with respect to the sun and its relation to the yearly weather
cycle. On June 21 or 22 the earth is in a position such that the axis in the Northern
Hemisphere is tilted 23-½ o toward the sun (figure 2.2). At this time the vertical rays of the
sun strike the 23-½ o north latitude (23 ½ o north of the equator), a line of latitude known as
the Tropic of Cancer. People in the Northern Hemisphere usually label June 21 or 22 as
summer solstice. These are usually known as the days with the longest daytime. Summer
is usually from June to March. Six months after, on December 21 or 22, the earth is in the
opposite position, with the sun’s vertical rays striking at 23-½ o south latitude. This line is
12
known as the Tropic of Capricorn. For those in the Northern Hemisphere, December 21 or
22 is the winter solstice. These are the usually known as the days with the longest
nighttime. Thus winter comes from December to September.
The equinoxes occur midway between the solstices. September 22 or 23 is the date
of the autumnal equinox in the Northern Hemisphere, and March 21 or 22 is the date of the
vernal equinox. On these date, the vertical rays of the sun strike directly at the equator
because the earth is in such a position in its orbit that the axis is tilted neither toward nor
away from the sun. Incidentally, the point at which earth is closest to the sun is known as
perihelion and the point where earth is farthest from the sun is known as aphelion.
What you will do

Self-Test 2.1
1. The earth is closest to the sun at ________________.

a. Perihelion
b. Aphelion
c. Apogee
d. Perigee
2. On which month does the earth have the greatest velocity?

a. March
b. September
c. June
d. December
3. During Summer, the days are ___________________.

a. shorter than the nights
b. longer than the nights
c. the same length as the night
4. In what direction does the sun rise?

a. North
b. South
c. East
13
d. West
5. Which among the following causes the changes in the length of day?
a. Sun’s rays
b. Earth’s tilt
If you answer 3 out of 5 items correctly– Congratulations! You may now

proceed to the next lesson. If you score below 3 you need to go back and read the
lesson again!
Lesson 3. Moon: its Motion and Phases
Are you familiar with the show Marina? Marina is a girl cursed to be a mermaid by a
wicked witch named Victoria who happens to have a daughter named Luna. Did you know
that our moon is also named Luna? The moon is the only natural satellite of the earth. A
satellite is an opaque (objects that absorb light and produces shadows) object that revolves
around another object.
When you look at the moon at night, do you notice the

dark and light parts? When Galileo used his telescope and
pointed it to the moon, he also noticed the light and dark
areas. Space probes have found that the dark areas are vast,
flat areas. They are known as Marias (Latin word for “seas”).
They were called marias because they look like the seas on
Earth. The bright areas are the highlands like the hills and the
mountains.
Figure 3.1. The Moon
14
What you will do
Objective:
1. To make a model of the moon.
2. To observe how moon moves about its own axis and about the earth.
Materials:
Model earth, Styrofoam ball (smaller than the model earth in size), cutter and sand
paper.
Procedure:
1. Get the Styrofoam ball and make holes on its surface using a cutter. Polish your
model moon using the sandpaper.
2. Get your model earth and make the model moon revolve around it while you
rotate the model moon. See to it that while you let the model moon rotate and
revolve around the model earth, the model earth sees the same part of the moon
throughout the motion.
Guide Question:
1. Which represents the axis of revolution of the moon?
Take a look at the picture of the moon again. You can see that the moon has many
holes. These holes are called craters. The moon has no
atmosphere to protect it from colliding with other
heavenly bodies.
You now have a model of the moon. Like the sun

and the earth, the gravitational attraction between the
earth and the moon keeps the moon close to the earth. It
also keeps the moon moving around earth. The moon
takes about 29 ½ days to make one complete revolution
around the earth and 27 1/3 days to complete one
Figure 3.2. The Moon’s Surface
rotation about its axis.
15
According to most astronomers, the period of revolution (time for one revolution-29 ½
days) and the period of rotation (time for one rotation-27 1/3 days) of the moon are the
same. This is due to the fact that while the moon rotates and revolves around the earth, the
earth also rotates and revolves around the sun. Thus, when the moon has completed its
rotation, its revolution is not yet completed because the earth has already changed its
position with respect to the sun. This makes the moon take additional days to complete the
revolution. If not for the movement of the earth around the sun then both the rotation and
revolution of the moon around the earth will be completed in 27 1/3 days. This makes us see
only one face of the moon all the times.
Have you seen the moon change its shape in a month? Although the moon is really
shaped like a ball, its shape appears to change from day to day. This change in its shape is
called the phases of the moon. Figure 3.3 shows the phases of the moon.
Figure 3.3. The Phases of the Moon
What you will do

Activity 3.2 Moonlight
Objective:
1. To observe how moon reflects the light of the sun.
Materials:
Model earth, model moon, flashlight, aluminum foil.
Procedure:
1. Get your model earth and wrap it with an aluminum foil.

2. Get your model earth, model moon and flashlight (sun).
3. Position your models and flashlight as follows: Moon, Earth, and flashlight. Make
sure that the flashlight is focused on the earth as shown in figure 3.4
16
Model Moon
Model Earth Flashlight

(sun’s rays)
Figure 3.4. Earthshine
Observations:
Guide Question:
1. Where do you think does the moon get its light, which serves as our moonlight
during nighttime?
The brightness of the moon provides light at night. But the moon does not produce its
own light. It is an opaque body. As such it cannot produce its own light. Moonlight is really
sunlight reflected by the moon. When the moon is between the earth and the sun it is called
new moon (see figure 3.4). In a new moon, the moonlight is just a sunlight reflected by
earth to the moon. This moonlight is called earthshine. While during full moon, when the
earth is between the sun and the moon, the moonlight is the light from the sun reflected by
the moon to the earth (see figure 3.5).
Figure 3.5. Moonshine
Model Earth
Flashlight
Model Moon (sun’s rays)
17
What you will do
Activity 3.3 Moon’s Phases
Objective:
1. To observe the phases of the moon
Materials:
Model earth, model moon, flashlight, aluminum foil.
Procedure:
1. Get your moon model, earth model, and sun model.

2. Show the phases of the moon by moving and placing the models in certain
positions around the earth as shown in the table below.
3. Identify the phase of the moon and illustrate the moon’s shape during such a
phase.
Observations
Position of Earth, Sun and

Phase of the moon Drawing
Moon
M
S
E
S
E
M
S
E
18
S
M E
S
E
M
S
E
S
E M
Guide Question:
1. Name the phases of the moon.
19
Look at the picture of the phases of the moon (figure 3.6). After a few days, the moon
takes another position. At this time, you
can see a thin slice of the moon on the
western sky just after sunset. This is called
the crescent moon. In the next few days,
the moon appears bigger. You can see
half of the lighted side. This is called the
first quarter. This is visible from about
noon to midnight. Then the moon grows
bigger than the first quarter moon. The
shape is called gibbous moon. In a few
days, when the moon is nearly opposite
the sun, the side facing the moon is fully
lighted. This is the full moon phase. After
the full moon phase, the moon becomes
smaller (wanes) until it disappears. It starts
Figure 3.6. Moon’s Phases as a new moon again.
What you will do

Self-Test 3.1
Direction: Answer the following questions logically. Write your answer on a

1. How much time does it take for the moon to go through all its phases?
2. What happens when the moon’s period of rotation and period of revolution is the
same?
3. When you look at the crescent moon early in the evening, is the moon waxing
(growing) or waning (decreasing)?
If you answered 2 out of 3 correctly– Congratulations! You may now proceed to the
next lesson. If not, you need to go back and read the lesson again!
20
Lesson 4 Eclipses
What would you do if it suddenly becomes dark in the middle of a clear sunny day?
Would you be frightened? Don’t be! This is just a natural event. It usually takes place when
there is a solar eclipse.
What you will do

Activity 4.1 Solar Eclipse
Objective:
1. To observe the solar eclipse.
Materials:
Model earth, model moon, flashlight
Procedure:
1. Get your model moon, model earth, and a flashlight. Position the 3 objects as
shown in Figure 4.1
Model Earth Model Moon Flashlight

(sun’s rays)
Figure 4.1 Solar Eclipse
21
Guide Questions:
1. What happens when the moon blocks sunlight?
2. If you were on the spot on earth where the moon has blocked sunlight, what
would you observe?
3. When does solar eclipse occur?
What happens when the moon is between the sun and the earth? The moon absorbs
the sunlight preventing it from reaching the earth. This produces a shadow of the moon on
the earth’s surface. The shadow of the
moon on the earth’s surface is called an
eclipse of the sun. This is known as
solar eclipse. A solar eclipse occurs
during new moon because in a new-
moon phase, the moon is between the
sun and the earth. But solar eclipses do
not always occur every new moon. In
fact it occurs very rarely.Look at figure
4.1. The moon is in its new moon phase
but since the moon, the sun and the Figure 4.2 Solar Eclipse
earth are not positioned in a straight line
then there will be no solar eclipse.
Figure 4.2 shows the moon casting a dark shadow on earth. How does this shadow
affect earth? The places on earth that will be covered by the umbra (darkest part of the
moon’s shadow) will experience a total solar eclipse.
In a total solar eclipse, the moon covers the bright surface of the sun and only the
sun’s corona can be seen. During this time, the sky darkens, and the planets and stars can
be seen. A total eclipse lasts only about seven minutes or less.
Partial solar eclipse occurs in places on earth reached by the penumbra (the lighter
part of the shadow) of the moon’s shadow. An eclipse is a natural event. View it without fear.
22
Remember this!
Do not look directly at the sun during a solar eclipse. The radiation can damage
your eyes. It can even lead to blindness. You can use an old X-ray film or an old
filmstrip to view the sun and protect your eyes from the radiation. Or you may also use a
basin of water to see the magnificent event.
There are usually four eclipses occurring in each year. These come as a set of one
solar eclipse and one lunar eclipse, followed six months later with another set. A total solar
eclipse has occurred in our country several times. The most recent of which is that which
occurred on October 24, 1995 at Tawi-Tawi.
What you will do

Activity 4.2 Lunar Eclipses
Objective:
1. To observe the solar eclipse.
Materials:
Model earth, model moon, flashlight
Procedure:
1. Get your model moon, model earth, and a flashlight. Position the 3 objects as
shown below.
Model Moon
Model Earth Flashlight
(sun’s rays)
Figure 4.3. Lunar Eclipse
23
Guide Questions:
1. What happens when the earth blocks sunlight?
2. When does lunar eclipse occur?
What happens when the earth is between the moon and the sun? The earth blocks
the sunlight from reaching the moon. When this happens, a lunar eclipse (eclipse of the
moon) occurs. This usually happens
during a full moon since at that time,
the earth is between the moon and the
earth. A lunar eclipse and it usually
occurs for four hours only occurs when
the moon, the sun and the earth are in
a straight line. It can be seen by
anyone on the side of the earth facing
Figure 4.4. Lunar Eclipse the moon. These occur as a set of one
solar eclipse and one lunar eclipse in a
period of 6 months.
24
What you will do
Self-Test 4.1
Direction: Answer the following very logically. Write your answer on a separate sheet
of paper.
1. When the moon is between the earth and the sun, what kind of eclipse occurs?
a. Solar eclipse
b. Lunar eclipse
2. Which kind of eclipse usually occurs during a full moon phase?

a. Solar eclipse
b. Lunar eclipse
3. When does an eclipse occur?

a. When the sun, moon and earth lie along one plane
b. When the sun, moon and earth lie along one line
4. Lunar eclipse occurs when ______________.

a. the earth is between the moon and the sun
b. the moon is between the sun and the earth
a. Solar eclipse
b. Lunar eclipse
If you answered 3 out of 5 items correctly– Congratulations! You may now

proceed to the next lesson. If you scored below 3, you need to go back and read the
lesson again!
25
Let’s summarize
1. Earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical path and at the same time that it
rotates about its axis.
2. Revolution is the movement of the earth around an external axis (the sun)
3. One revolution is equal to 365 ¼ days.
4. Rotation is the movement of the earth around its internal axis. One rotation is
equal to 24 hours.
5. Gravitational force is the force responsible for maintaining the earth’s orbit around
the sun.
6. The length of the day changes because the earth is tilted by about 23 ½ o from the
vertical axis.
7. Seasons occur due to the tilt of the earth.
8. June 21 or 22 is known as summer solstice, December 21 or 22 is known as

winter solstice and March 21 or 22 and September 21 or 22 are known as spring
and autumnal equinoxes respectively.
9. Luna, our moon is a natural satellite of the earth. It has marias and highlands.
10. Changes in the moon’s shape as it appears on earth are called the phases of the
moon.
11. Basically the 4 basic phases are the full moon, new moon, first quarter and last
quarter.
12. Eclipses occur when the sun, the moon and the earth lie along one line.
13. Lunar eclipse usually occurs during a full moon phase when the earth is between
the moon and the sun.
14. Solar eclipse occurs when the moon is between the sun and the earth
26
Posttest
Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write your answer on a
1. What do you call the earth’s movement about its axis?

a. rotation
b. revolution
c. precession
2. What do you call the earth’s motion around the sun?

a. rotation.
b. revolution
c. precession
3. Which of the following is the reason why planets like Earth maintain their orbit around the
sun?
a. Tidal force between the sun and the planets.
b. Magnetic force between the sun and the planets.
c. Gravitational force between the sun and the planets.
d. Electrostatic force between the sun and the planets.
4. The day on which the sun reaches its greatest altitude at noon is
a. summer solstice.
b. winter solstice.
c. vernal equinox.
d. spring equinox
5. The time when the sun crosses the celestial equator is called a/an
a. equinox
b. summer solstice
c. winter solstice
6. Which among the following causes the changes in the length of day?
a. Sun’s rays
b. Earth’s tilt
e. None of the above
7. Compared to the earth’s gravity, the moon’s gravity is _______________.

a. ½ as much
b. ¼ as much
27
c. 1 as much
6
8. How long does it take for the moon to rotate once?

b. 27 1 3 days
c. 24 hours
d. 30 days
e. 365 days
9. The phases of the moon depend on the position of the _______________.

a. earth only
b. moon only
c. earth and moon only
d. earth, moon and sun
10. Eclipses do not occur each month because the

a. moon is always in the ecliptic.
b. moon is never in the ecliptic.
c. Earth's axis is tilted to the ecliptic.
d. moon's orbit is in the ecliptic.
11. If a solar eclipse occurred 2 weeks ago, what would be the phase of the moon today?
a. first quarter
b. full
c. last quarter
d. new
12. The darkest part of the shadow during an eclipse is called

a. umbra.
b. penumbra.
c. annulus.
13. When does an eclipse occur?

a. When the sun, moon and earth lie along one plane
b. When the sun, moon and earth lie along one line
14. A lunar eclipse occurs when ______________.

a. earth is between the moon and the sun
b. moon is between the sun and the earth
a. Solar eclipse
b. Lunar eclipse
28
Key to Answers
Pre-Test
1. b
2. b
3. c
4. b
5. c
6. b
7. a
8. c
9. d
10. c
11. c
12. c
13. c
14. b
15. a
Activity 1.1
1. The barbecue stick represents the axis of rotation

2. Earth rotates on its own axis and revolves around the sun following the
elliptical orbit.
3. Places on earth that encounter the sun’s rays experience daytime and
places on earth that do not encounter the sun’s rays experience nighttime.
Activity 1.2
daytime
nighttime
29
Activity 1.3
i. The flashlight (sun) serves as the axis of revolution of the earth.

ii. The earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit.]
iii. The gravitational pull of the sun on earth is responsible in maintaining
the earth in its orbit.
Self-Test 1.1
1. Sun rise and sun set are evidences that earth is rotating on its axis and
revolving around the sun.
2.
Which
Earth revolves Sun
around
on in an
Elliptical Orbit
Day and Night
causes
Rotation
Activity 2.1
Guide Questions:
1. No, Earth receives different amount of sun’s rays. Equatorial regions

receive more intense rays than its upper and lower regions.
2. This means that the length of daytime differs in different places.
30
Self-Test 2.1
1. a
2. d
3. b
4. c
5. b
Activity 3.1
Guide Question
1. Earth represents the moon’s axis of revolution.
Activity 3.2
Observation
Earth reflects sunlight to the moon which in turn reflects it to
the earth in the form of moonlight.
Guide Question
Moonlight comes from the earth’s reflected sun rays –
earthshine
Activity 3.3
Observations
Position of Earth, Sun

Phase of the moon Drawing
and Moon
S M
E Full moon
Third quarter
S
E
31
M Waning Crescent
S
E
New Moon
S
M E
S Waxing Crescent
E
M
S First Quarter
E
S Waxing Gibbous
E M
Self-Test 3.1
1. 29 ½ days
2. We will see only one side of the moon forever
3. waxing
32
Activity 4.1
Guide questions
1. Moon casts a shadow on earth
2. darkness
3. Usually solar eclipse occurs when the moon is between the earth and the
sun lying along one line.
Activity 4.2
Guide questions
1. Moon will cast a shadow on earth during nighttime.
2. Usually lunar eclipse occurs when the earth is between the moon and the
sun lying along one line.
Self-Test 4.1
1. a
2. b
3. b
4. a
5. a
Post Test
1. a
2. b
3. a
4. a
5. a
6. a
7. b
8. b
9. a
10. a
11. b
12. a
13. c
14. c
15. d
-End of Module-
33
References
Bernstein, L. et.al. (1986). Concepts and challenges in Earth Science (2nd Ed.) NY: Globe
Book Company, Inc.
Cohen, M. et.al.. (1992). Discover science. Manila: Academe Publishing House
Tarbuck, E.J. Lutgens, F.K. (1994). Earth Science (7th Ed.) Englewood, CA: Prentice Hall
Photo Credits:
NASA.ESA and Others. http://wwww.outpost.com/gallery/earth/pages/earthfullshine%20copy.htm. (Accessed

October 4, 2004)
globe.org. http://www.cusu.cam.ac.uk/ing/general/. (Accessed October 4, 2004)
Sun_total Eclipse.jpg. http://www.unrated.com/gallery.asp. (Accessed October 4, 2004)
Sun_260.jpg. http://www.dearborn_animals.com/Donations/donations.htm. (Accessed October 4, 2004)
Earth_sun.jpg. http://www2.volstate.edu/kbell/E-mails/cachede.htm. (Accessed October 4, 2004)
Moon_15day_2884.jpg. http://www.pa.msu.edu/people/french/moon/index3.html. (Accessed October 4, 2004)
Moon_South_Pole_June_6…ked1-6.jpg. http://www.daycenter.org/archive/archives.html. (Accessed October

4, 2004)
Phase_moon.jpg. http://www.dengik.com/Phases%20of%20the%.htm. (Accessed October 4, 2004)
Sun_Earth_Moon.jpr. http://www.scribeweekly.com. (Accessed October 4, 2004)
34
MODULE 17

Pasig City
1
Module 17
Minor Members of the Solar System
This module will take you on a fly-by tour outside the earth, providing you a
closer look at the asteroids, meteors and comets. You and I will experience this one of
a kind adventure. Come with me and have fun learning the following lessons:
Lesson 1 - Asteroids, Meteors, and Comets

Lesson 2 - Space Technology

1. explain the occurrence of comet, meteor showers and other phenomena; and
2. identify technologies used in studying other heavenly bodies and their uses
on Earth.
I know you are excited to start the adventure just as I am but remember to do the
following tips to successfully achieve the objectives of this self-learning kit.
1. Read instructions carefully.

2. Follow instructions carefully.
3. Answer the pretest before you start the lesson.
4. Observe the time limit to finish the module.
5. Take note and record points for clarifications.
6. Try to achieve at least a 75% level of proficiency in the tests.
7. Work diligently and honestly.
8. Answer the posttest honestly.
2
Before we proceed, let us see if you can answer these simple questions about
our lesson. For each item, encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. The primary chemical constituent of comets is

a. water
b. nitrogen
c. methane
d. carbon dioxide
2. A meteor shower occurs when

a. a meteor is about to get married
b. the earth passes through the asteroid belt
c. the head of a comet hits the earth’s atmosphere
d. the earth passes through a swarm of dust particles in space, the remnants of a
comet, once a year
3. A meteorite is
a. a rock from space that strikes the ground
b. a piece of rock passing through the earth’s atmosphere
c. the trail left by a piece rock as it passes through the earth’s atmosphere
d. all of the above
4. Most of the asteroids orbit the sun in a belt between the orbits of
a. Venus and Mars
b. Mars and Earth
c. Mars and Jupiter
d. Jupiter and Saturn
5. The asteroids are

a. miniature planets
b. satellites of planets
c. pockets of gas in the solar system
d. planets orbiting the stars other than the sun
6. Comet tails are the result of

a. interplanetary material streaming into the comet
b. melting and evaporation of ice from the comet core
c. dust collected by the comet as it moves in its orbit
d. solar wind blowing more gases from the central comet core
3
7. Why are meteorites and comets important in studying the origin of the solar system?
a. They have recently formed themselves.
b. They are recently produced fragments of planets.
c. They represent the material which formed the planets.
8. The orbits of most comets, which we see in the inner solar system
a. are nearly circular
b. are highly elliptical
c. never come closer to the sun
d. are only slightly inclined to the earth’s orbit
9. Most meteoroids are formed when

a. comets melted
b. volcanoes erupted
c. asteroids exploded or collided
d. satellites exploded or collided
10. Meteors are

a. falling stars
b. signals from the other worlds
c. solar wind particles captured by the earth’s magnetic field
d. luminous trails left by small extraterrestrial particles rapidly passing through the
air
11. Meteorites are composed of

a. hydrogen ice
b. helium ice
c. heavy elements like silicon
d. all the above
12. The first satellite to discover a comet was/were the

a. Mariner 2
b. Vikings 1 and 2
c. Hubble Telescopes
d. Infrared Astronomical Satellite
13. It was the first probe to visit Mercury

a. IRAS
b. Mariner 10
c. Vikings 1
d. StarDust
4
14. The first space probes to successfully land on the surface of Mars were
a. IRAS and Galileo
b. Hubble Telescopes
c. Viking 1 and 2
d. Galileo and Viking 1
15. The first spacecraft to fly past an asteroid was

a. Galileo
b. Cassini
c. StarDust
d. Mariner 10
Lesson 1 Asteroid, Meteor and Comets
Trying to scan the entire sky on moonless nights over and over again, looking for
changing objects against the static background of stars, have you ever wondered what
lies beyond? I am sure you will be amazed to know that there are other minor bodies
that could possibly affect our lives on earth.
Asteroids
Do you know what asteroids are?
Asteroids are simply rocky or metallic objects that orbit the sun in the same way
that planets orbit. Asteroids are hard to see because they reflect little light and they are
always on the move. None of the asteroids has an atmosphere.
How big are they?
Asteroids come in all sizes and

shapes. Some are as tiny as pebbles and
some are as big as mountains. Since they are
smaller than planets, they are often called
minor planets or planetoids. Ceres is the
largest of the asteroids. It is about 930
kilometers in diameter. Can you imagine how
huge that is? Like any other big rock, they can
be potato-shaped, papaya-shaped or have
strange shapes!
Figure 1.1 An Asteroid
5
Where do many asteroids orbit?
Many asteroids orbit the sun in a region between Mars and Jupiter. This area is
called the asteroid belt. They follow a slightly elliptical path as they orbit the sun in the
same direction as the planets.
Do you think it is possible for an asteroid to be pulled out of its orbit?
Yes, you’re right! A larger object such as a planet may pull an asteroid out of
orbit. And once an asteroid is captured by the gravitational pull of a planet, it may
become a satellite of that planet. Many astronomers believe that the two satellites of
Mars, Phobos and Deimos, are captured asteroids.
What prevents the asteroids in the belt from moving towards the sun and hitting
the inner planets, including our Mother Earth?
If it were not for the giant planet

Jupiter pulling the asteroids outward,
large asteroids would constantly
bombard Mercury, Venus, Mars and
Earth. I hope you still remember those
inner planets that you learned from
your previous module.
Since the belt is closer to

Jupiter than it is to the sun, Jupiter
exerts more gravitational pull on the
asteroids than the sun. As a result, the
asteroids are kept in orbit away from
the inner planets.
Figure 1.2 The asteroid belt

Meteor
Ask your parents, aunts or lola if they have heard an old song from the 50’s
called “Catch a falling Star and Put it in Your Pocket”. What is a falling star? Can you
catch it? Will it really fit in your pocket?
A meteoroid is a piece of stony or metallic object, which travels in space.

Meteoroids travel around the sun in a variety of orbits and at various speeds. They are
believed to form when asteroids hit each other as they orbit.
Like asteroids, meteoroids collide and can be pulled out of orbit or sent into
earth’s atmosphere or another planet.
6
So what happens when a meteoroid enters earth’s atmosphere?
When a meteoroid enters the earth’s atmosphere, friction between this object
and atmospheric gases heats it to the point that it glows and becomes visible to our
eyes for only a few seconds. This streak of light in the sky is known as meteors,
sometimes called falling or shooting stars.
What if the meteor does not burn up completely? Would it fall to the earth?
If the meteor does not burn up completely, the remaining portion falls to earth!
But don’t worry; you are still lucky because most of them are very small. In addition,
most debris from space falls unseen over oceans or sparsely populated areas like
Antarctica. A meteor that hits the earth’s surface is called a meteorite.
Do you have any idea how many meteorites hit the earth each year?
Based from the scientists’ record, meteorites constantly hit the Earth’s surface.
The table below will give you an idea of the approximate size and number of meteorites
that hit the Earth’s surface.
Approximate size of meteorites Number of pieces that hit the Earth

Pea-size 10 per hour
Kasoy nut-size 1 per hour
Lansones-size 1 per 10 hours
Basketball-size 1 per month
50-meter-size 1 per 100 years
1 kilometer-size 1 per 500,0000 years.
Have you heard of somebody being hit by a meteorite?
There has only been one report of an “HBM” (hit by meteorite). In 1954, a
meteorite, which weighed 19.84 kilograms, crashed through the roof of Ann Hodges of
Sylacauga, Alabama. Do you know what happened to her? Thank God she was just
slightly injured!
Comets
People have been aware of comets since ancient times. Try to ask your lola or
lolo about comets, and they might tell you that a comet brings bad luck! Why?
Some people believed that comets were bad spirits who took on the appearance
of the head of a woman with its long hair streaming behind. To old folks, this was a
traditional sign of mourning. Sometimes, to other people, a comet appeared as a
sword, a sign of war, death and famine.
7
Did you know?
The Hoba iron meteorite is the largest single meteorite known. It can still be
found in its landing sight in Namibia. Its present weight is estimated at 66,000
kilogram. Part of the Hoba has rusted away. Therefore, its original weight may have
been as much as 100,000!
Are comets really tools of the devil? What are they?
A comet is fuzzy, luminous big dirty snowball

composed of rock dust wrapped around a big ball of ice.
This beautiful sight in the sky moves very slowly and may
remain in our sight for weeks before fading out of view.
A comet enters a huge elliptical orbit. Each time the
comet passes close to the sun, it loses some of its material.
When it returns to the distant part of the solar system, it
gradually appears smaller and dimmer. Overtime, it
disappears completely. In some cases, the comet may have
a solid, rocky core that is then left to continue traveling Figure 1.3 A comet
around its orbit as a dark barren asteroid.
What are the parts of the comet?
A comet does not produce energy and light, thus

it is not visible. However, as it gets closer to the sun, it
become visible because the heat of the sun melts the
ice of the comet and turns it to gas. This gas becomes
the coma , which envelopes and hides the nucleus
from our view. The nucleus is the center of the comet
made of frozen water. The nucleus and the coma
together are called the head of the comet. They become
bigger and bigger as more gas and dust are released
from the coma. The solar wind blows more and more
gas from the coma causing it to form a tail, which in
some comets, can reach up to 150 million kilometers in
length! Figure 1.4 Parts of a comet
8
Where do they come from?
Most comets are thought to originate from a huge cloud called the Oort Cloud,
which is too far away for astronomers to see.
What is Halley’s comet?
Halley’s comet is an example of short-period comet, with an orbital period of less

than 200 years. Halley’s comet makes an appearance once every 76 years, and is set
to return in 2061. Other comets are long-period comets that can take up to a million
year to orbit the sun. An example of such is the Hale-Bopp comet.
Could a comet crash into earth?
There is no evidence that a comet has ever crashed into earth. However, it is
one possible explanation for the extinction of dinosaurs. The hypothesis is that a large
comet or asteroid crashed into our planet and triggered a chain of disastrous events
like earthquakes, tidal waves, causing radical changes in the climate and eventually
wiped out dinosaurs.
What is a meteor shower?
A meteor shower is a phenomenon in which many meteors fall through the

atmosphere in a relatively short time and in approximately parallel trajectories. A very
intense meteor shower is called a meteor storm.
When do meteor showers happen?
Meteor showers and storms occur when the earth passes through a comet’s
orbit, and leftover comet debris bombards the earth. Meteor showers occur at a
predictable time each year. The latest meteor shower experienced on earth happened
in November 1999. It was named Leonid shower.
Did you know?
When a comet approaches the sun, the tail is behind the head, but as it travels
away from the sun, the tail is in front. In other words, the comet’s tail always points
away from the sun. This is due to the effect of the solar winds.
9
What you will do
Activity 1.1
After exploring the amazing asteroids, comets, and meteors, test yourself if you
can differentiate the three:
comets, meteors, and asteroids
Given below are some characteristics of comets, meteors and asteroids.

On the space provided, write
A if it refers to comets
B if it refers to meteors
C if it refers to asteroids
D if it refers to both comets and meteors
E if it refers to both meteors and asteroids
F if it refers to both asteroids and comets
G if it refers to all (comets, meteors and asteroid)
Characteristics:
___1. Progress across the sky very slowly ___11. Known as falling stars or
shooting stars
___2. Remnants of the formation of the solar ___12. They glow as they enter earth’s
system atmosphere
___3. Reflect sunlight ___13. Streak across the sky very fast
___4. Rocky composition ___14. Come in all sizes and shapes
___5. Orbit the sun in highly elliptical orbits ___15. Icy objects
___6. Minor planets ___16. Meteor showers
___7. Mostly found between Mars and Jupiter ___17. Tail always point away from the
sun
___8. Can reach 150 million km in length ___18. Travel in a variety of orbits
___9. Most have slightly elliptical orbits ___19. Known as falling stars or
shooting stars
___10. Result from the collision of asteroids
10
What you will do
Activity 1.2
Make your own comet
Direction: To demonstrate the various components in a comet and see how the tail
forms, you can make a simple model using either of the following options:
Option 1. Taken from
What you need:
• One sheet of paper

• Two long strips of shiny filler for gift bags
• One 2-inch strip of tape
• One drinking straw (not a bendy straw)
• Blow dryer
• One marker
• Scissors
• Adult helper
Here's what you do:
1. Cut slits in the paper from each corner leaving a space in the middle (like the
drawing).
2. Lay the strips across the paper over the slits to make an "X."
3. Put a piece of tape across the "X" to hold the strips on to the paper.
4. Crumple the paper into a comet shape. Make sure that your strips stay on the
outside.
5. Use the scissors to poke a hole through the comet.
6. Push the straw into the hole.
7. Hold the comet by the straw.
8. Use a hairdryer to show how the Sun's energy makes parts of the comet blow off
to a tail. (Let the adult plug the dryer into the socket.)
9. Here is something you can do with a friend. He or she can be the Sun. Walk
around the Sun holding the comet. The Sun's energy should blow on your comet
as you walk.
10. See how the tail moves as you get closer to the Sun.
11
Option 2.
What you need:
• large mixing bowl

• a cup of water
• garden soil with pebbles
• ¼ cup dark corn syrup
• ¼ cup dilute ammonia
• a finch of iron filings
• crushed dry ice
• plate
• blow dryer
Here’s what you do:
In a large mixing bowl add one cup of water, 1/2 cup garden soil with pebbles,
1/4 cup dark corn syrup (for organics), 1/4 cup dilute ammonia (for gas) and a pinch of
iron filings. Stir the mixture well and add 2 cups of crushed, dry ice. YOU MUST WEAR
GLOVES ! As the mixture starts to freeze, squeeze some of it together like you were
packing a snowball and presto, you have a comet nucleus. Place the frozen mass on a
plate and have the students observe it sublimate. To get a tail, you'll need to create the
"solar wind". This can be accomplished by using a standard blow dryer turned on high
pointed at the comet.
What you will do

Self-Test 1.1
Direction: Answer the following questions in complete sentences.
a. How do meteorites differ from meteors and meteoroids?

b. Why do you think astronomers believed that asteroids came from a planet that
may have existed between Mars and Jupiter?
12
Lesson 2 Space Technology
Not content to observe asteroids with ever-more sophisticated instruments from

earth, scientists have started visiting them. To boldly go where no one can is the
mission of automated spacecraft and Landers. This lesson will give you an idea of how
our technologies have reached the unreachable places.
Come with me and find yourself a seat in one of these robotic machines…
Remember to fasten your seatbelt, we are about to launch! One…two…three…
Hubble Space Telescope is one of the largest and most complex satellites ever
built. It was named after American astronomer Edwin P. Hubble, who first discovered
that countless island cities of stars and galaxies dwell far beyond the Milky Way.
The Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) was launched in January 1983. Its
mission was to map the entire sky at infrared wavelengths. IRAS was the first satellite
to discover a comet.
The Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR) is the first of NASA’s discovery
missions and the first mission to go into orbit around an asteroid. Studies were made of
the asteroids’ size, shape, mass, magnetic field, composition, and surface and internal
structure. The spacecraft has the shape of an octagonal prism, approximately 1.7 meter
on a side, with four solar panels and a fixed 1.5-meter X-band high gain radio antenna.
It is equipped with an X-ray/gamma ray spectrometer, a near-infrared imaging
spectrograph, a laser altimeter, and a magnetometer.
13
Vikings 1 and 2 became the first space probes to successfully land on the
surface of Mars. It was the first US spacecraft to successfully touch down on any planet
other than Earth.
Mariner 10 was the first space probe to visit Mercury and the first to visit two
planets – Venus and Mercury.
StarDust was the first space probe sent to intercept and collect contents from a
comet’s tail.
Galileo spacecraft was the first to fly past an asteroid and the first to discover a
moon of an asteroid. It provided the only direct observation of a comet colliding with a
planet.
The Voyager probes, launched in the early 1970’s, are sending back information
about the outer solar system. These probes have given us a close up look at all the
planets and asteroids. Some of these probes have gone through the tails of comets.
Our fascination with our neighbor Mars has led to the invention of Mars
Pathfinder, Mars Global Surveyor, Mars Odyssey and Mars Rovers. These robotic
machines were sent to gather data regarding Mars’ surface features, atmosphere, and
magnetic properties. The objectives of these missions include the search for water and
for evidence of life-sustaining environments.
Did you know?
There are over eight thousand artificial objects orbiting Earth. From this
figure, over 2,500 are active satellites sending data back to earth, while others are
now inoperative. The remaining objects are orbital debris such as lens, hatch
covers, rocket bodies, payloads that have disintegrated or exploded, and even
objects that "escape" from manned spacecraft during operations.
14
What you will do
Activity 2.1 Robots: Just Like You!
You have learned that spacecrafts are complex, technological objects that have
to function far from Earth in the harsh environment of space. They have a common
function, which is to collect scientific data and send them back to Earth. What are the
basic parts of a spacecraft? What are the functions of these parts? To help you answer
these questions, let us try to compare spacecraft parts with your own body parts.
Take a look at this spacecraft and consider this as a living organism.
Figure 2.1 Some Parts of the Hubble Space Telescope
15
Now, match the human body parts in column A with its analogous spacecraft parts in
column B. Write the letter of your answer before each number.
Column A: Human Body Parts Column B: Basic Spacecraft Parts
a. Rocket motor/thrusters (change

1. Mouth and Stomach their orientation in space)
b. Fuel lines
2. Body/Torso
c. Solar panels (sunlight), batteries
3. Brain (stored energy), radioisotopes
thermoelectric generators (heat
from the decay of radioactive
4. Nerves material)
5. Skin d. Electrical wiring
6. Legs e. Insulator (blanket for temperature

control)
7. Blood vessels f. Camera, spectrometer,

magnetometer
8. Neck
g. Scan platform (pivots to any
direction)
9. Eyes h. Communication antennae,
receivers and transmitters
10. Ears/mouth
i. Spacecraft Bus or housing/casing
j. Computers
16
What you will do
Activity 2.2
Can you identify some technologies used in astronomy? Name each picture
below.
This telescope was launched on the Space Shuttle on April

24, 1990. It is a very special telescope which orbits far
above the Earth. It allows scientists to see objects billions of
light years away.
What telescope is this?

______________________________
It is a spacecraft that blasted off on July 16, 1969. Aboard

the spacecraft were Neil Armstrong, Edwin (Buzz) Aldrin,
and Michael Collins.
Name this spacecraft.

_________________________________
A space vehicle that takes off like a rocket, orbits Earth like
a spaceship, and lands like an airplane.
It has a huge payload bay in which cargo, such as space
probe, is carried into space.
This space vehicle is called

____________________________
The clothes that today's astronauts wear while on a

spacewalk have changeable parts just like a Lego set does.
It protects them from the changes in pressure that happen
when you come and go from space. This suit has a helmet,
gloves, and boots.
What do you call this suit?

_____________________________
17
This satellite was a joint scientific project sponsored by the
United Kingdom, the United States, and the Netherlands. Its
mission was to map the entire sky at infrared wavelengths. It
was the first satellite to discover a comet.
What satellite is this?

____________________________
This is the first space probe to visit Mercury. It used the

gravitational pull of Venus to swing it into a different orbit so
it could continue on to Mercury.
Name this space probe.

_____________________________
Source: http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/shadow/space_level1/wardrobe.html
What you will do

Self-Test 2.1
Direction: Answer the following questions completely.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration, simply called NASA, is a

space agency of the United States, which is responsible for all the information we had
about space explorations. It continues to send probes and discover the depths of
space. Are you in favor of NASA’s pursuit for manned space flights? Why? Please give
your reason.
18
Let’s summarize
What are the things that you have learned from this module?
1. Asteroids are rocky or metallic objects that orbit the sun in the same way that
planets orbit. Asteroids are hard to see because they reflect little light and
they are always on the move. Since they are smaller than planets, they are
often called minor planets or planetoids. Many asteroids orbit the sun in a
region between Mars and Jupiter. This area is called the asteroid belt. They
follow a slightly elliptical path as they orbit the sun in the same direction as
the planets.
2. Comets are fuzzy, luminous big dirty snowballs composed of rock dust
wrapped around a big ball of ice. Comets do not produce energy and light.
The coma envelops and hides the nucleus from our view. The nucleus is the
center of the comet made of frozen water. The nucleus and the coma
together are called the head of the comet.
3. A meteoroid is a piece of stony or metallic object that travels in space. It

results from the collision of asteroids.
4. A meteor is a piece of stony or metallic material that enters the Earth’s

atmosphere and burns up.
5. A meteorite is a meteor that does not burn up before impacting with the
Earth’s surface.
6. Spacecrafts are complex, technological objects that have to function far from
Earth in the harsh environment of space. They collect scientific data and
send them back to Earth.
19
Posttest
After what you have been through with this module, I am very sure you can
now perfectly answer the following questions. For each item encircle the letter of
the correct answer.
1. Most of the asteroids orbit the sun in a belt between the orbits of
a. Venus and Mars
b. Mars and Earth
c. Jupiter and Saturn
d. Mars and Jupiter
2. The primary chemical constituent of comets is

a. water
b. nitrogen
c. methane
d. carbon dioxide
3. A meteorite is
a. a rock from space that strikes the ground
b. a piece of rock passing through the earth’s atmosphere
c. the trail left by a rock as it passes through the earth’s atmosphere
d. all of the above
4. A meteor shower occurs when

a. a meteor is about to get married
b. the earth passes through the asteroid belt
c. the head of a comet hits the earth’s atmosphere
d. the earth passes through a swarm of dust particles in space, the remnants of a
comet, once a year
5. The asteroids are

a. miniature planets
b. satellites of planets
c. pockets of gas in the solar system
d. planets orbiting the stars other than the sun
6. Why are meteorites and comets important in studying the origin of the solar system?
a. They have recently formed themselves.
b. They are recently produced fragments of planets.
c. They represent the material which formed the planets.
20
7. Comet tails are the result of
a. interplanetary material streaming into the comet
b. melting and evaporation of ice from the comet core
c. dust collected by the comet as it moves in its orbit
d. solar wind blowing more gases from the central comet core
8. Meteors are
a. falling stars
b. signals from the other worlds
c. solar wind particles captured by the earth’s magnetic field
d. luminous trails left by small extraterrestrial particles rapidly passing through the
air
9. The orbits of most comets, which we see in the inner solar system
a. are nearly circular
b. are highly elliptical
c. never come closer to the sun
d. are only slightly inclined to the earth’s orbit
10. The first satellite to discover a comet was/were

a. Mariner 2
b. Vikings 1 and 2
c. Hubble Telescopes
d. Infrared Astronomical Satellite
11. The first space probes to successfully land on the surface of Mars were
a. IRAS and Galileo
b. Hubble Telescopes
c. Viking 1 and 2
d. Galileo and Hubble Telescopes
12. Most meteoroids are formed when

a. comets melted
b. volcanoes erupted
c. asteroids exploded or collided
d. satellites exploded or collided
13. The first spacecraft to fly past an asteroid was

a. Galileo
b. Cassini
c. StarDust
d. Mariner 10
21
14. Meteorites are composed of
a. hydrogen ice
b. helium ice
c. heavy elements like silicon
d. all the above
15. It was the first probe to visit Mercury

a. IRAS
b. StarDust
c. Mariner 10
d. Vikings 1
22
Key to Answers
Pretest
1. A 7. C 12. D
2. D 8. B 13. A
3. A 9. C 14. C
4. C 10. D 15. A
5. A 11. C
6. D
Activity 1.1
1. F
2. G
3. F
4. E
5. A
6. C
7. C
8. A
9. C
10. B
11. B
12. B
13. B
14. E
15. A
16. D
17. A
18. B
19. B
Activity 1.2 and 1.3 The students have the options which procedure to follow in
making model of comet.
23
Self-test 1.1
a. Meteoroid is a piece of stony or metallic object, which travels in

space. It results from the collision of asteroids. When meteoroids
enter the earth’s atmosphere and burn up it is called a meteor. A
meteor that has reached the earth’s surface is called a meteorite.
b. Astronomers believed that asteroids came from a planet between
Mars and Jupiter because asteroids are composed of all rocks,
some are all metals, and some are mixed metal and rock – the
same composition of crust, mantle and core of a planet like ours.
Activity 2.1
1. C
2. I
3. J
4. D
5. E
6. A
7. B
8. G
9. F
10. H
Activity 2.2
1. Hubble telescope
2. Apollo 11
3. Space shuttle
4. Space suit
5. Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS)
6. Mariner 10
Self-test 2.1
Views of students may vary. Different people value space exploration for
different reasons.
Some people are not in favor of manned space flights because according
to them there is no evidence that this will do anything to contribute to our
understanding of planets outside our own.
Some people believe that it is a waste of billions of dollars sending
humans into space, where all they do is add weight and risk to space flights.
Anyway, most of our understanding of the cosmos has come from unmanned
space flights.
24
Those who are in favor for manned space flights wish to discover
minerals, which are scarce on earth. Some wish to use space as a manufacturing
site or a place to hide from tyranny.
Posttest
1. D 6. C 11. C
2. A 7. D 12. C
3. A 8. D 13. A
4. D 9. B 14. C
5. A 10. D 15. A
-End of Module-
References:
Asteroids. Retrieved September 2, 2004 from http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov
Asteroids and Comets. Retrieved July 28, 2004 from http://www.uen.org/utahlink/activities
Spacecrafts. Retrieved July 28, 2004.fromhttp://liftoff.mscf.nasa.gov/toc.asp?s=Spacecraft.
Make your own comet. Retrieved April 5, 2005 from

http://www1.nasa.gov/audience/forkids/activities/A_Paper_Comet.html
Make your own comet. Retrived April 5, 2005 from

http://www.tpt.org/newtons/newtonsclassics/classic9.html
How Stuff Work. Retrieved September 2, 2004 from http://www.howstuffworks.com
Human and Robots. Retrieved September 5, 2004 from

http://prime.jsc.nasa.gov/ROV/robotsp.html.
Dutch, S., Monroe, J., & Moran, J. (1998). Earth Science USA; Wadsworth Publishing
Company.
Tarbuck, E., & Lutgens, F., (1991). Earth Science.( 6th ed.) U.S.A. Macmillan
Publishing Company.
25
MODULE 18
Pasig City
1
Module 18
Beyond the Solar System
This module presents information on some of the deep-sky objects we

love to see in the night sky, the stars. The activities presented here are designed
to stimulate your interest to explore these jewels of the night sky. Come with me
and have fun learning the following lessons:
Lesson 1 - The Glittering Star

Lesson 2 - The Star Sign
1. explain the distance of stars from Earth in terms of appropriate units;

2. explain the life cycle of a star; and
3. construct a constellation.
I know you are excited to learn the lessons just as I am but remember
these tips to help you achieve the objectives of this self-learning kit.
1. Read instructions carefully.

2. Follow instructions carefully.
3. Answer the pretest before you start the lesson.
4. Observe the time limit to finish the module.
5. Take note and record points for clarifications.
6. Try to achieve at least a 75% level of proficiency in the tests.
7. Work diligently and honestly.
8. Answer the posttest honestly.
2
Multiple Choice: Write the letter of the best answer before each number.
___1. How far away in light years is our nearest star, Proxima Centauri?
a. 2.2
b. 4.3
c. 5.5
d. 6.0
___2. What color is the hottest star?

a. red
b. blue
c. white
d. yellow
___3. What element is the fuel for main sequence stars?

a. carbon
b. helium
c. oxygen
d. hydrogen
___4. The star is considered old when

a. all its fuel is gone
b. it becomes black hole
c. it has reached the giant phase
d. it has reached the protostar phase
___5. On H-R diagram, most stars are

a. giants
b. supergiants
c. white dwarfs
d. main-sequence
___6. What process releases a tremendous amount of heat, causing a protostar

to become a main-sequence star?
a. nuclear fision
b. nuclear fusion
c. star explosion
d. nitrogen combustion
3
___7. Most astronomers agree that the stars are born within huge clouds of dust
and gases called
a. sun
b. pulsars
c. auroras
d. nebulae
___8. The actual amount of light or brightness given off by a star is called
a. parallel shift
b. apparent magnitude
c. absolute magnitude
___9. Most of the core of a red giant is made of

a. iron
b. helium
c. methane
d. hydrogen
___10. Which of the following units is used in measuring the distance of a star
from the earth?
a. mile
b. inch
c. kilometer
d. light year
___11. Which of the following statements is true?

a. The higher the magnitude number, the brighter the star
b. The lower the magnitude number, the dimmer the star
c. The lower the magnitude number, the brighter the star
d. All statements are true
___12. Which of the following is the correct speed of light?

a. 300,000 kilometers
b. 9,460,800,000,000 kilometers
c. 300,000 kilometers per second
d. 9,460,800,000,000 kilometers per second
___13. What determines the fate of a dying star?

a. its mass
b. its size
c. its color
d. its temperature
4
___14. Which of the following describes the constellation Ursa Major?
a. lion
b. fish
c. dragon
d. big bear
___15. Which of the following best describes a black hole?

a. a place where angels meet
b. the darkest and coolest place in space
c. the outermost boundary of the universe
d. a region in space where light cannot escape
Lesson 1 The Glittering Star
Twinkle twinkle, little star,

How I wonder what you are!
Up above the world so high,
Like a diamond in the sky.
Tis your bright and tiny spark,

Lights the trav’ller in the dark:
Tho’ I know not what you are
Twinkle, twinkle, little star.
When was the last time you’ve recited this poem? Though little is known
about these glittering objects in the sky, that has not stopped poets and writers
from writing beautiful poems and stories about these deep-sky objects.
What is a star?
A star is an enormous glowing ball of hot gas. There are billions of stars
contained in the galaxies of the universe. The Milky Way is the galaxy where our
solar system belongs. All the individual stars you see in the night sky are
members of our galaxy.
5
A star is born
Maybe you are wondering how a star is formed. Aside from billion of stars,
all galaxies contain huge clouds of gas and dust called nebulae. According to
scientists, it is in a nebula where a star is born.
The formation of a star starts when hydrogen gas is pulled into the
spinning clouds of nebula. As the clouds spin, the atoms of the hydrogen gas
collide. With this, friction heats other gases in the cloud and the temperature in
the center of the cloud rises. This give rise to a protostar. The protostar starts to
expand and contract. The temperature reaches a point where nuclear fusion
begins to take place. Nuclear fusion is the reaction that converts hydrogen
atoms into helium atoms releasing a tremendous amount of heat, causing the
gas to glow. When the mass at the center becomes stable, it now becomes the
main-sequence star that will continue to glow for millions or billions of years.
Did you know?

To become a true star, Protostar must be at least 80 times as
massive as Jupiter.
How long will stars live? Do they get old?
After perhaps billions of years, the nuclear fuel of a star, which is the
hydrogen, runs out. When this happens the star expands while the core
contracts. The star now begins to glow red.
The star is considered old when it has reached the red giant phase that
eventually explodes and turns into a dim, cool object. The collapse and explosion
of a not so big star is called nova, while the explosion of a massive star is called
supernova. However, some red giant stars undergo a nonexplosive fashion.
These stars become planetary nebulae.
Then what happens next?
Well, the destiny of a star depends on how massive it is. When the last of
the hydrogen gas in the outer shell of a star have a mass equal to or less than
the mass of the sun, it becomes a white dwarf. A white dwarf star is extremely
dense and shines with a white, hot light. When a star that has a mass equal to 2
or 3 times the mass of the sun runs out of hydrogen, it becomes a neutron star.
A neutron star is an extremely dense star composed of tightly packed neutrons
formed by the welding together of protons and electrons. The more massive the
star is, the more dramatic its end will be. A massive star that has a mass equal to
3 to 4 times the solar mass becomes a black hole when no nuclear fuel is
available to support its core. A black hole is a region in space where light cannot
6
escape. According to studies made, a black hole swallows any matter or energy
that comes near it.
Why do stars twinkle?
Do you know that stars do not twinkle? They seem to twinkle when we see
them from the earth’s surface. The light of the stars is bent or refracted as it
travels through the thick layers of the earth’s atmosphere. This bending of light
results in the twinkling of the stars.
Why do you not see stars in the daytime?
Think twice! During daytime we cannot see any star other than the Sun.
Yes, our own sun is a star. This is the nearest and brightest star to earth. This is
the only star we can see during the day. As the Sun lits up the sky, more light is
coming from the sky than from the stars. But though you can’t see other stars
during the day, it does not mean they are not there.
Other than the sun, what star is nearest to earth?
Other than the sun, the Proxima Centauri is the nearest star to earth. It is
4.3 light years away from earth. A light year is the standard unit of distance for
deep sky objects. It is the distance light travels in a year, or about 10 trillion
kilometers.
To give you an idea of how far Proxima Centauri is, let us say you will go
there with a speed of 300, 000 kilometers per second, which is the speed of light.
At this speed, it will take you more than 4 years and 3 months to reach the place.
Listed below are some stars with their distances from earth.
Star Name Distance from earth

Sirius 8.6 light years
Vega 26 light years
Betelguese 300 light years
Deneb 400 light years
Rigel 540 light years
How bright are the stars?
Star brightness is described in terms of magnitude. The brightness of a

star as seen from earth is called apparent magnitude, while its true brightness
is called absolute magnitude. The magnitude sequence for stars starting with
the brightest is … -2, -1, 1, 0,1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, magnitude…etc. The brightest
stars have the largest negative numbers. Dimmer stars are positive numbers. For
7
example, a star of magnitude 1 is brighter than a star of magnitude 2. While a
star of magnitude -2 is brighter than a star of magnitude -1.
The table below shows the magnitude of some stars.
Star Name Magnitude

Sirius -1.47
Vega -0.00
Rigel 0.15
Betelguese 0.43
Deneb 1.25
Do you know the color of the stars?
Looking at the sky on a clear night, you might notice that stars have
different colors. Some stars look red, while most look whitish or bluish. You may
use binoculars to see the colors more clearly.
What does the color of the stars tell us?
Did you know that the color of the star indicates its temperature?
Astronomers can determine the surface temperature of a star by measuring its
color. They use different methods in determining the temperature of stars. One
method is the use of an instrument called photometer. A photometer consists of
three filters that transmit light in three different wavelength ranges. Then the
scientists compare the two neighboring wavelength bands to determine which is
brighter and they convert the color relationships to temperature. Blue stars are
hotter than red stars. Rigel is an example of a bright blue star while Betelguese is
a bright red star.
How hot is a star?
Always remember that the temperature of a star depends on its original

mass when it was formed. In general, the more massive a star is, the hotter its
surface. Stars have temperatures between about 2,600 degrees Kelvin and
50,000 degrees Kelvin. Our sun has a surface temperature of 5,780 degrees
Kelvin.
One of the most important tools of astronomers is the Hertzsprung-Russel
diagram or simply called H-R diagram. It was developed by a Danish astronomer
Ejnar Hertzsprung and an American astronomer Henry Norris Russel. The H-R
diagram is a plot of different stars indicating their brightness versus their
temperatures.
8
What you will do
Activity 1.1
HOW OLD ARE THEY?
Part 1. Direction: Rank each of the following pictures by age, going from
youngest to oldest. Put a 1 in the blank by the picture you think is the youngest
person, a 2 in the blank by the second youngest, and so on.
Part 2. Direction: Rank each of the following pictures of BIG stars from birth
formation to stellar death. Put a 1 in the blank by the picture you think is the
youngest star, a 2 in the blank by the second youngest, and so on.
9
Large star. A
celestial mammoth Orion Nebula Betelguese star. A red
that releases up to surrounded by disk of supergiant. ______
10 million times the dust and gas ______
power of the sun
________
Embryonic star Crab Nebula the Supernova blast. _____

accumulates more mass remains of an
from the surrounding. exploding star. ______
_______
Question:
What was your basis of classifying the pictures
(persons and stars) by age? Explain the life cycle of
a star.
Nova Cygni ballooning

bubble of gas blasted
off a star. _____
SOURCE:
http://btc.montana.edu/ceres/html/LifeCycle/images/M16Eagle.jpg
10
What you will do
Activity 1.2 Glittering Stars
This craft makes a beautiful picture of a night sky. The stars in our galaxy
are represented by the glitter (or sand).
Materials needed:
black construction paper

pencil or white crayon
glue
glitter (or sand)
old newspapers to work on
Procedure:
A. Work on some old newspaper. On the black construction paper, using a

pencil or crayon, draw some sketches of your own stars. Some are big
and some are small. Some stars are scattered throughout the construction
paper, and some are clustered. The black background represents the
night sky.
B. Put glue along the lines of your stars.
C. Sprinkle glitter (or sand) on each star. You may use different colors of
glitters for each star. Tilt the paper onto some newspaper to shake off the
loose glitter (or sand).
What you will do

Activity 1.1
How fast is light?
1. Scientists use a unit called light year to measure really long distances. Light
travels at 186,000 miles per second (300,000 kilometers per second), therefore,
a light second is 186,000 miles (300,000 kilometers). A light year is the distance
that light can travel in a year. Calculate the exact number of miles in a light-year?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
11
2. Suppose the fastest spacecraft travels at 300, 000 kilometers per second. How
long would it take such a spacecraft to reach Sirius, which is 8.6 light years away
Earth?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
What you will do

Self-Test 1.1
Answer the following questions
1. Why are stars hot and bright?

2. Which one is brighter, a magnitude of 10 star or a magnitude of 0
star?
Lesson 2 Star Sign
Have you gone one night on a stargazing session? If you have, you must
have seen patterns in the sky that look like a lion or a fish. Have you wondered
what they are? You are correct! Those are special groups of stars known as
constellations.
What is a constellation? Who discovered the constellation?
A constellation is the name given by our ancestors to special groups of

stars. Constellations are invented rather than discovered. Different cultures have
made up different constellations based on their interpretations of the images they
see in the sky.
12
Why would people want to invent constellations?
Constellations were created to help our ancestors, even astronomers,

remember stars. Long time ago, farmers used them as markers for seasons.
When certain constellations appear in the sky, they would know when to begin
planting or reaping.
Are you excited now to have another stargazing session? I’m sure you
are! But before you go, as a beginner you have to bring with you a star map or
sky map. The sky map shows the entire sky as viewed from a given location at a
specified time and date. The sky map will tell you which of the constellations are
visible to you at this time of year. But remember that constellations in the sky are
not exactly the same as the constellations in your star map. You may ask your
teacher where to get a copy of a sky map for the specific time and date you want.
I’m sure she is willing to help!
The Big Dipper or the Great Bear is one of the most well known star
groups. Actually, the Big Dipper is not really a constellation, but an asterism. An
asterism is a more recognizable part of a larger constellation. The Big Dipper is
a part of Ursa major constellation.
Most of the constellations are visible to the naked eye under good weather
conditions. However, if you are living in the city, the brightness of city light may
not allow you to see all the stars. The use of binoculars will make the stars look
more impressive.
Once you have with you a copy of a sky map, with or without binoculars,
you can now look for a good stargazing place. The city is still a good place to
view the sky. Since only the brighter stars can be seen, you will be able to find
the constellations easily.
If you think you are having difficulty searching for star patterns then
concentrate on the circumpolar stars because they are always above the horizon.
They are called circumpolar because they appear to circle the north celestial pole
every night. Take a look at these circumpolar stars.
13
Cepheus
Cassiopeia
Draco Ursa Minor

Camelopardis
Ursa Major Lynx
Figure .21 The Circumpolar Stars
14
How do you describe the Big Dipper? the little Dipper? Do they really look
like bears? Look at the constellation Cassiopeia. Does it look like a queen’s
crown? How about Cepheus? Does it look like a king? Well, you can make your
own constellation using your own imagination! Good luck and have some fun!
What you will do

Activity 2.1 Zodiac Names
The zodiac names we use today are actually the names given to special
star groups known as constellations. How many constellations can you correctly
describe?
Place the letter of the zodiac names in Column I that corresponds to

the given constellations in Column II.
Column I Column II
Zodiac Names Constellation
A. Leo ____ The Crab

B. Aries ____ The Goat
C. Orion ____ The Bull
D. Libra ____ The Twins
E. Draco ____ The Dragon
F. Taurus ____ The Archer
G. Pisces ____ The Fish
H. Cancer ____ The Lion
I. Gemini ____ The Ram
J. Aquarius ____ The Scales
K. Pegasus ____ The Hunter
L. Sagittarius ____ The Scorpion
M. Scorpius ____ The Great Bear
N. Ursa Major ____ The Winged Horse
O. Capricornus ____ The Water Carrier
15
What you will do
Self-Test 2.1
Connect the stars following the number sequence then name the
constellation.
1 2
6 7
5
3 4 1
2
4
5 3
A. (The Queen) ________________ B. (The Little Bear)______________
6
5
5 1
2 7
4 8
9
6 3
1 10
4 11
12
2 13
3
14
15 16
17
C. (The king) ________________ D. (Draco) ________________________
16
Let’s summarize
What are the things that you have learned from this module?
1. Scientists believe that all stars came from huge clouds of gas and dust
called nebulae.
2. The nuclear fusion is the reaction that converts hydrogen atoms into
helium atoms releasing a tremendous amount of heat, causing the star
to glow.
3. A protostar is a very young star. It becomes a true star when nuclear
fusion starts.
4. The star is considered old when it has reached the red giant phase that
eventually explodes and turns into a dim, cool object.
5. The explosion of a massive star is called supernova.
6. The destiny of a star depends on how massive it is. It may become a
white dwarf, a neutron star, or a black hole.
7. The color of the star indicates its surface temperature. Blue is the color
of the hottest star.
8. A light year is the standard unit of distance for deep sky objects like
stars. One light year is equal to 9,460,800,000,000 kilometers away
from the earth. Other than the sun, Proxima Centauri is the nearest to
earth.
Posttest
Multiple Choice: Write the letter of the best answer before each number.
Multiple Choice: Write the letter of the best answer on the space provided.
1. What color is the hottest star?

a. red
b. blue
c. white
d. yellow
17
2. How far away in light years is our nearest star, Proxima Centauri?
a. 2.2
b. 4.3
c. 5.5
d. 6.0
3. The star is considered old when

4. On H-R diagram, most stars are

a. giants
b. supergiants
c. white dwarfs
d. main-sequence
5. The actual amount of light or brightness given off by a star is called

a. parallel shift
b. apparent magnitude
c. absolute magnitude
6. What process releases a tremendous amount of heat, causing a protostar to

become a main-sequence star?
a. nuclear fision
b. nuclear fusion
c. star explosion
d. nitrogen combustion
7. What element is the fuel for main sequence stars?

a. carbon
b. helium
c. oxygen
d. hydrogen
8. Most astronomers agree that the stars are born within huge clouds of dust and
gases called
a. sun
b. pulsars
c. auroras
d. nebulae
18
a. The higher the magnitude number, the brighter the star.
b. The lower the magnitude number, the dimmer the star.
c. The lower the magnitude number, the brighter the star.
d. All statements are true.
10. Most of the core of a red giant is made of

a. iron
b. helium
c. methane
d. hydrogen
11. What determines the fate of a dying star?

a. Its mass
b. Its size
c. Its color
d. its temperature
12. Which of the following units is used in measuring the distance of a star from
the Earth?
a. mile
b. inch
c. kilometer
d. light year
13. Which of the following best describes a black hole?

1. a place where angels meet
2. the darkest and coolest place in space
3. the outermost boundary of the universe
4. a region in space where light cannot escape
14. The star is considered old when

15. Which of the following describes the constellation Ursa Major?

a. lion
b. fish
c. dragon
d. big bear
19
Key to Answers
Pretest
1. B
2. B
3. D
4. C
5. D
6. B
7. D
8. C
9. B
10. D
11. C
12. C
13. A
14. D
15. D
Activity 1.1 How old are they?
(Part 1) Rank 2, 4, 1, 3, 5
(Part 2) Rank 3, 1, 4, 2, 7, 6, 5
The persons’ age can be identified just by looking at persons’ size and
appearance. The age of the stars in the pictures can also be classified based on
their sizes and general appearance. The descriptions and activities of each star
are given to help you in classifying.
Activity 1.2 Students are free to do their own stars.
Activity 1.3 How fast is light
1. A light year is 5,865,696,000,000 miles (9,460,800,000,000 kilometers).

That's a long way! (186,000 miles/second * 60 seconds/minute * 60
minutes/hour * 24 hours/day * 365 days/year = 5,865,696,000,000 miles/year)
2. It would take 8 years and 6 months to reach Sirius! (1 light year is
9,460,800,000,000 kilometers * 8.6 = 81,362,880,000,000 kilometers.
Use the formula time=distance/speed then,
81,362,880,000,000 kms/ 300,000 kilometers per second = 27,120,960,000,000
seconds.
20
Convert 27,120,960,000,000 seconds to hour, then to a day then to a
year. The answer is 8 years and 6 months.
Self-Test 1.1
1. At the center of stars, the nuclear fusion, which converts hydrogen

atoms into helium atoms, release a tremendous amount of energy
that makes stars hot and bright.
2. The smaller the numerical magnitude, the brighter the object, thus a
magnitude of 0 star is brighter than 10.
Activity 2.1 Zodiac names
H Crab
O Goat
F Bull
I Twins
E Dragon
L Archer
G Fish
A Lion
B Ram
D Scales
C Hunter
M Scorpion
N Great Bear
K Winged Horse
J Water Carrier
Posttest
1. B
2. B
3. C
4. D
5. C
6. B
7. D
8. D
9. C
10. B
11. A
12. D
13. D
14. C
15. D
21
Self-Test 2.1
A. (The Queen Cassiopeia B. (The Little Bear) Ursa Minor
1 2
6 7
5
3 4 1
2
4
A) Cassiopeia 5 3
B) Ursa Minor
6
5
1
2 7
4 8
9
3
10
11
12
13
14
15 16
C) Cepheus 17
3.
D) Dragon
-End of Module-
22
References
The Stars. Retrieved September 13, 2004 from

http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/stars/lifecycle/
Before You Go Outside. Retrieved September 13, 2004 from

http://www.geocities.com/Heartland/Fields/8616/beforeoutside.html
Temperature and Colors of the Stars. (1999). Monterey Institute for Research in Astronomy. Retrieve
September 13, 2004 from http://www.mira.org/fts0/stars/114/txt001w.htm
Star Sketches. Retrieved September 16, 2004 from http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/teachers/lifecycles/SC
Star Signs. Retrieved September 16, 2004 from http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/teachers/lifecycles/SC
What Are Constellations?. Retrieved September 24, 2004 from

http://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/extra/constellations.html
Sample Constellation Myths. Retrieved September 22, 2004 from

http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/teachers/star_art2.html
Bill Baity, (1996), Star Brightness, Retrieved September 15, 2004 from
http://casswww.ucsd.edu/public/bright.html
Hewitt, H., Suchocki, J., and Hewitt, L. (2000) Conceptual Physical Science.( 2nd Ed).USA. Pearson Education
Asia Pte Ltd.
Starry Night (2003). Your Daily Guide to Philippine Night Sky (2nd Edition)
23

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(Effective and Alternative Secondary Education)

BUREAU OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

What this module is about

This module has four lessons:

 Lesson 1 - Doing Some Science Games

What you are expected to learn

After going through this module, you are expected to:

To achieve the objectives of this module, do the following:

1. Take your time reading the lessons carefully.

Biology - is the study of living things.

What to do before (Pretest)

Food and Nutrition Health and Medicine

Livelihood (Fishing or Agriculture)

Love and Marriage Financial or Wealth

2) While cleaning the mirror, Gina

3) The youngest daughter of

4) Girlie and Tom were soon to wed.

5) During long summer months

Mining Cars and Buses Computers Television

Shampoo Pliers Distillation Hammer

Ax Soap-Making Pair of Scissors Toothbrush

Candle-Making Ballpens Projector Fermentation

Product Process Tool/Gadget

Example: Cars and Buses Example: Mining Example: Hammer

__________ 1. It is a systematized body of knowledge, which are based on series of

Key to answers on page 18

What you will do

1) anything that occupies space and 2) the application of science

Key to answers on page 19

What you will do

1) Give one technology and its importance to you.

Key to answers on page 19

What you will do

Key to answers on page 19

A. What scientific attitude is being referred to by the following?

1) Give truthful opinion ____________________

2) Shows awareness of one’s shortcomings ____________________

3) Improvises laboratory equipment _____________________

4) Correct reasoning and sound sense _____________________

5) Considers suggestions and accepts criticisms ___________________

Key to answers on page 20

Lesson 2 Impact of Science and Technology in Daily Life

What you will do

Table 2.1 List of Daily Activities

Activities Procedures Materials Used

Example: Sleeping 1. Wear pajama Pajama, pillow, bed, prayer book,

Attending a birthday party

Playing the guitar

Cleaning the house

Watching basketball game

Reading daily newspaper

Key to answers on page 20

Table 2.2 Technology and its Use/s

Example: Ballpen It is used for writing.

Key to answers on page 20

Key to answers on page 20

Lesson 3 Superstitious Beliefs and Practices

B. Consider the situation below.

I will decide to…

Answer briefly each of the following questions.

1) The wearing of “Agimat” or “Anting-Anting” to avoid getting hurt by bladed weapons

Key to answers on page 20

Lesson 4 The Wonderful Traits of Scientists

Lesson 1 - Doing Some Science Games

Dr. Luz Oliveros-Belardo is a national scientist whose researches on local

Lesson 1 - Observations and Inferences

Take your time reading the lessons carefully.